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bibi de la familia p luche nombre real | La familia P. Luche - wikipedia
La familia P. Luche (English: The Plush Family) is a Mexican family sitcom created by Eugenio Derbez. The series aired from August 7, 2002 to December 24, 2012 on the channel Canal de las Estrellas. It is a spin - off of a regular sketch on the XHDRBZ comedy - sketch program.
In the series, the characters live in a fictional city called "Ciudad P. Luche '' where clothes and other objects are wrapped in plush. The word P. Luche, is a pun to the word plush in Spanish: peluche. The show is similar in style to the American sitcom Married... With Children, in that it depicts a comically dysfunctional family. La familia P. Luche, however, plays more like a live - action cartoon, complete with colorful sets and comic sound effects. The sitcom won a TVyNovelas Award for "Best Comedy Program '' in 2008.
This is a list of episodes from the La familia P. Luche sitcom.
The series first started as a short skit in Derbez 's previous shows, "Al Derecho y al Derbez '' and "Derbez en Cuando '' showing Ludovico, Federica, and an Asian kid starring as Ludoviquito, but when it aired it showed the change of Ludoviquito 's actors and the other two kids. The explanation behind the change in actors for Ludoviquito was that he was not really Ludovico 's son, but rather the product of a tryst between Federica and the milkman. While at summer camp, Ludoviquito manages to hypnotize the richest kid in camp to switch places with him. Ludovico and Federica do n't even notice the difference, and not even the fact that he continually repeats "Yo soy Ludoviquito P. Luche (I am Ludoviquito P. Luche) '' like a zombie makes them curious. Ludovico accidentally snaps Ludoviquito out of his trance, and the poor child begins to cry once he realizes the fate in which he is stuck.
The first season aired from 2002 to 2004 with frequent reruns of the episodes. The season finale stated that soon the second season would be produced (with the actors leaving a "goodbye '' message like in the promotional commercial). The second season marked the show return at the end of the first quarter of 2007 (continuing with the plot that had ended the first season years ago, in which a plane where they were traveling crashing in an island and the family having passed around 5 years living there, to compensate the years that had passed after the first season.), with the show now produced in a 16: 9 (HDTV format) and airing constantly new episodes, using the same actors as in the first season (including the fact that the kids starring on it had grown up a lot).
A third season was announced to be in production in December 2010. Eugenio Derbez, the producer of the series, admitted that the new season will introduce a new character to the sitcom.
The series began on July 8, 2012 and ended on September 16th of the same year.
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describe maxwell's law of distribution of molecular velocities | Maxwell -- Boltzmann distribution - wikipedia
In Physics (in particular in statistical mechanics), the Maxwell -- Boltzmann distribution is a particular probability distribution named after James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann. It was first defined and used for describing particle speeds in idealized gases where the particles move freely inside a stationary container without interacting with one another, except for very brief collisions in which they exchange energy and momentum with each other or with their thermal environment. Particle in this context refers to gaseous particles (atoms or molecules), and the system of particles is assumed to have reached thermodynamic equilibrium. While the distribution was first derived by Maxwell in 1860 on heuristic grounds, Boltzmann later carried out significant investigations into the physical origins of this distribution.
A particle speed probability distribution indicates which speeds are more likely: a particle will have a speed selected randomly from the distribution, and is more likely to be within one range of speeds than another. The distribution depends on the temperature of the system and the mass of the particle. The Maxwell -- Boltzmann distribution applies to the classical ideal gas, which is an idealization of real gases. In real gases, there are various effects (e.g., van der Waals interactions, vortical flow, relativistic speed limits, and quantum exchange interactions) that can make their speed distribution different from the Maxwell -- Boltzmann form. However, rarefied gases at ordinary temperatures behave very nearly like an ideal gas and the Maxwell speed distribution is an excellent approximation for such gases. Thus, it forms the basis of the Kinetic theory of gases, which provides a simplified explanation of many fundamental gaseous properties, including pressure and diffusion.
The three - dimensional Maxwell -- Boltzmann probability distribution is the function
where m (\ displaystyle m) is the particle mass and k T (\ displaystyle kT) is the product of Boltzmann 's constant and thermodynamic temperature. An interesting point to be noted is that the Maxwell -- Boltzmann distribution will not vary with the value of m / T (\ displaystyle m / T), i.e. the ratio of mass of the molecule to its absolute temperature; mathematically, derivative of f (v) (\ displaystyle f (v)) with respect to (m / T) (\ displaystyle (m / T)) is equal to 0 (\ displaystyle 0) (only when v 2 = 3 k T / m (\ displaystyle v ^ (2) = 3kT / m)). This probability density function gives the probability, per unit speed, of finding the particle with a speed near v (\ displaystyle v). This equation is simply the Maxwell - Boltzmann distribution (given in the infobox) with distribution parameter a = k T / m (\ displaystyle a = (\ sqrt (kT / m))). In probability theory the Maxwell -- Boltzmann distribution is a chi distribution with three degrees of freedom and scale parameter a = k T / m (\ displaystyle a = (\ sqrt (kT / m))).
The simplest ordinary differential equation satisfied by the distribution is:
or in unitless presentation:
Note that a distribution (function) is not the same as the probability. The distribution (function) stands for an average number, as in all three kinds of statistics (Maxwell -- Boltzmann, Bose -- Einstein, Fermi -- Dirac). With the Darwin -- Fowler method of mean values the Maxwell -- Boltzmann distribution is obtained as an exact result.
The mean speed, most probable speed (mode), and root - mean - square can be obtained from properties of the Maxwell distribution.
which yields:
where R is the gas constant and M = N m is the molar mass of the substance.
The typical speeds are related as follows:
The original derivation in 1860 by James Clerk Maxwell was an argument based on molecular collisions of the Kinetic theory of gases as well as certain symmetries in the speed distribution function; Maxwell also gave an early argument that these molecular collisions entail a tendency towards equilibrium. After Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann in 1872 also derived the distribution on mechanical grounds and argued that gases should over time tend toward this distribution, due to collisions (see H - theorem). He later (1877) derived the distribution again under the framework of statistical thermodynamics. The derivations in this section are along the lines of Boltzmann 's 1877 derivation, starting with result known as Maxwell -- Boltzmann statistics (from statistical thermodynamics). Maxwell -- Boltzmann statistics gives the average number of particles found in a given single - particle microstate, under certain assumptions:
N i N = exp (− E i / k T) ∑ j exp (− E j / k T) (\ displaystyle (\ frac (N_ (i)) (N)) = (\ frac (\ exp (- E_ (i) / kT)) (\ sum _ (j) \ exp (- E_ (j) / kT))))
(1)
where:
The assumptions of this equation are that the particles do not interact, and that they are classical; this means that each particle 's state can be considered independently from the other particles ' states. Additionally, the particles are assumed to be in thermal equilibrium. The denominator in Equation (1) is simply a normalizing factor so that the N / N add up to 1 -- in other words it is a kind of partition function (for the single - particle system, not the usual partition function of the entire system).
Because velocity and speed are related to energy, Equation (1) can be used to derive relationships between temperature and the speeds of gas particles. All that is needed is to discover the density of microstates in energy, which is determined by dividing up momentum space into equal sized regions.
The potential energy is taken to be zero, so that all energy is in the form of kinetic energy. The relationship between kinetic energy and momentum for massive non-relativistic particles is
E = p 2 2 m (\ displaystyle E = (\ frac (p ^ (2)) (2m)))
(2)
where p is the square of the momentum vector p = (p, p, p). We may therefore rewrite Equation (1) as:
N i N = 1 Z exp (− p i, x 2 + p i, y 2 + p i, z 2 2 m k T) (\ displaystyle (\ frac (N_ (i)) (N)) = (\ frac (1) (Z)) \ exp \ left (- (\ frac (p_ (i, x) ^ (2) + p_ (i, y) ^ (2) + p_ (i, z) ^ (2)) (2mkT)) \ right))
(3)
where Z is the partition function, corresponding to the denominator in Equation (1). Here m is the molecular mass of the gas, T is the thermodynamic temperature and k is the Boltzmann constant. This distribution of N / N is proportional to the probability density function f for finding a molecule with these values of momentum components, so:
f p (p x, p y, p z) = c Z exp (− p x 2 + p y 2 + p z 2 2 m k T) (\ displaystyle f_ (\ mathbf (p)) (p_ (x), p_ (y), p_ (z)) = (\ frac (c) (Z)) \ exp \ left (- (\ frac (p_ (x) ^ (2) + p_ (y) ^ (2) + p_ (z) ^ (2)) (2mkT)) \ right))
(4)
The normalizing constant c, can be determined by recognizing that the probability of a molecule having some momentum must be 1. Therefore the integral of equation (4) over all p, p, and p must be 1.
It can be shown that:
c = Z (2 π m k T) 3 / 2 (\ displaystyle c = (\ frac (Z) ((2 \ pi mkT) ^ (3 / 2))))
(5)
Substituting Equation (5) into Equation (4) gives:
f p (p x, p y, p z) = (2 π m k T) − 3 / 2 exp (− p x 2 + p y 2 + p z 2 2 m k T) (\ displaystyle f_ (\ mathbf (p)) (p_ (x), p_ (y), p_ (z)) = \ left (2 \ pi mkT \ right) ^ (- 3 / 2) \ exp \ left (- (\ frac (p_ (x) ^ (2) + p_ (y) ^ (2) + p_ (z) ^ (2)) (2mkT)) \ right)) (6)
The distribution is seen to be the product of three independent normally distributed variables p x (\ displaystyle p_ (x)), p y (\ displaystyle p_ (y)), and p z (\ displaystyle p_ (z)), with variance m k T (\ displaystyle mkT). Additionally, it can be seen that the magnitude of momentum will be distributed as a Maxwell -- Boltzmann distribution, with a = m k T (\ displaystyle a = (\ sqrt (mkT))). The Maxwell -- Boltzmann distribution for the momentum (or equally for the velocities) can be obtained more fundamentally using the H - theorem at equilibrium within the Kinetic theory of gases framework.
The energy distribution is found imposing
f E (E) d E = f p (p) d 3 p, (\ displaystyle f_ (E) (E) dE = f_ (p) ((\ textbf (p))) d ^ (3) (\ textbf (p)),)
(7)
where d 3 p (\ displaystyle d ^ (3) (\ textbf (p))) is the infinitesimal phase - space volume of momenta corresponding to the energy interval d E (\ displaystyle dE). Making use of the spherical symmetry of the energy - momentum dispersion relation E = p 2 / 2 m (\ displaystyle E = (\ textbf (p)) ^ (2) / 2m), this can be expressed in terms of d E (\ displaystyle dE) as
d 3 p = 4 π p 2 d p = 4 π m 2 m E d E. (\ displaystyle d ^ (3) (\ textbf (p)) = 4 \ pi (\ textbf (p)) ^ (2) d (\ textbf (p)) = 4 \ pi m (\ sqrt (2mE)) dE.)
(8)
Using then (8) in (7), and expressing everything in terms of the energy E (\ displaystyle E), we get
and finally
f E (E) = 2 E π (1 k T) 3 / 2 exp (− E k T) (\ displaystyle f_ (E) (E) = 2 (\ sqrt (\ frac (E) (\ pi))) \ left ((\ frac (1) (kT)) \ right) ^ (3 / 2) \ exp \ left ((\ frac (- E) (kT)) \ right)) (9)
Since the energy is proportional to the sum of the squares of the three normally distributed momentum components, this distribution is a gamma distribution; in particular, it is a chi - squared distribution with three degrees of freedom.
By the equipartition theorem, this energy is evenly distributed among all three degrees of freedom, so that the energy per degree of freedom is distributed as a chi - squared distribution with one degree of freedom:
where ε (\ displaystyle \ epsilon) is the energy per degree of freedom. At equilibrium, this distribution will hold true for any number of degrees of freedom. For example, if the particles are rigid mass dipoles of fixed dipole moment, they will have three translational degrees of freedom and two additional rotational degrees of freedom. The energy in each degree of freedom will be described according to the above chi - squared distribution with one degree of freedom, and the total energy will be distributed according to a chi - squared distribution with five degrees of freedom. This has implications in the theory of the specific heat of a gas.
The Maxwell -- Boltzmann distribution can also be obtained by considering the gas to be a type of quantum gas for which the approximation ε > > k T may be made.
Recognizing that the velocity probability density f is proportional to the momentum probability density function by
and using p = mv we get
f v (v x, v y, v z) = (m 2 π k T) 3 / 2 exp (− m (v x 2 + v y 2 + v z 2) 2 k T) (\ displaystyle f_ (\ mathbf (v)) (v_ (x), v_ (y), v_ (z)) = \ left ((\ frac (m) (2 \ pi kT)) \ right) ^ (3 / 2) \ exp \ left (- (\ frac (m (v_ (x) ^ (2) + v_ (y) ^ (2) + v_ (z) ^ (2))) (2kT)) \ right))
which is the Maxwell -- Boltzmann velocity distribution. The probability of finding a particle with velocity in the infinitesimal element (dv, dv, dv) about velocity v = (v, v, v) is
Like the momentum, this distribution is seen to be the product of three independent normally distributed variables v x (\ displaystyle v_ (x)), v y (\ displaystyle v_ (y)), and v z (\ displaystyle v_ (z)), but with variance k T m (\ displaystyle (\ frac (kT) (m))). It can also be seen that the Maxwell -- Boltzmann velocity distribution for the vector velocity (v, v, v) is the product of the distributions for each of the three directions:
where the distribution for a single direction is
Each component of the velocity vector has a normal distribution with mean μ v x = μ v y = μ v z = 0 (\ displaystyle \ mu _ (v_ (x)) = \ mu _ (v_ (y)) = \ mu _ (v_ (z)) = 0) and standard deviation σ v x = σ v y = σ v z = k T m (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (v_ (x)) = \ sigma _ (v_ (y)) = \ sigma _ (v_ (z)) = (\ sqrt (\ frac (kT) (m)))), so the vector has a 3 - dimensional normal distribution, a particular kind of multivariate normal distribution, with mean μ v = 0 (\ displaystyle \ mu _ (\ mathbf (v)) = (\ mathbf (0))) and standard deviation σ v = 3 k T m (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (\ mathbf (v)) = (\ sqrt (\ frac (3kT) (m)))).
The Maxwell -- Boltzmann distribution for the speed follows immediately from the distribution of the velocity vector, above. Note that the speed is
and the volume element in spherical coordinates
where φ (\ displaystyle \ phi) and θ (\ displaystyle \ theta) are the "course '' (azimuth of the velocity vector) and "path angle '' (elevation angle of the velocity vector). Integration of the normal probability density function of the velocity, above, over the course (from 0 to 2 π (\ displaystyle 2 \ pi)) and path angle (from 0 to π (\ displaystyle \ pi)), with substitution of the speed for the sum of the squares of the vector components, yields the speed distribution.
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the decline of western civilization ii the metal years | The Decline of Western Civilization part II: the metal Years - wikipedia
The Decline of Western Civilization Part II: The Metal Years is a documentary film directed by Penelope Spheeris about the Los Angeles heavy metal scene from 1986 to 1988. It is the second film of a trilogy by Spheeris depicting life in Los Angeles at various points in time. The first film, The Decline of Western Civilization, dealt with the punk rock scene during 1979 -- 1980. The third film, The Decline of Western Civilization III, chronicles the gutter punk lifestyle of homeless teenagers in the late 1990s.
The film features concert footage and interviews of legendary heavy metal and hard rock bands and artists such as Aerosmith, Alice Cooper, Kiss, Megadeth, Motörhead, Ozzy Osbourne and W.A.S.P.. The film premiered at The Wiltern Theatre and featured David F. Castagno, Publisher / Editor of Screamer Magazine as the master of ceremony.
The film has been released for Region 3 (Southeast Asia, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau) on DVD only. Shout! Factory released this film as part of a Blu - ray box set with the other films in June 2015 for Region A.
The documentary follows the heavy metal scene in Los Angeles, with particular emphasis on the glam metal subgenre. Spheeris explores the more famous musicians, including Alice Cooper, Aerosmith, Ozzy Osbourne, Dave Mustaine and Paul Stanley. She then explores unknown bands, such as London, Odin and Seduce. The film also features interviews with members of Poison, Tuff, Vixen, Faster Pussycat, W.A.S.P. and more. Serious issues such as drug usage, alcohol abuse, and censorship are tackled, as well as vanity issues like celebrity and sales.
The film is well known for its many scenes featuring rock star excess. The scenes include:
It has been claimed in recent years, most notably in the VH1 documentary series Heavy: The Story of Metal that this film was partially responsible for the death of glam metal and the subsequent rise of thrash metal and grunge. The suggestion in the documentary is that fans, disgusted by the scenes of excess, decided to turn elsewhere. A similar claim was made by Dave Mustaine in his autobiography and in the book Hell Bent for Leather by British author Seb Hunter.
Some of Spheeris ' featured musicians, and live footage of Sunset Strip clubs, ended up as part of the 1987 MTV Music Awards, broadcast around the world from Universal Studios in Los Angeles. In addition to a clip of the band Foxx performing onstage, the awards show that year had several presenters that were stars of The Decline of Western Civilization Part II: The Metal Years.
In a 1999 interview for The A.V. Club, Spheeris admitted that the scene with Ozzy Osbourne spilling orange juice was faked and the kitchen was not Ozzy 's. A more complete version of the interview, in which Ozzy does not spill juice, is included as a bonus feature on the DVD.
The soundtrack was released on Capitol / I.R.S Records. However, the soundtrack does not attempt to come close to featuring all the music / bands that were in the movie.
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which agency has the responsibility of enforcing the controlled substances act of 1990 | Drug enforcement Administration - Wikipedia
The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) is a United States federal law enforcement agency under the U.S. Department of Justice, tasked with combating drug smuggling and use within the United States. The DEA is the lead agency for domestic enforcement of the Controlled Substances Act, sharing concurrent jurisdiction with the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), Homeland Security, and the U.S. Border Patrol. It has sole responsibility for coordinating and pursuing US drug investigations both domestic and abroad.
The Drug Enforcement Administration was established on July 1, 1973, by Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1973, signed by President Richard Nixon on July 28. It proposed the creation of a single federal agency to enforce the federal drug laws as well as consolidate and coordinate the government 's drug control activities. Congress accepted the proposal, as they were concerned with the growing availability of drugs. As a result, the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs (BNDD), the Office of Drug Abuse Law Enforcement (ODALE); approximately 600 Special Agents of the Bureau of Customs, Customs Agency Service, and other federal offices merged to create the DEA.
From the early 1970s, DEA headquarters was located at 1405 I ("Eye '') Street NW in downtown Washington, D.C. With the overall growth of the agency in the 1980s (owing to the increased emphasis on federal drug law enforcement efforts) and a concurrent growth in the headquarters staff, DEA began to search for a new headquarters location; locations in Arkansas, Mississippi, and various abandoned military bases around the United States were considered. However, then -- Attorney General Edwin Meese determined that the headquarters had to be located in close proximity to the Attorney General 's office. Thus, in 1989, the headquarters relocated to 600 -- 700 Army - Navy Drive in the Pentagon City area of Arlington, Virginia, near the Metro station with the same name.
On April 19, 1995, Timothy McVeigh attacked the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City because it housed regional offices for the FBI, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF), and DEA, all of which had carried out raids that he viewed as unjustified intrusions on the rights of the people; this attack caused the deaths of two DEA employees, one task force member, and two contractors in the Oklahoma City bombing. Subsequently, the DEA headquarters complex was classified as a Level IV installation under United States federal building security standards, meaning it was to be considered a high - risk law enforcement target for terrorists. Security measures include hydraulic steel roadplates to enforce standoff distance from the building, metal detectors, and guard stations.
In February 2003, the DEA established a Digital Evidence Laboratory within its Office of Forensic Sciences.
The DEA is headed by an Administrator of Drug Enforcement appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the U.S. Senate. The Administrator reports to the Attorney General through the Deputy Attorney General. The Administrator is assisted by a Deputy Administrator, the Chief of Operations, the Chief Inspector, and three Assistant Administrators (for the Operations Support, Intelligence, and Human Resources Divisions). Other senior staff include the chief financial officer and the Chief Counsel. The Administrator and Deputy Administrator are the only presidentially - appointed personnel in the DEA; all other DEA officials are career government employees. DEA 's headquarters is located in Arlington, Virginia across from the Pentagon. It maintains its own DEA Academy located on the United States Marine Corps base at Quantico, Virginia along with the FBI Academy. It maintains 21 domestic field divisions with 221 field offices and 92 foreign offices in 70 countries. With a budget exceeding $2 billion, DEA employs over 10,800 people, including over 4,600 Special Agents and 800 Intelligence Analysts. Becoming a Special Agent or Intelligence Analyst with the DEA is a competitive process.
As of 2017 there were 4,650 special agents employed by the Drug Enforcement Administration. DEA agents ' starting salary is $49,746 -- $55,483. After four years working as an agent, the salary jumps to above $92,592.
After receiving a conditional offer of employment, recruits must then complete a 19 - week rigorous training which includes lessons in firearms proficiency (including basic marksmanship), weapons safety, tactical shooting, and deadly - force decision training. In order to graduate, students must maintain an academic average of 80 percent on academic examinations, pass the firearms - qualification test, successfully demonstrate leadership and sound decision - making in practical scenarios, and pass rigorous physical - task tests. Upon graduation, recruits earn the title of DEA Special Agent.
The DEA excludes from consideration job applicants who have a history of any use of narcotics or illicit drugs. Investigation usually includes a polygraph test for special - agent, diversion - investigator, and intelligence research specialist positions.
Applicants who are found, through investigation or personal admission, to have experimented with or used narcotics or dangerous drugs, except those medically prescribed, will not be considered for employment with the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). Exceptions to this policy may be made for applicants who admit to limited youthful and experimental use of marijuana. Such applicants may be considered for employment if there is no evidence of regular, confirmed usage and the full - field background investigation and results of the other steps in the process are otherwise favorable.
The DEA 's relatively firm stance on this issue contrasts with that of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, which in 2005 considered relaxing its hiring policy relevant to individual drug - use history.
The DEA Aviation Division or Office of Aviation Operations (OA) (formerly Aviation Section) is an airborne division based in Fort Worth Alliance Airport, Texas. The current OA fleet consists of 106 aircraft and 124 DEA pilots.
The DEA shares a communications system with the Department of Defense for communication with state and regional enforcement independent of the Department of Justice and police information systems and is coordinated by an information command center called the El Paso Intelligence Center (EPIC) near El Paso, Texas.
Rapid Response Teams (RRT) (Previously known as Foreign - Deployed Advisory and Support Teams (FAST)) was decommissioned by DEA Acting Administrator Chuck Rosenburg on March 2017 via memorandum.
DEA officially created and standardized its Special Response Team (SRT) program in 2016 to address higher risk tactical operations in the field. DEA mandates that each major domestic office maintains an operational Special Response Team. The SRT Certification Course (SCC) consists of 11 days of SRT Basic and 5 days of SRT Advanced at U.S. Army Base Ft. A.P. Hill in Virginia. The SCC cadre are former operators from the DEA RRTs best and most seasoned agents. The training responsibility for the SRT was transferred to the DEA Office of Training to a newly created training unit with former members of RRT. The SCC course trains SRT candidates in team movement, high - risk entry, tactical weapons proficiency, and principles of dynamic operations.
Some of the SRT missions consist of high - risk arrests, vehicle assault, specialized surveillance, custody of high - profile individuals, dignitary and witness protection, tactical surveillance and interdiction, advanced breaching, tactical training to other police units, and urban and rural fugitive searches.
In the past, DEA had other tactical teams like the Mobile Enforcement Teams (MET), Regional Enforcement Teams (RET), Highrisk Entry Apprehension Team (HEAT) and Operation Snowcap Teams (Predecessor of FAST).
The DEA Special Operations Division (SOD) is a division within the DEA, which forwards information from wiretaps, intercepts and databases from various sources to federal agents and local law enforcement officials. The SOD came under scrutiny following the 2013 mass surveillance disclosures.
The Domestic Cannabis Eradication / Suppression Program (DCE / SP) began funding eradication programs in Hawaii and California in 1979. The program rapidly expanded to include programs in 25 states by 1982. By 1985, all 50 States were participating in the DCE / SP. In 2015, the DCE / SP was responsible for the eradication of 3,932,201 cultivated outdoor cannabis plants and 325,019 indoor plants for a total of 4,257,220 marijuana plants. In addition, the DCE / SP accounted for 6,278 arrests and the seizure in excess of $29.7 million of cultivator assets.
In 2014, the DEA spent $73,000 to eradicate marijuana plants in Utah, though they did not find a single marijuana plant. Federal documents obtained by journalist Drew Atkins detail the DEA 's continuing efforts to spend upwards of $14 million per year to completely eradicate marijuana within the United States despite the government funding allocation reports showing that the Marijuana Eradication Program often leads to the discovery of no marijuana plants. This prompted twelve members of Congress to push for the elimination of the program and use the money instead to fund domestic - violence prevention and deficit - reduction programs.
The 1998 DEA budget was directed toward three of five major goals of U.S. drug eradication:
DEA agents ' primary service weapons are the Glock 17 and Glock 19, and Heckler & Koch MP5 w / incedinary rounds in 9mm caliber ammunition, and agents can also qualify to carry a firearm listed on an authorized carry list maintained and updated by the Firearms Unit, Quantico, VA.
Special Agents may qualify with their own personally - owned handguns, rifle, and shotgun and certain handguns are allowed to be used with permission from the DEA Firearms office in Quantico, VA. Agents are required to attend tactical and firearms proficiency training quarterly, and to qualify with their handguns twice per year. The DEA has one of the most challenging and difficult handgun qualification courses in all of federal law enforcement. Failure to achieve a passing qualification score is the reason for most Academy dismissals.
Basic Agent Trainees (BATs) who fail the initial pistol qualification course of fire are placed in a remedial program to receive additional training. In remedial training, BATs receive 5 extra two - hour range sessions, for a total of 10 more hours of live fire training on their issued sidearm for those BATs who are struggling with marksmanship, in order to further aid them in helping pass the pistol qual. After passing their pistol qualification, Basic Agent Trainees move on to receive formal training on the DEA 's standard - issue long guns and will continue to frequently shoot their agency - issued sidearm that they have already qualified on. In all, BATs receive a total of 32 firearms training sessions, when combining classroom instruction, gear issue, and pistol, rifle and shotgun live fire training at the DEA Academy. They will shoot the qualification courses for all 3 weapons systems during their initial training, but must pass their final qualification attempts only on their Glock pistols in order to become a Special Agent.
Trained to use shoulder - fired weapons, the Rock River LAR - 15, adopted in 2004, and LWRC is the standard carbine of DEA. The Colt 9mm SMG was previously issued, but no longer in service. Agents are required to complete a two - day (16 - hour) proficiency course in order to carry a shoulder weapon on enforcement operations. They may carry a Rock River LAR - 15 or LWRC M6A2 carbine as authorized, personally - owned weapons, provided they meet the same training and proficiency standards. Although less prevalent since adoption of the LAR - 15, the Remington 870 shotgun is also in service with the DEA.
In 2005, the DEA seized a reported $1.4 billion in drug trade related assets and $477 million worth of drugs. According to the White House 's Office of Drug Control Policy, the total value of all of the drugs sold in the U.S. is as much as $64 billion a year, giving the DEA an efficiency rate of less than 1 % at intercepting the flow of drugs into and within the U.S. Critics of the DEA (including recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, Milton Friedman, prior to his death a member of Law Enforcement Against Prohibition) point out that demand for illegal drugs is inelastic; the people who are buying drugs will continue to buy them with little regard to price, often turning to crime to support expensive drug habits when the drug prices rise. One recent study by the DEA showed that the price of cocaine and methamphetamine is the highest it has ever been while the quality of both is at its lowest point ever. This is contrary to a collection of data done by the Office of National Drug Control Policy, which states that purity of street drugs has increased, while price has decreased. In contrast to the statistics presented by the DEA, the United States Department of Justice released data in 2003 showing that purity of methamphetamine was on the rise.
The DEA has a registration system in place which authorizes anyone to manufacture, import, export, and distribute by filing DEA form 225 along with medical professionals, researchers and manufacturers access to "Schedule I '' drugs, as well as Schedules 2, 3, 4 and 5. Authorized registrants apply for and, if granted, receive a "DEA number ''. An entity that has been issued a DEA number is authorized to manufacture (drug companies), distribute, research, prescribe (doctors, pharmacists, nurse practitioners and physician assistants, etc.) or dispense (pharmacy) a controlled substance.
Many problems associated with drug abuse are the result of legitimately - manufactured controlled substances being diverted from their lawful purpose into the illicit drug traffic. Many of the analgesics, depressants and stimulants manufactured for legitimate medical use can often carry potential for dependence or abuse. Therefore, those scheduled substances have been brought under legal control for prevention and population safety. The goal of controls is to ensure that these "controlled substances '' are readily available for medical use, while preventing their distribution for illicit distribution and non-medical use. This can be a difficult task, sometimes providing difficulty for legitimate patients and healthcare providers while circumventing illegal trade and consumption of scheduled drugs.
Under federal law, all businesses which manufacture or distribute controlled drugs, all health professionals entitled to dispense, administer or prescribe them, and all pharmacies entitled to fill prescriptions must register with the DEA. Registrants must comply with a series of regulatory requirements relating to drug security, records accountability, and adherence to standards.
All of these investigations are conducted by Diversion Investigators (DIs). DIs conduct investigations to uncover and investigate suspected sources of diversion and take appropriate civil and administrative actions. Prescription Database Management Programs (PDMP) aid and facilitate investigation and surveillance.
In 1985 MDMA and its analogues were under review by the American government as a drug for potential of abuse. During this time, several public hearings on the new drug were held by the DEA. Based on all of the evidence and facts presented at the time, the DEA 's administrative law judge did not see MDMA and its analogues as being of large concern and recommended that they be placed in Schedule III. The DEA administrator, expressing concern for abuse potential, overruled the recommendation and ruled that MDMA be put in Schedule I, the Controlled Substances Act 's most restrictive category.
The DEA has been criticized for placing highly restrictive schedules on a few drugs which researchers in the fields of pharmacology and medicine regard as having medical uses. Critics assert that some such decisions are motivated primarily by political factors stemming from the U.S. government 's War on Drugs, and that many benefits of such substances remain unrecognized due to the difficulty of conducting scientific research. A counterpoint to that criticism is that under the Controlled Substances Act it is the Department of Health and Human Services (through the Food and Drug Administration and the National Institute on Drug Abuse), not the DEA, which has the legal responsibility to make scientific and medical determinations with respect to drug scheduling; no drug can be scheduled if the Secretary of Health and Human Services recommends against it on a scientific or medical basis, and no drug can be placed in the most restrictive schedule (Schedule I) if DHHS finds that the drug has an accepted medical use. Jon Gettman 's essay Science and the End of Marijuana Prohibition describes the DEA as "a fall guy to deflect responsibility from the key decision - makers '' and opines, "HHS calls the shots when it comes to marijuana prohibition, and the cops at DEA and the general over at ONDCP take the heat. ''
The DEA is also criticized for focusing on the operations from which it can seize the most money, namely the organized cross-border trafficking of marijuana. Some individuals contemplating the nature of the DEA 's charter advise that, based on danger, the DEA should be most focused on cocaine. Others suggest that, based on opiate popularity, the DEA should focus much more on prescription opiates used recreationally, which critics contend comes first before users switch to heroin.
Practitioners who legally prescribe medicine however must possess a valid DEA license. According to federal law the budget of the DEA Diversion Control Program is to be paid by these license fees. In 1984 a three - year license cost $25. In 2009 the fee for a three - year license was $551. Some have likened this approach to license fees unreasonable, "like making pilot licenses support the entire Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) budget. ''
The total budget of the DEA from 1972 to 2014, according to the agency website, was $50.6 billion. The agency had 11,055 employees in 2014. For the year 2014 the average cost per arrest made was $97,325.
Others, such as former Republican congressman Ron Paul, the Cato Institute, The Libertarian Party and the Drug Policy Alliance criticize the very existence of the DEA and the War on Drugs as both hostile, and contrary, to the concept of civil liberties by arguing that anybody should be free to put any substance they choose into their own bodies for any reason, particularly when legal drugs such as alcohol, tobacco and prescription drugs are also open to abuse, and that any harm caused by a drug user or addict to the general public is a case of conflicting civil rights. Recurrently, billions of dollars are spent yearly, focusing largely on criminal law and demand reduction campaigns, which has resulted in the imprisonments of thousands of U.S. citizens. Demand for recreational drugs is somewhat static as the market for most illegal drugs has been saturated, forcing the cartels to expand their market to Europe and other areas than the United States. United States federal law registers cannabis as a Schedule I drug, yet it is common for illicit drugs such as cannabis to be widely available in most urban, suburban, and even rural areas in the United States, which leads drug legalization proponents to claim that drug laws have little effect on those who choose not to obey them, and that the resources spent enforcing drug laws are wasted. As it relates to the DEA specifically, the vast majority of individual arrests stemming from illegal drug possession and distribution are narrow and more local in scope and are made by local law enforcement officers, while the DEA tends to focus on larger, interstate and international distribution networks and the higher - ranking members of such organizations in addition to operating in conjunction with other local, state, and federal law enforcement agencies along U.S. borders.
Some groups advocate legalization of certain controlled substances under the premise that doing so may reduce the volume of illicit trafficking and associated crime as well as yield a valuable tax source, although some of the results of drug legalization have raised doubt about some of these beliefs. For example, marijuana is now available as a palliative agent, in Canada, with a medical prescription. Yet 86 % of Canadians with HIV / AIDS, eligible for a prescription, continue to obtain marijuana illegally (AIDS Care. 2007 Apr; 19 (4): 500 - 6.) However, this could be due to the availability or quality of illegal cannabis compared to provisions by government sources. Bureaucratic impediments may also discourage patients from actually attempting to receive it from the government.
An April 2012 DEA raid on a California home led to the incarceration of Daniel Chong for several days under conditions of neglect. The 23 - year - old student attending the University of California, San Diego was taken into custody along with eight other people when the DEA executed a raid on a suspected MDMA distribution operation at a residence that he was visiting to celebrate the April 20 cannabis "holiday '' known as "420 ''. According to Chong, the DEA agents questioned him and told him that he could go home, one even offering him a ride home, but instead he was transferred to a holding cell and confined for five days without any food or water, although Chong said he ingested a powdery substance that was left for him, which was later found to be methamphetamine. After five days and two failed suicide attempts, DEA agents found Chong. He was taken to the hospital, where he spent three days in intensive care, because his kidneys were close to failing. No criminal charges were filed against Chong. A DEA spokesperson stated that the extended detention was accidental and the acting special agent in charge of the San Diego DEA office issued an apology to Chong. Chong disputes the claim of accidental neglect, saying that DEA personnel ignored his calls for help. His attorney stated an intent to file a claim against the federal government and some members of California 's delegation to the Congress called for further investigation of the incident.
On 12 August 2013, at the American Bar Association 's House of Delegates meeting, Attorney General Eric Holder announced the "Smart on Crime '' program, which is "a sweeping initiative by the Justice Department that in effect renounces several decades of tough - on - crime anti-drug legislation and policies. '' Holder said the program "will encourage U.S. attorneys to charge defendants only with crimes "for which the accompanying sentences are better suited to their individual conduct, rather than excessive prison terms more appropriate for violent criminals or drug kingpins... '' Running through Holder 's statements, the increasing economic burden of over-incarceration was stressed. As of August 2013, the Smart on Crime program is not a legislative initiative but an effort "limited to the DOJ 's policy parameters. ''
David Coleman Headley (born Daood Sayed Gilani; 30 June 1960) who was working as an informant for the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) simultaneously made periodic trips to Pakistan for LeT training and was one of main conspirator in 2008 Mumbai attacks On January 24, 2013, Headley, then 52 years old, was sentenced by U.S. District Judge Harry Leinenweber of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois in Chicago to 35 years in prison for his part in the 2008 Mumbai attacks, in which at least 164 victims (civilians and security personnel) and nine attackers were killed. Among the dead were 28 foreign nationals from 10 countries. One attacker was captured. The bodies of many of the dead hostages showed signs of torture or disfigurement. A number of those killed were notable figures in business, media, and security services.
The DEA was accused in 2005 by the Venezuelan government of collaborating with drug traffickers, after which President Hugo Chávez decided to end any collaboration with the agency. In 2007, after the U.S. State Department criticized Venezuela in its annual report on drug trafficking, the Venezuelan Minister of Justice reiterated the accusations: "A large quantity of drug shipments left the country through that organization. We were in the presence of a new drug cartel. '' In his 1996 series of articles and subsequent 1999 book, both titled Dark Alliance, journalist Gary Webb asserts that the DEA helped harbor Nicaraguan drug traffickers. Notably, they allowed Oscar Danilo Blandón political asylum in the USA despite knowledge of his cocaine trafficking organization.
The government of Bolivia has also taken similar steps to ban the DEA from operating in the country. In September 2008, Bolivia drastically reduced diplomatic ties with the United States, withdrawing its ambassador from the US and expelling the US ambassador from Bolivia. This occurred soon after Bolivian president Evo Morales expelled all DEA agents from the country due to a revolt in the traditional coca - growing Chapare Province. The Bolivian government claimed that it could not protect the agents, and Morales further accused the agency of helping incite the violence, which claimed 30 lives. National agencies were to take over control of drug management. Three years later, Bolivia and the US began to restore full diplomatic ties. However, Morales maintained that the DEA would remain unwelcome in the country, characterising it as an affront to Bolivia 's "dignity and sovereignty ''.
In the Netherlands, both the Dutch government and the DEA have been criticized for violations of Dutch sovereignty in drug investigations. According to Peter R. de Vries, a Dutch journalist present at the 2005 trial of Henk Orlando Rommy, the DEA has admitted to activities on Dutch soil. Earlier, then Minister of Justice Piet Hein Donner, had denied to the Dutch parliament that he had given permission to the DEA for any such activities, which would have been a requirement by Dutch law in order to allow foreign agents to act within the territory.
In 2013 Reuters published a report about the DEA 's Special Operations Division (SOD) stating that it conceals where an investigative trail about a suspect truly originates from and creates a parallel set of evidence given to prosecutors, judges, and defense lawyers. This DEA program mainly affects common criminals such as drug dealers. The concealment of evidence means the defendant is unaware how his or her investigation began and will be unable to request a review possible sources of exculpatory evidence. Exculpatory evidence may include biased witnesses, mistakes, or entrapment. Nancy Gertner, a former federal judge who had served from 1994 to 2011 and a Harvard Law School professor, stated that "It is one thing to create special rules for national security. Ordinary crime is entirely different. It sounds like they are phonying up investigations. '' Andrew O'Hehir of Salon wrote that "It 's the first clear evidence that the "special rules '' and disregard for constitutional law that have characterized the hunt for so - called terrorists have crept into the domestic criminal justice system on a significant scale. ''
A 2014 report by the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies and the Drug Policy Alliance accuses the DEA of unfairly blocking the removal of cannabis from Schedule I. The report alleges that the methods employed by the DEA to achieve this include: delaying rescheduling petitions for years, overruling DEA administrative law judges, and systematically impeding scientific research. The DEA continues to refuse the removal of cannabis from Schedule I despite wide - scale acceptance of the substance among the medical community, including 76 % of doctors, for the treatment of various disease.
The DEA, in addition to enforcement, also regularly engage in advocacy, specifically against rescheduling marijuana, by publishing policy - based papers on certain drugs. Some have criticized the DEA for using tax dollars in what they call an attempt to change public opinion, which they call an overreach from the scope of the agency 's job of enforcement, and that by releasing such non-peer - reviewed reports is a transparent attempt to justify its own activities. They have claimed that since the DEA is not, by law, an advocacy group, but a legal enforcement group, that those press releases are tantamount to what they consider domestic propaganda.
The DEA has taken a particularly strong stance on enforcement of the Controlled Substances Act on persons and organizations acting within state laws that allow medical cannabis cultivation and distribution. DEA agency executive, Chuck Rosenberg has made negative statements against patients who use medical marijuana. Chuck Rosenberg has mentioned that he considers medical marijuana to be a "joke. '' As a reaction against the negative statements made by Chuck Rosenberg towards medical marijuana, an international online petition has been formed. More than 159,737 signatures have been gathered globally as a means to protest against DEA agency executive, Chuck Rosenberg. The online petition has been formed with the intention that Chuck Rosenberg will be fired or forced to resign as head of DEA. The petition is titled, "Petition - Trump: Fire DEA Head Chuck Rosenberg for Calling Medical Marijuana a "Joke ''. The petition to fire Chuck Rosenberg is posted on Change.org.
"The people of California and the County of Santa Cruz have overwhelmingly supported the provision of medical marijuana for people who have serious illnesses, '' county Supervisor Mardi Wormhoudt told the San Francisco Gate. "These people (blocking the road) are people with AIDS and cancer and other grave illnesses. To attack these people, who work collectively and have never taken money for their work, is outrageous. ''
As a result, the Wo / Men 's Alliance for Medical Marijuana, with the City and County of Santa Cruz, had sued the DEA, Attorney General Michael Mukasey, and the ONDCP. The most recent court decision rejected the government 's motion to dismiss, which allowed discovery to move forward. The American Civil Liberties Union hailed the decision as "a first - of - its - kind ruling. ''
More recently, the DEA has escalated its enforcement efforts on the recently proliferated Los Angeles area medical cannabis collectives. On July 25, 2007, the DEA raided the California Patients Group, Hollywood Compassionate Collective, and Natural Hybrid (NHI Caregivers) in Hollywood, California. Earlier that day, the operators of those collectives participated in a press conference with LA City Council members announcing the City 's intention to regulate the collectives and asking the DEA to halt raids on collectives while the City drafted regulations. The dispensary operator of Natural Hybrid (NHI Caregivers) was forced to close down the collective due to the tremendous loss caused by the DEA conducted joint task force raid against them.
In 1999, the DEA opened the Drug Enforcement Administration Museum in Arlington, Virginia. The original permanent exhibit -- Illegal Drugs in America: A Modern History -- remains the museum 's centerpiece. The exhibit features "the more than 150 year history of drugs and drug abuse and the DEA, '' including a considerable collection of drug paraphernalia and an image of a smiling drug vendor under the heading "Jimmy 's Joint. ''
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who has the largest zoo in the united states | North Carolina zoo - Wikipedia
The North Carolina Zoological Park is located in Asheboro in Randolph County, North Carolina in the Uwharrie Mountains near the geographic center of the state, approximately 75 miles (121 km) west of Raleigh, NC, United States. At over 2,000 acres (810 ha), it is the largest walk - through zoo in the world, and one of only two state - owned zoos in the United States. The NC Zoo has over 1,600 animals from more than 250 species primarily representing Africa and North America. The zoo is open 364 days a year and receives more than 700,000 visitors annually.
In 1967, the North Carolina legislature created the NC Zoological Garden Study Commission to examine the feasibility of a state zoo. The nine - member commission found that a zoo was both feasible and desirable. The next year, the North Carolina Zoological Society was formed with the goal of raising funds and public support for the zoo project. The same year, the legislature created the NC Zoological Authority to oversee the project. The site in Randolph County was selected from 6 sites after a 2 - year search by the zoo commission, led by State Representative Archie McMillan of Wake County. After the selection of the site, its 1,371 acres (5.55 km) were donated to the state. A $2 million bond was passed and Governor Robert W. Scott dedicated the site in spring 1972. Construction of the North Carolina Zoo began in 1974 with the official opening date of August 13, 1976. The first animals, two Galapagos tortoises arrived in 1973 and an interim zoo was opened in 1974. In 1978, Ham the Chimp, the first hominid in outer space, was moved to the zoo from the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. He lived there until his death in 1983 from a heart attack. After construction delays and difficulty securing private funding, an additional $7 million were given by the General Assembly, and the first permanent exhibit opened in 1979.
The zoo has continued to expand ever since. Throughout the 1980s, the exhibits of the Africa region opened and in 1984 the zoo received accreditation from the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA). In 1993, the first of the North America exhibits was completed, showcasing the animals and habitats of the Sonora Desert. The final North America exhibit opened in 1996.
Following the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, the zoo spearheaded efforts to rebuild and maintain the Kabul Zoo. Beginning in 2002, the zoo helped raise funds, organize animal purchases, and provide expertise in animal care, exhibit reconstruction and renovation, staff training, and business strategy. In 2005 the NC Zoo employed a full - time staff member to live for a year in Kabul to assist with the training and retention of staff. Following the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the NC Zoo once again took the lead in the rebuilding efforts at the Baghdad Zoo. The zoo 's exhibits have been replaced and the staff now coordinates with the North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine in a program set up by the zoo.
A temporary Australian exhibit opened in 2004 and featured the largest collection of Australian plants on the East Coast until 2006. The North Carolina Zoo is the nation 's first state - supported zoo and remains one of only two state zoos (the other state being Minnesota). In November 2008, the zoo announced that in the first ten months of 2008, its operating revenue had increased 18 % from its intake the previous year.
On April 1, 2010, the zoo announced it had acquired adjacent forestland to bring the total land tract to over 2,000 acres (8.1 km). The main exhibits currently occupy about 500 acres (2.0 km). There are plans for expansion to include animals and plants from Asia, which could include tigers, rhinos, and orangutans with the goal of attracting an additional 300,000 people a year. There are also plans for a convention center and a hotel over looking an animal exhibit to establish the zoo as a multi-day destination.
The NC Zoo would be one of many state facilities to receive money from the Connect NC bond referendum, scheduled to be voted on during the March 2015 primary election. A new exhibit complex focused on Africa 's aquatic ecosystems is also still in the planning stages. If passed, the bond would provide significant funding for building new exhibits at the zoo and improving existing facilities. The African exhibit may include more animals like the Nile crocodiles, common hippos and other reptiles, primates and mammals from Africa.
The zoo is home to 1,600 animals of more than 200 species. It is home to the largest collection of chimpanzees of any zoo in America as well as the largest collection of Alaskan seabirds in the country.
The North Carolina Zoo consists of two main areas: "Africa '' and "North America '' on opposite ends. There are parking lots located on both ends, so during peak season, visitors can start their day from either side. With approximately five miles of walking paths, the zoo also provides trams and air - conditioned buses for visitors.
The North Carolina Zoo was the first American zoo to incorporate the "natural habitat '' philosophy -- presenting animals together with plants in exhibits that resemble the habitats in which they would be found in the wild. Most animals are kept in large expanses of land, which reduces many of the behavior problems that can be caused by close confinement. The 37 - acre (150,000 m) African Plains exhibit alone is as large as many entire zoos.
In the North American half, the swamps of the southeast are to be seen in "Cypress Swamp '' area, home to alligators, cougars, ducks, and a variety of reptiles and amphibians. "Rocky Coast '' depicts the rocky coasts of the Pacific Northwest, with polar bears, California sea lions, harbor seals, Arctic foxes, and the Alaskan seabirds. The streams of North Carolina can be seen in the "Streamside '' exhibit with bobcats, otters, and a number of snakes and fish, including the critically endangered Cape Fear shiner. The "Prairie '' enclosure shows off the enormous bison and elk of the great plains. The flora and fauna of the American Southwest are on display in the glass - domed "Sonoran Desert, '' which houses ocelots, coatis, common vampire bats, and a variety of free - flight birds such as white - winged doves, Gambel 's quail, and horned larks. Black bears, grizzlies and red wolves also each have their own exhibits.
The "Forest Edge '' is a 3.5 - acre (14,000 m), lightly wooded grassland enclosure where zebras, giraffes, and ostriches wander together. The "Watani Grasslands '' mimic the great savanna of Africa and are home to rhinos, African elephants, Thomson 's gazelle, gemsbok, waterbucks, sitatungas, blesboks, ostriches, and greater kudu. Chimpanzees, lions, western lowland gorilla, red river hogs mandrills and one of the largest baboon troops in the country each have their own exhibit in the African half of the zoo.
Lemurs from neighboring Madagascar were added to the Africa section of the zoo in 2010 after a $100,000 refurbishment of the former patas monkey exhibit, one of the first exhibits when the zoo opened in June 1980.
The R.J. Reynolds Forest Aviary recreates the hot, humid conditions of a tropical forest. It displays more than three thousand tropical plants and allows visitors to walk among 35 species of free - flying tropical bird including, sunbitterns, victoria crown pigeons and Chilean flamingos as well as red - footed and yellow - footed tortoises. Since 2007, the aviary has also been home to four species of poison dart frogs. The Aviary was listed among the top 10 American habitat exhibits in the US by USA Today.
The zoo is home to a large collection of art, primarily sculpture but also murals, mosaics, and paintings. Primarily depictions of animals and their habitats, the artwork uses a variety of materials including marble, steel, bronze, fiberglass, limestone, glass, cement, and others. The zoo 's art is intended to enliven and enrich the zoo experience and help fulfill its mission by "promoting individual discovery and new ways of thinking. ''
The two largest sculptures are located at the zoo 's main entrances. One, "Sum of the Parts '' is a pile of large metal cubes, about a yard (1 m) on a side. Most of the cubes are shiny and depict extant species, but a few rusted cubes tumbled off to the side memorialize extinct species. The second, "The Elephant Group '' depicts several large elephants in bronze. The works were installed in 1998.
The NC Zoo is involved in several research and conservation projects. Together with the World Wildlife Fund and the government of Cameroon, the zoo participates in a project to track the movements of elephants through satellite tracking collars in order to expand reserves and parks in a way that protects the most crucial areas of their habitats. The project was recognized in 2008 by the AZA with a Significant Achievement in Conservation Award. Also in Cameroon and its neighbor, Nigeria, the zoo is working on a project to monitor the rare Cross River gorilla, a subspecies that was thought extinct for many years. Its remote habitat is difficult to access, so with the help of satellite imaging and GPS systems, the zoo coordinates with park rangers and other conservation groups to map their habitat and movements and assist efforts to ensure their continued survival. In another project with the Nigerian Conservation Foundation, the zoo has assisted with biodiversity surveys of the southwester region of the country. The surveys mapped suitable habitats, primarily the Omo and Oluwa forest reserves and recorded observed wildlife while documenting the level of human disturbance in the country of 150 million. After completing the survey, the team made several recommendations to maximize preservation of important habitat for forest elephants, chimpanzees, and other animals in the region.
The zoo also operates projects in Uganda. An education project around Kibale National Park has been in place for over ten years and aims to educate young people about the purpose of the park and the value of biological conservation. It also supports research at the Ngogo field research site inside the park. Ngogo researchers study primate plant use and rain forest regrowth after logging among other things, and removes illegal snares from the park which can seriously injure or kill protected animals. Along with Botanic Gardens Conservation International and the Atlanta Botanical Garden, the zoo is also advising in the construction and management of the Tooro Botanical Garden, which is designed to preserve and research the extraordinary biodiversity of the Albertine Rift region, with a special program for medicinal plant research.
A number of projects are also underway in North Carolina. Protection and research of the hellbender salamander, which is globally recognized as near threatened but is classified as "endangered '' in a number of US states including North Carolina, is the target of a project in the Appalachian Mountains. Due to the steep decline in population in the past 30 years, the zoo conducted a thorough survey, with the help of the AZA, into the hellbender populations of western North Carolina.
The zoo is also involved in project to restore population of endangered Schweinitz 's sunflower. In 2001, a road expansion project by the North Carolina Department of Transportation threatened a significant population of the flowers. The zoo partnered with a number of individuals and organizations and successfully managed their transplant to an off - road site, which continues to be managed and monitored by zoo horticulturalists.
Since 1995, the zoo has been a part of the red wolf Species Survival Plan and reintroduction program. The zoo has been home to 48 of these critically endangered animals, including a litter of 5, born at the zoo in 2002, which became the first captive - bred wolves to be adopted by wild parents. The zoo is also involved in the gorilla Species Survival Plan and received two female gorillas in early 2010 as part of the effort. As a result of their successful breeding, two male gorillas (Bomassa and Apollo) were born in August 2012. The Aviary is also known for a number of high - profile hatchings, including the first US hatchings of the golden white - eye, the red - faced liocichla, the African pied barbet, the golden - headed manakin, the horned puffin, the parakeet auklet and the thick - billed murre as well as the second US hatchings of the African grey - headed kingfisher and the African spoonbill.
The zoo is part of the North Carolina Department of Natural and Cultural Resources. Its operation and development are overseen by a 15 - member Zoo Council appointed by the Governor to six - year terms. The Director of the zoo is Pat Simmons, formerly the Director of Akron Zoo. Simmons took over from long - time Director, Dr. David Jones, who retired in 2015. The zoo 's annual operating budget is roughly $18 million. It receives around 60 percent from the state with the remainder being made up of ticket and merchandise sales and donations from the North Carolina Zoological Society, which remains the zoo 's fund - raising and membership arm. The Zoological Society is overseen by its Board of Directors. The Chairman of the Board is always a member of the Zoological Council and the two groups meet once annually.
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where was return of a man called horse filmed | The Return of a Man Called Horse - wikipedia
The Return of a Man Called Horse is a 1976 American - Mexican western film directed by Irvin Kershner involving a conflict over territory between Sioux Indians and white men. It is the sequel to A Man Called Horse and it was followed by Triumphs of a Man Called Horse in 1982.
Richard Harris reprises his role as Horse, a British aristocrat who has become a member of a tribe of Lakota Sioux.
Trappers with government support force the Yellow Hands Sioux off their sacred land. The Indians retreat, but await supernatural punishment to descend on their usurpers. John Morgan, 8th Earl of Kildare, who had lived with the tribe for years and is known as Horse, leaves his English fiancée and estate and returns to America, where he discovers the Yellow Hand people have been largely massacred or put into slavery by the unscrupulous white traders and their Indian cohorts. The few survivors, including wise old Running Bull and stubborn old Elk Woman (Gale Sondergaard) have gone into the Badlands and been forced to eat their dogs. "Why did you return? '' asks Elk Woman. "I had to come back, '' says Morgan. "I had to prove something to myself... there was an empty place in my soul. I could not forget. '' He finds the tribe dispirited, because of the actions of the trappers, and he begins to devise a strategy to overpower the trappers ' stronghold, convincing the Indians to take direct action. Soon even the Indian women and boys are assigned tasks to aid the assault to regain their ancestral land.
Much of the film was shot in 1975 in South Dakota in the United States. Other scenes were filmed in the United Kingdom and Mexico.
The film received mixed reviews on its release. Roger Ebert, while not highly critical of the film, noted that the film attempted to take itself too seriously and paid unnecessary attention to detail. According to Ebert "The film reveals its basic white - chauvinist bias, but it certainly seems to take itself seriously. It 's of average length, but paced like an epic. There are four main movements in the plot: Return, Reconciliation, Revenge and Rebirth. If this seems a little thin for a two - hour movie, believe me, it is, even with all that portentous music trying to make it seem momentous. ''
Ebert also criticized the repetition in the film from the original A Man Called Horse. Ebert commented that "What gets me is that initiation rite, which is repeated in this film in such grim and bloody detail you 'd think people did n't have enough of it the last time. First Morgan has his pectoral muscles pierced with knife blades. Then eagle 's talons are drawn through the wounds and tied to leather thongs. Then he hangs by the thongs until sufficiently purified. You 'd think one ceremony like that would do the trick, without any booster shots. ''
The Return of a Man Called Horse was released to DVD by MGM Home Video on April 1st, 2003 as a Region 1 widescreen DVD.
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who sang falling in love with you first | Ca n't Help Falling in Love - wikipedia
"Ca n't Help Falling in Love '' is a pop ballad originally recorded by American singer Elvis Presley and published by Gladys Music, Elvis Presley 's publishing company. It was written by Hugo Peretti, Luigi Creatore and George David Weiss. The melody is based on "Plaisir d'amour '' (1784), a popular romance by Jean - Paul - Égide Martini (1741 -- 1816). It was featured in Elvis Presley 's 1961 film, Blue Hawaii. During the following four decades, it was recorded by numerous other artists, including Tom Smothers, British reggae group UB40, whose 1993 version topped the U.S. and UK charts, and Swedish pop group A-Teens.
Elvis Presley 's version of the song, which topped the British charts in 1962, has appeared in numerous other films, including the 2000 film Coyote Ugly, the 2002 Disney film Lilo & Stitch, the 2016 film The Conjuring 2 and the pilot episode of Sons of Anarchy. Other films that feature the song include Overboard, Honeymoon in Vegas, The Thing Called Love, Was It Something I Said?, Fools Rush In, Love Stinks and Happily Ever After. The single is certified by the RIAA as a Platinum record, for US sales in excess of one million copies. In the United States, the Elvis Presley version of the song peaked at number two on the pop chart and went to number one on the Easy Listening chart for six weeks.
During Presley 's late 1960s and 1970s live performances, the song was performed as the show 's finale. Most notably, it was also sung in the live segment of his 1968 NBC television special, and as the closer for his 1973 Global telecast, Aloha from Hawaii. A version with a faster arrangement was used as the closing for Presley 's final TV special, Elvis in Concert.
In 1993, British reggae band UB40 recorded the song as the first single from their 1993 album Promises and Lies. The song was released in May 1993, in the majority of countries worldwide. It eventually climbed to number one on the Billboard Hot 100 after debuting at number 100 and appears in the soundtrack of the movie Sliver, the trailer for Fools Rush In and an episode of Hindsight. It remained at number one in the United States for seven weeks. It was also number one in the United Kingdom, Austria, Netherlands, Sweden, Australia, and New Zealand. The single version of the song has a slightly different backing rhythm and melody.
In the US, and on the Sliver soundtrack, the song title was listed as "Ca n't Help Falling in Love, '' rather than what appeared on the record sleeve.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
The song was the A-Teens 's first single from their first extended play Pop ' til You Drop!, as well as for the Lilo & Stitch movie soundtrack, which was originally scheduled to include several Presley tracks, the A-Teens picking it for inclusion in the soundtrack. It was later also featured as a bonus track on their third studio album, New Arrival for the European market. The video had thus tremendous exposure on several television channels, with the A-Teens eventually including the song in their third album. As a result, the song had two music videos, one to promote the Disney movie, the other for the album. It is also shown in the teen pop compilation album, Disney Girlz Rock.
The song did not chart in the United States but reached No. 12 in Sweden, No. 16 in Argentina, and No. 41 in Australia. Despite the success of the song overseas, it failed to attract the rest of the Latin American public, due to the fact that there was a Spanish version of the song, performed by the Argentine group, Bandana. In addition, the A-Teens ' version of the song was overshadowed by the promotion of Bandana 's version.
The video was directed by Gregory Dark and filmed in Los Angeles, California. It had two different versions. The "Disney Version '', as the fans named it, features scenes of the movie, and also new scenes of the A-Teens with beach costumes. The "A-Teens Version '' of the video, features the A-Teens on the white background with different close - ups and choreography, and scenes with puppies and different costumes.
Tracks marked + are not A-Teens tracks.
European 2 - track CD single
European / Australian CD maxi
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who wrote the preamble to the declaration of independence | United States Declaration of Independence - Wikipedia
The United States Declaration of Independence is the statement adopted by the Second Continental Congress meeting at the Pennsylvania State House (Independence Hall) in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American colonies, then at war with the Kingdom of Great Britain, regarded themselves as thirteen independent sovereign states, no longer under British rule. These states would found a new nation -- the United States of America. John Adams was a leader in pushing for independence, which was passed on July 2 with no opposing vote cast. A committee of five had already drafted the formal declaration, to be ready when Congress voted on independence.
John Adams persuaded the committee to select Thomas Jefferson to compose the original draft of the document, which Congress would edit to produce the final version. The Declaration was ultimately a formal explanation of why Congress had voted on July 2 to declare independence from Great Britain, more than a year after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. The next day, Adams wrote to his wife Abigail: "The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, in the History of America. '' But Independence Day is actually celebrated on July 4, the date that the Declaration of Independence was approved.
After ratifying the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms. It was initially published as the printed Dunlap broadside that was widely distributed and read to the public. The source copy used for this printing has been lost, and may have been a copy in Thomas Jefferson 's hand. Jefferson 's original draft, complete with changes made by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, and Jefferson 's notes of changes made by Congress, are preserved at the Library of Congress. The best - known version of the Declaration is a signed copy that is displayed at the National Archives in Washington, D.C., and which is popularly regarded as the official document. This engrossed copy was ordered by Congress on July 19 and signed primarily on August 2.
The sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry. The Declaration justified the independence of the United States by listing colonial grievances against King George III, and by asserting certain natural and legal rights, including a right of revolution. Having served its original purpose in announcing independence, references to the text of the Declaration were few in the following years. Abraham Lincoln made it the centerpiece of his rhetoric (as in the Gettysburg Address of 1863) and his policies. Since then, it has become a well - known statement on human rights, particularly its second sentence:
We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
This has been called "one of the best - known sentences in the English language '', containing "the most potent and consequential words in American history ''. The passage came to represent a moral standard to which the United States should strive. This view was notably promoted by Abraham Lincoln, who considered the Declaration to be the foundation of his political philosophy and argued that it is a statement of principles through which the United States Constitution should be interpreted.
The U.S. Declaration of Independence inspired many other similar documents in other countries, the first being the 1789 Declaration of Flanders issued during the Brabant Revolution in the Austrian Netherlands (modern - day Belgium). It also served as the primary model for numerous declarations of independence across Europe and Latin America, as well as Africa (Liberia) and Oceania (New Zealand) during the first half of the 19th century.
Believe me, dear Sir: there is not in the British empire a man who more cordially loves a union with Great Britain than I do. But, by the God that made me, I will cease to exist before I yield to a connection on such terms as the British Parliament propose; and in this, I think I speak the sentiments of America.
By the time that the Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, the Thirteen Colonies and Great Britain had been at war for more than a year. Relations had been deteriorating between the colonies and the mother country since 1763. Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase revenue from the colonies, such as the Stamp Act of 1765 and the Townshend Acts of 1767. Parliament believed that these acts were a legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs to keep them in the British Empire.
Many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the empire. The colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, and colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. This tax dispute was part of a larger divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliament 's authority in the colonies. The orthodox British view, dating from the Glorious Revolution of 1688, was that Parliament was the supreme authority throughout the empire, and so, by definition, anything that Parliament did was constitutional. In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that no government could violate, not even Parliament. After the Townshend Acts, some essayists even began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all. Anticipating the arrangement of the British Commonwealth, by 1774 American writers such as Samuel Adams, James Wilson, and Thomas Jefferson were arguing that Parliament was the legislature of Great Britain only, and that the colonies, which had their own legislatures, were connected to the rest of the empire only through their allegiance to the Crown.
The issue of Parliament 's authority in the colonies became a crisis after Parliament passed the Coercive Acts (known as the Intolerable Acts in the colonies) in 1774 to punish the Province of Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party of 1773. Many colonists saw the Coercive Acts as a violation of the British Constitution and thus a threat to the liberties of all of British America. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia to coordinate a response. Congress organized a boycott of British goods and petitioned the king for repeal of the acts. These measures were unsuccessful because King George and the ministry of Prime Minister Lord North were determined not to retreat on the question of parliamentary supremacy. As the king wrote to North in November 1774, "blows must decide whether they are to be subject to this country or independent ''.
Most colonists still hoped for reconciliation with Great Britain, even after fighting began in the American Revolutionary War at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. The Second Continental Congress convened at the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia in May 1775, and some delegates hoped for eventual independence, but no one yet advocated declaring it. Many colonists no longer believed that Parliament had any sovereignty over them, yet they still professed loyalty to King George, who they hoped would intercede on their behalf. They were disappointed in late 1775, when the king rejected Congress 's second petition, issued a Proclamation of Rebellion, and announced before Parliament on October 26 that he was considering "friendly offers of foreign assistance '' to suppress the rebellion. A pro-American minority in Parliament warned that the government was driving the colonists toward independence.
Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense was published in January 1776, just as it became clear in the colonies that the king was not inclined to act as a conciliator. Paine had only recently arrived in the colonies from England, and he argued in favor of colonial independence, advocating republicanism as an alternative to monarchy and hereditary rule. Common Sense introduced no new ideas and probably had little direct effect on Congress 's thinking about independence; its importance was in stimulating public debate on a topic that few had previously dared to openly discuss. Public support for separation from Great Britain steadily increased after the publication of Paine 's enormously popular pamphlet.
Some colonists still held out hope for reconciliation, but developments in early 1776 further strengthened public support for independence. In February 1776, colonists learned of Parliament 's passage of the Prohibitory Act, which established a blockade of American ports and declared American ships to be enemy vessels. John Adams, a strong supporter of independence, believed that Parliament had effectively declared American independence before Congress had been able to. Adams labeled the Prohibitory Act the "Act of Independency '', calling it "a compleat Dismemberment of the British Empire ''. Support for declaring independence grew even more when it was confirmed that King George had hired German mercenaries to use against his American subjects.
Despite this growing popular support for independence, Congress lacked the clear authority to declare it. Delegates had been elected to Congress by thirteen different governments, which included extralegal conventions, ad hoc committees, and elected assemblies, and they were bound by the instructions given to them. Regardless of their personal opinions, delegates could not vote to declare independence unless their instructions permitted such an action. Several colonies, in fact, expressly prohibited their delegates from taking any steps towards separation from Great Britain, while other delegations had instructions that were ambiguous on the issue. As public sentiment grew for separation from Great Britain, advocates of independence sought to have the Congressional instructions revised. For Congress to declare independence, a majority of delegations would need authorization to vote for independence, and at least one colonial government would need to specifically instruct (or grant permission for) its delegation to propose a declaration of independence in Congress. Between April and July 1776, a "complex political war '' was waged to bring this about.
In the campaign to revise Congressional instructions, many Americans formally expressed their support for separation from Great Britain in what were effectively state and local declarations of independence. Historian Pauline Maier identifies more than ninety such declarations that were issued throughout the Thirteen Colonies from April to July 1776. These "declarations '' took a variety of forms. Some were formal written instructions for Congressional delegations, such as the Halifax Resolves of April 12, with which North Carolina became the first colony to explicitly authorize its delegates to vote for independence. Others were legislative acts that officially ended British rule in individual colonies, such as the Rhode Island legislature declaring its independence from Great Britain on May 4, the first colony to do so. Many "declarations '' were resolutions adopted at town or county meetings that offered support for independence. A few came in the form of jury instructions, such as the statement issued on April 23, 1776 by Chief Justice William Henry Drayton of South Carolina: "the law of the land authorizes me to declare... that George the Third, King of Great Britain... has no authority over us, and we owe no obedience to him. '' Most of these declarations are now obscure, having been overshadowed by the declaration approved by Congress on July 2, and signed July 4.
Some colonies held back from endorsing independence. Resistance was centered in the middle colonies of New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Advocates of independence saw Pennsylvania as the key; if that colony could be converted to the pro-independence cause, it was believed that the others would follow. On May 1, however, opponents of independence retained control of the Pennsylvania Assembly in a special election that had focused on the question of independence. In response, Congress passed a resolution on May 10 which had been promoted by John Adams and Richard Henry Lee, calling on colonies without a "government sufficient to the exigencies of their affairs '' to adopt new governments. The resolution passed unanimously, and was even supported by Pennsylvania 's John Dickinson, the leader of the anti-independence faction in Congress, who believed that it did not apply to his colony.
As was the custom, Congress appointed a committee to draft a preamble to explain the purpose of the resolution. John Adams wrote the preamble, which stated that because King George had rejected reconciliation and was hiring foreign mercenaries to use against the colonies, "it is necessary that the exercise of every kind of authority under the said crown should be totally suppressed ''. Adams 's preamble was meant to encourage the overthrow of the governments of Pennsylvania and Maryland, which were still under proprietary governance. Congress passed the preamble on May 15 after several days of debate, but four of the middle colonies voted against it, and the Maryland delegation walked out in protest. Adams regarded his May 15 preamble effectively as an American declaration of independence, although a formal declaration would still have to be made.
On the same day that Congress passed Adams 's radical preamble, the Virginia Convention set the stage for a formal Congressional declaration of independence. On May 15, the Convention instructed Virginia 's congressional delegation "to propose to that respectable body to declare the United Colonies free and independent States, absolved from all allegiance to, or dependence upon, the Crown or Parliament of Great Britain ''. In accordance with those instructions, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia presented a three - part resolution to Congress on June 7. The motion was seconded by John Adams, calling on Congress to declare independence, form foreign alliances, and prepare a plan of colonial confederation. The part of the resolution relating to declaring independence read:
Resolved, that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.
Lee 's resolution met with resistance in the ensuing debate. Opponents of the resolution conceded that reconciliation was unlikely with Great Britain, while arguing that declaring independence was premature, and that securing foreign aid should take priority. Advocates of the resolution countered that foreign governments would not intervene in an internal British struggle, and so a formal declaration of independence was needed before foreign aid was possible. All Congress needed to do, they insisted, was to "declare a fact which already exists ''. Delegates from Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, and New York were still not yet authorized to vote for independence, however, and some of them threatened to leave Congress if the resolution were adopted. Congress, therefore, voted on June 10 to postpone further discussion of Lee 's resolution for three weeks. Until then, Congress decided that a committee should prepare a document announcing and explaining independence in the event that Lee 's resolution was approved when it was brought up again in July.
Support for a Congressional declaration of independence was consolidated in the final weeks of June 1776. On June 14, the Connecticut Assembly instructed its delegates to propose independence and, the following day, the legislatures of New Hampshire and Delaware authorized their delegates to declare independence. In Pennsylvania, political struggles ended with the dissolution of the colonial assembly, and a new Conference of Committees under Thomas McKean authorized Pennsylvania 's delegates to declare independence on June 18. The Provincial Congress of New Jersey had been governing the province since January 1776; they resolved on June 15 that Royal Governor William Franklin was "an enemy to the liberties of this country '' and had him arrested. On June 21, they chose new delegates to Congress and empowered them to join in a declaration of independence.
Only Maryland and New York had yet to authorize independence towards the end of June. Previously, Maryland 's delegates had walked out when the Continental Congress adopted Adams 's radical May 15 preamble, and had sent to the Annapolis Convention for instructions. On May 20, the Annapolis Convention rejected Adams 's preamble, instructing its delegates to remain against independence. But Samuel Chase went to Maryland and, thanks to local resolutions in favor of independence, was able to get the Annapolis Convention to change its mind on June 28. Only the New York delegates were unable to get revised instructions. When Congress had been considering the resolution of independence on June 8, the New York Provincial Congress told the delegates to wait. But on June 30, the Provincial Congress evacuated New York as British forces approached, and would not convene again until July 10. This meant that New York 's delegates would not be authorized to declare independence until after Congress had made its decision.
Political maneuvering was setting the stage for an official declaration of independence even while a document was being written to explain the decision. On June 11, 1776, Congress appointed a "Committee of Five '' to draft a declaration, consisting of John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, Robert R. Livingston of New York, and Roger Sherman of Connecticut. The committee left no minutes, so there is some uncertainty about how the drafting process proceeded; contradictory accounts were written many years later by Jefferson and Adams, too many years to be regarded as entirely reliable -- although their accounts are frequently cited. What is certain is that the committee discussed the general outline which the document should follow and decided that Jefferson would write the first draft. The committee in general, and Jefferson in particular, thought that Adams should write the document, but Adams persuaded the committee to choose Jefferson and promised to consult with him personally. Considering Congress 's busy schedule, Jefferson probably had limited time for writing over the next seventeen days, and likely wrote the draft quickly. He then consulted the others and made some changes, and then produced another copy incorporating these alterations. The committee presented this copy to the Congress on June 28, 1776. The title of the document was "A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled. ''
Congress ordered that the draft "lie on the table ''. For two days, Congress methodically edited Jefferson 's primary document, shortening it by a fourth, removing unnecessary wording, and improving sentence structure. They removed Jefferson 's assertion that Britain had forced slavery on the colonies in order to moderate the document and appease persons in Britain who supported the Revolution. Jefferson wrote that Congress had "mangled '' his draft version, but the Declaration that was finally produced was "the majestic document that inspired both contemporaries and posterity, '' in the words of his biographer John Ferling.
Congress tabled the draft of the declaration on Monday, July 1 and resolved itself into a committee of the whole, with Benjamin Harrison of Virginia presiding, and they resumed debate on Lee 's resolution of independence. John Dickinson made one last effort to delay the decision, arguing that Congress should not declare independence without first securing a foreign alliance and finalizing the Articles of Confederation. John Adams gave a speech in reply to Dickinson, restating the case for an immediate declaration.
A vote was taken after a long day of speeches, each colony casting a single vote, as always. The delegation for each colony numbered from two to seven members, and each delegation voted amongst themselves to determine the colony 's vote. Pennsylvania and South Carolina voted against declaring independence. The New York delegation abstained, lacking permission to vote for independence. Delaware cast no vote because the delegation was split between Thomas McKean (who voted yes) and George Read (who voted no). The remaining nine delegations voted in favor of independence, which meant that the resolution had been approved by the committee of the whole. The next step was for the resolution to be voted upon by Congress itself. Edward Rutledge of South Carolina was opposed to Lee 's resolution but desirous of unanimity, and he moved that the vote be postponed until the following day.
On July 2, South Carolina reversed its position and voted for independence. In the Pennsylvania delegation, Dickinson and Robert Morris abstained, allowing the delegation to vote three - to - two in favor of independence. The tie in the Delaware delegation was broken by the timely arrival of Caesar Rodney, who voted for independence. The New York delegation abstained once again since they were still not authorized to vote for independence, although they were allowed to do so a week later by the New York Provincial Congress. The resolution of independence had been adopted with twelve affirmative votes and one abstention. With this, the colonies had officially severed political ties with Great Britain.
John Adams predicted in a famous letter, written to his wife on the following day, that July 2 would become a great American holiday. He thought that the vote for independence would be commemorated; he did not foresee that Americans -- including himself -- would instead celebrate Independence Day on the date when the announcement of that act was finalized.
"I am apt to believe that (Independence Day) will be celebrated, by succeeding Generations, as the great anniversary Festival. It ought to be commemorated, as the Day of Deliverance by solemn Acts of Devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with Pomp and Parade, with shews, Games, Sports, Guns, Bells, Bonfires and Illuminations from one End of this Continent to the other from this Time forward forever more. ''
After voting in favor of the resolution of independence, Congress turned its attention to the committee 's draft of the declaration. Over several days of debate, they made a few changes in wording and deleted nearly a fourth of the text and, on July 4, 1776, the wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved and sent to the printer for publication.
There is a distinct change in wording from this original broadside printing of the Declaration and the final official engrossed copy. The word "unanimous '' was inserted as a result of a Congressional resolution passed on July 19, 1776:
Resolved, That the Declaration passed on the 4th, be fairly engrossed on parchment, with the title and stile of "The unanimous declaration of the thirteen United States of America, '' and that the same, when engrossed, be signed by every member of Congress.
Historian George Billias says:
The declaration is not divided into formal sections; but it is often discussed as consisting of five parts: introduction, preamble, indictment of King George III, denunciation of the British people, and conclusion.
Asserts as a matter of Natural Law the ability of a people to assume political independence; acknowledges that the grounds for such independence must be reasonable, and therefore explicable, and ought to be explained.
When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature 's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
Outlines a general philosophy of government that justifies revolution when government harms natural rights.
We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.
A bill of particulars documenting the king 's "repeated injuries and usurpations '' of the Americans ' rights and liberties.
Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness of his invasions on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.
He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.
He has obstructed the Administration of Justice by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.
He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people and eat out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.
He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power.
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
For protecting them, by a mock Trial from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:
For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:
For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:
For depriving us in many cases, of the benefit of Trial by Jury:
For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:
For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies
For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:
For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & Perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.
In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.
This section essentially finishes the case for independence. The conditions that justified revolution have been shown.
Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.
The signers assert that there exist conditions under which people must change their government, that the British have produced such conditions and, by necessity, the colonies must throw off political ties with the British Crown and become independent states. The conclusion contains, at its core, the Lee Resolution that had been passed on July 2.
We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.
The first and most famous signature on the engrossed copy was that of John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress. Two future presidents (Thomas Jefferson and John Adams) and a father and great - grandfather of two other presidents (Benjamin Harrison) were among the signatories. Edward Rutledge (age 26) was the youngest signer, and Benjamin Franklin (age 70) was the oldest signer. The fifty - six signers of the Declaration represented the new states as follows (from north to south):
Historians have often sought to identify the sources that most influenced the words and political philosophy of the Declaration of Independence. By Jefferson 's own admission, the Declaration contained no original ideas, but was instead a statement of sentiments widely shared by supporters of the American Revolution. As he explained in 1825:
Neither aiming at originality of principle or sentiment, nor yet copied from any particular and previous writing, it was intended to be an expression of the American mind, and to give to that expression the proper tone and spirit called for by the occasion.
Jefferson 's most immediate sources were two documents written in June 1776: his own draft of the preamble of the Constitution of Virginia, and George Mason 's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights. Ideas and phrases from both of these documents appear in the Declaration of Independence. They were, in turn, directly influenced by the 1689 English Declaration of Rights, which formally ended the reign of King James II. During the American Revolution, Jefferson and other Americans looked to the English Declaration of Rights as a model of how to end the reign of an unjust king. The Scottish Declaration of Arbroath (1320) and the Dutch Act of Abjuration (1581) have also been offered as models for Jefferson 's Declaration, but these models are now accepted by few scholars.
Jefferson wrote that a number of authors exerted a general influence on the words of the Declaration. English political theorist John Locke is usually cited as one of the primary influences, a man whom Jefferson called one of "the three greatest men that have ever lived ''. In 1922, historian Carl L. Becker wrote, "Most Americans had absorbed Locke 's works as a kind of political gospel; and the Declaration, in its form, in its phraseology, follows closely certain sentences in Locke 's second treatise on government. '' The extent of Locke 's influence on the American Revolution has been questioned by some subsequent scholars, however. Historian Ray Forrest Harvey argued in 1937 for the dominant influence of Swiss jurist Jean Jacques Burlamaqui, declaring that Jefferson and Locke were at "two opposite poles '' in their political philosophy, as evidenced by Jefferson 's use in the Declaration of Independence of the phrase "pursuit of happiness '' instead of "property ''. Other scholars emphasized the influence of republicanism rather than Locke 's classical liberalism. Historian Garry Wills argued that Jefferson was influenced by the Scottish Enlightenment, particularly Francis Hutcheson, rather than Locke, an interpretation that has been strongly criticized.
Legal historian John Phillip Reid has written that the emphasis on the political philosophy of the Declaration has been misplaced. The Declaration is not a philosophical tract about natural rights, argues Reid, but is instead a legal document -- an indictment against King George for violating the constitutional rights of the colonists. Historian David Armitage has argued that the Declaration was strongly influenced by de Vattel 's The Law of Nations, the dominant international law treatise of the period, and a book that Benjamin Franklin said was "continually in the hands of the members of our Congress ''. Armitage writes, "Vattel made independence fundamental to his definition of statehood ''; therefore, the primary purpose of the Declaration was "to express the international legal sovereignty of the United States ''. If the United States were to have any hope of being recognized by the European powers, the American revolutionaries first had to make it clear that they were no longer dependent on Great Britain. The Declaration of Independence does not have the force of law domestically, but nevertheless it may help to provide historical and legal clarity about the Constitution and other laws.
The Declaration became official when Congress voted for it on July 4; signatures of the delegates were not needed to make it official. The handwritten copy of the Declaration of Independence that was signed by Congress is dated July 4, 1776. The signatures of fifty - six delegates are affixed; however, the exact date when each person signed it has long been the subject of debate. Jefferson, Franklin, and Adams all wrote that the Declaration had been signed by Congress on July 4. But in 1796, signer Thomas McKean disputed that the Declaration had been signed on July 4, pointing out that some signers were not then present, including several who were not even elected to Congress until after that date.
The Declaration was transposed on paper, adopted by the Continental Congress, and signed by John Hancock, President of the Congress, on July 4, 1776, according to the 1911 record of events by the U.S. State Department under Secretary Philander C. Knox. On August 2, 1776, a parchment paper copy of the Declaration was signed by 56 persons. Many of these signers were not present when the original Declaration was adopted on July 4. Signer Matthew Thornton from New Hampshire was seated in the Continental Congress in November; he asked for and received the privilege of adding his signature at that time, and signed on November 4, 1776.
Historians have generally accepted McKean 's version of events, arguing that the famous signed version of the Declaration was created after July 19, and was not signed by Congress until August 2, 1776. In 1986, legal historian Wilfred Ritz argued that historians had misunderstood the primary documents and given too much credence to McKean, who had not been present in Congress on July 4. According to Ritz, about thirty - four delegates signed the Declaration on July 4, and the others signed on or after August 2. Historians who reject a July 4 signing maintain that most delegates signed on August 2, and that those eventual signers who were not present added their names later.
Two future U.S. presidents were among the signatories: Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. The most famous signature on the engrossed copy is that of John Hancock, who presumably signed first as President of Congress. Hancock 's large, flamboyant signature became iconic, and the term John Hancock emerged in the United States as an informal synonym for "signature ''. A commonly circulated but apocryphal account claims that, after Hancock signed, the delegate from Massachusetts commented, "The British ministry can read that name without spectacles. '' Another apocryphal report indicates that Hancock proudly declared, "There! I guess King George will be able to read that! ''
Various legends emerged years later about the signing of the Declaration, when the document had become an important national symbol. In one famous story, John Hancock supposedly said that Congress, having signed the Declaration, must now "all hang together '', and Benjamin Franklin replied: "Yes, we must indeed all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately. '' The quotation did not appear in print until more than fifty years after Franklin 's death.
The Syng inkstand used at the signing was also used at the signing of the United States Constitution in 1787.
After Congress approved the final wording of the Declaration on July 4, a handwritten copy was sent a few blocks away to the printing shop of John Dunlap. Through the night, Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides for distribution. Before long, the Declaration was read to audiences and reprinted in newspapers throughout the thirteen states. The first official public reading of the document was by John Nixon in the yard of Independence Hall on July 8; public readings also took place on that day in Trenton, New Jersey and Easton, Pennsylvania. A German translation of the Declaration was published in Philadelphia by July 9.
President of Congress John Hancock sent a broadside to General George Washington, instructing him to have it proclaimed "at the Head of the Army in the way you shall think it most proper ''. Washington had the Declaration read to his troops in New York City on July 9, with thousands of British troops on ships in the harbor. Washington and Congress hoped that the Declaration would inspire the soldiers, and encourage others to join the army. After hearing the Declaration, crowds in many cities tore down and destroyed signs or statues representing royal authority. An equestrian statue of King George in New York City was pulled down and the lead used to make musket balls.
British officials in North America sent copies of the Declaration to Great Britain. It was published in British newspapers beginning in mid-August, it had reached Florence and Warsaw by mid-September, and a German translation appeared in Switzerland by October. The first copy of the Declaration sent to France got lost, and the second copy arrived only in November 1776. It reached Portuguese America by Brazilian medical student "Vendek '' José Joaquim Maia e Barbalho, who had met with Thomas Jefferson in Nîmes.
The Spanish - American authorities banned the circulation of the Declaration, but it was widely transmitted and translated: by Venezuelan Manuel García de Sena, by Colombian Miguel de Pombo, by Ecuadorian Vicente Rocafuerte, and by New Englanders Richard Cleveland and William Shaler, who distributed the Declaration and the United States Constitution among creoles in Chile and Indians in Mexico in 1821. The North Ministry did not give an official answer to the Declaration, but instead secretly commissioned pamphleteer John Lind to publish a response entitled Answer to the Declaration of the American Congress. British Tories denounced the signers of the Declaration for not applying the same principles of "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness '' to African Americans. Thomas Hutchinson, the former royal governor of Massachusetts, also published a rebuttal. These pamphlets challenged various aspects of the Declaration. Hutchinson argued that the American Revolution was the work of a few conspirators who wanted independence from the outset, and who had finally achieved it by inducing otherwise loyal colonists to rebel. Lind 's pamphlet had an anonymous attack on the concept of natural rights written by Jeremy Bentham, an argument that he repeated during the French Revolution. Both pamphlets asked how the American slaveholders in Congress could proclaim that "all men are created equal '' without freeing their own slaves.
William Whipple, a signer of the Declaration of Independence who had fought in the war, freed his slave Prince Whipple because of revolutionary ideals. In the postwar decades, other slaveholders also freed their slaves; from 1790 to 1810, the percentage of free blacks in the Upper South increased to 8.3 percent from less than one percent of the black population. All Northern states abolished slavery by 1804.
The official copy of the Declaration of Independence was the one printed on July 4, 1776 under Jefferson 's supervision. It was sent to the states and to the Army and was widely reprinted in newspapers. The slightly different "engrossed copy '' (shown at the top of this article) was made later for members to sign. The engrossed version is the one widely distributed in the 21st century. Note that the opening lines differ between the two versions.
The copy of the Declaration that was signed by Congress is known as the engrossed or parchment copy. It was probably engrossed (that is, carefully handwritten) by clerk Timothy Matlack. A facsimile made in 1823 has become the basis of most modern reproductions rather than the original because of poor conservation of the engrossed copy through the 19th century. In 1921, custody of the engrossed copy of the Declaration was transferred from the State Department to the Library of Congress, along with the United States Constitution. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the documents were moved for safekeeping to the United States Bullion Depository at Fort Knox in Kentucky, where they were kept until 1944. In 1952, the engrossed Declaration was transferred to the National Archives and is now on permanent display at the National Archives in the "Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom ''.
The document signed by Congress and enshrined in the National Archives is usually regarded as the Declaration of Independence, but historian Julian P. Boyd argued that the Declaration, like Magna Carta, is not a single document. Boyd considered the printed broadsides ordered by Congress to be official texts, as well. The Declaration was first published as a broadside that was printed the night of July 4 by John Dunlap of Philadelphia. Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides, of which 26 are known to survive. The 26th copy was discovered in The National Archives in England in 2009.
In 1777, Congress commissioned Mary Katherine Goddard to print a new broadside that listed the signers of the Declaration, unlike the Dunlap broadside. Nine copies of the Goddard broadside are known to still exist. A variety of broadsides printed by the states are also extant.
Several early handwritten copies and drafts of the Declaration have also been preserved. Jefferson kept a four - page draft that late in life he called the "original Rough draught ''. It is not known how many drafts Jefferson wrote prior to this one, and how much of the text was contributed by other committee members. In 1947, Boyd discovered a fragment of an earlier draft in Jefferson 's handwriting. Jefferson and Adams sent copies of the rough draft to friends, with slight variations.
During the writing process, Jefferson showed the rough draft to Adams and Franklin, and perhaps to other members of the drafting committee, who made a few more changes. Franklin, for example, may have been responsible for changing Jefferson 's original phrase "We hold these truths to be sacred and undeniable '' to "We hold these truths to be self - evident ''. Jefferson incorporated these changes into a copy that was submitted to Congress in the name of the committee. The copy that was submitted to Congress on June 28 has been lost, and was perhaps destroyed in the printing process, or destroyed during the debates in accordance with Congress 's secrecy rule.
On April 21, 2017 it was announced that a second engrossed copy had been discovered in an archive in Sussex, England. Named by its finders the "Sussex Declaration '', it differs from the National Archives copy (which the finders refer to as the "Matlack Declaration '') in that the signatures on it are not grouped by States. How it came to be in England is not yet known, but the finders believe that the randomness of the signatures points to an origin with signatory James Wilson, who had argued strongly that the Declaration was made not by the States but by the whole people.
The Declaration was neglected in the years immediately following the American Revolution, having served its original purpose in announcing the independence of the United States. Early celebrations of Independence Day largely ignored the Declaration, as did early histories of the Revolution. The act of declaring independence was considered important, whereas the text announcing that act attracted little attention. The Declaration was rarely mentioned during the debates about the United States Constitution, and its language was not incorporated into that document. George Mason 's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights was more influential, and its language was echoed in state constitutions and state bills of rights more often than Jefferson 's words. "In none of these documents '', wrote Pauline Maier, "is there any evidence whatsoever that the Declaration of Independence lived in men 's minds as a classic statement of American political principles. ''
Many leaders of the French Revolution admired the Declaration of Independence but were also interested in the new American state constitutions. The inspiration and content of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) emerged largely from the ideals of the American Revolution. Its key drafts were prepared by Lafayette, working closely in Paris with his friend Thomas Jefferson. It also borrowed language from George Mason 's Virginia Declaration of Rights. The declaration also influenced the Russian Empire. The document had a particular impact on the Decembrist revolt and other Russian thinkers.
According to historian David Armitage, the Declaration of Independence did prove to be internationally influential, but not as a statement of human rights. Armitage argued that the Declaration was the first in a new genre of declarations of independence that announced the creation of new states.
Other French leaders were directly influenced by the text of the Declaration of Independence itself. The Manifesto of the Province of Flanders (1790) was the first foreign derivation of the Declaration; others include the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence (1811), the Liberian Declaration of Independence (1847), the declarations of secession by the Confederate States of America (1860 -- 61), and the Vietnamese Proclamation of Independence (1945). These declarations echoed the United States Declaration of Independence in announcing the independence of a new state, without necessarily endorsing the political philosophy of the original.
Other countries have used the Declaration as inspiration or have directly copied sections from it. These include the Haitian declaration of January 1, 1804 during the Haitian Revolution, the United Provinces of New Granada in 1811, the Argentine Declaration of Independence in 1816, the Chilean Declaration of Independence in 1818, Costa Rica in 1821, El Salvador in 1821, Guatemala in 1821, Honduras in (1821), Mexico in 1821, Nicaragua in 1821, Peru in 1821, Bolivian War of Independence in 1825, Uruguay in 1825, Ecuador in 1830, Colombia in 1831, Paraguay in 1842, Dominican Republic in 1844, Texas Declaration of Independence in March 1836, California Republic in November 1836, Hungarian Declaration of Independence in 1849, Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand in 1835, and the Czechoslovak declaration of independence from 1918 drafted in Washington D.C. with Gutzon Borglum among the drafters. The Rhodesian declaration of independence, ratified in November 1965, is based on the American one as well; however, it omits the phrases "all men are created equal '' and "the consent of the governed ''. The South Carolina declaration of secession from December 1860 also mentions the U.S. Declaration of Independence, though it, like the Rhodesian one, omits references to "all men are created equal '' and "consent of the governed ''.
Interest in the Declaration was revived in the 1790s with the emergence of the United States 's first political parties. Throughout the 1780s, few Americans knew or cared who wrote the Declaration. But in the next decade, Jeffersonian Republicans sought political advantage over their rival Federalists by promoting both the importance of the Declaration and Jefferson as its author. Federalists responded by casting doubt on Jefferson 's authorship or originality, and by emphasizing that independence was declared by the whole Congress, with Jefferson as just one member of the drafting committee. Federalists insisted that Congress 's act of declaring independence, in which Federalist John Adams had played a major role, was more important than the document announcing it. But this view faded away, like the Federalist Party itself, and, before long, the act of declaring independence became synonymous with the document.
A less partisan appreciation for the Declaration emerged in the years following the War of 1812, thanks to a growing American nationalism and a renewed interest in the history of the Revolution. In 1817, Congress commissioned John Trumbull 's famous painting of the signers, which was exhibited to large crowds before being installed in the Capitol. The earliest commemorative printings of the Declaration also appeared at this time, offering many Americans their first view of the signed document. Collective biographies of the signers were first published in the 1820s, giving birth to what Garry Wills called the "cult of the signers ''. In the years that followed, many stories about the writing and signing of the document were published for the first time.
When interest in the Declaration was revived, the sections that were most important in 1776 were no longer relevant: the announcement of the independence of the United States and the grievances against King George. But the second paragraph was applicable long after the war had ended, with its talk of self - evident truths and unalienable rights. The Constitution and the Bill of Rights lacked sweeping statements about rights and equality, and advocates of groups with grievances turned to the Declaration for support. Starting in the 1820s, variations of the Declaration were issued to proclaim the rights of workers, farmers, women, and others. In 1848, for example, the Seneca Falls Convention of women 's rights advocates declared that "all men and women are created equal ''.
A key step marking the evolution of the Declaration in the nation 's consciousness is the now well - known painting Declaration of Independence by Connecticut political painter John Trumbull. It was commissioned by the United States Congress in 1817. 12 - by - 18 - foot (3.7 by 5.5 m) in size, it has hung in the United States Capitol Rotunda since 1826. It has been often reproduced, and is the visual image most associated by Americans with the Declaration.
The painting is sometimes incorrectly described as the signing of the Declaration of Independence. In fact, the painting actually shows the five - man drafting committee presenting their draft of the Declaration to the Second Continental Congress, an event that took place on June 28, 1776, and not the signing of the document, which took place later.
The painting, the figures painted from life when possible, does not contain all the signers. Some had died and images could not be located. One figure had participated in the drafting but did not sign the final document; another refused to sign. In fact the membership of the Second Continental Congress changed as time passed, and the figures in the painting were never in the same room at the same time.
It is, however, an accurate depiction of the room in the building known today as Independence Hall, the centerpiece of the Independence National Historical Park in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Trumbull visited the room, which was where the Second Continental Congress met, when researching for his painting. At the time it was the Pennsylvania State House.
The apparent contradiction between the claim that "all men are created equal '' and the existence of American slavery attracted comment when the Declaration was first published. As mentioned above, Jefferson had included a paragraph in his initial draft that strongly indicted Great Britain 's role in the slave trade, but this was deleted from the final version. Jefferson himself was a prominent Virginia slave holder, having owned hundreds of slaves. Referring to this seeming contradiction, English abolitionist Thomas Day wrote in a 1776 letter, "If there be an object truly ridiculous in nature, it is an American patriot, signing resolutions of independency with the one hand, and with the other brandishing a whip over his affrighted slaves. ''
In the 19th century, the Declaration took on a special significance for the abolitionist movement. Historian Bertram Wyatt - Brown wrote that "abolitionists tended to interpret the Declaration of Independence as a theological as well as a political document ''. Abolitionist leaders Benjamin Lundy and William Lloyd Garrison adopted the "twin rocks '' of "the Bible and the Declaration of Independence '' as the basis for their philosophies. "As long as there remains a single copy of the Declaration of Independence, or of the Bible, in our land, '' wrote Garrison, "we will not despair. '' For radical abolitionists such as Garrison, the most important part of the Declaration was its assertion of the right of revolution. Garrison called for the destruction of the government under the Constitution, and the creation of a new state dedicated to the principles of the Declaration.
The controversial question of whether to add additional slave states to the United States coincided with the growing stature of the Declaration. The first major public debate about slavery and the Declaration took place during the Missouri controversy of 1819 to 1821. Antislavery Congressmen argued that the language of the Declaration indicated that the Founding Fathers of the United States had been opposed to slavery in principle, and so new slave states should not be added to the country. Proslavery Congressmen led by Senator Nathaniel Macon of North Carolina argued that the Declaration was not a part of the Constitution and therefore had no relevance to the question.
With the antislavery movement gaining momentum, defenders of slavery such as John Randolph and John C. Calhoun found it necessary to argue that the Declaration 's assertion that "all men are created equal '' was false, or at least that it did not apply to black people. During the debate over the Kansas -- Nebraska Act in 1853, for example, Senator John Pettit of Indiana argued that the statement "all men are created equal '' was not a "self - evident truth '' but a "self - evident lie ''. Opponents of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act, including Salmon P. Chase and Benjamin Wade, defended the Declaration and what they saw as its antislavery principles.
The Declaration 's relationship to slavery was taken up in 1854 by Abraham Lincoln, a little - known former Congressman who idolized the Founding Fathers. Lincoln thought that the Declaration of Independence expressed the highest principles of the American Revolution, and that the Founding Fathers had tolerated slavery with the expectation that it would ultimately wither away. For the United States to legitimize the expansion of slavery in the Kansas - Nebraska Act, thought Lincoln, was to repudiate the principles of the Revolution. In his October 1854 Peoria speech, Lincoln said:
Nearly eighty years ago we began by declaring that all men are created equal; but now from that beginning we have run down to the other declaration, that for some men to enslave others is a "sacred right of self - government ''.... Our republican robe is soiled and trailed in the dust.... Let us repurify it. Let us re-adopt the Declaration of Independence, and with it, the practices, and policy, which harmonize with it.... If we do this, we shall not only have saved the Union: but we shall have saved it, as to make, and keep it, forever worthy of the saving.
The meaning of the Declaration was a recurring topic in the famed debates between Lincoln and Stephen Douglas in 1858. Douglas argued that the phrase "all men are created equal '' in the Declaration referred to white men only. The purpose of the Declaration, he said, had simply been to justify the independence of the United States, and not to proclaim the equality of any "inferior or degraded race ''. Lincoln, however, thought that the language of the Declaration was deliberately universal, setting a high moral standard to which the American republic should aspire. "I had thought the Declaration contemplated the progressive improvement in the condition of all men everywhere, '' he said. During the seventh and last joint debate with Steven Douglas at Alton, Illinois on October 15, 1858, Lincoln said about the declaration:
I think the authors of that notable instrument intended to include all men, but they did not mean to declare all men equal in all respects. They did not mean to say all men were equal in color, size, intellect, moral development, or social capacity. They defined with tolerable distinctness in what they did consider all men created equal -- equal in "certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. '' This they said, and this they meant. They did not mean to assert the obvious untruth that all were then actually enjoying that equality, or yet that they were about to confer it immediately upon them. In fact, they had no power to confer such a boon. They meant simply to declare the right, so that the enforcement of it might follow as fast as circumstances should permit. They meant to set up a standard maxim for free society which should be familiar to all, constantly looked to, constantly labored for, and even, though never perfectly attained, constantly approximated, and thereby constantly spreading and deepening its influence, and augmenting the happiness and value of life to all people, of all colors, everywhere.
According to Pauline Maier, Douglas 's interpretation was more historically accurate, but Lincoln 's view ultimately prevailed. "In Lincoln 's hands, '' wrote Maier, "the Declaration of Independence became first and foremost a living document '' with "a set of goals to be realized over time ''.
Like Daniel Webster, James Wilson, and Joseph Story before him, Lincoln argued that the Declaration of Independence was a founding document of the United States, and that this had important implications for interpreting the Constitution, which had been ratified more than a decade after the Declaration. The Constitution did not use the word "equality '', yet Lincoln believed that the concept that "all men are created equal '' remained a part of the nation 's founding principles. He famously expressed this belief in the opening sentence of his 1863 Gettysburg Address: "Four score and seven years ago (i.e. in 1776) our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. ''
Lincoln 's view of the Declaration became influential, seeing it as a moral guide to interpreting the Constitution. "For most people now, '' wrote Garry Wills in 1992, "the Declaration means what Lincoln told us it means, as a way of correcting the Constitution itself without overthrowing it. '' Admirers of Lincoln such as Harry V. Jaffa praised this development. Critics of Lincoln, notably Willmoore Kendall and Mel Bradford, argued that Lincoln dangerously expanded the scope of the national government and violated states ' rights by reading the Declaration into the Constitution.
In July 1848, the first woman 's rights convention, the Seneca Falls Convention, was held in Seneca Falls, New York. The convention was organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Mary Ann McClintock, and Jane Hunt. In their "Declaration of Sentiments '', patterned on the Declaration of Independence, the convention members demanded social and political equality for women. Their motto was that "All men and women are created equal '' and the convention demanded suffrage for women. The suffrage movement was supported by William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass.
The adoption of the Declaration of Independence was dramatized in the 1969 Tony Award -- winning musical 1776, and the 1972 movie of the same name, as well as in the 2008 television miniseries John Adams.
The Declaration was chosen to become the first digitized text (1971).
Since 1976 (the United States Bicentennial), Trumbull 's Declaration of Independence has been used on the back of the United States two - dollar bill.
In 1984, the Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration was dedicated in Constitution Gardens on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., where the signatures of all the original signers are carved in stone with their names, places of residence, and occupations.
The new One World Trade Center building in New York City (2014) is 1776 feet high, to symbolize the year that the Declaration of Independence was signed.
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who were the founding fathers of united states | Founding Fathers of the United States - wikipedia
The Founding Fathers of the United States led the American Revolution against the Kingdom of Great Britain. Most were descendants of colonists settled in the Thirteen Colonies in North America. George Washington is chief among them, being the Father of the Homeland (Pater Patriae).
Historian Richard B. Morris in 1973 identified the following seven figures as the key Founding Fathers: John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and George Washington. Adams, Jefferson, and Franklin were members of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence. Hamilton, Madison, and Jay were authors of The Federalist Papers, advocating ratification of the Constitution. The constitutions drafted by Jay and Adams for their respective states of New York (1777) and Massachusetts (1780) were heavily relied upon when creating language for the U.S. Constitution. Jay, Adams and Franklin negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1783) that would end the American Revolutionary War. Washington was Commander - in - Chief of the Continental Army and was President of the Constitutional Convention. All held additional important roles in the early government of the United States, with Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and Madison serving as President. Jay was the nation 's first Chief Justice, Hamilton was the first Secretary of the Treasury, and Franklin was America 's most senior diplomat, and later the governmental leader of Pennsylvania.
The term Founding Fathers is sometimes used to refer to the Signers of the embossed version of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. Signers should not be confused with the term Framers; the Framers are defined by the National Archives as those 55 individuals who were appointed to be delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention and took part in drafting the proposed Constitution of the United States. Of the 55 Framers, only 39 were signers of the Constitution. Two further groupings of Founding Fathers include: 1) those who signed the Continental Association, a trade ban and one of the colonists ' first collective volleys protesting British control and the Intolerable Acts in 1774 or 2) those who signed the Articles of Confederation, the first U.S. constitutional document.
The phrase "Founding Fathers '' is a twentieth - century appellation, coined by Warren G. Harding in 1916. Prior to, and during the 19th century, they were referred to as simply the "Fathers ''. The term has been used to describe the founders and first settlers of the original royal colonies.
The First Continental Congress met briefly in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1774, consisting of fifty - six delegates from twelve of the thirteen colonies (excluding Georgia) that became the United States of America. Among them was George Washington, who would soon be drawn out of military retirement to command the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. Also in attendance was Patrick Henry, and John Adams, who like all delegates were elected by their respective colonial assemblies. Other delegates included Samuel Adams from Massachusetts, John Dickinson from Pennsylvania and New York 's John Jay. This congress in addition to formulating appeals to the British crown, established the Continental Association to administer boycott actions against Britain.
When the Second Continental Congress convened on May 10, 1775, it essentially reconstituted the First Congress. Many of the same 56 delegates who attended the first meeting participated in the second. New arrivals included Benjamin Franklin and Robert Morris of Pennsylvania, John Hancock of Massachusetts, and John Witherspoon of New Jersey. Hancock was elected Congress President two weeks into the session when Peyton Randolph was recalled to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses. Thomas Jefferson replaced Randolph in the Virginia congressional delegation. The second Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. Witherspoon was the only active clergyman to sign the Declaration. He also signed the Articles of Confederation and attended the New Jersey (1787) convention that ratified the Federal Constitution.
The newly founded country of the United States had to create a new government to replace the British Parliament. The U.S. adopted the Articles of Confederation, a declaration that established a national government with a one - house legislature. Its ratification by all thirteen colonies gave the second Congress a new name: the Congress of the Confederation, which met from 1781 to 1789. The Constitutional Convention took place during the summer of 1787, in Philadelphia. Although the Convention was called to revise the Articles of Confederation, the intention from the outset for some including James Madison and Alexander Hamilton was to create a new frame of government rather than amending the existing one. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the Convention. The result of the Convention was the United States Constitution and the replacement of the Continental Congress with the United States Congress.
The Founding Fathers represented a cross-section of 18th - century U.S. leadership. Almost all of them were well - educated men of means who were leaders in their communities. Many were also prominent in national affairs. Virtually every one had taken part in the American Revolution; at least 29 had served in the Continental Army, most of them in positions of command. Scholars have examined the collective biography of them as well as the signers of the Declaration and the Constitution.
Many of the Founding Fathers attended or held degrees from the colonial colleges, most notably Columbia known at the time as "King 's College '', Princeton originally known as "The College of New Jersey '', Harvard College, the College of William and Mary, Yale College and University of Pennsylvania. Some had previously been home schooled or obtained early instruction from private tutors or academies. Others had studied abroad. Ironically, Benjamin Franklin who had little formal education himself would ultimately establish the College of Philadelphia based on European models (1740); "Penn '' would have the first medical school (1765) in the thirteen colonies where another Founder, Benjamin Rush would eventually teach.
With a limited number of professional schools established in the U.S., Founders also sought advanced degrees from traditional institutions in England and Scotland such as the University of Edinburgh, the University of St. Andrews, and the University of Glasgow.
Several like John Jay, James Wilson, John Williams and George Wythe were trained as lawyers through apprenticeships in the colonies while a few trained at the Inns of Court in London.
Franklin, Washington, John Williams and Henry Wisner had little formal education and were largely self - taught or learned through apprenticeship.
Some of the Founding Fathers were natives of the Thirteen Colonies.
At least nine were born outside of the Thirteen Colonies
Many of them had moved from one state to another. Eighteen had already lived, studied or worked in more than one state or colony: Baldwin, Bassett, Bedford, Davie, Dickinson, Few, Franklin, Ingersoll, Hamilton, Livingston, Alexander Martin, Luther Martin, Mercer, Gouverneur Morris, Robert Morris, Read, Sherman, and Williamson.
Several others had studied or traveled abroad.
The Founding Fathers practiced a wide range of high and middle - status occupations, and many pursued more than one career simultaneously. They did not differ dramatically from the Loyalists, except they were generally younger and less senior in their professions.
Historian Caroline Robbins in 1977 examined the status of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence and concluded:
Several of the Founding Fathers had extensive national, state, local and foreign political experience prior to the adoption of the Constitution in 1787. Some had been diplomats. Several had been members of the Continental Congress or elected President of that body.
Nearly all of the 55 Constitutional Convention delegates had some experience in colonial and state government, and the majority had held county and local offices. Those who lacked national congressional experience were Bassett, Blair, Brearly, Broom, Davie, Dayton, Alexander Martin, Luther Martin, Mason, McClurg, Paterson, Charles Pinckney, Strong, and Yates.
Franklin T. Lambert (2003) has examined the religious affiliations and beliefs of some of the Founders. Of the 55 delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention, 28 were Anglicans (in the Church of England; or Episcopalian, after the American Revolutionary War was won), 21 were Protestants, and two were Roman Catholics (D. Carroll, and Fitzsimons). Among the Protestant delegates to the Constitutional Convention, eight were Presbyterians, seven were Congregationalists, two were Lutherans, two were Dutch Reformed, and two were Methodists.
A few prominent Founding Fathers were anti-clerical Christians such as Thomas Jefferson, who constructed the Jefferson Bible, and Benjamin Franklin.
Historian Gregg L. Frazer argues that the leading Founders (Adams, Jefferson, Franklin, Wilson, Morris, Madison, Hamilton, and Washington) were neither Christians nor Deists, but rather supporters of a hybrid "theistic rationalism ''.
Many Founders deliberately avoided public discussion of their faith. Historian David L. Holmes uses evidence gleaned from letters, government documents, and second - hand accounts to identify their religious beliefs.
The founding fathers were not unified on the issue of slavery. In her study of Thomas Jefferson, historian Annette Gordon - Reed discusses this topic, "Others of the founders held slaves, but no other founder drafted the charter for freedom, '' In addition to Jefferson, George Washington, John Jay and many other of the Founding Fathers practiced slavery but were also conflicted by the institution which many saw as immoral and politically divisive.
Franklin, though he was a key founder of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society originally owned slaves whom he later manumitted. John Jay would try unsuccessfully to abolish slavery as early as 1777 in the State of New York. He nonetheless founded the New York Manumission Society in 1785, for which Hamilton became an officer. They and other members of the Society founded the African Free School in New York City, to educate the children of free blacks and slaves. It was not until Jay was governor of New York in 1798, that he signed into law a gradual abolition law; fully ending slavery as of 1827. He freed his own slaves in 1798. Alexander Hamilton opposed slavery, as his experiences in life left him very familiar with slavery and its effect on slaves and on slaveholders, although he did negotiate slave transactions for his wife 's family, the Schuylers. John Adams, Samuel Adams, and Thomas Paine never owned slaves.
Slaves and slavery are mentioned only indirectly in the 1787 Constitution. For example, Article 1, Section 2, Clause 3 prescribes that "three fifths of all other Persons '' are to be counted for the apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives and direct taxes. Additionally, in Article 4, Section 2, Clause 3, slaves are referred to as "persons held in service or labor ''. The Founding Fathers, however, did make important efforts to contain slavery. Many Northern states had adopted legislation to end or significantly reduce slavery during and after the American Revolution. In 1782 Virginia passed a manumission law that allowed slave owners to free their slaves by will or deed. As a result, thousands of slaves were manumitted in Virginia. Thomas Jefferson, in 1784, proposed to ban slavery in all the Western Territories, which failed to pass Congress by one vote. Partially following Jefferson 's plan, Congress did ban slavery in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, for lands north of the Ohio River.
The international slave trade was banned in all states except South Carolina, by 1800. Finally in 1807, President Jefferson called for and signed into law a Federally - enforced ban on the international slave trade throughout the U.S. and its territories. It became a federal crime to import or export a slave. However, the domestic slave trade was allowed, for expansion, or for diffusion of slavery into the Louisiana Territory.
In the winter and spring of 1786 -- 1787, twelve of the thirteen states chose a total of 74 delegates to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. Nineteen delegates chose not to accept election or attend the debates; for example, Patrick Henry of Virginia thought that state politics were far more interesting and important than national politics, though during the ratification controversy of 1787 -- 1788 he claimed, "I smelled a rat. '' Rhode Island did not send delegates because of its politicians ' suspicions of the Convention delegates ' motivations. As the colony was founded by Roger Williams as a sanctuary for Baptists, Rhode Island 's absence at the Convention in part explains the absence of Baptist affiliation among those who did attend. Of the 55 who did attend at some point, no more than 38 delegates showed up at one time.
Only four (Baldwin, Gilman, Jenifer, and Alexander Martin) were lifelong bachelors. Many of their spouses, like Eliza Schuyler Hamilton, Martha Washington, Abigail Adams, Sarah Livingston Jay, Dolley Madison, Mary White Morris and Catherine Alexander Duer were strong women who made significant contributions of their own to the fight for liberty.
Sherman fathered the largest family: 15 children by two wives. At least nine (Bassett, Brearly, Johnson, Mason, Paterson, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Sherman, Wilson, and Wythe) married more than once. George Washington, "The Father of our Country, '' had no biological descendants.
The National Archives and Records Administration also known as NARA, defines U.S. Founding Documents, or Charters of Freedom, as the Declaration of Independence (1776), The Constitution (1787) and the Bill of Rights (1791). These original instruments which represent the philosophy of the United States are housed in Washington, D.C. in the NARA Rotunda. The Library of Congress further identifies the Articles of Confederation, also preserved at NARA, as a primary U.S. document. The Articles of Confederation served as the first constitution of the United States until its replacement by the present Constitution on March 4, 1789.
Signatories of the Continental Association (CA), Declaration of Independence (DI), Articles of Confederation (AC), and the United States Constitution (USC)):
Subsequent events in the lives of the Founding Fathers after the adoption of the Constitution were characterized by success or failure, reflecting the abilities of these men as well as the vagaries of fate. Washington, Adams, Jefferson and Madison served in highest U.S. office of President. Jay would be appointed as Chief Justice of the United States and later elected to two terms as Governor of New York.
Seven (Fitzsimons, Gorham, Luther Martin, Mifflin, Robert Morris, Pierce, and Wilson) suffered serious financial reversals that left them in or near bankruptcy. Robert Morris spent three of the last years of his life imprisoned following bad land deals. Two, Blount and Dayton, were involved in possibly treasonous activities. Yet, as they had done before the convention, most of the group continued to render public service, particularly to the new government they had helped to create.
Many of the Founding Fathers were under 40 years old at the time of the signing of the Declaration of Independence in 1776: James Armistead Lafayette was 15, Marquis de Lafayette was 18, Alexander Hamilton was 21, Aaron Burr was 20, Gouverneur Morris and Betsy Ross were 24. The oldest were Benjamin Franklin, 70, and Samuel Whittemore, 81.
Secretary Charles Thomson lived to the age of 94. Johnson died at 92. John Adams lived to the age of 90. A few -- Franklin, Jay, Jefferson, Madison, Hugh Williamson, and George Wythe -- lived into their eighties. Approximately 16 died in their seventies, 21 in their sixties, 8 in their fifties, and 5 in their forties. Three (Alexander Hamilton, Richard Dobbs Spaight and Button Gwinnett) were killed in duels.
Friends and political adversaries John Adams and Thomas Jefferson both died on the same day -- July 4, 1826.
The last remaining founders, also called the "Last of the Romans '', lived well into the nineteenth century.
The following men and women are also recognized by many as having been founders of the United States, based upon their contributions to the formation of American nation and democracy.
Several Founding Fathers were instrumental in establishing schools and societal institutions that still exist today:
Articles and books by twenty - first century historians combined with the digitization of primary sources like handwritten letters continue to contribute to an encyclopedic body of knowledge about the Founding Fathers.
Ron Chernow won the Pulitzer Prize for his biography of George Washington. His bestselling book about Alexander Hamilton inspired the blockbuster musical of the same name.
Joseph J. Ellis -- According to Ellis, the concept of the Founding Fathers of the U.S. emerged in the 1820s as the last survivors died out. Ellis says "the founders '', or "the fathers '', comprised an aggregate of semi-sacred figures whose particular accomplishments and singular achievements were decidedly less important than their sheer presence as a powerful but faceless symbol of past greatness. For the generation of national leaders coming of age in the 1820s and 1830s -- men like Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun -- "the founders '' represented a heroic but anonymous abstraction whose long shadow fell across all followers and whose legendary accomplishments defied comparison.
We can win no laurels in a war for independence, '' Webster acknowledged in 1825. "Earlier and worthier hands have gathered them all. Nor are there places for us... (as) the founders of states. Our fathers have filled them. But there remains to us a great duty of defence and preservation.
Joanne B. Freeman Freeman 's area of expertise is the life and legacy of Alexander Hamilton as well as political culture of the revolutionary and early national eras. Freeman has documented the often opposing visions of the Founding Fathers as they tried to build a new framework for governance, "Regional distrust, personal animosity, accusation, suspicion, implication, and denouncement -- this was the tenor of national politics from the outset. ''
Annette Gordon - Reed is an American historian and Harvard Law School professor. She is noted for changing scholarship on Thomas Jefferson regarding his relationship with Sally Hemings and her children. She has studied the challenges facing the Founding Fathers particularly as it relates to their position and actions on slavery. She points out "the central dilemma at the heart of American democracy: the desire to create a society based on liberty and equality '' that yet does not extend those privileges to all. ''
Jack N. Rakove -- Thomas Jefferson
Peter S. Onuf -- Thomas Jefferson
The Founding Fathers were portrayed in the Tony Award winning musical 1776, a stage production about the debates over, and eventual adoption of, the Declaration of Independence; the popular performance was later turned into the 1972 film
More recently, several of the Founding Fathers -- Hamilton, Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Laurens and Burr -- were reimagined in Hamilton, an acclaimed production about the life of Alexander Hamilton, with music, lyrics and book by Lin - Manuel Miranda. The show was inspired by the 2004 biography Alexander Hamilton by historian Ron Chernow. The rap musical won 11 Tony Awards.
In their 2015 children 's book, The Founding Fathers author Jonah Winter and illustrator Barry Blitt categorized 14 leading patriots into two teams based on their contributions to the formation of America - the Varsity Squad (Washington, Franklin, Jefferson, John Adams, Madison, Jay, and Hamilton) and the Junior Varsity Squad (Sam Adams, Hancock, Henry, Morris, Marshall, Rush, and Paine).
President of Pennsylvania (1785 -- 1788), Ambassador to France (1779 -- 1785)
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where do the los angeles chargers play at | Los Angeles Chargers - wikipedia
American Football League (1960 -- 1969)
National Football League (1970 -- present)
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The Los Angeles Chargers are a professional American football team based in the Greater Los Angeles Area. The Chargers compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's American Football Conference (AFC) West division. The club began play in 1960 as a charter member of the American Football League (AFL), and spent its first season in Los Angeles, before moving to San Diego in 1961 to become the San Diego Chargers. The Chargers joined the NFL as result of the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970, and played their home games at Qualcomm Stadium. The return of the Chargers to Los Angeles was announced for the 2017 season, just one year after the Rams had moved back to the city from St. Louis. The Chargers will play their home games at the StubHub Center until the opening in 2020 of the Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park, which they will share with the Rams.
The Chargers won one AFL title in 1963 and reached the AFL playoffs five times and the AFL Championship four times before joining the NFL (1970) as part of the AFL -- NFL merger. In the 43 years since then, the Chargers have made 13 trips to the playoffs and four appearances in the AFC Championship game. At the end of the 1994 season, the Chargers faced the San Francisco 49ers in Super Bowl XXIX and lost, 49 -- 26. The Chargers have seven players and one coach enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio: wide receiver Lance Alworth (1962 -- 1970), defensive end Fred Dean (1975 -- 1981), quarterback Dan Fouts (1973 -- 1987), head coach - general manager Sid Gillman (1960 -- 1969, 1971), wide receiver Charlie Joiner (1976 -- 1986), offensive lineman Ron Mix (1960 -- 1969), tight end Kellen Winslow (1979 -- 1987), and linebacker Junior Seau (1990 -- 2002).
The Los Angeles Chargers were established with seven other American Football League teams in 1959. In 1960, the Chargers began AFL play in Los Angeles. The Chargers ' original owner was hotel heir Barron Hilton, son of Hilton Hotels founder Conrad Hilton.
According to the official website of the Pro Football Hall of Fame, Barron Hilton agreed after his general manager, Frank Leahy, picked the Chargers name when he purchased an AFL franchise for Los Angeles: "I liked it because they were yelling ' charge ' and sounding the bugle at Dodgers Stadium and at USC games. '' The Chargers initially considered playing at the Rose Bowl, but instead signed a lease to play at the Los Angeles Coliseum. There is also an alternative theory about a man named Gerald Courtney of Hollywood who won an all - expenses - paid trip to Mexico City and Acapulco for submitting "Chargers '' in a name - the - team contest. The Chargers only spent one season in Los Angeles before moving to San Diego in 1961. From 1961 to 1966 their home field was Balboa Stadium in Balboa Park. As of August 1967, they moved to the newly constructed Qualcomm Stadium (then named San Diego Stadium), where they played their home games until 2016.
They played ten years in the AFL before the merging of the league into the older NFL. Their only coach for the ten - year life of the AFL was Sid Gillman, a Hall of Famer who was widely recognized as a great offensive innovator. The early AFL years of the San Diego Chargers were highlighted by the outstanding play of wide receiver Lance "Bambi '' Alworth with 543 receptions for 10,266 yards in his 11 - AFL / NFL - season career. In addition he set the pro football record of consecutive games with a reception (96) during his career. With players such as Alworth, Paul Lowe, Keith Lincoln and John Hadl, the high - scoring Chargers won divisional crowns five of the league 's first six seasons and the AFL title in 1963 with a 51 -- 10 victory over the Boston Patriots. They also played defense, as indicated by their professional football record 49 pass interceptions in 1961, and featured AFL Rookie of the Year defensive end Earl Faison. The Chargers were the originators of the term "Fearsome Foursome '' to describe their all - star defensive line, anchored by Faison and Ernie Ladd (the latter also excelled in professional wrestling). The phrase was later appropriated by various NFL teams. Hilton sold the Chargers to a group headed by Eugene Klein and Sam Schulman in August 1966. The following year, the Chargers began "head to head '' competition with the older NFL with a preseason loss to the Detroit Lions. The Chargers defeated the defending Super Bowl III champion New York Jets 34 -- 27 before a record San Diego Stadium crowd of 54,042 on September 29, 1969. Alworth once again led the team in receptions with 64 and 1,003 yards with four touchdowns. The team also saw Gillman step down due to health and offensive backfield coach Charlie Waller promoted to head coach after the completion of the regular season. Gillman did remain with the club as the general manager.
In 1970, the Chargers were placed into the AFC West division after the NFL merger with the AFL. But by then, the Chargers fell on hard times; Gillman, who had returned as general manager, stepped down in 1971, and many of the Chargers players from the 1960s had already either retired or had been traded. The Chargers acquired veteran players like Deacon Jones and Johnny Unitas; however, it was at the later stages of their careers and the team struggled, placing third or fourth in the AFC West each year from 1970 to 1978. During the 1973 season, the Chargers were involved in the first major drug scandal in the NFL.
1978 was marked by the "Holy Roller '' game, or as Chargers fans call it, the "Immaculate Deception ''. It was a game - winning play executed by the Oakland Raiders against the Chargers on September 10, 1978, in San Diego at Jack Murphy Stadium. With 10 seconds left in the game, the Raiders had possession of the ball at the Chargers ' 14 - yard line, down 20 -- 14. Raiders quarterback Ken Stabler took the snap and found himself about to be sacked by Chargers linebacker Woodrow Lowe on the 24 - yard line. Stabler fumbled the ball forward, and it rolled forward towards the San Diego goal line. Running back Pete Banaszak tried to recover the ball on the 12 - yard line, but could not keep his footing, and the ball was pushed even closer to the end zone. Raiders tight end Dave Casper was the next player to reach the ball but he also could not get a hand on it. He batted and kicked the ball into the end zone, where he fell on it for the game - tying touchdown as time ran out. With the ensuing extra point by kicker Errol Mann, the Raiders won 21 -- 20. What many Chargers fans believed should have been called an incomplete pass (and possibly intentional grounding) was seen as a fumble and the rest of the play involved batting of the ball forward towards the end zone where the Raiders ultimately recovered it for a touchdown. As a result of this play, NFL rules were changed so that, in the last two minutes of a half or game, or on fourth down at any time in the game, the only offensive player allowed to advance a fumble is the player who originally fumbled. If any other offensive player recovers the fumble and advances the ball, after the play the line of scrimmage is the spot of the original fumble.
1979 marked a turning point for the Chargers franchise as The Sporting News named team general manager John Sanders NFL Executive of the Year after balloting of other NFL executives. Fouts set an NFL record with his fourth consecutive 300 - yard passing game, in a game in which he threw for 303 yards against the Raiders. Coached by Don Coryell (with an offense nicknamed "Air Coryell ''), featuring Fouts throwing to tight end Kellen Winslow and wide receivers John Jefferson and Charlie Joiner, they clinched their first playoff berth in 14 years with a 35 -- 0 victory against the New Orleans Saints. On December 17, the Chargers defeated the Denver Broncos 17 -- 7 for their first AFC West division title since the AFL - NFL merger before a national Monday Night Football television audience and their home crowd. Their time in the playoffs was short as they would lose to the Houston Oilers 17 -- 14 in the divisional round. Ron Mix became the second AFL player and second Chargers player to be named to the Pro Football Hall of Fame, during halftime of the AFC - NFC Pro Bowl.
The 1980 team saw the team trade for running back Chuck Muncie, and Fouts set a club record with 444 yards passing in the Chargers ' 44 -- 7 victory over the New York Giants. Kellen Winslow caught 10 passes for 171 yards and Chargers clinched their second straight AFC West title by defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers 26 -- 17 and finished the regular season with an 11 -- 5 record. Jefferson (1,340), Winslow (1,290), and Joiner (1,132) became the first trio on the same team to have 1,000 yards receiving in a season. The Chargers ' defense led the NFL in sacks (60) spearheaded by the frontline of 1975 Chargers ' draftees Fred Dean, Gary "Big Hands '' Johnson and Louie Kelcher. The trio, along with Leroy Jones formed a defensive frontline that was locally nicknamed Bruise Brothers. In the playoffs, they won the divisional round 20 -- 14 over the Buffalo Bills. However, they fell one game shy of Super Bowl XV in a 34 -- 27 loss to the eventual champion Raiders.
In 1981, the Chargers won their third straight AFC West title with a 10 -- 6 season. After the division titles of the 1979 and 1980 seasons, contract disputes arose and owner Klein refused to renegotiate players ' contracts. They traded wide receiver John Jefferson to the Green Bay Packers after he held out for an increase in salary but replaced him with Wes Chandler. Defensive end Dean also became involved in a holdout and was traded to the 49ers. Dean contends he was making the same amount of money as his brother - in - law who was a truck driver. Dean won UPI NFC Defensive Player of the Year (while playing in only 11 games) that same year en route to a Super Bowl victory and helped the 49ers to another Super Bowl title two years later. Dean 's loss was particularly damaging to the Chargers ' Super Bowl chances as the defense weakened afterwards, surrendering the most passing yards in the NFL in both 1981 and 1982.
In the 1981 playoffs, the Chargers outlasted the Miami Dolphins in the divisional round, 41 -- 38, in a game that became known as The Epic in Miami. The game was voted as the best game in NFL history by a panel of ESPN journalists. The temperature was 85 ° F with high humidity (29.4 ° C) at the Miami Orange Bowl, but it did not stop either team 's offense. The Chargers were led by quarterback Dan Fouts who made the Pro Bowl for the third year in a row, setting an NFL single - season record at that time of 4,802 yards and 33 touchdowns. The Dolphins were led by head coach Don Shula and featured a defense that gave up the fifth - fewest points in the NFL in the regular season.
This game set playoff records for the most points scored in a playoff game (79), the most total yards by both teams (1,036), and most passing yards by both teams (809). Chargers placekicker Rolf Benirschke eventually kicked the winning 29 - yard field goal after 13: 52 of overtime to help San Diego beat Miami, 41 -- 38. The image of an exhausted tight end Kellen Winslow, who finished the game with 13 receptions for 166 yards and a touchdown and one blocked field goal, being helped off the field by two of his Chargers teammates has been replayed countless times. Winslow was voted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1995.
However, the eventual AFC Champion Cincinnati Bengals, playing in their first AFC Championship Game, defeated the Chargers 27 -- 7 in what became known as the Freezer Bowl. The temperature of − 9 ° with a wind - chill factor of − 59 ° made this the coldest weather conditions for a title game in the history of the NFL. Chargers owner Eugene Klein tried to get the NFL and Bengals to postpone the game but he was turned down.
During the strike - shortened 1982 season, Fouts averaged what was then a record of 320 yards passing per game. (The NFL record is 342.31, set by Peyton Manning in 2013.) Highlights that season included back - to - back victories against the 1981 Super Bowl teams San Francisco (41 -- 37) and Cincinnati (50 -- 34) in which Fouts threw for over 400 yards in each game to lead the Chargers to shootout victories.
The Chargers made it back to the playoffs, but after beating the Steelers in the first round, they lost to the Dolphins 34 -- 13 in a rematch of their playoff game from the previous season. That loss began a slide for the Chargers, who from 1983 to 1991 failed to make the playoffs every season.
In 1984, Klein cut salary in preparation of selling the team, sending defensive linemen Johnson and Kelcher to San Francisco, where they would join Dean and offensive tackle Billy Shields for another 49ers championship in Super Bowl XIX. Alex Spanos purchased a majority interest in San Diego from Klein on August 1. Alex G. Spanos still owns 97 % of the team and George Pernicano owns the other 3 %. Benirschke was named "Miller Man of the Year '' and Joiner set an NFL record with his 650th pass reception in the fourth quarter of the game at Pittsburgh. In 1985 guard Ed White set an NFL record by playing in 241 NFL games, most all - time among offensive linemen. Lionel "Little Train '' James, a mere 5'6 '' and 171 pound running back, set NFL record of 2,535 all - purpose yards while also setting a record of 1,027 receiving yards by a running back.
Al Saunders was named the seventh head coach in Chargers history in 1986 following the resignation of Coryell. In 1987 Joiner retired to become receivers coach of the Chargers. The Chargers finished with an 8 -- 7 record, their first winning record since 1982, despite winding up with six straight losses. In 1988 Fouts retired after a 15 - year career in which he set seven NFL records and 42 club records, and became the NFL 's second most prolific passer of all - time with 43,040 yards. Fouts 's jersey number (14) was retired at halftime of "Dan Fouts Day '' game in San Diego.
In 1989, Dan Henning, a former Chargers quarterback, Washington Redskins assistant, and Atlanta Falcons head coach, was named the eighth head coach in Chargers history. First - year running back Marion Butts set a club record with 39 carries and a team rookie record with 176 yards in Chargers ' 20 -- 13 win in Kansas City. After a three - year stint as Director of Football Operations, Steve Ortmayer was released after the season and replaced by Bobby Beathard.
Following Henning 's three - season stint with the Chargers, Bobby Ross was hired as the ninth head coach in 1992. Additionally, the Chargers acquired quarterback Stan Humphries in a trade with the Washington Redskins. The Chargers would lose their first four games of the season and come back to become the first 0 -- 4 team to make the playoffs as they won 11 of the last 12 games and clinched the AFC West title. Ross was named NFL Coach of the Year for the Chargers ' dramatic turnaround by Pro Football Weekly. In the first round of the playoffs, the Chargers shut out the Chiefs 17 -- 0, but the Dolphins shut out the Chargers in the divisional playoffs to eliminate the Chargers. In 1993, the Chargers finished 8 -- 8 (fourth in their division).
In the 1994 season, the Chargers made their first and, so far, only Super Bowl appearance, against the 49ers in Super Bowl XXIX. They got to the Super Bowl by winning their first six regular season games, the only NFL team to do so in 1994, and finished the season 11 -- 5. Quarterback Stan Humphries and wide receiver Tony Martin combined on a 99 - yard touchdown completion to tie an NFL record during a defeat of the Seattle Seahawks, 27 -- 10. They would become the 1994 AFC West Division champions behind a defense led by linebacker Junior Seau, defensive tackles Reuben Davis and Shawn Lee, defensive end Leslie O'Neal and an offense keyed by running back Natrone Means, Humphries and Martin. The Chargers had upset victories over the Dolphins and Steelers in the AFC playoffs. Despite those two close triumphs (22 -- 21 against the Dolphins in the Divisional Round, and 17 -- 13 against the Steelers in the AFC Championship Game), the Chargers lost Super Bowl XXIX to the San Francisco 49ers by a score of 49 -- 26, who were led by quarterback Steve Young (Super Bowl MVP) and wide receiver Jerry Rice.
Despite the lopsided loss in the Super Bowl, Beathard, who traded for or drafted the bulk of the Chargers roster, and who hired coach Ross, was named the NFL 's smartest man by Sports Illustrated, and became the only general manager to lead three different teams to the Super Bowl (Chargers, Dolphins, Redskins).
The Chargers ' follow - up year in 1995 did not bring the same success of the previous season, but the team still managed to get into the playoffs with a five - game winning streak to end the season at 9 -- 7. However, in the first round, the Chargers were eliminated by the Indianapolis Colts in a 35 -- 20 defeat.
In 1996, running back Rodney Culver and his wife, Karen, were killed in the crash of ValuJet Flight 592 in the Florida Everglades. Culver was the second player in team history to die while on the active roster after David Griggs was killed in a one - car accident in Davie, Florida, 11 months earlier. In 1997, Ross and Beathard were at odds with one another, resulting in Ross and his staff being released. The Chargers selected Kevin Gilbride to become their new head coach. Gilbride, whose coaching background with the Jacksonville Jaguars and Oilers featured a more open passing attack, would mark a major change in offensive style from the ball control ground game of Ross. Beathard drafted quarterback Ryan Leaf after the Indianapolis Colts selected Peyton Manning with the first pick in the 1998 NFL Draft. The Chargers traded several players and draft choices to the Arizona Cardinals in order to move up to the second pick and select Leaf. Leaf turned out to be arguably the biggest bust in NFL history. His poor play and attitude caused his departure after the 2000 season. In 1998, the Chargers went 5 -- 11. Said safety Rodney Harrison, "If I had to go through another year like that, I 'd probably quit playing. ''
The Chargers struggled in pass protection, resulting in Humphries suffering several concussions and his retirement from the game. Gilbride was replaced by interim head coach June Jones, who was on the Chargers ' staff before the hire. Jones left the team at the end of the season to coach at the University of Hawaii and the Chargers named former Oregon State University head coach Mike Riley as their new head coach. Leaf wound up having a disappointing career with the Chargers after a great deal of controversy with both Chargers management as well as the press and his teammates. His failure to be the player the team envisioned was seen as a black mark on the franchise and is generally considered one of the worst draft / trades in the history of pro football. Quarterback Jim Harbaugh, who was acquired in a trade with the Baltimore Ravens for a conditional draft choice in 2000, became the Chargers starting quarterback. Beathard retired in April 2000 and was replaced in January 2001 by John Butler, former general manager of the Bills. From 1996 to 2003, the Chargers had eight straight seasons where they were. 500 or worse.
In 2001, Norv Turner, the former head coach of the Redskins, was named offensive coordinator by Riley. Turner installed the offense that he coached with the Dallas Cowboys under Jimmy Johnson. Turner learned the offense from Ernie Zampese, former offensive coordinator during the Coryell era, while the two were on the Los Angeles Rams coaching staff. The Chargers signed Heisman Trophy winner free agent quarterback Doug Flutie, formerly with the Bills, and traded the team 's first overall selection in the 2001 NFL Draft to the Atlanta Falcons for their first - round selection (5th overall) and third - round selection in the same draft. In addition the Chargers obtained wide receiver - kick returner Tim Dwight and the Falcons ' second - round draft selection in the 2002 NFL Draft. The Chargers used that selection in the 2001 draft to select Texas Christian University running back LaDainian Tomlinson and their own first pick in the second round to select Purdue University quarterback Drew Brees.
Hired as a replacement to Riley, Marty Schottenheimer 's Chargers squad opened the 2002 season with four - straight victories, making him the only coach in team history to win his first four games. Butler would succumb to cancer after a nine - month struggle in April 2003. Replacing Butler was A.J. Smith, who was named Executive Vice President - General Manager, replacing his close friend. Smith and Butler had worked together with the Bills, playing key roles with Buffalo 's Super Bowl teams. In 2003, the Chargers traded Seau to the Dolphins for a draft pick in 2004 NFL Draft. Seau was selected to 2003 Pro Bowl, his 12th Pro Bowl selection of his career, and in his final season with the Chargers, he was chosen by teammates as the recipient of the Emil Karas Award as the team 's Most Inspirational Player. Also in 2003, Tomlinson accumulated 195 total yards from scrimmage in a late - season game against the Packers to raise his season total to 2,011 and became the first player in team history and the eighth player in NFL history to record consecutive 2,000 - yard seasons. Tomlinson also became the first player in NFL history to rush for 1,000 yards and catch 100 passes in the same season.
The Chargers coveted Eli Manning and wanted to select him with their first round pick, which was also the first overall pick of the draft. However, after Eli Manning indicated before the draft that he would not sign with the San Diego Chargers, they were forced to adjust their plans. Philip Rivers was their first alternative to Manning because the Chargers head coach at the time, Marty Schottenheimer, had coached Rivers at the Senior Bowl and he liked what he saw from Rivers. The Chargers agreed to a trade on draft day with the New York Giants. Manning was selected by the San Diego Chargers then later in the draft traded for Rivers, selected with the fourth pick by the Giants. The Chargers also received draft picks from the Giants that were used to select future Pro Bowlers Shawne Merriman and Nate Kaeding. Rivers was one of seventeen quarterbacks taken in the 2004 NFL Draft along with Ben Roethlisberger, Eli Manning, and Matt Schaub. Rivers, Roethlisberger, Schaub and Manning have been voted to the Pro Bowl since becoming starters, none had produced a season with a losing record until Schaub in 2010, but Roethlisberger and Manning both have won two Super Bowls. They have been compared favorably to the Quarterback class of 1983, which included Hall of Fame quarterbacks John Elway (1st pick), Jim Kelly (14th), and Dan Marino (27th).
In August 2004, Rivers signed a six - year, $40.5 million contract that included $14.5 million in signing bonuses. However, due to a protracted contract negotiation, Rivers only reported to the team during the last week of training camp, and incumbent Drew Brees retained his starting job. After the starting quarterback switch, it was almost certain Brees ' days as the Chargers ' starting QB were over. However, Rivers held out nearly all of training camp, and Brees remained the starter throughout the 2004 season, where he started 15 games and led the team to a 12 - 4 regular season record. Brees posted spectacular numbers, completing 65.5 % of his passes for 3,159 yards, with 27 touchdowns to only 7 interceptions, giving him a 104.8 passer rating. The Chargers won the AFC West and Brees was selected to the 2004 Pro Bowl. He was named 2004 NFL Comeback Player of the Year.
Marty Schottenheimer was named NFL Coach of the Year for the 2004 NFL season. He led the team to a playoff appearance, his 12th as a head coach. However, it resulted in a disappointing loss to the underdog New York Jets in overtime in 2005.
During the 2005 NFL Draft, the Chargers tried to get some key rookies that would help carry the momentum from their mostly successful 2004 -- 05 run. They used their first pick on LB Shawne "Lights Out '' Merriman from the University of Maryland. Then, they used their next pick on DT Luis Castillo from Northwestern University. Their other choices were WR Vincent Jackson from Northern Colorado, RB Darren Sproles from Kansas State, OT Wesley Britt from University of Alabama, OT Wes Sims from Oklahoma University, and Center Scott Mruczkowski from Bowling Green State.
The Chargers got off to a rough start in their 2005 campaign, losing a close one to the Dallas Cowboys in their Week 1 home - opener (28 -- 24) and then they lost on the road to their AFC West rival, the Denver Broncos (20 -- 17). It was n't until a Week 3 home game on Sunday night that they got their first win of the season, when Eli Manning and the New York Giants got "shocked to the system '' as LaDainian Tomlinson had one of the greatest games of his career. He got 220 total yards, had 3 rushing touchdowns, and threw for a touchdown as he helped the Chargers win 45 -- 23.
A week later, they were able to build off their win by not only beating the two - time defending champion New England Patriots 41 -- 17, but also ending the Pats ' 21 - game winning streak at home. In their Week 5 Monday Night home game against the Pittsburgh Steelers, the Chargers wore their throw - back uniforms during this season (they had also worn them during the 1994 season). The Steelers held on to win with a 40 - yard field goal by Jeff Reed (24 -- 22). The Chargers rebounded on the road against their division rival Oakland Raiders (27 -- 14). In their Week 7 road trip to Philadelphia, they hoped to build off their win against the Eagles. Late in the game, with the Chargers leading 17 -- 13, the Chargers tried to go for a field goal to put their lead well out of reach, but it got blocked and Eagles DB Matt Ware returned it 65 yards for the game - winning touchdown and the Chargers fourth loss of the season.
After going 3 -- 4, the Chargers turned things around as they began a five - game winning streak. They won at home against division - rival Kansas City Chiefs (28 -- 20) and on the road against the New York Jets (31 -- 26). Coming off their Week 10 bye, they went home and wore their throw - back uniforms again. This time, it was a dominating performance as the Chargers man - handled the Buffalo Bills, 48 -- 10. Then, they went on the road and won a close match against the Washington Redskins (23 -- 17 in OT) and then they swept the Oakland Raiders at home by a score of 34 -- 10.
The Chargers were 8 -- 5, coming off a 23 -- 21 loss to the Miami Dolphins. On December 18, the Chargers beat the undefeated Indianapolis Colts 26 -- 17, snapping a 13 -- 0 winning streak. However, despite a record of 9 -- 6, they were officially eliminated from AFC playoff contention in 2005 after a 20 -- 7 loss to the Kansas City Chiefs the following Saturday. The Chargers lost their final game of the season by a score of 23 -- 7 to the AFC West champion Denver Broncos to finish with a record of 9 -- 7.
The Chargers delivered an impressive performance in 2006, losing only to the Ravens and Chiefs; they finished 14 -- 2 which secured them the # 1 AFC seed in the playoffs. However, they lost 24 - 21 to the New England Patriots in the divisional round. Following the 2006 season, they replaced Schottenheimer with new head coach Norv Turner. In 2007, they went 11 - 5, beating the Tennessee Titans and the defending champion Indianapolis Colts to reach the AFC title game. However, they fell to the Patriots for the second year in a row. In 2008, the Chargers dropped to 8 -- 8, but as the AFC West was unusually weak that year, they still managed to win the division title. Defeating the Colts in the wild card round, they lost to the Pittsburgh Steelers in the divisional round.
San Diego began the 2009 season 2 -- 3. After losing to the Broncos on Monday night, they began an unbroken winning streak for the rest of the season, which included defeating the entire NFC East. In Week 11, they avenged their earlier loss against the Broncos by inflicting a 32 -- 3 rout on them. The next game saw them beat a 1 -- 11 Cleveland Browns squad 30 - 23, in which LaDainian Tomlinson broke Hall of Famer Jim Brown 's rushing record and was congratulated by him afterwards. The Chargers secured another division title, the # 2 AFC seed, and looked to be a near shoo - in for the Super Bowl. However, the team 's postseason futility continued. Hosting the New York Jets on January 17, 2010, they endured an upset defeat, where, despite an early lead, were unable to overcome the strong Jets ' defense. Kicker Nate Kaeding also missed three field goal and PAT attempts, which resulted in the Chargers losing 17 -- 14.
The 2010 season was the 1st season without LaDainian Tomlinson since 2000 (Tomlinson was let go by management due to an oversized contract relative to production and other issues; he went on to lead the Jets in rushing with 914 yards & tied for 3rd in receptions with 52). The 2010 campaign started off slowly again, this time 2 -- 5 (including losses to some of the worst teams in football at the time -- the Kansas City Chiefs, the Oakland Raiders, the Seattle Seahawks and the St. Louis Rams). The losses were due to turnovers & mental mistakes by young players on special teams allowing blocked punts & kick / punt return touchdowns. The loss to Oakland ended their 13 - game winning streak against the Raiders since their last loss on September 28, 2003. The Chargers then went on another second half run with four straight wins but this time instead of keeping the streak going the entire second half they had a big let down losing at home to the Raiders again, this time 28 -- 13 (ending their shared NFL record, with the Dolphins, of 18 straight wins in December). Despite the loss, they still had a chance to win their 5th straight AFC West title, tying the Raiders, but they had another bad loss at the Bengals 34 -- 20 ending their chances. The Chargers beat Denver to end the season with a 9 -- 7 record & out of the playoffs for the first time since 2005. They finished the season as the 8th team in NFL history to rank # 1 in overall offense (395.6 yards / game), and overall defense (271.6 yards / game), and became only the 2nd of those teams to not make the playoffs (1953 Eagles 7 -- 4 -- 1). They were second to the Colts in passing yards per game (282.4), second to the Patriots in points scored per game (27.6), 1st in passing yards allowed per game (177.8), 4th in rushing yards allowed per game (93.8), and tied for 2nd in sacks (47). On the negative stat sheet, they gave up the most punt return yards per game (18.9) & had 29 turnovers. Philip Rivers had another great season with a career - high 4,710 yards (# 1 in the NFL), 294 yards passing per game (tied for 1st with Manning), 66 % completion pct. (third to Brees & Manning), 30 TD 's, only 13 INT 's & a 101.8 passer rating (second to Brady). Mike Tolbert 11 rushing TD 's & Antonio Gates 10 receiving TD 's were among the league leaders in TD 's scored. On defense, Shaun Phillips ' 11 sacks were in the top 10.
With the special teams failure of the 2010 season campaign, the Chargers hoped to rebound with a strong performance to start the season, and a way to overcome slow starts.
The Chargers started off the 2011 season with a 4 -- 1 campaign, with their only loss to the New England Patriots. From that point on, however, the Chargers began a six - game skid with losses to the Jets, Chiefs, Packers, Raiders, Bears, and Broncos, with the first four by only a score and against Denver in overtime. Injuries to both the offensive and the defensive line hit the Chargers hard. But finally on December 5, 2011, the Chargers got their first win in over a month against the Jacksonville Jaguars, beating the also - struggling team. The Chargers then began a three - game winning streak most notably beating the Ravens by more than any team has beat them that season. However, the Chargers were beaten, 38 -- 10, by the Detroit Lions to drop their record to 7 -- 8 and eliminate the possibility of being in the playoffs. After a 38 -- 26 victory over the Raiders in week 17, the Chargers finished at 8 -- 8 and in a numerical tie for first place in the AFC West along with Oakland and Denver. However, the Chargers were beaten out by Denver for the Division Title via tie - breaker. After missing the playoffs for the third straight season in 2012, the Chargers fired general manager Smith and head coach Turner.
The Chargers made offseason changes including a new General Manager, Tom Telesco, and head coach, Mike McCoy, the former offensive coordinator for the Denver Broncos. On January 9, 2013, the Chargers announced that Tom Telesco, former Vice President of Football Operations with the Indianapolis Colts, would take over as General Manager following the firing of A.J. Smith. On January 15, 2013, Broncos offensive coordinator, Mike McCoy, was hired as the new head coach and Ken Whisenhunt as offensive coordinator.
The Chargers finished the 2013 season 9 - 7 and made the playoffs for the first time since 2009. They entered the playoffs as the sixth seed. On January 5, 2014, the Chargers defeated the Cincinnati Bengals at Paul Brown Stadium (27 - 10) to advance to the AFC Divisional Playoff Round. The Chargers then lost to the Denver Broncos at Sports Authority Field at Mile High the following Sunday, January 12, 2014 (24 - 17).
After starting the season strongly, including a five - win run in September and October, the Chargers were beset by a string of injuries to key players, and eventually finished the season at 9 - 7. In contrast to 2013, the record was not enough to make the playoffs. The Chargers began the season 5 -- 1, winning five straight after losing their season opener. It was followed by a three - game losing streak, and they finished 4 -- 4 in the second half. They won just two of their final five games, coming back from double - digit fourth quarter deficits twice to remain in playoff contention. They lost the final game of the season when a win would have secured a playoff berth. In three of their last four games, and five of their last eight, the Chargers did not score more than one touchdown. Compared to 2013, the offense dropped in points (from 12th in the league to 17th), yards (5th to 18th), first downs (3rd to 15th), net yards per pass (2nd to 8th), rushing yards (13th to 30) and yards per rush (21st to 31st). It was the second time in three years the team finished second - to - last in yards per carry. San Diego was just 2 -- 4 against teams in their division in the AFC West, and were swept by both the Denver Broncos and the Kansas City Chiefs. It was their worst intradivision record since they were 1 -- 5 in 2003. The Chargers were only 3 -- 6 against teams with winning records. They matched their 9 -- 7 record from 2013, but missed the playoffs for the fourth time in five seasons.
During the season, the Chargers, the St. Louis Rams, and the Oakland Raiders all intimated they might apply for relocation to Los Angeles at the end of the season. The Chargers announced in December 2014 that they would not be seeking to relocate for the 2015 season, followed by an announcement from the NFL that no team would relocate to L.A. until the 2016 season at the earliest.
Controversy filled the 2015 offseason, as attorney and team spokesperson Mark Fabiani continually bashed the local San Diego city government 's efforts to negotiate a replacement for Qualcomm Stadium. When then - St. Louis Rams owner Stan Kroenke announced in January 2015 his intention to build a new stadium in Inglewood, California, the Chargers felt pressured to announce their own Los Angeles plan to preserve what they claimed was "25 percent of their fan base '' in the affluent Los Angeles and Orange County areas. In February 2015, the team announced a stadium proposal in Carson, California, in partnership with the Oakland Raiders, their AFC West divisional rivals.
The 2015 season started off with a win against the Detroit Lions at home. The Chargers lost to the Cincinnati Bengals and Minnesota Vikings on the road before defeating the Cleveland Browns on a last second field goal. Following their 2 -- 2 start, the Chargers lost their next six games, dropping to 2 -- 8. In their six straight losses, they lost heartbreakers to the Pittsburgh Steelers, Green Bay Packers, Baltimore Ravens and the Chicago Bears, as well as sound defeats by both, division rivals, the Oakland Raiders and the Kansas City Chiefs. They finally broke their losing streak by defeating the Jacksonville Jaguars on the road, bringing their record to 3 -- 8, in last place in the AFC West and 3rd worst in the American Football Conference (one game ahead of both the Browns and the Tennessee Titans). They are also tied for the third worst record in the National Football League. They then proceeded to beat the Miami Dolphins in Week 14 winning 30 -- 14. They finished the season 4 -- 12.
The day following the conclusion of the 2015 regular season, the Chargers, Rams, and Raiders all filed to relocate to Los Angeles. On January 12, 2016, the NFL owners voted 30 -- 2 to allow the Rams to return to Los Angeles and approved the Inglewood stadium project over the Carson project. The Chargers were given a one - year approval to relocate, conditioned on negotiating a lease agreement with the Rams or an agreement to partner with the Rams on the new stadium construction.
On January 14, 2016, the team filed paperwork for official trademark protection of the term "Los Angeles Chargers '' for the purposes of running and marketing a professional football franchise. After two weeks of negotiation, the Chargers and Rams came to an agreement in principle on sharing the planned Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park on January 29, 2016. The Chargers would contribute a $200 million stadium loan from the NFL and personal seat license fees to the construction costs and would pay $1 per year in rent to the Rams. The Chargers had continued preliminary work on a ballot initiative for public approval on a new facility. On November 8, 2016, Measure C was voted down (57 % opposed over 43 % in support). On December 14, 2016, at an owners ' meeting, the terms of the Chargers and Rams lease agreement, as well as the team 's debt ceiling were approved thus taking the first steps for a possible relocation to Los Angeles in 2017.
Spanos announced the relocation in a controversial letter to San Diego Chargers fans posted to the team 's official site on January 12, 2017. The team will play as the Los Angeles Chargers starting in the 2017 season at StubHub Center in Carson, California, although the stadium seats well below the 50,000 the minimum that the NFL set even for temporary homes following the 1970 merger. The current seating for their temporary home stands at seating for 30,000 fans and is shared by the MLS soccer team, LA Galaxy. This will serve as the Chargers temporary home field until they join the Rams at the new stadium in Inglewood.
With the relocation announcement, the Chargers unveiled a new alternate logo incorporating the letters "LA '' with a lightning bolt. The logo was immediately widely ridiculed, in part for its resemblance to the Los Angeles Dodgers logo, by fans, the media, and even other professional sports franchises. The team tried to diffuse the controversy by changing the color scheme before scrapping it altogether after two days.
Reaction to the relocation itself has not been without controversy. Los Angeles Times columnist Bill Plaschke welcomed the team to town by writing "We. Do n't. Want. You. '' At a game at the Staples Center between the Los Angeles Clippers and Lakers, the Chargers ' regular logo was shown on a scoreboard and was "booed heartily ''. Chargers tight end Jeff Cumberland was also "jeered '' by the crowd when featured on the big screen.
One week after the move from San Diego to Los Angeles was announced, ESPN 's Adam Schefter reported that the other NFL owners were "angered '' by the decision, and that "the NFL wants the Chargers to move back, though nobody believes that possibility is realistic. ''
On January 13, the Chargers fired defensive coordinator John Pagano. It took the team only one week to find a replacement for John Pagano, as they hired Gus Bradley on January 20. Gus Bradley was formerly the head coach for the Jacksonville Jaguars, and before landing that head coaching job was the defensive coordinator for the Seattle Seahawks. The Chargers also announced they had hired Anthony Lynn to be their next head coach.
Except for color changes, the Chargers have basically used the logo of an arc - shaped lightning bolt since the team debuted in 1960. During its period in the AFL, the club also used a shield logo that featured a horsehead, a lightning bolt, and the word "Chargers ''.
From 1960 to 1973, the colors consisted of various shades of Electric blue ("powder '' blue, but technically called Collegiate blue) or white jerseys, both with gold lightning bolts on the shoulders. The helmets were white and had both the arc - shaped lightning bolt logo, in gold or navy depending on the year, and the player 's number. At first, the team wore white pants before switching to gold in 1966. In 1973, the numerals on the blue jerseys changed from white to gold.
In 1974, the sky blue was changed to dark royal blue. The helmet was also changed to dark blue and the players ' numbers were removed. Additionally, the face masks became yellow, thus making them one of the first teams in the NFL (with the Kansas City Chiefs) to use a facemask color other than the then - predominant grey. From 1978 through 1983, the Chargers wore their white jerseys at home, coinciding with the hiring of coach Don Coryell -- when Joe Gibbs, a Coryell assistant in 1979 -- 80, became head coach of the Washington Redskins in 1981, he did the same, and white at home became a Redskins staple through 2007 -- but Coryell switched the Chargers to their blue jerseys at home starting in 1984. With the exception of the 1991 season and other sporadic home games since, San Diego wears its blue jerseys at home.
In 1985, the Chargers started using navy blue jerseys and returned to wearing white pants. The team 's uniform design was next revamped in 1988. It featured an even darker shade of navy blue. The lightning bolts on the jerseys and helmets were white, with navy interior trim and gold outlining. In 1990, the team started to wear navy pants with their white jerseys. From 1988 to 1991, the team displayed stripes down the pants rather than lightning bolts. The Chargers went with all - white combinations in 1997 and 2001, only to have the blue pants make a comeback. On October 27, 2003, the Chargers wore their navy pants with their navy jersey for a Monday Night Football game versus the Miami Dolphins that was played at Sun Devil Stadium, then the home of the Arizona Cardinals, due to wildfires in southern California. This remains the only game in which the Chargers have worn the all - dark combination.
From the late 1980s to 2000, the Chargers wore white at home during some preseason games and dark for regular season games. In 2001, the Chargers started wearing their dark uniforms for preseason games and white uniforms in September home games due to the heat before switching back to dark in October.
In March 2007, the Chargers unveiled their first uniform redesign since 1988, on the team 's official website. The team formally unveiled this new uniform set, which mixes old and new styles, in a private team - only event. Navy blue remains the primary color on the home jersey, but the familiar lightning bolt was reverted to gold, and now has navy outlining and powder blue interior trim. The latter color is a nod to the 1960s uniforms. The redesigned lightning bolt was moved to the sides of the shoulders from the top, and includes a new numbering font and word mark in white, with gold outlining and powder blue interior trim. The pants also have a redesigned lightning bolt in gold, with powder blue trim on a navy stripe. Additionally, the team pays tribute to other uniform features from their history by wearing a metallic white helmet, with a navy face mask, the newly revamped bolt in gold with navy and powder blue trim, and white pants. The road white jerseys with navy pants, as well as the alternate powder blue jerseys with white pants, were also redesigned with the new scheme.
From 2002 to 2006, the Chargers used the early - 1960s powder blue uniforms as alternate jerseys, which many football fans (both of the Chargers and of other teams) clamored for the team to bring back full - time.
Since 2007, the Chargers have worn the alternate powder blue jerseys twice per season. The alternate powder blue jerseys have also been worn in a playoff game against the Indianapolis Colts (2008 playoffs).
In 2009, in honor of their 50th anniversary as one of the eight original AFL teams, the Chargers wore their 1963 throwback uniforms for three games.
For the 2013 season, the Chargers made minor tweaks to their current uniforms. These include a two - tone nameplate (gold with powder blue trim on home jersey, navy with gold trim on away jersey, and white with navy trim on alternate jersey), collars matching the color of the jersey, and the addition of a gold stripe on the socks.
The Chargers wear their white jerseys for home games early in the regular season due to higher summer temperatures.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Practice squad
Roster updated September 16, 2017 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active, 10 Inactive, 9 Practice squad
The Chargers currently have four retired numbers: # 14 (Dan Fouts), # 19 (Lance Alworth), # 21 (LaDainian Tomlinson) and # 55 (Junior Seau). As of 2010, the Chargers ' policy was to have the Chargers Hall of Fame committee evaluate candidates for a player 's number to retire after the player has retired from the league after five years, Seau was the only exception to this policy. The committee consists of Chargers Executive Vice President Alex Spanos, Chargers public relations director Bill Johnston, San Diego Hall of Champions founder Bob Breitbard, and the presidents of the San Diego Sports Commission and the Chargers Backers Fan Club. There are few recognized guidelines in sports regarding retiring numbers, and the NFL has no specific league policy. "You have to have enough numbers for players to wear '', said NFL spokesman Greg Aiello. The Chargers have rarely retired numbers. The San Diego Union - Tribune wrote, "The (Chargers) tend to honor their heritage haphazardly. ''
The Chargers created their Hall of Fame in 1976. The members of the Hall of Fame are honored at the Chargers Ring of Honor, founded in 2000 and viewable above the visiting team 's sideline of Qualcomm Stadium on the press level. Eligible candidates must have been retired for at least four seasons. Selections are made by a five - member committee chaired by Dean Spanos, Chargers vice-chairman. As of 1992, other committee members included Bob Breitbard, founder of the San Diego Hall of Champions; Ron Fowler, president of the Greater San Diego Sports Association; Jane Rappoport, president of the Charger Backers; and Bill Johnston, the team 's director of public relations. The Chargers in 2012 allowed fans to vote for the newest member.
The Chargers announced their 50th Anniversary Team in 2009 to honor the top players and coaches in the team 's history. The Chargers were founded in 1959. The team included 53 players and coaches selected from 103 nominees. The Chargers originally stated that only 50 members would be selected. Online voting by fans accounted for 50 % of the voting results; votes from Chargers Hall of Famers and five members of the local media made up for the other 50 %. Over 400,000 votes were cast online. Dan Fouts and LaDainian Tomlinson received the first and second most votes, respectively. The team features 7 Pro Football Hall of Fame members and 11 players that were active on the 2009 Chargers team.
Alworth, Mix, Hadl, Joiner, Coryell, Gillman, Garrison, Fouts, White, Winslow, Faison, Benirschke, Lincoln, Washington, Humphries, Ladd and Wilkerson are also members of the San Diego Hall of Champions, which is open to athletes from the San Diego area as well as those who played for San Diego - based professional and collegiate teams.
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The Chargers ' flagship station is KFI 640am in Los Angeles, commonly known as "KFI AM 640 '' with daily coverage and special programming on KLAC / 570. Play - by - play man Matt "Money '' Smith and former Chargers former offensive lineman Nick Hardwick comprise the broadcast team, with KLSD afternoon co-host Mike Costa serving as sideline reporter. Past Chargers radio broadcasters have included Josh Lewin, Ralph Lawler, Stu Nahan, Tom Kelly, Lee "Hacksaw '' Hamilton, Dan Rowe, Ted Leitner, and Hank Bauer. Bauer served seventeen seasons (1998 -- 2014) as the radio color analyst; however, the Chargers and then flagship KIOZ decided not to renew his contract, and was replaced by Conway starting with the 2015 season. As of 2014, the Chargers also stream their radio broadcasts on their official mobile application (through iOS and Android devices) as well as on their website.
Most preseason games are televised on KABC - TV and KAZA - TV in Los Angeles and KFMB - TV in San Diego, KCBS - TV carry the majority of the team 's regular season games; in 2015, Spero Dedes and Dan Fouts called the team 's preseason telecasts. Games in which the Chargers host an NFC team on Sunday afternoons are aired over KTTV in Los Angeles and KSWB in San Diego, both Fox stations; if a Sunday night game is televised, KNBC in Los Angeles and KNSD in San Diego will air the games, through parent network NBC 's Sunday Night Football coverage. KABC and KFMB are also the designated local simulcasters of the Chargers ' appearances on either ESPN 's Monday Night Football or NFL Network 's Thursday Night Football games.
Dennis Packer, the public address announcer of all USC football games at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, serves as the public address announcer of all Chargers home games at StubHub Center. Packer replaced legendary P.A. announcer Bruce Binkowski, who went on to become the executive director of the Holiday and Poinsettia Bowl games, which are played at their former home, Qualcomm Stadium.
With the Chargers move to Los Angeles in 2017, the team became a beneficiary of league scheduling policies. Both the Chargers and the Los Angeles Rams share the Los Angeles market, which is on the West Coast of the United States. This means that the Chargers can not play home games, road division games against the Denver Broncos or Oakland Raiders, or interconference road games against the NFC West (in seasons that the AFC West and NFC West meet in interconference play) in the early 10: 00 a.m. Pacific time slot. In addition, they can not play interconference home games at the same time or network as the Rams. As a result, both teams generally will have more limited scheduling options, and will also benefit by receiving more prime - time games than usual (click here for further information). Thus, regardless of the previous season 's record, the Chargers will receive a disproportionate number of Sunday Night, Monday Night and / or Thursday Night games, compared to the rest of the league.
Chargers Radio Network Chargers Finalize 2017 Broadcast Team and Station Affiliates
The Chargers ' fight song, "San Diego Super Chargers '', was recorded in 1979 at the height of the team 's success with Air Coryell, and has a distinctly disco sound. The team under then - new owner Alex Spanos replaced the song in 1989 with a non-disco cover version, but the original version was revived in 2002. The team plays this song at home games after Chargers scores and victories. From time to time during highlights of NFL PrimeTime, ESPN 's Chris Berman and Tom Jackson would briefly sing the first line of the song 's chorus.
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rage against the machine take the power back meaning | Rage Against the Machine (demo album) - wikipedia
Rage Against the Machine (also known as American Composite) is the original demo tape by American rock band Rage Against the Machine, released in December 1991. The 12 - track tape was recorded at Sunbirth Studio in Los Angeles, California after drummer Brad Wilk joined the band, but before they had played their first live show. When the band began performing live shows they sold the tape for $5, eventually selling approximately 5,000 copies. Shortly thereafter, the band was signed to a record deal with Epic Records on the strength of the demo 's success.
As well as being sold at early live shows, the demo tape was sent to a number of record companies to showcase the band. Atlantic Records was sent one and produced a number of copies which the label sold under its own name. The band later discovered this but decided not to take action. The Atlantic Records issued cassette tape features an entirely different cover than the band 's self - released tape, with an artistic rendering of a man with a distorted and zippered face and the band 's Rage Against the Machine moniker made apparently of lettering taken from different newspaper headlines.
7 of the 12 songs on the demo tape were included on the band 's eponymous debut album, with only 5 songs omitted: "Darkness of Greed '', "Clear the Lane '', "Mindset 's a Threat '', "Auto Logic '', and "The Narrows ''. Of the 5 omitted, 2 were eventually included as B - sides, with the remaining 3 never seeing an official release. Several songs on the demo are nearly identical to the versions appearing on the debut album, but others have noticeable differences; the tempo of "Take the Power Back '' on the demo, for example, is much slower and has a different final verse. The record is notable for the first appearance of the song "Bullet in the Head '', which became a hit when reissued as a single later in the year after being transferred intact (with re-recorded vocals for the verses only) from the demo to the album.
The song "Darkness of Greed '' hails back to vocalist de la Rocha 's previous band Inside Out, which broke up mid-1991. Inside Out performed the song on many occasions, and several RoIOs exist of those performances. (RATM later re-recorded the song for The Crow soundtrack.) Another significant indicator of Inside Out 's influence on RATM 's initial direction is the fact the name "Rage Against the Machine '' is also the title of an Inside Out song.
The main riff from "The Narrows '' would later be reused as the main riff for "Fistful of Steel '' and parts of "Mindset 's a Threat '' would later become a part of "Wake Up '' and are present in "Freedom '' and in the solo on "Bullet in the Head ''. The main riff for "Clear the Lane '' is nearly identical to that used on their 2000 cover of The Rolling Stones ' "Street Fighting Man ''.
The songs "Darkness of Greed '' and "Clear the Lane '' were both digitally remastered and included as B - sides on the "Killing in the Name '' single and have both been reissued on singles and promos many times since.
The artwork features images from a newspaper 's stockmarket section with a single match taped to the inlay card. The statement, "No samples, keyboards or synthesizers used in the making of this recording '', can be found on the cover, and the band also refer to themselves as "Guilty Parties '' as they did on each subsequent original studio album.
The songs on the demo are as follows:
Sometime after their debut CD was released, an unofficial white label 33 RPM 7 '' vinyl was produced, simply titled Rage Against the Machine; it featured 3 tracks from the demo tape.
Both catalog numbers are etched into both sides; RELAPSE - 3 L - 41056 appears as RELAPSE - 3 L - 41056 - X on the B - side. A paper sleeve shows a xeroxed image of the band name and a portion of the debut CD 's front cover; backside has track titles and newspaper clip images, reminiscent of the demo tape artwork. Some copies have the band 's name in all capital letters ink - stamped on the white label.
This is apparently a Japanese - issued fan club pressing.
The versions of the B - sides are, in fact, the original rough demo productions and not the remastered versions previously appearing on the "Killing in the Name '' single.
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how much wood can a woodchuck chuck tongue twister | How much wood would a woodchuck chuck - wikipedia
How much wood could a woodchuck chuck is an American English - language tongue - twister. The woodchuck from the Algonquian word "wejack '' is a kind of marmot regionally called a groundhog. The complete beginning of the tongue - twister usually goes: "How much wood would a woodchuck chuck if a woodchuck could chuck wood? '' The tongue - twister relies primarily on alliteration to achieve its effects, with five "w '' sounds interspersed among five "ch '' sounds.
The traditional "response '' to the question is: "A woodchuck would chuck as much wood as a woodchuck could chuck if a woodchuck could chuck wood ''. This answer is considered nonsensical for being a tautology.
A 1957 Associated Press piece refers to the question as "a riddle which beats the Sphinx, since it 's still unanswered ''. A more concrete answer was published by the Associated Press in 1988, which reported that a New York fish and wildlife technician named Richard Thomas had calculated the volume of dirt in a typical 25 -- 30 - foot (7.6 -- 9.1 m) long woodchuck burrow and had determined that if the woodchuck had moved an equivalent volume of wood, it could move "about 700 pounds (320 kg) on a good day, with the wind at his back ''. Another study, which considered "chuck '' to be the opposite of upchucking, determined that a woodchuck could ingest 361.9237001 cm (22.08593926 cu in) of wood per day.
Another proposed response comes from the parody - filled video game Monkey Island 2: LeChuck 's Revenge, where the protagonist asks a carpenter the question and gets the response: "A woodchuck would chuck no amount of wood since a woodchuck ca n't chuck wood. ''
The origin of the phrase is from a 1902 song "The Woodchuck Song '', written by Robert Hobart Davis for Fay Templeton in the musical The Runaways. the lyrics became better known in a 1904 version of the song written by Theodore Morse, with a chorus of "How much wood would a woodchuck chuck if a woodchuck could chuck wood? '', which was recorded by Ragtime Roberts, in 1904.
The tongue - twister is documented as "folklore '' in 1972 at Farmington, Michigan. It is used in the title of Werner Herzog 's 1976 film How Much Wood Would a Woodchuck Chuck, a documentation of the World Livestock Auctioneer Championship in New Holland, Pennsylvania.
The woodchuck is also known as a groundhog, leading to the alternate version How much ground could a groundhog hog if a groundhog could hog ground?
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who was the only survivor of the alamo | List of Texian survivors of the battle of the Alamo - wikipedia
When the Battle of the Alamo ended at approximately 6: 30 a.m. on March 6, 1836, fewer than fifty of the almost 250 Texians who had occupied the Alamo Mission in San Antonio, Texas, were alive. The conflict, a part of the Texas Revolution, was the first step in Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna 's attempt to retake the province of Texas after an insurgent army of Texian settlers and adventurers from the United States had driven out all Mexican troops the previous year. As part of his preparations for marching on Texas, in late December 1835 Santa Anna had convinced the Mexican Congress to pass a resolution that all "foreigners landing on the coast of the Republic or invading its territory by land, armed, and with the intent of attacking our country, will be deemed pirates '' and subject to immediate execution.
Santa Anna led an army to San Antonio de Bexar, arriving on February 23, 1836, and immediately initiating a siege of the Alamo, which housed Texian Army troops. As the Mexican Army had approached San Antonio, several of the Alamo defenders brought their families into the Alamo to keep them safe. During the twelve days of the siege, Alamo co-commander William Barret Travis sent multiple couriers to the acting Texas government, the remaining Texas army under James Fannin, and various Texas communities, asking for reinforcements, provisions, and ammunition.
The siege culminated in an early - morning assault by Mexican troops which left almost all of the defenders dead. Some reports claimed that several Texians surrendered but were quickly executed on Santa Anna 's orders. Of the Texians who fought during the battle, only two survived: Travis 's slave, Joe, was assumed by the Mexican soldiers to be a noncombatant, and Brigido Guerrero, who had deserted from the Mexican Army several months before, convinced the Mexican soldiers that he had been taken prisoner by the Texians. Alamo co-commander James Bowie 's freedman, Sam, was also spared, although it is not known if he participated in the fighting.
During the battle, most of the women and children had gathered in the sacristy of the church. As Mexican soldiers entered the room, a boy, thought to be the son of defender Anthony Wolf, stood up to rearrange a blanket around his shoulders. Mistaking him for a Texian soldier, the Mexican soldiers bayoneted him. In the confusion, at least one of the women was lightly wounded. Bowie 's family, including Gertrudis Navarro, Juana Navarro Alsbury and her son, were hiding in one of the rooms along the west wall. Navarro opened the door to their room to signal that they meant no harm. A Mexican officer soon arrived and led the women to a spot along one of the walls where they would be relatively safe. All of the women and children were eventually placed under the protection of an officer and escorted out of the Alamo and imprisoned in the home of the Musquiz family.
On March 7, Santa Anna interviewed each of the survivors individually. He was impressed with Susanna Dickinson, the young widow of Alamo artillery captain Almaron Dickinson, and offered to adopt her infant daughter Angelina and have the child educated in Mexico City. Susanna Dickinson refused the offer, which was not extended to Juana Navarro Alsbury for her son who was of similar age.
Santa Anna ordered that the Tejano civilian survivors be allowed to return to their homes in San Antonio. Dickinson and Joe were allowed to travel towards the Anglo settlements, escorted by Ben, a former slave from the United States who served as Mexican Colonel Juan Almonte 's cook. Each woman was given $ 2 and a blanket and was allowed to go free and spread the news of the destruction that awaited those who opposed the Mexican government. Before releasing Joe, Santa Anna ordered that the surviving members of the Mexican Army parade in a grand review, in the hopes that Joe and Dickinson would deliver a warning to the remainder of the Texian forces that his army was unbeatable.
When the small party of survivors arrived in Gonzales on March 13 they found Sam Houston, the commander of all Texian forces, waiting there with about 400 men. After Dickinson and Joe related the details of the battle and the strength of Santa Anna 's army, Houston advised all civilians to evacuate and then ordered the army to retreat. This was the beginning of the Runaway Scrape, in which much of the population of Texas, including the acting government, rushed to the east to escape the advancing Mexican Army.
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when does the new episode of twin peaks come out | Twin Peaks (2017 TV series) - wikipedia
Twin Peaks, also known as Twin Peaks: The Return, is an American mystery drama television revival series created by Mark Frost and David Lynch. It is a continuation of the 1990 -- 91 ABC series of the same name. The limited series consists of 18 episodes and premiered on Showtime on May 21, 2017, following a world premiere on May 19, 2017, at The Theatre at Ace Hotel. The series was developed and written by Lynch and Frost over several years and directed by Lynch. An ensemble of returning and new cast members appear, led by original star Kyle MacLachlan.
Set 25 years after the original Twin Peaks, the series focuses on a number of storylines, many of which are connected through association with FBI Special Agent Dale Cooper (MacLachlan). It takes place in a variety of locations in addition to the fictional Washington town of Twin Peaks, including Las Vegas and South Dakota. Showtime president David Nevins stated that "the core of (the series) is Agent Cooper 's odyssey back to Twin Peaks ''. It garnered praise from critics, and Showtime reported that the series led to a record number of subscriptions to their streaming service.
The first series of Twin Peaks, an American serial drama television series created by Mark Frost and David Lynch, premiered on April 8, 1990, on ABC. It was one of the top - rated series of 1990, but declining ratings led to its cancellation in 1991 after its second season. In subsequent years, Twin Peaks has often been listed among the greatest television dramas of all time. A prequel film directed by Lynch, Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me, was released in 1992. Lynch planned two more films that would have concluded the series ' narrative, but in 2001 stated that Twin Peaks was as "dead as a doornail. ''
In 2007, artist Matt Haley began work on a graphic novel continuation, which he hoped would be included in the "Complete Mystery '' DVD box set. Twin Peaks producer Robert Engels agreed to help write it on the condition that Lynch and Frost approved the project; Haley said: "(Engels) and I had a number of discussions about what the story would be. I was keen to use whatever notes they had for the proposed third season. I really wanted this to be a literal ' third season ' of the show. '' Paramount Home Entertainment agreed to package it with the box set, also on the condition that Lynch and Frost approved. Though Frost approved the project, Lynch vetoed it, stating that he respected the effort but did not want to continue the story of Twin Peaks.
In 2013, rumors that Twin Peaks would return were dismissed by Lynch 's daughter Jennifer Lynch (author of The Secret Diary of Laura Palmer) as well as by Frost. Cast member Ray Wise recounted what Lynch had said to him about a possible continuation: "Well, Ray, you know, the town is still there. And I suppose it 's possible that we could revisit it. Of course, (your character is) already dead... but we could maybe work around that. ''
In January 2014, a casting call for a "Twin Peaks promo '', directed by Lynch, was revealed to be the filming of a featurette for the Twin Peaks: The Complete Mystery Blu - ray set. In September 2014, Lynch answered a question about Twin Peaks at the Lucca Film Festival by saying it was a "tricky question '', and that "there 's always a possibility... and you just have to wait and see. ''
On October 6, 2014, Showtime announced that it would air a nine - episode miniseries written by Lynch and Frost and directed by Lynch. Frost emphasized that the new episodes were not a remake or reboot but a continuation of the series. The episodes are set in the present day, and the passage of 25 years is an important element in the plot. As to whether the miniseries would become an ongoing series, Frost said: "If we have a great time doing it and everybody loves it and they decide there 's room for more, I could see it going that way. ''
In March 2015, Lynch expressed doubts about the production due to "complications ''. Showtime confirmed the series was moving forward, stating: "Nothing is going on that 's any more than any preproduction process with David Lynch. Everything is moving forward and everybody is crazy thrilled and excited. '' In April 2015, Lynch said he would not direct the nine episodes due to budget constraints. He and Showtime came to an agreement, with Lynch confirming on May 15, 2015, that he would direct, and that there would be more episodes than the originally announced nine. At a Twin Peaks panel in Seattle, cast members Sherilyn Fenn and Sheryl Lee said that the new series would consist of 18 episodes and Angelo Badalamenti would return as composer.
On January 12, 2015, Kyle MacLachlan was confirmed to return to the series. In October 2015, it was confirmed that Michael Ontkean, who portrayed Sheriff Harry S. Truman and has since retired from acting, would not return for the revival. In October 2015, it was reported that the role of town sheriff would be filled by Robert Forster, later confirmed as playing Frank Truman, brother of Harry. Forster had been cast as Harry in the 1990 pilot, but was replaced by Ontkean due to scheduling issues. Also in October, David Duchovny teased his return as Agent Denise Bryson. In November 2015, it was reported that Miguel Ferrer would reprise his role as Albert Rosenfield and that Richard Beymer and David Patrick Kelly would return as Benjamin Horne and Jerry Horne respectively. In December 2015, Alicia Witt confirmed she would reprise her role as Gersten Hayward. Michael J. Anderson was asked to reprise his role as The Man from Another Place, but declined.
Russ Tamblyn underwent open - heart surgery in late 2014 and was still recovering in 2015. Lynch and Frost were still hoping Tamblyn would join the cast for the new season, which was later confirmed. On September 28, 2015, Catherine E. Coulson, who reprised her role of the Log Lady in the new series, died of cancer. She filmed her final scene four days before her death.
The series ' first teaser trailer, released in December 2015, confirmed the involvement of Michael Horse (Tommy "Hawk '' Hill). In January 2016, it was reported that Sherilyn Fenn would reprise her role as Audrey Horne in a "major presence. '' In February 2016, it was reported that Lynch would reprise his role as Gordon Cole. Frequent Lynch collaborator Laura Dern was cast in a "top - secret pivotal role '', which eventually proved to be Diane, the previously unseen character to whom Cooper frequently dictated taped messages during the show 's original run. In April 2016, a complete cast list was released, featuring 217 actors, with actors returning from the earlier series marked with asterisks. Mary Reber, who plays Alice Tremond in the finale, is the actual owner of the house used for the Palmer residence.
David Bowie was asked to make a cameo appearance as FBI Agent Phillip Jeffries, his character from Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me. As Bowie 's health was declining, his lawyer told Lynch that he was unavailable. Before his death in January 2016, Bowie gave the production permission to reuse old footage featuring him; however, he was unhappy with the accent he had used in the film, and requested that he be dubbed over by an authentic Louisiana actor, leading to the casting of Nathan Frizzell as the voice of Jeffries. In January and February 2017, respectively, cast members Miguel Ferrer and Warren Frost died, but both appear in the new series. Harry Dean Stanton, who reprised his role as Carl Rodd, died in September 2017, less than two weeks after the last episode of the series aired.
In July 2015, Frost suggested that the series would premiere in 2017 rather than 2016, as originally planned. The series began filming in September 2015, and Showtime president David Nevins said, "I 'm hoping we make 2016. It 's not clear. It 's ultimately going to be in (series co-creators David Lynch and Mark Frost 's) control. '' Nevins also stated, "I do n't know (how many episodes there will be). They 're going to decide, I expect it to be more than nine, but it 's open - ended. I know what the shooting schedule is and then we 'll have him cut into it however many episodes it feels best at. '' In January 2016, Nevins confirmed that the series would premiere in the first half of 2017. The series was shot continuously from a single, long shooting script before being edited into episodes. Filming was completed by April 2016.
Twin Peaks
Government
Las Vegas
South Dakota
Supernatural
Michael J. Anderson did not reprise his role as The Man from Another Place, who instead appears as a treelike computer - generated effect and is voiced by an uncredited actor.
Other
The soundtrack contains new and reused compositions from Angelo Badalamenti as well as dark ambient music and sound design by Dean Hurley and David Lynch (including some from The Air Is on Fire) and unreleased music from Lynch and Badalamenti 's 1990s project Thought Gang two tracks of which previously appeared in Fire Walk with Me. Hurley 's contributions were released on the album Anthology Resource Vol. 1: △ △ on August 6, 2017, by Sacred Bones Records. Several tracks from Johnny Jewel 's album Windswept also appear throughout. Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima by Krzysztof Penderecki appears in key scenes. Two soundtracks were released on September 8, 2017, by Rhino Records: Twin Peaks (Music From the Limited Event Series) and Twin Peaks (Limited Event Series Original Soundtrack).
Additionally, multiple episodes contain musical performances at the Roadhouse:
Other music, mostly played diegetically includes:
Beethoven 's Moonlight Sonata and "Last Call '' by David Lynch are played slowed down significantly.
Twin Peaks premiered on Showtime on May 21, 2017, with a two - hour episode. After the airing, the premiere and an additional two episodes became available online, and the series aired in weekly increments from that point onwards (at Lynch 's insistence). Overall, the series consists of 18 episodes. It concluded on September 3, 2017, with a two - part finale.
In the United Kingdom, Sky Atlantic simulcast the first two episodes beginning at 2: 00 am British Summer Time on May 22, 2017, and the next two episodes were released on Sky UK 's on - demand service after the premiere. In the Nordic countries, the series is broadcast on HBO Nordic, with the two - hour premiere airing on May 22, and subsequent episodes being made available the day after its U.S. airing. In Canada, the series is available on CraveTV and The Movie Network, and debuted simultaneously with the U.S. broadcast. In Australia, episodes of the series are available to stream on Stan the same day as the original U.S. broadcast. Two episodes were screened at the 2017 Cannes Film Festival. In Japan, the series airs on the satellite television network Wowow, which also aired the original series.
The first two episodes garnered positive reviews from critics. On Metacritic, Twin Peaks has a score of 74 out of 100 based on 26 reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 94 % rating with an average score of 7.75 out of 10 based on 71 reviews. The site 's critical consensus is, "Surreal, suspenseful, and visually stunning, this new Twin Peaks is an auteurist triumph for David Lynch. ''
Sonia Saraiya of Variety wrote "Twin Peaks: The Return is weird and creepy and slow. But it is interesting. The show is very stubbornly itself -- not quite film and not quite TV, rejecting both standard storytelling and standard forms. It 's not especially fun to watch and it can be quite disturbing. But there is never a sense that you are watching something devoid of vision or intention. Lynch 's vision is so total and absolute that he can get away with what would n't be otherwise acceptable. ''
The Hollywood Reporter 's Daniel Fienberg commented that "The thing that struck me most immediately about the premiere is how relatively cogent it was, with a clear emphasis on ' relatively '. What premiered on Sunday was as accessibly scary, disturbing and audaciously funny as many of the best parts of the original Twin Peaks, and nowhere near as hallucinatory and subtextually distilled as the prequel film Fire Walk With Me. '' Fienberg also wrote about the series ' format: "It 's obvious this Twin Peaks is going to be an 18 - hour unit. There was no discernible separation between hours and if credits had n't rolled, the second hour could probably just as easily have flowed into the third. This is n't episodic TV. It 's another thing. ''
In her "A '' grade review, Emily L. Stephens of The A.V. Club wrote regarding its possible reception from critics and viewers: "This two - part premiere is going to be wildly difficult for any two people to agree upon, in part because a viewer 's assessment of the revival will depend upon what they hoped for. If you were looking forward to a return of the sometimes campy, sometimes cozy humor of the original two seasons of Twin Peaks, this premiere could come as a shock. If you were anticipating that once jolting, now familiar blend of genres, this is... not that. '' She called the two - part premiere "pure Lynchian horror ''.
At the 2017 Cannes Film Festival, Lynch screened the two - hour premiere of the series and received a five - minute standing ovation from the crowd.
Sean T. Collins of Rolling Stone called the series "one of the most groundbreaking TV series ever '', praising its original, complex story lines and the performances of its cast, particularly Kyle MacLachlan. Matt Zoller Seitz of Vulture wrote that the show was "the most original and disturbing to hit TV drama since The Sopranos ''. In his season review for IGN, Matt Fowler noted that Twin Peaks "came back as a true artistic force that challenged just about every storytelling convention we know '' and scored it an 8.8 out of 10.
The two - hour premiere on May 21, 2017, received 506,000 viewers on Showtime, which Deadline.com called "soft for such a strongly promoted prestige project ''. Ratings increased to 626,000 after the encore broadcasts that night and the premiere also had over 450,000 viewers via streaming and on - demand.
Viewership for the premiere increased to 804,000 in Live + 3 ratings, and it had a viewership of 1.7 million across streaming and on - demand platforms. Showtime announced that the weekend of the Twin Peaks premiere had the most signups to their streaming service ever. Prior to the finale, the series was averaging 2 million weekly viewers, when including time - shifting, encores and streaming. Showtime president David Nevins said that Twin Peaks "has exceeded expectations '' from a financial perspective.
The series is scheduled to be released on Blu - ray and DVD on December 5, 2017.
Lynch has expressed interest in making another season of Twin Peaks, but noted that such a project will not immediately follow The Return, given that it took four and a half years for him and Frost to write and film the third season.
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what is the name of saudi arabia king | King of Saudi Arabia - wikipedia
The King of Saudi Arabia is Saudi Arabia 's head of state and absolute monarch (i.e. head of government). He serves as the head of the Saudi royal family, the House of Saud. The King is called the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques (خادم الحرمين الشريفين). The title, which signifies Saudi Arabia 's jurisdiction over the mosques of Masjid al Haram in Mecca and Al - Masjid an - Nabawi in Medina, replaced His Majesty (صاحب الجلالة) in 1986.
King Abdulaziz (known in the West as Ibn Saud) began conquering today 's Saudi Arabia in 1902, by restoring his family as emirs of Riyadh. He then proceeded to conquer first the Nejd (1922) and then the Hejaz (1925).
Ibn Saud proclaimed his dominions as the Sultanate of Nejd in 1921, shortly before completing the conquest of the region. He was proclaimed king / malik of Hejaz in 1926, and raised Nejd to a kingdom as well in 1927. For the next five - odd years, Ibn Saud administered the two parts of his realm as separate units. In 1932, he formally united his territories into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
The kings since Ibn Saud 's death have all been his sons, and all likely immediate successors to the reigning King Salman will be from his progeny. Sons of Ibn Saud are considered to have primary claim on the throne of Saudi Arabia. This makes the Saudi monarchy quite distinct from Western monarchies, which usually feature large, clearly defined royal families and orders of succession. Muhammad bin Nayef was the first grandson of Ibn Saud to be in the line of succession before being deposed from the position of Crown Prince by a royal decree in 2017.
Saudi Arabia is ruled by Islamic law (Sharia) and purports to be an Islamic state, but many Muslims see a hereditary monarchy as being a discouraged system of government in Islam.
The King of Saudi Arabia is also considered the Head of the House of Saud and Prime Minister. The Crown Prince is also the "Deputy Prime Minister ''. The kings after Faisal have named a "second Deputy Prime Minister '' as the subsequent heir after the Crown Prince.
The Royal Standard consists of a green flag, with an Arabic inscription and a sword featured in white, and with the national emblem embroidered in gold in the lower right canton.
The script on the flag is written in the Thuluth script. It is the shahada or Islamic declaration of faith:
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who won all grand slams in one year | Grand Slam (Tennis) - wikipedia
The Grand Slam tournaments, also called majors, are the four most important annual tennis events. They offer the most ranking points, prize money, public and media attention, the greatest strength and size of field, and greater number of "best of '' sets for men. The Grand Slam itinerary consists of the Australian Open in mid January, the French Open in May and June, Wimbledon in July, and the US Open in August and September. Each tournament is played over a period of two weeks. The Australian and United States tournaments are played on hard courts, the French on clay, and Wimbledon on grass. Wimbledon is the oldest, founded in 1877, followed by the US in 1881, the French in 1891, and the Australian in 1905. However, of these four, only Wimbledon was a major before 1924 -- 25, when all four became designated Grand Slam tournaments. Skipping Grand Slam tournaments -- especially the Australian Open because of the remoteness, the inconvenient dates (around Christmas and New Year 's Day) and the low prize money -- was not unusual before 1982, which was the start of the norm of counting Grand Slam titles.
Grand Slam tournaments are not operated by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) or the Women 's Tennis Association (WTA), which were formally founded in 1972 and 1973 respectively, though the ATP and WTA do award ranking points based on a player 's performance at a major.
The term Grand Slam, without qualification, and also originally, refers to the achievement of winning all four major championships within a single calendar year within one of the five events: men 's and women 's singles; men 's, women 's, and mixed doubles. In doubles, one team may accomplish a Grand Slam playing together or one player may achieve it with different partners.
Winning the four majors in consecutive tournaments but not in the same year is known as a Non-Calendar Year Grand Slam, while winning all four majors at any point during the course of a career is known as a Career Grand Slam. Winning the gold medal at the Summer Olympic Games in addition to the four majors in one calendar year is known as a "Golden Grand Slam '' or more commonly the "Golden Slam ''. Also, winning the Year - End Championship (known as ATP Finals for men 's singles and doubles disciplines, and WTA Finals for both women 's disciplines) in the same period is known as a "Super Slam ''. Together, all four Majors in all three disciplines (singles, doubles, and mixed doubles) are called a "boxed set '' of Grand Slam titles. No male or female player has won all twelve events in one calendar year, although a "career boxed set '' has been achieved by three female players.
The term Glossary of contract bridge terms slam for winning all of the tricks in the whist family card games (see also whist terms) is attested from early in the 17th century. Grand slam for all of the tricks, in contrast to small slam or little slam for all but one, dates from early in the 19th century. This use was inherited by contract bridge, a modern development of whist defined in 1925 that became very popular in Britain and America by 1930.
Grand slam has been used in golf since 1930, when Bobby Jones won the four major championships, two British and two American tournaments. Although John F. Kieran of The New York Times is widely credited with first applying the term "grand slam '' to tennis to describe the winning of all four major tennis tournaments in a calendar year, sports columnist Alan Gould had used the term in that connection almost two months before Kieran.
The possibility of being the reigning champion of all the current four Majors did not exist until 1924 -- 25, when the International Lawn Tennis Federation designated the Australasian, French (before 1925 only open to members of French tennis clubs), British and American championship tournaments as the four Majors. Before that time only three events: Wimbledon, the World Hard Court Championships (held in Paris & once in Brussels) and the World Covered Court Championships (held in various locations) were considered the premier international tennis events by the ILTF. Tony Wilding of New Zealand won all three of those earlier majors in one year: 1913. It has been possible to complete a Grand Slam in most years and most disciplines since 1925. It was not possible from 1940 to 1945 because of interruptions at Wimbledon, the Australian and French opens due to the Second World War, the years from 1970 to 1985 when there was no Australian tournament in mixed doubles, and 1986 when there was no Australian Open at all.
Phil Dent has pointed out that skipping Grand Slam tournaments -- especially the Australian Open -- was not unusual then, before counting major titles became the norm. Thus, many players had never played the Austral (as) ian amateur or open championships: the Doherty brothers, William Larned, Maurice McLoughlin, Beals Wright, Bill Johnston, Bill Tilden, René Lacoste, Henri Cochet, Bobby Riggs, Jack Kramer, Ted Schroeder, Pancho Gonzales, Budge Patty, Manuel Santana, Jan Kodeš and others, while Brookes, Ellsworth Vines, Jaroslav Drobný, Manuel Orantes, Ilie Năstase (at 35 years old) and Björn Borg came just once. Beginning in 1969, when the first Australian Open was held on the Milton Courts at Brisbane, the tournament was open to all players, including professionals, who at that point were prohibited from playing the traditional circuit. Nevertheless, except for the 1969 and 1971 tournaments, many of the best players missed this championship until 1982, because of the remoteness, the inconvenient dates (around Christmas and New Year 's Day) and the low prize money. In 1970, George MacCall 's National Tennis League, which employed Rod Laver, Ken Rosewall, Andrés Gimeno, Pancho Gonzales, Roy Emerson and Fred Stolle, prevented its players from entering the tournament because the guarantees were insufficient. The tournament was won by Arthur Ashe.
In terms of the current four majors, the first to win all four in a single year was Don Budge, who completed the feat in 1938. To date, 17 players have completed a Grand Slam, though only six in the most prestigious singles titles. Of these players, three have won multiple Grand Slams: Rod Laver accomplished the feat twice in men 's singles; Margaret Court accomplished the feat three times, in two different disciplines -- once in women 's singles and twice in mixed doubles; and Esther Vergeer completed a grand slam twice in Women 's wheelchair doubles.
The four Junior disciplines, boys ' and girls ' singles and doubles, provide limited opportunities to achieve a Grand Slam. Players are only eligible from age 13 to 18, with 18 - year - olds likely to hold a physical advantage. Only Stefan Edberg has completed the Grand Slam in a Junior discipline.
In 1982, the International Tennis Federation (ITF) began offering a $1 million bonus to any singles player to win four consecutive major titles, no matter the time of completion. Although groups variously identified as the Men 's International Professional Tennis Council, "abetted primarily by some British tennis writers '', and "European tennis journalists '' had advocated for the ITF to change the definition of "Grand Slam '', ITF General Secretary David Gray made it clear that this was not going to happen. In a 1983 letter to tennis journalist Paul Fein, Gray clarified:
There seems to be some confusion. The ITF 's only initiative in this matter has been the organisation of the offer of a bonus of $1 m. to any player who holds all four Grand Slam titles simultaneously (...) In spite of all that we have read on this matter, it has never been my Committee of Management 's intention to alter the basis of the classic Grand Slam i.e., the capture of all four titles in a year.
The ITF 's plan was to offer the cash bonus for three years, apparently to encourage players to compete in all four major tournaments as much as to reward success at them.
Even before the ITF had announced their bonus, the Grand Slam controversy had taken on a life of its own. Writing in 1982, Neil Amdur claimed, "Now the sport spins nervously under the influence of big dollars and even bigger egos, and tradition has almost gone the way of white balls and long flannels (...) If the four major tournaments want to offer a $1 million incentive for any player in the future who can sweep their titles -- and such talks have been rumored -- that bonus would be a welcome addition. But changing what the Grand Slam is all about is like a baseball player believing that he ' hit for the cycle ' after slugging a single, double and triple in the first game of a doubleheader and a home run in his first time at bat in the second game. '' Despite seeming clarity from the ITF, some journalists suggested that the sport 's organizing body had turned its back on history and changed the "rules '' of tennis by redefining a Grand Slam. Such confusion continued for years. For instance, when Steffi Graf completed the Grand Slam in 1988, George Vecsey wrote, "Even the International Tennis Federation, which should have more respect for history, ruled in 1982 that winning any four straight majors constituted a Grand Slam -- and offered a $1 million bonus for it (...) But many tennis people, and most writers, and probably most fans, too, did not accept the new rules, and the I.T.F. has dropped the gimmick. '' Vecsey was only half right: the ITF dropped the "gimmick '' of the cash bonus, but it had never changed any rules.
However, the ambiguous way the ITF described the Grand Slam in their Constitution led to journalists continuing to make the same assumption as Vecsey over two decades later. For instance, when Rafael Nadal was on the verge of completing a non-calendar year Grand Slam at the 2011 Australian Open, one writer observed, "Most traditionalists insist that the ' Grand Slam ' should refer only to winning all four titles in a calendar year, although the constitution of the International Tennis Federation, the sports governing body, spells out that ' players who hold all four of these titles at the same time achieve the Grand Slam '. '' This was true until later in 2011, when the ITF edited the description to eliminate all confusion. As it now stands, "The Grand Slam titles are the championships of Australia, France, the United States of America and Wimbledon. Players who hold all four of these titles in one calendar year achieve the ' Grand Slam '. ''
When Martina Navratilova won the 1984 French Open and became the reigning champion of all four women 's singles events, she was the first player to receive the bonus prize in recognition of her achievement. Some media outlets did, indeed, say that she had won a Grand Slam. Others simply noted the ongoing controversy: "Whether the Slam was Grand or Bland or a commercial sham tainted with an asterisk the size of a tennis ball, Martina Navratilova finally did it. '' Although the ITF recognizes what is now unofficially known as the "non-calendar year Grand Slam '' on its Roll of Honour, no subsequent player to win four or more majors in a row -- Steffi Graf, Serena Williams, or Novak Djokovic -- has received bonus prize money.
Combining the Grand Slam and non-calendar year Grand Slam, the total number of times that players achieved the feat (of being the reigning champion in all four majors) expands to 18.
Three women have won four or more consecutive major titles since 1970, with Navratilova taking six in a row in 1983 -- 1984. On the men 's side, Novak Djokovic was the first singles player since Rod Laver to hold all four major titles at once, which he accomplished between Wimbledon 2015 and the 2016 French Open. Prior to the Open Era, Don Budge received the same accolades in winning the French Championships in 1938, but then completed the more prestigious Grand Slam at the 1938 US Championships, giving him six majors in a row, the only male to ever win more than four consecutive major tournaments. The Bryan brothers (Bob and Mike) were the last to achieve a non-calendar year Grand Slam in men 's doubles. Several players and teams came up one title short. Todd Woodbridge and Mark Woodforde, known collectively as The Woodies, reached the final of the 1997 French Open while holding all the other three titles, but lost to Yevgeny Kafelnikov and Daniel Vacek. In singles, Pete Sampras lost the 1994 French Open quarterfinal to fellow countryman Jim Courier, having won the previous three majors. Roger Federer in 2006 and 2007 and Novak Djokovic in 2012 repeated this, both ultimately losing the French Open final to Rafael Nadal. Nadal himself was prevented from achieving this feat by his countryman David Ferrer, who defeated him in the quarterfinal of the 2011 Australian Open, which Nadal entered holding the other three major titles. In women 's doubles, Martina Hingis and Sania Mirza had won three Majors from Wimbledon 2015 to the 2016 Australian Open, but lost in the third round of the 2016 French Open to Barbora Krejčíková and Kateřina Siniaková. In 2017, Bethanie Mattek - Sands and Lucie Šafářová had the chance to win four consecutive titles at Wimbledon, but withdrew from their scheduled second round match following an acute knee injury suffered by Mattek - Sands in the second round of the Ladies ' Singles competition.
This list is for those players who achieved a non-calendar Grand Slam, but who failed to win the Grand Slam during the same streak.
The career achievement of all four major championships in one format is termed a Career Grand Slam in that format. Dozens of players have accomplished that (column two) and 17 have doubled it: won a second championship in each of the four majors in one format (column three). Two or more career championships in all four majors is sometimes called a "Multiple Slam Set ''. Three players have Multiple Slam Sets in two formats, one in three formats, so 22 players are counted in the table (column three). Their achievements are tabulated below.
Eight men and ten women have won Career Grand Slams in singles play (rows one and two); among them two men and five women have at least two Career Grand Slams in singles (column three). Since the beginning of the open era, five men and six women have achieved this (Rod Laver, Andre Agassi, Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal, Novak Djokovic; Margaret Court, Chris Evert, Martina Navratilova, Steffi Graf, Serena Williams and Maria Sharapova).
Several singles players have won three major championships without achieving the Career Grand Slam, grouped by the missing Grand Slam tournament:
Several doubles players have won three major championships without achieving the Career Grand Slam:
Only six players have completed a Career Grand Slam in both singles and doubles: one male (Roy Emerson) and five female (Margaret Court, Doris Hart, Shirley Fry Irvin, Martina Navratilova, and Serena Williams). Court, Hart and Navratilova are the only three players to have completed a "Career Boxed Set '', winning all four titles in singles, doubles, and mixed doubles; this has never been done by a male player.
The remainder of this section is a complete list, by format, of all players who have won the Career Grand Slam. Players are ordered chronologically by their completion of the Slam.
Eight men have won all four grand slam tournaments. Two of the eight men achieved a double career Slam. Originally, the grand slams were held on grass (Australian, Wimbledon, and US Open) and clay (French) and the first four players achieved their grand slams on two surfaces. The US Open changed its surface from grass to clay in 1975 and then to hard court in 1978. The Australian Open changed from grass to hard court in 1988. The last four players (Agassi, Federer, Nadal, Djokovic) achieved their grand slam on three different surfaces: hard court, clay, and grass.
Each woman 's "first wins '' in the four Majors are listed chronologically and their ages upon completion of the Slam are given in brackets. Five of the ten women achieved at least two career Slams, two of the ten have achieved three careers slams and Steffi Graf is the only player to achieve four career Slams.
At Men 's Doubles, 21 players have won the career Slam including fourteen who "slammed '' with a unique partner. The latter are listed first, as seven teams, ignoring any major wins with other partners. Five of the 21 men achieved at least a double career Slam at Men 's Doubles, led by Roy Emerson and John Newcombe with triple Slams.
At Women 's Doubles, 21 players have won the career Slam including ten who "slammed '' with a unique partner. Eight of the 22 achieved at least a double career Slam at Women 's Doubles, led by Martina Navratilova with seven or more titles in each Major.
At Mixed Doubles, a total of 17 players have won the career Slam, including seven who "slammed '' as a pair (won all four with same partner) -- an odd number because Margaret Court has accomplished a career Grand Slam separately with Ken Fletcher and Marty Riessen. The other four of the seven are Doris Hart, Frank Sedgman, Leander Paes, and Martina Hingis. Also three of the 15 players have accomplished multiple career Grand Slams in mixed doubles, led by Margaret Court 's quadruple Slam.
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Helen Wills Moody won all 16 of the Grand Slam singles tournaments she played beginning with the 1924 U.S. Championships and extending to the 1933 Wimbledon Championships (not counting her defaults in the 1926 French and Wimbledon Championships). During this period, she won 6 Wimbledons, 4 French Championships, and 6 U.S. Championships. She also won the 1924 Summer Olympics during this period. Moody never entered the Australian Championships.
Doris Hart won all 13 of the Grand Slam mixed doubles tournaments she played beginning with the 1951 French Championships and extending to the 1955 U.S. Championships. During this period, she won 5 Wimbledons, 3 French Championships, and 5 U.S. Championships.
Tennis was an Olympic sport from the inaugural 1896 Summer Olympics through the 1924 Games, then was dropped for the next 64 years (except as a demonstration sport in 1968 and 1984) before returning in 1988. As there were only three Major championships designated by the International Lawn Tennis Federation before 1925, none of the tennis players who participated in the Olympics between 1896 and 1924 had a chance to complete a Golden Grand Slam. However, there was a possibility to complete a Career Golden Grand Slam by winning the 1920 Olympics or 1924 Olympics plus each of the four grand slams, all of which were present from 1925 onwards. The term Golden Slam (initially "Golden Grand Slam '') was coined in 1988.
Only one player has completed the Golden Slam:
Winning four consecutive Grand Slam tournaments and Olympic event in the period of twelve months, although not in the same year, is called a "Non-calendar year Golden Slam ''. Only Bob and Mike Bryan have achieved this by winning the 2012 Olympics, 2012 US Open, 2013 Australian Open, 2013 French Open and 2013 Wimbledon Championships. After they won the final at Wimbledon, this was coined the "Golden Bryan Slam ''.
A player who wins all four Grand Slam tournaments and the Olympic gold medal during his or her career is said to have achieved a Career Golden Slam. Serena Williams is the only player to have achieved a Career Golden Slam in both singles and doubles.
Soon after the Open Era began in 1968, the new professional tours each held a year - end championship (YEC), which are elite tournaments involving only the top performers of the given season. The subsequent return of tennis to the Olympics in 1988 gave rise to the notion of a Super Slam as a combination of Golden Slam and YEC title. Eligible YECs are currently called the ATP Finals for men, WTA Finals for women, and the Wheelchair Tennis Masters.
No player has ever completed the Super Slam in a single season.
Only one player has completed the Super Slam in a period of twelve months:
Players who have won three of the four Grand Slam tournaments in the same year. Jack Crawford, Lew Hoad, Martina Navratilova and Serena Williams won the first three events, but lost the last grand slam tournament. Crawford, an asthmatic, won two of the first three sets of the 1933 U.S. Championships final against Fred Perry, then tired in the heat and lost the last two sets and the match.
Note: From 1977 to 1985, the Australian Open was held in December as the last Major of the calendar year.
Winning singles, doubles and mixed doubles titles at one Grand Slam event is called a Triple Crown. It has become a rare accomplishment in tennis. This is partly because the final match in all three disciplines often takes place concurrently in the same day if not in consecutive days. Doris Hart for example attained her first Triple Crown after playing three Wimbledon final matches held in one single day.
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Another Grand Slam - related accomplishment is winning a "boxed set '' of Grand Slam titles -- which is at least one of every possible type of Major championship available to a player: the singles, doubles, and mixed doubles at all four Grand Slam events of the year. This has never been accomplished within a year or consecutively across two calendar years.
The Career Boxed Set refers to winning one of every possible grand slam title (singles, doubles, mixed) over the course of an entire career. No male player has completed this, although Frank Sedgman came close. He only missed out on the French Open singles title. Men who participate in top / elite level singles have played comparatively few doubles, and very few mixed doubles. So far, only three women have completed the boxed set during their careers:
Court is not only unique in having two boxed sets, but is also unique in the timing of her accomplishments. Her first boxed set was completed before the start of the open era, and she has a boxed set achieved solely within the open era.
Martina Hingis has come closer than any other currently active player to joining this elite group. She just needs the French Open singles, having reached the final in 1997 and 1999. Prior to Hingis, it was Billie Jean King who came close at completing a career boxed set. She only needed the Australian Open women 's doubles title and although she reached the final twice (in 1965 and 1969), she failed to win the title.
Of the many players who have managed to win a full set of four majors, there is a small number who have gone on to win all four majors a second or more times. The completion of "Multiple Career Grand Slams '' or sometimes called "multiple slam sets '' (MSS) has been achieved by only 22 unique players up to the end of the 2015 Wimbledon. MSS players can be found in each of the five tennis disciplines: men 's or women 's singles, men 's or women 's doubles, mixed doubles. It can also be found in women 's wheelchair doubles. Of these, five players have completed MSS in more than one discipline: Roy Emerson, Martina Navratilova, Frank Sedgman and Serena Williams have MSS in two disciplines, Margaret Court has MSS in three disciplines.
This table shows each multiple occurrence of a complete MSS for each of the players who have accomplished multiple slams in a particular tennis discipline. The year shown for each of the four majors is the year that particular major win was repeated as part of that player 's achievement of their second (all 22 players) and third (8 players) and fourth (4 players) and fifth through seventh (Martina Navratilova, in women 's doubles) complete slam set of Major wins.
For example, the fourth row shows that Margaret Court completed her third career slam set in Women 's Singles -- winning each of the four majors three times -- during the 1970 Wimbledon Championships (bold). More specific, she won: Australian open 11 times, the third in 1962; French Open five times, the third in 1969; Wimbledon three times (determines the maximum of sets), the third in 1970 and finally US Open five times, the third in 1969. Grey background shades lesser achievements by the same player in the same discipline (e.g., Court in the eighth row); yellow highlights the greatest achievement in the discipline (e.g., Graf in the third row).
By discipline (numbers of players and table entries)
Before the Open Era began in 1968, only amateur players were allowed to compete in the four majors. Many male top players "went pro '' in order to win prize money legally, competing on a professional world tour comprising completely different events. From 1927 through 1967, the three oldest pro events were considered "majors '' of the pro tour: the U.S. Pro Tennis Championships, French Pro Championship and Wembley Championships. A player who won all three in a calendar year was considered to achieve a "Professional Grand Slam '', or "Pro Slam ''. The feat was accomplished twice:
Three other players won those three major trophies during their pro careers: Ellsworth Vines, Hans Nüsslein and Don Budge. The pro slams did not have a women 's draw.
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the two major kinds of social influence are | Social influence - wikipedia
Social influence occurs when a person 's emotions, opinions or behaviors are affected by others intentionally or unintentionally. Social influence takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization, peer pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales, and marketing. In 1958, Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three broad varieties of social influence.
Morton Deutsch and Harold Gerard described two psychological needs that lead humans to conform to the expectations of others. These include our need to be right (informational social influence) and our need to be liked (normative social influence). Informational influence (or social proof) is an influence to accept information from another as evidence about reality. Informational influence comes into play when people are uncertain, either because stimuli are intrinsically ambiguous or because there is social disagreement. Normative influence is an influence to conform to the positive expectations of others. In terms of Kelman 's typology, normative influence leads to public compliance, whereas informational influence leads to private acceptance.
Social influence is a broad term that relates to many different phenomena. Listed below are some major types of social influence that are being researched in the field of social psychology. For more information, follow the main article links provided.
There are three processes of attitude change as defined by Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman in a 1958 paper published in the Journal of Conflict Resolution. The purpose of defining these processes was to help determine the effects of social influence: for example, to separate public conformity (behavior) from private acceptance (personal belief).
Compliance is the act of responding favorably to an explicit or implicit request offered by others. Technically, compliance is a change in behavior but not necessarily in attitude; one can comply due to mere obedience or by otherwise opting to withhold private thoughts due to social pressures. According to Kelman 's 1958 paper, the satisfaction derived from compliance is due to the social effect of the accepting influence (i.e., people comply for an expected reward or punishment - aversion).
Identification is the changing of attitudes or behaviors due to the influence of someone who is admired. Advertisements that rely upon celebrity endorsements to market their products are taking advantage of this phenomenon. According to Kelman, the desired relationship that the identifier relates to the behavior or attitude change.
Internalization is the process of acceptance of a set of norms established by people or groups that are influential to the individual. The individual accepts the influence because the content of the influence accepted is intrinsically rewarding. It is congruent with the individual 's value system, and according to Kelman the "reward '' of internalization is "the content of the new behavior ''.
Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in behavior, belief, or thinking to align with those of others or with normative standards. It is the most common and pervasive form of social influence. Social psychology research in conformity tends to distinguish between two varieties: informational conformity (also called social proof, or "internalization '' in Kelman 's terms) and normative conformity ("compliance '' in Kelman 's terms).
In the case of peer pressure, a person is convinced to do something that they might not want to do (such as taking illegal drugs) but which they perceive as "necessary '' to keep a positive relationship with other people (such as their friends). Conformity from peer pressure generally results from identification with the group members or from compliance of some members to appease others.
Conformity can be in appearance, or may be more complete in nature; impacting an individual both publicly and privately.
Compliance (also referred to as acquiescence) demonstrates a public conformity to a group majority or norm, while the individual continues to privately disagree or dissent, holding on to their original beliefs or to an alternative set of beliefs differing from the majority. Compliance appears as conformity, but there is a division between the public and the private self.
Conversion includes the private acceptance that is absent in compliance. The individual 's original behaviour, beliefs, or thinking changes to align with that of others (the influencers), both publicly and privately. The individual has accepted the behavior, belief, or thinking, and has internalized it, making it his own. Conversion may also refer to individual members of a group changing from their initial (and varied) opinions to adopt the opinions of others, which may differ from their original opinions. The resulting group position may be a hybrid of various aspects of individual initial opinions, or it may be an alternative independent of the initial positions reached through consensus.
What appears to be conformity may in fact be congruence. Congruence occurs when an individual 's behavior, belief, or thinking is already aligned with that of the others, and no change occurs.
In situations where conformity (including compliance, conversion, and congruence) is absent, there are non-conformity processes such as independence and anti-conformity. Independence, also referred to as dissent, involves an individual (either through their actions or lack of action, or through the public expression of their beliefs or thinking) being aligned with their personal standards but inconsistent with those of other members of the group (either all of the group or a majority). Anti-conformity, also referred to as counter-conformity, may appear as independence, but it lacks alignment with personal standards and is for the purpose of challenging the group. Actions as well as stated opinions and beliefs are often diametrically opposed to that of the group norm or majority. The underlying reasons for this type of behavior may be rebelliousness / obstinacy or it may be to ensure that all alternatives and view points are given due consideration.
Minority influence takes place when a majority is influenced to accept the beliefs or behaviors of a minority. Minority influence can be affected by the sizes of majority and minority groups, the level of consistency of the minority group, and situational factors (such as the affluence or social importance of the minority). Minority influence most often operates through informational social influence (as opposed to normative social influence) because the majority may be indifferent to the liking of the minority.
A self - fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true due to positive feedback between belief and behavior. A prophecy declared as truth (when it is actually false) may sufficiently influence people, either through fear or logical confusion, so that their reactions ultimately fulfill the once - false prophecy. This term is credited to sociologist Robert K. Merton from an article he published in 1948.
Reactance is the adoption of a view contrary to the view that a person is being pressured to accept, perhaps due to a perceived threat to behavioral freedoms. This phenomenon has also been called anticonformity. While the results are the opposite of what the influencer intended, the reactive behavior is a result of social pressure. It is notable that anticonformity does not necessarily mean independence. In many studies, reactance manifests itself in a deliberate rejection of an influence, even if the influence is clearly correct.
Obedience is a form of social influence that derives from an authority figure. The Milgram experiment, Zimbardo 's Stanford prison experiment, and the Hofling hospital experiment are three particularly well - known experiments on obedience, and they all conclude that humans are surprisingly obedient in the presence of perceived legitimate authority figures.
Persuasion is the process of guiding oneself or another toward the adoption of an attitude by rational or symbolic means. Robert Cialdini defined six "weapons of influence '': reciprocity, commitment, social proof, authority, liking, and scarcity. These "weapons of influence '' attempt to bring about conformity by directed means. Persuasion can occur through appeals to reason or appeals to emotion.
Psychological manipulation is a type of social influence that aims to change the behavior or perception of others through abusive, deceptive, or underhanded tactics. By advancing the interests of the manipulator, often at another 's expense, such methods could be considered exploitative, abusive, devious, and deceptive.
Social influence is not necessarily negative. For example, doctors can try to persuade patients to change unhealthy habits. Social influence is generally perceived to be harmless when it respects the right of the influenced to accept or reject it, and is not unduly coercive. Depending on the context and motivations, social influence may constitute underhanded manipulation.
Controlling abusers use tactics to exert power and control over their victims. The goal of the abuser is to control and intimidate the victim or to influence them to feel that they do not have an equal voice in the relationship.
Propaganda is information that is not objective and is used primarily to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded language to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is presented.
Hard power is the use of military and economic means to influence the behavior or interests of other political bodies. This form of political power is often aggressive (coercion), and is most effective when imposed by one political body upon another of lesser military and / or economic power. Hard power contrasts with soft power, which comes from diplomacy, culture and history.
Many factors can affect the impact of social influence.
Social impact theory was developed by Bibb Latané in 1981. This theory asserts that there are three factors which increase a person 's likelihood to respond to social influence:
Robert Cialdini defines six "weapons of influence '' that can contribute to an individual 's propensity to be influenced by a persuader:
Social Influence is strongest when the group perpetrating it is consistent and committed. Even a single instance of dissent can greatly wane the strength of an influence. For example, in Milgram 's first set of obedience experiments, 65 % of participants complied with fake authority figures to administer "maximum shocks '' to a confederate. In iterations of the Milgram experiment where three people administered shocks (two of whom were confederates), once one confederate disobeyed, only ten percent of subjects administered the maximum shocks.
Those perceived as experts may exert social influence as a result of their perceived expertise. This involves credibility, a tool of social influence from which one draws upon the notion of trust. People believe an individual to be credible for a variety of reasons, such as perceived experience, attractiveness, knowledge, etc. Additionally, pressure to maintain one 's reputation and not be viewed as fringe may increase the tendency to agree with the group. This phenomenon is known as groupthink. Appeals to authority may especially affect norms of obedience. The compliance of normal humans to authority in the famous Milgram experiment demonstrate the power of perceived authority.
Those with access to the media may use this access in an attempt to influence the public. For example, a politician may use speeches to persuade the public to support issues that he or she does not have the power to impose on the public. This is often referred to as using the "bully pulpit. '' Likewise, celebrities do n't usually possess any political power, but they are familiar to many of the world 's citizens and, therefore, possess social status.
Power is one of the biggest reasons an individual feels the need to follow through with the suggestions of another. A person who possesses more authority (or is perceived as being more powerful) than others in a group is an icon or is most "popular '' within a group. This person has the most influence over others. For example, in a child 's school life, people who seem to control the perceptions of the students at school are most powerful in having a social influence over other children.
Culture appears to play a role in the willingness of an individual to conform to the standards of a group. Stanley Milgram found that conformity was higher in Norway than in France. This has been attributed to Norway 's longstanding tradition of social responsibility, compared to France 's cultural focus on individualism. Japan likewise has a collectivist culture and thus a higher propensity to conformity. However, a 1970 Asch - style study found that when alienated, Japanese students were more susceptible to anticonformity (giving answers that were incorrect even when the group had collaborated on correct answers) one third of the time, significantly higher than has been seen in Asch studies in the past.
While gender does not significantly affect a person 's likelihood to conform, under certain conditions gender roles do affect such a likelihood. Studies from the 1950s and 1960s concluded that women were more likely to conform than men. But a 1971 study found that experimenter bias was involved; all of the researchers were male, while all of the research participants were female. Studies thereafter found that the likelihood to conform almost equal between the genders. Furthermore, men conformed more often when faced with traditionally feminine topics, and women conformed more often when presented with masculine topics. In other words, ignorance about a subject can lead a person to defer to "social proof ''.
Emotion and disposition may affect an individual 's likelihood of conformity or anticonformity. In 2009, a study concluded that fear increases the chance of agreeing with a group, while romance or lust increases the chance of going against the group.
A social network is a social structure made up of nodes (representing individuals or organizations) which are connected (through ties, also called edges, connections, or links) by one or more types of interdependency (such as friendship, common interests or beliefs, sexual relations, or kinship). Social network analysis uses the lens of network theory to examine social relationships. Social network analysis as a field has become more prominent since the mid-20th century in determining the channels and effects of social influence. For example, Christakis and Fowler found that social networks transmit states and behaviors such as obesity, smoking, drinking and happiness.
Identifying the extent of social influence, based on large - scale observational data with a latent social network structure, is pertinent to a variety of collective social phenomena including crime, civil unrest, and voting behavior in elections. For example, methodologies for disentangling social influence by peers from external influences -- with latent social network structures and large - scale observational data -- were applied to US presidential elections, stock markets, and civil unrest.
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how is the nba draft order determined for playoff teams | NBA draft lottery - wikipedia
The NBA Draft lottery is an annual event held by the National Basketball Association (NBA), in which the teams who had missed the playoffs that previous year participate in a lottery process to determine the draft order in the NBA draft. The NBA Draft lottery started in 1985. In the NBA draft, the teams obtain the rights to amateur U.S. college basketball players and other eligible players, including international players. The lottery winner would get the first selection in the draft. The term "lottery pick '' denotes a draft pick whose position is determined through the lottery, while the non-playoff teams involved in the process are often called "lottery teams. ''
Under the current rules, only the top three picks are decided by the lottery, and are chosen from the 14 teams that do not make the playoffs. The team with the worst record, or the team that holds the draft rights of the team with the worst record, has the best chance to obtain a higher draft pick. After the top three positions are selected (from the lottery slotting system), the remainder of the first - round draft order is in inverse order of the win - loss record for the remaining teams, or the teams who originally held the lottery rights if they were traded. The lottery does not determine the draft order in the subsequent rounds of the draft.
Beginning with the 2019 draft, the NBA will change the lottery odds (the bottom three teams will all have an equal 14 % chance of winning the top pick) and increase the number of teams selected in the lottery from three to four.
In the earlier drafts, the teams would draft in reverse order of their win - loss record. However, a special territorial - pick rule allowed a team to draft a player from its local area. If a team decided to use its territorial pick, it forfeited its first - round pick in the draft. The territorial pick rules remained until the NBA revamped the draft system in 1966.
In 1966, the NBA introduced a coin flip between the worst teams in each conference to determine who would obtain the first overall draft pick. The team who lost the coin flip would get the second pick, while the rest of the first - round picks were determined in reverse order of the win - loss record. In this system, the second - worst team would never have a chance to obtain the first pick if it was in the same division as the worst team. The coin flip meant that both teams had an equal chance to draft first. The coin - flip system remained in operation until 1984.
After the 1984 coin flip, which was won by the Houston Rockets, the NBA introduced the lottery system to counter the accusations that the Rockets and several other teams were deliberately losing their regular season games in order to secure the worst record and consequently the chance to obtain the first pick. The lottery system involved a random drawing of an envelope from a hopper. Inside each of the envelopes was the name of a non-playoff team. The team whose envelope was drawn first would get the first pick. The process was then repeated until the rest of the lottery picks were determined. In this system, each non-playoff team had an equal chance to obtain the first pick. The rest of the first - round picks were determined in reverse order of the win - loss record.
Starting from 1987, the NBA modified the lottery system so that only the first three picks were determined by the lottery. After the three envelopes were drawn, the remaining non-playoff teams would select in reverse order of their win - loss record. This meant that the team with the worst record could receive no worse than the fourth selection, and the second - worst team could pick no lower than fifth, and so on.
The New York Knicks were the first winner of the lottery in 1985. They selected Georgetown University standout Patrick Ewing with their first overall pick. However, speculation arose that the NBA had rigged the lottery so that the Knicks would be assured to get the first pick. Even though the envelope system was highly criticized, it was used until 1989 before being replaced by the weighted lottery system in 1990.
In 1990, the NBA changed the format of the lottery to give the team with the worst record the best chance of landing the first pick. The worst non-playoff team that season would have 11 chances, out of 66, to obtain the first pick. The second worst would have 10 chances, and so on. Similarly to the previous system, the weighted lottery system was also used only to determine the first three picks, while the rest of the teams selected in reverse order of their win - loss records.
Despite the weighted odds, the Orlando Magic managed to win the lottery in 1993 with only one chance to obtain the first pick as it was the best non-playoff team in the previous season. In October 1993, the NBA modified the lottery system to give the team with the worst record a higher chance to win the draft lottery and to decrease the better teams ' chances to win. The new system increased the chances of the worst team obtaining the first pick in the draft from 16.7 percent to 25 percent, while decreasing the chances of the best non-playoff team from 1.5 percent to 0.5 percent.
In the new system, 14 numbered table tennis balls were used. Then, a four - number combination from the 14 balls were drawn to determine the lottery winner. Prior to the draft, the NBA assigns 1,000 possible combinations to the non-playoff teams (the 11 - 12 - 13 - 14 combination is ignored and redrawn). The process was then repeated to determine the second and third pick. The table below shows the lottery chances and the probabilities for each team to win the first pick in the weighted lottery system in 1993 and 1994 draft.
In 2014, the NBA Board of Governors voted on a proposed reform to the lottery. If the proposed changes passed, the four worst teams in the league would have been given identical odds (around 11 percent) at winning the top pick. The fifth team would have a 10 percent chance and the odds would decrease for each team picking after. The proposed changes would take away the advantage of having the worst record in the league (currently the worst team is given a 25 % chance at the pick), and would work to keep teams competitive throughout the entire season. The final vote was 17 - 13 in favor of the reform, but that was short of the required 23 votes needed to push the change through.
In 2016, Dikembe Mutombo made people question the draft 's legitimacy when he prematurely tweeted a congratulatory message to the Philadelphia 76ers for receiving the first pick hours before the lottery was conducted. Philadelphia did indeed win the first overall pick. Further questions were raised a bit when the NBA Draft revealed that every spot remained exactly the same as it was before the event took place, which was the first occurrence in draft lottery history. A year later, Lakers executive Magic Johnson raised even further questions about the draft process with him assuring head coach Luke Walton that the Lakers would acquire a top 3 pick for the 2017 NBA draft after an interview Walton had on May 4, 2017, twelve days before the draft lottery commenced and moved up to the second pick. As a result of the way teams like the Philadelphia 76ers were manipulating draft odds in their favor by losing games on purpose, starting September 28, 2017 with the end of the 2018 NBA draft, the NBA would implement a new system discouraging teams from going through Philadelphia 's route in the mid-2010s by not only giving the worst three teams equal odds at the # 1 pick, but also increasing their odds at going down within the draft with four teams being selected instead of the usual three.
In 1995, the NBA had an agreement with the two expansion franchises, the Toronto Raptors and the Vancouver Grizzlies that neither team would be eligible to obtain the first overall pick in the 1996, 1997 and 1998 drafts. The Raptors won the 1996 lottery but were forced to settle for the second pick. Another combination was drawn and resulted in the Philadelphia 76ers getting the first pick. Two years later, the Grizzlies won the lottery and likewise had to pick second in the draft, while the L.A. Clippers obtained the first pick.
The lottery is normally held during either the third or fourth week of May.
To determine the winner, fourteen ping pong balls numbered 1 -- 14 are placed in a standard lottery machine and four balls are randomly selected from the lot. Just as in most traditional lotteries, the order in which the numbers are drawn is not important. That is, 1 -- 2 -- 3 -- 4 is considered to be the same as 4 -- 3 -- 2 -- 1. There are a total of 1,001 combinations (or 14! / (10! x 4!)). Of these combinations, one outcome is disregarded and the remaining outcomes are distributed among the 14 non-playoff NBA teams. The combination 11 -- 12 -- 13 -- 14 (in any order that those numbers are drawn) is not assigned and is ignored if drawn; this has never occurred in practice.
In the event a lottery pick is traded to another team, the record of the original team (whose pick it was before the trade) still determines eligibility for the lottery, and assignment of chances.
Since 2005, with 30 NBA teams, 16 qualify for the playoffs and the remaining 14 teams enter in the draft lottery. These 14 teams were ranked in reverse order of their regular season record and assigned the following number of chances, up to 2018:
The following table listed the odds for each seed to get specific picks if there were no ties (rounded to three decimal places).
Beginning with the 2019 draft, the NBA will change the lottery odds as follows:
The following table lists the odds for each seed to get specific picks, beginning with the 2019 draft, if there were no ties (rounded to three decimal places).
In the event that teams finish with the same record, each tied team receives the average of the total number of combinations for the positions that they occupy. In 2007, the Minnesota Timberwolves and the Portland Trail Blazers tied for the sixth worst record. The average of the 6th and 7th positions in the lottery was taken, resulting in each team getting 53 combinations (the average of 63 and 43). Should the average number not be an integer, a coin flip is then used to determine which team or teams receive the extra combination. The result of the coin flip is also used to determine who receives the earlier pick in the event that neither of the tied teams wins one of the first three picks via the lottery.
The lottery is conducted with witnesses (from the accounting firm Ernst & Young) verifying that all fourteen balls are represented once as they are placed in the lottery machine. The balls are placed in the machine for 20 seconds to randomize before the first ball is drawn. The remaining three balls are drawn at 10 - second intervals. NBA officials determine which team holds the winning combination and that franchise is awarded the # 1 overall draft pick. The four balls are returned to the machine and the process is repeated to determine the second and third picks. In the event that a combination belongs to a team that has already won its pick (or if the one unassigned combination comes up), the round is repeated until a unique winner is determined. When the first three teams have been determined, the remaining picks are given out based on regular season record with the worst teams getting the highest picks. This assures each team that it can drop no more than three spots from its projected draft position.
In a case where a lottery team trades its pick to a playoff team, the playoff team assumes the lottery team 's position in all draft lottery situations, unless provisioned by the conditions of the trade.
The drawing of the ping - pong balls is conducted in private, though observed by independent auditors and representatives from each team. The results are subsequently presented in a short ceremony (typically broadcast prior to or during halftime of an NBA playoff game), in which the order of the lottery is announced in reverse order, from the fourteenth selection to the first. Representatives from each NBA franchise with a lottery pick are present at the lottery ceremony.
The decision of not showing the ping - pong balls live has fueled speculation that the NBA will occasionally fix the draft lottery if it can benefit the league. The speculation originated with the 1985 draft lottery that sent Patrick Ewing to New York, with the theory being that the NBA wanted to send the best player in the draft to New York to increase ratings in a large television market. At that time, the NBA used 7 envelopes in a tumbler representing the seven teams with the worst record. Some have speculated that the envelope containing the Knicks logo was refrigerated beforehand, enabling David Stern to recognize and select it. Another conspiracy theory suggests that one of the seven envelopes was thrown into the tumbler, causing one of the corners to fold. After the envelopes were mixed, Stern took a deep breath before reaching into the tumbler and picking the envelope with the folded corner. No one has ever explained why all the other teams would go along with the fix. Afterward, the Draft Lottery Format was changed to the current ping - pong ball lottery in a private room with team representatives. However, despite the lack of any evidence, conspiracy theories still persist regarding the annual outcome of the lottery.
The largest upset in the lottery occurred in 1993 when the Magic won the lottery with just a 1.5 % chance to win. The second largest upsets occurred in 2008 and 2014 when the Chicago Bulls and Cleveland Cavaliers both won their respective lotteries with just a 1.7 % chance. In 1999, the Charlotte Hornets also overcame long odds in the draft lottery when they won the third pick despite having the best record among all non-playoff teams. The Hornets only had a 1.83 % chance of winning a top - three pick. Since the lottery was introduced in 1985, only 18 of 30 NBA teams have won the lottery. The Los Angeles Clippers have won five lotteries, although two of them were conveyed to other teams in trades prior to the lottery. The Orlando Magic and Cleveland Cavaliers are second with three lottery wins each. Since the weighted lottery system was introduced in 1990, only four teams with the worst record went on to win the lottery while only four teams with the second - worst record have won the lottery.
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who plays marcus mom in about a boy | About a Boy (film) - wikipedia
About a Boy is a 2002 British - American - French - German comedy - drama film produced by Jane Rosenthal, Robert De Niro, Brad Epstein, Tim Bevan and Eric Fellner, co-written and directed by brothers Chris Weitz and Paul Weitz with music by Badly Drawn Boy and written by Peter Hedges. It is an adaptation of the 1998 novel of the same name by Nick Hornby. The film stars are Hugh Grant, Nicholas Hoult, Toni Collette, and Rachel Weisz. The film at times uses double voice - over narration, when the audience hears both Will 's and Marcus 's thoughts.
The film was theatrically released on 26 April 2002 by Universal Pictures. It was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. Actors Hugh Grant and Toni Collette were nominated for a Golden Globe and a BAFTA Award, respectively, for their performances. The film received positive reviews from critics and it earned $130.5 million on a $30 million budget.
Will Freeman lives a serene and luxurious lifestyle devoid of responsibility in London thanks to substantial royalties left to him from a successful Christmas song composed by his father. Will begins attending a support group, called SPAT (Single Parents Alone Together), for single parents as a way to meet women and as part of his ploy, invents a two - year - old son named Ned. His plan succeeds and he meets Suzie. Will brings Suzie on a picnic where he meets Marcus, the 12 - year - old son of Suzie 's friend, Fiona. Will gains Marcus 's interest and trust after he lies to a park ranger to cover up for Marcus accidentally killing a duck by throwing his mother 's concrete loaf at it. Afterward, when Will and Suzie take Marcus home, they find Fiona in the living room, overdosed on pills in a suicide attempt.
Marcus attempts to fix Will up with his mother in order to cheer her up, but the plan fails after a single date. Instead, Marcus becomes close to Will after blackmailing him with the knowledge that "Ned '' does n't exist, and begins to treat him as a surrogate big brother. Marcus 's influence leads Will to mature and he seeks out a relationship with Rachel, a self - assured career woman, bonding over their experiences raising teenaged sons, though Will neglects to explain his relationship to Marcus and mistakenly introduces Marcus to Rachel 's insecure son, Allie, who threatens to kill him. Marcus, in turn, develops a crush on his schoolmate Ellie but gives up his romantic interest in favor of a close platonic friendship. Will, realizing that he desires true intimacy with Rachel, decides to be honest with her about his relationship with Marcus, but this backfires and their relationship ends.
One day, Marcus comes home from school to find his mother crying in the living room. Marcus attempts to tell this to Will, but Will is withdrawn following his break - up. Marcus decides to sing at a school talent show in order to make his mother happy. Will attempts to return to his previous lifestyle, but finds it unfulfiling. Will realizes that the one thing that means something to him is Marcus, and decides to help him. He crashes a meeting of the single parents support group to find Fiona and beg her not to commit suicide. She assures him that she has no plans to do so and reveals that Marcus has decided to sing at the school show that day.
Will realizes this will be a huge embarrassment for Marcus and rushes with Fiona to the school to stop him, but Marcus is steadfast in his decision to perform, believing it will be the only thing that will make his mother happy. When Marcus steps on stage and sings his mother 's favorite song -- "Killing Me Softly with His Song '' -- the student body starts to taunt him. Suddenly, Will appears onstage with a guitar to accompany Marcus for the rest of the song, earning themselves a modest applause. Will performs an unnecessary solo immediately afterward, turning himself into the butt of the joke and rescuing Marcus from humiliation and even social suicide.
The following Christmas, Will is back with Rachel and hosts a celebration at his place with his new extended family. The idea of Will marrying Rachel is brought up and Marcus seems unenthusiastic. But Marcus reveals in voiceover that he is not against Will and Rachel marrying, merely that he believes that couples do not work on their own and that everyone needs an extended support system like he now has, concluding "No man is an island. ''
The film was released theatrically on 26 April 2002 by Universal Pictures and was released on DVD and VHS on 2 December, 2002 by Universal Studios Home Entertainment.
The film received critical acclaim, with a 94 % ' Certified Fresh ' rating on Rotten Tomatoes. The film, with a budget of US $30 million, grossed a worldwide total of US $130,549,455. In December 2002, the film was chosen by the American Film Institute as one of the ten best movies of the year. The film received a B+ CinemaScore from American audiences. Almost universally praised, with an Academy Award - nominated screenplay, About a Boy was determined by The Washington Post to be "that rare romantic comedy that dares to choose messiness over closure, prickly independence over fetishised coupledom, and honesty over typical Hollywood endings. '' Rolling Stone wrote, "The acid comedy of Grant 's performance carries the film (and he) gives this pleasing heartbreaker the touch of gravity it needs ''.
Roger Ebert observed that "the Cary Grant department is understaffed, and Hugh Grant shows here that he is more than a star, he is a resource. '' The film earned Grant his third Golden Globe nomination, while the London Film Critics Circle named Grant its Best British Actor and GQ honoured him as one of the magazine 's men of the year 2006. "His performance can only be described as revelatory, '' wrote critic Ann Hornaday, adding that "Grant lends the shoals layer upon layer of desire, terror, ambivalence and self - awareness. ''
The New York Observer concluded: "(The film) gets most of its laughs from the evolved expertise of Hugh Grant in playing characters that audiences enjoy seeing taken down a peg or two as a punishment for philandering and womanising and simply being too handsome for words -- and with an English accent besides. In the end, the film comes over as a messy delight, thanks to the skill, generosity and good - sport, punching - bag panache of Mr. Grant 's performance. '' About a Boy also marked a notable change in Grant 's boyish look. Now 41, he had lost weight and also abandoned his trademark floppy hair. Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman took note of Grant 's maturation in his review, saying he looked noticeably older and that it "looked good on him. '' He added that Grant 's "pillowy cheeks are flatter and a bit drawn, and the eyes that used to peer with ' love me ' cuteness now betray a shark 's casual cunning. Everything about him is leaner and spikier (including his hair, which has been shorn and moussed into a Eurochic bed - head mess), but it 's not just his surface that 's more virile; the nervousness is gone, too. Hugh Grant has grown up, holding on to his lightness and witty cynicism but losing the stuttering sherry - club mannerisms that were once his signature. In doing so, he has blossomed into the rare actor who can play a silver - tongued sleaze with a hidden inner decency. ''
The soundtrack was released on 23 April 2002, composed by singer / songwriter Badly Drawn Boy.
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where does it say seperation of church and state | Separation of church and state in the United States - Wikipedia
"Separation of church and state '' is paraphrased from Thomas Jefferson and used by others expressing an understanding of the intent and function of the Establishment Clause and Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States which reads: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof... ''
The phrase "separation between church & state '' is generally traced to a January 1, 1802 letter by Thomas Jefferson, addressed to the Danbury Baptist Association in Connecticut, and published in a Massachusetts newspaper. Jefferson wrote,
Jefferson was echoing the language of the founder of the first Baptist church in America, Roger Williams who had written in 1644,
Article Six of the United States Constitution also specifies that "no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. ''
Jefferson 's metaphor of a wall of separation has been cited repeatedly by the U.S. Supreme Court. In Reynolds v. United States (1879) the Court wrote that Jefferson 's comments "may be accepted almost as an authoritative declaration of the scope and effect of the (First) Amendment. '' In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), Justice Hugo Black wrote: "In the words of Thomas Jefferson, the clause against establishment of religion by law was intended to erect a wall of separation between church and state. ''
However, the Court has not always interpreted the constitutional principle as absolute, and the proper extent of separation between government and religion in the U.S. remains an ongoing subject of impassioned debate.
Many early immigrant groups traveled to America to worship freely, particularly after the English Civil War and religious conflict in France and Germany. They included nonconformists like the Puritans, who were Protestant Christians fleeing religious persecution from the Anglican King of England. Despite a common background, the groups ' views on religious toleration were mixed. While some such as Roger Williams of Rhode Island and William Penn of Pennsylvania ensured the protection of religious minorities within their colonies, others like the Plymouth Colony and Massachusetts Bay Colony had established churches. The Dutch colony of New Netherland established the Dutch Reformed Church and outlawed all other worship, though enforcement was sparse. Religious conformity was desired partly for financial reasons: the established Church was responsible for poverty relief, putting dissenting churches at a significant disadvantage. This, along with many other statements should be footnoted, as it seems more like an opinion than a fact.
^ Note 1: In several colonies, the establishment ceased to exist in practice at the Revolution, about 1776; this is the date of permanent legal abolition.
^ Note 2: in 1789 the Georgia Constitution was amended as follows: "Article IV. Section 10. No person within this state shall, upon any pretense, be deprived of the inestimable privilege of worshipping God in any manner agreeable to his own conscience, nor be compelled to attend any place of worship contrary to his own faith and judgment; nor shall he ever be obliged to pay tithes, taxes, or any other rate, for the building or repairing any place of worship, or for the maintenance of any minister or ministry, contrary to what he believes to be right, or hath voluntarily engaged to do. No one religious society shall ever be established in this state, in preference to another; nor shall any person be denied the enjoyment of any civil right merely on account of his religious principles. ''
^ Note 3: From 1780 Massachusetts had a system which required every man to belong to a church, and permitted each church to tax its members, but forbade any law requiring that it be of any particular denomination. This was objected to, as in practice establishing the Congregational Church, the majority denomination, and was abolished in 1833.
^ Note 4: Until 1877 the New Hampshire Constitution required members of the State legislature to be of the Protestant religion.
^ Note 5: The North Carolina Constitution of 1776 disestablished the Anglican church, but until 1835 the NC Constitution allowed only Protestants to hold public office. From 1835 to 1876 it allowed only Christians (including Catholics) to hold public office. Article VI, Section 8 of the current NC Constitution forbids only atheists from holding public office. Such clauses were held by the United States Supreme Court to be unenforceable in the 1961 case of Torcaso v. Watkins, when the court ruled unanimously that such clauses constituted a religious test incompatible with First and Fourteenth Amendment protections.
^ Note 6: Religious tolerance for Catholics with an established Church of England was policy in the former Spanish Colonies of East and West Florida while under British rule.
^ Note 7: In Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the American Revolutionary War, the British ceded both East and West Florida back to Spain (see Spanish Florida).
^ Note 8: Tithes for the support of the Anglican Church in Virginia were suspended in 1776, and never restored. 1786 is the date of the Virginia Statute of Religious Freedom, which prohibited any coercion to support any religious body.
The Flushing Remonstrance shows support for separation of church and state as early as the mid-17th century, stating their opposition to religious persecution of any sort: "The law of love, peace and liberty in the states extending to Jews, Turks and Egyptians, as they are considered sons of Adam, which is the glory of the outward state of Holland, so love, peace and liberty, extending to all in Christ Jesus, condemns hatred, war and bondage. '' The document was signed December 27, 1657 by a group of English citizens in America who were affronted by persecution of Quakers and the religious policies of the Governor of New Netherland, Peter Stuyvesant. Stuyvesant had formally banned all religions other than the Dutch Reformed Church from being practiced in the colony, in accordance with the laws of the Dutch Republic. The signers indicated their "desire therefore in this case not to judge lest we be judged, neither to condemn least we be condemned, but rather let every man stand or fall to his own Master. '' Stuyvesant fined the petitioners and threw them in prison until they recanted. However, John Bowne allowed the Quakers to meet in his home. Bowne was arrested, jailed, and sent to the Netherlands for trial; the Dutch court exonerated Bowne.
New York Historical Society President and Columbia University Professor of History Kenneth T. Jackson describes the Flushing Remonstrance as "the first thing that we have in writing in the United States where a group of citizens attests on paper and over their signature the right of the people to follow their own conscience with regard to God - and the inability of government, or the illegality of government, to interfere with that. ''
Given the wide diversity of opinion on Christian theological matters in the newly independent American States, the Constitutional Convention believed a government sanctioned (established) religion would disrupt rather than bind the newly formed union together. George Washington wrote a letter in 1790 to the country 's first Jewish congregation, the Touro Synagogue in Newport, Rhode Island to state:
Allowing rights and immunities of citizenship. It is now no more that toleration is spoken of, as if it were by the indulgence of one class of people, that another enjoyed the exercise of their inherent natural rights. For happily the Government of the United States, which gives to bigotry no sanction, to persecution no assistance requires only that they who live under its protection should demean themselves as good citizens, in giving it on all occasions their effectual support.
There were also opponents to the support of any established church even at the state level. In 1773, Isaac Backus, a prominent Baptist minister in New England, wrote against a state sanctioned religion, saying: "Now who can hear Christ declare, that his kingdom is, not of this world, and yet believe that this blending of church and state together can be pleasing to him? '' He also observed that when "church and state are separate, the effects are happy, and they do not at all interfere with each other: but where they have been confounded together, no tongue nor pen can fully describe the mischiefs that have ensued. '' Thomas Jefferson 's influential Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom was enacted in 1786, five years before the Bill of Rights.
Most Anglican ministers, and many Anglicans, were Loyalists. The Anglican establishment, where it had existed, largely ceased to function during the American Revolution, though the new States did not formally abolish and replace it until some years after the Revolution.
The phrase "(A) hedge or wall of separation between the garden of the church and the wilderness of the world '' was first used by Baptist theologian Roger Williams, the founder of the colony of Rhode Island, in his 1644 book The Bloody Tenent of Persecution. The phrase was later used by Thomas Jefferson as a description of the First Amendment and its restriction on the legislative branch of the federal government, in an 1802 letter to the Danbury Baptists (a religious minority concerned about the dominant position of the Congregationalist church in Connecticut):
Believing with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between man and his god, that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship, that the legitimate powers of government reach actions only, and not opinions, I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their "legislature '' should "make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, '' thus building a wall of separation between church and State. Adhering to this expression of the supreme will of the nation in behalf of the rights of conscience, I shall see with sincere satisfaction the progress of those sentiments which tend to restore to man all his natural rights, convinced he has no natural right in opposition to his social duties.
Jefferson 's letter was in reply to a letter that he had received from the Danbury Baptist Association dated October 7, 1801. In an 1808 letter to Virginia Baptists, Jefferson used the same theme:
We have solved, by fair experiment, the great and interesting question whether freedom of religion is compatible with order in government and obedience to the laws. And we have experienced the quiet as well as the comfort which results from leaving every one to profess freely and openly those principles of religion which are the inductions of his own reason and the serious convictions of his own inquiries.
Jefferson and James Madison 's conceptions of separation have long been debated. Jefferson refused to issue Proclamations of Thanksgiving sent to him by Congress during his presidency, though he did issue a Thanksgiving and Prayer proclamation as Governor of Virginia. Madison issued four religious proclamations while President, but vetoed two bills on the grounds they violated the first amendment. On the other hand, both Jefferson and Madison attended religious services at the Capitol. Years before the ratification of the Constitution, Madison contended "Because if Religion be exempt from the authority of the Society at large, still less can it be subject to that of the Legislative Body. '' After retiring from the presidency, Madison wrote of "total separation of the church from the state. '' ""Strongly guarded as is the separation between Religion & Govt in the Constitution of the United States, '' Madison wrote, and he declared, "practical distinction between Religion and Civil Government is essential to the purity of both, and as guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States. '' In a letter to Edward Livingston Madison further expanded, "We are teaching the world the great truth that Govts. do better without Kings & Nobles than with them. The merit will be doubled by the other lesson that Religion flourishes in greater purity, without than with the aid of Govt. '' Madison 's original draft of the Bill of Rights had included provisions binding the States, as well as the Federal Government, from an establishment of religion, but the House did not pass them.
Jefferson 's opponents said his position was the destruction and the governmental rejection of Christianity, but this was a caricature. In setting up the University of Virginia, Jefferson encouraged all the separate sects to have preachers of their own, though there was a constitutional ban on the State supporting a Professorship of Divinity, arising from his own Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. Some have argued that this arrangement was "fully compatible with Jefferson 's views on the separation of church and state; '' however, others point to Jefferson 's support for a scheme in which students at the university would attend religious worship each morning as evidence that his views were not consistent with strict separation. Still other scholars, such as Mark David Hall, attempt to sidestep the whole issue by arguing that American jurisprudence focuses too narrowly on this one Jeffersonian letter while failing to account for other relevant history
Jefferson 's letter entered American jurisprudence in the 1878 Mormon polygamy case Reynolds v. U.S., in which the court cited Jefferson and Madison, seeking a legal definition for the word religion. Writing for the majority, Justice Stephen Johnson Field cited Jefferson 's Letter to the Danbury Baptists to state that "Congress was deprived of all legislative power over mere opinion, but was left free to reach actions which were in violation of social duties or subversive of good order. '' Considering this, the court ruled that outlawing polygamy was constitutional.
Jefferson and Madison 's approach was not the only one taken in the eighteenth century. Jefferson 's Statute of Religious Freedom was drafted in opposition to a bill, chiefly supported by Patrick Henry, which would permit any Virginian to belong to any denomination, but which would require him to belong to some denomination and pay taxes to support it. Similarly, the Constitution of Massachusetts originally provided that "no subject shall be hurt, molested, or restrained, in his person, liberty, or estate, for worshipping God in the manner and season most agreeable to the dictates of his own conscience... provided he doth not disturb the public peace, or obstruct others in their religious worship, '' (Article II) but also that:
the people of this commonwealth have a right to invest their legislature with power to authorize and require, and the legislature shall, from time to time, authorize and require, the several towns, parishes, precincts, and other bodies politic, or religious societies, to make suitable provision, at their own expense, for the institution of the public worship of God, and for the support and maintenance of public Protestant teachers of piety, religion and morality, in all cases where such provision shall not be made voluntarily. And the people of this commonwealth have also a right to, and do, invest their legislature with authority to enjoin upon all the subjects an attendance upon the instructions of the public teachers aforesaid, at stated times and seasons, if there be any on whose instructions they can conscientiously and conveniently attend. (Article III)
Since, in practice, this meant that the decision of who was taxable for a particular religion rested in the hands of the selectmen, usually Congregationalists, this system was open to abuse. It was abolished in 1833. The intervening period is sometimes referred to as an "establishment of religion '' in Massachusetts.
The Duke of York had required that every community in his new lands of New York and New Jersey support some church, but this was more often Dutch Reformed, Quaker or Presbyterian, than Anglican. Some chose to support more than one church. He also ordained that the tax - payers were free, having paid his local tax, to choose their own church. The terms for the surrender of New Amsterdam had provided that the Dutch would have liberty of conscience, and the Duke, as an openly divine - right Catholic, was no friend of Anglicanism. The first Anglican minister in New Jersey arrived in 1698, though Anglicanism was more popular in New York.
Connecticut had a real establishment of religion. Its citizens did not adopt a constitution at the Revolution, but rather amended their Charter to remove all references to the British Government. As a result, the Congregational Church continued to be established, and Yale College, at that time a Congregational institution, received grants from the State until Connecticut adopted a constitution in 1818 partly because of this issue.
The absence of an establishment of religion did not necessarily imply that all men were free to hold office. Most colonies had a Test Act, and several states retained them for a short time. This stood in contrast to the Federal Constitution, which explicitly prohibits the employment of any religious test for Federal office, and which through the Fourteenth Amendment later extended this prohibition to the States.
For example, the New Jersey Constitution of 1776 provides liberty of conscience in much the same language as Massachusetts (similarly forbidding payment of "taxes, tithes or other payments '' contrary to conscience). It then provides:
That there shall be no establishment of any one religious sect in this Province, in preference to another; and that no Protestant inhabitant of this Colony shall be denied the enjoyment of any civil right, merely on account of his religious principles; but that all persons, professing a belief in the faith of any Protestant sect, who shall demean themselves peaceably under the government, as hereby established, shall be capable of being elected into any office of profit or trust, or being a member of either branch of the Legislature, and shall fully and freely enjoy every privilege and immunity, enjoyed by others their fellow subjects.
This would permit a Test Act, but did not require one.
The original charter of the Province of East Jersey had restricted membership in the Assembly to Christians; the Duke of York was fervently Catholic, and the proprietors of Perth Amboy, New Jersey were Scottish Catholic peers. The Province of West Jersey had declared, in 1681, that there should be no religious test for office. An oath had also been imposed on the militia during the French and Indian War requiring them to abjure the pretensions of the Pope, which may or may not have been applied during the Revolution. That law was replaced by 1799.
The Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776 provided:
And each member, before he takes his seat, shall make and subscribe the following declaration, viz:
And no further or other religious test shall ever hereafter be required of any civil officer or magistrate in this State.
Again, it provided in general that all tax - paying freemen and their sons shall be able to vote, and that no "man, who acknowledges the being of a God, be justly deprived or abridged of any civil right as a citizen, on account of his religious sentiments or peculiar mode of religious worship. ''
Article Six of the United States Constitution provides that "no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States ''. Prior to the adoption of the Bill of Rights, this was the only mention of religion in the Constitution.
The first amendment to the US Constitution states "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof '' The two parts, known as the "establishment clause '' and the "free exercise clause '' respectively, form the textual basis for the Supreme Court 's interpretations of the "separation of church and state '' doctrine. Three central concepts were derived from the 1st Amendment which became America 's doctrine for church - state separation: no coercion in religious matters, no expectation to support a religion against one 's will, and religious liberty encompasses all religions. In sum, citizens are free to embrace or reject a faith, any support for religion - financial or physical - must be voluntary, and all religions are equal in the eyes of the law with no special preference or favoritism.
The First Congress ' deliberations show that its understanding of the separation of church and state differed sharply from that of their contemporaries in Europe. As 19th century Union Theological Seminary historian Philip Schaff observed:
The American separation of church and state rests upon respect for the church; the (European anticlerical) separation, on indifference and hatred of the church, and of religion itself.... The constitution did not create a nation, nor its religion and institutions. It found them already existing, and was framed for the purpose of protecting them under a republican form of government, in a rule of the people, by the people, and for the people.
An August 15, 1789 entry in Madison 's papers indicates he intended for the establishment clause to prevent the government imposition of religious beliefs on individuals. The entry says: "Mr. Madison said he apprehended the meaning of the words to be, that Congress should not establish a religion, and enforce the legal observation of it by law, nor compel men to worship God in any manner contrary to their conscience... ''
Some legal scholars, such as John Baker of LSU, theorize that Madison 's initial proposed language -- that Congress should make no law regarding the establishment of a "national religion '' -- was rejected by the House, in favor of the more general "religion '' in an effort to appease the Anti-Federalists. To both the Anti-Federalists and the Federalists, the very word "national '' was a cause for alarm because of the experience under the British crown. During the debate over the establishment clause, Rep. Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts took issue with Madison 's language regarding whether the government was a national or federal government (in which the states retained their individual sovereignty), which Baker suggests compelled Madison to withdraw his language from the debate.
Following the argument between Madison and Gerry, Rep. Samuel Livermore of New Hampshire proposed language stating that, "Congress shall make no laws touching religion or the rights of conscience. '' This raised an uproar from members, such as Rep. Benjamin Huntingdon of Connecticut and Rep. Peter Sylvester of New York, who worried the language could be used to harm religious practice.
Others, such as Rep. Roger Sherman of Connecticut, believed the clause was unnecessary because the original Constitution only gave Congress stated powers, which did not include establishing a national religion. Anti-Federalists such as Rep. Thomas Tucker of South Carolina moved to strike the establishment clause completely because it could preempt the religious clauses in the state constitutions. However, the Anti-Federalists were unsuccessful in persuading the House of Representatives to drop the clause from the first amendment.
The Senate went through several more narrowly targeted versions before reaching the contemporary language. One version read, "Congress shall make no law establishing one religious sect or society in preference to others, nor shall freedom of conscience be infringed, '' while another read, "Congress shall make no law establishing one particular religious denomination in preference to others. '' Ultimately, the Senate rejected the more narrowly targeted language.
At the time of the passage of the Bill of Rights, many states acted in ways that would now be held unconstitutional. All of the early official state churches were disestablished by 1833 (Massachusetts), including the Congregationalist establishment in Connecticut. It is commonly accepted that, under the doctrine of Incorporation -- which uses the Due Process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to hold the Bill of Rights applicable to the states -- these state churches could not be reestablished today.
Yet the provisions of state constitutions protected religious liberty, particularly the so - called freedom on conscience. During the nineteenth century (and before the incorporation of the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution through the Fourteenth Amendment), litigants turned to these provisions to challenge Sunday laws (blue laws), bible - reading in schools, and other ostensibly religious regulations.
The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (Amendment XIV) is one of the post-Civil War amendments, intended to secure rights for former slaves. It includes the due process and equal protection clauses among others. The amendment introduces the concept of incorporation of all relevant federal rights against the states. While it has not been fully implemented, the doctrine of incorporation has been used to ensure, through the Due Process Clause and Privileges and Immunities Clause, the application of most of the rights enumerated in the Bill of Rights to the states.
The incorporation of the First Amendment establishment clause in the landmark case of Everson v. Board of Education has impacted the subsequent interpretation of the separation of church and state in regard to the state governments. Although upholding the state law in that case, which provided for public busing to private religious schools, the Supreme Court held that the First Amendment establishment clause was fully applicable to the state governments. A more recent case involving the application of this principle against the states was Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet (1994).
Jefferson 's concept of "separation of church and state '' first became a part of Establishment Clause jurisprudence in Reynolds v. U.S., 98 U.S. 145 (1878). In that case, the court examined the history of religious liberty in the US, determining that while the constitution guarantees religious freedom, "The word ' religion ' is not defined in the Constitution. We must go elsewhere, therefore, to ascertain its meaning, and nowhere more appropriately, we think, than to the history of the times in the midst of which the provision was adopted. '' The court found that the leaders in advocating and formulating the constitutional guarantee of religious liberty were James Madison and Thomas Jefferson. Quoting the "separation '' paragraph from Jefferson 's letter to the Danbury Baptists, the court concluded that, "coming as this does from an acknowledged leader of the advocates of the measure, it may be accepted almost as an authoritative declaration of the scope and effect of the amendment thus secured. ''
The centrality of the "separation '' concept to the Religion Clauses of the Constitution was made explicit in Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U.S. 1 (1947), a case dealing with a New Jersey law that allowed government funds to pay for transportation of students to both public and Catholic schools. This was the first case in which the court applied the Establishment Clause to the laws of a state, having interpreted the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment as applying the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal legislature. Citing Jefferson, the court concluded that "The First Amendment has erected a wall between church and state. That wall must be kept high and impregnable. We could not approve the slightest breach. ''
While the decision (with four dissents) ultimately upheld the state law allowing the funding of transportation of students to religious schools, the majority opinion (by Justice Hugo Black) and the dissenting opinions (by Justice Wiley Blount Rutledge and Justice Robert H. Jackson) each explicitly stated that the Constitution has erected a "wall between church and state '' or a "separation of Church from State '': their disagreement was limited to whether this case of state funding of transportation to religious schools breached that wall. Rutledge, on behalf of the four dissenting justices, took the position that the majority had indeed permitted a violation of the wall of separation in this case: "Neither so high nor so impregnable today as yesterday is the wall raised between church and state by Virginia 's great statute of religious freedom and the First Amendment, now made applicable to all the states by the Fourteenth. '' Writing separately, Justice Jackson argued that "(T) here are no good grounds upon which to support the present legislation. In fact, the undertones of the opinion, advocating complete and uncompromising separation of Church from State, seem utterly discordant with its conclusion yielding support to their commingling in educational matters. ''
In 1962, the Supreme Court addressed the issue of officially sponsored prayer or religious recitations in public schools. In Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421 (1962), the Court, by a vote of 6 - 1, determined it unconstitutional for state officials to compose an official school prayer and require its recitation in public schools, even when the prayer is non-denominational and students may excuse themselves from participation. (The prayer required by the New York State Board of Regents prior to the Court 's decision consisted of: "Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers, and our country. Amen. '') As the Court stated:
The petitioners contend, among other things, that the state laws requiring or permitting use of the Regents ' prayer must be struck down as a violation of the Establishment Clause because that prayer was composed by governmental officials as a part of a governmental program to further religious beliefs. For this reason, petitioners argue, the State 's use of the Regents ' prayer in its public school system breaches the constitutional wall of separation between Church and State. We agree with that contention, since we think that the constitutional prohibition against laws respecting an establishment of religion must at least mean that, in this country, it is no part of the business of government to compose official prayers for any group of the American people to recite as a part of a religious program carried on by government.
The court noted that it "is a matter of history that this very practice of establishing governmentally composed prayers for religious services was one of the reasons which caused many of our early colonists to leave England and seek religious freedom in America. '' The lone dissenter, Justice Potter Stewart, objected to the court 's embrace of the "wall of separation '' metaphor: "I think that the Court 's task, in this as in all areas of constitutional adjudication, is not responsibly aided by the uncritical invocation of metaphors like the "wall of separation, '' a phrase nowhere to be found in the Constitution. ''
In Epperson v. Arkansas, 393 U.S. 97 (1968), the Supreme Court considered an Arkansas law that made it a crime "to teach the theory or doctrine that mankind ascended or descended from a lower order of animals, '' or "to adopt or use in any such institution a textbook that teaches '' this theory in any school or university that received public funds. The court 's opinion, written by Justice Abe Fortas, ruled that the Arkansas law violated "the constitutional prohibition of state laws respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. The overriding fact is that Arkansas ' law selects from the body of knowledge a particular segment which it proscribes for the sole reason that it is deemed to conflict with a particular religious doctrine; that is, with a particular interpretation of the Book of Genesis by a particular religious group. '' The court held that the Establishment Clause prohibits the state from advancing any religion, and that "(T) he state has no legitimate interest in protecting any or all religions from views distasteful to them. ''
In Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602 (1971), the court determined that a Pennsylvania state policy of reimbursing the salaries and related costs of teachers of secular subjects in private religious schools violated the Establishment Clause. The court 's decision argued that the separation of church and state could never be absolute: "Our prior holdings do not call for total separation between church and state; total separation is not possible in an absolute sense. Some relationship between government and religious organizations is inevitable, '' the court wrote. "Judicial caveats against entanglement must recognize that the line of separation, far from being a "wall, '' is a blurred, indistinct, and variable barrier depending on all the circumstances of a particular relationship. ''
Subsequent to this decision, the Supreme Court has applied a three - pronged test to determine whether government action comports with the Establishment Clause, known as the "Lemon Test ''. First, the law or policy must have been adopted with a neutral or non-religious purpose. Second, the principle or primary effect must be one that neither advances nor inhibits religion. Third, the statute or policy must not result in an "excessive entanglement '' of government with religion. (The decision in Lemon v. Kurtzman hinged upon the conclusion that the government benefits were flowing disproportionately to Catholic schools, and that Catholic schools were an integral component of the Catholic Church 's religious mission, thus the policy involved the state in an "excessive entanglement '' with religion.) Failure to meet any of these criteria is a proof that the statute or policy in question violates the Establishment Clause.
In 2002, a three judge panel on the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals held that classroom recitation of the Pledge of Allegiance in a California public school was unconstitutional, even when students were not compelled to recite it, due to the inclusion of the phrase "under God. '' In reaction to the case, Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow, both houses of Congress passed measures reaffirming their support for the pledge, and condemning the panel 's ruling. The case was appealed to the Supreme Court, where the case was ultimately overturned in June 2004, solely on procedural grounds not related to the substantive constitutional issue. Rather, a five - justice majority held that Newdow, a non-custodial parent suing on behalf of his daughter, lacked standing to sue.
When the Louisiana state legislature passed a law requiring public school biology teachers to give Creationism and Evolution equal time in the classroom, the Supreme Court ruled that the law was unconstitutional because it was intended to advance a particular religion, and did not serve the secular purpose of improved scientific education. (See also: Creation and evolution in public education)
The display of the Ten Commandments as part of courthouse displays was considered in a group of cases decided in summer of 2005, including McCreary County v. ACLU of Kentucky and Van Orden v. Perry. While parties on both sides hoped for a reformulation or clarification of the Lemon test, the two rulings ended with narrow 5 -- 4 and opposing decisions, with Justice Stephen Breyer the swing vote.
On December 20, 2005, the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit ruled in the case of ACLU v. Mercer County that the continued display of the Ten Commandments as part of a larger display on American legal traditions in a Kentucky courthouse was allowed, because the purpose of the display (educating the public on American legal traditions) was secular in nature. In ruling on the Mount Soledad cross controversy on May 3, 2006, however, a federal judge ruled that the cross on public property on Mount Soledad must be removed.
In what will be the case is Town of Greece v. Galloway, 12 - 696, the Supreme Court agreed to hear a case regarding whether prayers at town meetings, which are allowed, must allow various faiths to lead prayer, or whether the prayers can be predominately Christian. On May 5, 2014, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 5 - 4 in favor of the Town of Greece by holding that the U.S. Constitution not only allows for prayer at government meetings, but also for sectarian prayers like predominately Christian prayers.
In 1797, the United States Senate ratified a treaty with Tripoli that stated in Article 11:
As the Government of the United States of America is not, in any sense, founded on the Christian religion; as it has in itself no character of enmity against the laws, religion, or tranquillity, of Mussulmen; and, as the said States never entered into any war, or act of hostility against any Mahometan nation, it is declared by the parties, that no pretext arising from religious opinions, shall ever produce an interruption of the harmony existing between the two countries.
Some scholars and organizations disagree with the notion of "separation of church and state '', or the way the Supreme Court has interpreted the constitutional limitation on religious establishment. Such critics generally argue that the phrase misrepresents the textual requirements of the Constitution, while noting that many aspects of church and state were intermingled at the time the Constitution was ratified. These critics argue that the prevalent degree of separation of church and state could not have been intended by the constitutional framers. Some of the intermingling between church and state include religious references in official contexts, and such other founding documents as the United States Declaration of Independence, which references the idea of a "Creator '' and "Nature 's God '', though these references did not ultimately appear in the Constitution nor do they mention any particular religious view of a "Creator '' or "Nature 's God. ''
These critics of the modern separation of church and state also note the official establishment of religion in several of the states at the time of ratification, to suggest that the modern incorporation of the Establishment Clause as to state governments goes against the original constitutional intent. The issue is complex, however, as the incorporation ultimately bases on the passage of the 14th Amendment in 1868, at which point the first amendment 's application to the state government was recognized. Many of these constitutional debates relate to the competing interpretive theories of originalism versus modern, progressivist theories such as the doctrine of the Living Constitution. Other debates center on the principle of the law of the land in America being defined not just by the Constitution 's Supremacy Clause, but also by legal precedence, making an accurate reading of the Constitution subject to the mores and values of a given era, and rendering the concept of historical revisionism irrelevant when discussing the Constitution.
The "religious test '' clause has been interpreted to cover both elected officials and appointed ones, career civil servants as well as political appointees. Religious beliefs or the lack of them have therefore not been permissible tests or qualifications with regard to federal employees since the ratification of the Constitution. Seven states, however, have language included in their Bill of Rights, Declaration of Rights, or in the body of their constitutions that require state office - holders to have particular religious beliefs, though some of these have been successfully challenged in court. These states are Texas, Massachusetts, Maryland, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and Tennessee.
The required beliefs of these clauses include belief in a Supreme Being and belief in a future state of rewards and punishments. (Tennessee Constitution Article IX, Section 2 is one such example.) Some of these same states specify that the oath of office include the words "so help me God. '' In some cases these beliefs (or oaths) were historically required of jurors and witnesses in court. At one time, such restrictions were allowed under the doctrine of states ' rights; today they are deemed to be in violation of the federal First Amendment, as applied to the states via the 14th amendment, and hence unconstitutional and unenforceable.
While sometimes questioned as possible violations of separation, the appointment of official chaplains for government functions, voluntary prayer meetings at the Department of Justice outside of duty hours, voluntary prayer at meals in U.S. armed forces, inclusion of the (optional) phrase "so help me God '' in the oaths for many elected offices, FBI agents, etc., have been held not to violate the First Amendment, since they fall within the realm of free exercise of religion.
Relaxed zoning rules and special parking privileges for churches, the tax - free status of church property, the fact that Christmas is a federal holiday, etc., have also been questioned, but have been considered examples of the governmental prerogative in deciding practical and beneficial arrangements for the society. The national motto "In God We Trust '' has been challenged as a violation, but the Supreme Court has ruled that ceremonial deism is not religious in nature. A circuit court ruling affirmed Ohio 's right to use as its motto a passage from the Bible, "With God, all things are possible '', because it displayed no preference for a particular religion.
Jeffries and Ryan (2001) argue that the modern concept of separation of church and state dates from the mid-twentieth century rulings of the Supreme Court. The central point, they argue, was a constitutional ban against aid to religious schools, followed by a later ban on religious observance in public education. Jeffries and Ryan argue that these two propositions -- that public aid should not go to religious schools and that public schools should not be religious -- make up the separationist position of the modern Establishment Clause.
Jeffries and Ryan argue that no - aid position drew support from a coalition of separationist opinion. Most important was "the pervasive secularism that came to dominate American public life, '' which sought to confine religion to a private sphere. Further, the ban against government aid to religious schools was supported before 1970 by most Protestants (and most Jews), who opposed aid to religious schools, which were mostly Catholic at the time. After 1980, however, anti-Catholic sentiment has diminished among mainline Protestants, and the crucial coalition of public secularists and Protestant churches has collapsed. While mainline Protestant denominations are more inclined towards strict separation of church and state, much evangelical opinion has now largely deserted that position. As a consequence, strict separationism is opposed today by members of many Protestant faiths, even perhaps eclipsing the opposition of Roman Catholics.
Critics of the modern concept of the "separation of church and state '' argue that it is untethered to anything in the text of the constitution and is contrary to the conception of the phrase as the Founding Fathers understood it. Philip Hamburger, Columbia Law school professor and prominent critic of the modern understanding of the concept, maintains that the modern concept, which deviates from the constitutional establishment clause jurisprudence, is rooted in American anti-Catholicism and Nativism. Briefs before the Supreme Court, including by the U.S. government, have argued that some state constitutional amendments relating to the modern conception of separation of church and state (Blaine Amendments) were motivated by and intended to enact anti-Catholicism.
J. Brent Walker, Executive Director of the Baptist Joint Committee, responded to Hamburger 's claims noting; "The fact that the separation of church and state has been supported by some who exhibited an anti-Catholic animus or a secularist bent does not impugn the validity of the principle. Champions of religious liberty have argued for the separation of church and state for reasons having nothing to do with anti-Catholicism or desire for a secular culture. Of course, separationists have opposed the Catholic Church when it has sought to tap into the public till to support its parochial schools or to argue for on - campus released time in the public schools. But that principled debate on the issues does not support a charge of religious bigotry ''
Steven Waldman notes that; "The evangelicals provided the political muscle for the efforts of Madison and Jefferson, not merely because they wanted to block official churches but because they wanted to keep the spiritual and secular worlds apart. '' "Religious freedom resulted from an alliance of unlikely partners, '' writes the historian Frank Lambert in his book The Founding Fathers and the Place of Religion in America. "New Light evangelicals such as Isaac Bachus and John Leland joined forces with Deists and skeptics such as James Madison and Thomas Jefferson to fight for a complete separation of church and state. ''
Robert N. Bellah has in his writings that although the separation of church and state is grounded firmly in the constitution of the United States, this does not mean that there is no religious dimension in the political society of the United States. He used the term "Civil Religion '' to describe the specific relation between politics and religion in the United States. His 1967 article analyzes the inaugural speech of John F. Kennedy: "Considering the separation of church and state, how is a president justified in using the word ' God ' at all? The answer is that the separation of church and state has not denied the political realm a religious dimension. ''
Robert S. Wood has argued that the United States is a model for the world in terms of how a separation of church and state -- no state - run or state - established church -- is good for both the church and the state, allowing a variety of religions to flourish. Speaking at the Toronto - based Center for New Religions, Wood said that the freedom of conscience and assembly allowed under such a system has led to a "remarkable religiosity '' in the United States that is n't present in other industrialized nations. Wood believes that the U.S. operates on "a sort of civic religion, '' which includes a generally shared belief in a creator who "expects better of us. '' Beyond that, individuals are free to decide how they want to believe and fill in their own creeds and express their conscience. He calls this approach the "genius of religious sentiment in the United States. ''
On July 26, 2017, President Donald Trump announced that the United States worships God.
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who played mr tastee on pete and pete | The Adventures of Pete & Pete - wikipedia
The Adventures of Pete & Pete is an American comedy - drama television series created by Will McRobb and Chris Viscardi for Nickelodeon. It centered on the humorous and surreal adventures of two brothers both named Pete Wrigley, along with an eccentric cast of family, friends, and enemies.
The Adventures of Pete & Pete began on Nickelodeon in 1989, as minute - long shorts that aired as interstitials. Owing to the popularity of the shorts, five half - hour specials were made, followed by a regular half - hour series that ran for three seasons from 1993 to 1996. Reruns of the shorts and the shows now run on TeenNick as part of their block The Splat on October 5, 2015. Jason Ankeny of AllMusic called the series "the greatest children 's show ever '', while IGN called it "one of the most well - written kids shows ever ''. The first two seasons were released on DVD in 2005; the third was planned for 2006 but was indefinitely postponed.
Pete & Pete is set in the town of Wellsville (the state is implied, but never explicitly mentioned, to be a fictionalized version of the real - life town of Wellsville, New York). An allusion to its location comes during "When Petes Collide '', when the Petes ' father runs four hours to the Canadian border to get rid of his bowling ball, Rolling Thunder. Portions of Wellsville were fictionalized for the purposes of the show; Glurt County, mentioned in "Yellow Fever '' and "The Good, the Bad and the Lucky '', does not exist in any state (the real Wellsville is located in Allegany County, New York). License plates in the show refer to Wellsville being located in the "Sideburn State. ''
The show was filmed largely in South Orange, New Jersey with location shots done in a variety of other spots around northern New Jersey, including the Willowbrook Mall in Wayne, New Jersey. The exteriors of Pete & Pete 's house (as seen in the credit sequence and other shots) were filmed on Woodridge Place in Leonia, New Jersey. The football field used for various episodes is that of Bayonne High School in Bayonne, New Jersey. The fictional Wellsville High School 's mascot is a squid.
The many guest stars that appeared on Pete & Pete include:
One widely reported guest appearance -- Hunter S. Thompson 's, in "New Year 's Pete '' -- has been described as "apocryphal '' by show creator Will McRobb, who has said the Hunter Thompson listed in the credits is instead a similarly named extra.
The show featured music by such artists as Luscious Jackson, Nice, Drop Nineteens, Racecar, Chug, Poi Dog Pondering, Syd Straw and The Apples in Stereo. The music of Stephin Merritt can also be heard throughout the series, including songs from his projects The Magnetic Fields, The 6ths and The Gothic Archies. On the DVD commentaries, the director and the creators revealed that they tried to use a song by the Pixies, but could not afford the rights.
Polaris, a side project of Mark Mulcahy 's Miracle Legion, served as the show 's "house band '', providing the theme song and many other tunes heard throughout the series and even appearing in "Hard Day 's Pete '' as a local four - piece playing out of a garage. Some of the Polaris ' music from the show was released as a CD, Music from The Adventures of Pete & Pete, including the theme song "Hey Sandy ''.
Polaris ' music for the show was released on vinyl on Record Store Day 2015. The album tracks are: 1. Hey Sandy, 2. She Is Staggering, 3. Waiting For October, 4. Saturnine, 5. Everywhere, 6. Ivy Boy, 7. Summerbaby, 8. Coronado II, 9. Ashamed Of The Story I Told, 10. As Usual, 11. Recently, 12. The Monster 's Loose. The album sold out promptly, even with 2,100 pressings. It was considered a must - own by many reputable collector sites, such as Modern Vinyl, Consequence of Sound, and Paste Magazine.
Music from the show was also available in 1995 on a promotional cassette mini album, titled Happily Deranged, available by sending in UPC symbols from Kellogg 's Frosted Mini-Wheats. This cassette includes the Polaris songs "Hey Sandy '', "She is Staggering '' (listed on the cassette originally as just "Staggering ''), and "Coronado II ''. The cassette includes a short introduction and closing read by Big Pete. Robert Agnello was the writer and creator of numerous pieces of music for Pete and Pete. He wrote most of the Blowholes music such as: Marmalade Cream, Summer Wind, Piledriver and You Color my World. He also wrote One Lousy Dance which was sung by Iggy Pop and the Garbageman theme sung by David Johanson. A lot of the small music sound bites were performed by Agnello and his band Lamb to Slaughter.
The show also used music from standard production music libraries.
Nickelodeon VHS tapes were first released through Sony Wonder, then through Paramount.
Nickelodeon DVDs are released through Paramount.
Season Releases
According to co-creators Will McRobb and Chris Viscardi the season three DVDs were actually pressed and are sitting in a warehouse. In a LA Times article they discussed the situation. McRobb said, "The same thing goes on with the mythical third season on DVD. They put out the first two and everyone 's thrilled, and the third one does n't come out, and no one has ever told us why. And they made it, it 's in the warehouse. ''. Viscardi added, "It 's packaged, it 's recorded, we did commentary tracks with a bunch of the cast, there 's all these special extras on it. They pressed them, we saw it. Nothing. ''
The Adventures of Pete and Pete first - ran on Nickelodeon from 1993 to 1996. Reruns continued to air from 1996 to 1999, and again from 2003 to 2004 on U-Pick Live. It also aired reruns on The N from 2002 to 2003.
The Adventures of Pete & Pete was one of the series mentioned as a potential future series that would air on The ' 90s Are All That; Despite images of the show appearing in the often - shown The ' 90s Are All That commercial promos, no episodes of the series have aired on the block. The 1989 shorts began airing on the block in 2013. When the block expanded into The Splat (now NickSplat) in 2015, Pete & Pete was listed as part of the block 's lineup, but had yet to be scheduled (only the shorts have been aired on the block).
On May 28, 2017, it was announced that Mike Maronna and Danny Tamberelli would take part in a weekend - long event on NickSplat called "The Adventures of Pete & Pete: The Strongest Reunion in the World '' on June 17 & 18, where classic episodes were replayed while they share various moments from making the series.
In late 2011 and early 2012 a series of cast and crew reunions took place in Los Angeles and New York City respectively. Tamberelli, Syd Straw and Marshall Crenshaw performed a rendition of theme song "Hey Sandy '' in addition to other Pete and Pete compositions. Creators McRobb, Viscardi, along with Michael Maronna, Hardy Rawls, Judy Grafe, Alison Fanelli, Toby Huss and Director Katherine Dieckmann were all in attendance.
The 2011 Los Angeles reunion was billed by the Cinefamily as the "KrebStar Film Festival, '' a reference to the show 's own brand. Additionally many products from the show were available, including Krebex, Kreb Scouts, KrebStore 24 and Krebgate Toothpaste. Staff members also handed out "performance - enhanced '' Orange Lazarus.
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where are members of little big town from | Little Big Town - wikipedia
Little Big Town is an American country music group. Founded in 1998, the group has comprised the same four members since its founding: Karen Fairchild, Kimberly Schlapman (formerly Kimberly Roads), Jimi Westbrook, and Phillip Sweet. Their musical style relies heavily on four - part vocal harmonies, with all four members alternating as lead vocalists; Westbrook and Sweet also play rhythm guitar.
After a recording deal with the Mercury Nashville Records label which produced no singles or albums, Little Big Town released its self - titled debut on Monument Records in 2002. It produced two minor country chart singles before the group left the label. By 2005, the group had been signed to Equity Music Group, an independent record label owned by Clint Black. Their second album, The Road to Here, was released that year, and received a platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). A Place to Land, their third album, was released via Equity, then re-released via Capitol Nashville after Equity closed in 2008. Five more albums have followed for Capitol: The Reason Why (2010), Tornado (2012), Pain Killer (2014), Wanderlust (2016), and The Breaker (2017). All of their albums have accounted for 24 singles on Hot Country Songs and Country Airplay, including the No. 1 singles "Pontoon '', "Girl Crush '', and "Better Man '' along with the top 10 hits "Boondocks '', "Bring It On Home '', "Little White Church '', "Tornado '', and "Day Drinking ''.
In the mid-1990s, Karen Fairchild sang with the Christian vocal group Truth and was featured as a lead singer in a few of their songs. She also formed a duo called KarenLeigh with Leigh Cappillino (from the group Point of Grace). KarenLeigh produced the singles, "Save it For a Rainy Day '' and "This Love Has ''. In 1997, while attending Samford University in Alabama, she met Kimberly Roads. Eventually, they moved to Nashville, Tennessee, where they reunited and began singing together. Jimi Westbrook joined Roads and Fairchild in 1998, followed by Phillip Sweet.
Little Big Town 's first record deal was with Mercury Nashville Records, although the band was dropped from the label 's roster without releasing a single or album. In 2001, they sang backing vocals on Collin Raye 's album Ca n't Back Down, while Sweet and Roads co-wrote the song "Back Where I Belong '' on Sherrié Austin 's 2001 album Followin ' a Feelin '.
A second contract, this time with Monument Records Nashville, began in 2002. The band 's first album, Little Big Town, was released that year. It produced the singles "Do n't Waste My Time '' and "Everything Changes '', which peaked at 33 and 42 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart. Westbrook 's father died in 2002, just after the group 's first album was released. Fairchild and Sweet both divorced their spouses shortly afterward, and the group exited Monument when the label 's Nashville branch was dissolved. The four members all took up day jobs to earn additional money, although they continued to tour as well.
In 2005, Little Big Town was signed to Equity Music Group, a label started and partially owned by country music singer Clint Black. Their third single, "Boondocks '', was released in May, peaking at No. 9 on the country charts in January 2006. It served as the first of four singles from the group 's second album, The Road to Here, which was released on October 4, 2005. "Bring It On Home '', the second single from the album, became Little Big Town 's first top 5 hit on Hot Country Songs. It was followed by "Good as Gone '' and "A Little More You '', both of which were top 20 hits. By the end of 2006, The Road to Here had been certified Platinum in the United States. Unlike their first album, the group 's members co-wrote the majority of the songs on The Road to Here along with Wayne Kirkpatrick, who also produced it. In 2007, the group sang backing vocals on John Mellencamp 's Freedom 's Road album.
Little Big Town released A Place to Land, their third studio album and second with Equity, on November 6, 2007. Its lead - off single, "I 'm with the Band '', peaked at number 32 on the country chart. On April 23, 2008, Little Big Town announced it was leaving Equity for Capitol Nashville. Shortly afterward, they charted with Sugarland and Jake Owen on a live cover of The Dream Academy 's "Life in a Northern Town ''. Taken from Sugarland 's 2007 tour, it reached number 28 on the country chart based on unsolicited airplay. In October 2008, Capitol re-released A Place to Land, which added four new songs, and the label promoted two further singles from the album, "Fine Line '' and "Good Lord Willing ''.
In the fall of 2008, Little Big Town opened up for Carrie Underwood on her Carnival Ride Tour. They began their first headlining tour in January 2009 in Jacksonville, Florida and continued through April.
Fairchild recorded a duet with Mellencamp on his 2008 album, Life, Death, Love and Freedom. The song, "A Ride Back Home '', was released as the album 's third single and was accompanied by a music video. Fairchild also duetted with Mellencamp on "My Sweet Love '' and appears in its music video.
Little Big Town was nominated for Vocal Group Of The Year for the fourth year in a row at the 2009 CMA Awards.
In March 2010, the group released a new single titled "Little White Church '', as the lead - off single to their fourth studio album and first completely new album on Capitol Nashville, The Reason Why, which was released on August 24, 2010. "Little White Church '' peaked at number 6 on the country chart. The album produced two additional singles in "Kiss Goodbye '' and the title track, but both failed to reach the top 40 of Hot Country Songs.
The album 's title track was released as a digital single on July 27, 2010, to begin an iTunes countdown to the album release on August 24, 2010. Three further digital singles -- "Kiss Goodbye '', "Why, Oh Why '', and "All the Way Down '' -- were released weekly leading up until the album release. Also, in promotion of The Reason Why, Little Big Town went on tour as an opening act for Sugarland on The Incredible Machine Tour, as well their own The Reason Why Tour.
Little Big Town 's fifth studio album, Tornado, was released on September 11, 2012. It was also their first album to be produced by Jay Joyce. "Pontoon '' was released as the album 's lead single on April 30, 2012, and became their first number one hit on Hot Country Songs in September 2012. It was their first single to receive a Platinum certification. The title track was released as the album 's second single on October 1, 2012. It reached number 2 on the Country Airplay chart in 2013. At the 55th Grammy Awards, "Pontoon '' won the Grammy Award for Best Country Duo / Group Performance. The album was certified gold by the RIAA in December 2012.
The band joined Rascal Flatts on their Changed Tour, along with Eli Young Band and Edens Edge, for dates spanning Summer 2012. They played at the C2C: Country to Country festival in London on March 16, 2013.
The album 's third single, "Your Side of the Bed '', was a number 27 hit.
The band sang background vocals on Ashley Monroe 's 2013 single, "You Got Me '', featured on her 2013 release, Like a Rose. Group member Karen Fairchild co-wrote the song with Monroe. It failed to chart.
The album 's fourth single, "Sober '', was a number 31 hit.
Little Big Town performed harmony vocals on David Nail 's 2014 album, I 'm a Fire, on the song "When They 're Gone (Lyle County) '', co-written by Brett Eldredge. They were also featured on Miranda Lambert 's 2014 album, Platinum, on "Smokin ' and Drinkin ' '', a song which the band was going to record themselves; it debuted on Billboard 's Country Airplay chart at number 38 after their performance at the CMA Awards in 2014.
The band began recording their sixth studio album, Pain Killer, in early 2014. The lead single, "Day Drinking '', was released digitally June 3, and was sent to country radio on June 9. It debuted on the Country Airplay chart at number 32, their highest - ever debut, and went on to peak at number 2 on Country Airplay. It hit number 1 on the Canada Country chart, becoming their second number 1 single and first as songwriters. Pain Killer 's track listing was announced on July 14, and the album was released on October 21.
On October 3, 2014, Reba McEntire invited the group to join the Grand Ole Opry. They accepted and were inducted by Vince Gill on October 17.
The second single from the album, "Girl Crush '', was released December 15, 2014. Some radio stations were reported to have pulled "Girl Crush '' from their playlists, in response to concerns from listeners who interpreted the song 's lyrics to be about lesbianism. In response, Fairchild said, "That 's just shocking to me, the close - mindedness of that, when that 's just not what the song was about... But what if it were? It 's just a greater issue of listening to a song for what it is. '' In addition, the label created a short commercial in which the band discusses the song and its actual meaning. Billboard consulted several radio program directors on its panel and found only one who detailed a specific complaint from a listener. The song became their second No. 1 on a Billboard chart in May 2015 and their highest showing on the Billboard Hot 100 after gaining exposure on "The Voice '' and the 50th Annual ACM Awards. The album 's third single and the title track, "Pain Killer '', released to country radio on August 24, 2015.
On September 9, 2015, the group was nominated for five CMA Awards: Vocal Group of the Year, Album of the Year for Pain Killer, Single of the Year for "Girl Crush '', Music Video of the Year for "Girl Crush '' and Musical Event of the Year for their collaboration on the Miranda Lambert single "Smokin ' and Drinkin ' ''. They tied Eric Church for most nominations that year. Additionally, the songwriters of "Girl Crush '' were recognized with a Song of the Year win.
For the 58th Annual Grammy Awards Pain Killer was nominated for Best Country Album, "Girl Crush '' was nominated for Best Country Duo / Group Performance, Song of the Year and Best Country Song. Little Big Town only received nominations for Best Country Album and Best Country Duo / Group Performance since they did not write on "Girl Crush ''.
The band will soon begin working on their first Christmas album.
On January 24, 2016, the band sang the National Anthem before the Arizona / Carolina NFC Championship game. On July 4 of that year, they performed with the Boston Pops at their annual Independence Day concert.
In February 2016, they appeared on "Take Me Down '', a track on Down to My Last Bad Habit, the fourteenth album by Vince Gill.
In March 2016, Little Big Town returned to the UK as part of the C2C: Country to Country tour, becoming one of four acts at the time (the others being Brantley Gilbert, Sam Hunt and Carrie Underwood) to perform at the festival twice. They headlined the launch party in 2015 where they announced the full line - up, revealing that they would be supporting Underwood along with Hunt and Maddie & Tae.
On May 24, 2016, the band announced their seventh studio album titled Wanderlust. The album contains eight tracks produced by Pharrell Williams and was released on June 10, 2016. Karen Fairchild describes the album as, "It 's not a country album '' "And it 's not like anything we 've ever done. It 's fun to be spontaneous and put it out there to the fans, because we want to, and not to overthink it, but just because it has brought us a lot of joy, and we think it will for them as well. So why not? We 're going with our gut and putting it out there. It 's just music, you know? '' Fairchild stated that they are also working on a country record with Jay Joyce. In July, they appeared on the 2000 -- 2005 episode of ABC 's Greatest Hits where they performed covers by Alicia Keys, Oasis and Sheryl Crow. They were also selected as one of 30 artists to perform on "Forever Country '', a mash - up track of "Take Me Home, Country Roads '', "On the Road Again '' and "I Will Always Love You '', which celebrates 50 years of the CMA Awards.
The band released "Better Man '', which was written by singer - songwriter Taylor Swift, on October 20, 2016, as the lead single to their upcoming eighth studio album, The Breaker, that was released on February 24, 2017. Initially masking the song 's writer, the band revealed that Swift wrote the song. The song 's music video, directed by Reid Long and Becky Fluke, was released November 1, 2016. The band would follow up with a new single "When Someone Stops Loving You, '' on February 17, 2017. The song was inspired by a story Sean Lynch detailed to the band during a tour stop in 2016.
The band announced that they would be the first act in history to have a residency at the Ryman Auditorium in Nashville. Little Big Town announced a six - date UK tour supported by Seth Ennis beginning on September 28 and concluding in London on October 5 before revealing that Kacey Musgraves and Midland would support them on the American leg of The Breakers Tour beginning in February 2018. On October 5 during their show at the Royal Albert Hall, the band revealed that they would be headlining the 2018 C2C: Country to Country festival, making history as the first act to play the event three times.
Karen Fairchild and Jimi Westbrook married on May 31, 2006, although their marriage was not disclosed until two months later. The couple welcomed their first child, a son (Elijah Dylan Westbrook), on March 5, 2010, in Nashville.
Kimberly Roads married Stephen Schlapman on November 28, 2006, and gave birth to a daughter (Daisy Pearl Schlapman) on July 27, 2007. In January 2017, Schlapman announced that she and her husband adopted a baby girl (Dolly Grace Schlapman). They welcomed her on December 31, 2016. She now goes by her husband 's last name, Schlapman. Kimberly was previously married to Steven Roads, who died from a heart attack in 2005. He was also the band 's lawyer.
Phillip Sweet married Rebecca Arthur, a business owner and wardrobe stylist, on March 30, 2007. Arthur gave birth to a daughter (Penelopi Jane Sweet) on December 27, 2007, at Baptist Hospital in Nashville.
Little Big Town 's musical stylings are defined by four - part vocal harmonies. Unlike most vocal groups, Little Big Town does not feature a definitive lead vocalist. Instead, their songs are either led by any one of the four members, or by all four in varying combinations (such as on "Boondocks '' and "Life in a Northern Town '').
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spartacus blood and sand (2010) season 1 episode 1 | Spartacus: Blood and Sand - Wikipedia
Spartacus: Blood and Sand is the first season of American television series Spartacus, which premiered on Starz on January 22, 2010. The series was inspired by the historical figure of Spartacus (played by Andy Whitfield), a Thracian gladiator who from 73 to 71 BC led a major slave uprising against the Roman Republic. Executive producers Steven S. DeKnight and Robert Tapert focused on structuring the events of Spartacus ' obscure early life leading up to the beginning of historical records.
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The program is preceded by a warning that it purports to portray a "historical portrayal of ancient Roman society that contains graphic violence and adult content ''. Incidental nudity and scenes of a sexual or of a violent nature are present throughout.
On December 22, 2009, the show was renewed for a second season but its production was postponed after Andy Whitfield was diagnosed with early - stage non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Starz announced in May 2010 that it would develop a six - episode prequel series, entitled Spartacus: Gods of the Arena, to allow star actor Whitfield to undergo medical treatment. The prequel featured both new and returning characters; it was headlined by John Hannah (as Batiatus) and Lucy Lawless (as Lucretia). Whitfield also provided a brief voice - over role. Filming began in New Zealand in the summer of 2010. The prequel aired beginning January 2011.
In June 2010, season two 's pre-production resumed after Starz announced Whitfield was cancer - free. But when his cancer recurred, Starz replaced Whitfield (with the actor 's consent) with Liam McIntyre as Spartacus for season two which is titled Spartacus: Vengeance. Andy Whitfield died on September 11, 2011.
Three days after the US premiere, the series began airing in Canada on TMN beginning on January 25, 2010. RTL 5 announced in their January newsletter that Spartacus: Blood and Sand would debut in the Netherlands in March 2010. In the United Kingdom, Bravo began airing the series on May 25, 2010. Following the axe of the Bravo network on UK television, Sky1 picked up the rights to the series with plans to carry all subsequent seasons. The series was also scheduled to premiere in Poland on HBO Poland starting from June 19, 2010 and in Hungary on HBO Magyarország starting from June 1, 2010. The series aired in Ireland on TV3. In Brazil, the show aired on Globosat HD. In Turkey the show releases on CNBC - E TV, while in Italy Sky Television gained the rights of the series. In India and Pakistan, the show aired (as of June 2011) on HBO. In Slovenia, the series started airing on Kanal A on January 2, 2012, from Monday to Friday at 9.45 pm, and ended January 18, 2012.
The premiere episode of the series set a record for Starz, with 553,000 viewers on their network, and another 460,000 on Encore, where the show was available only that weekend. For the rest of the season the show had an average of 1.285 million viewers. Critical reception of the first episode was mixed; the review aggregate website Metacritic which assigns a normalized average score out of 100 gave the show a score of 54 % based on 22 reviews. Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly gave it the grade B+, saying it "might prove to be the not - at - all - guilty pleasure of the season. '' Barry Garron of The Hollywood Reporter suggested that with "such thin stories... it 's small wonder that sex and violence are used to take up the slack. '' Robert Lloyd of the Los Angeles Times wrote that John Hannah as Batiatus "keeps the show grounded with a persuasive portrait of a man engaged in a stressful daily business '' and called Whitfield as Spartacus "handsome and buff and smart and beastly. '' Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald gave the season finale a positive review, rating it a B+. He commented on the improvement of the series throughout its first season.
In 2012 Titan Books announced the publication of a series of novels based on Spartacus: Blood and Sand. The first, titled Spartacus: Swords & Ashes, was written by J.M. Clements and released on January 3, 2012. The second book in the series was Spartacus: Morituri by Mark Morris.
In 2012 Gale Force Nine announced the creation of a licensed board game based on the series. The English language release, Spartacus: A Game of Blood and Treachery, had a limited release at Gen Con 2012 and a general release to game and hobby stores on September 28, 2012. Gameplay involves players taking on the role of Dominus, or head of a Roman house in ancient Rome, buying and trading assets, scheming with and against the other players, and battling in the arena. In May 2013 an expansion entitled Spartacus: The Serpents and the Wolf was released. The expansion allows for two extra players (to an updated maximum of six) with the addition of two more houses and includes alternative rules allowing for group battles in the arena.
Earlier, in 2009, Devil 's Due had published a four - part prequel comic series titled Spartacus - Blood And Sand. Each issue spotlighted a character from the planned television series, mostly the minor gladiator rivals of the main cast.
The series was adapted as a 4 - part motion comic adaptation called Spartacus -- Blood and Sand -- Motion Comic. Ray Park and Heath Freeman were cast. Kyle Newman was the director, and the producers were Andy Collen and Jeff Krelitz.
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where does the vascular cambium get its energy to produce more xylem and phloem | Vascular cambium - wikipedia
The vascular cambium (also called main cambium, wood cambium, bifacial cambium; plural cambia) is a plant tissue located between the xylem and the phloem in the stems and roots of vascular plants. It is a cylinder of unspecialized meristem cells that divide to form secondary vascular tissues. It is the source of both secondary xylem growth inwards towards the pith, and secondary phloem growth outwards to the bark. Unlike the xylem and phloem, it does not transport water, minerals or food through the plant.
Vascular cambia are found in dicots and gymnosperms but not monocots, which usually lack secondary growth. A few leaf types also have a vascular cambium. In wood, the vascular cambium is the obvious line separating the bark and wood. For successful grafting, the vascular cambia of the rootstock and scion must be aligned so they can grow together.
The cambium present between primary xylem and primary phloem is called intrafasicular cambium. During secondary growth, cells of meduallary rays, in a line with intrafasicular cambium, become meristematic and form interfascicular cambium. Therefore, the intrafascicular and interfascicular cambia form a ring which separates the primary xylem and primary phloem, and is known as cambium ring. The vascular cambium produces secondary xylem on the inside of the ring, and secondary phloem on the outside, pushing the primary xylem and phloem apart.
The vascular cambium usually consists of two types of cells:
The vascular cambium is maintained by a network of interacting signal feedback loops. Currently, both hormones and short peptides have been identified as information carriers in these systems. While similar regulation occurs in other meristems of plants, the cambial meristem receives signals from both the xylem and phloem sides for the meristem. Signals received from outside the meristem act to down regulate internal factors, which promotes cell proliferation, and promotes differentiation.
The phytohormones that are involved in the vascular cambial activity are auxins, ethylene, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid and more to be discovered. Each one of these plant hormones are vital for the regulation of the cambial activity and are dependent on their concentration.
Auxin hormones are proven to stimulate mitoses, cell production and regulate interfascicular and fascicular cambium. Applying auxin to the surface of a tree stump allowed decapitated shoots to continue secondary growth. The absence of auxin hormones will have a detrimental effect on a plant. It has been shown that mutants without auxin will exhibit increased spacing between the interfascicular cambiums and reduced growth of the vascular bundles. The mutant plant will therefore experience a decreased in water, nutrients, and photosynthates being transported throughout the plant, eventually leading to death. Auxin also regulates the two types of cell in the vascular cambium, ray and fusiform initials. Regulation of these initials ensures the connection and communication between xylem and phloem is maintained for the translocation of nourishment and sugars are safely being stored as an energy resource. Ethylene levels are high in plants with an active cambial zone and are still currently being studied. Gibberellin stimulates the cambial cell division and also regulates differentiation of the xylem tissues, with no effect on the rate of phloem differentiation. Differentiation is an essential process that changes these tissues into a more specialized type, leading to an important role in maintaining the life form of a plant. In poplar trees, high concentrations of gibberellin is positively correlated to an increase of cambial cell division and an increase of auxin in the cambial stem cells. Gibberellin is also responsible for the expansion of xylem through a signal traveling from the shoot to the root. Cytokinin hormone is known to regulate the rate of the cell division instead of the direction of cell differentiation. A study demonstrated that the mutants are found to have a reduction in stem and root growth but the secondary vascular pattern of the vascular bundles were not affected with a treatment of cytokinin.
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who sings can't take my eyes off of you | Ca n't Take My Eyes Off You - wikipedia
"Ca n't Take My Eyes Off You '' is a 1967 single credited to Frankie Valli. The song was among his biggest hits, earning a gold record and reaching No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 for a week, stuck behind "Windy '' by The Association. It was co-written by Bob Gaudio, a bandmate of Valli 's in The Four Seasons. It was Valli 's biggest solo hit until he hit # 1 in 1974 with "My Eyes Adored You ''.
"Ca n't Take My Eyes Off You '' has had hundreds of cover versions, many of which have been on the charts in different countries. The song is a staple of television and film soundtracks, even being featured as part of the plot of some films, such as when the lead characters sing or arrange their own version of the song. Its chorus has also become a popular football chant, with supporters of various teams inserting their club 's name or a popular player 's name into the beat (for instance, A.S. Roma fans sing "Francesco Totti, la la, la la la la! ''). The Valli version was also used by NASA as a wake - up song on the STS - 126 space shuttle mission, to celebrate the anniversary of astronaut Christopher Ferguson, one of the mission 's crew members.
The song was written by Bob Crewe and Bob Gaudio. Arrangement was done by Artie Schroeck and Gaudio. The original recording was made at A&R Recording Studios at 799 7th Avenue, with Bob Crewe producing and Phil Ramone engineering.
The song has been covered by some 200 artists over the years, in many countries, under both versions of the title. A few notable examples of cover versions that appeared on the charts:
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a child care center is defined as a program that | Child care - wikipedia
Child care, or otherwise known as daycare, is the care and supervision of a child or multiple children at a time. The age ranges anywhere from six weeks up to age thirteen. Child care is the action or skill of looking after children by a day - care center, nannies, babysitter, teachers or other providers. Child care is a broad topic that covers a wide spectrum of professionals, institutions, contexts, activities, social and cultural conventions. Early child care is an equally important and often overlooked component of child development. Child care providers can be children 's first teachers, and therefore play an integral role in systems of early childhood education. Quality care from a young age can have a substantial impact on the future successes of children. The main focus of childcare is on the development of the child, whether that be mental, social, or psychological.
In most cases children are taken care of by their parents, legal guardians, or siblings. In some cases, it is also seen that children care for other children. This informal care includes verbal direction and other explicit training regarding the child 's behavior, and is often as simple as "keeping an eye out '' for younger siblings. Care facilitated by similar - aged children covers a variety of developmental and psychological effects in both caregivers and charge. This is due to their mental development being in a particular case of not being able to progress as it should be at their age. This care giving role may also be taken on by the child 's extended family. Another form of childcare that is on the rise in contrast to familial caregiving is that of center based child care.In lieu of familial care giving, these responsibilities may be given to paid - caretakers, orphanages or foster homes to provide care, housing, and schooling.
Professional caregivers work within the context of a center - based care (including creches, daycare, preschools and schools) or a home - based care (nannies or family daycare). The majority of child care institutions that are available require that child care providers to have extensive training in first aid and be CPR certified. In addition, background checks, drug testing at all centers, and reference verification are normally a requirement. Child care can consist of advanced learning environments that include early childhood education or elementary education. "The objective of the program of daily activities should be to foster incremental developmental progress in a healthy and safe environment and should be flexible to capture the interests of the children and the individual abilities of the children. '' In many cases the appropriate child care provider is a teacher or personal with educational background in child development, which requires a more focused training aside from the common core skills typical of a child caregiver.
As well as these licensed options, parents may also choose to find their own caregiver or arrange childcare exchanges / swaps with another family.
At home, care is typically provided by nannies, au pairs, or friends and family. The child is watched inside their own home which could expose them to outside children and illnesses. Depending on the number of children in the home, the children utilizing in - home care could enjoy the greatest amount of interaction with their caregiver, in turn forming a close bond. There are no required licensing or background checks for in - home care, making parental vigilance essential in choosing an appropriate caregiver. Nanny and au pair services provide certified caregivers and the cost of in - home care is the highest of childcare options per child, though a household with many children may find this the most convenient and affordable option. Many nannies study towards childcare qualifications. This means they are trained to create a safe and stimulating environment for your child to enjoy and thrive in. Typically, au pairs or nannies provide more than routine child care, often providing assistance with daily household activities which include running errands, shopping, doing laundry, fixing meals, and cleaning the house.
The most now common way to find a nanny is via the childcare website / care website or a nanny agency. Nanny agencies will thoroughly check an applicant 's references and run a criminal background check on the successful candidate. Having a nanny could be cheaper than putting multiple children in a daycare setting full - time. Nannies could provide stability for the child who gets to have a regular role model in their life. Nannies often work overtime and babysit, providing less stress for parents running late without being charged excessive late fees. They also care for sick children whereas nurseries do not. This enables the parents to continue working normally without being interrupted. All nannies have first aid and background checks which are either checked by the agency or the family themselves. They can be subject to visits from their local childcare regulatory bodies. Children with nannies could also be well socialized as nannies could be able to take them out and attend more playdates.
Family child care providers care for children in the provider 's own home. The children could be in a mixed age group with a low adult to child ratio. Care can also potentially be personalized and individual. The hours may be more flexible and the provider may offer evening and weekend care for parents who work shifts. The cost in a family child care could be significantly lower on average than that of a center.
Child care facilities in the US have the option of becoming accredited. This standard is set and regulated by an outside agency. In centers, National Association for the Education of Young Children institutes it. For family child care providers, the National Association of Family Child Care Providers award the credentials.
Licensed or unlicensed home daycare is also referred to as family child care, or in home care. It refers to the care provided to a group of children in the home of a caregiver. State laws differ regarding rules for licensed versus unlicensed care. In Canada, most home daycares are unlicensed, and this is completely lawful. Licensing home daycares in Canada can help greatly with oversight, but at the cost of a large portion of the daycare provider 's pay. Family child cares are small in size and provide families the same securities as a daycare center, and also has the benefits of flexible hours, lower costs, accessibility, and cultural compatibility. Home - based providers can give more individualized care and therefore better meet the needs of working families. In addition, family care generally has a small ratio of children in care, allowing for more interaction between child and provider than would be had at a commercial care center. Family child care helps foster emotionally secure interpersonal relationships for everyone involved. The providers are able to communicate each day with parents on a personal level and share information about the development of the child. Providers care for multi-aged groups of children allowing children to remain with one caregiver for many years which helps children develop a sense of trust and security. Multi-aged settings allow children to learn from one another and allow siblings to stay together. Some family child care providers may offer parents more flexibility with hours of operation such as evening, weekend, overnight, and before and after school care. In the United States, some family child care providers work with companies such as Wonderschool, for assistance in licensing, operations, marketing, and administrative support.
In a childcare center, teachers focus on the physical and mental developments of their students. In order to have a greater understanding of the student, teachers in centers must incorporate a relationship with their students that benefits their wants and needs while pushing them toward a higher set of values. This type of teaching with a caring relationship will improve a student 's moral and incidental learning.
Commercial care center also known as daycares are open for set hours, and provide a standardized and regulated system of care for children. Parents may choose from a commercial care center close to their work, and some companies may even offer care at their facilities. A form in which parents pick the child care facility can be based on their mission statement and the objectives they find necessary to be addressed. Center based child care should have their mission written out and include one of the main components which is health promotion. These objectives should be shaped to the needs of every child and can change from one to another. The child care provider must see how these objectives are most fit for the child and mend them case by case to their specific needs. In setting up activities for these objectives, both indoor and outdoor activities must be taken into account. The child must have an experience that partakes in all the different forms. This may then cause discussion between the parents and the caregivers. The parents tend to give their input on what they deem as necessary when the needs of their children may be different. Parents are able to communicate with the staff of these facilities because workers who speak the same native language or language of preference must be available for these conversations.
The quality of the center based child care can be very influential on the child and on their overall development. Recent study showed that children in low end classrooms saw the activities as forced while the children in high end classrooms had more memorable experiences. Even though this being the case between high and low end classrooms, other aspects such as the child 's background and living situation can play an important role in their development. Active children may thrive in the educational activities provided by a quality commercial care center, but according to the National Center for Early Development and Learning, children from low quality centers may be significantly less advanced in terms of vocabulary and reading skills. Classes are usually largest in this type of care, ratios of children to adult caregivers will vary according to state licensing requirements. Some positive aspects of commercial care are that children may gain a sense of independence, academic achievement, and socialization. Not only is this age crucial for the improvement of their social skills, but also it begins the stages of understanding a classroom setting. Childcare is seen as a reasonable option because it is different than parenting, since it can be seen as more of a routine for the child. This in turn will only have a negative impact on the child if the parent is not their for the emotional needs of the child. Children are placed into centers of socialization and learn many similarities and differences from one another from a very young age. Children are also placed into settings to develop their linguistics and cognitive abilities, which can be measured through observations. Not only is this age crucial for the improvement of their social skills, but also it begins the stages of understanding a classroom setting. These early ages of the child 's life are crucial or it would otherise have a negative impact on their future paths.
Pre-school is often the term used to refer to child care centers that care primarily for 3 and 4 - year old children. Preschool can be based in a center, family child care home or a public school. Older children, in their turn, in most countries are cared in an educational setting, usually a primary school environment. The children are supervised by a teacher all day long, who is responsible for their physical, intellectual, emotional and social development. In this regard, most western countries have compulsory education during which the great majority of children are at school starting from five or six years of age. The school will act in loco parentis meaning "in lieu of parent supervision. '' In many locales, government is responsible for monitoring the quality of care.
For all providers, the largest expense is labor. In a 1999 Canadian survey of formal child care centers, labor accounted for 63 % of costs and the industry had an average profit of 5.3 %. Given the labor - intensive nature of the industry, it is not surprising that the same survey showed little economies of scale between larger and smaller operators.
Local legislation may regulate the operation of daycare centers, affecting staffing requirements. Laws may mandate staffing ratios (for example 6 weeks to 12 months, 1: 4; 12 months to 18 months, 1: 5; 18 months to 24 months, 1: 9; et and even higher ratios for older children). Legislation may mandate qualifications of supervisors. Staff typically do not require any qualifications but staff under the age of eighteen may require supervision. Typically, once the child reaches the age of twelve, they are no longer covered by daycare legislation and programs for older children may not be regulated.
In Canada, the workforce is predominantly female (95 %) and low paid, averaging only 60 % of average workforce wage. Many employees are at local minimum wage and are typically paid by the hour rather than salaried. In the United States, "child care worker '' is the fifth most female - dominated occupation (95.5 % female in 1999). In the US, staffing requirements vary from state to state.
"Considerable research has accumulated showing that not - for - profits are much more likely to produce the high quality environments in which children thrive. '' Not - for - profit organizations are more likely to provide good services to a vulnerable population under conditions that are very hard to monitor or measure.
Local governments, often municipalities, may operate non-profit day care centers. In non-profits, the title of the most senior supervisor is typically "executive director '', following the convention of most non-profit organizations.
Family child care homes can be operated by a single individual out of their home. In most states, the legal age of 18 is only required. There may be occasions when more than one individual cares for children in a family childcare home. This can be a stay - at - home parent who seeks supplemental income while caring for their own child. There are also many family childcare providers who have chosen this field as a profession. Both state and county agency legislation regulate the ratios (number and ages of children) allowed per family child care home. Some counties have more stringent quality standards that require licensing for family child care homes while other counties require little or no regulations for childcare in individuals ' homes. Some family child care homes operate illegally with respect to tax legislation where the care provider does not report fees as income and the parent does not receive a receipt to qualify for childcare tax deductions. However, licensing a family child care home is beneficial for family child care home providers so that they can have access to financial benefits from their state government, or the federal government where they are allowed to accept children from parents who meet the criterion to benefit from the government childcare subsidy funding. Examples of such benefits are: free Professional Development and training courses, Child And Adult Care Food Program (which allows eligible childcare and family childcare home providers to claim a portion of costs relating to nutritious meals served to children), and more;.
Family childcare may be less expensive than center - based care because of the lower overhead (lower ratios mean less staff are required to maintain regulated ratios. Many family childcare home providers may be certified with the same credentials as center based staff potentially leading to higher level of care.
Franchising of family child care home facilities attempts to bring economies of scale to home daycare. A central operator handles marketing, administration and perhaps some central purchasing while the actual care occurs in individual homes. The central operator may provide training to the individual care providers. Some providers even offer enrichment programs to take the daycare experience to a more educational and professional level. An example would be Wonderschool, which provides caregivers with a proprietary technology platform, as well as licensing, marketing, and administrative services.
Informal childcare is a childcare system that utilizes both family and community members. This includes but is not limited to grandparents, siblings, and both children and adult neighbors. This system is inexpensive and many cultures utilize and embrace informal childcare as beneficial to a child 's upbringing and education.
Children that receive informal care do not receive the same educational and preparatory regimens as those in a center - or home - based center often do. Instead, learning occurs informally as a direct result of the caretaker and charge 's interactions. Learning and development occur differently for every individual. Different periods of a child 's growth are known to affect the care taking styles associated with them, from the care of an infant to that of an older adolescent. Other influences on care taking include the expectations of the three parties involved - the parents, caretakers, and children.
Many types of childcare discuss the different ways in which children are cared for by adults or older children. One additional type of child care involves children caring for adults. Children as caretakers are most often seen in developing countries with restricted or hard - to - access medical assistance. Child caretakers are common in families where the parents are affected by HIV / AIDS and other mental illnesses that might limit their parental functioning.
Developmentally, these child caretakers have shown certain positive associations that affect their future resilience in the face of adversity. Caring for disabled parents raises their sense of responsibility and maturity, increases social and life skills, fosters closer parent - child relationships, and enhances a child 's early sense of purpose. Children caring for sick or disabled parents also experience less anxiety surrounding their parents compared to children who have an additional caregiver for their disabled parent. This is because the children understand more about the illness and feel more in control over the situation.
Childcare varies dramatically across cultures. These discrepancies are attributed to the homestead and household environments. That is, the type of work performed by adult caretakers in a given community strongly influence the type of childcare used. In agricultural / horticultural societies where work is done to provide sustenance for the community, siblings and similar - aged children are responsible for younger children. While many global communities prefer children aged 7 -- 10 for designated caregiving responsibilities, children no younger than 12 are preferred in the Western world where paid childcare is common.
Other factors of childcare that vary cross-culturally are the relative ages of both caretaker and child, parental expectations, demands of the child, culturally - varied conceptions of children 's maturity, and factors affecting demographic makeup.
An important aspect that many center based child cares have been trying to implement into their mission statement and everyday routine has been of being aware of the multiple cultures they will be dealing with. This was seen as being important because of the growing numbers of families considering and seeking childcare. Childcare has become an important aspect of society since, "Over thirteen million American children under 5 years of age experience some form of child care before entering formal school. '' Programs must understand similarities and differences between cultures / ethnic groups. This must be done to understand the overall diversity of the community. Children should be able to have their cultural practices represented as well as be able to learn about other cultures they have not been exposed to. This is of great importance because it adds to their mental development and their understanding of the world.
In England, childcare is inspected and regulated by OFSTED (previously this was administered by Local Authority Social Services). Care for children under five is split into Childcare on Domestic Premises which is Childminding and Daycare. In the UK being a ' Childminder ' is a protected title and can only be used by registered professionals. Registered Childminders are trained, insured and qualified in Pediatric First Aid. They comply / administer / work with The Early Years Foundation Stage EYFS and have the same responsibilities for education as nurseries and reception classes. They generally work from their own homes and are always self - employed setting their own terms and conditions. The basic numbers of children that childminders can care for is 6 children under 8 years of age; of these children, 3 may be under 5 and of these 1 may be under 1. These numbers include the childminder 's own children (although the childminder 's children will not be included in the childminding ' Certificate '). Some childminders work with either childminding assistants or with co-childminders, which often increases the number of children that can be cared for and individual childminders can request a ' variation ' which may increase the children that they care for particularly for ' continuity of care ' or for twins. There is a professional body -- the Professional Association for Childcare & Early Years (formerly the National Childminding Association), which "Promotes and supports quality child - minding expertise '' and provides information for Childminders and parents. London has greater pressures on childcare provision than other English regions. A recent study by London 's Poverty Profile found the level of childcare provision in London is lower than the England average. In London, there are 4.4 children aged under 8 per childcare place, compared to the England average of 3.9.
Childcare costs in London significantly hinder the living standards of the capital 's residents. A recent study by Loughborough University, funded by Trust for London, found the minimum budget required for a couple with two children to reach a decent standard of living is 22 % more in Inner London and 21 % more in Outer London than compared with the rest of the UK. The significantly higher costs of childcare influences this heavily, along with housing and transport.
In Scotland Her Majesty 's Inspectorate of Education is responsible for improving care and education for children from birth to age eighteen. This is implemented by inspections carried out by HMIE itself or by other members of inspection and review teams. Inspection reports include feedback from staff and parents as well as the inspectors, aiming to provide parents and carers information to help them decide whether a particular child care setting is providing good quality child care and meeting government standards.
Child care can cost up to $15,000 for one year in the United States. The average annual cost of full - time care for an infant in center - based care ranges from $4,863 in Mississippi to $16,430 in Massachusetts.
In monetary - and production - based societies, informal childcare is seen in families who do not have enough funds to finance placing their children in a more expensive child care facility. A study done by Roberta Iversen and Annie Armstrong explains that due to long and irregular working hours of working parents, low - socioeconomic families are more likely to utilize informal childcare. Those low income families are also more apt to work longer hours on an irregular and inflexible schedule, which ultimately makes using a childcare facility, that has regular business hours, unlikely.
In 2001, more than one half of the children in the United States attended childcare facilities. This number has only increased as the number of working parents has increased. The increase in the number of children that are required to have some sort of childcare service has made childcare facilities more necessary than they have ever been.
Childcare systems in France put great value into childcare providers having received a certain level of formal education in order to properly care for children. They have two separate branches of early childhood childcare. These two branches are called crèche and école maternelle. Crèche is the program for infants and toddlers and école maternelle is part of the education system. They both require teachers to have a college degree with an occasional specialized degree on top of that.
Many agricultural communities highly value sibling - and peer - caretaking. Accounts from the Idakho tribe in Kenya portray infants being left to the care and guidance of other relatively young children in the community with adults and other tribe members merely within shouting distance should a problem arise. The same pattern of caregiving is seen in the Kikuyu people in Kenya, where mothers in the horticultural society are often away working, which relies on siblings, cousins, and neighbors to care for children as young as 4 months old.
The children caregivers in many communities are deemed responsible to care for those younger than them and it is expected that they will do so. Adults are viewed as occasional supervisors of the caregiving while the caregivers are responsible for responding to the needs of each child. These young caregivers take pride in their responsibility and learn each child 's individual likes, dislikes, and habits.
There are many things to consider when parents enroll a child into a care center or other form of paid childcare, and there is much controversy surrounding the potential benefits and harm caused by this type of care. The parental decisions of leaving a child with someone and who that someone will be are two of the most difficult decisions in the lives of most parents. A parent must consider the safety and security of their children when making this decision. The development of a child has many factors, but it is most directly influenced by the type and quality of care that is most regularly provided to the child.
Child development researcher, Lian Tong, analysed the results from a Haley and Stansbury experiment saying, "Parent responsiveness also facilitates cognitive, social, and emotional development and reduces negative emotions in infants. '' That is, the amount of time that a parent or teacher is willing to spend teaching, listening to, playing with, and exploring with the child the more socially, emotionally, and educationally developed the child will become. Whether that child receives the majority of his or her care at a center or at its house, the biggest factor in deciding what will have the best effect on the child will be those willing to put in the time and effort it takes to properly develop a child 's social, physical, and academic skills.
The quality of childcare given by a facility is generally indicated by the center 's cost of enrollment. If the center charges more for the service, it will generally provide better care to the children. Centers that charge more for their services can provide quality education, more current resources, and nicer facilities. These are all helpful when trying to educate a child academically. A higher standard for teachers, such as requiring a degree in early childhood education or a degree of the like, has shown to result in improved growth in the development of a child.
Whether at an expensive facility or relatively inexpensive, children who attend daycare facilities tend to develop social skills more quickly than children of the same age group that are reared at home. They communicate better with children of the same age and often try harder to communicate with those that are younger than them, by using patience and taking different approaches at presenting the data. Surprisingly, a study done by Erik Dearing, has proven that negative social behavioral patterns are not directly connected to daycare. By studying a large selection of children from the Norwegian childcare system he concluded that the number of hours a child spends at a daycare and their behavior have no dependent relations. Though in America, children who attend childcare systems have a higher risk of externalizing the symptoms of negative social behavior, exhibiting these traits can directly correlate with their time spent in the center.
There are links between the income, education, and importance of consistency and the well being of the child, to the parents, and the development of their child. Higher educated parents place more importance on the education of their children than the parents who do not have a college degree or have not graduated from high school. Likewise, parents who have a higher income level are more willing to part with their money to purchase a private tutor or nanny to assist the parent in the education of their child. They also tend to stress the importance of being socially inept. The first few years of a child 's life are important to form a basis for good education, morality, self - discipline and social integration. Consistency of approach, skills and qualifications of caregivers have been shown in many studies to improve the chances of a child reaching his or her full potential. Child care in much of western society is currently in crisis: there are not enough daycare spots, the cost for most parents is beyond their means, and child care staff are grossly underpaid. Starting wages for Early Childcare Educators start at $11 or $12, causing a high turnover rate, and decreases the likelihood of potentially safe, effective, and loving child care providers from even entering the field. For preschool teachers the average salary is about $28,570. According to a survey done by HiMama, 68 % of for - profit child care organizations ranked ' Labor ' as their top risk and 65 % ranked ' Talent and Recruitment ' as their top priority for 2017.
Care given by unpaid providers in an informal setting affect multiple developmental and psychological dimensions in children. Whether the providers are the child 's siblings or a member of the family / community, research dictates this type of care influences factors such as sense achievement, affiliation, conformity, and individual interests.
More specifically, further research indicates that children being cared for by siblings or similarly - aged children (a trend more commonly seen in agriculturally - based cultural communities) have certain psychological and developmental effects on those being cared for. These effects include but are not limited to: mother - child attachment, emergence of childhood developmental stages, formation of playgroups, development of social responsibility, sex differences, personality differences, cognition, and motivation and performance in the classroom.
Childcare infection is the spread of infection during childcare, typically because of contact among children in daycare or school. This happens when groups of children meet in a childcare environment, and there is an individual with an infectious disease who may then spread it to the entire group. Commonly spread diseases include influenza - like illness and enteric illnesses, such as diarrhea among babies using diapers. Illnesses and diseases may also include ringworm, head lice, and hand, feet, mouth disease. It is uncertain how these diseases spread, but hand washing reduces some risk of transmission and increasing hygiene in other ways also reduces risk of infection.
Due to social pressure, parents of sick children in childcare may be willing to give unnecessary medical care to their children when advised to do so by childcare workers and even if it is against the advice of health care providers. In particular, children in childcare are more likely to take antibiotics than children outside of childcare.
Parents spend a significant amount of time raising their children. These parents nurture and develop their children into being functional members of society. This hard work is not motivated by monetary gain. For centuries it has been assumed that women will stay home and take care of the children while their husbands go out and work. In most cases, the husbands get all the credit for providing for the family. However, the wife who is the homemaker, deserves just as much credit for her care work. Caregivers do not receive monetary compensation and they must pay a ' care - penalty.
A care - penalty is the price one pays for doing care work for a family member. Care giving demands a lot out of an individual, and as a result there is a high opportunity cost. The opportunity cost can relate to both time and money. Instead of taking care of a family member, a caregiver could spend time working or performing more leisure activities. Care penalties are not strictly related to childcare - they can also refer to taking care of a sick family member, babysitting a younger sibling, or taking an elderly family member on errands such as grocery shopping or doctor 's appointments.
Studies have been done to get an annual salary estimate for a female caregiver. One survey suggested that the value of a mother 's work, if she were paid the average wage for each task she performs in running the household and caring for her children, is $117,867 per year. The reason for the high salary is because mothers typically perform about 10 different job functions throughout the week. Some of these job functions are poorly paid, including cleaning, driving, caring for children, and washing laundry, but others, especially financial and managerial tasks that the survey equated with being the Chief Executive Officer of a company, are highly paid. Neither a nanny nor a housekeeper makes nearly as much money, and almost all of these tasks except direct child care also have to be done by non-parents. The value of unpaid childcare is also an important figure in various legal entities. Expert witnesses (most often economists) are occasionally brought into court cases to give estimates on the value of unpaid labor. By giving estimation, the plaintiff or defendant can be fairly compensated for their labor.
It is important to assess the value of caregivers because they are what truly make society function, and often their work is under - appreciated. They prepare the next generation for school, work, and decision - making. The way in which a child is nurtured at a young age and through adolescence has both psychological and developmental effects that effect their future. Not only does the child depend on caregiving, but schools and employers depend on the childcare. The government also benefits because these children turn into productive members of society. Eventually, they will be the ones running the country.
Developmental benefits are also seen for older siblings or relatives tasked to care for younger children. For example, children with siblings are more likely to prohibit prosocial behaviors (such as the ability to take another 's perspective or sharing with others) than children without siblings. Additionally, sibling caretakers have to opportunity to develop deeper communication skills as they teach younger siblings to participate in everyday tasks.
According to Chris Knight, the first humans were few; then the population "exploded... Population expansion on such a scale is inconsistent with female tolerance of infanticide, harassment, or the heavy costs to mothers of male philandering and double standards. If unusually large numbers of unusually large - brained offspring were being successfully raised to maturity, the quality of childcare must have been exceptional. We know what the optimal solution would have been. There can be no doubt that mothers would have done best by... taking advantage of every available childcare resource. ''
Plato, according to Elaine Hoffman Baruch, around 394 B.C., argued that a system of child care would free women to participate in society. Among the early English authors to devote a book to child care in the modern sense was Elizabeth Dawbarn (The Rights of Infants, or... Nursing of Infants, 1805). Day care, daycare, child day care, or childcare is the care of a child during the day by a person other than the child 's legal guardians, typically performed by someone outside the child 's immediate family. Day care is typically an ongoing service during specific periods, such as the parents ' time at work.
Day care can also refer to daytime care for disabled or elderly people in both UK and US English, so child day care is often preferable at first mention.
The service is known as day care or childcare in the United Kingdom, North America, and Australia and as crèche in Ireland and New Zealand. According to Oxford Living Dictionaries, child care in two words can in addition have the broader meaning of the care of a child by anyone, including the parents, but US dictionaries do not record that spelling or meaning. In English - speaking and other conservative countries, the vast majority of childcare is still performed by the parents, in - house nannies or through informal arrangements with relatives, neighbors or friends, but most children are in daycare centers for most of the day in Nordic Countries, for example. Child care in the child 's own home is traditionally provided by a nanny or au pair, or by extended family members including grandparents, aunts and uncles. Child care is provided in nurseries or crèches or by a nanny or family child care provider caring for children in their own homes. It can also take on a more formal structure, with education, child development, discipline and even preschool education falling into the fold of services.
The day care industry is a continuum from personal parental care to large, regulated institutions. Some childminders care for children from several families at the same time, either in their own home (commonly known as "family day care '' in Australia) or in a specialized child care facility. Some employers provide nursery provisions for their employees at or near the place of employment. For - profit day care corporations often exist where the market is sufficiently large or there are government subsidies. Research shows that not - for - profits are much more likely to produce the high quality environments in which children thrive. '' Local governments, often municipalities, may operate non-profit day care centers. For all providers, the largest expense is labor. Local legislation may regulate the operation of daycare centers, affecting staffing requirements. In Canada, the workforce is predominantly female (95 %) and low paid, averaging only 60 % of average workforce wage. Some jurisdictions require licensing or certification. Legislation may specify details of the physical facilities (washroom, eating, sleeping, lighting levels, etc.).
Independent studies suggest that good daycare is not harmful. In some cases, good daycare can provide different experiences than parental care does, especially when children reach two and are ready to interact with other children. Children in higher quality childcare had somewhat better language and cognitive development during the first 41⁄2 years of life than those in lower quality care.
Learning Stories are documents that are used by caregivers and educators in childcare settings. They use a storytelling format instead of a traditional ' observation ' report to document the different ways that young children learn, and capture the moment in greater detail and provide parents with a greater insight into the events that occur in their child 's time in childcare.
What they include
Learning stories originate from New Zealand as they use a learning model in their curriculum called "Te Whaariki ''. It highlights children 's learning outcomes as ' disposition ' which are "situated learning strategies plus motivation - participation repertoires from which a learner recognize, selects, edits, responds to, resists, searches for and constructs learning opportunities ''
The first crèche was opened by Firmin Marbeau on 14 November 1844 in Paris, The Société des Crèches was recognized by the French government in 1869. Originating in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th century, day cares were established in the United States by private charities in the 1850s, such as the Charity Organization Society founded by Ansley Wilcox. The Fitch Creche in Buffalo, New York was known as the first day center for working mothers in the United States. Another at that time was the New York Day Nursery in 1854.
More contemporary proposals for government advancement of day care in the United States have experienced a checkered path, for example, in 1971, the Comprehensive Child Development Act was passed by Congress, but was vetoed by Richard Nixon. It "would have created nationally funded child care centers providing early childhood services and after - school care, as well as nutrition, counseling, and even medical and dental care. The centers would charge parents on a sliding scale. '' Various proposals have been considered, but to date, none leading to legislation that would establish a national policy supporting day care in the United States.
The day care industry is a continuum from personal parental care to large, regulated institutions.
The vast majority of childcare is still performed by the parents, in - house nanny or through informal arrangements with relatives, neighbors or friends. For example, in Canada, among two parent families with at least one working parent, 62 % of parents handle the childcare themselves, 32 % have other in - home care (nannies, relatives, neighbours or friends) and only 6.5 % use a formal day care center.
However, for - profit day care corporations often exist where the market is sufficiently large or there are government subsidies. For instance, in North America, KinderCare Learning Centers, one of the largest of such companies, has approximately 1,600 centers located in 39 states and the District of Columbia. Bright Horizons Family Solutions another of the largest has over 600 daycare centers. Similarly the Australian government 's childcare subsidy has allowed the creation of a large private - sector industry in that country.
Another factor favoring large corporate daycares is the existence of childcare facilities in the workplace. Large corporations will not handle this employee benefit directly themselves and will seek out large corporate providers to manage their corporate daycares. Most smaller, for - profit daycares operate out of a single location.
In general, the geographic limitations and the diversity in type of daycare providers make child daycare a highly fragmented industry. The largest providers own only a very small share of the market. This leads to frustration for parents who are attempting to find quality child daycare, with 87 % of them describing the traditional search for child daycare as "difficult and frustrating ''.
Some jurisdictions require licensing or certification. Parents may also turn to independent rating services, or rely on recommendations and referrals. Some places develop voluntary quality networks, for example in Australia most childcare services are part of a national Quality Assurance system. Some places require caregivers to take classes in pediatric CPR and first aid. Most countries have laws relating to childcare, which seek to keep children safe and prevent and punish child abuse. Such laws may add cost and complexity to childcare provision and may provide tools to help ensure quality childcare.
Additionally, legislation typically defines what constitutes daycare (e.g., so as to not regulate individual babysitters). It may specify details of the physical facilities (washroom, eating, sleeping, lighting levels, etc.). The minimum window space may be such that it precludes day cares from being in a basement. It may specify the minimum floor space per child (for example 2.8 square metres) and the maximum number of children per room (for example 24). It may mandate minimum outdoor time (for example 2 hours for programs 6 hours or longer). Legislation may mandate qualifications of supervisors. Staff typically do not require any qualifications but staff under the age of eighteen may require supervision. Some legislation also establishes rating systems, the number and condition of various toys, and documents to be maintained. Typically, once children reach the age of twelve, they are no longer covered by daycare legislation and programs for older children may not be regulated.
Legislation may mandate staffing ratios (for example, 6 weeks to 12 months, 1: 4; 12 months to 18 months, 1: 5; 18 months to 24 months, 1: 9; etc.). The caregiver - to - child ratio is one factor indicative of quality of care. Ratios vary greatly by location and by daycare center. Potential consequences of a caregiver: child ratio which is too high could be very serious. However, many states allow a higher numbers of toddlers to caregivers and some centers do not comply consistently. For example, within the US: Pennsylvania, ages 1 -- 3, 1 teacher to 5 children; Missouri: age 2, 1 teacher to 8 children; North Carolina: 1 teacher to 10 children.
Many organizations in the developed world campaign for free or subsidized childcare for all. Others campaign for tax breaks or allowances to provide parents a non-finance driven choice. Many of the free or subsidized childcare programs in the United States are also Child Development programs, or afterschool programs which hire certified teachers to teach the children while they are in their care. There are often local industry associations that lobby governments on childcare policy, promote the industry to the public or help parents choose the right daycare provider.
In the United States, childcare in regulated commercial or family childcare home setting is administered or led by teachers who may have a Child Development Associate or higher credentials. These higher credentials include Associate, Bachelor, and even master 's degrees in the field of Early Childhood Education (ECE). Although childcare professionals may obtain a degree, many states require that they attend workshops yearly to upgrade their knowledge and skill levels. Many day cares require a teacher to obtain a certain amount of training. For example, Texas requires a minimum of 25 hours a year, and the first year as a teacher, you are required to have 50 hours.
Australia has a large child care industry, however in many locations (especially in inner - city suburbs of large cities and in rural areas) the availability is limited and the waiting periods can be up to several years. The Australian government 's Child Care Subsidy scheme provides generous assistance with child care costs, but this still leaves many families with a large out of pocket expense. The median weekly cost of centre - based long day care in 2013 was approximately A $364 which puts it out of the reach of lower income earners.
Regulation is governed by the ACECQA, a federal government body, which acts as a central body for the state bodies.
Ratios are:
All childcare workers must have, or be undertaking, the minimum "Certificate III in Children 's Services '' in order to work in a centre (Recognition of Prior Learning is available to help qualify staff with many years experience, but no qualifications). (Common more advanced qualifications are "Diploma of Children 's Services '' and an Early Childhood Education degree).
Rules differ between states regarding family day care in Australia. To start a Family Day Care business in Victoria, an educator should be either having "Certificate III in Children 's Services '' or be actively working towards the same. Additionally, Current Police check, Current First Aid training, Insurance (specifically for family day care) is necessary for starting a family day care. The house should be safe for children. A group of 15 educators works under one Supervisor who must have a "Diploma in Children 's Services ''.
Canada offers both private and subsidized daycare centers. Some shortages of subsidized openings can lengthen the time needed to find a suitable childcare provider. To counter this, government or private enterprise sometimes enable parents to look for available spaces online.
In Denmark day - cares accept children ranging from 6 months old to 3 years old. 91.2 % of 1 - 2 year old children are enrolled in different types of day - care institutions. Most of these are managed by a municipality and mostly government funded. The different types of institutions ranges from separate day - care institutions (Vuggestue), kindergartens with a day - care department (Integrerede institutioner) and in - home day - care (Dagpleje).
The day - cares are play - based focusing on the children 's perspective and involvement in the day - to - day life. The day - cares are staffed by trained social educators or pedagogues (pædagog)
In Germany, preschool education is the domain of the Kindertagesstätte (literally "children 's day site '', often shortened to Kita or KITA), which is usually divided into the Kinderkrippe (crèche) for toddlers (age up to 3 years), and the Kindergarten for children who are older than three years and before school. Children in their last Kindergarten year may be grouped into a Vorschule ("preschool '') and given special pedagogic attention; special preschool institutions comparable to the US - American kindergarten are the exception.
Kitas are typically run by public (i.e. communal) and "free '' carriers (such as the churches, other religious organizations, social organizations with a background in the trade unions and profit - orientated corporations), and subsidized by the states (Länder). In this case, the care is open to the general public -- e.g. a Protestant or Muslim child may claim a place in a Kita run by the catholic church.
Preschool education, unlike school and university, is not in the exclusive domain of the states. The federal government regulates daycare through the Kinder - und Jugendhilfegesetz (KJHG), which stipulates a legal claim to daycare:
Alternative daycare can be provided through Tagespflegepersonen (usually Tagesmütter, "day mothers ''), i.e. stay - at - home parents which provide commercial day care to other children. This form of daycare is also federally regulated through the KJHG.
Preschool education (Frühpädagogik) is increasingly seen as an integral part of education as a whole; several states such as Bavaria have released detailed educational plans for daycare carriers who claim state subsidies. "Early pedagogics '' has increasingly moved into the academic domain, with an increasing number of staff being trained at universities of applied science (Fachhochschulen) and regular universities. Non-academic personnel in daycare facilities have usually attended specialized schools for several years. In the state of Bavaria for example, daycare assistants (Kinderpfleger) will have attended school for two years, daycare teachers (Erzieher) for three years with an additional two - year internship.
In Japan, the child care industry is worth trillions of yen, and is expanding due to rising work force participation by mothers. In 2004 nearly 2 million children were in some form of day care. (Jetro)
In Mexico, President Felipe Calderon Hinojosa created a Social Program named "Programa de Estancias Infantiles '' that included more than 8,000 daycare spaces for children between 1 and 3.11 years old. This program subsidizes mothers that work and study and also single fathers in a vulnerable situation. It has a great success having more than 125,000 children over the country. This is regulated by the Social Development Minister (Secretaría de Desarrollo Social). (2)
Childcare has been on the rise in Mexico due to the increasing interest it has within the people and the effect it has on the government. This is due to the rise of urban areas in developing countries and the need to keep up with the economic development. There has always been many child care services available but due to the high costs, they were mainly unavailable for the low income families. Childcare became a hot topic of discussion when more women were joining the workforce and the debate of how this would affect how the children would be raised. Another topic of debate is how would the women pay for these expensive services while working minimum wage jobs or having limited times they could work, so the idea of subsidizes arose. In specific to the child, the topic of "street children '', how and where children should grow up, was debated, and if they should be allowed to be considered part of the street instead of a particular home. This issue was of great debate because it not only affects the child but also the community the child is in, since they usually seek out public spaces for shelter, food and play. Childcare is generally broken into three general categories such as governmental institutions, religious organizations, and independent agencies (such as NGOS). All of these take on the same objectives which are "containment, paternalist cure approach and street education. ''
The creation of childcare programs in Mexico is quite different from others because it focuses on the "defeminization of labor and the defamilization of care. '' Female participation is a goal that the government has so it set in place many policies and modes to achieve this. The creation of a successful program of child care has been sought out and many different aspects have been changed over the years but it can be seen that there is an increase in early childhood education and care services (ECEC). ECEC services can be broken down into three different time periods and models which were implemented. The first would be in the 1970s when the Institute for Social Security focuses on covering children for mothers who were covered by Social Security services. This caused a huge gap in the children that could be covered due to the fairly large amount of women working in the informal sector and being denied these services. The second stage would be in the early 200s when the Ministry of Public education made preschool mandatory for all children from ages 3 to 5. This was useful in theory because all of the children in this age range would be cared for, but in reality caused a strain in the amount of time that the parents had to go and work or dedicate their time elsewhere. The last stage would be in 2007 when the Ministry of Social Development created a childcare program in which was focuses on helping out children and mothers who were not covered by the social security services. This was successful since it targeted low income families specifically. For families to be eligible for this service the mothers had to be working or searching for a job, the income was taken into consideration in comparison to that of minimum wage, and that they did not have any other access to services. Women 's participation in the workforce and be directly tied to the availability of childcare services and how it would affect their household.
The program that was created in 2007 became known as the Federal Daycare Programme for Working Mothers. This program allowed for subsidized home and community based childcare. The one running the care centers would only have to have a training component, which consisted of a psychological test and training courses to understand the principles of childcare, before being able to open their business in which they would be given money to furnish the facility as necessary for a safe caring center to be created. Another way this program was set into place was by subsidizing the care of non-profits, private for profits, or religious institutions who were based in the area of need.
Many children in Norway start daycare between 10 months and 3 years old. Funded parental leave for working parents is either 44 weeks with full pay, or 54 weeks with 80 % pay (both up to a certain level only). The government guarantees daycare for all children that are at least 1 year old by 1 August. Coverage is still not 100 %, but most regions are getting close (2011). There 's a maximum price to enable all families to afford it.
Spain provides paid maternity leave of 16 weeks with 30 - 50 % of mothers returning to work (most full - time) after this, thus babies 4 months of age tend to be placed in daycare centers. Adult - infant ratios are about 1: 7 - 8 first year and 1: 16 - 18 second year. Public preschool education is provided for most children aged 3 -- 5 years in "Infantil '' schools which also provide primary school education.
The UK has a wide range of childcare options, including childminders, day nurseries, playgroups and pre-school education at school. It is regulated by OFSTED (CSSIW in Wales), which operates the application and inspection process for the sector.
Childcare is primarily funded by parents, however the Single Funding Formula (pre-school funding) can be used at some day nurseries, playgroups and schools for a maximum of 5 sessions per week, after a child reaches 3 years. The government introduced a childcare allowance (vouchers) by which employers could make payments for childcare, prior to tax, on employees ' wages.
Median rates (2011) are approximately £ 4.50 per hour for childminders, £ 7: 5 - £ 10 net per hour for nannies, £ 60 - 100 per week for au pairs and £ 35 - £ 50 per day for day nurseries.
State legislation may regulate the number and ages of children allowed before the home is considered an official daycare program and subject to more stringent safety regulations. Often the nationally recognized Child Development Associate credential is the minimum standard for the individual leading this home care program. Each state has different regulations for teacher requirements. In some states, teachers must have an associate degree in child development. States with quality standards built into their licensing programs may have higher requirements for support staff such as teacher assistants. And in Head Start programs, by 2012, all lead teachers must have a bachelor 's degree in Early Childhood Education. States vary in the standards set for daycare providers, such as teacher to child ratios.
Family childcare can also be nationally accredited by the National Association of Family Childcare if the provider chooses to go through the process. National accreditation is only awarded to those programs who demonstrate the quality standards set forth by the NAFCC.
According to the 1995 U.S. Census Bureau Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), over thirty - six percent of families of preschoolers with working mothers primarily relied on childcare in the home of a relative, family daycare provider or other non-relative. Almost twenty - six percent of families used organized childcare facilities as their primary arrangement.
Child care can cost up to $15,000 for one year in the United States. The average annual cost of full - time care for an infant in center - based care ranges from $4,863 in Mississippi to $16,430 in Massachusetts.
Independent studies suggest that good daycare for non-infants is not harmful. In some cases, good daycare can provide different experiences than parental care does, especially when children reach two and are ready to interact with other children. Bad daycare puts the child at physical, emotional and attachment risk. Higher quality care was associated with better outcomes. Children in higher quality childcare had somewhat better language and cognitive development during the first 41⁄2 years of life than those in lower quality care. They were also somewhat more cooperative than those who experienced lower quality care during the first 3 years of life.
The National Institute of Health released a study in March, 2007 after following a group of children through early childhood to the 6th grade. The study found that the children who received a higher quality of childcare scored higher on 5th grade vocabulary tests than the children who had attended childcare of a lower quality. The study also reported that teachers found children from childcare to be "disobedient '', fight more frequently, and more argumentative. The study reported the increases in both aggression and vocabulary were small. "The researchers emphasized that the children 's behavior was within the normal range and were not considered clinically disordered. ''
As a matter of social policy, consistent, good daycare, may ensure adequate early childhood education for children of less skilled parents. From a parental perspective, good daycare can complement good parenting.
A 2001 report showed that children in high - quality care scored higher on tests of language, memory and other skills than did children of stay - at - home mothers or children in lower - quality day care.
A study appearing in Child Development in July / August 2003 found that the amount of time spent in daycare before four - and - a-half tended to correspond with the child 's tendency to be less likely to get along with others, to be disobedient, and to be aggressive, although still within the normal range.
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what did the local kingdom give to the united states in return for these trade benefits | Reciprocity treaty of 1875 - wikipedia
The Treaty of reciprocity between the United States of America and the Hawaiian Kingdom (Hawaiian: Kuʻikahi Pānaʻi Like) was a free trade agreement signed and ratified in 1875 that is generally known as the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875.
The treaty gave free access to the United States market for sugar and other products grown in the Kingdom of Hawaii starting in September 1876. In return, the US gained lands in the area known as Pu ʻu Loa for what became known as the Pearl Harbor naval base. The treaty led to large investment by Americans in sugarcane plantations in Hawaii.
For decades, the sugar planters in Hawaii had been economically hampered by United States import taxes placed upon their product, and consequently has been attempting negotiations for a free trade agreement. Two previous efforts at reaching an agreement with the United States failed, for many reasons. The planters wanted a treaty, but Hawaiians feared it would lead to annexation by the United States. Sugar refineries in San Francisco lobbied for a clause protecting their interests. The most recent effort before Kalākaua 's reign died in the United States Senate.
Within a year of Kalākaua 's election, the treaty would become a reality, although the treaty was not supported by all Hawaiians. There were concerns over American ambitions to annex the islands, with many in the business community willing to cede the exclusive use of Pearl Harbor to the United States in exchange for the treaty. Part of Kalākaua 's election platform, as "Hawaii for Hawaiians '', had been to oppose the ceding of any sovereign land. Hawaii legislator Joseph Nāwahī predicted the treaty would be "a nation snatching treaty ''.
At the urging of Hawaii 's businessmen and the kingdom 's newspapers, Kalākaua agreed to head a Reciprocity Commission consisting of sugar planter Henry A.P. Carter of C. Brewer & Co., Hawaii Chief Justice Elisha Hunt Allen, and Minister of Foreign Affairs William Lowthian Green. After several months of negotiations, the treaty was signed on January 30, 1875, ratified by the Kingdom of Hawaii April 17, and ratified by the United States on May 31, For the US, signers were Secretary of State Hamilton Fish and president Ulysses S. Grant. without giving away any Hawaiian land. It allowed certain Hawaiian goods, mainly sugar and rice, to be admitted into the United States tax - free, for a period of 7 years. In return, Hawaii agreed not to levy import taxes on American - produced goods coming into Hawaii. The first shipment of sugar from Hawaii to the United States under the treaty arrived in San Francisco in September 1876 in a ship commanded by Captain William H. Marston.
In the United States, the complaints about the treaty had been from southern sugar plantation owners who charged that the treaty favored Hawaiian planters, and sugar refiners who believed San Francisco refiners, in particular that of Claus Spreckels, were given unfair advantage. In Hawaii, the government became concerned that the subsequent United States Tariff Act of March 3, 1883, which lowered sugar tariffs imposed on product imported from all nations, had left them at a disadvantage. Article IV of the reciprocity treaty prevented Hawaii from making reciprocity treaties with other nations. President Chester A. Arthur was in favor of modifying the existing treaty. At the expiration of the treaty 's 7 years, it remained in effect on a year - to - year basis. In 1884, Henry A. P. Carter and United States Secretary of State Frederick Theodore Frelinghuysen sent a proposal to the United States Senate. After several months of negotiations, an agreement was reached on December 6, 1884, but it would be another 2 years and 11 months before ratification by both parties. Article II of the extension ceded exclusive use of Pearl Harbor to the United States. Treaty ratifications were exchanged on December 9, 1887, extending the agreement for an additional 7 years.
The most immediate result of the treaty was the boom in new sugar plantations. San Francisco sugar refiner Claus Spreckels became a major investor in Hawaii 's sugar industry, initially buying half of the first year 's production, and ultimately being the major shareholder in the plantations. Claus and his son John D. Spreckels became part owners of the Waihee plantation on the island of Maui. Within 5 years, it was estimated that he owned one - third of the sugar production in Hawaii. By 1882, the year he exported 24 million tons of raw sugar from the islands, he claimed to have a monopoly on the Hawaiian sugar production. Spreckels became one of Kalākaua 's close associates, and by extension, tied in with the king 's cabinet minister Walter Murray Gibson.
Over the term of Kalākaua 's reign, the treaty had a major effect on the kingdom 's income. In 1874, Hawaii exported $1,839,620.27 in products. The value of exported products for 1890, the last full year of his reign, was $13,282,729.48, an increase of 722 %. The exportation of sugar during that time period went from 24,566,611 pounds to 330,822,879 pounds.
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what are the three pedals for on a piano | Piano pedals - wikipedia
Piano pedals are foot - operated levers at the base of a piano which change the instrument 's sound in various ways. Modern pianos usually have three pedals, from left to right, the soft pedal (or una corda), the sostenuto pedal, and the sustaining pedal (or damper pedal). Some pianos omit the sostenuto pedal, or have a middle pedal with a different purpose such as a muting function also known as silent piano.
The development of the piano 's pedals is an evolution that began from the very earliest days of the piano, and continued through the late 19th century. Throughout the years, the piano had as few as one modifying stop, and as many as six or more, before finally arriving at its current configuration of three.
The damper pedal, sometimes called the sustaining pedal, is used more often than the other pedals, and is placed at the right of the array of pedals, most conveniently accessible to (mostly right - footed) players. The damper pedal raises all the dampers off the strings so that they keep vibrating after a key on the keyboard has been released. In effect, the damper pedal makes every string on the piano a sympathetic string, creating a rich tonal quality; it is probably this effect that lies behind the common saying that the damper pedal is "the soul of the piano ''. The damper pedal has the secondary function of allowing the player to connect into a legato texture notes that otherwise could not thus be played.
The una corda mechanism, invented by Bartolomeo Cristofori, was the first stop invented to modify the piano 's sound. This function is typically operated by the left pedal on modern pianos. The common name many use today for the una corda is the soft pedal. Neither name is an entirely accurate description of the pedal 's function. The una corda primarily modifies the timbre, not just the volume of the tone.
Soon after its invention, the una corda was integrated on pianos of all makers as a standard fixture. On Cristofori 's pianos, the una corda mechanism was operated by a hand stop, not a pedal. The stop was a knob on the side of the keyboard. When the una corda was activated, the entire action shifted to the right so that the hammers hit one string (una corda) instead of two strings (due corde).
Dominic Gill says that when the hammers strike only one string, the piano "produces a softer, more ethereal tone ''.
By the late 18th century, piano builders had begun triple stringing the notes on the piano. This change, affecting the una corda 's function, is described by Joseph Banowetz:
On the pianos of the late eighteenth to early nineteenth centuries, the pianist could shift from the normal three - string (tre corde) position to one in which either two strings (due corde) or only one (una corda) would be struck, depending on the depth to which the pedal was pressed. This subtle but important choice does not exist on modern pianos, but was readily available on the earlier instruments.
The sound of the una corda on early pianos created a larger difference in color and timbre than it does on the modern piano. On the modern piano, the una corda pedal makes the hammers of the treble section hit two strings instead of three. In the case of the bass strings, the hammer normally strikes either one or two strings per note. The lowest bass notes on the piano are a single thicker string. For these notes, the action shifts the hammer so that it strikes the string on a different, lesser - used part of the hammer nose.
Edwin Good states,
On the modern piano, the timbre is subtly different, but many people can not hear it. In that respect, at least, the modern piano does not give the player the flexibility of changing tone quality that early ones did.
Beethoven took advantage of the ability of his piano to create a wide range of tone color in two of his piano works. In his Piano Concerto No. 4, Beethoven specifies the use of una corda, due corde, and tre corde. He calls for una corda, then "poco a poco due ed allora tutte le corde '', gradually two and then all strings, in Sonata Op. 106.
On the modern upright piano, the left pedal is not truly an una corda, because it does not shift the action sideways. This can not happen because the strings "run at such an oblique angle to the hammers that if the action were moved sideways, the hammer might strike one string of the wrong note ''. A more accurate term for the left pedal on an upright piano is the half - blow pedal. When the pedal is activated, the hammers move closer to the strings, so that there is less distance for the hammer to swing.
The last pedal to be added to the modern grand was the middle pedal, the sostenuto, which was inspired by the French. By using this pedal, a pianist can sustain selected notes, while other notes remain unaffected. The sostenuto was first shown at the French Industrial Exposition of 1844 in Paris, by Boisselot & Fils, a Marseille company. French piano builders Alexandre François Debain and Claude Montal built sostenuto mechanisms in 1860 and 1862, respectively. These innovative efforts did not immediately catch on with other piano builders. In 1874, Albert Steinway perfected and patented the sostenuto pedal. He began to advertise it publicly in 1876, and soon the Steinway company was including it on all of their grands and their high - end uprights.
Other American piano builders quickly adopted the sostenuto pedal into their piano design. The adoption by European manufacturers went far more slowly and was essentially completed only in recent times.
The term "sostenuto '' is perhaps not the best descriptive term for what this pedal actually does. "Sostenuto '' in Italian means "sustained ''. This definition alone would make it sound as if the sostenuto pedal accomplishes the same thing as the damper, or "sustaining '' pedal. The sostenuto pedal was originally called the "tone - sustaining '' pedal. That name would be more accurately descriptive of what the pedal accomplishes, i.e. sustainment of a single tone / group of tones. The pedal holds up only those dampers that were already raised at the moment that it was depressed. So if a player: (i) holds down a note or chord, and (ii) while so doing depresses this pedal, and then (iii) lifts the fingers from that note or chord while keeping the pedal depressed, then that note or chord will not be damped until the foot is lifted, despite any subsequently played notes being damped normally on their release by the fingers. Uses for the sostenuto pedal include playing transcriptions of organ music (where the selective sustaining of notes can substitute for the organ 's held notes in its pedals), or in much contemporary music, especially spectral music. Usually, the sostenuto pedal is played with the right foot.
It is common to find uprights and even grand pianos that lack a middle pedal. Even if a piano has a middle pedal, one can not assume it is a true sostenuto, for there are many other functions a middle pedal can have other than that of sostenuto. Often an upright 's middle pedal is another half - blow pedal, like the one on the left, except that the middle pedal will slide into a groove to stay engaged. Sometimes, the middle pedal may only operate the bass dampers. The middle pedal may sometimes lower a muffler rail of felt between the hammers and the strings to mute and significantly soften the sound, so that one can practice quietly (also known as a "Practice Rail ''). True sostenuto is rare on uprights, except for more expensive models such as those from Steinway and Bechstein. They are more common on digital pianos as the effect is straightforward to mimic in software.
Among other pedals sometimes found on early pianos are the lute stop, moderator or celeste, bassoon, buff, cembalo, and swell. The lute pedal created a "pizzicato - type sound ''. The moderator, or celeste mechanism used "a layer of soft cloth or leather... interposed between hammers and strings to give a sweet, singing and muted quality ''. According to Good, "(the piece of leather or cloth was) graduated in thickness across its short dimension. The farther down one pushed the pedal, the farther the rail was lowered and the thicker the material through which the hammer struck the strings. With the thicker material, the sound was softer and more muffled. Such a stop was sometimes called a pianissimo stop. ''
The moderator stop was popular on Viennese pianos, and a similar mechanism is still sometimes fitted on upright pianos today in the form of the practice rail (see Sostenuto pedal, above). Joseph Banowetz states that for the bassoon pedal, paper or silk was placed over the bass strings to create "a buzzing noise that listeners of the day felt resembled the sound of the bassoon ''. The buff stop and cembalo stops seem to be similar to each other in method of manipulation and sound produced. The buff ("leather '') stop used "a narrow strip of soft leather... pressed against the strings to give a dry, soft tone of little sustaining power ''. The cembalo stop pressed leather weights on the strings and modified the sound to make it resemble that of the harpsichord. Johannes Pohlmann used a swell pedal on his pianos to raise and lower the lid of the piano to control the overall volume. Instead of raising and lowering the lid, the swell was sometimes operated by opening and closing slots in the sides of the piano case.
Often called "the father of the pianoforte '', Muzio Clementi was a composer and musician who founded a piano - building company, and was active in the designing of the pianos that his company built. The Clementi piano firm was later renamed Collard and Collard in 1830, two years before Clementi 's death. Clementi added a feature called a harmonic swell.
"(This pedal) introduced a kind of reverberation effect to give the instrument a fuller, richer sound. The effect uses the sympathetic vibrations set up in the untuned non-speaking length of the strings. Here the soundboard is bigger than usual to accommodate a second bridge (the ' bridge of reverberation '). ''
The Dolce Campana pedal pianoforte c. 1850, built by Boardman and Gray, New York, demonstrated yet another creative way of modifying the piano 's sound. A pedal controlled a series of hammers or weights attached to the soundboard that would fall onto an equal number of screws, and created the sound of bells or the harp.
The Fazioli concert grand piano model F308 includes a fourth pedal to the left of the traditional 3 pedals. This pedal acts similarly to the "half - blow '' pedal on an upright piano, in that it collectively moves the hammers somewhat closer to the strings to reduce the volume without changing the tone quality, as the una - corda does. The F308 is the first modern concert grand to offer such a feature.
In the early years of piano development, many novelty pedals and stops were experimented with before finally settling on the three that are now used on the modern piano. Some of these pedals were meant to modify levels of volume, color, or timbre, while others were used for special effects, meant to imitate other instruments. Banowetz speaks of these novelty pedals: "At their worst, these modifications threatened to make the piano into a vulgar musical toy ''.
During the late 18th century, Europeans developed a love for Turkish band music, and the Turkish music style was an outgrowth of this. According to Good, this was possibly started "when King Augustus the Strong of Poland received the gift of a Turkish military band at some time after 1710 ''. "Janissary '' or "janizary '' '' refers to the Turkish military band that used instruments including drums, cymbals, and bells, among other loud, cacophonous instruments. Owing to the desire of composers and players to imitate the sounds of the Turkish military marching bands, piano builders began including pedals on their pianos by which snare and bass drums, bells, cymbals, or the triangle could be played by the touch of a pedal while simultaneously playing the keyboard.
Up to six pedals would control all these different sound effects. Alfred Dolge states, "The Janizary pedal, one of the best known of the early pedal devices, added all kinds of rattling noises to the normal piano performance. It could cause a drumstick to strike the underside of the soundboard, ring bells, shake a rattle, and even create the effect of a cymbal crash by hitting several bass strings with a strip of brass foil ''. Mozart 's Rondo alla Turca, from Sonata K. 331, written in 1778, was sometimes played using these Janissary effects.
The sustaining, or damper stop, was first controlled by the hand, and was included on some of the earliest pianos ever built. Stops operated by hand were inconvenient for the player, who would have to continue playing with one hand while operating the stop with the other. If this was not possible, an assistant would be used to change the stop, just as organists do even today. Johannes Zumpe 's square piano, made in London in 1767, had two hand stops in the case, which acted as sustaining stops for the bass strings and the treble strings.
The knee lever to replace the hand stop for the damper control was developed in Germany sometime around 1765. According to David Crombie, "virtually all the fortepianos of the last three decades of the eighteenth century were equipped with a knee lever to raise and lower the dampers... ".
Sometime around 1777, Mozart had an opportunity to play a piano built by Johann Andreas Stein, who had been an apprentice of Gottfried Silbermann. This piano had knee levers, and Mozart speaks highly of their functionality in a letter: "The machine which you move with the knee is also made better by (Stein) than by others. I scarcely touch it, when off it goes; and as soon as I take my knee the least bit away, you ca n't hear the slightest after - sound ''.
The only piano Mozart ever owned was one by Anton Walter, c. 1782 - 1785. It had two knee levers; the one on the left raised all the dampers, while the one on the right raised only the treble dampers. A moderator stop to produce a softer sound (see Other pedals, above) was centrally above the keyboard.
Although there is some controversy among authorities as to which piano builder was actually the first to employ pedals rather than knee levers, one could say that pedals are a characteristic first developed by manufacturers in England. James Parakilas states that the damper stop was introduced by Gottfried Silbermann, who was the first German piano builder. Parakilas, however, does not specify whether Silbermann 's damper stop was in the form of a hand lever, knee lever, or pedal. It is of importance to note here that many successful English piano builders had apprenticed with Silbermann in Germany, and then left for London as a result of the disturbances of the Seven Years ' War in Saxony. Among those who re-located to England were Johannes Zumpe, Americus Backers, and Adam Beyer. Americus Backers, Adam Beyer, and John Broadwood, all piano builders in England, are credited as being among the first to incorporate the new feature. Americus Backers ' 1772 grand, his only surviving instrument, has what are believed to be original pedals, and is most likely the first piano to use pedals rather than knee levers. A square piano built by Adam Beyer of London in 1777 has a damper pedal, as do pianos built by John Broadwood, ca. 1783.
After their invention, pedals did not immediately become the accepted form for piano stops. German and Viennese builders continued to use the knee levers for quite some time after the English were using pedals. Pedals and knee levers were even used together on the same instrument on a Nannette Streicher grand built in Vienna in 1814. This piano had two knee levers which were Janissary stops for bell and drum, and four pedals for una corda, bassoon, dampers, and moderator.
Throughout his lifetime, Ludwig van Beethoven owned several different pianos by different makers, all with different pedal configurations. His pianos are fine examples of some experimental and innovative pedal designs of the time. In 1803, the French piano company Erard gave him a grand, "(thought to be) the most advanced French grand piano of the time... It had... four pedals, including an una - corda, as well as a damper lift, a lute stop, and a moderator for softening the tone ''.
Beethoven 's Broadwood grand, presented as a gift to him from the Broadwood company in 1817, had an una corda pedal and a split damper pedal -- one half was the damper for the treble strings, the other was for the bass strings. In an effort to give Beethoven an instrument loud enough for him to hear when his hearing was failing, Conrad Graf designed an instrument in 1824 especially for Beethoven with quadruple stringing instead of triple. Graf only made three instruments of this nature. David Crombie describes this instrument: "by adding an extra string, Graf attempted to obtain a tone that was richer and more powerful, though it did n't make the instrument any louder than his Broadwood ''. This extra string would have provided a bigger contrast when applying keyboard - shifting stops, because this keyboard shift pedal moved the action from four to two strings. Crombie states, "these provide a much wider control over the character of the sound than is possible on Graf 's usual instruments ''. This piano had five pedals: a keyboard shift (quad to due corde), bassoon, moderator 1, moderator 2, and dampers. A different four - string system, aliquot stringing, was invented by Julius Blüthner in 1873, and is still a feature of Blüthner pianos. The Blüthner aliquot system uses an additional (hence fourth) string in each note of the top three piano octaves. This string is slightly higher than the other three strings so that it is not struck by the hammer. Whenever the hammer strikes the three conventional strings, the aliquot string vibrates sympathetically.
As a composer and pianist, Beethoven experimented extensively with pedal. His first marking to indicate use of a pedal in a score was in his first two piano concertos, in 1795. Earlier than this, Beethoven had called for the use of the knee lever in a sketch from 1790 -- 92; "with the knee '' is marked for a series of chords. According to Joseph Banowetz, "This is the earliest - known indication for a damper control in a score ''. Haydn did not specify its use in a score until 1794. All in all, there are nearly 800 indications for pedal in authentic sources of Beethoven 's compositions, making him by far the first composer to be highly prolific in pedal usage.
Along with the development of the pedals on the piano came the phenomenon of the pedal piano, a piano with a pedalboard. Some of the early pedal pianos date back to 1815. The pedal piano developed partially for organists to be able to practice pedal work away from the organ. In some instances, the pedal piano was actually a special type of piano with a built - in pedal board and a higher keyboard and bench, like an organ. Other times, an independent pedal board and set of strings could be connected to a regular grand piano.
Mozart had a pedalboard made for his piano. His father, Leopold, speaks of this pedalboard in a letter: "(the pedal) stands under the instrument and is about two feet longer and extremely heavy ''.
Alfred Dolge writes of the pedal mechanisms that his uncle, Louis Schone, constructed for both Robert Schumann and Felix Mendelssohn in 1843. Schumann preferred the pedal board to be connected to the upright piano, while Mendelssohn had a pedal mechanism connected to his grand piano. Dolge describes Mendelssohn 's pedal mechanism: "The keyboard for pedaling was placed under the keyboard for manual playing, had 29 notes and was connected with an action placed at the back of the piano where a special soundboard, covered with 29 strings, was built into the case ''.
In addition to using his pedal piano for organ practice, Schumann composed several pieces specifically for the pedal piano. Among these compositions are Six Studies Op. 56, Four Sketches Op. 58, and Six Fugues on Bach Op. 60. Other composers who used pedal pianos were Mozart, Liszt, Alkan and Gounod.
The piano, and specifically the pedal mechanism and stops underwent much experimentation during the formative years of the instrument, before finally arriving at the current pedal configuration. Banowetz states, "These and a good number of other novelty pedal mechanisms eventually faded from existence as the piano grew to maturity in the latter part of the nineteenth century, finally leaving as survivors of this torturous evolution only today 's basic three pedals ''.
The location of pedals on the piano was another aspect of pedal development that fluctuated greatly during the evolution of the instrument. Piano builders were quite creative with their pedal placement on pianos, which sometimes gave the instruments a comical look, compared to what is usually seen today. The oldest surviving English grand, built by Backers in 1772, and many Broadwood grands had two pedals, una corda and damper, which were attached to the legs on the left and right of the keyboard. James Parakilas describes this pedal location as giving the piano a "pigeon - toed look '', for they turned in slightly. A table piano built by Jean - Henri Pape in the mid-19th century had pedals on the two front legs of the piano, but unlike those on the Backers and Broadwood, these pedals faced straight in towards each other rather than out. A particularly unusual design is demonstrated in the "Dog Kennel '' piano. It was built by Sebastien Mercer in 1831, and was nicknamed the "Dog Kennel '' piano because of its shape. Under the upright piano where the modern pedals would be located is a semi-circular hollow space where the feet of the player could rest. The una corda and damper pedals are at the left and right of this space, and face straight in, like the table piano pedals. Eventually during the 19th century, pedals were attached to a frame located centrally underneath the piano, to strengthen and stabilize the mechanism. According to Parakilas, this framework on the grand piano "often took the symbolic shape and name of a lyre '', and it still carries the name "pedal lyre '' today.
Although the piano and its pedal configuration has been in its current form since the late 19th century, there is a possibility that sometime in the future the pedal configuration may change again. In 1987, the Fazioli piano company in Sacile, Italy, designed the longest piano made until this time (10 feet 2 inches (3.10 m)). This piano has four pedals: damper, sostenuto, una corda, and half - blow.
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2 raise to power 30 is equal to | Power of two - wikipedia
In mathematics, a power of two is a number of the form 2 where n is an integer, i.e. the result of exponentiation with number two as the base and integer n as the exponent.
In a context where only integers are considered, n is restricted to non-negative values, so we have 1, 2, and 2 multiplied by itself a certain number of times.
Because two is the base of the binary numeral system, powers of two are common in computer science. Written in binary, a power of two always has the form 100... 000 or 0.00... 001, just like a power of ten in the decimal system.
Verbal expressions, mathematical notations, and computer programming expressions using a power operator or function include:
Two to the power of n, written as 2, is the number of ways the bits in a binary word of length n can be arranged. A word, interpreted as an unsigned integer, can represent values from 0 (000... 000) to 2 − 1 (111... 111) inclusively. Corresponding signed integer values can be positive, negative and zero; see signed number representations. Either way, one less than a power of two is often the upper bound of an integer in binary computers. As a consequence, numbers of this form show up frequently in computer software. As an example, a video game running on an 8 - bit system might limit the score or the number of items the player can hold to 255 -- the result of using a byte, which is 8 bits long, to store the number, giving a maximum value of 2 − 1 = 255. For example, in the original Legend of Zelda the main character was limited to carrying 255 rupees (the currency of the game) at any given time, and the video game Pac - Man famously shuts down at level 255.
Powers of two are often used to measure computer memory. A byte is now considered eight bits (an octet, resulting in the possibility of 256 values (2). (The term byte once meant (and in some cases, still means) a collection of bits, typically of 5 to 32 bits, rather than only an 8 - bit unit.) The prefix kilo, in conjunction with byte, may be, and has traditionally been, used, to mean 1,024 (2). However, in general, the term kilo has been used in the International System of Units to mean 1,000 (10). Binary prefixes have been standardized, such as kibi (Ki) meaning 1,024. Nearly all processor registers have sizes that are powers of two, 32 or 64 being most common.
Powers of two occur in a range of other places as well. For many disk drives, at least one of the sector size, number of sectors per track, and number of tracks per surface is a power of two. The logical block size is almost always a power of two.
Numbers that are not powers of two occur in a number of situations, such as video resolutions, but they are often the sum or product of only two or three powers of two, or powers of two minus one. For example, 640 = 32 × 20, and 480 = 32 × 15. Put another way, they have fairly regular bit patterns.
A prime number that is one less than a power of two is called a Mersenne prime. For example, the prime number 31 is a Mersenne prime because it is 1 less than 32 (2). Similarly, a prime number (like 257) that is one more than a positive power of two is called a Fermat prime -- the exponent itself is a power of two. A fraction that has a power of two as its denominator is called a dyadic rational. The numbers that can be represented as sums of consecutive positive integers are called polite numbers; they are exactly the numbers that are not powers of two.
The geometric progression 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32,... (or, in the binary numeral system, 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 100000,...) is important in number theory. Book IX, Proposition 36 of Elements proves that if the sum of the first n terms of this progression is a prime number (and thus is a Mersenne prime as mentioned above), then this sum times the nth term is a perfect number. For example, the sum of the first 5 terms of the series 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 31, which is a prime number. The sum 31 multiplied by 16 (the 5th term in the series) equals 496, which is a perfect number.
Book IX, Proposition 35, proves that in a geometric series if the first term is subtracted from the second and last term in the sequence, then as the excess of the second is to the first -- so is the excess of the last to all those before it. (This is a restatement of our formula for geometric series from above.) Applying this to the geometric progression 31, 62, 124, 248, 496 (which results from 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 by multiplying all terms by 31), we see that 62 minus 31 is to 31 as 496 minus 31 is to the sum of 31, 62, 124, 248. Therefore, the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 31, 62, 124 and 248 add up to 496 and further these are all the numbers that divide 496. For suppose that p divides 496 and it is not amongst these numbers. Assume p q is equal to 16 × 31, or 31 is to q as p is to 16. Now p can not divide 16 or it would be amongst the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16. Therefore, 31 can not divide q. And since 31 does not divide q and q measures 496, the fundamental theorem of arithmetic implies that q must divide 16 and be amongst the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16. Let q be 4, then p must be 124, which is impossible since by hypothesis p is not amongst the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 31, 62, 124 or 248.
(sequence A000079 in the OEIS)
Starting with 2 the last digit is periodic with period 4, with the cycle 2 -- 4 -- 8 -- 6 --, and starting with 4 the last two digits are periodic with period 20. These patterns are generally true of any power, with respect to any base. The pattern continues, of course, where each pattern has starting point 2, and the period is the multiplicative order of 2 modulo 5, which is φ (5) = 4 × 5 (see Multiplicative group of integers modulo n).
(sequence A140300 in the OEIS)
The first few powers of 2 are slightly larger than those same powers of 1000:
Because data (specifically integers) and the addresses of data are stored using the same hardware, and the data is stored in one or more octets (2), double exponentials of two are common. For example,
(sequence A001146 in the OEIS)
Several of these numbers represent the number of values representable using common computer data types. For example, a 32 - bit word consisting of 4 bytes can represent 2 distinct values, which can either be regarded as mere bit - patterns, or are more commonly interpreted as the unsigned numbers from 0 to 2 − 1, or as the range of signed numbers between − 2 and 2 − 1. Also see tetration and lower hyperoperations. For more about representing signed numbers see two 's complement.
In a connection with nimbers these numbers are often called Fermat 2 - powers.
The numbers 2 2 n (\ displaystyle 2 ^ (2 ^ (n))) form an irrationality sequence: for every sequence x i (\ displaystyle x_ (i)) of positive integers, the series
converges to an irrational number. Despite the rapid growth of this sequence, it is the slowest - growing irrationality sequence known.
The sum of all n - choose binomial coefficients is equal to 2. Consider the set of all n - digit binary integers. Its cardinality is 2. It is also the sums of the cardinalities of certain subsets: the subset of integers with no 1s (consisting of a single number, written as n 0s), the subset with a single 1, the subset with two 1s, and so on up to the subset with n 1s (consisting of the number written as n 1s). Each of these is in turn equal to the binomial coefficient indexed by n and the number of 1s being considered (e.g., there are 10 - choose - 3 binary numbers with ten digits that include exactly three 1s).
The number of vertices of an n - dimensional hypercube is 2. Similarly, the number of (n − 1) - faces of an n - dimensional cross-polytope is also 2 and the formula for the number of x-faces an n - dimensional cross-polytope has is 2 x (n x) (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle 2 ^ (x) (n \ choose x)).
The sum of the reciprocals of the powers of two is 1. The sum of the reciprocals of the squared powers of two is 1 / 3.
The smallest natural power of two whose decimal representation begins with 7 is
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attempting to restore order to the empire roman emperor diocletian | Diocletian - wikipedia
Diocletian (/ ˌdaɪ. əˈkliːʃən /; Latin: Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus Augustus), born Diocles (244 -- 312), was a Roman emperor from 284 to 305. Born to a family of low status in Dalmatia (Roman province), Diocletian rose through the ranks of the military to become roman cavalry commander to the Emperor Carus. After the deaths of Carus and his son Numerian on campaign in Persia, Diocletian was proclaimed emperor. The title was also claimed by Carus ' other surviving son, Carinus, but Diocletian defeated him in the Battle of the Margus. Diocletian 's reign stabilized the empire and marks the end of the Crisis of the Third Century. He appointed fellow officer Maximian as Augustus, co-emperor, in 286.
Diocletian delegated further on 1 March 293, appointing Galerius and Constantius as Caesars, junior co-emperors. Under this ' tetrarchy ', or "rule of four '', each emperor would rule over a quarter - division of the empire. Diocletian secured the empire 's borders and purged it of all threats to his power. He defeated the Sarmatians and Carpi during several campaigns between 285 and 299, the Alamanni in 288, and usurpers in Egypt between 297 and 298. Galerius, aided by Diocletian, campaigned successfully against Sassanid Persia, the empire 's traditional enemy. In 299 he sacked their capital, Ctesiphon. Diocletian led the subsequent negotiations and achieved a lasting and favorable peace.
Diocletian separated and enlarged the empire 's civil and military services and reorganized the empire 's provincial divisions, establishing the largest and most bureaucratic government in the history of the empire. He established new administrative centres in Nicomedia, Mediolanum, Antioch, and Trier, closer to the empire 's frontiers than the traditional capital at Rome had been. Building on third - century trends towards absolutism, he styled himself an autocrat, elevating himself above the empire 's masses with imposing forms of court ceremonies and architecture. Bureaucratic and military growth, constant campaigning, and construction projects increased the state 's expenditures and necessitated a comprehensive tax reform. From at least 297 on, imperial taxation was standardized, made more equitable, and levied at generally higher rates.
Not all of Diocletian 's plans were successful: the Edict on Maximum Prices (301), his attempt to curb inflation via price controls, was counterproductive and quickly ignored. Although effective while he ruled, Diocletian 's tetrarchic system collapsed after his abdication under the competing dynastic claims of Maxentius and Constantine, sons of Maximian and Constantius respectively. The Diocletianic Persecution (303 -- 11), the empire 's last, largest, and bloodiest official persecution of Christianity, did not destroy the empire 's Christian community; indeed, after 324, Christianity became the empire 's preferred religion under its first Christian emperor, Constantine.
In spite of these failures and challenges, Diocletian 's reforms fundamentally changed the structure of Roman imperial government and helped stabilize the empire economically and militarily, enabling the empire to remain essentially intact for another 150 years despite being near the brink of collapse in Diocletian 's youth. Weakened by illness, Diocletian left the imperial office on 1 May 305, and became the first Roman emperor to abdicate the position voluntarily. He lived out his retirement in his palace on the Dalmatian coast, tending to his vegetable gardens. His palace eventually became the core of the modern - day city of Split in Croatia.
Diocletian was born near Salona in Dalmatia (Solin in modern Croatia), some time around 244. His parents gave him the Greek name Diocles, or possibly Diocles Valerius. The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes his official birthday, 22 December, as his actual birthdate. Other historians are not so certain. Diocles ' parents were of low status, and writers critical of him claimed that his father was a scribe or a freedman of the senator Anullinus, or even that Diocles was a freedman himself. The first forty years of his life are mostly obscure. The Byzantine chronicler Joannes Zonaras states that he was Dux Moesiae, a commander of forces on the lower Danube. The often - unreliable Historia Augusta states that he served in Gaul, but this account is not corroborated by other sources and is ignored by modern historians of the period. The first time Diocletian 's whereabouts are accurately established, in 282, he was made by the newly Emperor Carus commander of the Protectores domestici, the élite cavalry force directly attached to the Imperial household -- a post that earned him the honor of a consulship in 283. As such, he took part in Carus ' subsequent Persian campaign.
Carus 's death, amid a successful war with Persia and in mysterious circumstances -- he was believed (perhaps as a result of later Diocletianic propaganda) to have been struck by lightning -- left his sons Numerian and Carinus as the new Augusti. Carinus quickly made his way to Rome from his post in Gaul as imperial commissioner and arrived there by January 284, becoming legitimate Emperor in the West. Numerian lingered in the East. The Roman withdrawal from Persia was orderly and unopposed. The Sassanid king Bahram II could not field an army against them as he was still struggling to establish his authority. By March 284, Numerian had only reached Emesa (Homs) in Syria; by November, only Asia Minor. In Emesa he was apparently still alive and in good health: he issued the only extant rescript in his name there, but after he left the city, his staff, including the prefect (Numerian 's father - in - law, and as such the dominant influence in the Emperor 's entourage) Aper, reported that he suffered from an inflammation of the eyes. He traveled in a closed coach from then on. When the army reached Bithynia, some of the soldiers smelled an odor emanating from the coach. They opened its curtains and inside they found Numerian dead. Both Eutropius and Aurelius Victor describe Numerian 's death as an assassination.
Aper officially broke the news in Nicomedia (İzmit) in November. Numerianus ' generals and tribunes called a council for the succession, and chose Diocles as Emperor, in spite of Aper 's attempts to garner support. On 20 November 284, the army of the east gathered on a hill 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) outside Nicomedia. The army unanimously saluted Diocles as their new augustus, and he accepted the purple imperial vestments. He raised his sword to the light of the sun and swore an oath disclaiming responsibility for Numerian 's death. He asserted that Aper had killed Numerian and concealed it. In full view of the army, Diocles drew his sword and killed Aper. According to the Historia Augusta, he quoted from Virgil while doing so. Soon after Aper 's death, Diocles changed his name to the more Latinate "Diocletianus '', in full Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus.
After his accession, Diocletian and Lucius Caesonius Bassus were named as consuls and assumed the fasces in place of Carinus and Numerianus. Bassus was a member of a senatorial family from Campania, a former consul and proconsul of Africa, chosen by Probus for signal distinction. He was skilled in areas of government where Diocletian presumably had no experience. Diocletian 's elevation of Bassus as consul symbolized his rejection of Carinus ' government in Rome, his refusal to accept second - tier status to any other emperor, and his willingness to continue the long - standing collaboration between the empire 's senatorial and military aristocracies. It also tied his success to that of the Senate, whose support he would need in his advance on Rome.
Diocletian was not the only challenger to Carinus ' rule: the usurper M. Aurelius Julianus, Carinus ' corrector Venetiae, took control of northern Italy and Pannonia after Diocletian 's accession. Julianus minted coins from the mint at Siscia (Sisak, Croatia) declaring himself as emperor and promising freedom. It was all good publicity for Diocletian, and it aided in his portrayal of Carinus as a cruel and oppressive tyrant. Julianus ' forces were weak, however, and were handily dispersed when Carinus ' armies moved from Britain to northern Italy. As leader of the united East, Diocletian was clearly the greater threat. Over the winter of 284 -- 85, Diocletian advanced west across the Balkans. In the spring, some time before the end of May, his armies met Carinus ' across the river Margus (Great Morava) in Moesia. In modern accounts, the site has been located between the Mons Aureus (Seone, west of Smederevo) and Viminacium, near modern Belgrade, Serbia.
Despite having the stronger, more powerful army, Carinus held the weaker position. His rule was unpopular, and it was later alleged that he had mistreated the Senate and seduced his officers ' wives. It is possible that Flavius Constantius, the governor of Dalmatia and Diocletian 's associate in the household guard, had already defected to Diocletian in the early spring. When the Battle of the Margus began, Carinus ' prefect Aristobulus also defected. In the course of the battle, Carinus was killed by his own men. Following Diocletian 's victory, both the western and the eastern armies acclaimed him augustus. Diocletian exacted an oath of allegiance from the defeated army and departed for Italy.
Diocletian may have become involved in battles against the Quadi and Marcomanni immediately after the Battle of the Margus. He eventually made his way to northern Italy and made an imperial government, but it is not known whether he visited the city of Rome at this time. There is a contemporary issue of coins suggestive of an imperial adventus (arrival) for the city, but some modern historians state that Diocletian avoided the city, and that he did so on principle, as the city and its Senate were no longer politically relevant to the affairs of the empire and needed to be taught as much. Diocletian dated his reign from his elevation by the army, not the date of his ratification by the Senate, following the practice established by Carus, who had declared the Senate 's ratification a useless formality. However, Diocletian was to offer proof of his deference towards the Senate by retaining Aristobulus as ordinary consul and colleague for 285 (one of the few instances during the Late Empire in which an emperor admitted a privatus as his colleague) and by creating senior senators Vettius Aqulinus and Junius Maximus ordinary consuls for the following year -- for Maximus, it was his second consulship.
Nevertheless, if Diocletian ever did enter Rome shortly after his accession, he did not stay long; he is attested back in the Balkans by 2 November 285, on campaign against the Sarmatians.
Diocletian replaced the prefect of Rome with his consular colleague Bassus. Most officials who had served under Carinus, however, retained their offices under Diocletian. In an act of clementia denoted by the epitomator Aurelius Victor as unusual, Diocletian did not kill or depose Carinus ' traitorous praetorian prefect and consul Ti. Claudius Aurelius Aristobulus, but confirmed him in both roles. He later gave him the proconsulate of Africa and the post of urban prefect for 295. The other figures who retained their offices might have also betrayed Carinus.
The assassinations of Aurelian and Probus demonstrated that sole rulership was dangerous to the stability of the empire. Conflict boiled in every province, from Gaul to Syria, Egypt to the lower Danube. It was too much for one person to control, and Diocletian needed a lieutenant. At some time in 285 at Mediolanum (Milan), Diocletian raised his fellow - officer Maximian to the office of caesar, making him co-emperor.
The concept of dual rulership was nothing new to the Roman Empire. Augustus, the first Emperor, had nominally shared power with his colleagues, and more formal offices of Co-Emperor had existed from Marcus Aurelius on. Most recently, Emperor Carus and his sons had ruled together, albeit unsuccessfully. Diocletian was in a less comfortable position than most of his predecessors, as he had a daughter, Valeria, but no sons. His co-ruler had to be from outside his family, raising the question of trust. Some historians state that Diocletian adopted Maximian as his filius Augusti, his "Augustan son '', upon his appointment to the throne, following the precedent of some previous Emperors. This argument has not been universally accepted.
The relationship between Diocletian and Maximian was quickly couched in religious terms. Around 287 Diocletian assumed the title Iovius, and Maximian assumed the title Herculius. The titles were probably meant to convey certain characteristics of their associated leaders. Diocletian, in Jovian style, would take on the dominating roles of planning and commanding; Maximian, in Herculian mode, would act as Jupiter 's heroic subordinate. For all their religious connotations, the emperors were not "gods '' in the tradition of the Imperial cult -- although they may have been hailed as such in Imperial panegyrics. Instead, they were seen as the gods ' representatives, effecting their will on earth. The shift from military acclamation to divine sanctification took the power to appoint emperors away from the army. Religious legitimization elevated Diocletian and Maximian above potential rivals in a way military power and dynastic claims could not.
After his acclamation, Maximian was dispatched to fight the rebel Bagaudae, insurgent peasants of Gaul. Diocletian returned to the East, progressing slowly. By 2 November, he had only reached Civitas Iovia (Botivo, near Ptuj, Slovenia). In the Balkans during the autumn of 285, he encountered a tribe of Sarmatians who demanded assistance. The Sarmatians requested that Diocletian either help them recover their lost lands or grant them pasturage rights within the empire. Diocletian refused and fought a battle with them, but was unable to secure a complete victory. The nomadic pressures of the European Plain remained and could not be solved by a single war; soon the Sarmatians would have to be fought again.
Diocletian wintered in Nicomedia. There may have been a revolt in the eastern provinces at this time, as he brought settlers from Asia to populate emptied farmlands in Thrace. He visited Syria Palaestina the following spring, His stay in the East saw diplomatic success in the conflict with Persia: in 287, Bahram II granted him precious gifts, declared open friendship with the Empire, and invited Diocletian to visit him. Roman sources insist that the act was entirely voluntary.
Around the same time, perhaps in 287, Persia relinquished claims on Armenia and recognized Roman authority over territory to the west and south of the Tigris. The western portion of Armenia was incorporated into the empire and made a province. Tiridates III, Arsacid claimant to the Armenian throne and Roman client, had been disinherited and forced to take refuge in the empire after the Persian conquest of 252 -- 53. In 287, he returned to lay claim to the eastern half of his ancestral domain and encountered no opposition. Bahram II 's gifts were widely recognized as symbolic of a victory in the ongoing conflict with Persia, and Diocletian was hailed as the "founder of eternal peace ''. The events might have represented a formal end to Carus ' eastern campaign, which probably ended without an acknowledged peace. At the conclusion of discussions with the Persians, Diocletian re-organized the Mesopotamian frontier and fortified the city of Circesium (Buseire, Syria) on the Euphrates.
Maximian 's campaigns were not proceeding as smoothly. The Bagaudae had been easily suppressed, but Carausius, the man he had put in charge of operations against Saxon and Frankish pirates on the Saxon Shore, had, according to literary sources, begun keeping the goods seized from the pirates for himself. Maximian issued a death - warrant for his larcenous subordinate. Carausius fled the Continent, proclaimed himself Augustus, and agitated Britain and northwestern Gaul into open revolt against Maximian and Diocletian.
Far more probable, according to the archaeological evidence available, is that Carausius probably had held some important military post in Britain and had already a firm basis of power on both Britain and Northern Gaul (a coin hoard found in Rouen proves that he was in control of that mainland area at the beginning of his rebellion) and that he profited from the lack of legitimacy of the central government. Carausius strove at having his legitimacy as a junior emperor acknowledged by Diocletian: in his coinage (of far better quality than the official one, especially his silver pieces) he extolled the "concord '' between him and the central power (PAX AVGGG, "the Peace of the three Augusti '', read one 290 bronze piece, displaying, on the other side, Carausius together with Diocletian and Maximian, with the caption CARAVSIVS ET FRATRES SVI, "Carausius & his brothers '' (1)). However, Diocletian could not allow elbow room to a breakaway regional usurper following on Postumus 's footprints to enter, solely on his own accord, the imperial college. So Carausius had to go.
Spurred by the crisis, on 1 April 286, Maximian took up the title of Augustus. His appointment is unusual in that it was impossible for Diocletian to have been present to witness the event. It has even been suggested that Maximian usurped the title and was only later recognized by Diocletian in hopes of avoiding civil war. This suggestion is unpopular, as it is clear that Diocletian meant for Maximian to act with a certain amount of independence. It may be posited, however, that Diocletian felt the need to bind Maximian closer to him, by making him his empowered associate, in order to avoid the possibility of having him striking some sort of deal with Carausius.
Maximian realized that he could not immediately suppress the rogue commander, so in 287 he campaigned solely against tribes beyond the Rhine instead. As Carausius was allied to the Franks, Maximian 's campaigns could be seen as an effort to deny the separatist emperor in Britain a basis of support on the mainland. The following spring, as Maximian prepared a fleet for an expedition against Carausius, Diocletian returned from the East to meet Maximian. The two emperors agreed on a joint campaign against the Alamanni. Diocletian invaded Germania through Raetia while Maximian progressed from Mainz. Each emperor burned crops and food supplies as he went, destroying the Germans ' means of sustenance. The two men added territory to the empire and allowed Maximian to continue preparations against Carausius without further disturbance. On his return to the East, Diocletian managed what was probably another rapid campaign against the resurgent Sarmatians. No details survive, but surviving inscriptions indicate that Diocletian took the title Sarmaticus Maximus after 289.
In the East, Diocletian engaged in diplomacy with desert tribes in the regions between Rome and Persia. He might have been attempting to persuade them to ally themselves with Rome, thus reviving the old, Rome - friendly, Palmyrene sphere of influence, or simply attempting to reduce the frequency of their incursions. No details survive for these events. Some of the princes of these states were Persian client kings, a disturbing fact in light of increasing tensions with the Sassanids. In the West, Maximian lost the fleet built in 288 and 289, probably in the early spring of 290. The panegyrist who refers to the loss suggests that its cause was a storm, but this might simply have been an attempt to conceal an embarrassing military defeat. Diocletian broke off his tour of the Eastern provinces soon thereafter. He returned with haste to the West, reaching Emesa by 10 May 290, and Sirmium on the Danube by 1 July 290.
Diocletian met Maximian in Milan in the winter of 290 -- 91, either in late December 290 or January 291. The meeting was undertaken with a sense of solemn pageantry. The emperors spent most of their time in public appearances. It has been surmised that the ceremonies were arranged to demonstrate Diocletian 's continuing support for his faltering colleague. A deputation from the Roman Senate met with the emperors, renewing its infrequent contact with the Imperial office. The choice of Milan over Rome further snubbed the capital 's pride. But then it was already a long established practice that Rome itself was only a ceremonial capital, as the actual seat of the Imperial administration was determined by the needs of defense. Long before Diocletian, Gallienus (r. 253 -- 68) had chosen Milan as the seat of his headquarters. If the panegyric detailing the ceremony implied that the true center of the empire was not Rome, but where the emperor sat ("... the capital of the empire appeared to be there, where the two emperors met ''), it simply echoed what had already been stated by the historian Herodian in the early third century: "Rome is where the emperor is ''. During the meeting, decisions on matters of politics and war were probably made in secret. The Augusti would not meet again until 303.
Some time after his return, and before 293, Diocletian transferred command of the war against Carausius from Maximian to Flavius Constantius, a former Governor of Dalmatia and a man of military experience stretching back to Aurelian 's campaigns against Zenobia (272 -- 73). He was Maximian 's praetorian prefect in Gaul, and the husband to Maximian 's daughter, Theodora. On 1 March 293 at Milan, Maximian gave Constantius the office of caesar. In the spring of 293, in either Philippopolis (Plovdiv, Bulgaria) or Sirmium, Diocletian would do the same for Galerius, husband to Diocletian 's daughter Valeria, and perhaps Diocletian 's Praetorian Prefect. Constantius was assigned Gaul and Britain. Galerius was initially assigned Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and responsibility for the eastern borderlands.
This arrangement is called the tetrarchy, from a Greek term meaning "rulership by four ''. The Tetrarchic Emperors were more or less sovereign in their own lands, and they travelled with their own imperial courts, administrators, secretaries, and armies. They were joined by blood and marriage; Diocletian and Maximian now styled themselves as brothers. The senior Co-Emperors formally adopted Galerius and Constantius as sons in 293. These relationships implied a line of succession. Galerius and Constantius would become Augusti after the departure of Diocletian and Maximian. Maximian 's son Maxentius and Constantius ' son Constantine would then become Caesars. In preparation for their future roles, Constantine and Maxentius were taken to Diocletian 's court in Nicomedia.
Just before his creation as Caesar, Constantius proceeded to cut Carausius from his base of support in Gaul, recovering Boulogne after a hotly fought siege, a success that would result in Carausius being murdered and replaced by his aide Allectus, who would hold out in his Britain stronghold for a further three years until a two - pronged naval invasion resulted in Allectus ' defeat and death at the hands of Constantius ' pretorian prefect Julius Asclepiodotus, during a land battle somewhere near Farnham. Constantius himself, after disembarking in the south east, delivered London from a looting party of Frankish deserters in Allectus ' pay, something that allowed him to assume the role of liberator of Britain. A famous commemorative medallion depicts a personification of London supplying the victorious Constantius on horseback. with the legend REDDITOR LUCIS AETERNAE (Restorer of the eternal light). The suppression of this threat to the Tetrarchs ' legitimacy allowed both Constantius and Maximian to concentrate on outside threats: by 297 Constantius was back on the Rhine and Maximian engaged in a full - scale African campaign against Frankish pirates and nomads, eventually making a triumphal entry into Carthage on 10 March 298. However, Maximian 's failure to deal with Carausius and Allectus on his own had jeopardized the position of Maxentius as putative heir to his father 's post as Augustus of the West, with Constantius ' son Constantine appearing as a rival claimant.
Diocletian spent the spring of 293 traveling with Galerius from Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) to Byzantium (Istanbul, Turkey). Diocletian then returned to Sirmium, where he would remain for the following winter and spring. He campaigned against the Sarmatians again in 294, probably in the autumn, and won a victory against them. The Sarmatians ' defeat kept them from the Danube provinces for a long time. Meanwhile, Diocletian built forts north of the Danube, at Aquincum (Budapest, Hungary), Bononia (Vidin, Bulgaria), Ulcisia Vetera, Castra Florentium, Intercisa (Dunaújváros, Hungary), and Onagrinum (Begeč, Serbia). The new forts became part of a new defensive line called the Ripa Sarmatica. In 295 and 296 Diocletian campaigned in the region again, and won a victory over the Carpi in the summer of 296. Later during both 299 and 302, as Diocletian was then residing in the East, it was Galerius ' turn to campaign victoriously on the Danube. By the end of his reign, Diocletian had secured the entire length of the Danube, provided it with forts, bridgeheads, highways, and walled towns, and sent fifteen or more legions to patrol the region; an inscription at Sexaginta Prista on the Lower Danube extolled restored tranquilitas to the region. The defense came at a heavy cost, but was a significant achievement in an area difficult to defend.
Galerius, meanwhile, was engaged during 291 -- 293 in disputes in Upper Egypt, where he suppressed a regional uprising. He would return to Syria in 295 to fight the revanchist Persian empire. Diocletian 's attempts to bring the Egyptian tax system in line with Imperial standards stirred discontent, and a revolt swept the region after Galerius ' departure. The usurper L. Domitius Domitianus declared himself Augustus in July or August 297. Much of Egypt, including Alexandria, recognized his rule. Diocletian moved into Egypt to suppress him, first putting down rebels in the Thebaid in the autumn of 297, then moving on to besiege Alexandria. Domitianus died in December 297, by which time Diocletian had secured control of the Egyptian countryside. Alexandria, however, whose defense was organized under Domitianus ' former corrector Aurelius Achilleus, was to hold out until a later date, probably March 298.
Bureaucratic affairs were completed during Diocletian 's stay: a census took place, and Alexandria, in punishment for its rebellion, lost the ability to mint independently. Diocletian 's reforms in the region, combined with those of Septimius Severus, brought Egyptian administrative practices much closer to Roman standards. Diocletian travelled south along the Nile the following summer, where he visited Oxyrhynchus and Elephantine. In Nubia, he made peace with the Nobatae and Blemmyes tribes. Under the terms of the peace treaty Rome 's borders moved north to Philae and the two tribes received an annual gold stipend. Diocletian left Africa quickly after the treaty, moving from Upper Egypt in September 298 to Syria in February 299. He met with Galerius in Mesopotamia.
In 294, Narseh, a son of Shapur who had been passed over for the Sassanid succession, came to power in Persia. Narseh eliminated Bahram III, a young man installed in the wake of Bahram II 's death in 293. In early 294, Narseh sent Diocletian the customary package of gifts between the empires, and Diocletian responded with an exchange of ambassadors. Within Persia, however, Narseh was destroying every trace of his immediate predecessors from public monuments. He sought to identify himself with the warlike kings Ardashir (r. 226 -- 41) and Shapur I (r. 241 -- 72), who had defeated and imprisoned Emperor Valerian (r. 253 -- 260) following his failed invasion of the Sasanian Empire.
Narseh declared war on Rome in 295 or 296. He appears to have first invaded western Armenia, where he seized the lands delivered to Tiridates in the peace of 287. Narseh moved south into Roman Mesopotamia in 297, where he inflicted a severe defeat on Galerius in the region between Carrhae (Harran, Turkey) and Callinicum (Raqqa, Syria) (and thus, the historian Fergus Millar notes, probably somewhere on the Balikh River). Diocletian may or may not have been present at the battle, but he quickly divested himself of all responsibility. In a public ceremony at Antioch, the official version of events was clear: Galerius was responsible for the defeat; Diocletian was not. Diocletian publicly humiliated Galerius, forcing him to walk for a mile at the head of the Imperial caravan, still clad in the purple robes of the Emperor.
Galerius was reinforced, probably in the spring of 298, by a new contingent collected from the empire 's Danubian holdings. Narseh did not advance from Armenia and Mesopotamia, leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia. It is unclear if Diocletian was present to assist the campaign; he might have returned to Egypt or Syria. Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius ' force, to Narseh 's disadvantage; the rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but not to Sassanid cavalry. In two battles, Galerius won major victories over Narseh. During the second encounter, Roman forces seized Narseh 's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife. Galerius continued moving down the Tigris, and took the Persian capital Ctesiphon before returning to Roman territory along the Euphrates.
Narseh sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the return of his wives and children in the course of the war, but Galerius dismissed him. Serious peace negotiations began in the spring of 299. The magister memoriae (secretary) of Diocletian and Galerius, Sicorius Probus, was sent to Narseh to present terms. The conditions of the resulting Peace of Nisibis were heavy: Armenia returned to Roman domination, with the fort of Ziatha as its border; Caucasian Iberia would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia: Ingilene, Sophanene (Sophene), Arzanene (Aghdznik), Corduene (Carduene), and Zabdicene (near modern Hakkâri, Turkey). These regions included the passage of the Tigris through the Anti-Taurus range; the Bitlis pass, the quickest southerly route into Persian Armenia; and access to the Tur Abdin plateau.
A stretch of land containing the later strategic strongholds of Amida (Diyarbakır, Turkey) and Bezabde came under firm Roman military occupation. With these territories, Rome would have an advance station north of Ctesiphon, and would be able to slow any future advance of Persian forces through the region. Many cities east of the Tigris came under Roman control, including Tigranokert, Saird, Martyropolis, Balalesa, Moxos, Daudia, and Arzan -- though under what status is unclear. At the conclusion of the peace, Tiridates regained both his throne and the entirety of his ancestral claim. Rome secured a wide zone of cultural influence, which led to a wide diffusion of Syriac Christianity from a center at Nisibis in later decades, and the eventual Christianization of Armenia.
At the conclusion of the Peace of Nisibis, Diocletian and Galerius returned to Syrian Antioch. At some time in 299, the emperors took part in a ceremony of sacrifice and divination in an attempt to predict the future. The haruspices were unable to read the entrails of the sacrificed animals and blamed Christians in the Imperial household. The emperors ordered all members of the court to perform a sacrifice to purify the palace. The emperors sent letters to the military command, demanding the entire army perform the required sacrifices or face discharge. Diocletian was conservative in matters of religion, a man faithful to the traditional Roman pantheon and understanding of demands for religious purification, but Eusebius, Lactantius and Constantine state that it was Galerius, not Diocletian, who was the prime supporter of the purge, and its greatest beneficiary. Galerius, even more devoted and passionate than Diocletian, saw political advantage in the politics of persecution. He was willing to break with a government policy of inaction on the issue.
Antioch was Diocletian 's primary residence from 299 to 302, while Galerius swapped places with his Augustus on the Middle and Lower Danube. Diocletian visited Egypt once, over the winter of 301 -- 2, and issued a grain dole in Alexandria. Following some public disputes with Manicheans, Diocletian ordered that the leading followers of Mani be burnt alive along with their scriptures. In a 31 March 302 rescript from Alexandria, he declared that low - status Manicheans must be executed by the blade, and high - status Manicheans must be sent to work in the quarries of Proconnesus (Marmara Island, Turkey) or the mines of Phaeno in southern Palestine. All Manichean property was to be seized and deposited in the imperial treasury. Diocletian found much to be offended by in Manichean religion: its novelty, its alien origins, the way it corrupted the morals of the Roman race, and its inherent opposition to long - standing religious traditions. Manichaeanism was also supported by Persia at the time, compounding religious dissent with international politics. Excepting Persian support, the reasons he disliked Manichaenism were equally applicable, if not more so, to Christianity, his next target.
Diocletian returned to Antioch in the autumn of 302. He ordered that the deacon Romanus of Caesarea have his tongue removed for defying the order of the courts and interrupting official sacrifices. Romanus was then sent to prison, where he was executed on 17 November 303. Diocletian believed that Romanus of Caesarea was arrogant, and he left the city for Nicomedia in the winter, accompanied by Galerius. According to Lactantius, Diocletian and Galerius entered into an argument over imperial policy towards Christians while wintering at Nicomedia in 302. Diocletian argued that forbidding Christians from the bureaucracy and military would be sufficient to appease the gods, but Galerius pushed for extermination. The two men sought the advice of the oracle of Apollo at Didyma. The oracle responded that the impious on Earth hindered Apollo 's ability to provide advice. Rhetorically Eusebius records the Oracle as saying "The just on Earth... '' These impious, Diocletian was informed by members of the court, could only refer to the Christians of the empire. At the behest of his court, Diocletian acceded to demands for universal persecution.
On 23 February 303, Diocletian ordered that the newly built church at Nicomedia be razed. He demanded that its scriptures be burned, and seized its precious stores for the treasury. The next day, Diocletian 's first "Edict against the Christians '' was published. The edict ordered the destruction of Christian scriptures and places of worship across the empire, and prohibited Christians from assembling for worship. Before the end of February, a fire destroyed part of the Imperial palace. Galerius convinced Diocletian that the culprits were Christians, conspirators who had plotted with the eunuchs of the palace. An investigation was commissioned, but no responsible party was found. Executions followed anyway, and the palace eunuchs Dorotheus and Gorgonius were executed. One individual, Peter Cubicularius, was stripped, raised high, and scourged. Salt and vinegar were poured in his wounds, and he was slowly boiled over an open flame. The executions continued until at least 24 April 303, when six individuals, including the bishop Anthimus, were decapitated. A second fire occurred sixteen days after the first. Galerius left the city for Rome, declaring Nicomedia unsafe. Diocletian would soon follow.
Although further persecutionary edicts followed, compelling the arrest of the Christian clergy and universal acts of sacrifice, the persecutionary edicts were ultimately unsuccessful; most Christians escaped punishment, and pagans too were generally unsympathetic to the persecution. The martyrs ' sufferings strengthened the resolve of their fellow Christians. Constantius and Maximian did not apply the later persecutionary edicts, and left the Christians of the West unharmed. Galerius rescinded the edict in 311, announcing that the persecution had failed to bring Christians back to traditional religion. The temporary apostasy of some Christians, and the surrendering of scriptures, during the persecution played a major role in the subsequent Donatist controversy. Within twenty - five years of the persecution 's inauguration, the Christian Emperor Constantine would rule the empire alone. He would reverse the consequences of the edicts, and return all confiscated property to Christians. Under Constantine 's rule, Christianity would become the empire 's preferred religion. Diocletian was demonized by his Christian successors: Lactantius intimated that Diocletian 's ascendancy heralded the apocalypse, and in Serbian mythology, Diocletian is remembered as Dukljan, the adversary of God.
Diocletian entered the city of Rome in the early winter of 303. On 20 November, he celebrated, with Maximian, the twentieth anniversary of his reign (vicennalia), the tenth anniversary of the tetrarchy (decennalia), and a triumph for the war with Persia. Diocletian soon grew impatient with the city, as the Romans acted towards him with what Edward Gibbon, following Lactantius, calls "licentious familiarity ''. The Roman people did not give enough deference to his supreme authority; it expected him to act the part of an aristocratic ruler, not a monarchic one. On 20 December 303, Diocletian cut short his stay in Rome and left for the north. He did not even perform the ceremonies investing him with his ninth consulate; he did them in Ravenna on 1 January 304 instead. There are suggestions in the Panegyrici Latini and Lactantius ' account that Diocletian arranged plans for his and Maximian 's future retirement of power in Rome. Maximian, according to these accounts, swore to uphold Diocletian 's plan in a ceremony in the Temple of Jupiter.
From Ravenna, Diocletian left for the Danube. There, possibly in Galerius ' company, he took part in a campaign against the Carpi. He contracted a minor illness while on campaign, but his condition quickly worsened and he chose to travel in a litter. In the late summer he left for Nicomedia. On 20 November, he appeared in public to dedicate the opening of the circus beside his palace. He collapsed soon after the ceremonies. Over the winter of 304 -- 5 he kept within his palace at all times. Rumors alleging that Diocletian 's death was merely being kept secret until Galerius could come to assume power spread through the city. On 13 December, he seemed to have finally died. The city was sent into a mourning from which it was only retrieved by public declarations of his survival. When Diocletian reappeared in public on 1 March 305, he was emaciated and barely recognizable.
Galerius arrived in the city later in March. According to Lactantius, he came armed with plans to reconstitute the tetrarchy, force Diocletian to step down, and fill the Imperial office with men compliant to his will. Through coercion and threats, he eventually convinced Diocletian to comply with his plan. Lactantius also claims that he had done the same to Maximian at Sirmium. On 1 May 305, Diocletian called an assembly of his generals, traditional companion troops, and representatives from distant legions. They met at the same hill, 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) out of Nicomedia, where Diocletian had been proclaimed emperor. In front of a statue of Jupiter, his patron deity, Diocletian addressed the crowd. With tears in his eyes, he told them of his weakness, his need for rest, and his will to resign. He declared that he needed to pass the duty of empire on to someone stronger. He thus became the first Roman emperor to voluntarily abdicate his title.
Most in the crowd believed they knew what would follow; Constantine and Maxentius, the only adult sons of a reigning emperor, men who had long been preparing to succeed their fathers, would be granted the title of caesar. Constantine had traveled through Palestine at the right hand of Diocletian, and was present at the palace in Nicomedia in 303 and 305. It is likely that Maxentius received the same treatment. In Lactantius ' account, when Diocletian announced that he was to resign, the entire crowd turned to face Constantine. It was not to be: Severus and Maximin were declared caesars. Maximin appeared and took Diocletian 's robes. On the same day, Severus received his robes from Maximian in Milan. Constantius succeeded Maximian as augustus of the West, but Constantine and Maxentius were entirely ignored in the transition of power. This did not bode well for the future security of the tetrarchic system.
Diocletian retired to his homeland, Dalmatia. He moved into the expansive Diocletian 's Palace, a heavily fortified compound located by the small town of Spalatum on the shores of the Adriatic Sea, and near the large provincial administrative center of Salona. The palace is preserved in great part to this day and forms the historic core of Split, the second - largest city of modern Croatia.
Maximian retired to villas in Campania or Lucania. Their homes were distant from political life, but Diocletian and Maximian were close enough to remain in regular contact with each other. Galerius assumed the consular fasces in 308 with Diocletian as his colleague. In the autumn of 308, Galerius again conferred with Diocletian at Carnuntum (Petronell - Carnuntum, Austria). Diocletian and Maximian were both present on 11 November 308, to see Galerius appoint Licinius to be augustus in place of Severus, who had died at the hands of Maxentius. He ordered Maximian, who had attempted to return to power after his retirement, to step down permanently. At Carnuntum people begged Diocletian to return to the throne, to resolve the conflicts that had arisen through Constantine 's rise to power and Maxentius ' usurpation. Diocletian 's reply: "If you could show the cabbage that I planted with my own hands to your emperor, he definitely would n't dare suggest that I replace the peace and happiness of this place with the storms of a never - satisfied greed. ''
He lived on for four more years, spending his days in his palace gardens. He saw his tetrarchic system fail, torn by the selfish ambitions of his successors. He heard of Maximian 's third claim to the throne, his forced suicide, his damnatio memoriae. In his own palace, statues and portraits of his former companion emperor were torn down and destroyed. Deep in despair and illness, Diocletian may have committed suicide. He died on 3 December 312.
Diocletian saw his work as that of a restorer, a figure of authority whose duty it was to return the empire to peace, to recreate stability and justice where barbarian hordes had destroyed it. He arrogated, regimented and centralized political authority on a massive scale. In his policies, he enforced an Imperial system of values on diverse and often unreceptive provincial audiences. In the Imperial propaganda from the period, recent history was perverted and minimized in the service of the theme of the tetrarchs as "restorers ''. Aurelian 's achievements were ignored, the revolt of Carausius was backdated to the reign of Gallienus, and it was implied that the tetrarchs engineered Aurelian 's defeat of the Palmyrenes; the period between Gallienus and Diocletian was effectively erased. The history of the empire before the tetrarchy was portrayed as a time of civil war, savage despotism, and imperial collapse. In those inscriptions that bear their names, Diocletian and his companions are referred to as "restorers of the whole world '', men who succeeded in "defeating the nations of the barbarians, and confirming the tranquility of their world ''. Diocletian was written up as the "founder of eternal peace ''. The theme of restoration was conjoined to an emphasis on the uniqueness and accomplishments of the tetrarchs themselves.
The cities where emperors lived frequently in this period -- Milan, Trier, Arles, Sirmium, Serdica, Thessaloniki, Nicomedia and Antioch -- were treated as alternate imperial seats, to the exclusion of Rome and its senatorial elite. A new style of ceremony was developed, emphasizing the distinction of the emperor from all other persons. The quasi-republican ideals of Augustus ' primus inter pares were abandoned for all but the tetrarchs themselves. Diocletian took to wearing a gold crown and jewels, and forbade the use of purple cloth to all but the emperors. His subjects were required to prostrate themselves in his presence (adoratio); the most fortunate were allowed the privilege of kissing the hem of his robe (proskynesis, προσκύνησις). Circuses and basilicas were designed to keep the face of the emperor perpetually in view, and always in a seat of authority. The emperor became a figure of transcendent authority, a man beyond the grip of the masses. His every appearance was stage - managed. This style of presentation was not new -- many of its elements were first seen in the reigns of Aurelian and Severus -- but it was only under the tetrarchs that it was refined into an explicit system.
In keeping with his move from an ideology of republicanism to one of autocracy, Diocletian 's council of advisers, his consilium, differed from those of earlier emperors. He destroyed the Augustan illusion of imperial government as a cooperative affair between emperor, army, and senate. In its place he established an effectively autocratic structure, a shift later epitomized in the institution 's name: it would be called a consistorium ("consistory ''), not a council. Diocletian regulated his court by distinguishing separate departments (scrina) for different tasks. From this structure came the offices of different magistri, like the Magister officiorum ("Master of offices ''), and associated secretariats. These were men suited to dealing with petitions, requests, correspondence, legal affairs, and foreign embassies. Within his court Diocletian maintained a permanent body of legal advisers, men with significant influence on his re-ordering of juridical affairs. There were also two finance ministers, dealing with the separate bodies of the public treasury and the private domains of the emperor, and the praetorian prefect, the most significant person of the whole. Diocletian 's reduction of the Praetorian Guards to the level of a simple city garrison for Rome lessened the military powers of the prefect -- although a prefect like Asclepiodotus was still a trained general -- but the office retained much civil authority. The prefect kept a staff of hundreds and managed affairs in all segments of government: in taxation, administration, jurisprudence, and minor military commands, the praetorian prefect was often second only to the emperor himself.
Altogether, Diocletian effected a large increase in the number of bureaucrats at the government 's command; Lactantius was to claim that there were now more men using tax money than there were paying it. The historian Warren Treadgold estimates that under Diocletian the number of men in the civil service doubled from 15,000 to 30,000. The classicist Roger Bagnall estimated that there was one bureaucrat for every 5 -- 10,000 people in Egypt based on 400 or 800 bureaucrats for 4 million inhabitants (no one knows the population of the province in 300 AD; Strabo 300 years earlier put it at 7.5 million, excluding Alexandria). (By comparison, the ratio in 12th - century Song dynasty China was one bureaucrat for every 15,000 people.) Jones estimated 30,000 bureaucrats for an empire of 50 -- 65 million inhabitants, which works out to approximately 1,667 or 2,167 inhabitants per imperial official as averages empire - wide. The actual numbers of officials and ratios per inhabitant varied, of course, per diocese depending on the number of provinces and population within a diocese. Provincial and diocesan paid officials (there were unpaid supernumeraries) numbered about 13 -- 15,000 based on their staff establishments as set by law. The other 50 % were with the emperor (s) in his or their comitatus, with the praetorian prefects, with the grain supply officials in the capital (later, the capitals, Rome and Constantinople), Alexandria, and Carthage and officials from the central offices located in the provinces.
To avoid the possibility of local usurpations, to facilitate a more efficient collection of taxes and supplies, and to ease the enforcement of the law, Diocletian doubled the number of provinces from fifty to almost one hundred. The provinces were grouped into twelve dioceses, each governed by an appointed official called a vicarius, or "deputy of the praetorian prefects ''. Some of the provincial divisions required revision, and were modified either soon after 293 or early in the fourth century. Rome herself (including her environs, as defined by a 100 miles (160 km) - radius perimeter around the city itself) was not under the authority of the praetorian prefect, as she was to be administered by a city prefect of senatorial rank -- the sole prestigious post with actual power reserved exclusively for senators, except for some governors in Italy with the titles of corrector and the proconsuls of Asia and Africa. The dissemination of imperial law to the provinces was facilitated under Diocletian 's reign, because Diocletian 's reform of the Empire 's provincial structure meant that there were now a greater number of governors (praesides) ruling over smaller regions and smaller populations. Diocletian 's reforms shifted the governors ' main function to that of the presiding official in the lower courts: whereas in the early Empire military and judicial functions were the function of governor, and procurators had supervised taxation; under the new system vicarii and governors were responsible for justice and taxation, and a new class of duces ("dukes ''), acting independently of the civil service, had military command. These dukes sometimes administered two or three of the new provinces created by Diocletian, and had forces ranging from two thousand to more than twenty thousand men. In addition to their roles as judges and tax collectors, governors were expected to maintain the postal service (cursus publicus) and ensure that town councils fulfilled their duties.
This curtailment of governors ' powers as the Emperors ' representatives may have lessened the political dangers of an all - too - powerful class of Imperial delegates, but it also severely limited governors ' ability to oppose local landed elites, specially those of senatorial status, which, although with reduced opportunities for office holding, retained wealth, social prestige, and personal connections. -- specially in relatively peaceful regions without a great military presence. On one occasion, Diocletian had to exhort a proconsul of Africa not to fear the consequences of treading on the toes of the local magnates of senatorial rank. If a governor of senatorial rank himself felt these pressures, one can imagine the difficulties faced by a mere praeses. That accounts for the strained relationship between the central power and local elites: sometime during 303, an attempted military sedition in Seleucia Pieria and Antioch made Diocletian to extract a bloody retribution on both cities by putting to death a number of their council members for failing their duties of keeping order in their jurisdiction.
As with most emperors, much of Diocletian 's daily routine rotated around legal affairs -- responding to appeals and petitions, and delivering decisions on disputed matters. Rescripts, authoritative interpretations issued by the emperor in response to demands from disputants in both public and private cases, were a common duty of second - and third - century emperors. Diocletian was awash in paperwork, and was nearly incapable of delegating his duties. It would have been seen as a dereliction of duty to ignore them. In the "nomadic '' imperial courts of the later Empire, one can track the progress of the imperial retinue through the locations from whence particular rescripts were issued -- the presence of the Emperor was what allowed the system to function. Whenever the imperial court would settle in one of the capitals, there was a glut in petitions, as in late 294 in Nicomedia, where Diocletian kept winter quarters.
Admittedly, Diocletian 's praetorian prefects -- Afranius Hannibalianus, Julius Asclepiodotus, and Aurelius Hermogenianus -- aided in regulating the flow and presentation of such paperwork, but the deep legalism of Roman culture kept the workload heavy. Emperors in the forty years preceding Diocletian 's reign had not managed these duties so effectively, and their output in attested rescripts is low. Diocletian, by contrast, was prodigious in his affairs: there are around 1,200 rescripts in his name still surviving, and these probably represent only a small portion of the total issue. The sharp increase in the number of edicts and rescripts produced under Diocletian 's rule has been read as evidence of an ongoing effort to realign the whole Empire on terms dictated by the imperial center.
Under the governance of the jurists Gregorius, Aurelius Arcadius Charisius, and Hermogenianus, the imperial government began issuing official books of precedent, collecting and listing all the rescripts that had been issued from the reign of Hadrian (r. 117 -- 38) to the reign of Diocletian. The Codex Gregorianus includes rescripts up to 292, which the Codex Hermogenianus updated with a comprehensive collection of rescripts issued by Diocletian in 293 and 294. Although the very act of codification was a radical innovation, given the precedent - based design of the Roman legal system, the jurists were generally conservative, and constantly looked to past Roman practice and theory for guidance. They were probably given more free rein over their codes than the later compilers of the Codex Theodosianus (438) and Codex Justinianus (529) would have. Gregorius and Hermogenianus ' codices lack the rigid structuring of later codes, and were not published in the name of the emperor, but in the names of their compilers. Their official character, however, was clear in that both collections were subsequently acknowledged by courts as authoritative records of imperial legislation up to the date of their publication and regularly updated.
After Diocletian 's reform of the provinces, governors were called iudex, or judge. The governor became responsible for his decisions first to his immediate superiors, as well as to the more distant office of the emperor. It was most likely at this time that judicial records became verbatim accounts of what was said in trial, making it easier to determine bias or improper conduct on the part of the governor. With these records and the Empire 's universal right of appeal, Imperial authorities probably had a great deal of power to enforce behavior standards for their judges. In spite of Diocletian 's attempts at reform, the provincial restructuring was far from clear, especially when citizens appealed the decisions of their governors. Proconsuls, for example, were often both judges of first instance and appeal, and the governors of some provinces took appellant cases from their neighbors. It soon became impossible to avoid taking some cases to the emperor for arbitration and judgment. Diocletian 's reign marks the end of the classical period of Roman law. Where Diocletian 's system of rescripts shows an adherence to classical tradition, Constantine 's law is full of Greek and eastern influences.
It is archaeologically difficult to distinguish Diocletian 's fortifications from those of his successors and predecessors. The Devil 's Dyke, for example, the Danubian earthworks traditionally attributed to Diocletian, can not even be securely dated to a particular century. The most that can be said about built structures under Diocletian 's reign is that he rebuilt and strengthened forts at the Upper Rhine frontier (where he followed the works built under Probus along the Lake Constance - Basel and the Rhine -- Iller -- Danube line), on the Danube - where a new line of forts on the far side of the river, the Ripa Sarmatica, was added to older, rehabilitated fortresses -- in Egypt, and on the frontier with Persia. Beyond that, much discussion is speculative, and reliant on the broad generalizations of written sources. Diocletian and the tetrarchs had no consistent plan for frontier advancement, and records of raids and forts built across the frontier are likely to indicate only temporary claims. The Strata Diocletiana, built after the Persian Wars, which ran from the Euphrates North of Palmyra and South towards northeast Arabia in the general vicinity of Bostra, is the classic Diocletianic frontier system, consisting of an outer road followed by tightly spaced forts -- defensible hard - points manned by small garrisons -- followed by further fortifications in the rear. In an attempt to resolve the difficulty and slowness of transmitting orders to the frontier, the new capitals of the tetrarchic era were all much closer to the empire 's frontiers than Rome had been: Trier sat on the Rhine, Sirmium and Serdica were close to the Danube, Thessaloniki was on the route leading eastward, and Nicomedia and Antioch were important points in dealings with Persia.
Lactantius criticized Diocletian for an excessive increase in troop sizes, declaring that "each of the four (tetrarchs) strove to have a far larger number of troops than previous emperors had when they were governing the state alone ''. The fifth - century pagan Zosimus, by contrast, praised Diocletian for keeping troops on the borders, rather than keeping them in the cities, as Constantine was held to have done. Both these views had some truth to them, despite the biases of their authors: Diocletian and the tetrarchs did greatly expand the army, and the growth was mostly in frontier regions, where the increased effectives of the new Diocletianic legions seem to have been mostly spread across a network of strongholds. Nevertheless, it is difficult to establish the precise details of these shifts given the weakness of the sources. The army expanded to about 580,000 men from a 285 strength of 390,000, of which 310,000 men were stationed in the East, most of whom manned the Persian frontier. The navy 's forces increased from approximately 45,000 men to approximately 65,000 men.
Diocletian 's expansion of the army and civil service meant that the empire 's tax burden grew. Since military upkeep took the largest portion of the imperial budget, any reforms here would be especially costly. The proportion of the adult male population, excluding slaves, serving in the army increased from roughly 1 in 25 to 1 in 15, an increase judged excessive by some modern commentators. Official troop allowances were kept to low levels, and the mass of troops often resorted to extortion or the taking of civilian jobs. Arrears became the norm for most troops. Many were even given payment in kind in place of their salaries. Were he unable to pay for his enlarged army, there would likely be civil conflict, potentially open revolt. Diocletian was led to devise a new system of taxation.
In the early empire (30 BC -- AD 235) the Roman government paid for what it needed in gold and silver. The coinage was stable. Requisition, forced purchase, was used to supply armies on the march. During the third century crisis (235 -- 285), the government resorted to requisition rather than payment in debased coinage, since it could never be sure of the value of money. Requisition was nothing more or less than seizure. Diocletian made requisition into tax. He introduced an extensive new tax system based on heads (capita) and land (iugera) -- with one iugerum equal to approximately. 65 acres -- and tied to a new, regular census of the empire 's population and wealth. Census officials traveled throughout the empire, assessed the value of labor and land for each landowner, and joined the landowners ' totals together to make citywide totals of capita and iuga. The iugum was not a consistent measure of land, but varied according to the type of land and crop, and the amount of labor necessary for sustenance. The caput was not consistent either: women, for instance, were often valued at half a caput, and sometimes at other values. Cities provided animals, money, and manpower in proportion to its capita, and grain in proportion to its iuga.
Most taxes were due on each year on 1 September, and levied from individual landowners by decuriones (decurions). These decurions, analogous to city councilors, were responsible for paying from their own pocket what they failed to collect. Diocletian 's reforms also increased the number of financial officials in the provinces: more rationales and magistri privatae are attested under Diocletian 's reign than before. These officials represented the interests of the fisc, which collected taxes in gold, and the Imperial properties. Fluctuations in the value of the currency made collection of taxes in kind the norm, although these could be converted into coin. Rates shifted to take inflation into account. In 296, Diocletian issued an edict reforming census procedures. This edict introduced a general five - year census for the whole empire, replacing prior censuses that had operated at different speeds throughout the empire. The new censuses would keep up with changes in the values of capita and iuga.
Italy, which had long been exempt from taxes, was included in the tax system from 290 / 291 as a diocesis. The city of Rome itself, however, remained exempt; the "regions '' (i.e., provinces) South of Rome (generally called "suburbicarian '', as opposed to the Northern, "annonaria '' region) seem to have been relatively less taxed, in what probably was a sop offered to the great senatorial families and their landed properties.
Diocletian 's edicts emphasized the common liability of all taxpayers. Public records of all taxes were made public. The position of decurion, member of the city council, had been an honor sought by wealthy aristocrats and the middle classes who displayed their wealth by paying for city amenities and public works. Decurions were made liable for any shortfall in the amount of tax collected. Many tried to find ways to escape the obligation.
Aurelian 's attempt to reform the currency had failed; the denarius was dead. Diocletian restored the three - metal coinage and issued better quality pieces. The new system consisted of five coins: the aureus / solidus, a gold coin weighing, like its predecessors, one - sixtieth of a pound; the argenteus, a coin weighing one ninety - sixth of a pound and containing ninety - five percent pure silver; the follis, sometimes referred to as the laureatus A, which is a copper coin with added silver struck at the rate of thirty - two to the pound; the radiatus, a small copper coin struck at the rate of 108 to the pound, with no added silver; and a coin known today as the laureatus B, a smaller copper coin struck at the rate of 192 to the pound. Since the nominal values of these new issues were lower than their intrinsic worth as metals, the state was minting these coins at a loss. This practice could be sustained only by requisitioning precious metals from private citizens in exchange for state - minted coin (of a far lower value than the price of the precious metals requisitioned).
By 301, however, the system was in trouble, strained by a new bout of inflation. Diocletian therefore issued his Edict on Coinage, an act re-tariffing all debts so that the nummus, the most common coin in circulation, would be worth half as much. In the edict, preserved in an inscription from the city of Aphrodisias in Caria (near Geyre, Turkey), it was declared that all debts contracted before 1 September 301 must be repaid at the old standards, while all debts contracted after that date would be repaid at the new standards. It appears that the edict was made in an attempt to preserve the current price of gold and to keep the Empire 's coinage on silver, Rome 's traditional metal currency. This edict risked giving further momentum to inflationary trends, as had happened after Aurelian 's currency reforms. The government 's response was to issue a price freeze.
The Edict on Maximum Prices (Edictum De Pretiis Rerum Venalium) was issued two to three months after the coinage edict, somewhere between 20 November and 10 December 301. The best - preserved Latin inscription surviving from the Greek East, the edict survives in many versions, on materials as varied as wood, papyrus, and stone. In the edict, Diocletian declared that the current pricing crisis resulted from the unchecked greed of merchants, and had resulted in turmoil for the mass of common citizens. The language of the edict calls on the people 's memory of their benevolent leaders, and exhorts them to enforce the provisions of the edict, and thereby restore perfection to the world. The edict goes on to list in detail over one thousand goods and accompanying retail prices not to be exceeded. Penalties are laid out for various pricing transgressions.
In the most basic terms, the edict was ignorant of the law of supply and demand: it ignored the fact that prices might vary from region to region according to product availability, and it ignored the impact of transportation costs in the retail price of goods. In the judgment of the historian David Potter, the edict was "an act of economic lunacy ''. The fact that the edict began with a long rhetorical preamble betrays at the same time a moralizing stance as well as a weak grasp of economics -- perhaps simply the wishful thinking that criminalizing a practice was enough to stop it.
There is no consensus about how effectively the edict was enforced. Supposedly, inflation, speculation, and monetary instability continued, and a black market arose to trade in goods forced out of official markets. The edict 's penalties were applied unevenly across the empire (some scholars believe they were applied only in Diocletian 's domains), widely resisted, and eventually dropped, perhaps within a year of the edict 's issue. Lactantius has written of the perverse accompaniments to the edict; of goods withdrawn from the market, of brawls over minute variations in price, of the deaths that came when its provisions were enforced. His account may be true, but it seems to modern historians exaggerated and hyperbolic, and the impact of the law is recorded in no other ancient source.
Partly in response to economic pressures and in order to protect the vital functions of the state, Diocletian restricted social and professional mobility. Peasants became tied to the land in a way that presaged later systems of land tenure and workers such as bakers, armourers, public entertainers and workers in the mint had their occupations made hereditary. Soldiers ' children were also forcibly enrolled, something that followed spontaneous tendencies among the rank - and - file, but also expressed increasing difficulties in recruitment.
The historian A.H.M. Jones observed that "It is perhaps Diocletian 's greatest achievement that he reigned twenty - one years and then abdicated voluntarily, and spent the remaining years of his life in peaceful retirement. '' Diocletian was one of the few emperors of the third and fourth centuries to die naturally, and the first in the history of the empire to retire voluntarily. Once he retired, however, his tetrarchic system collapsed. Without the guiding hand of Diocletian, the empire fell into civil wars. Stability emerged after the defeat of Licinius by Constantine in 324. Under the Christian Constantine, Diocletian was maligned. Constantine 's rule, however, validated Diocletian 's achievements and the autocratic principle he represented: the borders remained secure, in spite of Constantine 's large expenditure of forces during his civil wars; the bureaucratic transformation of Roman government was completed; and Constantine took Diocletian 's court ceremonies and made them even more extravagant.
Constantine ignored those parts of Diocletian 's rule that did not suit him. Diocletian 's policy of preserving a stable silver coinage was abandoned, and the gold solidus became the empire 's primary currency instead. Diocletian 's persecution of Christians was repudiated and changed to a policy of toleration and then favoritism. Christianity eventually became the official religion in 380. Constantine would claim to have the same close relationship with the Christian God as Diocletian claimed to have with Jupiter. Most importantly, Diocletian 's tax system and administrative reforms lasted, with some modifications, until the advent of the Muslims in the 630s. The combination of state autocracy and state religion was instilled in much of Europe, particularly in the lands which adopted Orthodox Christianity.
In addition to his administrative and legal impact on history, the Emperor Diocletian is considered to be the founder of the city of Split in modern - day Croatia. The city itself grew around the heavily fortified Diocletian 's Palace the emperor had built in anticipation of his retirement.
The Era of Martyrs (Latin: anno martyrum or AM), also known as the Diocletian era (Latin: anno Diocletiani), is a method of numbering years used by the Church of Alexandria beginning in the 4th century anno Domini and by the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria from the 5th century to the present. In this system of counting, the beginning of Diocletian 's reign in 284 was used as the epoch, making Diocletian 's first year in power into the Year 1 of that calendar. Western Christians were aware of this count but did not use it; Dionysius Exiguus replaced the anno Diocletiani era with his anno Domini era because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. The anno Domini era became dominant in the Latin West but was not used in the Greek East until modern times.
Chapters from The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire are marked with a "(CAH) ''.
Primary sources
Secondary sources
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when was the house of seven gables written | The house of the Seven Gables - wikipedia
The House of the Seven Gables is a Gothic novel written beginning in mid-1850 by American author Nathaniel Hawthorne and published in April 1851 by Ticknor and Fields of Boston. The novel follows a New England family and their ancestral home. In the book, Hawthorne explores themes of guilt, retribution, and atonement and colors the tale with suggestions of the supernatural and witchcraft. The setting for the book was inspired by a gabled house in Salem belonging to Hawthorne 's cousin Susanna Ingersoll and by ancestors of Hawthorne who had played a part in the Salem Witch Trials of 1692. The book was well received upon publication and later had a strong influence on the work of H.P. Lovecraft. The House of the Seven Gables has been adapted several times to film and television.
The novel is set in the mid-19th century, but flashbacks to the history of the house, which was built in the late 17th century, are set in other periods. The house of the title is a gloomy New England mansion, haunted since its construction by fraudulent dealings, accusations of witchcraft, and sudden death. The current resident, the dignified but desperately poor Hepzibah Pyncheon, opens a shop in a side room to support her brother Clifford, who has completed a thirty - year sentence for murder. She refuses all assistance from her wealthy but unpleasant cousin, Judge Jaffrey Pyncheon. A distant relative, the lively and pretty young Phoebe, arrives and quickly becomes invaluable, charming customers and rousing Clifford from depression. A delicate romance grows between Phoebe and the mysterious attic lodger Holgrave, who is writing a history of the Pyncheon family.
The house was built on ground wrongfully seized from its rightful owner, Matthew Maule, by Colonel Pyncheon, the founder of the Massachusetts branch of the family. Maule was accused of practicing witchcraft and was executed. According to legend, at his death Maule laid a curse upon the Pyncheon family. During the housewarming festivities, Colonel Pyncheon was found dead in his armchair; whether he actually died from the curse or from a congenital disease is unclear. His portrait remains in the house as a symbol of its dark past and the weight of the curse upon the spirit of its inhabitants.
Phoebe arranges to visit her country home, but plans to return soon. Clifford, depressed by his isolation from humanity and his lost youth spent in prison, stands at a large arched window above the stairs and has a sudden urge to jump. The departure of Phoebe, the focus of his attention, leaves him bed - ridden.
Judge Pyncheon arrives to find information about land in Maine, rumored to belong to the family. He threatens Clifford with an insanity hearing unless he reveals details about the land or the location of the missing deed. Clifford is unable to comply. Before Clifford can be brought before the Judge (which would destroy Clifford 's fragile psyche), the Judge mysteriously dies while sitting in Colonel Pyncheon 's chair. Hepzibah and Clifford flee by train. The next day, Phoebe returns and finds that Holgrave has discovered the Judge 's body. The townsfolk begin to gossip about Hepzibah and Clifford 's sudden disappearance. Phoebe is relieved when Hepzibah and Clifford return, having recovered their wits.
New evidence in the crime that sent Clifford to prison proves his innocence. He was framed for the death of his uncle by Jaffrey, who was even then looking for the missing deed. Holgrave is revealed as Maule 's descendant, but he bears no ill will toward the remaining Pyncheons. The missing deed is discovered behind the old Colonel 's portrait, but the paper is worthless: the land is already settled by others. The characters abandon the old house and start a new life in the countryside, free from the burdens of the past.
The novel begins:
Halfway down a by - street of one of our New England towns stands a rusty wooden house, with seven acutely peaked gables, facing towards various points of the compass, and a huge, clustered chimney in the midst. The street is Pyncheon Street; the house is the old Pyncheon House; and an elm - tree, of wide circumference, rooted before the door, is familiar to every town - born child by the title of the Pyncheon Elm.
The Pyncheon family actually existed and were ancestors of American novelist Thomas Pynchon. Hawthorne, however, did not base the story on a real family and was surprised that several "Pynchon jackasses '' claimed a connection. He considered changing the fictional family 's name or adding a disclaimer in the preface, though no such edits were made.
The House of the Seven Gables in Salem, Massachusetts -- today a museum accompanying a settlement house -- was at one time owned by Hawthorne 's cousin, Susanna Ingersoll, and she entertained him there often. Its seven - gabled state was known to Hawthorne only through childhood stories from his cousin; at the time of his visits, he would have seen just three gables due to architectural renovations. Reportedly, Ingersoll inspired Hawthorne to write the novel, though Hawthorne also stated that the book was a work of complete fiction, based on no particular house.
The House of the Seven Gables was Hawthorne 's follow - up to his highly successful novel The Scarlet Letter. He began writing it while living in Lenox, Massachusetts in August 1850. By October, he had chosen the title and it was advertised as forthcoming, though the author complained of his slow progress a month later: "I write diligently, but not so rapidly as I hoped... I find the book requires more care and thought than the ' Scarlet Letter ' ''. He hoped the book would be complete by November but would not push himself to commit to a deadline. As he forewarned, "I must not pull up my cabbage by the roots, by way of hastening its growth. '' By mid-January 1851, he wrote to his publisher James Thomas Fields that the book was nearly finished, "only I am hammering away a little on the roof, and doing a few odd jobs that were left incomplete. '' He sent the finished manuscript to Fields by the end of the month. His wife Sophia Hawthorne reported to her mother on January 27 that he had read her the ending the night before: "There is unspeakable grace and beauty in the conclusion, throwing back upon the sterner tragedy of the commencement an ethereal light, and a dear home - loveliness and satisfaction. ''
The House of the Seven Gables was released in the second week of April 1851. Two printings were issued in the first month, a third in May, and a fourth in September 1851, totaling 6,710 copies in its first year (slightly more than The Scarlet Letter in its first year). Hawthorne earned 15 % in royalties from the $1.00 cover price. After its publication, Hawthorne said, "It sold finely and seems to have pleased a good many people ''.
Hawthorne 's friend Henry Wadsworth Longfellow called it "a weird, wild book, like all he writes. '' Fanny Kemble reported that the book caused a sensation in England equal to Jane Eyre. English critic Henry Chorley also noted that, with The Scarlet Letter and The House of the Seven Gables, "few will dispute (Hawthorne 's) claim to rank amongst the most original and complete novelists that have appeared in modern times. '' Some did not agree. "The book is an affliction '', claimed fellow author Catharine Maria Sedgwick. "It affects one like a passage through the wards of an insane asylum. '' A review in the Christian Examiner complained the book was "more complex, the characterization more exaggerated, and the artistic execution less perfect '' than the author 's previous novel. Even so, Boston critic Edwin Percy Whipple simply called it his "greatest work ''. Hawthorne 's friend Herman Melville praised the book for its dark themes in a letter to the author:
There is a certain tragic phase of humanity which, in our opinion, was never more powerfuly embodied than by Hawthorne. We mean the tragicalness of human thought in its own unbiased, native, and profounder workings. We think that into no recorded mind has the intense feeling of the visible truth ever entered more deeply than into this man 's.
The novel was an inspiration for horror fiction writer H.P. Lovecraft, who called it "New England 's greatest contribution to weird literature '' in his essay "Supernatural Horror in Literature ''. Seven Gables likely influenced Lovecraft 's short stories "The Picture in the House '', "The Shunned House '' and novella The Case of Charles Dexter Ward.
The novel was adapted for the screen in 1940 with Margaret Lindsay as Hepzibah, George Sanders as Jaffrey, Vincent Price as Clifford, Dick Foran as Holgrave, and Nan Grey as Phoebe. In this adaptation, Hepzibah and Clifford were made lovers rather than brother and sister, and the film ends with a double wedding. Also, Clifford was well aware of Holgrave 's true identity, and the two are working together to settle the score with Jaffrey. It was directed by Joe May with a screenplay by Lester Cole.
There was also a silent short in 1910 and a remake in 1967.
It was also loosely adapted as one of the three stories in the 1963 film Twice - Told Tales, along with "Rappaccini 's Daughter '' and "Dr. Heidegger 's Experiment ''. All three sections featured Vincent Price.
The novel was adapted to a 60 - minute television production in 1960 for The Shirley Temple Show with Shirley Temple as Phoebe, Robert Culp as Holgrave, Agnes Moorehead as Hepzibah, and Martin Landau as Clifford.
An opera based on the novel, by Scott Eyerly, premiered at the Manhattan School of Music in 2000.
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when does captin underpants the movie come out | Captain Underpants: the First Epic Movie - Wikipedia
Captain Underpants: The First Epic Movie (or simply Captain Underpants) is a 2017 American computer - animated superhero comedy film based on the children 's novel series of the same name by Dav Pilkey. It was produced by DreamWorks Animation and Scholastic Entertainment, with animation production provided by Mikros Image Montreal. It was directed by David Soren from a screenplay by Nicholas Stoller, and stars the voices of Kevin Hart, Ed Helms, Thomas Middleditch, Nick Kroll, Jordan Peele, and Kristen Schaal. The plot follows two imaginative elementary school pranksters named George Beard and Harold Hutchins (Hart and Middleditch) who hypnotize their mean - spirited principal, Mr. Krupp (Helms), into thinking he is Captain Underpants, a superhero who fights crime while wearing only underwear and a cape who George and Harold write comic books about.
The film premiered on May 21, 2017 at the Regency Village Theater in Los Angeles, and was released in the United States on June 2, 2017 in 3D and 2D. The film became a critical and commercial success, while grossing $104 million worldwide against a budget of $38 million, making it the lowest - budgeted computer - animated feature of DreamWorks Animation 's history. This is the last DreamWorks Animation film distributed by 20th Century Fox, before Universal Pictures will take over distribution in 2019 with How to Train Your Dragon 3.
In Piqua, Ohio, George Beard (Kevin Hart) and Harold Hutchins (Thomas Middleditch) are two fourth - grade friends and next - door neighbors who often express their sense of humor at their school, bringing joy and laughter to Jerome Horwitz Elementary School. The duo frequently prank the cruel teachers at the school, especially the ill - mannered misanthropic principal, Benjamin "Benny '' Krupp (Ed Helms), which puts them at odds with him. The duo also create comic books about Captain Underpants, a superhero who fights crime while wearing only underwear and a cape. They sell these to their schoolmates through a comic company called Treehouse Comix Inc, housed in their treehouse. George and Harold 's pranks come to an apparent end after they tamper with a toilet invention called the Turbo Toilet 2000 made by the school 's local snitch, intellectual Melvin Sneedly (Jordan Peele). Melvin snitches on George and Harold, and as evidence, shows Krupp footage recorded by the Tattle Turtle 200, a stuffed turtle with a nanny cam hidden inside of its head. This causes Krupp to decide to put the boys in separate classes and annihilate their friendship.
To prevent this, George hypnotizes Krupp with a 3D Hypno Ring he received out of a cereal box. They command him to act like a chicken and a monkey. Seeing that that Krupp bears a resemblance to Captain Underpants without his toupee, they command him to be Captain Underpants. The boys soon learn the severity of their acts when Captain Underpants begins causing trouble around Piqua and take him to their treehouse. There they discover that they can turn Captain Underpants back into Krupp by splashing water on him and can turn him back by snapping their fingers. Believing that Krupp will continue with his plan to separate them, they decide to settle with Captain Underpants but insist that he be dressed up as Krupp under the pretense of a secret identity to which Captain Underpants agrees. His sudden personality change even manages to attract the attention and affection of the school 's shy and clumsy lunch lady, Edith (Kristen Schaal).
Just when George and Harold believe that their troubles have ended, Jerome Horwitz Elementary School is visited by an odd, German - accented scientist named Professor P. (Nick Kroll). Captain Underpants (disguised as Krupp) immediately hires him to be a new teacher, but George and Harold are suspicious of him. As it turns out, the full name of Professor Pee - Pee Diarrheastein Poopypants, Esq., and he is seeking to get rid of laughter altogether, due to the fact that people have made fun of his name for years. He recruits Melvin to help him and soon finds out his brain is incapable of having fun.
George and Harold attempt to make the school fun by having Captain Underpants orchestrate a concert with whoopee cushions and reopen an art program shut down by Krupp long ago. Soon, the boys discover that Underpants ordered a carnival and put the teachers in detention. The boys try to keep Captain Underpants from getting splashed by water, but it starts to rain and Captain Underpants turns back into Krupp. He sees the chaos that occurred from the carnival, and finally separates the boys.
Soon, Professor Poopypants tries to take over the town with a giant version of the Turbo Toilet 2000, fueled by the school cafeteria 's rotten leftovers left out by Edith, and uses Melvin 's brain to turn the children into glum, humorless zombies. Captain Underpants tries to stop the villain, but due to having no actual superpowers, is effortlessly defeated and thrown into the toilet. George and Harold are captured and turned into zombies, but begin laughing upon Professor Poopypants mentioning Uranus and gas giants as planets he would remove laughter from later. Due to this, they are able to break the trance and escape when their excessive laughter damages the Turbo Toilet 2000 's computer. Upon consuming the mutated leftovers, Captain Underpants acquires superpowers. He manages to confiscate a shrinking and enlarging ray used by Professor Poopypants, and shrinks him, though he escapes shortly thereafter on a bee.
Knowing that they can not control Captain Underpants, George and Harold destroy the Hypno Ring in an attempt to permanently change him back into Krupp and agree to maintain their friendship. Feeling that Krupp would be nicer if he had friends, the boys set him and lovesick Edith up on a date, thus making Krupp have a change of heart; he returns the comics he took away from George and Harold, and even admits their comics are funny. However, the toxic waste from the Turbo Toilet 2000 transforms all the toilets into vicious monsters that attack the restaurant at which Mr. Krupp and Edith are dining. Upon snapping his fingers, Mr. Krupp once again becomes Captain Underpants and flies away, carrying George and Harold away to help him fight them.
In a mid-credits scene, George and Harold realize that the secretary, Miss Anthrope (Grey Griffin), who they put on the phone earlier by faking a $1 billion contest has been on hold for the whole movie. After Miss Anthrope accidentally hangs up and gets mad, George and Harold make a new comic based on her reaction titled "Captain Underpants and the Attack of the Stuck On Hold Woman ''.
DreamWorks ' interest in the film rights to the Captain Underpants series dates back to when the first installment was published in 1997, but creator Dav Pilkey did not want to sell them. Early pitches for an adaptation included video games, animated and live - action films, an animated series, and a live - action series. To persuade him, DreamWorks gave Pilkey a tour around the studio with everyone wearing underpants over their actual pants, which made him laugh. In October 2011, his representatives indicated Pilkey was ready, and DreamWorks Animation won the rights in an auction. In October 2013, Rob Letterman was announced as director and Nicholas Stoller as scriptwriter. The two had previously worked together on the film Gulliver 's Travels. In January 2014, the cast was announced. Ed Helms joined as Mr. Krupp a.k.a. Captain Underpants, Kevin Hart as George Beard, Thomas Middleditch as Harold Hutchins, Nick Kroll as the "insidious villain '' Professor Poopypants, and Jordan Peele as George and Harold 's "nerdy nemesis '' Melvin Sneedly.
In 2014, DreamWorks Animation announced a January 2017 release date. Following DreamWorks Animation 's reorganization in early 2015, the studio announced that the film would be produced outside of the studio 's pipeline at a significantly lower cost. It was instead animated at Mikros Image in Montreal, Canada, and therefore looks identical to Pilkey 's artwork, as well as differently than most of DWA 's films. A month later, Letterman left the project but came back as an executive producer, and David Soren, the director of Turbo, entered talks to direct the film. During production, Pilkey got to work closely with Soren. He was relieved that Soren was directing since he was a fan of Turbo. In an interview with Los Angeles Times, Pilkey said: "Once I met David, it was like a huge load fell off my back; I was like, ' I do n't even have to think about this anymore. Just send me a couple of tickets to the premiere. ' '' Commenting back, Soren said, "In a way, the controversy over the books ended up being liberating for the film. Normally on an animated movie you 're trying to appeal to every possible demographic, and often that results in your content being watered down a little bit. Obviously we hope we get as wide of an audience as possible. But it 's likely that if people have issues with the books they may have issues with the movie too, and we did n't feel like we needed to waste a lot of time trying to rope them in. It allowed us to make the purest version of the movie. '' Although it is a CG - animated feature, the film includes scenes that are traditionally animated, flash animated, a short cutout animation segment, and a sock puppet sequence created by Screen Novelties.
"Weird Al '' Yankovic wrote and performed the theme song for the film, which was featured in a lyric video. It currently stands at over 5 million views (as of June 6). Andy Grammer wrote another original song for the film, titled "A Friend Like You ''. The film also features music from Adam Lambert, Cold War Kids member Nathan Willett, and Lil Yachty. An 11 - track soundtrack album was released digitally on June 2, 2017, by Virgin Records.
The film score was composed by Theodore Shapiro. A soundtrack for the score of the film was released on June 9. It features 24 pieces of music, and an exclusive digital booklet on iTunes. Three of the scores are also available on the soundtrack (those being "Comic Book Opening '', "Saving the Day '', and "The Prank for Good '').
All tracks written by Theodore Shapiro.
Captain Underpants: The First Epic Movie was previously scheduled to be released on March 10, 2017, but in September 2015, The Boss Baby took over its date. The film was then moved to June 2, 2017, and was released by 20th Century Fox. Other territories such as Europe and Asia will receive the film between July and October 2017. It premiered on May 21, 2017, at the Regency Village Theater in Los Angeles.
As of September 10, 2017, Captain Underpants: The First Epic Movie has grossed $73.7 million in the United States and Canada and $30.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide gross of $104.3 million.
In North America, the film was released alongside Wonder Woman, and was projected to gross around $20 million from 3,434 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $8 million on its first day and $23.9 million in its opening weekend, finishing second at the box office, behind Wonder Woman ($103.3 million). The film would go on to gross $12.2 million in its second weekend, $7.2 million in its third and $4.3 million in its fourth.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 87 % based on 105 reviews, with an average rating of 7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "With a tidy plot, clean animation, and humor that fits its source material snugly, Captain Underpants: The First Epic Movie is entertainment that wo n't drive a wedge between family members. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 69 out of 100, based on 25 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film three - and - a-half out of four stars. Although Seitz pointed out that the film is hampered by "a rushed, jumbled quality '' and has "tiresome '' features that he says are common to DreamWorks, such as "frenetic action scenes... and the use of workhorse pop songs '', he emphasized that "(t) hey 've approached this compendium of elemental slapstick and unabashed childishness with the reverence that the Coen brothers brought to No Country for Old Men. '' He further added that the inclusion of the flip book interludes are the film 's best parts, especially in having the pages accidentally be torn similar to the real books, stating that "(i) t 's not often that a movie puts a spotlight on a mundane ritual in your own life that you never realized was profound and says, ' You probably forgot about this, but I want you to remember it and savor it, because it meant something. ' ''
Captain Underpants: The First Epic Movie was released on Digital HD on August 29, 2017, and on DVD, Blu - ray and Ultra HD Blu - ray on September 12, 2017, by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.
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is this the last movie of pirates of the caribbean | Pirates of the Caribbean (film series) - wikipedia
Pirates of the Caribbean is a series of American fantasy swashbuckler films produced by Jerry Bruckheimer and based on Walt Disney 's theme park ride of the same name.
Directors of the series include Gore Verbinski (1 -- 3), Rob Marshall (4) and Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg (5). The series is primarily written by Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio (1 -- 4); other writers include Stuart Beattie (1), Jay Wolpert (1) and Jeff Nathanson (5). The stories follow the adventures of Captain Jack Sparrow (Johnny Depp), Will Turner (Orlando Bloom) and Elizabeth Swann (Keira Knightley). Characters such as Hector Barbossa (Geoffrey Rush) and Joshamee Gibbs (Kevin McNally) follow Jack, Will and Elizabeth in the course of the films. The fourth film features Blackbeard (Ian McShane) and Angelica (Penélope Cruz), while the fifth film features Armando Salazar (Javier Bardem), Henry Turner (Brenton Thwaites) and Carina Smyth (Kaya Scodelario). The films take place in a fictional historical setting; a world ruled by the British Empire, the East India Trading Company (based on the real East India Company) and the Spanish Empire, with pirates representing freedom from the ruling powers.
The film series started in 2003 with Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl, which received positive reviews from critics and grossed US $ 654 million worldwide. After the first film 's success, Walt Disney Pictures revealed that a trilogy was in the works. The franchise 's second film, subtitled Dead Man 's Chest, was released three years later in 2006; the sequel proved successful, breaking financial records worldwide the day of its premiere. Dead Man 's Chest ended up being the number one film of the year upon earning almost $1.1 billion at the worldwide box office. The third film in the series, subtitled At World 's End, followed in 2007, and Disney released a fourth film, subtitled On Stranger Tides, in 2011 in conventional 2D, Digital 3 - D and IMAX 3D. On Stranger Tides succeeded in also grossing more than $1 billion, becoming the second film in the franchise and only the eighth film in history to achieve this.
The franchise has grossed over $4.5 billion worldwide; it is the tenth highest - grossing film series of all time and it was the first franchise where more than one film grossed $1 billion worldwide.
Blacksmith Will Turner teams up with eccentric pirate Captain Jack Sparrow to save Turner 's love, Elizabeth Swann, from cursed pirates led by Jack 's mutinous former first mate, Captain Barbossa. Jack wants revenge against Barbossa, who left him stranded on an island before stealing his ship, the Black Pearl, along with 882 pieces of cursed Aztec Gold.
Lord Cutler Beckett of the East India Trading Company arrests Will and Elizabeth for aiding Captain Jack Sparrow in the previous film. Beckett offers clemency if Will agrees to search for Jack 's compass in a bid to find the Dead Man 's Chest -- and inside, the heart of villainous Davy Jones -- which would give Beckett control of the seas. However, Jack wants the Chest to escape from an unpaid debt with Jones, who made Jack captain of the Black Pearl for 13 years in exchange for 100 years of service aboard Jones ' ship, the Flying Dutchman.
Lord Beckett gains power over Davy Jones and, with the help of the Flying Dutchman, he is now executing his plans to extinguish piracy forever. To stand against the East India Trading Co., Will, Elizabeth, Barbossa, and the crew of the Black Pearl set out to rescue Captain Jack Sparrow from Davy Jones ' Locker. As one of the Nine Pirate Lords, Jack is needed in order to release an ancient goddess with the power to defeat Beckett 's forces.
Captain Jack Sparrow is on a quest to find the fabled Fountain of Youth and crosses paths with a former lover, Angelica. She forces Jack aboard the Queen Anne 's Revenge, a ship captained by the infamous pirate Blackbeard, Angelica 's father. Both are also in search of the Fountain; Angelica to save her father 's soul, Blackbeard to escape a prophecy of his demise at the hands of a one - legged man. Joining the hunt is former pirate captain Barbossa, now a privateer in King George II 's Navy, who is in a race against the Spanish for the Fountain of Youth.
Ghost Spanish Royal Navy soldiers led by Jack Sparrow 's old nemesis, Captain Armando Salazar, escape from the Devil 's Triangle, with the goal of killing every pirate at sea, including him. To survive, Jack seeks out the legendary Trident of Poseidon, a powerful artifact whose owner can control the seas and break curses.
Shortly before the release of On Stranger Tides, it was reported that Disney was planning to shoot the fifth and the sixth films back - to - back, although it was later revealed that only the fifth film was in development. On March 4, 2017, director Joachim Rønning stated that Dead Men was only the beginning of the final adventure, implying that it would not be the last film of the franchise and that a sixth film could be realized. The post-credit scene of Dead Men shows Will Turner, Elizabeth Swann, and Davy Jones, implying that Will and Elizabeth will be main characters again and Davy Jones would be the main antagonist in the sixth film.
Wenches Scarlett (Lauren Maher) and Giselle (Vanessa Branch) fix each other up for their wedding, in which they would each marry their groom. Upon realizing that both their grooms were the same man -- Jack Sparrow -- the two wenches find themselves in an auction led by the Auctioneer. The short film serves as a prequel to The Curse of the Black Pearl, explaining just why Jack Sparrow 's boat, the Jolly Mon, was seen sinking at the beginning of the whole story, and explaining why wenches Scarlett and Giselle were so upset with him, and it also implies how Cotton lost his tongue. The plot took inspiration from the "Auction scene '' from the original ride.
The short was directed by James Ward Byrkit, and was only included as a special feature in the US 15 disc 3D Blu - ray / 2D Blu - ray / DVD + Digital Copy box set that includes Pirates 1 -- 4; and in the similar UK 5 - disc set.
In the early 1990s screenwriters Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio conceived a supernatural spin on the pirate genre after completing work on Aladdin, but there was no interest from any studio. Undeterred, the writing team refused to give up the dream, waiting for a studio to pick up their take on a pirate tale. Disney had Jay Wolpert write a script based on the Pirates of the Caribbean, which producer Jerry Bruckheimer rejected, feeling it was "a straight pirate movie ''. Bruckheimer brought Stuart Beattie in to rewrite the script in March 2002, due to his knowledge of piracy, and later that month Elliott and Rossio were brought in. Elliott and Rossio, inspired by the opening narration of the Pirates of the Caribbean ride, decided to give the film a supernatural edge. As the budget rose, Michael Eisner and Robert Iger threatened to cancel the film, though Bruckheimer changed their minds when he showed them concept art and animatics.
In June 2002 Gore Verbinski signed on to direct The Curse of the Black Pearl, and Johnny Depp and Geoffrey Rush signed on the following month to star. Verbinski was attracted to the idea of using modern technology to resurrect a genre, one that had disappeared after the Golden Age of Hollywood, and recalled his childhood memories of the ride, feeling the film was an opportunity to pay tribute to the "scary and funny '' tone of it. Depp was attracted to the story as he found it quirky: rather than trying to find treasure, the crew of the Black Pearl were trying to return it in order to lift their curse; also, the traditional mutiny had already taken place. Verbinski approached Rush for the role of Barbossa, as he knew he would not play it with attempts at complexity, but with a simple villainy that would suit the story 's tone. Orlando Bloom read the script after Rush, with whom he was working on Ned Kelly, suggested it to him. Keira Knightley came as a surprise to Verbinski: he had not seen her performance in Bend It Like Beckham and was impressed by her audition. Tom Wilkinson was negotiated with to play Governor Swann, but the role went to Jonathan Pryce, whom Depp idolized.
Shooting for The Curse of the Black Pearl began on October 9, 2002 and wrapped by March 7, 2003. Before its release, many executives and journalists had expected the film to flop, as the pirate genre had not been successful for years, the film was based on a theme - park ride, and Depp rarely made a big film. However, The Curse of the Black Pearl became both a critical and commercial success.
After seeing how well the first film was made, the cast and crew signed for two sequels to be shot back - to - back, a practical decision on Disney 's part to allow more time with the same cast and crew. Writers Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio knew that with an ensemble cast, they were n't free to invent totally different situations and characters, as with the Indiana Jones and James Bond series, and so had to retroactively turn The Curse of the Black Pearl into the first of a trilogy. They wanted to explore the reality of what would happen after Will Turner and Elizabeth Swann 's embrace at the end of the first film, and initially considered the Fountain of Youth as the plot device. They settled on introducing Davy Jones, the Flying Dutchman and the Kraken, a mythology mentioned twice in the first film. They introduced the historical East India Trading Company (also mentioned in the first film), which for them represented a counterpoint to the themes of personal freedom represented by pirates.
Filming for the sequels began on February 28, 2005, with Dead Man 's Chest finishing on March 1, 2006, and At World 's End on January 10, 2007. The second film was also the first Disney theatrical feature film with the computer - generated Walt Disney Pictures logo.
Rossio and Elliot discovered the novel On Stranger Tides during production of Dead Man 's Chest and At World 's End and decided to use it as the basis for a fourth film. As Gore Verbinski was unavailable, Bruckheimer invited Rob Marshall to direct the film. Elliott and Rossio decided to do a stand - alone film, with a story that would support new characters, and incorporate elements from the novel, such as Blackbeard, the Fountain of Youth and mermaids -- the latter two having been already alluded to in the previous films. Depp, Rush, Greg Ellis and Kevin McNally returned to their roles, and the cast saw the additions of Ian McShane as Blackbeard and Penélope Cruz as Angelica, Blackbeard 's daughter and Jack Sparrow 's love interest. A further addition was Richard Griffiths as King George II of Great Britain. After the costly production of two simultaneous films, Disney tried to scale down the fourth installment, giving a lower budget, which led to cheaper locations and fewer scenes with special effects. It was also filmed in 3D, with cameras similar to the ones used in Avatar.
Filming for On Stranger Tides began June 14, 2010 and ended on November 19, 2010. It was released in the United States on May 20, 2011. With a budget of $378.5 million, On Stranger Tides holds the record for most expensive film ever made.
On January 14, 2011, it was confirmed that Terry Rossio would write the screenplay for the fifth installment, without his co-writer Ted Elliott. On January 11, 2013, Jeff Nathanson signed on to write the script for the film. On May 29, 2013, it was announced that Norwegian directors Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg were selected to direct. On August 22, 2013, the two revealed that the title of the fifth film would be Dead Men Tell No Tales, alluding to the line well - known from the Pirates of the Caribbean theme park attractions. Although, the film was given an alternative title, Salazar 's Revenge, in selected European, South American and Asian countries for marketing purposes. They also confirmed that they were working on the film, speaking highly of Jeff Nathanson 's "funny and touching '' script and that they are inspired by the first film, The Curse of the Black Pearl. On September 10, 2013, Disney pushed back the film 's initial 2015 release, with sources indicating that a Summer 2016 release is likely. Producer Jerry Bruckheimer revealed that script issues were behind the delay, and that Jeff Nathanson was at work on a second attempt based on a well - received outline. While Disney originally announced a release on July 7, 2017, Dead Men Tell No Tales was released on May 26, 2017.
A spokesman for the Australian Arts Minister confirmed that the fifth installment was set to shoot in Australia after the government agreed to repurpose $20 million of tax incentives originally intended for the remake of 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea. According to Australian film industry sources, pre-production started in late September 2014 with filming expected to commence in February 2015. This was officially confirmed by Disney and Ian Walker the Queensland Arts Minister on October 2, 2014, stating that filming will take place exclusively in Australia, being the largest production to ever shoot in the country. Village Roadshow Studios and Port Douglas were officially confirmed as filming locations. Production began in Australia on February 17, 2015 and wrapped on July 9, 2015.
The Pirates of the Caribbean film series was successful at the box office, with each film grossing over $650 million, and all but Dead Men Tell No Tales at some point ranking among the fifty highest - grossing films of all time. It also became the first ever series to have multiple films passing the billion dollar mark in box office revenues with Dead Man 's Chest and On Stranger Tides, which is followed by other series, such as the Batman series, J.R.R. Tolkien 's Middle - earth series, the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Transformers series, Jurassic Park series, Star Wars series and The Fast and the Furious series.
The Curse of the Black Pearl was the third highest - grossing 2003 film in North America (behind The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King and Finding Nemo) and fourth worldwide (behind The Return of the King, Finding Nemo and The Matrix Reloaded). Dead Man 's Chest was the most successful film of 2006 worldwide, and At World 's End led the worldwide grosses in 2007, though being only fourth in North America (behind Spider - Man 3, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix and Shrek the Third). On Stranger Tides was the third highest - grossing film of 2011 worldwide (behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 and Transformers: Dark of the Moon) and the fifth in North America. The first three sequels broke box office records upon release, of which the most notable are the opening - weekend record in North America (Dead Man 's Chest), the Memorial - Day weekend record in North America (At World 's End) and the opening - weekend record outside North America (On Stranger Tides).
The series is noted for its high quality of acting talent, and is one of the aspects of the films that is always praised. The visual and practical effects are considered some of the best ever done on film, so much so that audiences believed certain CGI elements of the films were real and done practically. However, the plots of the four sequels have received mixed reviews, with the general consensus that they are too bloated and convoluted to follow. Pirates of the Caribbean is noted for reinvigorating the pirate genre of film after decades of either no pirate films or failed pirate films. The success of the series saw Disney and Jerry Bruckheimer try to replicate the franchise 's success by launching films such as Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time and The Lone Ranger, the latter of which directed by Gore Verbinski. Both movies failed critically and commercially.
Together, all the first three films were nominated for a total of 11 Academy Awards, of which a single award was won.
Together, all the four films were nominated for a total of 2 Golden Globe Awards, of which neither were won.
Together, all the first three films were nominated for a total of 13 MTV Movie Awards, of which 4 were won.
Together, the first four films were nominated for a total of 25 Teen Choice Awards, of which 16 were won.
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why the koeberg power plant was built in the western cape | Koeberg nuclear power station - Wikipedia
Koeberg nuclear power station is a nuclear power station in South Africa It is currently the only one in the country, and the only one on the entire African continent. It is located 30 km north of Cape Town, near Melkbosstrand on the west coast of South Africa. Koeberg is owned and operated by the country 's only national electricity supplier, Eskom. The two reactors form the cornerstone of the South African nuclear program.
Koeberg contains two pressurised water reactors based on a design by Framatome of France. Koeberg supplies power to the national grid so that over-capacity can be redistributed to the rest of the country on an as - needed basis. Fuel stock used within the reactor is enriched uranium dioxide pellets containing gadolinium, contained in fuel rods. Koeberg is rated at 1,860 MW, its average annual production is 13,668 GWh and it has two large turbine generators (2 × 970 MW).
Each reactor delivers 970 MW (gross) and is capable of delivering 930 MW (net) to the grid.
The power station was constructed near Cape Town to be the sole provider of power in the Western Cape after fossil - fuel power stations were deemed too small and too expensive to be viable. Nuclear power was considered because it was more economical than transporting coal to the existing fossil - fuel power stations, and construction of new fossil - fuel power - stations, which would have required 300 m tall chimneys to comply with clean - air legislation. Athlone Power Station in the city was too small to provide Cape Town 's needs, and the Paarden Island power station (itself too small) has been demolished.
Koeberg was one of the first nuclear power stations designed to be specifically resistant to earthquakes. The reactors at the Koeberg nuclear power station are built upon an aseismic raft designed -- on the basis of a mid-1970s hazard study - to withstand a magnitude 7 earthquake at a focal distance of about 10 km, 0.3 g zero period ground acceleration (ZPGA). The largest recorded earthquake in the Cape Town area has been 6.5 magnitude at Jan Biesjes Kraal in 1809.
The reactor at Koeberg is cooled by cold water from the Atlantic Ocean pumped through an isolated circuit at 80 tons a second. Low and intermediate level waste from Koeberg is transported by road in steel and concrete containers to a rural disposal site at Vaalputs, 600 km away in the Kalahari Desert. The grounds of the nuclear station form a 22 km2 nature reserve open to the public containing more than 150 species of birds and half a dozen small mammal species.
The power station was originally located outside the metropolitan area, whose growth has far exceeded expectations in the intervening 20 years, so that the power station is now close to suburban housing. The administration enforces maximum housing density regulations in case of evacuation, which precludes the construction of high rise buildings.
Construction of the power station began in 1976, and Unit 1 was synchronized to the grid on 4 April 1984. Unit 2 followed on 25 July 1985.
On 19 December 1982, Umkhonto we Sizwe, the armed wing of the ANC attacked Koeberg while it was still under construction. Damage was estimated at R 500 million and the commissioning of the power station was put back by 18 months. In 2010, the bomber was identified as being Rodney Wilkinson.
In August 2002 twelve Greenpeace activists obtained access to the station. Six of them scaled the wall to hang up an anti-nuclear protest banner. The twelve were arrested and fined.
At the end of 2005, Koeberg started experiencing numerous technical difficulties. On 11 November 2005, a fault on a transmission busbar caused the reactor to go into safe mode, cutting supply to most of the Western Cape for about two hours. On 16 November a fire under a 400 kV transmission line caused the line to trip, causing severe voltage dips which resulted in Koeberg once again shutting down. Various parts of the Cape were left without electricity for hours at a time. On the evening of 23 November, a routine inspection of the backup safety system revealed a below - spec concentration of an important chemical, resulting in a controlled shutdown of the reactor. Due to the sufficiency of backup supply, major power cuts were not experienced until Friday 25 November, when the backup capacity began running out. At this point, rotational load shedding was employed, with customers being switched off in stages for most of the day. Koeberg was re-synchronised to the national grid on Saturday 26 November.
On Sunday 25 December 2005, the generator of Unit 1 was damaged. While the generator was being powered up after scheduled refuelling and maintenance, a loose bolt, which was left inside the generator caused severe damage, forcing it to be shut down. Subsequent to the unexpected unavailability of Unit 1, Unit 2 was also brought down for scheduled refuelling, resulting in a severe shortage of supply to the Western Cape. This resulted in widespread load shedding in order to maintain the stability of the network. A replacement rotor for Unit 1 was shipped in from France and the unit was brought back into operation in May 2006.
On 18 and 19 February 2006 large parts of the Western Cape again experienced blackouts due to a controlled shutdown of Koeberg. According to Eskom and the City of Cape Town, power cuts were to continue until 26 February 2006, however power supply problems continued beyond this date.
The estimated economic losses due to the power cuts was over R 500 M as at February 2007, and was estimated to rise to possibly as high as R 2 billion.
On 12 September 2010, 91 members of staff were contaminated with cobalt - 58 dust in an incident that appears confined to the station.
After the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, seismic safety at Koeberg was reevaluated in conjunction with the IAEA. Although Koeberg was designed for 0.3 g zero period ground acceleration (ZPGA), a magnitude 7 earthquake, stress tests evaluated Koeberg against a 0.5 g ZPGA. Overall Koeberg found to be seismically robust and well designed, with some areas for attention and improvement that were highlighted.
Duynefontein next door on the northern side of Koeberg is a proposed site for a new nuclear power station.
South Africa 's nuclear industry has seen its fair share of opposition, chiefly from environmentalists concerned about safety issues such as radioactive waste, and anti-war activists concerned about nuclear proliferation and use of atomic weapons. Current campaigns against nuclear energy are being run by Earthlife Africa and Koeberg Alert.
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the 1964 civil rights act did not prohibit discrimination in quizlet | Civil Rights Act of 1875 - wikipedia
The Civil Rights Act of 1875 (18 Stat. 335 -- 337), sometimes called Enforcement Act or Force Act, was a United States federal law enacted during the Reconstruction Era in response to civil rights violations to African Americans, "to protect all citizens in their civil and legal rights '', giving them equal treatment in public accommodations, public transportation, and to prohibit exclusion from jury service. The bill was passed by the 43rd United States Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875. The law was generally opposed by public opinion, but blacks did favor it. It was not effectively enforced and historian William Gillette says the passage of the law was an "insignificant victory. '' Eight years later, the Supreme Court ruled in Civil Rights Cases (1883) that the public accommodation sections of the act were unconstitutional, saying Congress was not afforded control over private persons or corporations.
The drafting of the bill was performed early in 1870 by Senator Charles Sumner, a dominant Radical Republican in the Senate, with the assistance of John Mercer Langston, a prominent African American who established the law department at Howard University. The bill was proposed by Senator Sumner and co-sponsored by Representative Benjamin F. Butler, both Republicans from Massachusetts, in the 41st Congress of the United States in 1870. Congress removed the coverage of public schools that Sumner had included. The act was passed by the 43rd Congress in February 1875 as a memorial to honor Sumner, who had just died. It was signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875.
President Grant had wanted an entirely different law to help him suppress election - related violence against blacks and Republicans in the South. Congress did not give him that, but instead wrote a law for equal rights to public accommodations that was passed as a memorial to Grant 's bitterest enemy, the late Senator Charles Sumner. Grant never commented on the 1875 law, and did nothing to enforce it says historian John Hope Franklin. Grant 's Justice Department ignored it and did not send copies to US attorneys, says Franklin, while many federal judges called it unconstitutional before the Supreme Court shut it down. Franklin concludes regarding Grant and Hayes administrations, "The Civil Rights Act was never effectively enforced. '' Public opinion was opposed, with the black community in support. Historian Rayford Logan looking at newspaper editorials finds the press was overwhelmingly opposed.
The Supreme Court, in an 8 -- 1 decision, declared sections of the act unconstitutional in the Civil Rights Cases on October 15, 1883. Justice John Marshall Harlan provided the lone dissent. The Court held the Equal Protection Clause within the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits discrimination by the state and local government, but it does not give the federal government the power to prohibit discrimination by private individuals and organizations. The Court also held that the Thirteenth Amendment was meant to eliminate "the badge of slavery, '' but not to prohibit racial discrimination in public accommodations. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was the last civil rights bill to be signed into law by the federal government until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957 during the Civil Rights Movement.
The Civil Rights Act of 1875 is notable as the last major piece of legislation related to Reconstruction that was passed by Congress during the Reconstruction Era. These include the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the four Reconstruction Acts of 1867 and 1868, the three Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871, and the three Constitutional Amendments adopted between 1865 and 1870.
Provisions contained in the Civil Rights Act of 1875 were later readopted by Congress during the Civil Rights Movement as part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968. The 1964 and 1968 acts relied upon the Commerce Clause contained in Article One of the Constitution of the United States rather than the Equal Protection Clause within the Fourteenth Amendment.
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a body rotating around a fixed axis with increasing tangential velocity will experience | Rotation around a fixed axis - wikipedia
Rotation around a fixed axis is a special case of rotational motion. The fixed axis hypothesis excludes the possibility of an axis changing its orientation, and can not describe such phenomena as wobbling or precession. According to Euler 's rotation theorem, simultaneous rotation along a number of stationary axes at the same time is impossible. If two rotations are forced at the same time, a new axis of rotation will appear.
This article assumes that the rotation is also stable, such that no torque is required to keep it going. The kinematics and dynamics of rotation around a fixed axis of a rigid body are mathematically much simpler than those for free rotation of a rigid body; they are entirely analogous to those of linear motion along a single fixed direction, which is not true for free rotation of a rigid body. The expressions for the kinetic energy of the object, and for the forces on the parts of the object, are also simpler for rotation around a fixed axis, than for general rotational motion. For these reasons, rotation around a fixed axis is typically taught in introductory physics courses after students have mastered linear motion; the full generality of rotational motion is not usually taught in introductory physics classes.
A rigid body is an object of finite extent in which all the distances between the component particles are constant. No truly rigid body exists; external forces can deform any solid. For our purposes, then, a rigid body is a solid which requires large forces to deform it appreciably.
A change in the position of a particle in three - dimensional space can be completely specified by three coordinates. A change in the position of a rigid body is more complicated to describe. It can be regarded as a combination of two distinct types of motion: translational motion and rotational motion.
Purely translational motion occurs when every particle of the body has the same instantaneous velocity as every other particle; then the path traced out by any particle is exactly parallel to the path traced out by every other particle in the body. Under translational motion, the change in the position of a rigid body is specified completely by three coordinates such as x, y, and z giving the displacement of any point, such as the center of mass, fixed to the rigid body.
Purely rotational motion occurs if every particle in the body moves in a circle about a single line. This line is called the axis of rotation. Then the radius vectors from the axis to all particles undergo the same angular displacement in the same time. The axis of rotation need not go through the body. In general, any rotation can be specified completely by the three angular displacements with respect to the rectangular - coordinate axes x, y, and z. Any change in the position of the rigid body is thus completely described by three translational and three rotational coordinates.
Any displacement of a rigid body may be arrived at by first subjecting the body to a displacement followed by a rotation, or conversely, to a rotation followed by a displacement. We already know that for any collection of particles -- whether at rest with respect to one another, as in a rigid body, or in relative motion, like the exploding fragments of a shell, the acceleration of the center of mass is given by
where M is the total mass of the system and a is the acceleration of the center of mass. There remains the matter of describing the rotation of the body about the center of mass and relating it to the external forces acting on the body. The kinematics and dynamics of rotational motion around a single axis resemble the kinematics and dynamics of translational motion; rotational motion around a single axis even has a work - energy theorem analogous to that of particle dynamics.
A particle moves in a circle of radius r (\ displaystyle r). Having moved an arc length s (\ displaystyle s), its angular position is θ (\ displaystyle \ theta) relative to its original position, where θ = s r (\ displaystyle \ theta = (\ frac (s) (r))).
In mathematics and physics it is usual to use the natural unit radians rather than degrees or revolutions. Units are converted as follows:
An angular displacement is a change in angular position:
where Δ θ (\ displaystyle \ Delta \ theta) is the angular displacement, θ 1 (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (1)) is the initial angular position and θ 2 (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (2)) is the final angular position.
Angular velocity is the change in angular displacement per unit time. The symbol for angular velocity is ω (\ displaystyle \ omega) and the units are typically rad s. Angular speed is the magnitude of angular velocity.
The instantaneous angular velocity is given by
Using the formula for angular position and letting v = d s d t (\ displaystyle v = (\ frac (ds) (dt))), we have also
where v (\ displaystyle v) is the translational speed of the particle.
Angular velocity and frequency are related by
A changing angular velocity indicates the presence of an angular acceleration in rigid body, typically measured in rad s. The average angular acceleration α _̄ (\ displaystyle (\ overline (\ alpha))) over a time interval Δt is given by
The instantaneous acceleration α (t) is given by
Thus, the angular acceleration is the rate of change of the angular velocity, just as acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
The translational acceleration of a point on the object rotating is given by
where r is the radius or distance from the axis of rotation. This is also the tangential component of acceleration: it is tangential to the direction of motion of the point. If this component is 0, the motion is uniform circular motion, and the velocity changes in direction only.
The radial acceleration (perpendicular to direction of motion) is given by
It is directed towards the center of the rotational motion, and is often called the centripetal acceleration.
The angular acceleration is caused by the torque, which can have a positive or negative value in accordance with the convention of positive and negative angular frequency. The ratio of torque and angular acceleration (how difficult it is to start, stop, or otherwise change rotation) is given by the moment of inertia: T = I α (\ displaystyle T = I \ alpha).
When the angular acceleration is constant, the five quantities angular displacement θ (\ displaystyle \ theta), initial angular velocity ω i (\ displaystyle \ omega _ (i)), final angular velocity ω f (\ displaystyle \ omega _ (f)), angular acceleration α (\ displaystyle \ alpha), and time t (\ displaystyle t) can be related by four equations of kinematics:
The moment of inertia of an object, symbolized by I, is a measure of the object 's resistance to changes to its rotation. The moment of inertia is measured in kilogram metre2 (kg m2). It depends on the object 's mass: increasing the mass of an object increases the moment of inertia. It also depends on the distribution of the mass: distributing the mass further from the centre of rotation increases the moment of inertia by a greater degree. For a single particle of mass m (\ displaystyle m) a distance r (\ displaystyle r) from the axis of rotation, the moment of inertia is given by
Torque τ (\ displaystyle (\ boldsymbol (\ tau))) is the twisting effect of a force F applied to a rotating object which is at position r from its axis of rotation. Mathematically,
where × denotes the cross product. A net torque acting upon an object will produce an angular acceleration of the object according to
just as F = ma in linear dynamics.
The work done by a torque acting on an object equals the magnitude of the torque times the angle through which the torque is applied:
The power of a torque is equal to the work done by the torque per unit time, hence:
The angular momentum L is a measure of the difficulty of bringing a rotating object to rest. It is given by
Angular momentum is related to angular velocity by
just as p = mv in linear dynamics.
The equivalent of linear momentum in rotational motion is angular momentum. The greater the angular momentum of the spinning object such as a top, the greater its tendency to continue to spin.
The Angular Momentum of a rotating body is proportional to its mass and to how rapidly it is turning. In addition the angular momentum depends on how the mass is distributed relative to the axis of rotation: the further away the mass is located from the axis of rotation, the greater the angular momentum. A flat disk such as a record turntable has less angular momentum than a hollow cylinder of the same mass and velocity of rotation.
Like linear momentum, angular momentum is vector quantity, and its conservation implies that the direction of the spin axis tends to remain unchanged. For this reason the spinning top remains upright whereas a stationary one falls over immediately.
The angular momentum equation can be used to relate the moment of the resultant force on a body about an axis (sometimes called torque), and the rate of rotation about that axis.
Torque and angular momentum are related according to
just as F = dp / dt in linear dynamics. In the absence of an external torque, the angular momentum of a body remains constant. The conservation of angular momentum is notably demonstrated in figure skating: when pulling the arms closer to the body during a spin, the moment of inertia is decreased, and so the angular velocity is increased.
The kinetic energy K due to the rotation of the body is given by
just as K = ⁄ mv in linear dynamics.
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. The amount of translational kinetic energy found in two variables: the mass of the object (m) and the speed of the object (v) as show in the equation above. Kinetic energy must always be either zero or a positive value. While velocity can have either a positive or negative value, velocity squared will always be positive.
The above development is a special case of general rotational motion. In the general case, angular displacement, angular velocity, angular acceleration and torque are considered to be vectors.
An angular displacement is considered to be a vector, pointing along the axis, of magnitude equal to that of Δ θ (\ displaystyle \ Delta \ theta). A right - hand rule is used to find which way it points along the axis; if the fingers of the right hand are curled to point in the way that the object has rotated, then the thumb of the right hand points in the direction of the vector.
The angular velocity vector also points along the axis of rotation in the same way as the angular displacements it causes. If a disk spins counterclockwise as seen from above, its angular velocity vector points upwards. Similarly, the angular acceleration vector points along the axis of rotation in the same direction that the angular velocity would point if the angular acceleration were maintained for a long time.
The torque vector points along the axis around which the torque tends to cause rotation. To maintain rotation around a fixed axis, the total torque vector has to be along the axis, so that it only changes the magnitude and not the direction of the angular velocity vector. In the case of a hinge, only the component of the torque vector along the axis has effect on the rotation, other forces and torques are compensated by the structure.
The simplest case of rotation around a fixed axis is that of constant angular speed. Then the total torque is zero. For the example of the Earth rotating around its axis, there is very little friction. For a fan, the motor applies a torque to compensate for friction. Similar to the fan, equipment found in the mass production manufacturing industry demonstrate rotation around a fixed axis effectively. For example, a multi-spindle lathe is used to rotate the material on its axis to effectively increase production of cutting, deformation and turning. The angle of rotation is a linear function of time, which modulo 360 ° is a periodic function.
An example of this is the two - body problem with circular orbits.
Internal tensile stress provides the centripetal force that keeps a spinning object together. A rigid body model neglects the accompanying strain. If the body is not rigid this strain will cause it to change shape. This is expressed as the object changing shape due to the "centrifugal force ''.
Celestial bodies rotating about each other often have elliptic orbits. The special case of circular orbits is an example of a rotation around a fixed axis: this axis is the line through the center of mass perpendicular to the plane of motion. The centripetal force is provided by gravity, see also two - body problem. This usually also applies for a spinning celestial body, so it need not be solid to keep together, unless the angular speed is too high in relation to its density. (It will, however, tend to become oblate.) For example, a spinning celestial body of water must take at least 3 hours and 18 minutes to rotate, regardless of size, or the water will separate. If the density of the fluid is higher the time can be less. See orbital period.
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which explorer was mentioned by name for visiting china | Marco Polo - wikipedia
Marco Polo (/ ˈmɑːrkoʊ ˈpoʊloʊ / (listen); Italian: (ˈmarko ˈpɔːlo); Venetian: (ˈmaɾko ˈpo. lo) 1254 -- January 8 -- 9, 1324) was an Italian merchant, explorer, and writer, born in the Republic of Venice. His travels are recorded in Livres des merveilles du monde (Book of the Marvels of the World, also known as The Travels of Marco Polo, c. 1300), a book that described to Europeans the wealth and great size of China, its capital Peking, and other Asian cities and countries.
He learned the mercantile trade from his father and his uncle, Niccolò and Maffeo, who travelled through Asia and met Kublai Khan. In 1269, they returned to Venice to meet Marco for the first time. The three of them embarked on an epic journey to Asia, returning after 24 years to find Venice at war with Genoa; Marco was imprisoned and dictated his stories to a cellmate. He was released in 1299, became a wealthy merchant, married, and had three children. He died in 1324 and was buried in the church of San Lorenzo in Venice.
Though he was not the first European to reach China (see Europeans in Medieval China), Marco Polo was the first to leave a detailed chronicle of his experience. This book inspired Christopher Columbus and many other travellers. There is a substantial literature based on Polo 's writings; he also influenced European cartography, leading to the introduction of the Fra Mauro map.
Marco Polo was born in 1254 in the Republic of Venice. His exact date and place of birth are archivally unknown. Some historians mentioned that he was born on September 15 but that date is not endorsed by mainstream scholarship. Marco Polo 's birthplace is generally considered Venice, but also varies between Constantinople and the island of Korčula. There is dispute as to whether the Polo family is of Venetian origin, as Venetian historical sources considered them to be of Dalmatian origin. The lack of evidence makes the Korčula theory (probably under Ramusio influence) as a specific birthplace strongly disputed, and even some Croatian scholars consider it justly invented.
In 1168, his great - uncle, Marco Polo, borrowed money and commanded a ship in Constantinople. His grandfather, Andrea Polo of the parish of San Felice, had three sons, Maffeo, yet another Marco, and the traveller 's father Niccolò. This genealogy, described by Ramusio, is not universally accepted as there is no additional evidence to support it.
His father, Niccolò Polo, a merchant, traded with the Near East, becoming wealthy and achieving great prestige. Niccolò and his brother Maffeo set off on a trading voyage before Marco 's birth. In 1260, Niccolò and Maffeo, while residing in Constantinople, then the capital of the Latin Empire, foresaw a political change; they liquidated their assets into jewels and moved away. According to The Travels of Marco Polo, they passed through much of Asia, and met with Kublai Khan, a Mongol ruler and founder of the Yuan dynasty. Their decision to leave Constantinople proved timely. In 1261 Michael VIII Palaiologos, the ruler of the Empire of Nicaea, took Constantinople, promptly burned the Venetian quarter and re-established the Eastern Roman Empire. Captured Venetian citizens were blinded, while many of those who managed to escape perished aboard overloaded refugee ships fleeing to other Venetian colonies in the Aegean Sea.
Almost nothing is known about the childhood of Marco Polo until he was fifteen years old, excepting that he probably spent part of his childhood in Venice. Meanwhile, Marco Polo 's mother died, and an aunt and uncle raised him. He received a good education, learning mercantile subjects including foreign currency, appraising, and the handling of cargo ships; he learned little or no Latin. His father later married Floradise Polo (née Trevisan).
In 1269, Niccolò and Maffeo returned to their families in Venice, meeting young Marco for the first time. In 1271, during the rule of Doge Lorenzo Tiepolo, Marco Polo (at seventeen years of age), his father, and his uncle set off for Asia on the series of adventures that Marco later documented in his book. They returned to Venice in 1295, 24 years later, with many riches and treasures. They had travelled almost 15,000 miles (24,000 km).
Marco Polo returned to Venice in 1295 with his fortune converted into gemstones. At this time, Venice was at war with the Republic of Genoa. Polo armed a galley equipped with a trebuchet to join the war. He was probably caught by Genoans in a skirmish in 1296, off the Anatolian coast between Adana and the Gulf of Alexandretta and not during the battle of Curzola (September 1298), off the Dalmatian coast. The latter claim is due to a later tradition (16th Century) recorded by Giovanni Battista Ramusio.
He spent several months of his imprisonment dictating a detailed account of his travels to a fellow inmate, Rustichello da Pisa, who incorporated tales of his own as well as other collected anecdotes and current affairs from China. The book soon spread throughout Europe in manuscript form, and became known as The Travels of Marco Polo. It depicts the Polos ' journeys throughout Asia, giving Europeans their first comprehensive look into the inner workings of the Far East, including China, India, and Japan.
Polo was finally released from captivity in August 1299, and returned home to Venice, where his father and uncle in the meantime had purchased a large palazzo in the zone named contrada San Giovanni Crisostomo (Corte del Milion). For such a venture, the Polo family probably invested profits from trading, and even many gemstones they brought from the East. The company continued its activities and Marco soon became a wealthy merchant. Marco and his uncle Maffeo financed other expeditions, but likely never left Venetian provinces, nor returned to the Silk Road and Asia. Sometime before 1300, his father Niccolò died. In 1300, he married Donata Badoèr, the daughter of Vitale Badoèr, a merchant. They had three daughters, Fantina (married Marco Bragadin), Bellela (married Bertuccio Querini), and Moreta.
In 1305 he is mentioned in a Venetian document among local sea captains regarding the payment of taxes. His relation with a certain Marco Polo, who in 1300 was mentioned with riots against the aristocratic government, and escaped the death penalty, as well as riots from 1310 led by Bajamonte Tiepolo (by mother side grandson of Trogir count Stjepko Šubić) and Marco Querini, among whose rebels were Jacobello and Francesco Polo from another family branch, is unclear. Polo is clearly mentioned again after 1305 in Maffeo 's testament from 1309 -- 1310, in a 1319 document according to which he became owner of some estates of his deceased father, and in 1321, when he bought part of the family property of his wife Donata.
In 1323, Polo was confined to bed, due to illness. On January 8, 1324, despite physicians ' efforts to treat him, Polo was on his deathbed. To write and certify the will, his family requested Giovanni Giustiniani, a priest of San Procolo. His wife, Donata, and his three daughters were appointed by him as co-executrices. The church was entitled by law to a portion of his estate; he approved of this and ordered that a further sum be paid to the convent of San Lorenzo, the place where he wished to be buried. He also set free Peter, a Tartar servant, who may have accompanied him from Asia, and to whom Polo bequeathed 100 lire of Venetian denari.
He divided up the rest of his assets, including several properties, among individuals, religious institutions, and every guild and fraternity to which he belonged. He also wrote - off multiple debts including 300 lire that his sister - in - law owed him, and others for the convent of San Giovanni, San Paolo of the Order of Preachers, and a cleric named Friar Benvenuto. He ordered 220 soldi be paid to Giovanni Giustiniani for his work as a notary and his prayers.
The will was not signed by Polo, but was validated by the then - relevant "signum manus '' rule, by which the testator only had to touch the document to make it legally valid. Due to the Venetian law stating that the day ends at sunset, the exact date of Marco Polo 's death can not be determined, but according to some scholars it was between the sunsets of January 8 and 9, 1324. Biblioteca Marciana, which holds the original copy of his testament, dates the testament in January 9, 1323, and gives the date of his death at some time in June 1324.
An authoritative version of Marco Polo 's book does not and can not exist, for the early manuscripts differ significantly. The published editions of his book either rely on single manuscripts, blend multiple versions together, or add notes to clarify, for example in the English translation by Henry Yule. The 1938 English translation by A.C. Moule and Paul Pelliot is based on a Latin manuscript found in the library of the Cathedral of Toledo in 1932, and is 50 % longer than other versions. Approximately 150 manuscript copies in various languages are known to exist, and before availability of the printing press discrepancies were inevitably introduced during copying and translation. The popular translation published by Penguin Books in 1958 by R.E. Latham works several texts together to make a readable whole.
Polo related his memoirs orally to Rustichello da Pisa while both were prisoners of the Genova Republic. Rustichello wrote Devisement du Monde in Langues d'Oil, a lingua franca of crusaders and western merchants in the Orient. The idea probably was to create a handbook for merchants, essentially a text on weights, measures and distances.
The book opens with a preface describing his father and uncle traveling to Bolghar where Prince Berke Khan lived. A year later, they went to Ukek and continued to Bukhara. There, an envoy from the Levant invited them to meet Kublai Khan, who had never met Europeans. In 1266, they reached the seat of Kublai Khan at Dadu, present day Beijing, China. Kublai received the brothers with hospitality and asked them many questions regarding the European legal and political system. He also inquired about the Pope and Church in Rome. After the brothers answered the questions he tasked them with delivering a letter to the Pope, requesting 100 Christians acquainted with the Seven Arts (grammar, rhetoric, logic, geometry, arithmetic, music and astronomy). Kublai Khan requested that an envoy bring him back oil of the lamp in Jerusalem. The long sede vacante between the death of Pope Clement IV in 1268 and the election of his successor delayed the Polos in fulfilling Kublai 's request. They followed the suggestion of Theobald Visconti, then papal legate for the realm of Egypt, and returned to Venice in 1269 or 1270 to await the nomination of the new Pope, which allowed Marco to see his father for the first time, at the age of fifteen or sixteen.
In 1271, Niccolò, Maffeo and Marco Polo embarked on their voyage to fulfil Kublai 's request. They sailed to Acre, and then rode on camels to the Persian port of Hormuz. The Polos wanted to sail straight into China, but the ships there were not seaworthy, so they continued overland through the Silk Road, until reaching Kublai 's summer palace in Shangdu, near present - day Zhangjiakou. In one instance during their trip, the Polos joined a caravan of travelling merchants whom they crossed paths with. Unfortunately, the party was soon attacked by bandits, who used the cover of a sandstorm to ambush them. The Polos managed to fight and escape through a nearby town, but many members of the caravan were killed or enslaved. Three and a half years after leaving Venice, when Marco was about 21 years old, the Polos were welcomed by Kublai into his palace. The exact date of their arrival is unknown, but scholars estimate it to be between 1271 and 1275. On reaching the Yuan court, the Polos presented the sacred oil from Jerusalem and the papal letters to their patron.
Marco knew four languages, and the family had accumulated a great deal of knowledge and experience that was useful to Kublai. It is possible that he became a government official; he wrote about many imperial visits to China 's southern and eastern provinces, the far south and Burma. They were highly respected and sought after in the Mongolian court, and so Kublai Khan decided to decline the Polos ' requests to leave China. They became worried about returning home safely, believing that if Kublai died, his enemies might turn against them because of their close involvement with the ruler. In 1292, Kublai 's great - nephew, then ruler of Persia, sent representatives to China in search of a potential wife, and they asked the Polos to accompany them, so they were permitted to return to Persia with the wedding party -- which left that same year from Zaitun in southern China on a fleet of 14 junks. The party sailed to the port of Singapore, travelled north to Sumatra, and sailed west to the Point Pedro port of Jaffna under Savakanmaindan and to Pandyan of Tamilakkam. Eventually Polo crossed the Arabian Sea to Hormuz. The two - year voyage was a perilous one -- of the six hundred people (not including the crew) in the convoy only eighteen had survived (including all three Polos). The Polos left the wedding party after reaching Hormuz and travelled overland to the port of Trebizond on the Black Sea, the present day Trabzon.
The British scholar Ronald Latham has pointed out that The Book of Marvels was in fact a collaboration written in 1298 -- 1299 between Polo and a professional writer of romances, Rustichello of Pisa. Latham also argued that Rustichello may have glamorised Polo 's accounts, and added fantastic and romantic elements that made the book a bestseller. The Italian scholar Luigi Foscolo Benedetto had previously demonstrated that the book was written in the same "leisurely, conversational style '' that characterised Rustichello 's other works, and that some passages in the book were taken verbatim or with minimal modifications from other writings by Rustichello. For example, the opening introduction in The Book of Marvels to "emperors and kings, dukes and marquises '' was lifted straight out of an Arthurian romance Rustichello had written several years earlier, and the account of the second meeting between Polo and Kublai Khan at the latter 's court is almost the same as that of the arrival of Tristan at the court of King Arthur at Camelot in that same book. Latham believed that many elements of the book, such as legends of the Middle East and mentions of exotic marvels, may have been the work of Rustichello who was giving what medieval European readers expected to find in a travel book.
Since its publication, some have viewed the book with skepticism. Some in the Middle Ages regarded the book simply as a romance or fable, due largely to the sharp difference of its descriptions of a sophisticated civilisation in China to other early accounts by Giovanni da Pian del Carpine and William of Rubruck who portrayed the Mongols as ' barbarians ' who appeared to belong to ' some other world '. Doubts have also been raised in later centuries about Marco Polo 's narrative of his travels in China, for example for his failure to mention the Great Wall of China, and in particular the difficulties in identifying many of the place names he used (the great majority however have since been identified). Many have questioned if he had visited the places he mentioned in his itinerary, if he had appropriated the accounts of his father and uncle or other travelers, and some doubted if he even reached China, or that if he did, perhaps never went beyond Khanbaliq (Beijing).
It has however been pointed out that Polo 's accounts of China are more accurate and detailed than other travelers ' accounts of the periods. Polo had at times refuted the ' marvelous ' fables and legends given in other European accounts, and despite some exaggerations and errors, Polo 's accounts have relatively few of the descriptions of irrational marvels. In many cases where present (mostly given in the first part before he reached China, such as mentions of Christian miracles), he made a clear distinction that they are what he had heard rather than what he had seen. It is also largely free of the gross errors found in other accounts such as those given by the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta who had confused the Yellow River with the Grand Canal and other waterways, and believed that porcelain was made from coal.
Modern studies have further shown that details given in Marco Polo 's book, such as the currencies used, salt productions and revenues, are accurate and unique. Such detailed descriptions are not found in other non-Chinese sources, and their accuracy is supported by archaeological evidence as well as Chinese records compiled after Polo had left China, his accounts are therefore unlikely to have been obtained second hand. Other accounts have also been verified; for example, when visiting Zhenjiang in Jiangsu, China, Marco Polo noted that a large number of Christian churches had been built there. His claim is confirmed by a Chinese text of the 14th century explaining how a Sogdian named Mar - Sargis from Samarkand founded six Nestorian Christian churches there in addition to one in Hangzhou during the second half of the 13th century. His story of the princess Kököchin sent from China to Persia to marry the Īl - khān is also confirmed by independent sources in both Persia and China.
Skeptics have long wondered if Marco Polo wrote his book based on hearsay, with some pointing to omissions about noteworthy practices and structures of China as well as the lack of details on some places in his book. While Polo describes paper money and the burning of coal, he fails to mention the Great Wall of China, tea, Chinese characters, chopsticks, or footbinding. His failure to note the presence of the Great Wall of China was first raised in the middle of seventeenth century, and in the middle of eighteenth century, it was suggested that he might have never reached China. However, the Mongols were not fond of the Great Wall that for centuries had stood against them; thus it had fallen into obscurity during that time period. Later scholars such as John W. Haeger argued the Marco Polo might not have visited Southern China due to the lack of details in his description of southern Chinese cities compared to northern ones, while Herbert Franke also raised the possibility that Marco Polo might not have been to China at all, and wondered if he might have based his accounts on Persian sources due to his use of Persian expressions. This is taken further by Dr. Frances Wood who claimed in her 1995 book Did Marco Polo Go to China? that at best Polo never went farther east than Persia (modern Iran), and that there is nothing in The Book of Marvels about China that could not be obtained via reading Persian books. Wood maintains that it is more probable that Polo only went to Constantinople (modern Istanbul, Turkey) and some of the Italian merchant colonies around the Black Sea, picking hearsay from those travellers who had been farther east.
Supporters of the book 's basic accuracy countered on the points raised by skeptics such as footbinding and the Great Wall of China. Historian Stephen G. Haw argued that the Great Walls were built to keep out northern invaders, whereas the ruling dynasty during Marco Polo 's visit were those very northern invaders. They note that the Great Wall familiar to us today is a Ming structure built some two centuries after Marco Polo 's travels; and that the Mongol rulers whom Polo served controlled territories both north and south of today 's wall, and would have no reasons to maintain any fortifications that may have remained there from the earlier dynasties. Other Europeans who travelled to Khanbaliq during the Yuan dynasty, such as Giovanni de ' Marignolli and Odoric of Pordenone, said nothing about the wall either. The Muslim traveler Ibn Battuta, who asked about the wall when he visited China during the Yuan dynasty, could find no one who had either seen it or knew of anyone who had seen it, suggesting that while ruins of the wall constructed in the earlier periods might have existed, they were not significant or noteworthy at that time.
Haw also argued that footbinding was not common even among Chinese during Polo 's time and almost unknown among the Mongols. While the Italian missionary Odoric of Pordenone who visited Yuan China mentioned footbinding (it is however unclear whether he was merely relaying something he had heard as his description is inaccurate), no other foreign visitors to Yuan China mentioned the practice, perhaps an indication that the footbinding was not widespread or was not practiced in an extreme form at that time. Marco Polo himself noted (in the Toledo manuscript) the dainty walk of Chinese women who took very short steps. It has also been noted by other scholars that many of the things not mentioned by Marco Polo such as tea and chopsticks were not mentioned by other travelers as well. Haw also pointed out that despite the few omissions, Marco Polo 's account is more extensive, more accurate and more detailed than those of other foreign travelers to China in this period. Marco Polo even observed Chinese nautical inventions such as the watertight compartments of bulkhead partitions in Chinese ships, knowledge of which he was keen to share with his fellow Venetians.
Many scholars believe that Marco Polo exaggerated his importance in China. The British historian David Morgan thought that Polo had likely exaggerated and lied about his status in China, while Ronald Latham believed that such exaggerations were embellishments by his ghost writer Rustichello da Pisa. In The Book of Marvels, Polo claimed that he was a close friend and advisor to Kublai Khan and that he was the governor of the city of Yangzhou for three years -- yet no Chinese source mentions him as either a friend of the Emperor or as the governor of Yangzhou -- indeed no Chinese source mentions Marco Polo at all. Herbert Franke noted that all occurrences of Po - lo or Bolod (an Altaic word meaning "steel '') in Yuan texts were names of people of Mongol or Turkic extraction. The sinologist Paul Pelliot thought that Polo might have served as an officer of the government salt monopoly in Yangzhou, which was a position of some significance that could explain the exaggeration. Polo also claimed to have provided the Mongols with technical advice on building mangonels during the Siege of Xiangyang, a claim that can not possibly be true as the siege was over before Polo had arrived in China. The Mongol army that besieged Xiangyang did have foreign military engineers, but they were mentioned in Chinese sources as being from Baghdad and had Arabic names.
Stephen G. Haw, however, challenges this idea that Polo exaggerated his own importance, writing that, "contrary to what has often been said... Marco does not claim any very exalted position for himself in the Yuan empire. '' He points out that Marco never claimed to be a minister of high rank, a darughachi, a leader of a tumen (i.e. 10,000 men), not even the leader of 1,000 men, only that he was an emissary for the khan and held a position of some honor. Haw sees this as a reasonable claim if Marco was a keshig, who numbered some fourteen thousand at the time. Haw explains how the earliest manuscripts of Polo 's accounts provide contradicting information about his role in Yangzhou, with some stating he was just a simple resident, others stating he was a governor, and Ramusio 's manuscript claiming he was simply holding that office as a temporary substitute for someone else, yet all the manuscripts concur that he worked as an esteemed emissary for the khan. Haw also objected to the approach to finding mention of Marco Polo in Chinese texts, contending that contemporaneous Europeans had little regard for using surnames, and a direct Chinese transcription of the name "Marco '' ignores the possibility of him taking on a Chinese or even Mongol name that had no bearing or similarity with his Latin name.
A number of errors in Marco Polo 's account have been noted: for example, he described the bridge later known as Marco Polo Bridge as having twenty - four arches instead of eleven or thirteen. He also said that city wall of Khanbaliq had twelve gates when it had only eleven. Archaeologists have also pointed out that Polo may have mixed up the details from the two attempted invasions of Japan by Kublai Khan in 1274 and 1281. Polo wrote of five - masted ships, when archaeological excavations found that the ships in fact had only three masts.
Wood accused Marco Polo of taking other people 's accounts in his book, retelling other stories as his own, or based his accounts on Persian guidebooks or other lost sources. For example, Sinologist Francis Woodman Cleaves noted that Polo 's account of the voyage of the princess Kököchin from China to Persia to marry the Īl - khān in 1293 has been confirmed by a passage in the 15th - century Chinese work Yongle Encyclopedia and by the Persian historian Rashid - al - Din Hamadani in his work Jami ' al - tawarikh. However neither of these accounts mentions Polo or indeed any European as part of the bridal party, and Wood used the lack of mention of Polo in these works as an example of Polo 's "retelling of a well - known tale ''. Morgan, in Polo 's defence, noted that even the princess herself was not mentioned in the Chinese source, and that it would have been surprising if Polo had been mentioned by Rashid - al - Din. Historian Igor de Rachewiltz argued that Marco Polo 's account in fact allows the Persian and Chinese sources to be reconciled -- by relaying the information that two of the three envoys sent (mentioned in the Chinese source and whose names accord with those given by Polo) had died during the voyage, it explains why only the third who survived, Coja / Khoja, was mentioned by Rashìd al - Dìn. Polo had therefore completed the story by providing information not found in either source. He also noted that the only Persian source that mentions the princess was not completed until 1310 -- 11, therefore Marco Polo could not have learned the information from any Persian book. According to de Rachewiltz, the concordance of Polo 's detailed account of the princess with other independent sources that gave only incomplete information is proof of the veracity of Polo 's story and his presence in China.
Morgan writes that since much of what The Book of Marvels has to say about China is "demonstrably correct '' that to claim that Polo did not go to China "creates far more problems than it solves '' and so that the "balance of probabilities '' strongly suggests that Polo really did go to China, even if he exaggerated somewhat his importance in China. Haw dismisses the various anachronistic criticisms of Polo 's accounts that started in the 17th century, and highlights Polo 's accuracy in great part of his accounts, for example on the lay of the land such as the Grand Canal of China. "If Marco was a liar '', Haw writes, "then he must have been an implausibly meticulous one. ''
In 2012, the University of Tübingen Sinologist and historian Hans Ulrich Vogel released a detailed analysis of Polo 's description of currencies, salt production and revenues, and argued that the evidence supports his presence in China because he included details which he could not have otherwise known. Vogel noted that no other Western, Arab, or Persian sources have given such accurate and unique details about the currencies of China, for example, the shape and size of the paper, the use of seals, the various denominations of paper money as well as variations in currency usage in different regions of China, such as the use of cowry shells in Yunnan, details supported by archaeological evidence and Chinese sources compiled long after Polo 's had left China. His accounts of salt production and revenues from the salt monopoly are also accurate, and accord with Chinese documents of the Yuan era. Economic historian Mark Elvin, in his preface to Vogel 's 2013 monograph, concludes that Vogel "demonstrates by specific example after specific example the ultimately overwhelming probability of the broad authenticity '' of Polo 's account. Many problems were caused by the oral transmission of the original text and the proliferation of significantly different hand - copied manuscripts. For instance, did Polo exert "political authority '' (seignora) in Yangzhou or merely "sojourn '' (sejourna) there. Elvin concludes that "those who doubted, although mistaken, were not always being casual or foolish '', but "the case as a whole had now been closed '': the book is, "in essence, authentic, and, when used with care, in broad terms to be trusted as a serious though obviously not always final, witness. ''
Other lesser - known European explorers had already travelled to China, such as Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, but Polo 's book meant that his journey was the first to be widely known. Christopher Columbus was inspired enough by Polo 's description of the Far East to want to visit those lands for himself; a copy of the book was among his belongings, with handwritten annotations. Bento de Góis, inspired by Polo 's writings of a Christian kingdom in the east, travelled 4,000 miles (6,400 km) in three years across Central Asia. He never found the kingdom but ended his travels at the Great Wall of China in 1605, proving that Cathay was what Matteo Ricci (1552 -- 1610) called "China ''.
Marco Polo 's travels may have had some influence on the development of European cartography, ultimately leading to the European voyages of exploration a century later. The 1453 Fra Mauro map was said by Giovanni Battista Ramusio (disputed by historian / cartographer Piero Falchetta, in whose work the quote appears) to have been partially based on the one brought from Cathay by Marco Polo:
That fine illuminated world map on parchment, which can still be seen in a large cabinet alongside the choir of their monastery (the Camaldolese monastery of San Michele di Murano) was by one of the brothers of the monastery, who took great delight in the study of cosmography, diligently drawn and copied from a most beautiful and very old nautical map and a world map that had been brought from Cathay by the most honourable Messer Marco Polo and his father.
Though Marco Polo never produced a map that illustrated his journey, his family drew several maps to the Far East based on the wayward 's accounts. These collection of maps were signed by Polo 's three daughters: Fantina, Bellela and Moreta. Not only did it contain maps of his journey, but also sea routes to Japan, Siberia 's Kamchatka Peninsula, the Bering Strait and even to the coastlines of Alaska, centuries before the rediscovery of the Americas by Europeans.
The Marco Polo sheep, a subspecies of Ovis ammon, is named after the explorer, who described it during his crossing of Pamir (ancient Mount Imeon) in 1271.
In 1851, a three - masted Clipper built in Saint John, New Brunswick also took his name; the Marco Polo was the first ship to sail around the world in under six months.
The airport in Venice is named Venice Marco Polo Airport.
The frequent flyer programme of Hong Kong flag carrier Cathay Pacific is known as the "Marco Polo Club ''.
The travels of Marco Polo are fictionalised in a number works, such as:
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which one these was not a factor of the new negro renaissance | Harlem Renaissance - wikipedia
The Harlem Renaissance was an intellectual, social, and artistic explosion that took place in Harlem, New York, spanning the 1920s. During the time, it was known as the "New Negro Movement '', named after the 1925 anthology by Alain Locke. The Movement also included the new African - American cultural expressions across the urban areas in the Northeast and Midwest United States affected by the African - American Great Migration, of which Harlem was the largest. The Harlem Renaissance was considered to be a rebirth of African - American arts. Though it was centered in the Harlem neighborhood of the borough of Manhattan in New York City, many francophone black writers from African and Caribbean colonies who lived in Paris were also influenced by the Harlem Renaissance.
The Harlem Renaissance is generally considered to have spanned from about 1918 until the mid-1930s. Many of its ideas lived on much longer. The zenith of this "flowering of Negro literature '', as James Weldon Johnson preferred to call the Harlem Renaissance, took place between 1924 (when Opportunity: A Journal of Negro Life hosted a party for black writers where many white publishers were in attendance) and 1929 (the year of the stock market crash and the beginning of the Great Depression).
Until the end of the Civil War, the majority of African Americans had been enslaved and lived in the South. During the Reconstruction Era, the emancipated African Americans, freedmen, began to strive for civic participation, political equality and economic and cultural self - determination. Soon after the end of the Civil War the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 gave rise to speeches by African - American Congressmen addressing this Bill. By 1875 sixteen African Americans had been elected and served in Congress and gave numerous speeches with their newfound civil empowerment. The Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 was denounced by black Congressmen and resulted in the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1875, part of Reconstruction legislation by Republicans. By the late 1870s, Democratic whites managed to regain power in the South. From 1890 to 1908 they proceeded to pass legislation that disenfranchised most African Americans and many poor whites, trapping them without representation. They established white supremacist regimes of Jim Crow segregation in the South and one - party block voting behind southern Democrats. The Democratic whites denied African Americans their exercise of civil and political rights by terrorizing black communities with lynch mobs and other forms of vigilante violence as well as by instituting a convict labor system that forced many thousands of African Americans back into unpaid labor in mines, on plantations, and on public works projects such as roads and levees. Convict laborers were typically subject to brutal forms of corporal punishment, overwork, and disease from unsanitary conditions. Death rates were extraordinarily high. While a small number of African Americans were able to acquire land shortly after the Civil War, most were exploited as sharecroppers. As life in the South became increasingly difficult, African Americans began to migrate north in great numbers.
Most of the African - American literary movement arose from a generation that had memories of the gains and losses of Reconstruction after the Civil War. Sometimes their parents or grandparents had been slaves. Their ancestors had sometimes benefited by paternal investment in cultural capital, including better - than - average education. Many in the Harlem Renaissance were part of the early 20th century Great Migration out of the South into the African American neighborhoods of the North and Midwest. African Americans sought a better standard of living and relief from the institutionalized racism in the South. Others were people of African descent from racially stratified communities in the Caribbean who came to the United States hoping for a better life. Uniting most of them was their convergence in Harlem.
During the early portion of the 20th century, Harlem was the destination for migrants from around the country, attracting both people seeking work from the South, and an educated class who made the area a center of culture, as well as a growing "Negro '' middle class. The district had originally been developed in the 19th century as an exclusive suburb for the white middle and upper middle classes; its affluent beginnings led to the development of stately houses, grand avenues, and world - class amenities such as the Polo Grounds and the Harlem Opera House. During the enormous influx of European immigrants in the late 19th century, the once exclusive district was abandoned by the white middle class, who moved farther north.
Harlem became an African - American neighborhood in the early 1900s. In 1910, a large block along 135th Street and Fifth Avenue was bought by various African - American realtors and a church group. Many more African Americans arrived during the First World War. Due to the war, the migration of laborers from Europe virtually ceased, while the war effort resulted in a massive demand for unskilled industrial labor. The Great Migration brought hundreds of thousands of African Americans to cities such as Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit, and New York.
Despite the increasing popularity of Negro culture, virulent white racism, often by more recent ethnic immigrants, continued to affect African - American communities, even in the North. After the end of World War I, many African - American soldiers -- who fought in segregated units such as the Harlem Hellfighters -- came home to a nation whose citizens often did not respect their accomplishments. Race riots and other civil uprisings occurred throughout the US during the Red Summer of 1919, reflecting economic competition over jobs and housing in many cities, as well as tensions over social territories.
The first stage of the Harlem Renaissance started in the late 1910s. In 1917, the premiere of Three Plays for a Negro Theatre took place. These plays, written by white playwright Ridgely Torrence, featured African - American actors conveying complex human emotions and yearnings. They rejected the stereotypes of the blackface and minstrel show traditions. James Weldon Johnson in 1917 called the premieres of these plays "the most important single event in the entire history of the Negro in the American Theater ''. Another landmark came in 1919, when the poet Claude McKay published his militant sonnet, "If We Must Die '', which introduced a dramatically political dimension to the themes of African cultural inheritance and modern urban experience featured in his 1917 poems "Invocation '' and "Harlem Dancer '' (published under the pseudonym Eli Edwards, these were his first appearance in print in the United States after immigrating from Jamaica). Although "If We Must Die '' never alluded to race, African - American readers heard its note of defiance in the face of racism and the nationwide race riots and lynchings then taking place. By the end of the First World War, the fiction of James Weldon Johnson and the poetry of Claude McKay were describing the reality of contemporary African - American life in America.
In 1917 Hubert Harrison, "The Father of Harlem Radicalism, '' founded the Liberty League and The Voice, the first organization and the first newspaper, respectively, of the "New Negro Movement. '' Harrison 's organization and newspaper were political, but also emphasized the arts (his newspaper had "Poetry for the People '' and book review sections). In 1927, in the Pittsburgh Courier, Harrison challenged the notion of the renaissance. He argued that the "Negro Literary Renaissance '' notion overlooked "the stream of literary and artistic products which had flowed uninterruptedly from Negro writers from 1850 to the present, '' and said the so - called "renaissance '' was largely a white invention.
The Harlem Renaissance grew out of the changes that had taken place in the African - American community since the abolition of slavery, as the expansion of communities in the North. These accelerated as a consequence of World War I and the great social and cultural changes in early 20th - century United States. Industrialization was attracting people to cities from rural areas and gave rise to a new mass culture. Contributing factors leading to the Harlem Renaissance were the Great Migration of African Americans to northern cities, which concentrated ambitious people in places where they could encourage each other, and the First World War, which had created new industrial work opportunities for tens of thousands of people. Factors leading to the decline of this era include the Great Depression.
Christianity played a major role in the Harlem Renaissance. Many of the writers and social critics discussed the role of Christianity in African - American lives. For example, a famous poem by Langston Hughes, "Madam and the Minister '', reflects the temperature and mood towards religion in the Harlem Renaissance. The cover story for The Crisis magazine ′ s publication in May 1936 explains how important Christianity was regarding the proposed union of the three largest Methodist churches of 1936. This article shows the controversial question about the formation of a Union for these churches. The article "The Catholic Church and the Negro Priest '', also published in The Crisis, January 1920, demonstrates the obstacles African - American priests faced in the Catholic Church. The article confronts what it saw as policies based on race that excluded African Americans from higher positions in the church.
Various forms of religious worship existed during this time of African - American intellectual reawakening. Although there were racist attitudes within the current Abrahamic religious arenas many African Americans continued to push towards the practice of a more inclusive doctrine. For example, George Joseph MacWilliam presents various experiences, during his pursuit towards priesthood, of rejection on the basis of his color and race yet he shares his frustration in attempts to incite action on the part of The Crisis magazine community.
There were other forms of spiritualism practiced among African Americans during the Harlem Renaissance. Some of these religions and philosophies were inherited from African ancestry.
For example, the religion of Islam was present in Africa as early as the 8th century through the Trans - Saharan trade. Islam came to Harlem likely through the migration of members of the Moorish Science Temple of America, which was established in 1913 in New Jersey.
Various forms of Judaism were practiced, including Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform Judaism, but it was Black Hebrew Israelites that founded their religious belief system during the early 20th century in the Harlem Renaissance.
Traditional forms of religion acquired from various parts of Africa were inherited and practiced during this era. Some common examples were Voodoo and Santeria.
Religious critique during this era was found in literature, art, and poetry. The Harlem Renaissance encouraged analytic dialogue that included the open critique and the adjustment of current religious ideas.
One of the major contributors to the discussion of African - American renaissance culture was Aaron Douglas who, with his artwork, also reflected the revisions African Americans were making to the Christian dogma. Douglas uses biblical imagery as inspiration to various pieces of art work but with the rebellious twist of an African influence.
Countee Cullen 's poem "Heritage '' expresses the inner struggle of an African American between his past African heritage and the new Christian culture. A more severe criticism of the Christian religion can be found in Langston Hughes ' poem "Merry Christmas '', where he exposes the irony of religion as a symbol for good and yet a force for oppression and injustice.
A new way of playing the piano called the Harlem Stride style was created during the Harlem Renaissance, and helped blur the lines between the poor African Americans and socially elite African Americans. The traditional jazz band was composed primarily of brass instruments and was considered a symbol of the south, but the piano was considered an instrument of the wealthy. With this instrumental modification to the existing genre, the wealthy African Americans now had more access to jazz music. Its popularity soon spread throughout the country and was consequently at an all - time high. Innovation and liveliness were important characteristics of performers in the beginnings of jazz. Jazz musicians at the time such as Eubie Blake, Jelly Roll Morton, Luckey Roberts, James P. Johnson, Willie "The Lion '' Smith, Fats Waller and Duke Ellington were very talented, skillful, competitive and inspirational, and are still being considered to have laid great parts of the foundations for future musicians of their genre. Duke Ellington gained popularity during the Harlem Renaissance. According to Charles Garrett, "The resulting portrait of Ellington reveals him to be not only the gifted composer, bandleader, and musician we have come to know, but also an earthly person with basic desires, weaknesses, and eccentricities. '' Ellington did not let his popularity get to him. He remained calm and focused on his music.
During this period, the musical style of blacks was becoming more and more attractive to whites. White novelists, dramatists and composers started to exploit the musical tendencies and themes of African Americans in their works. Composers used poems written by African - American poets in their songs, and would implement the rhythms, harmonies and melodies of African - American music -- such as blues, spirituals, and jazz -- into their concert pieces. African American began to merge with Whites into the classical world of musical composition. The first African American male to gain wide recognition as a concert artist in both his region and internationally was Roland Hayes. He trained with Arthur Calhoun in Chattanooga, and at Fisk University in Nashville. Later, he studied with Arthur Hubbard in Boston and with George Henschel and Amanda Ira Aldridge in London, England. He began singing in public as a student, and toured with the Fisk Jubilee Singers in 1911.
During the Harlem Renaissance, the black clothing scene took a dramatic turn from the prim and proper. Many young women preferred - from short skirts and silk stockings to drop - waisted dresses and cloche hats. Woman wore loose - fitted garments and accessorized with long strand pearl bead necklaces, feather boas, and cigarette holders. The fashion of the Harlem Renaissance was used to convey elegance and flamboyancy and needed to be created with the vibrant dance style of the 1920s in mind. Popular by the 1930s was a trendy, egret - trimmed beret.
Men wore loose suits that led to the later style known as the "Zoot, '' which consisted of wide - legged, high - waisted, peg - top trousers, and a long coat with padded shoulders and wide lapels. Men also wore wide - brimmed hats, colored socks, white gloves, and velvet - collared Chesterfield coats. During this period, African Americans expressed respect for their heritage through a fad for leopard - skin coats, indicating the power of the African animal.
The extraordinarily successful black dancer Josephine Baker, though performing in Paris during the height of the Renaissance, was a major fashion trendsetter for black and white women alike. Her gowns from the couturier Jean Patou were much copied, especially her stage costumes, which Vogue magazine called "startling. '' Josephine Baker is also credited for highlighting the "art deco '' fashion era after she performed the "Danse Sauvage ''. During this Paris performance she adorned a skirt made of string and artificial bananas. Ethel Moses was another popular black performer, Moses starred in silent films in the 1920s and 30s and was recognizable by her signature bob hairstyle.
Characterizing the Harlem Renaissance was an overt racial pride that came to be represented in the idea of the New Negro, who through intellect and production of literature, art, and music could challenge the pervading racism and stereotypes to promote progressive or socialist politics, and racial and social integration. The creation of art and literature would serve to "uplift '' the race.
There would be no uniting form singularly characterizing the art that emerged from the Harlem Renaissance. Rather, it encompassed a wide variety of cultural elements and styles, including a Pan-African perspective, "high - culture '' and "low - culture '' or "low - life, '' from the traditional form of music to the blues and jazz, traditional and new experimental forms in literature such as modernism and the new form of jazz poetry. This duality meant that numerous African - American artists came into conflict with conservatives in the black intelligentsia, who took issue with certain depictions of black life.
Some common themes represented during the Harlem Renaissance were the influence of the experience of slavery and emerging African - American folk traditions on black identity, the effects of institutional racism, the dilemmas inherent in performing and writing for elite white audiences, and the question of how to convey the experience of modern black life in the urban North.
The Harlem Renaissance was one of primarily African - American involvement. It rested on a support system of black patrons, black - owned businesses and publications. However, it also depended on the patronage of white Americans, such as Carl Van Vechten and Charlotte Osgood Mason, who provided various forms of assistance, opening doors which otherwise might have remained closed to the publication of work outside the black American community. This support often took the form of patronage or publication. Carl Van Vechten was one of the most noteworthy white Americans involved with the Harlem Renaissance. He allowed for assistance to the black American community because he wanted racial sameness.
There were other whites interested in so - called "primitive '' cultures, as many whites viewed black American culture at that time, and wanted to see such "primitivism '' in the work coming out of the Harlem Renaissance. As with most fads, some people may have been exploited in the rush for publicity.
Interest in African - American lives also generated experimental but lasting collaborative work, such as the all - black productions of George Gershwin 's opera Porgy and Bess, and Virgil Thomson and Gertrude Stein 's Four Saints in Three Acts. In both productions the choral conductor Eva Jessye was part of the creative team. Her choir was featured in Four Saints. The music world also found white band leaders defying racist attitudes to include the best and the brightest African - American stars of music and song in their productions.
The African Americans used art to prove their humanity and demand for equality. The Harlem Renaissance led to more opportunities for blacks to be published by mainstream houses. Many authors began to publish novels, magazines and newspapers during this time. The new fiction attracted a great amount of attention from the nation at large. Among authors who became nationally known were Jean Toomer, Jessie Fauset, Claude McKay, Zora Neale Hurston, James Weldon Johnson, Alain Locke, Omar Al Amiri, Eric D. Walrond and Langston Hughes.
Richard Bruce Nugent who wrote "Smoke, Lilies, and Jade '' is an important contribution, especially in relation to experimental form and LGBT themes in the period.
The Harlem Renaissance helped lay the foundation for the post-World War II protest movement of the Civil Rights Movement. Moreover, many black artists who rose to creative maturity afterward were inspired by this literary movement.
The Renaissance was more than a literary or artistic movement, as it possessed a certain sociological development -- particularly through a new racial consciousness -- through ethnic pride, as seen in the Back to Africa movement led by Marcus Garvey. At the same time, a different expression of ethnic pride, promoted by W.E.B. Du Bois, introduced the notion of the "talented tenth '': the African Americans who were fortunate enough to inherit money or property or obtain a college degree during the transition from Reconstruction to the Jim Crow period of the early twentieth century. These "talented tenth '' were considered the finest examples of the worth of black Americans as a response to the rampant racism of the period. (No particular leadership was assigned to the talented tenth, but they were to be emulated.) In both literature and popular discussion, complex ideas such as Du Bois 's concept of "twoness '' (dualism) were introduced (see The Souls of Black Folk; 1903). Du Bois explored a divided awareness of one 's identity that was a unique critique of the social ramifications of racial consciousness. This exploration was later revived during the Black Pride movement of the early 1970s.
"Sometimes I feel discriminated against, but it does not make me angry. It merely astonishes me. How can anyone deny themselves the pleasure of my company? It 's beyond me. '' - Zora Neale Hurston
The Harlem Renaissance was successful in that it brought the Black experience clearly within the corpus of American cultural history. Not only through an explosion of culture, but on a sociological level, the legacy of the Harlem Renaissance redefined how America, and the world, viewed African Americans. The migration of southern Blacks to the north changed the image of the African American from rural, undereducated peasants to one of urban, cosmopolitan sophistication. This new identity led to a greater social consciousness, and African Americans became players on the world stage, expanding intellectual and social contacts internationally.
The progress -- both symbolic and real -- during this period became a point of reference from which the African - American community gained a spirit of self - determination that provided a growing sense of both Black urbanity and Black militancy, as well as a foundation for the community to build upon for the Civil Rights struggles in the 1950s and 1960s.
The urban setting of rapidly developing Harlem provided a venue for African Americans of all backgrounds to appreciate the variety of Black life and culture. Through this expression, the Harlem Renaissance encouraged the new appreciation of folk roots and culture. For instance, folk materials and spirituals provided a rich source for the artistic and intellectual imagination, which freed Blacks from the establishment of past condition. Through sharing in these cultural experiences, a consciousness sprung forth in the form of a united racial identity.
However, there was some pressure within certain groups of the Harlem Renaissance to adopt sentiments of conservative white America in order to be taken seriously by the mainstream. The result being that queer culture, while far - more accepted in Harlem than most places in the country at the time, was most fully lived out in the smoky dark lights of bars, nightclubs, and cabarets in the city. It was within these venues that the blues music scene boomed, and since it had not yet gained recognition within popular culture, queer artists used it as a way to express themselves honestly. Even though there were factions within the Renaissance that were accepting of queer culture / lifestyles, one could still be arrested for engaging in homosexual acts. Many people, including author Alice Dunbar - Nelson and "The Mother of Blues '' Gertrude "Ma '' Rainey, had husbands but were romantically linked to other women as well. Ma Rainey was known to dress in traditionally male clothing and her blues lyrics often reflected her sexual proclivities for women, which was extremely radical at the time. Ma Rainey was also the first person to introduce blues music into vaudeville. Rainey 's protégé, Bessie Smith was another artist who used the blues as a way to express herself with such lines as "When you see two women walking hand in hand, just look em ' over and try to understand: They 'll go to those parties -- have the lights down low -- only those parties where women can go. ''
Another prominent blues singer was Gladys Bentley, who was known to cross-dress. Bentley was the club owner of Clam House on 133rd Street in Harlem, which was a hub for queer patrons. The Hamilton Lodge in Harlem hosted an annual drag ball that attracted thousands to watch as a couple hundred young men came to dance the night away in drag. Though there were safe havens within Harlem, there were prominent voices such as that of Abyssinian Baptist Church 's minister Adam Clayton who actively campaigned against homosexuality.
The Harlem Renaissance gave birth to the idea of The New Negro. The New Negro movement was an effort to define what it meant to be African - American by African Americans rather than let the degrading stereotypes and caricatures found in black face minstrelsy practices to do so. There was also The Neo-New Negro movement, which not only challenged racial definitions and stereotypes, but also sought to challenge gender roles, normative sexuality, and sexism in America in general. In this respect, the Harlem Renaissance was far ahead of the rest of America in terms of embracing feminism and queer culture. These ideals received some push back as freedom of sexuality, particularly pertaining to women (which during the time in Harlem was known as women - loving women), was seen as confirming the stereotype that black women were loose and lacked sexual discernment. The black bourgeoisie saw this as hampering the cause of black people in America and giving fuel to the fire of racist sentiments around the country. Yet for all of the efforts by both sectors of white and conservative black America, queer culture and artists defined major portions of not only the Harlem Renaissance, but also defined so much of our culture today. Author of "The Black Man 's Burden '', Henry Louis Gates Jr. wrote on this very subject matter, the Harlem Renaissance "was surely as gay as it was black ''.
Many critics point out that the Harlem Renaissance could not escape its history and culture in its attempt to create a new one, or sufficiently separate from the foundational elements of White, European culture. Often Harlem intellectuals, while proclaiming a new racial consciousness, resorted to mimicry of their white counterparts by adopting their clothing, sophisticated manners and etiquette. This "mimicry '' may also be called assimilation, as that is typically what minority members of any social construct must do in order to fit social norms created by that construct 's majority. This could be seen as a reason that the artistic and cultural products of the Harlem Renaissance did not overcome the presence of White - American values, and did not reject these values. In this regard, the creation of the "New Negro '' as the Harlem intellectuals sought, was considered a success.
The Harlem Renaissance appealed to a mixed audience. The literature appealed to the African - American middle class and to whites. Magazines such as The Crisis, a monthly journal of the NAACP, and Opportunity, an official publication of the National Urban League, employed Harlem Renaissance writers on their editorial staffs; published poetry and short stories by black writers; and promoted African - American literature through articles, reviews, and annual literary prizes. As important as these literary outlets were, however, the Renaissance relied heavily on white publishing houses and white - owned magazines. A major accomplishment of the Renaissance was to open the door to mainstream white periodicals and publishing houses, although the relationship between the Renaissance writers and white publishers and audiences created some controversy. W.E.B. Du Bois did not oppose the relationship between black writers and white publishers, but he was critical of works such as Claude McKay 's bestselling novel Home to Harlem (1928) for appealing to the "prurient demand (s) '' of white readers and publishers for portrayals of black "licentiousness ''. Langston Hughes spoke for most of the writers and artists when he wrote in his essay "The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain '' (1926) that black artists intended to express themselves freely, no matter what the black public or white public thought. Hughes in his writings also returned to the theme of racial passing, but during the Harlem Renaissance, he began to explore the topic of homosexuality and homophobia. He began to use disruptive language in his writings. He explored this topic because it was a theme that during this time period was not discussed.
African - American musicians and other performers also played to mixed audiences. Harlem 's cabarets and clubs attracted both Harlem residents and white New Yorkers seeking out Harlem nightlife. Harlem 's famous Cotton Club, where Duke Ellington performed, carried this to an extreme, by providing black entertainment for exclusively white audiences. Ultimately, the more successful black musicians and entertainers who appealed to a mainstream audience moved their performances downtown.
Certain aspects of the Harlem Renaissance were accepted without debate, and without scrutiny. One of these was the future of the "New Negro ''. Artists and intellectuals of the Harlem Renaissance echoed American progressivism in its faith in democratic reform, in its belief in art and literature as agents of change, and in its almost uncritical belief in itself and its future. This progressivist worldview rendered Black intellectuals -- just like their White counterparts -- unprepared for the rude shock of the Great Depression, and the Harlem Renaissance ended abruptly because of naive assumptions about the centrality of culture, unrelated to economic and social realities.
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when did the sea of monsters movie come out | Percy Jackson: Sea of Monsters - wikipedia
Percy Jackson: Sea of Monsters (also known as Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Sea of Monsters) is a 2013 American fantasy adventure film directed by Thor Freudenthal. It is the second installment in the Percy Jackson film series and is loosely based on the novel The Sea of Monsters by Rick Riordan. It is a stand - alone sequel to the 2010 film Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief.
The film continues the adventures of Percy Jackson (Logan Lerman) and his friends, as they search for the Golden Fleece at the Sea of Monsters. Brandon T. Jackson, Alexandra Daddario, and Jake Abel reprise their roles from the previous film, while Nathan Fillion and Anthony Head replace Dylan Neal and Pierce Brosnan. New additions to the cast include Leven Rambin, Douglas Smith, and Stanley Tucci. The film was produced by Michael Barnathan and Karen Rosenfelt. Chris Columbus, who directed Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief, serves as executive producer. The plot centers on Percy and his friends as they journey to the eponymous Sea of Monsters to retrieve the Golden Fleece in order to save the tree (barrier) that protects their home.
The film was released in North America on August 7, 2013, receiving mixed critical reviews and became commercially successful having grossed over $202 million at the box office exceeding its $90 million budget. The film was released on 3D Blu - ray, Blu - ray, and DVD on December 17, 2013.
While in Camp Half - Blood, Percy recounts the story of Thalia and her sacrifice. A young Annabeth, Luke, Grover and Thalia are running to Camp Half - Blood while being pursued by monsters. Thalia sacrifices herself to get the others into the camp, and her father Zeus transforms her into a pine tree, creating a magical border around the camp. Soon a Cyclops passes through the border and is revealed to be Tyson, Percy 's half - brother. The camp is later attacked by a Colchis Bull who breaks through the border and ravages Camp Half - Blood. Percy defeats it with the help of Tyson, Annabeth, and Clarisse. Following this, Luke (who had survived his and Percy 's battle in the previous film) appears and confronts Percy, trying to convert him to his cause. When Percy refuses, Luke disappears.
The campers realize that Thalia 's tree has been poisoned by Luke and they are vulnerable to attacks. Percy visits the Oracle, who tells him of a prophecy of a half - blood of the eldest gods either saving or destroying Olympus. Chiron tells Percy that he is the only living, human half - blood of the eldest gods, so the half - blood in the Prophecy may refer to him. Annabeth and Grover learn about the Golden Fleece, which has the power to heal anything, and propose a quest in which they retrieve the Fleece and use it to heal Thalia 's tree. Mr. D chooses Clarisse to lead the quest, much to Annabeth 's and Percy 's dismay. Percy convinces Grover and Annabeth to accompany him on the quest, and Tyson joins them. Annabeth hails the Chariot of Damnation, and Percy threatens the three drivers (the Graeae) to tell him of his prophecy, giving him coordinates for the Sea of Monsters (the Bermuda Triangle) before ejecting the group from the cab in Washington D.C. because they lack money. While walking down the street, Grover is kidnapped by Chris Rodriguez and taken to Luke. Percy, Annabeth, and Tyson first locate Luke with the help of Hermes, then ride a Hippokampos to his yacht, the Andromeda. Luke reveals his plan to revive Kronos using the Fleece so Olympus will be destroyed. Percy and they are then locked in the brig, though they later escape when Percy uses his ability to manipulate water.
The group is consumed by Charybdis, and they discover Clarisse in the monster 's stomach. Percy and Clarisse work together to escape Charybdis by shooting a hole through its gut, and soon they arrive at Circeland, Polyphemus 's lair. Percy finds Grover, and the five escape Polyphemus, retrieving the fleece and trapping him in his cave. Afterwards, Luke arrives and demands the fleece from Percy, who refuses. Luke shoots a crossbow bolt at Percy, but Tyson takes the bolt in the chest and falls into the water below.
Luke begins reviving Kronos and Annabeth encourages Percy to take leadership. The team escapes captivity, and Percy grapples with Luke over the Fleece, like the prophecy said they would, but Luke easily gains the upper hand. Luke is suddenly thrown away by Tyson, revealed to have survived his wound due to the water healing it, as he is Poseidon 's son. Kronos rises from the sarcophagus and consumes Luke and Grover before battling Percy. Percy realizes that Riptide is the "cursed blade '' of the prophecy and slices Kronos into pieces imprisoning Kronos in the sarcophagus once again, causing him to regurgitate Grover and Luke, the latter landing in Polyphemus 's Lair. Their victory is short lived as Annabeth is stabbed by the Manticore, who is killed in turn by Clarisse and Grover. Annabeth dies in Percy 's arms but is resurrected by the Fleece. Percy then gives the fleece to Clarisse, and they return to Camp Half - Blood. Clarisse places the fleece on Thalia 's tree. The group returns the next day to find Thalia alive, as the fleece returned her to human form.
Percy realizes that Thalia, as a child of Zeus, is another possible child of the prophecy about either preserving or destroying Olympus. The film ends showing the sarcophagus with Kronos 's remains in it glowing, implying that Kronos still has some degree of his power, and is still planning to return.
Reports of a second Percy Jackson film first surfaced in March 2011. On October 12, 2011, a sequel was officially confirmed by 20th Century Fox. Filming for Percy Jackson: Sea of Monsters began on April 16, 2012. The film was originally going to be released on March 15, 2013, but in May 2012, the release date was postponed to August 16, 2013. In April 2013, a final release date was set for August 7, 2013. Filming took place in Robert Burnaby Park in Burnaby, B.C.; however from June 20 to July 22, they filmed in New Orleans for Princess Andromeda scenes, including the former site of Six Flags New Orleans. More filming took place in January 2013. On January 22, 2013, Logan Lerman released a statement on Twitter that read "Last day of shooting on Percy Jackson 2 '' accompanied by a photo of the shooting.
In February 2011, it was revealed in the online subscription magazine Production Weekly that the film was in production. In another source, the lead cast members from the first movie were expected to return for their roles. Chris Columbus would not be returning as director, though he would be producing the movie together with Karen Rosenfelt (producer of the Twilight movie Breaking Dawn). Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski were hired as the scriptwriters. Marc Guggenheim was hired to re-write the screenplay and Alexander and Karaszewski were uncredited. On June 16, 2011, it was announced that Thor Freudenthal would be directing the movie. Shooting began in summer 2012. On October 12, 2011, it was announced that the film would be released on March 26, 2013. On April 6, it was announced that the movie was pushed up to August 7, 2013. On May 31, 2012, it was announced that the movie had been pushed back to August 16, 2013.
On January 13, 2012, a brand new production list was released and stated that filming would take place between April 26, 2012 and July 11, 2012. It was filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia, and New Orleans, Louisiana, with the abandoned Six Flags New Orleans also serving as a filming location. Filming wrapped up in July and then started again in January for reshoots. It wrapped up on January 22, 2013.
Five official stills were released on March 21, 2013. On April 2, the trailer for the film was uploaded on YouTube. A teaser poster was released on April 16. A second trailer was released on May 29, 2013. A third international trailer was released on the June 25, 2013, on YouTube. Since July 19, three TV spots have been released known as "Story '', "Cast '' and "Family ''. A clip from the film was released on the internet on July 23, where it was later uploaded onto YouTube. Later many more new clips were released.
Smart & Final stores in California, Arizona, and Nevada offered Hollywood Movie Money Certificate good for one free movie ticket with the purchase of two First Street Bakery items as part of the movie promotion.
The film received mixed reviews. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 41 % approval rating with an average rating of 5.1 / 10 based on 111 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "It 's pretty and packed with action; unfortunately, Percy Jackson: Sea of Monsters is also waterlogged with characters and plots that ca n't help but feel derivative. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 based on reviews from critics, the film has a score of 39 based on 33 collected reviews, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''.
Jim Vejvoda of IGN rated the movie a 6 out of 10: "There are worse sequels than the CG - heavy Percy Jackson: Sea of Monsters, but it 's just such overly familiar territory. '' Gary Goldstein of the Los Angeles Times gave the film a positive review, saying that "tweens and young teens should be sufficiently distracted by the movie 's brisk pace and heroic mayhem -- if they 're not too unnerved by its at times nightmarish imagery ''. James Rocchi of ScreenCrush wrote that the film "is hardly the stuff of legend, but by keeping the plot straightforward and the storytelling clean, it 's an odyssey the intended young audience will be glad to take. '' Marsha McCreadie on RogerEbert.com rated the film two and a half stars out of four, calling it "a gentler - spirited, less flashy enterprise, though it still presents a natural world that can morph at the whim of a god. ''
Andy Webster of The New York Times commented: "Sea of Monsters is diverting enough -- the director, Thor Freudenthal... is savvy with effects and keeps his young cast on point -- but it does n't begin to approach the biting adolescent tension of the Harry Potter movies. '' However, Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter criticized the film as "lack (ing) the energetic zip of its predecessor, '' while Bruce Ingram of Chicago Sun - Times opined that "faithful fans of the novels will be unhappy with the liberties taken with the adaptation like they were with the first film. '' Connie Ogle of The Miami Herald wrote, "(Are) these characters merely prisoners -- much like the audience -- of a script so uninspired that it demands their stupidity? '' Josh Bell of Las Vegas Weekly lambasted the series as a whole as "a thoroughly second - rate franchise... with movies like Sea of Monsters, it can probably continue in acceptable mediocrity for years to come ''.
Percy Jackson: Sea of Monsters grossed an $68,559,554 in North America and $133,688,197 internationally for a worldwide total of $202,247,751.
The film grossed $5.4 million on its opening day, taking the number No. 2 spot at the domestic box office. During its extended five - day opening weekend the film debuted at the No. 4 spot and grossed $23,258,113.
"My Songs Know What You Did in the Dark (Light Em Up) '' by Fall Out Boy and "Cameo Lover '' by Kimbra were featured in the movie but are unavailable on the soundtrack.
The film was released on 3D Blu - ray, Blu - ray, and DVD on December 17, 2013. The film was additionally released for Digital HD download on December 3.
On March 25, 2014, Lerman said that a sequel to Sea of Monsters would not be made. However, a report of March 31, 2014 stated "Logan Lerman has said Percy Jackson 3 could still go ahead '' and that the previous report "was taken out of context ''. At the 2015 Santa Barbara International Film Festival, Lerman said that while he finds the Percy Jackson films fun to make, he has not heard anything about the production of a third film and expressed concern that he and his co-stars were growing too old for their parts.
In December 2017, The Walt Disney Company agreed to a 52.4 - billion - dollar deal to acquire 21st Century Fox, including the film rights for Percy Jackson.
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what are the highest mountains in each state of australia | List of mountains in Australia - Wikipedia
This is a list of mountains in Australia.
The following is a list of mountains and prominent hills in the Australian Capital Territory in order, from the highest peak to the lowest peak, for those mountains and hills with an elevation above 750 metres (2,460 ft) AHD:
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who sings the song you take my breath away | You Take My Breath Away (Rex Smith song) - Wikipedia
"You Take My Breath Away '' is the 1979 debut single by singer - actor Rex Smith and the first release from his third studio album Sooner or Later which is also featured in the 1979 made - for - television film of the same title starring Smith and Denise Miller. It was produced by Charles Calello and Stephen Lawrence, and written by Lawrence and Bruce Hart.
The song reached number ten on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 in 1979 for two weeks (dated on June 23) and spent two weeks at number seven on the Cash Box Top 100. It also peaked at number 11 on the Adult Contemporary chart. The song was certified Gold. In Canada, "You Take My Breath Away '' reached as high as number three.
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when did little house on the prairie end | Little House on the Prairie (TV series) - wikipedia
Little House on the Prairie (known as Little House: A New Beginning in its final season) is an American western drama television series, starring Michael Landon, Melissa Gilbert, Karen Grassle, and Melissa Sue Anderson, about a family living on a farm in Walnut Grove, Minnesota, in the 1870s and 1880s. The show is an adaptation of Laura Ingalls Wilder 's best - selling series of Little House books. Television producer and NBC executive Ed Friendly became aware of the story in the early 1970s. He asked Michael Landon to direct the pilot movie. Landon agreed on the condition that he could also play Charles Ingalls.
The regular series was preceded by the two - hour pilot movie, which first aired on March 30, 1974. The series premiered on the NBC network on September 11, 1974, and last aired on May 10, 1982. During the 1982 -- 83 television season, with the departure of Landon and Grassle, the series was broadcast with the new title Little House: A New Beginning.
In 1997, TV Guide ranked the two - part episode "I 'll Be Waving As You Drive Away '' at 97 on its 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time list.
A film adaptation of the pilot movie is currently underway at Paramount Pictures, with Sean Durkin as the director, Scott Rudin as the producer, and Abi Morgan as the screenwriter.
Based on the autobiographical "Little House '' stories, episodes of Little House on the Prairie usually concern members of the Ingalls family, who live on a small farm near the village of Walnut Grove, Minnesota. Many episodes concern the maturation of the family 's second daughter, Laura. However, episodes also focus on other family and community members, providing a depiction of life in a small agrarian community in late nineteenth - century America. The show 's central characters are Charles Ingalls (farmer and mill worker), his wife Caroline, and their four daughters, Mary, Laura, Carrie, and Grace, though the family expands with the addition of adopted son Albert in season five and adopted siblings Cassandra and James at the end of season seven.
Other essential characters include the Oleson family: Nels, proprietor of the town 's general store, Oleson 's Mercantile; his malicious, gossiping wife, Harriet, who runs the Mercantile with him; and their two children, Nellie and Willie, and later, their adopted daughter, Nancy; Isaiah Edwards, Grace Snider Edwards and their three adopted children; the Garvey family, Jonathan, Alice, and Andy; Rev. Robert Alden; Lars Hanson, the town 's founder and proprietor of the town 's mill; and Dr. Hiram Baker, the town 's physician. Teacher - turned - lawyer Adam Kendall is introduced at the end of season four and later weds Mary Ingalls, and Almanzo Wilder is introduced in season six and later weds Laura Ingalls.
Melissa Gilbert has the most appearances of the series, a total of 190 of the 204 episodes. Michael Landon appeared in all but four episodes of seasons one through eight, but departed from being a regular part of the cast when the show was retooled as Little House: A New Beginning (season nine).
Many actors, who were either well - known or went on to become famous, guest - starred on the show.
Of the 204 episodes, Michael Landon directed the largest number at 87; producer William F. Claxton handled the majority of the remaining shows at 68, while co-star Victor French helmed 18. Maury Dexter (who was often an assistant director) and Leo Penn directed the remaining episodes at 21 and 3 episodes respectively.
Interior shots were filmed at Paramount studios in Los Angeles, while exteriors were largely filmed at the nearby Big Sky Ranch in Simi Valley, where the town of Walnut Grove had been constructed. Many other filming locations were also used during the course of the series including Old Tucson Studios and various locations in Sonora, California. Many of the exterior shots of Walnut Grove and the other Minnesota towns shown in the series have noticeable mountain terrain in the background of the scenes. In actuality the southern Minnesota landscape, where the show is supposed to take place, there are no tall mountains.
The series theme song was titled The Little House and was written and conducted by David Rose. The ending theme music, also written by Rose, originally appeared as a piece of incidental music in a later - season episode of Michael Landon 's previous long - running series, Bonanza.
Little House explored many different themes including frequently portrayed ones of adoption, alcoholism, faith, poverty, blindness, and prejudice of all types including racism. Some plots also include subjects such as drug addiction (i.e. morphine), leukemia, child abuse, and even rape. Although predominantly a drama, the program has many lighthearted and comedic moments as well.
Some of the episodes written by Michael Landon were recycled storylines from ones that he had written for Bonanza. Season two 's "A Matter of Faith '' was based on the Bonanza episode "A Matter of Circumstance ''; season five 's "Someone Please Love Me '' was based on the Bonanza episode "A Dream To Dream ''; season seven 's "The Silent Cry '' was based on the Bonanza episode "The Sound of Sadness ''; season eight 's "He Was Only Twelve '' was based on the Bonanza episode "He Was Only Seven ''; and season nine 's "Little Lou '' was based on the Bonanza episode "It 's A Small World ''.
When Michael Landon decided to leave the show (though he stayed on as executive producer and occasional writer and director), season nine was renamed, the focus was put on the characters of Laura and Almanzo, and more characters were added to the cast. A new family, the Carters (Stan Ivar as John, Pamela Roylance as Sarah, Lindsay Kennedy as older son Jeb, and David Friedman as younger son Jason), move into the Ingalls house. Meanwhile, Almanzo and Laura take in their niece, Jenny Wilder, when Almanzo 's brother dies and raise her alongside their daughter, Rose. The Wilders appear prominently in some episodes, while in others they appear only in early scenes used to introduce the story or its characters. The explanation given for the original characters ' absence was that they moved to Burr Oak, Iowa, to pursue a promising life. The show lost viewers, and this version of the series was canceled after one season. However, the show lived on for another 1.5 years in movie format.
Three made - for - television post-series movies followed during the 1983 - 84 television season: Little House: A Look Back to Yesterday (1983), Little House: The Last Farewell (1984), and Little House: Bless All the Dear Children (1984).
In The Last Farewell, Charles and Caroline decide to visit Walnut Grove. They learn that a railroad tycoon actually holds the deed to the township, and he wants to take it over for his own financial gain. Despite their best efforts, the townspeople are unable to drive the businessman away. At a town meeting, John Carter offers a supply of explosives that he has. Each man takes turn blowing up his own building in an emotional farewell to the town.
When asked why the set was blown up, the show 's producer, Kent McCray, said that when the series started, he made an agreement with the property owners that at the end of the series he would put the acreage back to its original state. When the production crew were estimating the cost of dismantling all the buildings, Michael Landon thought for a while and said, "What if we blow up the town? That would get the buildings all in pieces and you can bring in your equipment to pick up the debris and cart it away. '' He then said that he would write it where they blow up all the buildings, except for the little house and the church. Both McCray and Landon wept as the town blew up.
Bless All the Dear Children was filmed prior to The Last Farewell, but ended up being the last of the three movies to air. Given its Christmas - related content, NBC opted to air it during the following Christmas season.
Two other Little House movies were made in conjunction with the Landon series: the 1974 pilot for the program and The Little House Years (1979), a Thanksgiving special / clip show that aired in the middle of season six.
For the first two seasons, the show was aired on Wednesday nights at 8pm ET / 7pm CT, to moderate ratings. In 1976, the series became a Monday night staple on NBC; after the move, it remained in the top 30 for the rest of its run.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, La Casa de la Pradera (Little House on the Prairie) was one of Spanish Television 's most popular series. In 1976 Karen Grassle (Caroline Quiner Ingalls) won Spanish television 's prestigious TP de Oro award for best foreign actress, and the series itself won for best foreign series; Melissa Sue Anderson (Mary Ingalls) won the TP de Oro in 1980 thanks in part to the enhanced profile she received as a result of her visit to Spain and her appearance on Spanish Television 's 625 Lineas program in early 1979. The continued popularity of the show led to the appearance of Katherine MacGregor (Harriet Oleson) on 625 Lineas and Ding Dong in 1980.
The show remains popular in syndicated reruns and has been on the air in the U.S. continuously since its original run. In addition to airing on local stations, it has been airing multiple times each day on INSP and Hallmark Channel. In the past, it has aired on TV Land and TBS. As of September 19, 2016, the show is currently airing on COZI TV four times daily, with the exception of Seasons eight and nine.
In the U.S., television syndication rights are currently owned by CBS Television Distribution. Originally, NBC licensed these rights to Worldvision Enterprises, since networks could not own syndication arms at the time. As a result of corporate changes, Paramount Domestic Television and CBS Paramount Domestic Television would inherit the rights via Spelling Entertainment, finally passing to CTD in 2007. In Canada, reruns of the series began airing weeknights on CTS, a Christian - based network, as of September 1, 2008.
Because of its historical context and its connection to the book series, it is deemed acceptable for use by the FCC to meet federal E / I programming guidelines. The show is typically stripped (run five days a week) in syndication, which is enough to completely cover a TV station 's E / I requirements and more.
NBC owns ancillary rights and thus is the worldwide licensor for DVD rights as well. Sister company NBC Universal International Television distributes the series internationally.
The entire series has been released on standard - definition DVD, high - definition Blu - ray, and on both standard and high - definition Digital Copy. In addition, some individual episodes have been released on DVD and VHS. Starting with Season 7, the Blu - ray 's are only available exclusively through Amazon.com.
There are multiple DVD sets which are noticeably different from one another. The original DVD sets sold in the U.S. and Canada were released under license from NBCUniversal by Imavision Distribution, a company based in Quebec. A majority of the episodes in the original North American DVD versions had scenes cut from the episodes -- these were derived from the syndicated television versions by Worldvision Enterprises, the series ' former distributor. Other episodes were time - compressed and are NTSC - converted video prints from UK PAL masters, while others were derived from 16MM syndication prints, also from Worldvision. Only a handful of episodes in the original sets were in their original uncut versions. The episodes in these original sets are also known to have relatively poor video quality, such as tracking lines, as well as audio problems, though the quality issues are not as pronounced in the first few seasons as they are in the later seasons. The first three seasons of the old sets notably are also missing closed - captioning.
These original North American DVD sets included interviews with former cast members Alison Arngrim, Dabbs Greer and Dean Butler. For the original movies & complete series sets, Imavision provided numerous additional special features including additional interviews with many of the cast members such as Melissa Gilbert and Melissa Sue Anderson and specials highlighting Michael Landon, the casting of the show, and more. Imavision also released a French - language version of the series. Both versions are in NTSC color and coded for all regions. Later copies of these original sets were distributed by Lionsgate Home Entertainment following their acquisition of Imavision, but these should not be confused with the Lionsgate re-releases described below. The DVD sets sold in the United Kingdom were released by Universal Playback (a Universal Studios Home Entertainment label); this version is in PAL color and coded for region 2. Unlike the original North American DVD sets, the UK version contains mostly uncut episodes.
In 2014, Lionsgate Home Entertainment began re-releasing the series in North America on DVD, and also for the first time, in high definition on Blu - ray, as well as Digital Copy through providers such as Vudu and Amazon Video. These new releases, which are stated to come direct from the original broadcast masters, contain mostly uncut episodes and are remastered to have superior picture and sound. The Blu - rays, with their high bitrate, high definition 1080p picture (as opposed to standard definition picture on the DVDs) currently provide the best viewing experience of the show that is commercially available. The first six seasons on Blu - ray notably also contain lossless audio as opposed to the compressed audio on the DVDs. Starting with Season 7, Lionsgate chose to only release the remaining Blu - ray 's exclusively through Amazon.com. In the process, they made several other changes to the Blu - ray 's including compressing the audio (though with a relatively high bitrate), simplifying the on - screen disc menus, and eliminating the slipcovers and included Digital Copy codes that had been present for the previous seasons.
The newer Lionsgate remastered sets all contain English, French, and Spanish audio as well as English subtitles. They do not include the special features present on the earlier non-remastered releases, but rather seasons 1 through 6 each contain a roughly 15 minute segment of a special called "The Little House Phenomenon ''. Season 1 also contains the original Pilot movie. Season 7 contains no special features. Seasons 8 & 9 contain the three post-series movie specials as extras, with "Look Back to Yesterday '' and "The Last Farewell '' appearing on Season 8, and "Bless All The Dear Children '' appearing on Season 9. Some fans of the show have been perplexed as to why Lionsgate did this, both because all of the movies take place after the Season 9 timeline, and also because they included "The Last Farewell '' on Season 8 when that is considered by fans to be the end to the show given its significant and memorable ending. Lionsgate 's decision as to which movies to include on which season appears to have been based on broadcast order rather than production order, since "Bless All The Dear Children '' was the last episode broadcast even though "The Last Farewell '' was the last one produced. None of the available releases of the series contain "Little House Years '', which was a three - hour Thanksgiving special aired during Season 6 that largely consisted of flashback clips.
While the re-releases are substantially better than what was previously available, there are a handful of episodes that still were released in edited form or contain other problems. The most significant of these, affecting all formats of the remastered releases, include over 3 minutes missing from the Season 7 episode, "Divorce, Walnut Grove Style, '' almost 4 minutes missing from Season 9 's "Home Again, '' and extremely low volume of the townspeoples ' singing on the English audio of the last scene of the final movie, "The Last Farewell. ''
In October 2012, Sony Pictures announced that a film based on the series 's pilot is under development, with Scott Rudin as the producer. However, the film was later on turnaround to Paramount Pictures in 2016, where the film resumed development. It has Sean Durkin as the director and Abi Morgan as the screenwriter, although Rudin is still the film 's producer. No actors have been selected or joined the cast yet.
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where is the toll on the m6 ireland | M6 motorway (Ireland) - wikipedia
The M6 motorway (Irish: Mótarbhealach M6) is a motorway in Ireland, which runs (together with the M4) from Dublin to Galway. The M6 extends from its junction with the M4 at Kinnegad all the way west to the outskirts of Galway City, but the Athlone bypass and the approach to Galway city - while of dual carriageway standard - have not been designated motorway and are still signed as N6. The motorway was officially completed and opened to traffic on 18 December 2009, and was the first city - to - city direct major inter-urban route to be completed in Ireland. The M6 and M4, which form the Galway - Dublin route, consist of a grade - separated 2 + 2 dual carriageway road with a top speed limit of 120 km / h. At approximately 144 km (90 mi), the M6 is the third longest motorway in the state.
Near Kinnegad, the M6 motorway diverges from the M4 at a restricted access junction. From here it proceeds westward, passing through counties Westmeath, Offaly, Roscommon and Galway before terminating just east of Galway City near Doughiska.
The present - day M6 was constructed in five stages between 2005 and late 2009. Some of the sections which now form part of the M6 were initially opened as dual - carriageway and previously formed part of the N6, while other sections were opened as motorway. In chronological order, the various sections opened as follows (status on opening in brackets):
From 24 September 2008, motorway regulations were applied from Kinnegad to the eastern end of the Athlone bypass. The Kinnegad - Athlone scheme was signed as a motorway (and numbered "M6 ''). Its road markings were already appropriate to a motorway prior to the change in designation coming into effect; however, motorway regulations were not in force and the speed limit was 100 km / h until 24 September of that year.
Construction of this 19 - km section of road commenced on 3 September 2007 and opened to traffic on 23 July 2009. It was built as a grade separated HQDC to motorway standard and was redesignated a motorway on 28 August 2009. Prior to this date, the scheme was subject to a reduced speed limit of 100 km / h. The central barrier on this road is a traditional metal barrier rather than the Concrete step barriers, which have become standard on all new dual - carriageways in Ireland and UK in recent years. The Athlone to Ballinasloe scheme was built by SIAC - Willis JV.
Construction of this 56 - km section of M6 began in 2007. This section lies between the town of Ballinasloe and Galway City, running between junctions 14 and 20 on the M6 corridor. The road is a tolled Public - private partnership scheme, and opened under motorway restrictions. The PPP contract was awarded to N6 Concession Limited in April 2007 which comprised FCC Construction S.A. and Itinere Infraestructuras (both major companies from Spain) and P.J. Hegarty & Sons who are a leading Irish Contractor. The contract was signed on the 4th April 2007 for 30 years from that date. The construction took approximately 3 years to be completed and the N6 Concessions Limited will be responsible for collection of tolls for a period of approximately 27 years. This scheme was a matter of some controversy at its planning stage. The environmental agency An Taisce claimed that the National Roads Authority 's planned route would be "particularly destructive '' in passing the site of the 17th - century Battle of Aughrim The decision to toll the route is also controversial, as the M4 motorway to / from Dublin, which connects with the N6 / M6 route, is also tolled. This is effect meant that motorists would have to pay two tolls when driving between Dublin and Galway. It was pointed out, however, that this corresponds with the Authority 's plan to have two tolls on each of the main interurban routes. The new section of N6 / M6 between Ballinasloe and Galway was also quite unusual in another way: Unlike most national road upgrade projects in Ireland, the new route differed significantly from that of the original N6. The new route runs roughly east - west between the two destinations, rather than dipping south to Loughrea, as the former alignment N6 did. The N65 was extended from Loughrea to the new M6 was constructed to cater for this change. As an emergency measure to restore access from Dublin to Galway after severe flooding at Craughwell on Friday 20 November 2009, an incomplete section of this scheme between Loughrea and Galway Clinic (Doughiska) was opened temporarily.
Until 2011 there were two junction numbering schemes on the N6 route. The M6 junction numbers below are used on the entire length of the road. The Athlone bypass had a separate numbering scheme (J1 -- J6) but was renumbered to its current form (J8 -- J13) following the upgrade of the bypass in 2011.
- Dublin, Kinnegad, Leixlip, Lucan
Although the M6 is a tolled motorway, there is only a single toll plaza, located at Cappataggle, between junctions 15 Ballinasloe West & 16 Loughrea. Hence there is no toll payable to travel between the eastern end of the motorway and Ballinasloe and also between Loughrea and the western end at Galway city. Tolls may be paid by cash, credit card or through the use of an electronic tag.
At present, the M6 motorway leads into the non-motorway Athlone bypass and continues again west of the bypass to Galway. Subject to improvements, the Athlone Bypass may yet come under motorway regulations and be incorporated into the rest of the M6 route.
Transport Infrastructure Ireland (TII) has planned the construction Motorway Service Areas at approximately 60 kilometre intervals along each of Ireland 's interurban routes. Under this plan, the M6 will have one such area. It will be located just east of Athlone (see here, p. 25). The EIS for the M6 Athlone Motorway Service Area is now available at TII 's website (scroll down to the bottom here).
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which bank has highest casa ratio in india | CASA ratio - Wikipedia
CASA ratio stands for current and savings account ratio. CASA ratio of a bank is the ratio of deposits in current and saving accounts to total deposits. A higher CASA ratio indicates a lower cost of funds, because banks do not usually give any interests on current account deposits and the interest on saving accounts is usually very low 3 - 4 %. If a large part of a bank 's deposits comes from these funds, it means that the bank is getting those funds at a relative lower cost. It is generally understood that a higher CASA ratio leads to higher net interest margin. In India, it is used as one of the metrics to assess the profitability of a bank.
C A S A R a t i o = (C A S A D e p o s i t T o t a l D e p o s i t s) (\ displaystyle (CASARatio) = \ left ((\ frac (CASADeposit) (TotalDeposits)) \ right))
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what event prompted the construction of a new navy | History of the United States Navy - wikipedia
The history of the United States Navy divides into two major periods: the "Old Navy '', a small but respected force of sailing ships that was also notable for innovation in the use of ironclads during the American Civil War, and the "New Navy '', the result of a modernization effort that began in the 1880s and made it the largest in the world by the 1920s.
The United States Navy claims 13 October 1775 as the date of its official establishment, when the Second Continental Congress passed a resolution creating the Continental Navy. With the end of the American Revolutionary War, the Continental Navy was disbanded. Under first President George Washington threats to American merchant shipping by Barbary pirates from four North African Muslim States, in the Mediterranean, led to the Naval Act of 1794, which created a permanent standing U.S. Navy. The original six frigates were authorized as part of the Act. Over the next 20 years, the Navy fought the French Republic Navy in the Quasi-War (1798 -- 99), Barbary states in the First and Second Barbary Wars, and the British in the War of 1812. After the War of 1812, the U.S. Navy was at peace until the Mexican -- American War in 1846, and served to combat piracy in the Mediterranean and Caribbean seas, as well fighting the slave trade off the coast of West Africa. In 1845, the Naval Academy was founded at old Fort Severn at Annapolis, Maryland by the Chesapeake Bay. In 1861, the American Civil War began and the U.S. Navy fought the small Confederate States Navy with both sailing ships and new revolutionary ironclad ships while forming a blockade that shut down the Confederacy 's civilian coastal shipping. After the Civil War, most of its ships were laid up in reserve, and by 1878, the Navy was just 6,000 men.
In 1882, the U.S. Navy consisted of many outdated ship designs. Over the next decade, Congress approved building multiple modern steel - hulled armored cruisers and battleships, and by around the start of the 20th century had moved from twelfth place in 1870 to fifth place in terms of numbers of ships. After winning two major battles during the 1898 Spanish -- American War, the American Navy continued to build more ships, and by the end of World War I had more men and women in uniform than the British Royal Navy. The Washington Naval Conference of 1921 recognized the Navy as equal in capital ship size to the Royal Navy, and during the 1920s and 1930s, the Navy built several aircraft carriers and battleships. The Navy was drawn into World War II after the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, and over the next four years fought many historic battles including the Battle of the Coral Sea, the Battle of Midway, multiple naval battles during the Guadalcanal Campaign, and the largest naval battle in history, the Battle of Leyte Gulf. Much of the Navy 's activity concerned the support of landings, not only with the "island - hopping '' campaign in the Pacific, but also with the European landings. When the Japanese surrendered, a large flotilla entered Tokyo Bay to witness the formal ceremony conducted on the battleship Missouri, on which officials from the Japanese government signed the Japanese Instrument of Surrender. By the end of the war, the Navy had over 1,600 warships.
After World War II ended, the U.S. Navy entered the 45 year long Cold War and participated in the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the First Persian Gulf War, and the Second Persian Gulf War / Iraq War. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990 - 91, the Soviet Red Navy fell apart, which made the United States the world 's undisputed naval superpower. Nuclear power and ballistic missile technology led to new ship propulsion and weapon systems, which were used in the Nimitz - class aircraft carriers and Ohio - class submarines. By 1978, the number of ships had dwindled to less than 400, many of which were from World War II, which prompted Ronald Reagan to institute a program for a modern, 600 - ship Navy. Today, the United States is the world 's undisputed naval superpower, with the ability to engage and project power in two simultaneous limited wars along separate fronts. In March 2007, the U.S. Navy reached its smallest fleet size, with 274 ships, since World War I. Former U.S. Navy admirals who head the U.S. Naval Institute have raised concerns about what they see as the ability to respond to ' aggressive moves by Iran and China. '
The Navy was rooted in the American seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains and shipbuilders in the colonial era. During the Revolution, several states operated their own navies. On 12 June 1775, the Rhode Island General Assembly passed a resolution creating a navy for the colony of Rhode Island. The same day, Governor Nicholas Cooke signed orders addressed to Captain Abraham Whipple, commander of the sloop Katy, and commodore of the armed vessels employed by the government.
The first formal movement for the creation of a Continental navy came from Rhode Island, because its merchants ' widespread smuggling activities had been severely harassed by British frigates. On 26 August 1775, Rhode Island passed a resolution that there be a single Continental fleet funded by the Continental Congress. The resolution was introduced in the Continental Congress on 3 October 1775, but was tabled. In the meantime, George Washington had begun to acquire ships, starting with the schooner USS Hannah that was paid for out of Washington 's own pocket. Hannah was commissioned and launched on 5 September 1775, from the port of Marblehead, Massachusetts.
The US Navy recognizes 13 October 1775 as the date of its official establishment -- the date of the passage of the resolution of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania that created the Continental Navy. On this day, Congress authorized the purchase of two vessels to be armed for a cruise against British merchant ships. Congress on 13 December 1775, authorized the building of thirteen frigates within the next three months, five ships of 32 guns, five with 28 guns and three with 24 guns.
On Lake Champlain, Benedict Arnold ordered the construction of 12 Navy vessels to slow down the British fleet that was invading New York from Canada. The British fleet did destroy Arnold 's fleet, but the U.S. fleet managed to slow down the British after a two - day battle, known as the Battle of Valcour Island, and managed to slow the progression of the British Army. By mid-1776, a number of ships, ranging up to and including the thirteen frigates approved by Congress, were under construction, but their effectiveness was limited; they were completely outmatched by the mighty Royal Navy, and nearly all were captured or sunk by 1781.
Privateers had some success, with 1,697 letters of marque being issued by Congress. Individual states, American agents in Europe and in the Caribbean also issued commissions; taking duplications into account more than 2,000 commissions were issued by the various authorities. Over 2,200 British ships were taken by Yankee privateers, amounting to almost $66 million, a significant sum at the time.
One particularly notable American naval hero of the Revolution was John Paul Jones, who in his famous voyage around the British Isles defeated the British ship Serapis (1779) in the Battle of Flamborough Head. Partway through the battle, with the rigging of the two ships entangled, and several guns of Jones ' ship Bonhomme Richard (1765) out of action, the captain of Serapis asked Jones if he had struck his colors, to which Jones has been quoted as replying, "I have not yet begun to fight! ''
France officially entered the war on 17 June 1778, and the ships of the French Navy sent to the Western Hemisphere spent most of the year in the West Indies, and only sailed near the Thirteen Colonies during the Caribbean hurricane season from July until November. The first French fleet attempted landings in New York and Rhode Island, but ultimately failed to engage British forces during 1778. In 1779, a fleet commanded by Vice Admiral Charles Henri, comte d'Estaing assisted American forces attempting to recapture Savvanah, Georgia.
In 1780, a fleet with 6,000 troops commanded by Lieutenant General Jean - Baptiste, comte de Rochambeau landed at Newport, Rhode Island, and shortly afterwards the fleet was blockaded by the British. In early 1781, Washington and de Rochambeau planned an attack against the British in the Chesapeake Bay area to coordinate with the arrival of a large fleet commanded by Vice Admiral François, comte de Grasse. Successfully deceiving the British that an attack was planned in New York, Washington and de Rochambeau marched to Virginia, and de Grasse began landing forces near Yorktown, Virginia. On 5 September 1781 a major naval action was fought by de Grasse and the British at the Battle of the Virginia Capes, ending with the French fleet in control of the Chesapeake Bay. The U.S. Navy continued to interdict British supply ships until peace was finally declared in late 1783.
The Revolutionary War was ended by the Treaty of Paris in 1783, and by 1785 the Continental Navy was disbanded and the remaining ships were sold. The frigate Alliance, which had fired the last shots of the American Revolutionary War, was also the last ship in the Navy. A faction within Congress wanted to keep the ship, but the new nation did not have the funds to keep her in service. Other than a general lack of money, factors for the disarmament of the navy were the loose confederation of the states, a change of goals from war to peace, and more domestic and fewer foreign interests.
After the American Revolutionary War, the brand - new United States struggled to stay financially afloat. National income was desperately needed and most came from tariffs on imported goods. Because of rampant smuggling, the need was immediate for strong enforcement of tariff laws. On 4 August 1790 the United States Congress, urged on by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, created the Revenue - Marine, the forerunner for the United States Coast Guard, to enforce the tariff and all other maritime laws. Ten cutters were initially ordered. Between 1790 and 1797 when the Navy Department was created, the Revenue - Marine was the only armed maritime service for the United States.
American merchant shipping had been protected by the British Navy, and as a consequence of the Treaty of Paris and the disarmament of the Continental Navy, the United States no longer had any protection for its ships from pirates. The fledgling nation did not have the funds to pay annual tribute to the Barbary states, so their ships were vulnerable for capture after 1785. By 1789, the new Constitution of the United States authorized Congress to create a navy, but during George Washington 's first term (1787 -- 1793) little was done to rearm the navy. In 1793, the French Revolutionary Wars between Great Britain and France began, and a truce negotiated between Portugal and Algiers ended Portugal 's blockade of the Strait of Gibraltar which had kept the Barbary pirates in the Mediterranean. Soon after, the pirates sailed into the Atlantic, and captured 11 American merchant ships and more than a hundred seamen.
In reaction to the seizure of the American vessels, Congress debated and approved the Naval Act of 1794, which authorized the building of six frigates, four of 44 guns and two of 36 guns. Supporters were mostly from the northern states and the coastal regions, who argued the Navy would result in savings in insurance and ransom payments, while opponents from southern states and inland regions thought a navy was not worth the expense and would drive the United States into more costly wars.
After the passage of the Naval Act of 1794, work began on the construction of the six frigates: USS United States, President, Constellation, Chesapeake, Congress, and Constitution. Constitution, launched in 1797 and the most famous of the six, was nicknamed "Old Ironsides '' (like the earlier HMS Britannia) and, thanks to the efforts of Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., is still in existence today, anchored in Boston harbor. Soon after the bill was passed, Congress authorized $800,000 to obtain a treaty with the Algerians and ransom the captives, triggering an amendment of the Act which would halt the construction of ships if peace was declared. After considerable debate, three of the six frigates were authorized to be completed: United States, Constitution and Constellation. However, the first naval vessel to sail was USS Ganges, on 24 May 1798.
At the same time, tensions between the U.S. and France developed into the Quasi-War, which originated from the Treaty of Alliance (1778) that had brought the French into the Revolutionary War. The United States preferred to take a position of neutrality in the conflicts between France and Britain, but this put the nation at odds with both Britain and France. After the Jay Treaty was authorized with Great Britain in 1794, France began to side against the United States and by 1797 they had seized over 300 American vessels. The newly inaugurated President John Adams took steps to deal with the crisis, working with Congress to finish the three almost - completed frigates, approving funds to build the other three, and attempting to negotiate an agreement similar to the Jay Treaty with France. The XYZ Affair originated with a report distributed by Adams where alleged French agents were identified by the letters X, Y, and Z who informed the delegation a bribe must be paid before the diplomats could meet with the foreign minister, and the resulting scandal increased popular support in the country for a war with France. Concerns about the War Department 's ability to manage a navy led to the creation of the Department of the Navy, which was established on 30 April 1798.
The war with France was fought almost entirely at sea, mostly between privateers and merchant ships. The first victory for the United States Navy was on 7 July 1798 when USS Delaware captured the French privateer Le Croyable, and the first victory over an enemy warship was on 9 February 1799 when the frigate Constellation captured the French frigate L'Insurgente. By the end of 1800, peace with France had been declared, and in 1801, to prevent a second disarmament of the Navy, the outgoing Federalist administration rushed through Congress an act authorizing a peacetime navy for the first time, which limited the navy to six active frigates and seven in ordinary, as well as 45 officers and 150 midshipmen. The remainder of the ships in service were sold and the dismissed officers were given four months pay.
The problems with the Barbary states had never gone away, and on 10 May 1801 the Tripolitans declared war on the United States by chopping down the flag in front of the American Embassy, which began the First Barbary War. USS Philadelphia was captured by the Moors, but then set on fire in an American raid led by Stephen Decatur. The Marines invaded the "shores of Tripoli '' in 1805, capturing the city of Derna, the first time the U.S. flag ever flew over a foreign conquest. This act was enough to induce the Barbary rulers to sign peace treaties. Subsequently, the Navy was greatly reduced for reasons of economy, and instead of regular ships, many gunboats were built, intended for coastal use only. This policy proved completely ineffective within a decade.
President Thomas Jefferson and his Republican party opposed a strong navy, arguing that small gunboats in the major harbors were all the nation needed to defend itself. They proved useless in wartime.
The Royal Navy continued to illegally press American sailors into the Royal Navy; an estimated 10,000 sailors between 1799 and 1812. In 1807, in the Chesapeake - Leopard Affair, HMS Leopard demanded that USS Chesapeake submit to an inspection, ostensibly looking for British citizens but in reality looking for any suitable sailors to press into the Royal Navy. Leopard severely damaged Chesapeake when she refused. The most violent of many such encounters, the affair further fueled the tensions and in June 1812 the U.S. declared war on Britain.
Much of the war was expected to be fought at sea; and within an hour of the announcement of war, the diminutive American navy set forth to do battle with an opponent outnumbering it 50 - to - 1. After two months, USS Constitution sank HMS Guerriere; Guerriere 's crew were most dismayed to see their cannonballs bouncing off the Constitution 's unusually strong live oak hull, giving her the enduring nickname of "Old Ironsides ''. On 29 December 1812 Constitution defeated HMS Java off the coast of Brazil and Java was burned after the Americans determined she could not be salvaged. On 25 October 1812, USS United States captured HMS Macedonian; after the battle Macedonian was captured and entered into American service. In 1813, USS Essex commenced a very fruitful raiding venture into the South Pacific, preying upon the British merchant and whaling industry. The Essex was already known for her capture of HMS Alert and a British transport the previous year, and gained further success capturing 15 British merchantmen / whalers. The British finally took action, dispatching HMS Cherub and HMS Phoebe to stop the Essex. After violating Chile 's neutrality, the British captured the Essex in the Battle of Valparaíso.
The capture of the three British frigates led the British to deploy more vessels on the American seaboard to tighten the blockade. On 1 June 1813, off Boston Harbor, the frigate USS Chesapeake, commanded by Captain James Lawrence, was captured by the British frigate HMS Shannon under Captain Sir Philip Broke. Lawrence was mortally wounded and famously cried out, "Do n't give up the ship! ''. Despite their earlier successes, by 1814 many of the Navy 's best ships were blockaded in port and unable to prevent British incursions on land via the sea.
During the summer of 1814, the British fought the Chesapeake Campaign, which was climaxed by amphibious assaults against Washington and Baltimore. The capital fell to the British almost without a fight, and several ships were burned at the Washington Navy Yard, including the 44 - gun frigate USS Columbia. At Baltimore, the bombardment by Fort McHenry inspired Francis Scott Key to write "The Star - Spangled Banner '', and the hulks blocking the channel prevented the fleet from entering the harbor; the army reembarked on the ships, ending the battle.
The American naval victories at the Battle of Lake Champlain and Battle of Lake Erie halted the final British offensive in the north and helped to deny the British exclusive rights to the Great Lakes in the Treaty of Ghent. Shortly before the treaty was signed, USS President was captured by 4 British frigates. Three days after the treaty was signed, the Constitution captured HMS Levant and Cyane. The final naval action of the war occurred almost 5 months after the treaty on 30 June 1815 when the sloop USS Peacock captured the East India Company brig Nautilus, the last enemy ship captured by the U.S. Navy until World War II.
After the war, the Navy 's accomplishments paid off in the form of better funding, and it embarked on the construction of many new ships. However, the expense of the larger ships was prohibitive, and many of them stayed in shipyards half - completed, in readiness for another war, until the Age of Sail had almost completely passed. The main force of the Navy continued to be large sailing frigates with a number of smaller sloops during the three decades of peace. By the 1840s, the Navy began to adopt steam power and shell guns, but they lagged behind the French and British in adopting the new technologies.
Enlisted sailors during this time included many foreign - born men, and native - born Americans were usually social outcasts who had few other employment options or they were trying to escape punishment for crimes. In 1835, almost 3,000 men sailed with merchant ships out of Boston harbor, but only 90 men were recruited by the Navy. It was unlawful for black men to serve in the Navy, but the shortage of men was so acute this law was frequently ignored.
Discipline followed the customs of the Royal Navy but punishment was much milder than typical in European navies. Sodomy was rarely prosecuted. The Army abolished flogging as a punishment in 1812, but the Navy kept it until 1850.
During the War of 1812, the Barbary states took advantage of the weakness of the United States Navy to again capture American merchant ships and sailors. After the Treaty of Ghent was signed, the United States looked at ending the piracy in the Mediterranean which had plagued American merchants for two decades. On 3 March 1815, the U.S. Congress authorized deployment of naval power against Algiers, beginning the Second Barbary War. Two powerful squadrons under the command of Commodores Stephen Decatur, Jr. and William Bainbridge, including the 74 - gun ships of the line Washington, Independence, and Franklin, were dispatched to the Mediterranean. Shortly after departing Gibraltar en route to Algiers, Decatur 's squadron encountered the Algerian flagship Meshuda, and, in the Action of 17 June 1815, captured it. Not long afterward, the American squadron likewise captured the Algerian brig Estedio in the Battle off Cape Palos. By June, the squadrons had reached Algiers and peace was negotiated with the Dey, including a return of captured vessels and men, a guarantee of no further tributes and a right to trade in the region.
Piracy in the Caribbean sea was also a major problem, and between 1815 and 1822 an estimated 3,000 ships were captured by pirates. In 1819, Congress authorized President James Madison to deal with this threat, and since many of the pirates were privateers of the newly independent states of Latin America, he decided to embark on a strategy of diplomacy backed up by the guns of the Navy. An agreement with Venezuela was reached in 1819, but ships were still regularly captured until a military campaign by the West India Squadron, under the command of David Porter, used a combination of large frigates escorting merchant ships backed by many small craft searching small coves and islands, and capturing pirate vessels. During this campaign USS Sea Gull became the first steam - powered ship to see combat action. Although isolated instances of piracy continued into the 1830s, by 1826 the frequent attacks had ended and the region was declared free for commerce.
Another international problem was the slave trade, and the African squadron was formed in 1820 to deal with this threat. Politically, the suppression of the slave trade was unpopular, and the squadron was withdrawn in 1823 ostensibly to deal with piracy in the Caribbean, and did not return to the African coast until the passage of the Webster -- Ashburton treaty with Britain in 1842. After the treaty was passed, the United States used fewer ships than the treaty required, ordered the ships based far from the coast of Africa, and used ships that were too large to operate close to shore. Between 1845 and 1850, the United States Navy captured only 10 slave vessels, while the British captured 423 vessels carrying 27,000 captives.
Congress formally authorized the establishment of the United States Military Academy in 1802, but it took almost 50 years to approve a similar school for naval officers. During the long period of peace between 1815 and 1846, midshipmen had few opportunities for promotion, and their warrants were often obtained via patronage. The poor quality of officer training in the U.S. Navy became visible after the Somers Affair, an alleged mutiny aboard the training ship USS Somers in 1842, and the subsequent execution of midshipman Philip Spencer. George Bancroft, appointed Secretary of the Navy in 1845, decided to work outside of congressional approval and create a new academy for officers. He formed a council led by Commodore Perry to create a new system for training officers, and turned the old Fort Severn at Annapolis into a new institution in 1845 which would be designated as the United States Naval Academy by Congress in 1851.
Naval forces participated in the effort to forcibly move the Seminole Indians from Florida to a reservation west of the Mississippi. After a massacre of army soldiers near Tampa on 28 December 1835, marines and sailors were added to the forces which fought the Second Seminole War from 1836 until 1842. A "mosquito fleet '' was formed in the Everglades out of various small craft to transport a mixture of army and navy personnel to pursue the Seminoles into the swamps. About 1,500 soldiers were killed during the conflict, some Seminoles agreed to move but a small group of Seminoles remained in control of the Everglades and the area around Lake Okeechobee.
The Navy played a role in two major operations of the Mexican -- American War (1845 -- 1848); during the Battle of Veracruz, it transported the invasion force that captured Veracruz by landing 12,000 troops and their equipment in one day, leading eventually to the capture of Mexico City, and the end of the war. Its Pacific Squadron 's ships facilitated the capture of California.
In 1853 Commodore Matthew Perry led the Perry Expedition, a squadron of four ships which sailed to Japan to establish normal relations with Japan. Perry 's two technologically advanced steam - powered ships and calm, firm diplomacy convinced Japan to end three centuries of isolation and sign Treaty of Kanagawa with the U.S. in 1854. Nominally a treaty of friendship, the agreement soon paved the way for the opening of Japan and normal trade relations with the United States and Europe.
Between the beginning of the war and the end of 1861, 373 commissioned officers, warrant officers, and midshipmen resigned or were dismissed from the United States Navy and went on to serve the Confederacy. On 20 April 1861, the Union burned its ships that were at the Norfolk Navy Yard to prevent their capture by the Confederates, but not all of the ships were completely destroyed. The screw frigate USS Merrimack was so hastily scuttled that her hull and steam engine were basically intact, which gave the South 's Stephen Mallory the idea of raising her and then armoring the upper sides with iron plate. The resulting ship was named CSS Virginia. Meanwhile, John Ericsson had similar ideas, and received funding to build USS Monitor.
Winfield Scott, the commanding general of the U.S. Army at the beginning of the war, devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible. His idea was that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy; then the capture of the Mississippi River would split the South. Lincoln adopted the plan in terms of a blockade to squeeze to death the Confederate economy, but overruled Scott 's warnings that his new army was not ready for an offensive operation because public opinion demanded an immediate attack.
On 8 March 1862, the Confederate Navy initiated the first combat between ironclads when the Virginia successfully attacked the blockade. The next day, the Monitor engaged the Virginia in the Battle of Hampton Roads. Their battle ended in a draw, and the Confederacy later lost the Virginia when the ship was scuttled to prevent capture. The Monitor was the prototype for the monitor warship and many more were built by the Union Navy. While the Confederacy built more ironclad ships during the war, they lacked the ability to build or purchase ships that could effectively counter the monitors.
Along with ironclad ships, the new technologies of naval mines, which were known as torpedoes after the torpedo eel, and submarine warfare were introduced during the war by the Confederacy. During the Battle of Mobile Bay, mines were used to protect the harbor and sank the Union monitor USS Tecumseh. After Tecumseh sank, Admiral David G. Farragut famously said, "Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead! ''. The forerunner of the modern submarine, CSS David, attacked USS New Ironsides using a spar torpedo. The Union ship was barely damaged and the resulting geyser of water put out the fires in the submarine 's boiler, rendering the submarine immobile. Another submarine, CSS H.L. Hunley, was designed to dive and surface but ultimately did not work well and sank on five occasions during trials. In action against USS Housatonic the submarine successfully sank its target but was lost by the same explosion.
The Confederate States of America operated a number of commerce raiders and blockade runners, CSS Alabama being the most famous, and British investors built small, fast blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Bermuda, Cuba, and The Bahamas in return for high - priced cotton and tobacco. When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were sold and the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen were mostly British and they were simply released.
The blockade of the South caused the Southern economy to collapse during the war. Shortages of food and supplies were caused by the blockade, the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, and foraging by Union and Confederate armies. The standard of living fell even as large - scale printing of paper money caused inflation and distrust of the currency. By 1864 the internal food distribution had broken down, leaving cities without enough food and causing food riots across the Confederacy. The Union victory at the Second Battle of Fort Fisher in January 1865 closed the last useful Southern port, virtually ending blockade running and hastening the end of the war.
After the war, the Navy went into a period of decline. In 1864, the Navy had 51,500 men in uniform, and almost 700 ships and about 60 monitor - type coastal ironclads which made the U.S. Navy the second largest in the world after the Royal Navy. By 1880 the Navy only had 48 ships in commission, 6,000 men, and the ships and shore facilities were decrepit but Congress saw no need to spend money to improve them. The Navy was unprepared to fight a major maritime war before 1897.
In 1871, an expedition of five warships commanded by Rear Admiral John Rodgers was sent to Korea to obtain an apology for the murders of several shipwrecked American sailors and secure a treaty to protect shipwrecked foreigners in the future. After a small skirmish, Rodgers launched an amphibious assault of approximately 650 men on the forts protecting Seoul. Despite the capture of the forts, the Koreans refused to negotiate, and the expedition was forced to leave before the start of typhoon season. Nine sailors and six marines received Medals of Honor for their acts of heroism during the Korean campaign; the first for actions in a foreign conflict.
By the 1870s most of the ironclads from the Civil War were laid up in reserve, leaving the United States virtually without an ironclad fleet. When the Virginius Affair first broke out in 1873, a Spanish ironclad happened to be anchored in New York Harbor, leading to the uncomfortable realization on the part of the U.S. Navy that it had no ship capable of defeating such a vessel. The Navy hastily issued contracts for the construction of five new ironclads, and accelerated its existing repair program for several more. USS Puritan and the four Amphitrite - class monitors were subsequently built as a result of the Virginius war scare. All five vessels would later take part in the Spanish -- American War of 1898.
By the time the Garfield administration assumed office in 1881, the Navy 's condition had deteriorated still further. A review conducted on behalf of the new Secretary of the Navy, William H. Hunt, found that of 140 vessels on the Navy 's active list, only 52 were in an operational state, of which a mere 17 were iron - hulled ships, including 14 aging Civil War era ironclads. Hunt recognized the necessity of modernizing the Navy, and set up an informal advisory board to make recommendations. Also to be expected, morale was considerably down; officers and sailors in foreign ports were all too aware that their old wooden ships would not survive long in the event of war. The limitations of the monitor type effectively prevented the United States from projecting power overseas, and until the 1890s the United States would have come off badly in a conflict with even Spain or the Latin American powers.
In 1882, on the recommendation of an advisory panel, the Navy Secretary William H. Hunt requested funds from Congress to construct modern ships. The request was rejected initially, but in 1883 Congress authorized the construction of three protected cruisers, USS Chicago, USS Boston, and USS Atlanta, and the dispatch vessel USS Dolphin, together known as the ABCD ships. In 1885, two more protected cruisers, USS Charleston and USS Newark which was the last American cruiser to be fitted with a sail rig, were authorized. Congress also authorized the construction of the first battleships in the Navy, USS Texas and USS Maine. The ABCD ships proved to be excellent vessels, and the three cruisers were organized into the Squadron of Evolution, popularly known as the White Squadron because of the color of the hulls, which was used to train a generation of officers and men.
Alfred Thayer Mahan 's book The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660 -- 1783, published in 1890, was very influential in justifying the naval program to the civilian government and to the general public. With the closing of the frontier, some Americans began to look outwards, to the Caribbean, to Hawaii and the Pacific, and with the doctrine of Manifest Destiny as philosophical justification, many saw the Navy as an essential part of realizing that doctrine beyond the limits of the American continent.
In 1890, Mahan 's doctrine influenced Navy Secretary Benjamin F. Tracy to propose the United States start building no less than 200 ships of all types, but Congress rejected the proposal. Instead, the Navy Act of 1890 authorized building three battleships, USS Indiana, USS Massachusetts, and USS Oregon, followed by USS Iowa. By around the start of the 20th century, two Kearsarge - class battleships and three Illinois - class battleships were completed or under construction, which brought the U.S. Navy from twelfth place in 1870 to fifth place among the world 's navies.
Battle tactics, especially long - range gunnery, became a central concern.
The United States was interested in purchasing colonies from Spain, specifically Cuba, but Spain refused. Newspapers wrote stories, many which were fabricated, about atrocities committed in Spanish colonies which raised tensions between the two countries. A riot gave the United States an excuse to send USS Maine to Cuba, and the subsequent explosion of Maine in Havana Harbor increased popular support for war with Spain. The cause of the explosion was investigated by a board of inquiry, which in March 1898 came to the conclusion the explosion was caused by a sea mine, and there was pressure from the public to blame Spain for sinking the ship. However, later investigations pointed to an internal explosion in one of the magazines caused by heat from a fire in the adjacent coal bunker.
Assistant Navy secretary Theodore Roosevelt quietly positioned the Navy for attack before the Spanish -- American War was declared in April 1898. The Asiatic Squadron, under the command of George Dewey, immediately left Hong Kong for the Philippines, attacking and decisively defeating the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Manila Bay. A few weeks later, the North Atlantic Squadron destroyed the majority of heavy Spanish naval units in the Caribbean in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba.
The Navy 's experience in this war was encouraging in that it had won but also cautionary in that the enemy had one of the weakest of the world 's modern fleets. Also, the Manila Bay attack was extremely risky in which the American ships could have incurred severe damage or run out of supplies, as they were 7,000 miles from the nearest American harbor. That would have a profound effect on Navy strategy and American foreign policy for next several decades.
Fortunately for the New Navy, its most ardent political supporter, Theodore Roosevelt, became President in 1901. Under his administration, the Navy went from the sixth largest in the world to second only to the Royal Navy. Theodore Roosevelt 's administration became involved in the politics of the Caribbean and Central America, with interventions in 1901, 1902, 1903, and 1906. At a speech in 1901, Roosevelt said, "Speak softly and carry a big stick, you will go far '', which was a cornerstone of diplomacy during his presidency.
Roosevelt believed that a U.S. - controlled canal across Central America was a vital strategic interest to the U.S. Navy, because it would significantly shorten travel times for ships between the two coasts. Roosevelt was able to reverse a decision in favor of a Nicaraguan Canal and instead moved to purchase the failed French effort across the Isthmus of Panama. The isthmus was controlled by Colombia, and in early 1903, the Hay -- Herrán Treaty was signed by both nations to give control of the canal to the United States. After the Colombian Senate failed to ratify the treaty, Roosevelt implied to Panamanian rebels that if they revolted, the US Navy would assist their cause for independence. Panama proceeded to proclaim its independence on 3 November 1903, and USS Nashville impeded any interference from Colombia. The victorious Panamanians allowed the United States control of the Panama Canal Zone on 23 February 1904, for US $10 million. The naval base at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba was built in 1905 to protect the canal.
The latest technological innovation of the time, submarines, were developed in the state of New Jersey by an Irish - American inventor, John Philip Holland. His submarine, USS Holland was officially commissioned into U.S. Navy service in the fall of 1900. The Russo - Japanese War of 1905 and the launching of HMS Dreadnought in the following year lent impetus to the construction program. At the end of 1907 Roosevelt had sixteen new battleships to make up his "Great White Fleet '', which he sent on a cruise around the world. While nominally peaceful, and a valuable training exercise for the rapidly expanding Navy, it was also useful politically as a demonstration of United States power and capabilities; at every port, the politicians and naval officers of both potential allies and enemies were welcomed on board and given tours. The cruise had the desired effect, and American power was subsequently taken more seriously.
The voyage taught the Navy more fueling stations were needed around the world, and the strategic potential of the Panama Canal, which was completed in 1914. The Great White Fleet required almost 50 coaling ships, and during the cruise most of the fleet 's coal was purchased from the British, who could deny access to fuel during a military crisis as they did with Russia during the Russo - Japanese War.
When United States agents discovered that the German merchant ship Ypiranga was carrying illegal arms to Mexico, President Wilson ordered the Navy to stop the ship from docking at the port of Veracruz. On 21 April 1914, a naval brigade of marines and sailors occupied Veracruz. A total of 55 Medals of Honor were awarded for acts of heroism at Veracruz, the largest number ever granted for a single action.
Despite U.S. declarations of neutrality and German accountability for its unrestricted submarine warfare, in 1915 the British passenger liner Lusitania was sunk, leading to calls for war. President Wilson forced the Germans to suspend unrestricted submarine warfare and after long debate Congress passes the Naval Act of 1916 that authorized a $500 million construction program over three years for 10 battleships, 6 battlecruisers, 10 scout cruisers, 50 destroyers and 67 submarines. The idea was a balanced fleet, but in the event destroyers were much more important, because they had to handle submarines and convoys. By the end of the war 273 destroyers had been ordered; most were finished after World War I ended but many served in World War II. There were few war plans beyond the defense of the main American harbors.
Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels, a pacifistic journalist, had built up the educational resources of the Navy and made its Naval War College an essential experience for would - be admirals. However, he alienated the officer corps with his moralistic reforms (no wine in the officers ' mess, no hazing at Annapolis, more chaplains and YMCAs). Ignoring the nation 's strategic needs, and disdaining the advice of its experts, Daniels suspended meetings of the Joint Army and Navy Board for two years because it was giving unwelcome advice. He chopped in half the General Board 's recommendations for new ships, reduced the authority of officers in the Navy yards where ships were built and repaired, and ignored the administrative chaos in his department. Bradley Fiske, one of the most innovative admirals in American naval history, was Daniels ' top aide in 1914; he recommended a reorganization that would prepare for war, but Daniels refused. Instead, he replaced Fiske in 1915 and brought in for the new post of Chief of Naval Operations an unknown captain, William S. Benson. Chosen for his compliance, Benson proved a wily bureaucrat who was more interested in preparing for an eventual showdown with Britain than an immediate one with Germany.
In 1915 Daniels set up the Naval Consulting Board headed by Thomas Edison to obtain the advice and expertise of leading scientists, engineers, and industrialists. It popularized technology, naval expansion, and military preparedness, and was well covered in the media. Daniels and Benson rejected proposals to send observers to Europe, leaving the Navy in the dark about the success of the German submarine campaign. Admiral William Sims charged after the war that in April, 1917, only ten percent of the Navy 's warships were fully manned; the rest lacked 43 % of their seamen. Only a third of the ships were fully ready. Light antisubmarine ships were few in number, as if no one had noticed the u-boat factor that had been the focus of foreign policy for two years. The Navy 's only warfighting plan, the "Black Plan '' assumed the Royal Navy did not exist and that German battleships were moving freely about the Atlantic and the Caribbean and threatening the Panama Canal. His most recent biographer concludes that, "it is true that Daniels had not prepared the navy for the war it would have to fight. ''
America entered the war in April 1917 and the Navy 's role was mostly limited to convoy escort and troop transport and the laying of a minefield across the North Sea. The United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join with the British Grand Fleet, destroyers to Queenstown, Ireland and submarines to help guard convoys. Several regiments of Marines were also dispatched to France. The first victory for the Navy in the war occurred on 17 November 1917 when USS Fanning and USS Nicholson sank the German U-boat U-58. During World War I, the Navy was the first branch of the United States armed forces to allow enlistment by women in a non-nursing capacity, as Yeoman (F). The first woman to enlist in the U.S. Navy was Loretta Perfectus Walsh on 17 March 1917.
The Navy 's vast wartime expansion was overseen by civilian officials, especially Assistant Secretary Franklin D. Roosevelt. In peacetime, the Navy confined all munitions that lacked civilian uses, including warships, naval guns, and shells to Navy yards. The Navy yards expanded enormously, and subcontracted the shells and explosives to chemical companies like DuPont and Hercules. Items available on the civilian market, such as food and uniforms were always purchased from civilian contractors. Armor plate and airplanes were purchased on the market.
At the end of World War I, the United States Navy had almost 500,000 officers and enlisted men and women and in terms of personnel was the largest in the world. Younger officers were enthusiastic about the potential of land - based naval aviation as well as the potential roles of aircraft carriers. Chief of Naval Operations Benson was not among them. He tried to abolish aviation in 1919 because he could not "conceive of any use the fleet will ever have for aviation. '' However Roosevelt listened to the visionaries and reversed Benson 's decision.
After a short period of demobilization, the major naval nations of the globe began programmes for increasing the size and number of their capital ships. Wilson 's plan for a world - leading set of capital ships led to a Japanese counter-programme, and a plan by the British to build sufficient ships to maintain a navy superior to either. American isolationist feeling and the economic concerns of the others led to the Washington Naval Conference of 1921. The outcome of the conference included the Washington Naval Treaty (also known as the Five - Power treaty), and limitations on the use of submarines. The Treaty prescribed a ratio of 5: 5: 3: 1: 1 for capital ships between treaty nations. The treaty recognized the U.S. Navy as being equal to the Royal Navy with 525,000 tons of capital ships and 135,000 tons of aircraft carriers, and the Japanese as the third power. Many older ships were scrapped by the five nations to meet the treaty limitations, and new building of capital ships limited.
One consequence was to encourage the development of light cruisers and aircraft carriers. The United States 's first carrier, a converted collier named USS Langley was commissioned in 1922, and soon joined by USS Lexington and USS Saratoga, which had been designed as battlecruisers until the treaty forbade it. Organizationally, the Bureau of Aeronautics was formed in 1921; naval aviators would become referred to as members of the United States Naval Air Corps.
Army airman Billy Mitchell challenged the Navy by trying to demonstrate that warships could be destroyed by land - based bombers. He destroyed his career in 1925 by publicly attacking senior leaders in the Army and Navy for incompetence for their "almost treasonable administration of the national defense. ''
The Vinson - Trammell Act of 1934 set up a regular program of ship building and modernization to bring the Navy to the maximum size allowed by treaty. The Navy 's preparation was helped along by another Navy assistant secretary turned president, Franklin D. Roosevelt. The naval limitation treaties also applied to bases, but Congress only approved building seaplane bases on Wake Island, Midway Island and Dutch Harbor and rejected any additional funds for bases on Guam and the Philippines. Navy ships were designed with greater endurance and range which allowed them to operate further from bases and between refits.
The Navy had a presence in the Far East with a naval base in the US - owned Philippines and river gunboats in China on the Yangtze River. The gunboat USS Panay was bombed and machine - gunned by Japanese airplanes. Washington quickly accepted Japan 's apologies and compensation.
African - Americans were enlisted during World War I, but this was halted in 1919 and they were mustered out of the Navy. Starting in the 1930s a few were recruited to serve as stewards in the officers mess. African - Americans were recruited in larger numbers only after Roosevelt insisted in 1942.
The Naval Act of 1936 authorized the first new battleship since 1921, and USS North Carolina, was laid down in October 1937. The Second Vinson Act authorized a 20 % increase in the size of the Navy, and in June 1940 the Two - Ocean Navy Act authorized an 11 % expansion in the Navy. Chief of Naval Operations Harold Rainsford Stark asked for another 70 % increase, amounting to about 200 additional ships, which was authorized by Congress in less than a month. In September 1940, the Destroyers for Bases Agreement gave Britain much - needed destroyers -- of WWI vintage -- in exchange for United States use of British bases.
In 1941, the Atlantic Fleet was reactivated. The Navy 's first shot in anger came on 9 April, when the destroyer USS Niblack dropped depth charges on a U-boat detected while Niblack was rescuing survivors from a torpedoed Dutch freighter. In October, the destroyers Kearny and Reuben James were torpedoed, and Reuben James was lost.
Submarines were the "silent service '' -- in terms of operating characteristics and the closed - mouth preferences of the submariners. Strategists had, however, been looking into this new type of warship, influenced in large part by Germany 's nearly successful U-boat campaign. As early as 1912, Lieutenant Chester Nimitz had argued for long - range submarines to accompany the fleet to scout the enemy 's location. The new head of the Submarine Section in 1919 was Captain Thomas Hart, who argued that submarines could win the next war: "There is no quicker or more effective method of defeating Japan than the cutting of her sea communications. '' However Hart was astonished to discover how backward American submarines were compared to captured German U-boats, and how unready they were for their mission. The public supported submarines for their coastal protection mission; they would presumably intercept enemy fleets approaching San Francisco or New York. The Navy realized it was a mission that isolationists in Congress would fund, but it was not actually serious. Old - line admirals said the mission of the subs ought to be as eyes of the battle fleet, and as assistants in battle. That was unfeasible since even on the surface submarines could not move faster than 20 knots, far slower than the 30 knot main warships. The young commanders were organized into a "Submarine Officers ' Conference '' in 1926. They argued they were best suited for the commerce raiding that had been the forte of the U-boats. They therefore redesigned their new boats along German lines, and added the new requirement that they be capable of sailing alone for 7,500 miles on a 75 - day mission. Unrestricted submarine warfare had led to war with Germany in 1917, and was still vigorously condemned both by public opinion and by treaties, including the London Treaty of 1930. Nevertheless, the submariners planned a role in unrestricted warfare against Japanese merchant ships, transports and oil tankers. The Navy kept its plans secret from civilians. It was an admiral, not President Roosevelt, who within hours of the Pearl Harbor attack, ordered unrestricted warfare against any enemy ship anywhere in the Pacific.
The submariners had won over Navy strategists, but their equipment was not yet capable of handling their secret mission. The challenge of designing appropriate new boats became a high priority by 1934, and was solved in 1936 as the first new long - range, all welded submarines were launched. Even better were the S - class Salmon class (launched in 1937), and its successors the T - class or Tambor submarines of 1939 and the Gato class of 1940. The new models cost about $5 -- 6 million each. At 300 feet in length and 1500 tons, they were twice as big as the German U-boats, but still highly maneuverable. In only 35 seconds they could crash dive to 60 feet. The superb Mark 3 TDC Torpedo Data Computer (an analog computer) took data from periscope or sonar readings on the target 's bearing, range and angle on the bow, and continuously set the course and proper gyroscope angle for a salvo of torpedoes until the moment of firing. Six forward tubes and 4 aft were ready for the 24 Mk - 14 "fish '' the subs carried. Cruising on the surface at 20 knots (using 4 diesel engines) or maneuvering underwater at 8 - 10 knots (using battery - powered electric motors) they could circle around slow - moving merchant ships. New steels and welding techniques strengthened the hull, enabling the subs to dive as deep as 400 feet in order to avoid depth charges. Expecting long cruises the 65 crewmen enjoyed good living conditions, complete with frozen steaks and air conditioning to handle the hot waters of the Pacific. The new subs could remain at sea for 75 days, and cover 10,000 miles, without resupply. The submariners thought they were ready -- but they had two hidden flaws. The penny - pinching atmosphere of the 1930s produced hypercautious commanders and defective torpedoes. Both would have to be replaced in World War II.
After the disaster at Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt turned to the most aggressive sailor available, Admiral Ernest J. King (1878 - 1956). Experienced in big guns, aviation and submarines, King had a broad knowledge and a total dedication to victory. He was perhaps the most dominating admiral in American naval history; he was hated but obeyed, for he made all the decisions from his command post in the Washington, and avoided telling anyone. The civilian Secretary of the Navy was a cipher whom King kept in the dark; that only changed when the Secretary died in 1944 and Roosevelt brought in his tough - minded aide James Forrestal. Despite the decision of the Joint Chiefs of Staff under Admiral William D. Leahy to concentrate first against Germany, King made the defeat of Japan his highest priority. For example, King insisted on fighting for Guadalcanal despite strong Army objections. His main strike force was built around carriers based at Pearl Harbor under the command of Chester Nimitz. Nimitz had one main battle fleet, with the same ships and sailors but two command systems that rotated every few months between Admiral Bull Halsey and Admiral Raymond A. Spruance. The Navy had a major advantage: it had broken the Japanese code. It deduced that Hawaii was the target in June 1942, and that Yamamoto 's fleet would strike at Midway Island. King only had four carriers in operation; he sent them all to Midway where in a miraculous few minutes they sank the Japanese carriers. This gave the Americans the advantage in firepower that grew rapidly as new American warships came on line much faster than Japan could build them. King paid special attention to submarines to use against the overextended Japanese logistics system. They were built for long - range missions in tropical waters, and set out to sink the freighters, troop transports and oil tankers that held the Japanese domains together. The Southwest Pacific theatre, based in Australia, was under the control of Army General Douglas MacArthur; King assigned him a fleet of his own without any big carriers.
On 7 December 1941, Japan 's carriers launched the Attack on Pearl Harbor, sinking or disabling the entire battleship fleet. The stupendous defeat forced Admiral King to develop a new strategy based on carriers. Although the sunken battleships were raised, and many new ones were built, battleships played a secondary role in the war, limited chiefly to bombardment of islands scheduled for amphibious landings. The "Big Gun '' club that had dominated the Navy since the Civil War lost its clout.
The U.S. was helpless in the next six months as the Japanese swept through the Western Pacific and into the Indian Ocean, rolling up the Philippines as well as the main British base at Singapore. After reeling from these defeats the Navy stabilized its lines in summer 1942.
At the start of the war, the United States and Japan were well matched in aircraft carriers, in terms of numbers and quality. Both sides had nine, but the Mitsubishi A6M Zero carrier fighter plane was superior in terms of range and maneuverability to its American counterpart, the F4F Wildcat. By reverse engineering a captured Zero, the American engineers identified its weaknesses, such as inadequate protection for the pilot and the fuel tanks, and built the Hellcat as a superior weapon system. In late 1943 the Grumman F6F Hellcats entered combat. Powered by the same 2,000 horsepower Pratt and Whitney 18 - cylinder radial engine as used by the F4U Corsair already in service with the Marine Corps and the UK 's allied Fleet Air Arm, the F6Fs were faster (at 400 mph) than the Zeros, quicker to climb (at 3,000 feet per minute), more nimble at high altitudes, better at diving, had more armor, more firepower (6 machine guns fired 120 bullets per second) than the Zero 's two machine guns and pair of 20 mm autocannon, carried more ammunition, and used a gunsight designed for deflection shooting at an angle. Although the Hellcat was heavier and had a shorter range than the Zero, on the whole it proved a far superior weapon. Japan 's carrier and pilot losses at Midway crippled its offensive capability, but America 's overwhelming offensive capability came from shipyards that increasingly out produced Japan 's, from the refineries that produced high - octane gasoline, and from the training fields that produced much better trained pilots. In 1942 Japan commissioned 6 new carriers but lost 6; in 1943 it commissioned 3 and lost 1. The turning point came in 1944 when it added 8 and lost 13. At war 's end Japan had 5 carriers tied up in port; all have been damaged, all lacked fuel and all lacked warplanes. Meanwhile, the US launched 13 small carriers in 1942 and one large one; and in 1943 added 15 large and 50 escort carriers, and more came in 1944 and 1945. The new American carriers were much better designed, with far more antiaircraft guns, and powerful radar.
Both sides were overextended in the exhaustive sea, air and land battles for Guadalcanal. The Japanese were better at night combat (because the American destroyers had only trained for attacks on battleships). However, the Japanese could not feed its soldiers so the Americans eventually won because of superior logistics. The Navy built up its forces in 1942 - 43, and developed a strategy of "island - hopping, that is to skip over most of the heavily defended Japanese islands and instead go further on and select islands to seize for forward air bases.
In the Atlantic, the Allies waged a long battle with German submarines which was termed the Battle of the Atlantic. Navy aircraft flew from bases in Greenland and Iceland to hunt submarines, and hundreds of escort carriers and destroyer escorts were built which were specifically designed to protect merchant convoys. In the Pacific, in an ironic twist, the U.S. submarines fought against Japanese shipping in a mirror image of the Atlantic, with U.S. submarines hunting Japanese merchant ships. At the end of the war the U.S. had 260 submarines in commission. It had lost 52 submarines during the war, 36 in actions in the Pacific. Submarines effectively destroyed the Japanese merchant fleet by January 1945 and choked off Japan 's oil supply.
In the summer of 1943, the U.S. began the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign to retake the Gilbert and Marshall Islands. After this success, the Americans went on to the Mariana and Palau Islands in summer 1944. Following their defeat at the Battle of Saipan, the Imperial Japanese Navy 's Combined Fleet, with 5 aircraft carriers, sortied to attack the Navy 's Fifth Fleet during the Battle of the Philippine Sea, which was the largest aircraft carrier battle in history. The battle was so one - sided that it became known as the "Marianas turkey shoot ''; the U.S. lost 130 aircraft and no ships while the Japanese lost 411 planes and 3 carriers. Following victory in the Marianas, the U.S. began the reconquest of the Philippines at Leyte in October 1944. The Japanese fleet sortied to attack the invasion fleet, resulting in the four - day Battle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history. The first kamikaze missions are flown during the battle, sinking USS St. Lo and damaging several other U.S. ships; these attacks were the most effective anti-ship weapon of the war.
The Battle of Okinawa became the last major battle between U.S. and Japanese ground units. Okinawa was to become a staging area for the eventual invasion of Japan since it was just 350 miles (560 km) south of the Japanese mainland. Marines and soldiers landed unopposed on 1 April 1945, to begin an 82 - day campaign which became the largest land - sea - air battle in history and was noted for the ferocity of the fighting and the high civilian casualties with over 150,000 Okinawans losing their lives. Japanese kamikaze pilots inflicted the largest loss of ships in U.S. naval history with the sinking of 36 and the damaging of another 243. Total U.S. casualties were over 12,500 dead and 38,000 wounded, while the Japanese lost over 110,000 men, making Okinawa one of the bloodiest battles in history.
The fierce fighting on Okinawa is said to have played a part in President Truman 's decision to use the atomic bomb and to forsake an invasion of Japan. When the Japanese surrendered, a flotilla of 374 ships entered Tokyo Bay to witness the ceremony conducted on the battleship USS Missouri. By the end of the war the US Navy had over 1200 warships.
The immediate postwar fate of the Navy was the scrapping and mothballing of ships on a large scale; by 1948 only 267 ships were active in the Navy. In 1948 the Women 's Armed Services Integration Act gave women permanent status in the Regular and Reserve forces of the Navy.
The military services were unified in 1947 over the strong objections of Navy Secretary James Forrestal. President Truman appointed him Secretary of Defense, but the two disagreed over budgets and Truman fired him in 1949 when Forrestal took the Navy 's side in a public protest against White House policy known as the Revolt of the Admirals. A basic political problem was that the Secretary of Defense did not fully control the budgets of the three services. Each one worked with powerful Congressmen to enhance their budgets despite the White House determination to hold down spending. In 1948 - 49 the "Revolt of the Admirals '' came when a number of retired and active - duty admirals publicly disagreed with President Truman and with his replacement for Forrestal Louis A. Johnson because they wanted less expensive strategic atomic bombs delivered by the Air Force. Forrestal had supported the Navy position and had obtained funding for an aircraft carrier from Congress. Truman fired Forrestal, and Johnson cancelled the carrier and announced plans to move Marine Corps aviation out of the Navy and into the Air Force. During Congressional hearings public opinion shifted strongly against the Navy. In the end the Navy kept Marine aviation and eventually got its carrier, but its revolting admirals were punished and it lost control over strategic bombing. The Truman administration essentially defeated the Revolt, and civilian control over the military was reaffirmed. Military budgets following the hearings prioritized the development of Air Force heavy bomber designs, accumulating a combat ready force of over 1,000 long - range strategic bombers capable of supporting nuclear mission scenarios.
The Navy gradually developed a reputation for having the most highly developed technology of all the U.S. services. The 1950s saw the development of nuclear power for ships, under the leadership of Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, the development of missiles and jet aircraft for Navy use and the construction of supercarriers. The USS Enterprise was the world 's first nuclear - powered aircraft carrier and was followed by the Nimitz - class supercarriers. Ballistic missile submarines grew ever more deadly and quiet, culminating in the Ohio - class submarines. Rickover had a strong base of support in Congress and in public opinion, and he forced nuclear power to be a high Navy priority, especially for submarines. Combined with missile technology, this gave the United States the assured second - strike capability that was the foundation of deterrence against the Soviet Union.
Tension with the Soviet Union and China came to a head in the Korean War, and it became clear that the peacetime Navy would have to be much larger than ever imagined. Fleets were assigned to geographic areas around the world, and ships were sent to hot spots as a standard part of the response to the periodic crises. However, because the North Korean navy was not large, the Korean War featured few naval battles; the combatant navies served mostly as naval artillery for their in - country armies. A large amphibious landing at Inchon succeeded in driving the North Koreans back across the 38th parallel. The Battle of Chosin Reservoir ended with the evacuation of almost 105,000 UN troops from the port of Hungnam.
The U.S. Navy 's 1956 shipbuilding program was significant because it included authorization for the construction of eight submarines, the largest such order since World War II. This FY - 56 program included five nuclear - powered submarines -- Triton, the guided missile submarine Halibut, the lead ship for the Skipjack class, and the final two Skate - class attack submarines, Sargo and Seadragon. It also included the three diesel - electric Barbel class, the last diesel - electric submarines to be built by the U.S. Navy.
An unlikely combination of Navy ships fought in the Vietnam War 1965 - 72; aircraft carriers offshore launched thousands of air strikes, while small gunboats of the "Brown - water navy '' patrolled the rivers. Despite the naval activity, new construction was curtailed by Presidents Johnson and Nixon to save money, and many of the carriers on Yankee Station dated from World War II. By 1978 the fleet had dwindled to 217 surface ships and 119 submarines.
Meanwhile, the Soviet fleet had been growing, and outnumbered the U.S. fleet in every type except carriers, and the Navy calculated they probably would be defeated by the Soviet Navy in a major conflict. This concern led the Reagan administration to set a goal for a 600 - ship Navy, and by 1988 the fleet was at 588, although it declined again in subsequent years. The Iowa - class battleships Iowa, New Jersey, Missouri, and Wisconsin were reactivated after 40 years in storage, modernized, and made showy appearances off the shores of Lebanon and elsewhere. In 1987 and 1988, the United States Navy conducted various combat operations in the Persian Gulf against Iran, most notably Operation Praying Mantis, the largest surface - air naval battle since World War II.
When a crisis confronts the nation, the first question often asked by policymakers is: ' What naval forces are available and how fast can they be on station? '
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Soviet Navy fell apart, without sufficient personnel to man many of its ships or the money to maintain them -- indeed, many of them were sold to foreign nations. This left the United States as the world 's undisputed naval superpower. U.S. naval forces did undergo a decline in absolute terms but relative to the rest of the world, however, United States dwarfs other nations ' naval power as evinced by its 11 aircraft supercarriers and their supporting battle groups. During the 1990s, the United States naval strategy was based on the overall military strategy of the United States which emphasized the ability of the United States to engage in two simultaneous limited wars along separate fronts.
The ships of the Navy participated in a number of conflicts after the end of the Cold War. After diplomatic efforts failed, the Navy was instrumental in the opening phases of the 1991 Gulf War with Iraq; the ships of the navy launched hundreds of Tomahawk II cruise missiles and naval aircraft flew sorties from six carriers in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea. The battleships Missouri and Wisconsin fired their 16 - inch guns for the first time since the Korean War on several targets in Kuwait in early February. In 1999, hundreds of Navy and Marine Corps aircraft flew thousands of sorties from bases in Italy and carriers in the Adriatic against targets in Serbia and Kosovo to try to stop the ethnic cleansing in Kosovo. After a 78 - day campaign Serbia capitulated to NATO 's demands.
As a result of a large number of command officers being fired for failing to do their job properly, in 2012 the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) ordered a new method of selecting command officers across the Navy.
In March 2007, the U.S. Navy reached its smallest fleet size, with 274 ships, since World War I. Since the end of the Cold War, the Navy has shifted its focus from preparations for large - scale war with the Soviet Union to special operations and strike missions in regional conflicts. The Navy participated in the Iraq War and is a major participant in the ongoing War on Terror, largely in this capacity. Development continues on new ships and weapons, including the Gerald R. Ford - class aircraft carrier and the Littoral combat ship. One hundred and three U.S. Navy personnel died in the Iraq War. U.S. Navy warships launched cruise missiles into military targets in Libya during Operation Odyssey Dawn to enforce a UN resolution.
Former U.S. Navy admirals who head the U.S. Naval Institute have raised concerns about what they see as the ability to respond to "aggressive moves by Iran and China ''. As part of the pivot to the Pacific, Defense Secretary Leon E. Panetta said that the Navy would switch from a 50 / 50 split between the Pacific and the Atlantic to a 60 / 40 percent split that favored the Pacific, but the Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Jonathan Greenert, and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Martin Dempsey, have said that this would not mean "a big influx of troops or ships in the Western Pacific ''. This pivot is a continuation of the trend towards the Pacific that first saw the Cold War 's focus against the Soviet Union with 60 percent of the American submarine fleet stationed in the Atlantic shift towards an even split between the coasts and then in 2006, 60 percent of the submarines stationed on the Pacific side to counter China. The pivot is not entirely about numbers as some of the most advanced platforms will now have a Pacific focus, where their capabilities are most needed. However even a single incident can make a big dent in a fleet of modest size with global missions.
On January 12, 2016, Iranian armed forces captured ten Navy personnel when their two boats entered Iranian territorial waters off the coast of Farsi Island in the Persian Gulf. They were released the next day following diplomatic discussions between the U.S. and Iran.
In the middle of 2017, two Navy ships, the USS Fitzgerald and USS John S. McCain (DDG - 56) were involved in collisions with merchant ships during regular transits that results in fatalities.
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top 10 biggest companies in the world 2016 | List of largest companies by revenue - wikipedia
This list comprises the world 's largest public, state - owned, and private businesses by consolidated revenue as of 2016, according to the Fortune Global 500 tally. The list is limited to 35 companies, all of which have annual revenues exceeding $100 billion US dollars.
The availability and reliability of up - to - date information on prior state - owned companies is limited and varies from country to country; thus, this list may be incomplete. This list is shown in U.S. dollars, but many of the companies on it prepare their accounts in other currencies. The dollar value of their revenue may change substantially in a short period of time due to exchange rate fluctuations.
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what is the importance of islamic month safar | Safar - wikipedia
Safar (صفر) is a word that means "empty. '' This corresponds to a time where people 's houses were empty. It also means "whistling of the wind ''. When this name was assigned to this month, it was probably a windy time of the year. Most of the Islamic months were named according to weather conditions at the time. However, since they are based on the moon, the months shift about 11 days every year. So, the seasons do not necessarily correspond to the name of the month anymore.
The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar, and months begin when the first crescent of a new moon is sighted. Since the Islamic lunar calendar year is 11 to 12 days shorter than the solar year, Safar migrates throughout the seasons. The estimated start and end dates for Safar are as follows (based on the Umm al - Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia):
In Islamic eschatology:
There will be an Ayah (sign) in (the month of) Ramadan. Then, there will ' isabah (splitting into groups) in Shawwal. Then, there will be fighting in (the month of) Dhu al - Qi'dah. Then, the pilgrim will be robbed in (the month of) Dhu al - Hijjah. Then, the prohibitions will be violated in (the month of) al - Muharram. Then, there will be sound in (the month of) Safar, then the tribes will conflict with each other in the two months of Rabi ' al - awwal & Rabi ' al - thani. Then, the most amazing thing will happen between (the months of) Jumada and Rajab. Then, a well - fed she - camel will be better than a fortress (castle) sheltering a thousand (people).
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all the hotels on the strip in las vegas | List of Las Vegas Strip hotels - wikipedia
The following is a list of hotels located on the Las Vegas Strip.
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why is alex russo the most powerful wizard | Alex Russo - wikipedia
Alexandra Margarita "Alex '' Russo is a fictional character and the protagonist of the Disney Channel sitcom Wizards of Waverly Place, portrayed by Selena Gomez.
In 2008, AOL named her the twentieth greatest witch in television history. Selena Gomez, who portrays Alex, is one of the only two cast members to appear in every single episode of the series; the only other cast member to do so is David Henrie, who portrays Justin Russo. The character has also appeared in The Suite Life on Deck episode, Double Crossed.
Wizards of Waverly Place revolves around Alex Russo and her two brothers, Justin (David Henrie) and Max (Jake T. Austin), three siblings who training to become their family 's wizard and retain their powers. The siblings reside in Manhattan 's Greenwich Village with their parents Jerry (David DeLuise), a former wizard, and Theresa (Maria Canals Barrera), a mortal. Alex and her brothers attend classes under the tutelage of their father Jerry, from whom they inherited their magical abilities. The siblings tend to grow unfocused at times, especially pertaining to when they discover that their abilities can be applied towards more non-magical uses. Additionally, her family owns and runs a subway - themed sandwich shop, and keep the fact that they are wizards a secret from most people outside of their immediate family. Alex 's best friend is Harper Finkle (Jennifer Stone), a mortal to whom Alex reveals that she and her family are wizards after a few seasons. Ultimately, Alex must eventually compete against her brothers to determine who will remain the Russo family 's only wizard, as only one wizard is allowed per family. Outside of wizardry, Alex is interested in becoming an artist. At one point, Alex begins dating a werewolf named Mason.
Alex debuts in the pilot episode of Wizards of Waverly Place, "Crazy 10 - Minute Sale '', asking for permission from her father to attend a sale at a popular clothing store, "Suburban Outfitters '' (a parody of the popular clothing brand Urban Outfitters), to upstage her rival since pre-school, Gigi. She can not attend the sale as she has wizardry class, but decides to clone herself so that she can go to the sale and convince her father that she was at wizardry class. However, this plan falls through when her clone is unable to actually speak, and instead barks like a dog due to a mistake while performing the spell.
Throughout the rest of the first season are similar magical mishaps, most of which are intended to improve things, but typically end up backfiring and causing her to revert them. Alex attends Tribeca Preparatory High School throughout nearly all of the show, a fictional school whose real location is the Salk School of Science. During the first season, Alex also attends WizTech, a fictional wizardry school, once during the summer. Alex is often seen at her family 's restaurant, the Waverly Sub Station, a fictional diner whose image is that of the bottom floor of the Bayard - Condict Building, on Bleecker Street.
Alex also has a relationship with another student named Riley, which ends quickly after he witnesses her eating large amounts of chocolate, but begins again when she convinces him that she is a good luck charm for their school 's baseball team. They finally go on a date during the third to last episode, where Alex shows herself to get jealous too easily, which cause the two to break up. Alex brings life to a mannequin which she pretends to be in a relationship with in order to make Riley jealous, which causes Riley to go back to Alex, only to be replaced with another boy the following season.
The second season continues with a myriad of spells and magic gone awry, the first of which is her joining an academic game at her school called the Quiz Bowl and wearing a pair of pants known as "Smarty Pants '' that grant her infinite knowledge. She wears the pants for too long and ends up having skeleton legs, which are fixed towards the end. Another love interest of Alex 's, Dean Moriarty, also makes his debut appearance in this episode, as a new student who is forced to help set up the Quiz Bowl.
Alex 's infatuation with Dean is revealed to her nemesis, Gigi, after she steals Alex 's magical diary and finds that Alex 's "knight in shining armor '' is Dean. Alex reveals this to everyone, including Dean, in order to avoid giving Gigi any sort of satisfaction from doing it herself. The two confess their love for one another during a race which Dean is involved in, and they begin their relationship.
During their relationship, Alex gets involved with another boy from WizTech, Ronald Longcape, Jr., after he is forced to leave WizTech due to a "plastic ball infestation ''. Ronald, after becoming infatuated with Alex himself, shapeshifts into Dean in order to "end '' Alex 's relationship with them. This causes Alex to start a relationship with Ronald, as it appears to her as her only option. She agrees to go to WizTech with him, where she realizes that Ronald has kidnapped Dean and put him in a block of jelly. Alex realizes that she truly loves Dean, and leaves Ronald. However, the two break up shortly after, then again in Dean 's dream, after Alex uses a spell to get into his head
One of the show 's several working titles before becoming Wizards of Waverly Place was The Amazing O'Malleys, during which time its main character was originally going to be called Julia, named after creator Todd J. Greenwald 's own daughter, and Brooke O'Malley. In the series ' un-aired pilot, Julia was one of only two Russo children, alongside her brother Jordan. Julia and Jordan were originally intended to be twin sister and brother until Julia was re-written into the second - born of three Russo siblings. Greenwald explained that Jordan 's name was first changed to Justin to avoid confusion with the Nickelodeon show Just Jordan, thus also changing Julia 's name to Alex because he felt that it "would n't have been fair (to my son) ''. Greenwald ensured that each Russo sibling was provided with "their own strengths and weaknesses ''. Before being cast as the lead character Wizards of Waverly Place, Gomez 's previous auditions for Disney Channel, who discovered the actress during a national talent search, had earned her recurring roles on the network 's sitcoms The Suite Life of Zack & Cody and Hannah Montana as Gwen and Mikayla, respectively. According to AllMusic biographer Matt Collar, these minor television roles eventually "paved the way for Gomez 's own show ''.
Alex was Gomez 's first starring screen role. Being of Mexican and Italian descent herself, Gomez shares her ethnic background with her character, the only main cast member to hold this distinction. The writers originally kept the results of the series finale secret from the cast until they began filming the episode. Gomez originally felt that Max should be the ultimate winner of the Triwizard Cup instead of her own character. However, the actress was ultimately satisfied with the direction in which the writers ultimately went. Gomez and her on - screen siblings were each allowed to retain their characters ' wands after the series ' conclusion. In addition to starring in the series, Gomez contributed four original songs to the shows ' official soundtrack album, including its theme song "Everything Is Not as It Seems ''. In addition to reprising her role as Alex in the television film The Wizards Return: Alex vs. Alex (2013), Gomez served as one of its executive producers. Stone described Gomez 's approach to executive producing as "not really that different, she has a little bit more say in what happens... She has a great sense of humor about herself, so we give her tons of crap. ''
John M. Cunningham 's of Encyclopædia Britannica described Alex as "a mischievous tomboy ''. The A.V. Club 's Marah Eaken described as Alex as a "pretty dark '' character who is "dry, lazy, and kind of a jerk, sometimes. '' Describing Alex as "a wisecracking underachiever '' keen on using her magical abilities to "smooth the path through high school '', Plugged In 's Paul Asay identified the character as "a Disney protagonist with a hint of rebellion -- Cinderella with a yen for detention '', demonstrated by her "slouching, too - cool - for - school vibe. '' While under a truth spell, the character explains that her attitude is simply "a defense mechanism to hide my desire to really be liked. '' Alex 's personality strongly contrasts with that of her older brother, who unlike her is studious and hardworking.
although a bit rude to others at times, is shown throughout the show to be a good person at heart. DVDizzy 's Kelvin Cedeno writes that, "Alex is a character that could, and should, be off - putting in her narrow - mindedness and egotism. In spite of this, Selena Gomez manages to be likable and approachable in the role.
Alex is usually portrayed as inconsiderate of the feelings of those around her. Alex is often shown to act aloof and indifferent to things, but she later reveals while under a "truth spell '' that she uses her indifference as a defense mechanism to "hide (her) desire to really be liked ''.
Alex often uses magic to solve her problems, which frequently ends up causing more problems than she began with. DVDizzy claimed that Alex was "cocky, self - assured, and constantly relies on magic to bail her out of mishaps ''. Alex underachieves when it comes to high school, however, she excels greatly at art. She is also shown to be only semi-literate, when it is revealed that she has never fully read a book or a menu.
Alex is the middle child and the only female of the Russo family. She often argues and insults her older brother, Justin, though it is later revealed that she does so because she admires him and wishes to be like him. The fact that her parents seem to favor Justin in most cases also engenders hostility and jealousy toward her brother. Alex and Justin act as foils, as the two are near - polar opposites; Justin is responsible and fair in judgment, though easily insecure at Alex 's great magical feats. She feels insecure when seeing Justin accomplish much with his hard work and responsibility. She is shown not to be the most apt student at both "wizarding '' and high school, failing her Spanish midterm, her wizardry exam, and relying on the use of magic to pass several assignments. Mary McNamara, writing for the Los Angeles Times, identified that Alex is driven "to become the family wizard, not so much for the power and prestige as the satisfaction of beating out her older brother Justin. ''
Despite her flaws, Alex has numerous instances of generosity, loyalty, and compassion. She shows deep care for her best friend Harper, even going as far as to reveal to her her wizardry in "Harper Knows '' out of guilt for lying. Alex is shown to hate "fake people '' and silent films.
Plugged In 's Paul Asay wrote that Alex "has proven to be a less than ideal role model for her hordes of young Disneyfied fans '' as a result of her personality, but concluded that the character "is still pretty good deep down '' despite "her posturing ''. Gomez 's performance as Alex garnered strong reviews, including positive comparisons to actress and singer Miley Cyrus, star of Hannah Montana. The Los Angeles Times television critic Mary McNamara described Gomez as "sweet and sassy, with a lovely elastic face and great comic timing ''. Alex is considered to be Gomez 's breakout role. According to John M. Cunningham 's entry on Gomez in Encyclopædia Britannica, the actress ' role as Alex earned her "legions of young fans as (its) winsome star ''.
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what the difference between high and low voltage | High voltage - wikipedia
The term high voltage usually means electrical energy at voltages high enough to inflict harm on living organisms. Equipment and conductors that carry high voltage warrant particular safety requirements and procedures. In certain industries, high voltage means voltage above a particular threshold (see below). High voltage is used in electrical power distribution, in cathode ray tubes, to generate X-rays and particle beams, to demonstrate arcing, for ignition, in photomultiplier tubes, and in high power amplifier vacuum tubes and other industrial and scientific applications.
The numerical definition of "high voltage '' depends on context. Two factors considered in classifying a voltage as "high voltage '' are the possibility of causing a spark in air, and the danger of electric shock by contact or proximity. The definitions may refer to the voltage between two conductors of a system, or between any conductor and ground.
In electric power transmission engineering, high voltage is usually considered any voltage over approximately 35,000 volts. This is a classification based on the design of apparatus and insulation.
The International Electrotechnical Commission and its national counterparts (IET, IEEE, VDE, etc.) define high voltage as above 1000 V for alternating current, and at least 1500 V for direct current -- and distinguish it from low voltage (50 to 1000 VAC or 120 -- 1500 VDC) and extralow voltage (< 50 VAC or < 120 VDC) circuits. This is in the context of building wiring and the safety of electrical apparatus.
In the United States 2011 National Electrical Code (NEC) is the standard regulating most electrical installations. There are no definitions relating to high voltage. The NEC covers voltages 600 volts and less and that over 600 volts. The National Electrical Manufacturer 's Association (NEMA) defines high voltage as over 100 to 230 kV. British Standard BS 7671: 2008 defines high voltage as any voltage difference between conductors that is higher than 1000 VAC or 1500 V ripple - free DC, or any voltage difference between a conductor and Earth that is higher than 600 VAC or 900 V ripple - free DC.
Electricians may only be licensed for particular voltage classes, in some jurisdictions. For example, an electrical license for a specialized sub-trade such as installation of HVAC systems, fire alarm systems, closed circuit television systems may be authorized to install systems energized up to only 30 volts between conductors, and may not be permitted to work on mains - voltage circuits. The general public may consider household mains circuits (100 to 250 VAC), which carry the highest voltages they normally encounter, to be high voltage.
Voltages over approximately 50 volts can usually cause dangerous amounts of current to flow through a human being who touches two points of a circuit -- so safety standards, in general, are more restrictive around such circuits. The definition of extrahigh voltage (EHV) again depends on context. In electric power transmission engineering, EHV is classified as voltages in the range of 345,000 - 765,000 volts. In electronics systems, a power supply that provides greater than 275,000 volts is called an EHV Power Supply, and is often used in experiments in physics.
The accelerating voltage for a television cathode ray tube may be described as extrahigh voltage or extrahigh tension (EHT), compared to other voltage supplies within the equipment. This type of supply ranges from 5 kV to about 30 kV.
In automotive engineering, high voltage is defined as voltage in range 30 to 1000 VAC or 60 to 1500 VDC.
In digital electronics, a high voltage usually refers to something representing a logic 1 in positive logic and a logic 0 in negative logic. It is not used to indicate a hazardous voltage and levels between ICs to TTL / CMOS standards and their modern derivatives are well below hazardous levels. The highest in mainstream use were 15 V for original CMOS and 5 V for TTL but modern devices use 3.3 V, with 1.8 V or lower used in many applications.
Voltages greater than 50 V applied across dry unbroken human skin can cause heart fibrillation if they produce electric currents in body tissues that happen to pass through the chest area. The voltage at which there is the danger of electrocution depends on the electrical conductivity of dry human skin. Living human tissue can be protected from damage by the insulating characteristics of dry skin up to around 50 volts. If the same skin becomes wet, if there are wounds, or if the voltage is applied to electrodes that penetrate the skin, then even voltage sources below 40 V can be lethal.
Accidental contact with high voltage supplying sufficient energy may result in severe injury or death. This can occur as a person 's body provides a path for current flow, causing tissue damage and heart failure. Other injuries can include burns from the arc generated by the accidental contact. These burns can be especially dangerous if the victim 's airways are affected. Injuries may also be suffered as a result of the physical forces experienced by people who fall from a great height or are thrown a considerable distance.
Low - energy exposure to high voltage may be harmless, such as the spark produced in a dry climate when touching a doorknob after walking across a carpeted floor. The voltage can be in the thousand - volt range, but the current (the rate of charge transfer) is low.
Safety equipment used by electrical workers includes insulated rubber gloves and mats. These protect the user from electric shock. Safety equipment is tested regularly to ensure it is still protecting the user. Test regulations vary according to country. Testing companies can test at up 300,000 volts and offer services from glove testing to Elevated Working Platform (or EWP) testing.
The dielectric breakdown strength of dry air, at Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP), between spherical electrodes is approximately 33 kV / cm. This is only as a rough guide, since the actual breakdown voltage is highly dependent upon the electrode shape and size. Strong electric fields (from high voltages applied to small or pointed conductors) often produce violet - colored corona discharges in air, as well as visible sparks. Voltages below about 500 -- 700 volts can not produce easily visible sparks or glows in air at atmospheric pressure, so by this rule these voltages are "low ''. However, under conditions of low atmospheric pressure (such as in high - altitude aircraft), or in an environment of noble gas such as argon or neon, sparks appear at much lower voltages. 500 to 700 volts is not a fixed minimum for producing spark breakdown, but it is a rule - of - thumb. For air at STP, the minimum sparkover voltage is around 327 volts, as noted by Friedrich Paschen.
While lower voltages do not, in general, jump a gap that is present before the voltage is applied, interrupting an existing current flow with a gap often produces a low - voltage spark or arc. As the contacts are separated, a few small points of contact become the last to separate. The current becomes constricted to these small hot spots, causing them to become incandescent, so that they emit electrons (through thermionic emission). Even a small 9 V battery can spark noticeably by this mechanism in a darkened room. The ionized air and metal vapour (from the contacts) form plasma, which temporarily bridges the widening gap. If the power supply and load allow sufficient current to flow, a self - sustaining arc may form. Once formed, an arc may be extended to a significant length before breaking the circuit. Attempting to open an inductive circuit often forms an arc, since the inductance provides a high - voltage pulse whenever the current is interrupted. AC systems make sustained arcing somewhat less likely, since the current returns to zero twice per cycle. The arc is extinguished every time the current goes through a zero crossing, and must reignite during the next half - cycle to maintain the arc.
Unlike an ohmic conductor, the resistance of an arc decreases as the current increases. This makes unintentional arcs in an electrical apparatus dangerous since even a small arc can grow large enough to damage equipment and start fires if sufficient current is available. Intentionally produced arcs, such as used in lighting or welding, require some element in the circuit to stabilize the arc 's current / voltage characteristics.
A high voltage is not necessarily dangerous if it can not deliver substantial current. The common static electric sparks seen under low - humidity conditions always involve voltage well above 700 V. For example, sparks to car doors in winter can involve voltages as high as 20,000 V. Also, physics demonstration devices such as Van de Graaff generators and Wimshurst machines can produce voltages approaching one million volts, yet at worst they deliver a brief sting. That is because the number of electrons involved is not high. These devices have a limited amount of stored energy, so the average current produced is low and usually for a short time, with impulses peaking in the 1 A range for a nanosecond. During the discharge, these machines apply high voltage to the body for only a millionth of a second or less. So a low current is applied for a very short time, and the number of electrons involved is very small.
The discharge may involve extremely high voltage over very short periods, but, to produce heart fibrillation, an electric power supply must produce a significant current in the heart muscle continuing for many milliseconds, and must deposit a total energy in the range of at least millijoules or higher. Relatively high current at anything more than about fifty volts can therefore be medically significant and potentially fatal.
Tesla coils are not electrostatic machines and can produce significant currents for a sustained interval. Although their appearance in operation is similar to high voltage static electricity devices, the current supplied to a human body will be relatively constant as long as contact is maintained, and the voltage will be much higher than the break - down voltage of human skin. As a consequence, the output of a Tesla coil can be dangerous or even fatal.
Electrical transmission and distribution lines for electric power always use voltages significantly higher than 50 volts, so contact with or close approach to the line conductors presents a danger of electrocution. Contact with overhead wires is a frequent cause of injury or death. Metal ladders, farm equipment, boat masts, construction machinery, aerial antennas, and similar objects are frequently involved in fatal contact with overhead wires. Digging into a buried cable can also be dangerous to workers at an excavation site. Digging equipment (either hand tools or machine driven) that contacts a buried cable may energize piping or the ground in the area, resulting in electrocution of nearby workers. A fault in a high - voltage transmission line or substation may result in high currents flowing along the surface of the earth, producing an earth potential rise that also presents a danger of electric shock.
Unauthorized persons climbing on power pylons or electrical apparatus are also frequently the victims of electrocution. At very high transmission voltages even a close approach can be hazardous, since the high voltage may arc across a significant air gap.
For high - voltage and extra-high - voltage transmission lines, specially trained personnel use "live line '' techniques to allow hands - on contact with energized equipment. In this case the worker is electrically connected to the high - voltage line but thoroughly insulated from the earth so that he is at the same electrical potential as that of the line. Since training for such operations is lengthy, and still presents a danger to personnel, only very important transmission lines are subject to maintenance while live. Outside these properly engineered situations, insulation from earth does not guarantee that no current flows to earth -- as grounding or arcing to ground can occur in unexpected ways, and high - frequency currents can burn even an ungrounded person. Touching a transmitting antenna is dangerous for this reason, and a high - frequency Tesla coil can sustain a spark with only one endpoint.
Protective equipment on high - voltage transmission lines normally prevents formation of an unwanted arc, or ensures that it is quenched within tens of milliseconds. Electrical apparatus that interrupts high - voltage circuits is designed to safely direct the resulting arc so that it dissipates without damage. High voltage circuit breakers often use a blast of high pressure air, a special dielectric gas (such as SF under pressure), or immersion in mineral oil to quench the arc when the high voltage circuit is broken.
Depending on the prospective short - circuit current available at a switchgear line - up, a hazard is presented to maintenance and operating personnel due to the possibility of a high - intensity electric arc. Maximum temperature of an arc can exceed 10,000 kelvin, and the radiant heat, expanding hot air, and explosive vaporization of metal and insulation material can cause severe injury to unprotected workers. Such switchgear line - ups and high - energy arc sources are commonly present in electric power utility substations and generating stations, industrial plants and large commercial buildings. In the United States, the National Fire Protection Association, has published a guideline standard NFPA 70E for evaluating and calculating arc flash hazard, and provides standards for the protective clothing required for electrical workers exposed to such hazards in the workplace.
Even voltages insufficient to break down air can be associated with enough energy to ignite atmospheres containing flammable gases or vapours, or suspended dust. For example, hydrogen gas, natural gas, or petrol / gasoline vapor mixed with air can be ignited by sparks produced by electrical apparatus. Examples of industrial facilities with hazardous areas are petrochemical refineries, chemical plants, grain elevators, and coal mines.
Measures taken to prevent such explosions include:
In recent years, standards for explosion hazard protection have become more uniform between European and North American practice. The "zone '' system of classification is now used in modified form in U.S. National Electrical Code and in the Canadian Electrical Code. Intrinsic safety apparatus is now approved for use in North American applications.
Electrical discharges, including partial discharge and corona, can produce small quantities of toxic gases, which in a confined space can be a serious health hazard. These gases include ozone and various oxides of nitrogen.
The largest scale sparks are those produced naturally by lightning. An average bolt of negative lightning carries a current of 30 to 50 kiloamperes, transfers a charge of 5 coulombs, and dissipates 500 megajoules of energy (120 kg TNT equivalent, or enough to light a 100 - watt light bulb for approximately 2 months). However, an average bolt of positive lightning (from the top of a thunderstorm) may carry a current of 300 to 500 kiloamperes, transfer a charge of up to 300 coulombs, have a potential difference up to 1 gigavolt (a billion volts), and may dissipate 300 GJ of energy (72 tons TNT, or enough energy to light a 100 - watt light bulb for up to 95 years). A negative lightning strike typically lasts for only tens of microseconds, but multiple strikes are common. A positive lightning stroke is typically a single event. However, the larger peak current may flow for hundreds of milliseconds, making it considerably hotter and more dangerous than negative lightning.
Hazards due to lightning obviously include a direct strike on persons or property. However, lightning can also create dangerous voltage gradients in the earth, as well as an electromagnetic pulse, and can charge extended metal objects such as telephone cables, fences, and pipelines to dangerous voltages that can be carried many miles from the site of the strike. Although many of these objects are not normally conductive, very high voltage can cause the electrical breakdown of such insulators, causing them to act as conductors. These transferred potentials are dangerous to people, livestock, and electronic apparatus. Lightning strikes also start fires and explosions, which result in fatalities, injuries, and property damage. For example, each year in North America, thousands of forest fires are started by lightning strikes.
Measures to control lightning can mitigate the hazard; these include lightning rods, shielding wires, and bonding of electrical and structural parts of buildings to form a continuous enclosure.
High - voltage lightning discharges in the atmosphere of Jupiter are thought to be the source of the planet 's powerful radio frequency emissions.
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which of the following is not one of the characteristics of antisocial personality disorder | Antisocial personality disorder - wikipedia
Antisocial personality disorder is defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Dissocial personality disorder (DPD), a similar or equivalent concept, is defined in the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD), which includes antisocial personality disorder in the diagnosis. Both manuals provide similar criteria for diagnosing the disorder. Both have also stated that their diagnoses have been referred to, or include what is referred to, as psychopathy or sociopathy, but distinctions have been made between the conceptualizations of antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy, with many researchers arguing that psychopathy is a disorder that overlaps with, but is distinguishable from, ASPD.
Antisocial personality disorder is defined by a pervasive and persistent disregard for morals, social norms, and the rights and feelings of others. Individuals with this personality disorder will typically have no compunction in exploiting others in harmful ways for their own gain or pleasure and frequently manipulate and deceive other people, achieving this through wit and a façade of superficial charm or through intimidation and violence. They may display arrogance, think lowly and negatively of others, and lack remorse for their harmful actions and have a callous attitude to those they have harmed. Irresponsibility is a core characteristic of this disorder: they can have significant difficulties in maintaining stable employment as well as fulfilling their social and financial obligations, and people with this disorder often lead exploitative, unlawful, or parasitic lifestyles.
Those with antisocial personality disorder are often impulsive and reckless, failing to consider or disregarding the consequences of their actions. They may repeatedly disregard and jeopardize their own safety and the safety of others and place themselves and others in danger. They are often aggressive and hostile and display a disregulated temper and can lash out violently with provocation or frustration. Individuals are prone to substance abuse and addiction, and the abuse of various psychoactive substances is common in this population. These behaviors lead such individuals into frequent conflict with the law, and many people with ASPD have extensive histories of antisocial behavior and criminal infractions stemming back before adulthood.
Serious problems with interpersonal relationships are often seen in those with the disorder. Attachments and emotional bonds are weak, and interpersonal relationships often revolve around the manipulation, exploitation, and abuse of others. While they generally have no problems in establishing relationships, they may have difficulties in sustaining and maintaining them. Relationships with family members and relatives are often strained due to their behavior and the frequent problems that these individuals may get into.
While antisocial personality disorder is a mental disorder diagnosed in adulthood, it has its precedent in childhood. The DSM - 5 's criteria for ASPD require that the individual have conduct problems evident by the age of 15. Persistent antisocial behavior as well as a lack of regard for others in childhood and adolescence is known as conduct disorder and is the precursor of ASPD. About 25 - 40 % of youths with conduct disorder will be diagnosed with ASPD in adulthood.
Conduct disorder (CD) is a disorder diagnosed in childhood that parallels the characteristics found in ASPD and is characterized by a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights of others or major age - appropriate norms are violated. Children with the disorder often display impulsive and aggressive behavior, may be callous and deceitful, and may repeatedly engage in petty crime such as stealing or vandalism or get into fights with other children and adults. This behavior is typically persistent and may be difficult to deter with threat or punishment. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is common in this population, and children with the disorder may also engage in substance abuse. '' CD is differentiated from oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) in that children with ODD do not commit aggressive or antisocial acts against other people, animals, and property, though many children diagnosed with ODD are subsequently rediagnosed with CD.
Two developmental courses for CD have been identified based on the age at which the symptoms become present. The first is known as the "childhood - onset type '' and occurs when conduct disorder symptoms are present before the age of 10 years. This course is often linked to a more persistent life course and more pervasive behaviors, and children in this group express greater levels of ADHD symptoms, neuropsychological deficits, more academic problems, increased family dysfunction, and higher likelihood of aggression and violence. The second is known as the "adolescent - onset type '' and occurs when conduct disorder develops after the age of 10 years. Compared to the childhood - onset type, less impairment in various cognitive and emotional functions are present, and the adolescent - onset variety may remit by adulthood. In addition to this differentiation, the DSM - 5 provides a specifier for a callous and unemotional interpersonal style, which reflects characteristics seen in psychopathy and are believed to be a childhood precursor to this disorder. Compared to the adolescent - onset subtype, the childhood onset subtype, especially if callous and unemotional traits are present, tends to have a worse treatment outcome.
Personality disorders are seen to be caused by a combination and interaction of genetic and environmental influences. Genetically, it is the intrinsic temperamental tendencies as determined by their genetically influenced physiology, and environmentally, it is the social and cultural experiences of a person in childhood and adolescence encompassing their family dynamics, peer influences, and social values. People with an antisocial or alcoholic parent are considered to be at higher risk. Fire - setting and cruelty to animals during childhood are as well linked to the development of antisocial personality. The condition is more common in males than in females, and among people who are in prison.
Research into genetic associations in antisocial personality disorder is suggestive that ASPD has some or even a strong genetic basis. Prevalence of ASPD is higher in people related to someone afflicted by the disorder. Twin studies, which are designed to discern between genetic and environmental effects, have reported significant genetic influences on antisocial behavior and conduct disorder.
In the specific genes that may be involved, one gene that has seen particular interest in its correlation with antisocial behavior is the gene that encodes for Monoamine oxidase A (MAO - A), an enzyme that breaks down monoamine neurotransmitters such as serotonin and norephinephrine. Various studies examining the gene 's relationship to behavior have suggested that variants of the gene that results in less MAO - A being produced, such as the 2R and 3R alleles of the promoter region, have associations with aggressive behavior in men. The association is also influenced by negative experience in early life, with children possessing a low - activity variant (MAOA - L) who experience such maltreatment being more likely to develop antisocial behavior than those with the high - activity variants (MAOA - H). Even when environmental interactions (e.g. emotional abuse) are controlled for, a small association between MAOA - L and aggressive and antisocial behavior remains.
The gene that encodes for the serotonin transporter (SCL6A4), a gene that is heavily researched for its associations with other mental disorders, is another gene of interest in antisocial behavior and personality traits. Genetic associations studies have suggested that the short "S '' allele is associated with impulsive antisocial behavior and ASPD in the inmate population. However, research into psychopathy find that the long "L '' allele is associated with the Factor 1 traits of psychopathy, which describes its core affective (e.g. lack of empathy, fearlessness) and interpersonal (e.g. grandiosity, manipulativeness) personality disturbances. This is suggestive of two different forms, one associated more with impulsive behavior and emotional dysregulation, and the other with predatory aggression and affective disturbance, of the disorder.
Various other gene candidates for ASPD have been identified by a genome - wide association study published in 2016. Several of these gene candidates are shared with attention - deficit hyperactivity disorder, with which ASPD is comorbid.
Traumatic events can lead to a disruption of the standard development of the central nervous system, which can generate a release of hormones that can change normal patterns of development. Aggressiveness and impulsivity are among the possible symptoms of ASPD. Testosterone is a hormone that plays an important role in aggressiveness in the brain. For instance, criminals who have committed violent crimes tend to have higher levels of testosterone than the average person. The effect of testosterone is counteracted by cortisol which facilitates the cognitive control of impulsive tendencies.
One of the neurotransmitters that have been discussed in individuals with ASPD is serotonin, also known as 5HT. A meta - analysis of 20 studies found significantly lower 5 - HIAA levels (indicating lower serotonin levels), especially in those who are younger than 30 years of age.
While it has been shown that lower levels of serotonin may be associated with ASPD, there has also been evidence that decreased serotonin function is highly correlated with impulsiveness and aggression across a number of different experimental paradigms. Impulsivity is not only linked with irregularities in 5HT metabolism, but may be the most essential psychopathological aspect linked with such dysfunction. Correspondingly, the DSM classifies "impulsivity or failure to plan ahead '' and "irritability and aggressiveness '' as two of seven sub-criteria in category A of the diagnostic criteria of ASPD.
Some studies have found a relationship between monoamine oxidase A and antisocial behavior, including conduct disorder and symptoms of adult ASPD, in maltreated children.
Antisocial behavior may be related to head trauma. Antisocial behavior is associated with decreased grey matter in the right lentiform nucleus, left insula, and frontopolar cortex. Increased volumes have been observed in the right fusiform gyrus, inferior parietal cortex, right cingulate gyrus, and post central cortex.
People that exhibit antisocial behavior demonstrate decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex. The association is more apparent in functional neuroimaging as opposed to structural neuroimaging. The prefrontal cortex is involved in many executive functions, including behavior inhibitions, planning ahead, determining consequences of action, and differentiating between right and wrong.
Cavum septi pellucidi (CSP) is a marker for limbic neural maldevelopment, and its presence has been loosely associated with certain mental disorders, such as schizophrenia and post-traumatic stress disorder. One study found that those with CSP had significantly higher levels of antisocial personality, psychopathy, arrests and convictions compared with controls.
Some studies suggest that the social and home environment has contributed to the development of antisocial behavior. The parents of these children have been shown to display antisocial behavior, which could be adopted by their children.
The socio - cultural perspective of clinical psychology views disorders as influenced by cultural aspects; since cultural norms differ significantly, mental disorders such as ASPD are viewed differently. Robert D. Hare has suggested that the rise in ASPD that has been reported in the United States may be linked to changes in cultural mores, the latter serving to validate the behavioral tendencies of many individuals with ASPD. While the rise reported may be in part merely a byproduct of the widening use (and abuse) of diagnostic techniques, given Eric Berne 's division between individuals with active and latent ASPD -- the latter keeping themselves in check by attachment to an external source of control like the law, traditional standards, or religion -- it has been suggested that the erosion of collective standards may indeed serve to release the individual with latent ASPD from their previously prosocial behavior.
There is also a continuous debate as to the extent to which the legal system should be involved in the identification and admittance of patients with preliminary symptoms of ASPD.
The APA 's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition, text revision (DSM IV - TR) defines antisocial personality disorder as:
The essential features of a personality disorder are impairments in personality (self and interpersonal) functioning and the presence of pathological personality traits. To diagnose antisocial personality disorder, the following criteria must be met:
A. Significant impairments in personality functioning manifest by:
AND
B. Pathological personality traits in the following domains:
C. The impairments in personality functioning and the individual 's personality trait expression are relatively stable across time and consistent across situations.
D. The impairments in personality functioning and the individual 's personality trait expression are not better understood as normative for the individual 's developmental stage or sociocultural environment.
E. The impairments in personality functioning and the individual 's personality trait expression are not solely due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, medication) or a general medical condition (e.g., severe head trauma).
F. The individual is at least age 18 years.
Antisocial personality disorder falls under the dramatic / erratic cluster of personality disorders, "Cluster B. ''
The WHO 's International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, tenth edition (ICD - 10), has a diagnosis called dissocial personality disorder (F60. 2):
The ICD states that this diagnosis includes "amoral, antisocial, asocial, psychopathic, and sociopathic personality ''. Although the disorder is not synonymous with conduct disorder, presence of conduct disorder during childhood or adolescence may further support the diagnosis of dissocial personality disorder. There may also be persistent irritability as an associated feature.
It is a requirement of the ICD - 10 that a diagnosis of any specific personality disorder also satisfies a set of general personality disorder criteria.
Psychopathy is commonly defined as a personality disorder characterized partly by antisocial behavior, a diminished capacity for empathy and remorse, and poor behavioral controls. Psychopathic traits are assessed using various measurement tools, including Canadian researcher Robert D. Hare 's Psychopathy Checklist, Revised (PCL - R). "Psychopathy '' is not the official title of any diagnosis in the DSM or ICD; nor is it an official title used by other major psychiatric organizations. The DSM and ICD, however, state that their antisocial diagnoses are at times referred to (or include what is referred to) as psychopathy or sociopathy.
American psychiatrist Hervey Cleckley 's work on psychopathy formed the basis of the diagnostic criteria for ASPD, and the DSM states ASPD is often referred to as psychopathy. However, critics argue ASPD is not synonymous with psychopathy as the diagnostic criteria are not the same, since criteria relating to personality traits are emphasized relatively less in the former. These differences exist in part because it was believed such traits were difficult to measure reliably and it was "easier to agree on the behaviors that typify a disorder than on the reasons why they occur ''.
Although the diagnosis of ASPD covers two to three times as many prisoners than the diagnosis of psychopathy, Robert Hare believes the PCL - R is better able to predict future criminality, violence, and recidivism than a diagnosis of ASPD. He suggests there are differences between PCL - R - diagnosed psychopaths and non-psychopaths on "processing and use of linguistic and emotional information '', while such differences are potentially smaller between those diagnosed with ASPD and without. Additionally, Hare argued confusion regarding how to diagnose ASPD, confusion regarding the difference between ASPD and psychopathy, as well as the differing future prognoses regarding recidivism and treatability, may have serious consequences in settings such as court cases where psychopathy is often seen as aggravating the crime.
Nonetheless, psychopathy has been proposed as a specifier under an alternative model for ASPD. In the DSM - 5, under "Alternative DSM - 5 Model for Personality Disorders '', ASPD with psychopathic features is described as characterized by "a lack of anxiety or fear and by a bold interpersonal style that may mask maladaptive behaviors (e.g., fraudulence). '' Low levels of withdrawal and high levels of attention - seeking combined with low anxiety are associated with "social potency '' and "stress immunity '' in psychopathy. Under the specifier, affective and interpersonal characteristics are comparatively emphasized over behavioral components.
Theodore Millon suggested 5 subtypes of ASPD. However, these constructs are not recognized in the DSM and ICD.
Elsewhere, Millon differentiates ten subtypes (partially overlapping with the above) -- covetous, risk - taking, malevolent, tyrannical, malignant, disingenuous, explosive, and abrasive -- but specifically stresses that "the number 10 is by no means special... Taxonomies may be put forward at levels that are more coarse or more fine - grained. ''
ASPD commonly coexists with the following conditions:
When combined with alcoholism, people may show frontal function deficits on neuropsychological tests greater than those associated with each condition.
The rates of antisocial personality disorder tends to be around 40 - 50 % in male alcohol and opiate addicts.
ASPD is considered to be among the most difficult personality disorders to treat. Rendering an effective treatment for ASPD is further complicated due to the inability to look at comparative studies between psychopathy and ASPD due to differing diagnostic criteria, differences in defining and measuring outcomes and a focus on treating incarcerated patients rather than those in the community. Because of their very low or absent capacity for remorse, individuals with ASPD often lack sufficient motivation and fail to see the costs associated with antisocial acts. They may only simulate remorse rather than truly commit to change: they can be seductively charming and dishonest, and may manipulate staff and fellow patients during treatment. Studies have shown that outpatient therapy is not likely to be successful, but the extent to which persons with ASPD are entirely unresponsive to treatment may have been exaggerated.
Most treatment done is for those in the criminal justice system are given the treatment regimes as part of their imprisonment. Those with ASPD may stay in treatment only as required by an external source, such as parole conditions. Residential programs that provide a carefully controlled environment of structure and supervision along with peer confrontation have been recommended. There has been some research on the treatment of ASPD that indicated positive results for therapeutic interventions. Psychotherapy also known as talk therapy is found to help treat patients with ASPD. Schema therapy is also being investigated as a treatment for ASPD. A review by Charles M. Borduin features the strong influence of Multisystemic therapy (MST) that could potentially improve this imperative issue. However, this treatment requires complete cooperation and participation of all family members. Some studies have found that the presence of ASPD does not significantly interfere with treatment for other disorders, such as substance abuse, although others have reported contradictory findings.
Therapists working with individuals with ASPD may have considerable negative feelings toward patients with extensive histories of aggressive, exploitative, and abusive behaviors. Rather than attempt to develop a sense of conscience in these individuals, which is extremely difficult considering the nature of the disorder, therapeutic techniques are focused on rational and utilitarian arguments against repeating past mistakes. These approaches would focus on the tangible, material value of prosocial behavior and abstaining from antisocial behavior. However, the impulsive and aggressive nature of those with this disorder may limit the effectiveness of even this form of therapy.
The use of medications in treating antisocial personality disorder is still poorly explored, and no medications have been approved by the FDA to specifically treat ASPD. A 2010 Cochrane review of studies that explored the use of pharmaceuticals in ASPD patients, of which 8 studies met the selection criteria for review, concluded that the current body of evidence was inconclusive for recommendations concerning the use of pharmaceuticals in treating the various issues of ASPD. Nonetheless psychiatric medications such as antipsychotics, antidepressants, and mood stabilizers can be used to control symptoms such as aggression and impulsivity, as well as treat disorders that may co-occur with ASPD for which medications are indicated.
According to Professor Emily Simonoff of the Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, "childhood hyperactivity and conduct disorder showed equally strong prediction of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) and criminality in early and mid-adult life. Lower IQ and reading problems were most prominent in their relationships with childhood and adolescent antisocial behaviour. ''
ASPD is seen in 3 % to 30 % of psychiatric outpatients. The prevalence of the disorder is even higher in selected populations, like prisons, where there is a preponderance of violent offenders. A 2002 literature review of studies on mental disorders in prisoners stated that 47 % of male prisoners and 21 % of female prisoners had ASPD. Similarly, the prevalence of ASPD is higher among patients in alcohol or other drug (AOD) abuse treatment programs than in the general population, suggesting a link between ASPD and AOD abuse and dependence.
The first version of the DSM in 1952 listed sociopathic personality disturbance. Individuals to be placed in this category were said to be "... ill primarily in terms of society and of conformity with the prevailing milieu, and not only in terms of personal discomfort and relations with other individuals ''. There were four subtypes, referred to as "reactions ''; antisocial, dyssocial, sexual, and addiction. The antisocial reaction was said to include people who were "always in trouble '' and not learning from it, maintaining "no loyalties '', frequently callous and lacking responsibility, with an ability to "rationalize '' their behavior. The category was described as more specific and limited than the existing concepts of "constitutional psychopathic state '' or "psychopathic personality '' which had had a very broad meaning; the narrower definition was in line with criteria advanced by Hervey M. Cleckley from 1941, while the term sociopathic had been advanced by George Partridge in 1928 when studying the early environmental influence on psychopaths. Partridge discovered the correlation between antisocial psychopathic disorder and parental rejection experienced in early childhood.
The DSM - II in 1968 rearranged the categories and "antisocial personality '' was now listed as one of ten personality disorders but still described similarly, to be applied to individuals who are: "basically unsocialized '', in repeated conflicts with society, incapable of significant loyalty, selfish, irresponsible, unable to feel guilt or learn from prior experiences, and who tend to blame others and rationalize. The manual preface contains "special instructions '' including "Antisocial personality should always be specified as mild, moderate, or severe. '' The DSM - II warned that a history of legal or social offenses was not by itself enough to justify the diagnosis, and that a "group delinquent reaction '' of childhood or adolescence or "social maladjustment without manifest psychiatric disorder '' should be ruled out first. The dyssocial personality type was relegated in the DSM - II to "dyssocial behavior '' for individuals who are predatory and follow more or less criminal pursuits, such as racketeers, dishonest gamblers, prostitutes, and dope peddlers. (DSM - I classified this condition as sociopathic personality disorder, dyssocial type). It would later resurface as the name of a diagnosis in the ICD manual produced by the WHO, later spelled dissocial personality disorder and considered approximately equivalent to the ASPD diagnosis.
The DSM - III in 1980 included the full term antisocial personality disorder and, as with other disorders, there was now a full checklist of symptoms focused on observable behaviors to enhance consistency in diagnosis between different psychiatrists (' inter-rater reliability '). The ASPD symptom list was based on the Research Diagnostic Criteria developed from the so - called Feighner Criteria from 1972, and in turn largely credited to influential research by sociologist Lee Robins published in 1966 as "Deviant Children Grown Up ''. However, Robins has previously clarified that while the new criteria of prior childhood conduct problems came from her work, she and co-researcher psychiatrist Patricia O'Neal got the diagnostic criteria they used from Lee 's husband the psychiatrist Eli Robins, one of the authors of the Feighner criteria who had been using them as part of diagnostic interviews.
The DSM - IV maintained the trend for behavioral antisocial symptoms while noting "This pattern has also been referred to as psychopathy, sociopathy, or dyssocial personality disorder '' and re-including in the ' Associated Features ' text summary some of the underlying personality traits from the older diagnoses. The DSM - 5 has the same diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder. The Pocket Guide to the DSM - 5 Diagnostic Exam suggests that a person with ASPD may present "with psychopathic features '' if he or she exhibits "a lack of anxiety or fear and a bold, efficacious interpersonal style ''.
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who was the supposed divine father of theseus | Theseus - wikipedia
Theseus (/ ˈθiːsiːəs /; Ancient Greek: Θησεύς (thɛːsěu̯s)) was the mythical king and founder - hero of Athens. Like Perseus, Cadmus, or Heracles, Theseus battled and overcame foes that were identified with an archaic religious and social order: "This was a major cultural transition, like the making of the new Olympia by Hercules '' (Ruck & Staples, p. 204).
Theseus was a founding hero for the Athenians in the same way that Heracles was the founding hero for the Dorians. The Athenians regarded Theseus as a great reformer; his name comes from the same root as θεσμός (thesmos), Greek for "The Gathering ''. The myths surrounding Theseus -- his journeys, exploits, and family -- have provided material for fiction throughout the ages.
Theseus was responsible for the synoikismos ("dwelling together '') -- the political unification of Attica under Athens -- represented emblematically in his journey of labours, subduing ogres and monstrous beasts. Because he was the unifying king, Theseus built and occupied a palace on the fortress of the Acropolis that may have been similar to the palace that was excavated in Mycenae. Pausanias reports that after the synoikismos, Theseus established a cult of Aphrodite Pandemos ("Aphrodite of all the People '') and Peitho on the southern slope of the Acropolis.
Plutarch 's Life of Theseus (a literalistic biography) makes use of varying accounts of the death of the Minotaur, Theseus ' escape, and the love of Ariadne for Theseus. Plutarch 's sources, not all of whose texts have survived independently, included Pherecydes (mid-fifth century BCE), Demon (c. 400 BCE), Philochorus, and Cleidemus (both fourth century BCE).
Aegeus, one of the primordial kings of Athens, was childless. Desiring an heir, he asked the oracle at Delphi for advice. Her cryptic words were "Do not loosen the bulging mouth of the wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief. '' Aegeus did not understand the prophecy and was disappointed. He asked the advice of his host Pittheus, king of Troezen. Pittheus understood the prophecy, got Aegeus drunk, and gave Aegeus his daughter Aethra.
But following the instructions of Athena in a dream, Aethra left the sleeping Aegeus and waded across to the island of Sphairia that lay close to Troezen 's shore. There she poured a libation to Sphairos (Pelops ' charioteer) and Poseidon, and was possessed by the sea god in the night. The mix gave Theseus a combination of divine as well as mortal characteristics in his nature; such double paternity, with one immortal and one mortal, was a familiar feature of other Greek heroes. After Aethra became pregnant, Aegeus decided to return to Athens. Before leaving, however, he buried his sandals and sword under a huge rock and told Aethra that when their son grew up, he should move the rock, if he were heroic enough, and take the tokens for himself as evidence of his royal parentage. In Athens, Aegeus was joined by Medea, who had left Corinth after slaughtering the children she had borne, and had taken Aegeus as her new consort. Priestess and consort together represented the old order in Athens.
Thus Theseus was raised in his mother 's land. When Theseus grew up and became a brave young man, he moved the rock and recovered his father 's tokens. His mother then told him the truth about his father 's identity and that he must take the sword and sandals back to king Aegeus to claim his birthright. To journey to Athens, Theseus could choose to go by sea (which was the safe way) or by land, following a dangerous path around the Saronic Gulf, where he would encounter a string of six entrances to the Underworld, each guarded by a chthonic enemy. Young, brave, and ambitious, Theseus decided to go alone by the land route and defeated a great many bandits along the way.
When Theseus arrived at Athens, he did not reveal his true identity immediately. Aegeus gave him hospitality but was suspicious of the young, powerful stranger 's intentions. Aegeus 's wife Medea recognised Theseus immediately as Aegeus ' son and worried that Theseus would be chosen as heir to Aegeus ' kingdom instead of her son Medus. She tried to arrange to have Theseus killed by asking him to capture the Marathonian Bull, an emblem of Cretan power.
On the way to Marathon, Theseus took shelter from a storm in the hut of an ancient woman named Hecale. She swore to make a sacrifice to Zeus if Theseus were successful in capturing the bull. Theseus did capture the bull, but when he returned to Hecale 's hut, she was dead. In her honour Theseus gave her name to one of the demes of Attica, making its inhabitants in a sense her adopted children.
When Theseus returned victorious to Athens, where he sacrificed the Bull, Medea tried to poison him. At the last second, Aegeus recognised the sandals and the sword, and knocked the poisoned wine cup from Theseus 's hand. Thus father and son were reunited, and Medea, it was said, fled to Asia.
When Theseus appeared in the town, his reputation had preceded him, having travelled along the notorious coastal road from Troezen and slain some of the most feared bandits there. It was not long before the Pallantides ' hopes of succeeding the apparently childless Aegeus would be lost if they did not get rid of Theseus (the Pallantides were the sons of Pallas and nephews of King Aegeus, who were then living at the royal court in the sanctuary of Delphic Apollo). So they set a trap for him. One band of them would march on the town from one side while another lay in wait near a place called Gargettus in ambush. The plan was that after Theseus, Aegeus, and the palace guards had been forced out the front, the other half would surprise them from behind. However, Theseus was not fooled. Informed of the plan by a herald named Leos, he crept out of the city at midnight and surprised the Pallantides. "Theseus then fell suddenly upon the party lying in ambush, and slew them all. Thereupon the party with Pallas dispersed, '' Plutarch reported.
Pasiphaë, wife of King Minos of Crete, had several children. The eldest of these, Androgeos, set sail for Athens to take part in the Panathenaic Games, which were held there every four years. Being strong and skilful, he did very well, winning some events outright. He soon became a crowd favourite, much to the resentment of the Pallantides who assassinated him, incurring the wrath of Minos.
When King Minos had heard of what befell his son, he ordered the Cretan fleet to set sail for Athens. Minos asked Aegeus for his son 's assassins, and if they were to be handed to him, the town would be spared. However, not knowing who the assassins were, King Aegeus surrendered the whole town to Minos ' mercy. His retribution was that, at the end of every Great Year, which occurred after every seven cycles on the solar calendar, the seven most courageous youths and the seven most beautiful maidens were to board a boat and be sent as tribute to Crete, never to be seen again.
In another version, King Minos had waged war with the Athenians and was successful. He then demanded that, at nine - year intervals, seven Athenian boys and seven Athenian girls were to be sent to Crete to be devoured by the Minotaur, a half - man, half - bull monster that lived in the Labyrinth created by Daedalus.
On the third occasion, Theseus volunteered to slay the monster to stop this horror. He took the place of one of the youths and set off with a black sail, promising to his father, Aegeus, that if successful he would return with a white sail. Like the others, Theseus was stripped of his weapons when they sailed. On his arrival in Crete, Ariadne, King Minos ' daughter, fell in love with Theseus and, on the advice of Daedalus, gave him a ball of thread (a clew), so he could find his way out of the Labyrinth. That night, Ariadne escorted Theseus to the Labyrinth, and Theseus promised that if he returned from the Labyrinth he would take Ariadne with him. As soon as Theseus entered the Labyrinth, he tied one end of the ball of string to the door post and brandished his sword which he had kept hidden from the guards inside his tunic. Theseus followed Daedalus ' instructions given to Ariadne; go forwards, always down and never left or right. Theseus came to the heart of the Labyrinth and also upon the sleeping Minotaur. The beast awoke and a tremendous fight then occurred. Theseus overpowered the Minotaur with his strength and stabbed the beast in the throat with his sword (according to one scholium on Pindar 's Fifth Nemean Ode, Theseus strangled it).
After decapitating the beast, Theseus used the string to escape the Labyrinth and managed to escape with all of the young Athenians and Ariadne as well as her younger sister Phaedra. Then he and the rest of the crew fell asleep on the beach. Athena woke Theseus and told him to leave early that morning. Athena told Theseus to leave Ariadne and Phaedra on the beach. Stricken with distress, Theseus forgot to put up the white sails instead of the black ones, so the king committed suicide, in some versions throwing himself off a cliff and into the sea, thus causing this body of water to be named the Aegean. Dionysus later saw Ariadne crying out for Theseus and took pity on her and married her.
According to Plutarch 's Life of Theseus, the ship Theseus used on his return from Crete to Athens was kept in the Athenian harbour as a memorial for several centuries.
The ship wherein Theseus and the youth of Athens returned had thirty oars, and was preserved by the Athenians down even to the time of Demetrius Phalereus, for they took away the old planks as they decayed, putting in new and stronger timber in their place...
The ship had to be maintained in a seaworthy state, for, in return for Theseus 's successful mission, the Athenians had pledged to honour Apollo every year henceforth. Thus, the Athenians sent a religious mission to the island of Delos (one of Apollo 's most sacred sanctuaries) on the Athenian state galley -- the ship itself -- to pay their fealty to the god. To preserve the purity of the occasion, no executions were permitted between the time when the religious ceremony began to when the ship returned from Delos, which took several weeks.
To preserve the ship, any wood that wore out or rotted was replaced; it was, thus, unclear to philosophers how much of the original ship actually remained, giving rise to the philosophical question whether it should be considered "the same '' ship or not. Such philosophical questions about the nature of identity are sometimes referred to as the Ship of Theseus Paradox.
Regardless of these issues, Athenians preserved the ship. Their belief was that Theseus had been an actual, historic figure and the ship gave them a tangible connection to their divine providence.
Theseus 's best friend was Pirithous, prince of the Lapiths. Pirithous had heard stories of Theseus 's courage and strength in battle but wanted proof so he rustled Theseus 's herd of cattle and drove it from Marathon and Theseus set out in pursuit. Pirithous took up his arms and the pair met to do battle but were so impressed with each other they took an oath of friendship and joined the hunt for the Calydonian Boar.
In Iliad I, Nestor numbers Pirithous and Theseus "of heroic fame '' among an earlier generation of heroes of his youth, "the strongest men that Earth has bred, the strongest men against the strongest enemies, a savage mountain - dwelling tribe whom they utterly destroyed. '' No trace of such an oral tradition, which Homer 's listeners would have recognised in Nestor 's allusion, survived in literary epic. Later, Pirithous was preparing to marry Hippodamia. The centaurs were guests at the wedding feast, but got drunk and tried to abduct the women, including Hippodamia. The Lapiths won the ensuing battle.
In Ovid 's Metamorphoses Theseus fights against and kills Eurytus, the "fiercest of all the fierce centaurs '' at the wedding of Pirithous and Hippodamia.
Theseus, a great abductor of women, and his bosom companion, Pirithous, since they were sons of Zeus and Poseidon, pledged themselves to marry daughters of Zeus. Theseus, in an old tradition, chose Helen, and together they kidnapped her, intending to keep her until she was old enough to marry. Pirithous chose Persephone. They left Helen with Theseus 's mother, Aethra at Aphidna, whence she was rescued by the Dioscuri.
On Pirithous ' behalf they travelled to the underworld, domain of Persephone and her husband Hades. As they wandered through the outskirts of Tartarus, Theseus sat down to rest on a rock. As he did so he felt his limbs change and grow stiff. He tried to rise but could not. He was fixed to the rock. As he turned to cry out to his friend, he saw that Pirithous too was crying out. Around him gathered the terrible band of Furies with snakes in their hair, torches and long whips in their hands. Before these monsters the hero 's courage failed and he was led away to eternal punishment.
For many months in half darkness, Theseus sat immovably fixed to the rock, mourning for both his friend and for himself. In the end he was rescued by Heracles who had come to the underworld for his 12th task. There he persuaded Persephone to forgive him for the part he had taken in the rash venture of Pirithous. So Theseus was restored to the upper air but Pirithous never left the kingdom of the dead, for when he tried to free Pirithous, the underworld shook. When Theseus returned to Athens, he found that the Dioscuri had taken Helen and Aethra to Sparta.
Phaedra, Theseus 's second wife and the daughter of King Minos, bore Theseus two sons, Demophon and Acamas. While these two were still in their infancy, Phaedra fell in love with Hippolytus, Theseus 's son by the Amazon queen Hippolyta. According to some versions of the story, Hippolytus had scorned Aphrodite to become a follower of Artemis, so Aphrodite made Phaedra fall in love with him as punishment. He rejected her out of chastity.
Alternatively, in Euripides ' version, Hippolytus, Phaedra 's nurse told Hippolytus of her mistress 's love and he swore he would not reveal the nurse as his source of information. To ensure that she would die with dignity, Phaedra wrote to Theseus on a tablet claiming that Hippolytus had raped her before hanging herself. Theseus believed her and used one of the three wishes he had received from Poseidon against his son. The curse caused Hippolytus ' horses to be frightened by a sea monster, usually a bull, and drag their rider to his death. Artemis would later tell Theseus the truth, promising to avenge her loyal follower on another follower of Aphrodite.
In a version by Seneca, the Roman playwright, entitled Phaedra, after Phaedra told Theseus that Hippolytus had raped her, Theseus killed his son himself, and Phaedra committed suicide out of guilt, for she had not intended for Hippolytus to die.
In yet another version, Phaedra simply told Theseus Hippolytus had raped her and did not kill herself. Dionysus sent a wild bull which terrified Hippolytus 's horses.
A cult grew up around Hippolytus, associated with the cult of Aphrodite. Girls who were about to be married offered locks of their hair to him. The cult believed that Asclepius had resurrected Hippolytus and that he lived in a sacred forest near Aricia in Latium.
According to some sources, Theseus also was one of the Argonauts, although Apollonius of Rhodes states in the Argonautica that Theseus was still in the underworld at this time. Both statements are inconsistent with Medea being Aegeus ' wife by the time Theseus first came to Athens. With Phaedra, Theseus fathered Acamas, who was one of those who hid in the Trojan Horse during the Trojan War. Theseus welcomed the wandering Oedipus and helped Adrastus to bury the Seven Against Thebes.
Lycomedes of the island of Skyros threw Theseus off a cliff after he had lost popularity in Athens. In 475 BC, in response to an oracle, Cimon of Athens, having conquered Skyros for the Athenians, identified as the remains of Theseus "a coffin of a great corpse with a bronze spear - head by its side and a sword. '' (Plutarch, Life of Cimon, quoted Burkert 1985, p. 206). The remains found by Cimon were reburied in Athens. The early modern name Theseion (Temple of Theseus) was mistakenly applied to the Temple of Hephaestus which was thought to be the actual site of the hero 's tomb.
Primary sources
Secondary sources
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where are cone cells located in the eye | Cone cell - wikipedia
Cone cells, or cones, are one of three types of photoreceptor cells in the retina of mammalian eyes (e.g. the human eye). They are responsible for color vision and function best in relatively bright light, as opposed to rod cells, which work better in dim light. Cone cells are densely packed in the fovea centralis, a 0.3 mm diameter rod - free area with very thin, densely packed cones which quickly reduce in number towards the periphery of the retina. There are about six to seven million cones in a human eye and are most concentrated towards the macula. The commonly cited figure of six million cone cells in the human eye was found by Osterberg in 1935. Oyster 's textbook (1999) cites work by Curcio et al. (1990) indicating an average close to 4.5 million cone cells and 90 million rod cells in the human retina.
Cones are less sensitive to light than the rod cells in the retina (which support vision at low light levels), but allow the perception of colour. They are also able to perceive finer detail and more rapid changes in images, because their response times to stimuli are faster than those of rods. Cones are normally one of the three types, each with different pigment, namely: S - cones, M - cones and L - cones. Each cone is therefore sensitive to visible wavelengths of light that correspond to short - wavelength, medium - wavelength and long - wavelength light. Because humans usually have three kinds of cones with different photopsins, which have different response curves and thus respond to variation in colour in different ways, we have trichromatic vision. Being colour blind can change this, and there have been some verified reports of people with four or more types of cones, giving them tetrachromatic vision. The three pigments responsible for detecting light have been shown to vary in their exact chemical composition due to genetic mutation; different individuals will have cones with different color sensitivity. Destruction of the cone cells from disease would result in color blindness.
Humans normally have three types of cones. The first responds the most to light of long wavelengths, peaking at about 560 nm; this type is sometimes designated L for long. The second type responds the most to light of medium - wavelength, peaking at 530 nm, and is abbreviated M for medium. The third type responds the most to short - wavelength light, peaking at 420 nm, and is designated S for short. The three types have peak wavelengths near 564 -- 580 nm, 534 -- 545 nm, and 420 -- 440 nm, respectively, depending on the individual. The difference in the signals received from the three cone types allows the brain to perceive a continuous range of colours, through the opponent process of colour vision. (Rod cells have a peak sensitivity at 498 nm, roughly halfway between the peak sensitivities of the S and M cones.)
All of the receptors contain the protein photopsin, with variations in its conformation causing differences in the optimum wavelengths absorbed.
The colour yellow, for example, is perceived when the L cones are stimulated slightly more than the M cones, and the colour red is perceived when the L cones are stimulated significantly more than the M cones. Similarly, blue and violet hues are perceived when the S receptor is stimulated more. Cones are most sensitive to light at wavelengths around 420 nm. However, the lens and cornea of the human eye are increasingly absorptive to shorter wavelengths, and this sets the short wavelength limit of human - visible light to approximately 380 nm, which is therefore called ' ultraviolet ' light. People with aphakia, a condition where the eye lacks a lens, sometimes report the ability to see into the ultraviolet range. At moderate to bright light levels where the cones function, the eye is more sensitive to yellowish - green light than other colors because this stimulates the two most common (M and L) of the three kinds of cones almost equally. At lower light levels, where only the rod cells function, the sensitivity is greatest at a blueish - green wavelength.
Cones also tend to possess a significantly elevated visual acuity because each cone cell has a lone connection to the optic nerve, therefore, the cones have an easier time telling that two stimuli are isolated. Separate connectivity is established in the inner plexiform layer so that each connection is parallel.
While it has been discovered that there exists a mixed type of bipolar cells that bind to both rod and cone cells, bipolar cells still predominantly receive their input from cone cells.
Cone cells are somewhat shorter than rods, but wider and tapered, and are much less numerous than rods in most parts of the retina, but greatly outnumber rods in the fovea. Structurally, cone cells have a cone - like shape at one end where a pigment filters incoming light, giving them their different response curves. They are typically 40 -- 50 μm long, and their diameter varies from 0.5 to 4.0 μm, being smallest and most tightly packed at the center of the eye at the fovea. The S cone spacing is slightly larger than the others.
Photobleaching can be used to determine cone arrangement. This is done by exposing dark - adapted retina to a certain wavelength of light that paralyzes the particular type of cone sensitive to that wavelength for up to thirty minutes from being able to dark - adapt making it appear white in contrast to the grey dark - adapted cones when a picture of the retina is taken. The results illustrate that S cones are randomly placed and appear much less frequently than the M and L cones. The ratio of M and L cones varies greatly among different people with regular vision (e.g. values of 75.8 % L with 20.0 % M versus 50.6 % L with 44.2 % M in two male subjects).
Like rods, each cone cell has a synaptic terminal, an inner segment, and an outer segment as well as an interior nucleus and various mitochondria. The synaptic terminal forms a synapse with a neuron such as a bipolar cell. The inner and outer segments are connected by a cilium. The inner segment contains organelles and the cell 's nucleus, while the outer segment, which is pointed toward the back of the eye, contains the light - absorbing materials.
Like rods, the outer segments of cones have invaginations of their cell membranes that create stacks of membranous disks. Photopigments exist as transmembrane proteins within these disks, which provide more surface area for light to affect the pigments. In cones, these disks are attached to the outer membrane, whereas they are pinched off and exist separately in rods. Neither rods nor cones divide, but their membranous disks wear out and are worn off at the end of the outer segment, to be consumed and recycled by phagocytic cells.
The response of cone cells to light is also directionally nonuniform, peaking at a direction that receives light from the center of the pupil; this effect is known as the Stiles -- Crawford effect.
One of the diseases related to cone cells present in retina is retinoblastoma. Retinoblastoma is a rare cancer of the retina, caused by the mutation of both copies of retinoblastoma genes (RB1). Most cases of retinoblastoma occur during early childhood. One or both eyes may be affected. The protein encoded by RB1 regulates a signal transduction pathway while controlling the cell cycle progression as normally. Retinoblastoma seems to originate in cone precursor cells present in the retina that consist of natural signalling networks which restrict cell death and promote cell survival after losing the RB1, or having both the RB1 copies mutated. It has been found that TRβ2 which is a transcription factor specifically affiliated with cones is essential for rapid reproduction and existence of the retinoblastoma cell. A drug that can be useful in the treatment of this disease is MDM2 (murine double minute 2) gene. Knockdown studies have shown that the MDM2 gene silences ARF - induced apoptosis in retinoblastoma cells and that MDM2 is necessary for the survival of cone cells. It is unclear at this point why the retinoblastoma in humans is sensitive to RB1 inactivation.
The pupil may appear white or have white spots. A white glow in the eye is often seen in photographs taken with a flash, instead of the typical "red eye '' from the flash, and the pupil may appear white or distorted. Other symptoms can include crossed eyes, double vision, eyes that do not align, eye pain and redness, poor vision or differing iris colours in each eye. If the cancer has spread, bone pain and other symptoms may occur.
Sensitivity to a prolonged stimulation tends to decline over time, leading to neural adaptation. An interesting effect occurs when staring at a particular color for a minute or so. Such action leads to an exhaustion of the cone cells that respond to that color - resulting in the afterimage. This vivid color aftereffect can last for a minute or more.
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what kind of microsoft office do i have | Microsoft Office - wikipedia
Microsoft Office is an office suite of applications, servers, and services developed by Microsoft. It was first announced by Bill Gates on 1 August 1988, at COMDEX in Las Vegas. Initially a marketing term for a bundled set of applications, the first version of Office contained Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint. Over the years, Office applications have grown substantially closer with shared features such as a common spell checker, OLE data integration and Visual Basic for Applications scripting language. Microsoft also positions Office as a development platform for line - of - business software under the Office Business Applications brand. On 10 July 2012, Softpedia reported that Office is used by over a billion people worldwide.
Office is produced in several versions targeted towards different end - users and computing environments. The original, and most widely used version, is the desktop version, available for PCs running the Windows and macOS operating systems. The most current desktop version is Office 2016 for Windows and macOS, released on 22 September 2015 and 9 July 2015, respectively.
More recently, Microsoft developed Office Mobile, which are free - to - use versions of Office applications for mobile devices. Microsoft also produces and runs Office Online, a web - based version of core Office apps, which is included as part of a Microsoft account.
Unless stated otherwise, desktop apps are available for Windows and macOS.
Office Mobile includes the scaled - down and touch - optimised versions of Word, Excel and PowerPoint. Other Office applications such as OneNote, Lync and Outlook are available as standalone apps. It is supported on Android, iOS, Windows 10 and Windows 10 Mobile.
Office Mobile enables users to save and access documents on OneDrive, OneDrive for Business, and SharePoint. Additionally, the Windows Phone version also allows users to save files locally on the device. According to Microsoft, Office Mobile for iPhone and Android are "very similar '' to each other, whereas the Windows Phone version provides a "richer, more integrated experience ''.
Office Mobile for iPhone was released on 14 June 2013 in the United States. Support for 135 markets and 27 languages was rolled out over a few days. It requires iOS 8 or later. Although the app also works on iPad devices, excluding the first generation, it is designed for a small screen. Office Mobile was released for Android phones on 31 July 2013 in the United States. Support for 117 markets and 33 languages was added gradually over several weeks. It is supported on Android 4.0 and later. Office Mobile for both iPhone and Android, available for free from the App Store and Google Play Store respectively, initially required a qualifying Office 365 subscription to activate, but in March 2014, with the release of Office for iPad, the apps were updated making them fully free for home use, although a subscription is still required for business use.
On 27 March 2014, Microsoft released Word, Excel and PowerPoint for iPad. On 6 November 2014, Microsoft released updated versions of Word, Excel and PowerPoint for iPhone.
On 29 January 2015, Microsoft released Word, Excel and PowerPoint for Android tablets. On 24 June 2015, Microsoft released updated versions of Word, Excel and Powerpoint for Android phones. The Android version is also supported on certain Chrome OS machines.
In January 2015, Microsoft unveiled updated universal app versions of the Office applications for Windows 10 devices -- including PCs, tablets and smartphones -- that are based upon the previously released Android and iOS apps.
Office Mobile is or was also available, though no longer supported, on Windows Mobile, Windows Phone and Symbian. There is also Office RT, a touch - optimized version of the standard desktop Office suite, pre-installed on Windows RT.
Most versions of Microsoft Office (including Office 97 and later) use their own widget set and do not exactly match the native operating system. This is most apparent in Microsoft Office XP and 2003, where the standard menus were replaced with a colored, flat - looking, shadowed menu style. The user interface of a particular version of Microsoft Office often heavily influences a subsequent version of Microsoft Windows. For example, the toolbar, colored buttons and the gray - colored 3D look of Office 4.3 were added to Windows 95, and the ribbon, introduced in Office 2007, has been incorporated into several programs bundled with Windows 7 and later. In 2012, Office 2013 replicated the flat, box - like design of Windows 8.
Users of Microsoft Office may access external data via connection - specifications saved in Office Data Connection (. odc) files.
Both Windows and Office use service packs to update software. Office had non-cumulative service releases, which were discontinued after Office 2000 Service Release 1.
Past versions of Office often contained Easter eggs. For example, Excel 97 contained a reasonably functional flight - simulator. Office XP and later do not have any Easter eggs, in compliance with Trustworthy Computing guidelines.
Microsoft Office prior to Office 2007 used proprietary file formats based on the OLE Compound File Binary Format. This forced users who share data to adopt the same software platform. In 2008, Microsoft made the entire documentation for the binary Office formats freely available for download and granted any possible patents rights for use or implementations of those binary format for free under the Open Specification Promise. Previously, Microsoft had supplied such documentation freely but only on request.
Starting with Office 2007, the default file format has been a version of Office Open XML, though different than the one standardized and published by Ecma International and by ISO / IEC. Microsoft has granted patent rights to the formats technology under the Open Specification Promise and has made available free downloadable converters for previous versions of Microsoft Office including Office 2003, Office XP, Office 2000 and Office 2004 for Mac OS X. Third - party implementations of Office Open XML exist on the Windows platform (LibreOffice, all platforms), macOS platform (iWork ' 08, LibreOffice) and Linux (LibreOffice and OpenOffice.org 3.0). In addition, Office 2010 and Service Pack 2 for Office 2007 supports the OpenDocument Format (ODF) for opening and saving documents on Windows (Microsoft Office for Mac has never included ODF support).
Microsoft provides the ability to remove metadata from Office documents. This was in response to highly publicized incidents where sensitive data about a document was leaked via its metadata. Metadata removal was first available in 2004, when Microsoft released a tool called Remove Hidden Data Add - in for Office 2003 / XP for this purpose. It was directly integrated into Office 2007 in a feature called the Document Inspector.
A major feature of the Office suite is the ability for users and third party companies to write add - ins (plug - ins) that extend the capabilities of an application by adding custom commands and specialized features. One of the new features is the Office Store. Plugins and other tools can be downloaded by users. Developers can make money by selling their applications in the Office Store. The revenue is divided between the developer and Microsoft where the developer gets 80 % of the money. Developers are able to share applications with all Office users.
The app travels with the document, and it is for the developer to decide what the recipient will see when they open it. The recipient will either have the option to download the app from the Office Store for free, start a free trial or be directed to payment. With Office 's cloud abilities, IT department can create a set of apps for their business employees in order to increase their productivity. When employees go to the Office Store, they 'll see their company 's apps under My Organization. The apps that employees have personally downloaded will appear under My Apps. Developers can use web technologies like HTML5, XML, CSS3, JavaScript, and APIs for building the apps. An application for Office is a webpage that is hosted inside an Office client application. User can use apps to amplify the functionality of a document, email message, meeting request, or appointment. Apps can run in multiple environments and by multiple clients, including rich Office desktop clients, Office Web Apps, mobile browsers, and also on - premises and in the cloud. The type of add - ins supported differ by Office versions:
Microsoft Office has a security feature that allows users to encrypt Office (Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Access, Skype Business) documents with a user - provided password. The password can contain up to 255 characters and uses AES 128 - bit advanced encryption by default. Passwords can also be used to restrict modification of the entire document, worksheet or presentation. Due to lack of document encryption, though, these passwords can be removed using a third - party cracking software.
All versions Microsoft Office products before Microsoft Office 2016 are eligible for ten years of support following their release, during which Microsoft releases security updates for the product version and provides paid technical support. The ten - year period is divided into two five - years phases: The mainstream phase and the extended phase. During the mainstream phase, Microsoft may provide limited complimentary technical support and release non-security updates or change the design of the product. During the extended phase, said services stop.
Starting with Microsoft Office 2016, Microsoft has moved to a so - called "Modern Lifecycle Policy '' that requires the consumer to stay current to stay supported.
Microsoft supports Office for the Windows and macOS platforms, as well as mobile versions for Windows Phone, Android and iOS platforms. Beginning with Mac Office 4.2, the macOS and Windows versions of Office share the same file format, and are interoperable. Visual Basic for Applications support was dropped in Microsoft Office 2008 for Mac, then reintroduced in Office for Mac 2011.
Microsoft tried in the mid-1990s to port Office to RISC processors such as NEC / MIPS and IBM / PowerPC, but they met problems such as memory access being hampered by data structure alignment requirements. Microsoft Word 97 and Excel 97 however did ship for the DEC Alpha platform. Difficulties in porting Office may have been a factor in discontinuing Windows NT on non-Intel platforms.
Stuart Cohen, CEO of Open Source Development Labs, conjectured in 2006 that Microsoft would eventually release a Linux port of Office, which occurred via Microsoft Office Mobile for Android phones (OS 4.0 or later) in 2013 and tablets (OS 4.4 or later) in 2015. Office is also available for iOS, another Unix - like platform. Office for Windows Phone and the older Windows Mobile are distinguished from Windows NT versions.
Microsoft Office is licensed through retail, volume licensing and software as a service channels. Volume licensing includes OEM licenses for bundling Microsoft Office with personal computers and Microsoft Software Assurance. The software as a service channel is called Microsoft Office 365 which was started on 28 June 2011.
In addition to supporting retail sales and site - wide installations, Microsoft offers a "Home Use Program '' (HUP) permitting employees of a participating organization access to home - use Microsoft Office products.
Post-secondary students may obtain the University edition of Microsoft Office 365 subscription. (Despite the name, college students are also eligible.) It is limited to one user and two devices, plus the subscription price is valid for four years instead of just one. Apart from this, the University edition is identical in features to the Home Premium version. This marks the first time Microsoft does not offer physical or permanent software at academic pricing, in contrast to the University versions of Office 2010 and Office 2011. In addition, students eligible for DreamSpark program may receive select standalone Microsoft Office apps free of charge.
Microsoft Office has been criticized in the past for using proprietary file formats rather than open standards, which forces users who share data into adopting the same software platform. However, on February 15, 2008, Microsoft made the entire documentation for the binary Office formats freely available under the Open Specification Promise. Also, Office Open XML, the document format for the latest versions of Office for Windows and Mac, has been standardized under both Ecma International and ISO. Ecma International has published the Office Open XML specification free of copyrights and Microsoft has granted patent rights to the formats technology under the Open Specification Promise and has made available free downloadable converters for previous versions of Microsoft Office including Office 2003, Office XP, Office 2000 and Office 2004 for the Mac. Third - party implementations of Office Open XML exist on the Mac platform (iWork 08) and Linux (OpenOffice.org 2.3 - Novell Edition only).
Another point of criticism Microsoft Office has faced was the lack of support in its Mac versions for Unicode and Bi-directional text languages, notably Arabic and Hebrew. This issue, which had existed since the first release in 1989, was only addressed in the 2016 version.
Microsoft Office for Windows started in October 1990 as a bundle of three applications designed for Microsoft Windows 3.0: Microsoft Word for Windows 1.1, Microsoft Excel for Windows 2.0, and Microsoft PowerPoint for Windows 2.0.
Microsoft Office for Windows 1.5 updated the suite with Microsoft Excel 3.0.
Version 1.6 added Microsoft Mail for PC Networks 2.1 to the bundle.
Microsoft Office 3.0, also called Microsoft Office 92, was released on 30 August 1992 and contained Word 2.0, Excel 4.0, PowerPoint 3.0 and Mail 3.0. It was the first version of Office also released on CD - ROM. In 1993, The Microsoft Office Professional was released, which added Microsoft Access 1.1.
Microsoft Office 4.0 was released containing Word 6.0, Excel 4.0 a, PowerPoint 3.0 and Mail in 1993. Word 's version number jumped from 2.0 to 6.0 so that it would have the same version number as the MS - DOS and Macintosh versions (Excel and PowerPoint were already numbered the same as the Macintosh versions).
Microsoft Office 4.2 for Windows NT was released in 1994 for i386, Alpha, MIPS and PowerPC architectures, containing Word 6.0 and Excel 5.0 (both 32 - bit, PowerPoint 4.0 (16 - bit), and Microsoft Office Manager 4.2 (the precursor to the Office Shortcut Bar)).
Microsoft Office 95 was released on 24 August 1995. Software version numbers were altered again to create parity across the suite -- every program was called version 7.0 meaning all but Word missed out versions. It was designed as a fully 32 - bit version to match Windows 95. Office 95 was available in two versions, Office 95 Standard and Office 95 Professional. The standard version consisted of Word 7.0, Excel 7.0, PowerPoint 7.0, and Schedule+ 7.0. The professional edition contained all of the items in the standard version plus Microsoft Access 7.0. If the professional version was purchased in CD - ROM form, it also included Bookshelf.
The logo used in Office 95 returns in Office 97, 2000 and XP. Microsoft Office 98 Macintosh Edition also uses a similar logo.
Microsoft Office 97 (Office 8.0) included hundreds of new features and improvements, such as introducing command bars, a paradigm in which menus and toolbars were made more similar in capability and visual design. Office 97 also featured Natural Language Systems and grammar checking. Office 97 was the first version of Office to include the Office Assistant. In Brazil, it was also the first version to introduce the Registration Wizard, a precursor to Microsoft Product Activation.
Microsoft Office 2000 (Office 9.0) introduced adaptive menus, where little - used options were hidden from the user. It also introduced a new security feature, built around digital signatures, to diminish the threat of macro viruses. Office 2000 automatically trusts macros (written in VBA 6) that were digitally signed from authors who have been previously designated as trusted. The Registration Wizard, a precursor to Microsoft Product Activation, remained in Brazil and was also extended to Australia and New Zealand, though not for volume - licensed editions. Academic software in the United States and Canada also featured the Registration Wizard.
Microsoft Office XP (Office 10.0 or Office 2002) was released in conjunction with Windows XP, and was a major upgrade with numerous enhancements and changes over Office 2000. Office XP introduced the Safe Mode feature, which allows applications such as Outlook to boot when it might otherwise fail by bypassing a corrupted registry or a faulty add - in. Smart tag is a technology introduced with Office XP in Word and Excel and discontinued in Office 2010. Office XP includes integrated voice command and text dictation capabilities, as well as handwriting recognition. It was the first version to require Microsoft Product Activation worldwide and in all editions as an anti-piracy measure, which attracted widespread controversy. Product Activation remained absent from Office for Mac releases until it was introduced in Office 2011 for Mac.
Microsoft Office 2003 (Office 11.0) was released in 2003. It featured a new logo. Two new applications made their debut in Office 2003: Microsoft InfoPath and OneNote. It is the first version to use new, more colorful icons. Outlook 2003 provides improved functionality in many areas, including Kerberos authentication, RPC over HTTP, Cached Exchange Mode, and an improved junk mail filter.
Microsoft Office 2007 (Office 12.0) was released in 2007. Office 2007 's new features include a new graphical user interface called the Fluent User Interface, replacing the menus and toolbars that have been the cornerstone of Office since its inception with a tabbed toolbar, known as the Ribbon; new XML - based file formats called Office Open XML; and the inclusion of Groove, a collaborative software application.
Microsoft Office 2010 (Office 14.0, because Microsoft skipped 13.0) was finalized on 15 April 2010 and made available to consumers on 15 June 2010. The main features of Office 2010 include the backstage file menu, new collaboration tools, a customizable ribbon, protected view and a navigation panel. This is the first version to ship in 32 - bit and 64 - bit variants. Microsoft Office 2010 featured a new logo, which resembled the 2007 logo, except in gold, and with a modification in shape.
Microsoft released Service Pack 1 for Office 2010 on 28 June 2011.
A technical preview of Microsoft Office 2013 (Build 15.0. 3612.1010) was released on 30 January 2012, and a Customer Preview version was made available to consumers on 16 July 2012. It sports a revamped application interface; the interface is based on Metro, the interface of Windows Phone and Windows 8. Microsoft Outlook has received the most pronounced changes so far; for example, the Metro interface provides a new visualization for scheduled tasks. PowerPoint includes more templates and transition effects, and OneNote includes a new splash screen. On 16 May 2011, new images of Office 15 were revealed, showing Excel with a tool for filtering data in a timeline, the ability to convert Roman numerals to Arabic numerals, and the integration of advanced trigonometric functions. In Word, the capability of inserting video and audio online as well as the broadcasting of documents on the Web were implemented. Microsoft has promised support for Office Open XML Strict starting with version 15, a format Microsoft has submitted to the ISO for interoperability with other office suites, and to aid adoption in the public sector. This version can read and write ODF 1.2 (Windows only).
On 24 October 2012, Office 2013 Professional Plus was released to manufacturing and was made available to TechNet and MSDN subscribers for download. On 15 November 2012, the 60 - day trial version was released for public download.
On 22 January 2015, the Microsoft Office blog announced that the next version of the suite for Windows desktop, Office 2016, was in development. On 4 May 2015, a public preview of Microsoft Office 2016 was released. Office 2016 was released for OS X on 9 July 2015 and for Windows on 22 September 2015.
On 26 September 2017, Microsoft announced that the next version of the suite for Windows desktop, Office 2019, was in development, scheduled for release in the second half of 2018, with previews shipping mid-year.
Prior to packaging its various office - type Mac OS software applications into Office, Microsoft released Mac versions of Word 1.0 in 1984, the first year of the Macintosh computer; Excel 1.0 in 1985; and PowerPoint 1.0 in 1987. Microsoft does not include its Access database application in Office for Mac.
Microsoft has noted that some features are added to Office for Mac before they appear in Windows versions, such as Office for Mac 2001 's Office Project Gallery and PowerPoint Movie feature, which allows users to save presentations as QuickTime movies. However, Microsoft Office for Mac has been long criticized for its lack of support of Unicode and for its lack of support for right - to - left languages, notably Arabic, Hebrew and Persian.
Microsoft Office for Mac was introduced for Mac OS in 1989, before Office was released for Windows. It included Word 4.0, Excel 2.2, PowerPoint 2.01, and Mail 1.37. It was originally a limited - time promotion but later became a regular product. With the release of Office on CD - ROM later that year, Microsoft became the first major Mac publisher to put its applications on CD - ROM.
Microsoft Office 1.5 for Mac was released in 1991 and included the updated Excel 3.0, the first application to support Apple 's System 7 operating system.
Microsoft Office 3.0 for Mac was released in 1992 and included Word 5.0, Excel 4.0, PowerPoint 3.0 and Mail Client. Excel 4.0 was the first application to support new AppleScript.
Microsoft Office 4.2 for Mac was released in 1994. (Version 4.0 was skipped to synchronize version numbers with Office for Windows) Version 4.2 included Word 6.0, Excel 5.0, PowerPoint 4.0 and Mail 3.2. It was the first Office suite for Power Macintosh. Its user interface was identical to Office 4.2 for Windows leading many customers to comment that it was n't Mac - like enough. The final release for Mac 68K was Office 4.2. 1, which updated Word to version 6.0. 1, somewhat improving performance.
Microsoft Office 98 Macintosh Edition was unveiled at MacWorld Expo / San Francisco in 1998. It introduced the Internet Explorer 4.0 web browser and Outlook Express, an Internet e-mail client and usenet newsgroup reader. Office 98 was re-engineered by Microsoft 's Macintosh Business Unit to satisfy customers ' desire for software they felt was more Mac - like. It included drag -- and - drop installation, self - repairing applications and Quick Thesaurus, before such features were available in Office for Windows. It also was the first version to support QuickTime movies.
Microsoft Office 2001 was launched in 2000 as the last Office suite for the classic Mac OS. It required a PowerPC processor. This version introduced Entourage, an e-mail client that included information management tools such as a calendar, an address book, task lists and notes.
Microsoft Office v. X was released in 2001 and was the first version of Microsoft Office for Mac OS X. Support for Office v. X ended on 9 January 2007 after the release of the final update, 10.1. 9 Office v.X includes Word X, Excel X, PowerPoint X, Entourage X, MSN Messenger for Mac and Windows Media Player 9 for Mac; it was the last version of Office for Mac to include Internet Explorer for Mac.
Microsoft Office 2004 for Mac was released on 11 May 2004. It includes Microsoft Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Entourage and Virtual PC. It is the final version of Office to be built exclusively for PowerPC and to officially support G3 processors, as its sequel lists a G4, G5 or Intel processor as a requirement. It was notable for supporting Visual Basic for Applications (VBA), which is unavailable in Office 2008. This led Microsoft to extend support for Office 2004 from September 10, 2009 to January 10, 2012. VBA functionality was reintroduced in Office 2011, which is only compatible with Intel processors.
Microsoft Office 2008 for Mac was released on 15 January 2008. It was the only Office for Mac suite to be compiled as an universal binary, being the first to feature native Intel support and the last to feature PowerPC support for G4 and G5 processors, although the suite is unofficially compatible with G3 processors. New features include native Office Open XML file format support, which debuted in Office 2007 for Windows, and stronger Microsoft Office password protection employing AES - 128 and SHA - 1. Benchmarks suggested that compared to its predecessor, Office 2008 ran at similar speeds on Intel machines and slower speeds on PowerPC machines. Office 2008 also lacked Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) support, leaving it with only 15 months of additional mainstream support compared to its predecessor. Nevertheless, five months after it was released, Microsoft said that Office 2008 was "selling faster than any previous version of Office for Mac in the past 19 years '' and affirmed "its commitment to future products for the Mac. ''
Microsoft Office for Mac 2011 was released on 26 October 2010,. It is the first version of Office for Mac to be compiled exclusively for Intel processors, dropping support for the PowerPC architecture. It features an OS X version of Outlook to replace the Entourage email client. This version of Outlook is intended to make the OS X version of Office work better with Microsoft 's Exchange server and with those using Office for Windows. Office 2011 includes a Mac - based Ribbon similar to Office for Windows.
Microsoft OneNote for Mac was released on 17 March 2014. It marks the company 's first release of the note - taking software on the Mac. It is available as a free download to all users of the Mac App Store in OS X Mavericks.
Microsoft Outlook 2016 for Mac debuted on 31 October 2014. It requires a paid Office 365 subscription, meaning that traditional Office 2011 retail or volume licenses can not activate this version of Outlook. On that day, Microsoft confirmed that it would release the next version of Office for Mac in late 2015.
Despite dropping support for older versions of OS X and only keeping support for 64 - bit - only versions of OS X, these versions of OneNote and Outlook are 32 - bit applications like their predecessors.
The first Preview version of Microsoft Office 2016 for Mac was released on 5 March 2015. On 9 July 2015, Microsoft released the final version of Microsoft Office 2016 for Mac which includes Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Outlook and OneNote. It was immediately made available for Office 365 subscribers with either a Home, Personal, Business, Business Premium, E3 or ProPlus subscription. A non-Office 365 edition of Office 2016 was made available as a one - time purchase option on 22 September 2015.
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who got eliminated in telugu big boss 2 today | Bigg Boss Telugu 2 - wikipedia
Bigg Boss Telugu 2 is the second season of the Telugu - language version of the reality TV show Bigg Boss broadcast in India. The season premiered on June 10, 2018 on Star Maa. Nani hosts the show and it is the second longest season for 112 days in Indian versions of Bigg Boss.
Unlike the first season, this season featured general public along with celebrities as housemates.
For this season of Bigg Boss, a lavish house set has been constructed in Backlots of Annapurna Studios 7 Acres, Jubilee Hills, Hyderabad.
The season was extended by one week (112 days) instead of the actual 105 days format of the show.
Among the five finalists, Kaushal Manda emerged as the winner with highest number of public votes, followed by Geetha Madhuri as runner - up, Tanish Alladi, Deepti Nallamothu and Samrat Reddy as third, fourth and fifth respectively.
The participants in the order they entered the house are:
Then two contestants entered the activity room to compete in a task to join the King 's Team. → Winners of Mud Pit tasks given by BIGG BOSS joined King 's Team and remaining housemates became villagers who work for the princess. → King 's Team members are Amit, Samrat, Babu Gogineni, Ganesh, Bhanu, and Kireeti. → Princess Team members are Deepthi Sunaina, Tejaswi, Roll Rida, Syamala, Tanish, and Kaushal.
BIGG BOSS placed one diamond in the living area which gives housemates more points to win Round two. → The losing team 's leader will be locked in jail by the winning team 's leader. Raju Gari Malla is a task which hosted by Geetha. In this task, two teams have to get as many flowers from the pool in the garden area to make a garland. Princess Team won the task with 96 flowers. Raja Simhasanam is a task which hosted by Geetha. Nandhini (Princess) sits on a chair and two teams have to pull the chair to win. King 's Team won by pulling the chair to their side. BIGG BOSS announced Princess Team as the winner of round two and ordered Nandhini (Princess) to lock Nutan Naidu (King), and Deepti Nallamothu (Queen) in jail.
Amit Tiwari won week 3 Captaincy
Bigg Boss house became a sugar cane factory. In this task, there are two teams and one quality - check manager. Yellow team owner is Kaushal, Green team owner is Kireeti Damaraju and the quality - check manager and chancellor of the task is Bhanu Sree. Two teams have to complete the sugar cane juice bottles order given by Bigg Boss by using sugar cane juice machines placed in the garden area and save Bigg Boss money to win. The Quality - check manager should check the quality and accept or reject the bottles.
→ Order One given by Bigg Boss 25 juice bottles for both teams. Green team won with 25 bottles. → Order Two given by Bigg Boss 50 bottles. Both teams failed to complete the order. → Order Three given by Bigg Boss 100 bottles. Bigg Boss canceled the order because the green team cheated by mixing water with sugar cane juice in bottles.
Yellow team are with 73,000 of Bigg Boss money worker (Tejaswi) and 15,000 with owner after giving wages to workers while the green team lost with 53,000 of Bigg Boss money worker (Ganesh) and 0 money with owner after giving wages to workers. And 31,000 Bigg boss money with quality - check manager (Bhanu Sree). Kaushal and Tejaswi awarded with special vote power by Bigg Boss for winning luxury budget task.
Contenders: - Ganesh, Kireeti Damaraju, Roll Rida.
In this task, contenders had to eat as much biryani as they could before the buzzer sounded. Roll Rida won week 4 captaincy by eating 13 servings of biryani.
Babu Gogineni Tejaswi Madivada Geetha Madhuri Kaushal Deepti Nallamothu Ganesh Nandhini Rai Syamala
In this luxury budget task there are two teams Manchivallu Team and Cheddavallu Team.
Manchi team had to clean things in the house and they had to cook for all housemates. Chedu team tried to make the house dirty. Manchi team had to protect three lotus flowers and red apples to not lose points and chedu team had to destroy those flowers and protect black apples to gain points. The apple tree was in garden area it contains red and black apples. While chedu team won the task Bigg Boss gave 2600 amazon.in luxury budget points for good performances by both the teams and 200 points were deducted due to tejaswi destroyed the cleaning mop therefore housemates won 2400 amazon.in luxury budget points to buy luxury items.
Contenders are: Geetha Madhuri, Deepthi Sunaina
Two contenders had to prepare their own campaigns on what reforms they are making and propagate to each housemate and they should clarify housemates ' doubts. After propagations, Bigg Boss conducted an election and all housemates had to drop their votes in ballot box arranged in the garden area. Geetha Madhuri won Week 6 captaincy with 11 votes.
In this luxury budget task, housemates have to shoot a film. Amit as Director, Deepti nallamothu as Assistant director (A.D), Roll Rida as Director of photography (DOP), Tejaswi madivada as choreographer, makeup man and Stylist. Level one: - Director, Assistant Director and DOP have to prepare a story and its characters. The film should be in the order like Beginning, Romance, Action, and climax. Level Two: - Auditions has to be conducted by Amit (Director), Deepti Nallamothu (A.D), and Roll Rida (DOP) in the Activity Room. The remaining housemates had to audition to be selected to be a character for the film. Rejected housemates became helping crew in the film and were not eligible for the next captaincy task.
Team one won this task and they awarded with luxury items available under the cap of the body spray bottle collected by them.
Team one won this luxury budget task by surviving three hours on planks as survivors.
In this Captaincy Task, housemates are asked to dance for the song, only one housemate to contend for each song, total of five songs. And the DJ with the most housemates dancing to their song is a New Captain.
Mahilalu team has 325 coins. Purushulu team won this luxury budget task with 330 gold coins.
Team Kaushal: Samrat, Syamala, Kaushal, Deepti Nallamothu, Nuthan Naidu, Amit Tiwari Team Tanish: Roll Rida, Geetha Madhuri, Deepthi Sunaina, Tanish, Pooja Ramachandran, Ganesh Call center executives have to patiently listen to their customers ' complaints and should respond politely and make them disconnect the call to gain one point. Customers have to irritate the executives and make them disconnect the call to gain one point. Team One members are call center executives and Team Two members are customers on Day 1. Roles are reversed on Day 2. Kaushal team won the task with 10 points and they were awarded with 2400 Luxury Budget points to buy luxury items.
List of orders given by Bigg Boss:
There are three sand containers in the garden area. Roll Rida, Geetha Madhuri, and Kaushal have to protect their respective sand container, while Deepti Nallamothu, Tanish, and Samrat have to empty or destroy their sand containers after start buzzer sounded. At the end buzzer the contestant with more amount of sand becomes eligible for the level two. The roles get reversed subsequently to decide the second qualifier for the level two. Roll Rida and Samrat qualified for level two.
There are two egg bowls for one each. Samrat and Roll Rida have to protect their respective egg bowls to win the task. Remaining housemates can try to brake their eggs. Contenders can hide anywhere in house except washrooms. Samrat won the task and gained immunity from week 's eviction and became a first finalist of the season.
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where was the battle of little bighorn fought | Battle of the Little Bighorn - wikipedia
Up to 160 wounded
The Battle of the Little Bighorn, known to the Lakota and other Plains Indians as the Battle of the Greasy Grass and also commonly referred to as Custer 's Last Stand, was an armed engagement between combined forces of the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes and the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the United States Army. The battle, which resulted in the defeat of US forces, was the most significant action of the Great Sioux War of 1876. It took place on June 25 -- 26, 1876, along the Little Bighorn River in the Crow Indian Reservation in southeastern Montana Territory.
The fight was an overwhelming victory for the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho, who were led by several major war leaders, including Crazy Horse and Chief Gall, and had been inspired by the visions of Sitting Bull (Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake). The US 7th Cavalry, including the Custer Battalion, a force of 700 men led by Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer, suffered a major defeat. Five of the 7th Cavalry 's 12 companies were annihilated and Custer was killed, as were two of his brothers, a nephew and a brother - in - law. The total US casualty count included 268 dead and 55 severely wounded (six died later from their wounds), including four Crow Indian scouts and two Pawnee Indian scouts.
Public response to the Great Sioux War varied in the immediate aftermath of the battle. Custer 's widow soon worked to burnish her husband 's memory, and during the following decades Custer and his troops came to be considered iconic, even heroic, figures in American history, a status that lasted into the 1960s. The battle, and Custer 's actions in particular, have been studied extensively by historians.
In 1805 fur trader Francois Antoine Larocque reported joining a Crow camp in the Yellowstone area. On the way he noted that the Crow hunted buffalo on the "Small Horn River ''. The US built Fort Raymond in 1807 for trade with the Crow. It was located near the confluence of the Yellowstone and the Bighorn, about 40 miles north of the future battlefield. The area is first noted in the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie.
In the latter half of the 19th century tensions increased between the Native inhabitants of the Great Plains of the US and encroaching settlers. This resulted in a series of conflicts known as the Sioux Wars, which took place from 1854 - 90. While some of the indigenous people eventually agreed to relocate to ever - shrinking reservations, a number of them resisted, at times fiercely.
On May 7, 1868, the valley of the Little Bighorn became a tract in the eastern part of the new Crow Indian Reservation in the center of the old Crow country. The battlefield is known as "Greasy Grass '' to the Lakota, Dakota, Cheyenne, and most other Plains Indians; however, in contemporary accounts by participants, it was referred to as the "Valley of Chieftains ''.
Among the Plains Tribes, the long - standing ceremonial tradition known as the Sun Dance was the most important religious event of the year. It is a time for prayer and personal sacrifice on behalf of the community, as well as making personal vows. Towards the end of spring in 1876, the Lakota and the Cheyenne held a Sun Dance that was also attended by a number of "Agency Indians '' who had slipped away from their reservations. During a Sun Dance around June 5, 1876, on Rosebud Creek in Montana, Sitting Bull, the spiritual leader of the Hunkpapa Lakota, reportedly had a vision of "soldiers falling into his camp like grasshoppers from the sky. '' At the same time US military officials were conducting a summer campaign to force the Lakota and the Cheyenne back to their reservations, using infantry and cavalry in a so - called "three - pronged approach ''.
Col. John Gibbon 's column of six companies (A, B, E, H, I, and K) of the 7th Infantry and four companies (F, G, H, and L) of the 2nd Cavalry marched east from Fort Ellis in western Montana on March 30 to patrol the Yellowstone River. Brig. Gen. George Crook 's column of ten companies (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, I, L, and M) of the 3rd Cavalry, five companies (A, B, D, E, and I) of the 2nd Cavalry, two companies (D and F) of the 4th Infantry, and three companies (C, G, and H) of the 9th Infantry moved north from Fort Fetterman in the Wyoming Territory on May 29, marching toward the Powder River area. Brig. Gen. Alfred Terry 's column, including twelve companies (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, and M) of the 7th Cavalry under Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer 's immediate command, Companies C and G of the 17th U.S. Infantry, and the Gatling gun detachment of the 20th Infantry departed westward from Fort Abraham Lincoln in the Dakota Territory on May 17. They were accompanied by teamsters and packers with 150 wagons and a large contingent of pack mules that reinforced Custer. Companies C, D, and I of the 6th U.S. Infantry moved along the Yellowstone River from Fort Buford on the Missouri River to set up a supply depot and joined Terry on May 29 at the mouth of the Powder River. They were later joined there by the steamboat Far West, which was loaded with 200 tons of supplies from Fort Lincoln.
The 7th Cavalry had been created just after the American Civil War. Many men were veterans of the war, including most of the leading officers. A significant portion of the regiment had previously served 4 - 1 / 2 years at Fort Riley, Kansas, during which time it fought one major engagement and numerous skirmishes, experiencing casualties of 36 killed and 27 wounded. Six other troopers had died of drowning and 51 in cholera epidemics. In November 1868, while stationed in Kansas, the 7th Cavalry under Custer had successfully routed Black Kettle 's Southern Cheyenne camp on the Washita River in the Battle of Washita River, an attack which was at the time labeled a "massacre of innocent Indians '' by the Indian Bureau.
By the time of the Little Bighorn, half of the 7th Cavalry 's companies had just returned from 18 months of constabulary duty in the Deep South, having been recalled to Fort Abraham Lincoln to reassemble the regiment for the campaign. About 20 % of the troopers had been enlisted in the prior seven months (139 of an enlisted roll of 718), were only marginally trained and had no combat or frontier experience. A sizable number of these recruits were immigrants from Ireland, England and Germany, just as many of the veteran troopers had been before their enlistments. Archaeological evidence suggests that many of these troopers were malnourished and in poor physical condition, despite being the best - equipped and supplied regiment in the Army.
Of the 45 officers and 718 troopers then assigned to the 7th Cavalry (including a second lieutenant detached from the 20th Infantry and serving in Company L), 14 officers (including the regimental commander, Col. Samuel D. Sturgis) and 152 troopers did not accompany the 7th during the campaign. The ratio of troops detached for other duty (approximately 22 %) was not unusual for an expedition of this size, and part of the officer shortage was chronic, due to the Army 's rigid seniority system: three of the regiment 's 12 captains were permanently detached, and two had never served a day with the 7th since their appointment in July 1866. Three second lieutenant vacancies (in E, H, and L Companies) were also unfilled.
The Army 's coordination and planning began to go awry on June 17, 1876, when Crook 's column retreated after the Battle of the Rosebud, just 30 miles to the southeast of the eventual Little Bighorn battlefield. Surprised and according to some accounts astonished by the unusually large numbers of Native Americans, Crook held the field at the end of the battle but felt compelled by his losses to pull back, regroup, and wait for reinforcements. Unaware of Crook 's battle, Gibbon and Terry proceeded, joining forces in early June near the mouth of Rosebud Creek. They reviewed Terry 's plan calling for Custer 's regiment to proceed south along the Rosebud while Terry and Gibbon 's united forces would move in a westerly direction toward the Bighorn and Little Bighorn rivers. As this was the likely location of native encampments, all army elements had been instructed to converge there around June 26 or 27 in an attempt to engulf the Native Americans. On June 22, Terry ordered the 7th Cavalry, composed of 31 officers and 566 enlisted men under Custer, to begin a reconnaissance in force and pursuit along the Rosebud, with the prerogative to "depart '' from orders if Custer saw "sufficient reason ''. Custer had been offered the use of Gatling guns but declined, believing they would slow his command.
While the Terry -- Gibbon column was marching toward the mouth of the Little Bighorn, on the evening of June 24, Custer 's Indian scouts arrived at an overlook known as the Crow 's Nest, 14 miles (23 km) east of the Little Bighorn River. At sunrise on June 25, Custer 's scouts reported they could see a massive pony herd and signs of the Native American village roughly 15 miles (24 km) in the distance. After a night 's march, the tired officer who was sent with the scouts could see neither, and when Custer joined them, he was also unable to make the sighting. Custer 's scouts also spotted the regimental cooking fires that could be seen from 10 miles (16 km) away, disclosing the regiment 's position.
Custer contemplated a surprise attack against the encampment the following morning of June 26, but he then received a report informing him several hostiles had discovered the trail left by his troops. Assuming his presence had been exposed, Custer decided to attack the village without further delay. On the morning of June 25, Custer divided his 12 companies into three battalions in anticipation of the forthcoming engagement. Three companies were placed under the command of Major Marcus Reno (A, G, and M) and three were placed under the command of Captain Frederick Benteen (H, D, and K). Five companies (C, E, F, I, and L) remained under Custer 's immediate command. The 12th, Company B under Captain Thomas McDougall, had been assigned to escort the slower pack train carrying provisions and additional ammunition.
Unknown to Custer, the group of Native Americans seen on his trail was actually leaving the encampment and did not alert the rest of the village. Custer 's scouts warned him about the size of the village, with Mitch Bouyer reportedly saying, "General, I have been with these Indians for 30 years, and this is the largest village I have ever heard of. '' Custer 's overriding concern was that the Native American group would break up and scatter. The command began its approach to the village at noon and prepared to attack in full daylight.
As the Army moved into the field on its expedition, it was operating with incorrect assumptions as to the number of Indians it would encounter. These assumptions were based on inaccurate information provided by the Indian Agents that no more than 800 hostiles were in the area. The Indian Agents based this estimate on the number of Lakota that Sitting Bull and other leaders had reportedly led off the reservation in protest of U.S. government policies. It was in fact a correct estimate until several weeks before the battle, when the "reservation Indians '' joined Sitting Bull 's ranks for the summer buffalo hunt. The agents did not take into account the many thousands of these "reservation Indians '' who had unofficially left the reservation to join their "uncooperative non-reservation cousins led by Sitting Bull ''. Thus, Custer unknowingly faced thousands of Indians, including the 800 non-reservation "hostiles ''. All Army plans were based on the incorrect numbers. Although Custer was severely criticized after the battle for not having accepted reinforcements and for dividing his forces, it must be understood that he had accepted the same official government estimates of hostiles in the area which Terry and Gibbon had also accepted. Historian James Donovan states that when Custer asked interpreter Fred Gerard for his opinion on the size of the opposition, he estimated the force at between 1,500 to 2,500 warriors.
Additionally, Custer was more concerned with preventing the escape of the Lakota and Cheyenne than with fighting them. From his own observation, as reported by his bugler John Martin (Martini), Custer assumed the warriors had been sleeping in on the morning of the battle, to which virtually every native account attested later, giving Custer a false estimate of what he was up against. When he and his scouts first looked down on the village from the Crow 's Nest across the Little Bighorn River, they could only see the herd of ponies. Looking from a hill 2.5 miles (4.0 km) away after parting with Reno 's command, Custer could observe only women preparing for the day, and young boys taking thousands of horses out to graze south of the village. Custer 's Crow scouts told him it was the largest native village they had ever seen. When the scouts began changing back into their native dress right before the battle, Custer released them from his command. While the village was enormous in size, Custer thought there were far fewer warriors to defend the village. He assumed most of the warriors were still asleep in their tipis.
Finally, Custer may have assumed that in the event of his encountering Native Americans, his subordinate Benteen with the pack train would quickly come to his aid. Rifle volleys were a standard way of telling supporting units to come to another unit 's aid. In a subsequent official 1879 Army investigation requested by Major Reno, the Reno Board of Inquiry (RCOI), Benteen and Reno 's men testified that they heard distinct rifle volleys as late as 4: 30 pm during the battle.
Custer had initially wanted to take a day and scout the village before attacking; however, when men went back after supplies dropped by the pack train, they discovered they were being back - trailed by Indians. Reports from his scouts also revealed fresh pony tracks from ridges overlooking his formation. It became apparent that the warriors in the village were either aware of or would soon be aware of his approach. Fearing that the village would break up into small bands that he would have to chase, Custer began to prepare for an immediate attack.
Custer 's field strategy was designed to engage noncombatants at the encampments on the Little Bighorn so as to capture women, children, and the elderly or disabled to serve as hostages to convince the warriors to surrender and comply with federal orders to relocate. Custer 's battalions were poised to "ride into the camp and secure noncombatant hostages '' and "forc (e) the warriors to surrender ''. Author Evan S. Connell observed that if Custer could occupy the village before widespread resistance developed, the Sioux and Cheyenne warriors "would be obliged to surrender, because if they started to fight, they would be shooting their own families. ''
In Custer 's book My Life on the Plains, published just two years before the Battle of the Little Bighorn, he asserted:
Indians contemplating a battle, either offensive or defensive, are always anxious to have their women and children removed from all danger... For this reason I decided to locate our (military) camp as close as convenient to (Chief Black Kettle 's Cheyenne) village, knowing that the close proximity of their women and children, and their necessary exposure in case of conflict, would operate as a powerful argument in favor of peace, when the question of peace or war came to be discussed.
On Custer 's decision to advance up the bluffs and descend on the village from the east, Lt. Edward Godfrey of Company K surmised:
(Custer) expected to find the squaws and children fleeing to the bluffs on the north, for in no other way do I account for his wide detour. He must have counted upon Reno 's success, and fully expected the "scatteration '' of the non-combatants with the pony herds. The probable attack upon the families and capture of the herds were in that event counted upon to strike consternation in the hearts of the warriors, and were elements for success upon which General Custer fully counted.
The Sioux and Cheyenne fighters were acutely aware of the danger posed by the military engagement of noncombatants and that "even a semblance of an attack on the women and children '' would draw the warriors back to the village, according to historian John S. Gray. Such was their concern that a "feint '' by Capt. Yates ' E and F Companies at the mouth of Medicine Tail Coulee (Minneconjou Ford) caused hundreds of warriors to disengage from the Reno valley fight and return to deal with the threat to the village.
Some authors and historians, based on archaeological evidence and reviews of native testimony, speculate that Custer attempted to cross the river at a point they refer to as Ford D. According to Richard A. Fox, James Donovan, and others, Custer proceeded with a wing of his battalion (Yates ' Troops E and F) north and opposite the Cheyenne circle at that crossing, which provided "access to the (women and children) fugitives. '' Yates 's force "posed an immediate threat to fugitive Indian families... '' gathering at the north end of the huge encampment; he then persisted in his efforts to "seize women and children '' even as hundreds of warriors were massing around Keogh 's wing on the bluffs. Yates ' wing, descending to the Little Bighorn River at Ford D, encountered "light resistance '', undetected by the Indian forces ascending the bluffs east of the village. Custer was almost within "striking distance of the refugees '' before being repulsed by Indian defenders and forced back to Custer Ridge.
The Lone Teepee (or Tipi) was a landmark along the 7th Cavalry 's march. It was where the Indian encampment had been a week earlier, during the Battle of the Rosebud on June 17. The Indians had left a single teepee standing (some reports mention a second that had been partially dismantled), and in it was the body of a Sans Arc warrior, Old She - Bear, who had been wounded in the battle. He had died a couple of days after the Rosebud battle, and it was the custom of the Indians to move camp when a warrior died and leave the body with its possessions. The Lone Teepee was an important location during the Battle of the Little Bighorn for several reasons, including:
The first group to attack was Major Reno 's second detachment (Companies A, G and M) after receiving orders from Custer written out by Lt. William W. Cooke, as Custer 's Crow scouts reported Sioux tribe members were alerting the village. Ordered to charge, Reno began that phase of the battle. The orders, made without accurate knowledge of the village 's size, location, or the warriors ' propensity to stand and fight, had been to pursue the Native Americans and "bring them to battle. '' Reno 's force crossed the Little Bighorn at the mouth of what is today Reno Creek around 3: 00 pm on June 25. They immediately realized that the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne were present "in force and not running away. ''
Reno advanced rapidly across the open field towards the northwest, his movements masked by the thick bramble of trees that ran along the southern banks of the Little Bighorn River. The same trees on his front right shielded his movements across the wide field over which his men rapidly rode, first with two approximately forty - man companies abreast and eventually with all three charging abreast. The trees also obscured Reno 's view of the Native American village until his force had passed that bend on his right front and was suddenly within arrow - shot of the village. The tepees in that area were occupied by the Hunkpapa Sioux. Neither Custer nor Reno had much idea of the length, depth and size of the encampment they were attacking, as the village was hidden by the trees. When Reno came into the open in front of the south end of the village, he sent his Arikara / Ree and Crow Indian scouts forward on his exposed left flank. Realizing the full extent of the village 's width, Reno quickly suspected what he would later call "a trap '' and stopped a few hundred yards short of the encampment.
He ordered his troopers to dismount and deploy in a skirmish line, according to standard army doctrine. In this formation, every fourth trooper held the horses for the troopers in firing position, with five to ten yards separating each trooper, officers to their rear and troopers with horses behind the officers. This formation reduced Reno 's firepower by 25 percent. As Reno 's men fired into the village and killed, by some accounts, several wives and children of the Sioux leader, Chief Gall (in Lakota, Phizí), mounted warriors began streaming out to meet the attack. With Reno 's men anchored on their right by the impassable tree line and bend in the river, the Indians rode hard against the exposed left end of Reno 's line. After about 20 minutes of long - distance firing, Reno had taken only one casualty, but the odds against him had risen (Reno estimated five to one) and Custer had not reinforced him. Trooper Billy Jackson reported that by then, the Indians had begun massing in the open area shielded by a small hill to the left of Reno 's line and to the right of the Indian village. From this position the Indians mounted an attack of more than 500 warriors against the left and rear of Reno 's line, turning Reno 's exposed left flank. They forced a hasty withdrawal into the timber along the bend in the river. Here the Indians pinned Reno and his men down and set fire to the brush to try to drive the soldiers out of their position.
After giving orders to mount, dismount and mount again, Reno told his men, "All those who wish to make their escape follow me, '' and led a disorderly rout across the river toward the bluffs on the other side. The retreat was immediately disrupted by Cheyenne attacks at close quarters. Later, Reno reported that three officers and 29 troopers had been killed during the retreat and subsequent fording of the river. Another officer and 13 -- 18 men were missing. Most of these missing men were left behind in the timber, although many eventually rejoined the detachment. Reno 's hasty retreat may have been precipitated by the death of Reno 's Arikara scout Bloody Knife, who had been shot in the head as he sat on his horse next to Reno, his blood and brains splattering the side of Reno 's face.
Atop the bluffs, known today as Reno Hill, Reno 's shaken troops were joined by Captain Benteen 's column (Companies D, H and K), arriving from the south. This force had been on a lateral scouting mission when it had been summoned by Custer 's messenger, Italian bugler John Martin (Giovanni Martini) with the handwritten message "Benteen. Come on, Big Village, Be quick, Bring packs. P.S. Bring Packs. ''. Benteen 's coincidental arrival on the bluffs was just in time to save Reno 's men from possible annihilation. Their detachments were reinforced by McDougall 's Company B and the pack train. The 14 officers and 340 troopers on the bluffs organized an all - around defense and dug rifle pits using whatever implements they had among them, including knives. This practice had become standard during the last year of the American Civil War, with both Union and Confederate troops utilizing knives, eating utensils, mess plates and pans to dig effective battlefield fortifications.
Despite hearing heavy gunfire from the north, including distinct volleys at 4: 20 pm, Benteen concentrated on reinforcing Reno 's badly wounded and hard - pressed detachment rather than continuing on toward Custer 's position. Benteen 's apparent reluctance to reach Custer prompted later criticism that he had failed to follow orders. Around 5: 00 pm, Capt. Thomas Weir and Company D moved out to make contact with Custer. They advanced a mile, to what is today Weir Ridge or Weir Point, and could see in the distance native warriors on horseback shooting at objects on the ground. By this time, roughly 5: 25 pm, Custer 's battle may have concluded. The conventional historical understanding is that what Weir witnessed was most likely warriors killing the wounded soldiers and shooting at dead bodies on the "Last Stand Hill '' at the northern end of the Custer battlefield. Some contemporary historians have suggested that what Weir witnessed was a fight on what is now called Calhoun Hill. The destruction of Keogh 's battalion may have begun with the collapse of L, I and C Company (half of it) following the combined assaults led by Crazy Horse, White Bull, Hump, Chief Gall and others. Other native accounts contradict this understanding, however, and the time element remains a subject of debate. The other entrenched companies eventually followed Weir by assigned battalions, first Benteen, then Reno, and finally the pack train. Growing native attacks around Weir Ridge forced all seven companies to return to the bluff before the pack train, with the ammunition, had moved even a quarter mile. The companies remained pinned down on the bluff for another day, but the natives were unable to breach the tightly held position.
Benteen displayed calmness and courage by exposing himself to Indian fire and was hit in the heel of his boot by an Indian bullet. At one point, he personally led a counterattack to push back Indians who had continued to crawl through the grass closer to the soldier 's positions.
The precise details of Custer 's fight are largely conjectural since none of his men (the five companies under his immediate command) survived the battle. Later accounts from surviving Indians are conflicting and unclear.
While the gunfire heard on the bluffs by Reno and Benteen 's men was probably from Custer 's fight, the soldiers on Reno Hill were unaware of what had happened to Custer until General Terry 's arrival on June 27. They were reportedly stunned by the news. When the army examined the Custer battle site, soldiers could not determine fully what had transpired. Custer 's force of roughly 210 men had been engaged by the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne about 3.5 miles (5.6 km) to the north of Reno and Benteen 's defensive position. Evidence of organized resistance included apparent breastworks made of dead horses on Custer Hill. By the time troops came to recover the bodies, the Lakota and Cheyenne had already removed most of their dead from the field. The troops found most of Custer 's dead stripped of their clothing, ritually mutilated, and in an advanced state of decomposition, making identification of many impossible. The soldiers identified the 7th Cavalry 's dead as best as possible and hastily buried them where they fell.
Custer was found with shots to the left chest and left temple. Either wound would have been fatal, though he appeared to have bled from only the chest wound, meaning his head wound may have been delivered postmortem. He also suffered a wound to the arm. Some Lakota oral histories assert that Custer committed suicide to avoid capture and subsequent torture, though this is usually discounted since the wounds were inconsistent with his known right - handedness. (Other native accounts note several soldiers committing suicide near the end of the battle.) Custer 's body was found near the top of Custer Hill, which also came to be known as "Last Stand Hill ''. There the United States erected a tall memorial obelisk inscribed with the names of the 7th Cavalry 's casualties.
Several days after the battle, Curley, Custer 's Crow scout who had left Custer near Medicine Tail Coulee (a drainage which led to the river), recounted the battle, reporting that Custer had attacked the village after attempting to cross the river. He was driven back, retreating toward the hill where his body was found. As the scenario seemed compatible with Custer 's aggressive style of warfare and with evidence found on the ground, it became the basis of many popular accounts of the battle.
According to Pretty Shield, the wife of Goes - Ahead (another Crow scout for the 7th Cavalry), Custer was killed while crossing the river: "... and he died there, died in the water of the Little Bighorn, with Two - bodies, and the blue soldier carrying his flag ''. In this account, Custer was allegedly killed by a Lakota called Big - nose. However, in Chief Gall 's version of events, as recounted to Lt. Edward Settle Godfrey, Custer did not attempt to ford the river and the nearest that he came to the river or village was his final position on the ridge. Chief Gall 's statements were corroborated by other Indians, notably the wife of Spotted Horn Bull. Given that no bodies of men or horses were found anywhere near the ford, Godfrey himself concluded "that Custer did not go to the ford with any body of men ''.
Cheyenne oral tradition credits Buffalo Calf Road Woman with striking the blow that knocked Custer off his horse before he died.
- Reported words of Lieutenant Colonel Custer at the battle 's outset.
Having isolated Reno 's force and driven them away from the encampment, the bulk of the native warriors were free to pursue Custer. The route taken by Custer to his "Last Stand '' remains a subject of debate. One possibility is that after ordering Reno to charge, Custer continued down Reno Creek to within about a half mile (800 m) of the Little Bighorn, but then turned north and climbed up the bluffs, reaching the same spot to which Reno would soon retreat. From this point on the other side of the river, he could see Reno charging the village. Riding north along the bluffs, Custer could have descended into Medicine Tail Coulee. Some historians believe that part of Custer 's force descended the coulee, going west to the river and attempting unsuccessfully to cross into the village. According to some accounts, a small contingent of Indian sharpshooters opposed this crossing.
White Cow Bull claimed to have shot a leader wearing a buckskin jacket off his horse in the river. While no other Indian account supports this claim, if White Bull did shoot a buckskin - clad leader off his horse, some historians have argued that Custer may have been seriously wounded by him. Some Indian accounts claim that besides wounding one of the leaders of this advance, a soldier carrying a company guidon was also hit. Troopers had to dismount to help the wounded men back onto their horses. The fact that either of the non-mutilation wounds to Custer 's body (a bullet wound below the heart and a shot to the left temple) would have been instantly fatal casts doubt on his being wounded and remounted.
Reports of an attempted fording of the river at Medicine Tail Coulee might explain Custer 's purpose for Reno 's attack, that is, a coordinated "hammer - and - anvil '' maneuver, with Reno 's holding the Indians at bay at the southern end of the camp, while Custer drove them against Reno 's line from the north. Other historians have noted that if Custer did attempt to cross the river near Medicine Tail Coulee, he may have believed it was the north end of the Indian camp, although it was only the middle. Some Indian accounts, however, place the Northern Cheyenne encampment and the north end of the overall village to the left (and south) of the opposite side of the crossing. The precise location of the north end of the village remains in dispute, however.
Edward Curtis, the famed ethnologist and photographer of the Native American Indians, made a detailed personal study of the battle, interviewing many of those who had fought or taken part in it. First he went over the ground covered by the troops with the three Crow scouts White Man Runs Him, Goes Ahead, and Hairy Moccasin, and then again with Two Moons and a party of Cheyenne warriors. He also visited the Lakota country and interviewed Red Hawk, "whose recollection of the fight seemed to be particularly clear ''. Then, he went over the battlefield once more with the three Crow scouts, but also accompanied by General Charles Woodruff "as I particularly desired that the testimony of these men might be considered by an experienced army officer ''. Finally, Curtis visited the country of the Arikara and interviewed the scouts of that tribe who had been with Custer 's command. Based on all the information he gathered, Curtis concluded that Custer had indeed ridden down the Medicine Tail Coulee and then towards the river where he probably planned to ford it. However, "the Indians had now discovered him and were gathered closely on the opposite side ''. They were soon joined by a large force of Sioux who (no longer engaging Reno) rushed down the valley. This was the beginning of their attack on Custer who was forced to turn and head for the hill where he would make his famous "last stand ''. Thus, wrote Curtis, "Custer made no attack, the whole movement being a retreat ''.
Other historians claim that Custer never approached the river, but rather continued north across the coulee and up the other side, where he gradually came under attack. According to this theory, by the time Custer realized he was badly outnumbered, it was too late to break back to the south where Reno and Benteen could have provided assistance. Two men from the 7th Cavalry, the young Crow scout Ashishishe (known in English as Curley) and the trooper Peter Thompson, claimed to have seen Custer engage the Indians. The accuracy of their recollections remains controversial; accounts by battle participants and assessments by historians almost universally discredit Thompson 's claim.
Archaeological evidence and reassessment of Indian testimony has led to a new interpretation of the battle. In the 1920s, battlefield investigators discovered hundreds of. 45 -- 55 shell cases along the ridge line known today as Nye - Cartwright Ridge, between South Medicine Tail Coulee and the next drainage at North Medicine Tail (also known as Deep Coulee). Some historians believe Custer divided his detachment into two (and possibly three) battalions, retaining personal command of one while presumably delegating Captain George W. Yates to command the second.
Evidence from the 1920s supports the theory that at least one of the companies made a feint attack southeast from Nye - Cartwright Ridge straight down the center of the "V '' formed by the intersection at the crossing of Medicine Tail Coulee on the right and Calhoun Coulee on the left. The intent may have been to relieve pressure on Reno 's detachment (according to the Crow scout Curley, possibly viewed by both Mitch Bouyer and Custer) by withdrawing the skirmish line into the timber on the edge of the Little Bighorn River. Had the U.S. troops come straight down Medicine Tail Coulee, their approach to the Minneconjou Crossing and the northern area of the village would have been masked by the high ridges running on the northwest side of the Little Bighorn River.
That they might have come southeast, from the center of Nye - Cartwright Ridge, seems to be supported by Northern Cheyenne accounts of seeing the approach of the distinctly white - colored horses of Company E, known as the Grey Horse Company. Its approach was seen by Indians at that end of the village. Behind them, a second company, further up on the heights, would have provided long - range cover fire. Warriors could have been drawn to the feint attack, forcing the battalion back towards the heights, up the north fork drainage, away from the troops providing cover fire above. The covering company would have moved towards a reunion, delivering heavy volley fire and leaving the trail of expended cartridges discovered 50 years later.
In the end, the hilltop to which Custer had moved was probably too small to accommodate all of the survivors and wounded. Fire from the southeast made it impossible for Custer 's men to secure a defensive position all around Last Stand Hill where the soldiers put up their most dogged defense. According to Lakota accounts, far more of their casualties occurred in the attack on Last Stand Hill than anywhere else. The extent of the soldiers ' resistance indicated they had few doubts about their prospects for survival. According to Cheyenne and Sioux testimony, the command structure rapidly broke down, although smaller "last stands '' were apparently made by several groups. Custer 's remaining companies (E, F, and half of C) were soon killed.
By almost all accounts, the Lakota annihilated Custer 's force within an hour of engagement. David Humphreys Miller, who between 1935 and 1955 interviewed the last Lakota survivors of the battle, wrote that the Custer fight lasted less than one - half hour. Other native accounts said the fighting lasted only "as long as it takes a hungry man to eat a meal. '' The Lakota asserted that Crazy Horse personally led one of the large groups of warriors who overwhelmed the cavalrymen in a surprise charge from the northeast, causing a breakdown in the command structure and panic among the troops. Many of these men threw down their weapons while Cheyenne and Sioux warriors rode them down, "counting coup '' with lances, coup sticks, and quirts. Some Native accounts recalled this segment of the fight as a "buffalo run. ''
Captain Frederick Benteen, battalion leader of Companies D, H and K, recalled his observations on the Custer battlefield on June 27, 1876
I went over the battlefield carefully with a view to determine how the battle was fought. I arrived at the conclusion I (hold) now -- that it was a rout, a panic, until the last man was killed...
There was no line formed on the battlefield. You can take a handful of corn and scatter (the kernels) over the floor, and make just such lines. There were none... The only approach to a line was where 5 or 6 (dead) horses found at equal distances, like skirmishers (part of Lt. Calhoun 's Company L). That was the only approach to a line on the field. There were more than 20 (troopers) killed (in one group); there were (more often) four or five at one place, all within a space of 20 to 30 yards (of each other)... I counted 70 dead (cavalry) horses and 2 Indian ponies.
I think, in all probability, that the men turned their horses loose without any orders to do so. Many orders might have been given, but few obeyed. I think that they were panic stricken; it was a rout, as I said before.
A Brulé Sioux warrior stated: "In fact, Hollow Horn Bear believed that the troops were in good order at the start of the fight, and kept their organization even while moving from point to point. '' Red Horse, an Oglala Sioux warrior, commented: "Here (Last Stand Hill) the soldiers made a desperate fight. '' One Hunkpapa Sioux warrior, Moving Robe, noted that "It was a hotly contested battle '', while another, Iron Hawk, stated: "The Indians pressed and crowded right in around Custer Hill. But the soldiers were n't ready to die. We stood there a long time. '' In a letter from February 21, 1910, Private William Taylor, Company M, 7th Cavalry, wrote: "Reno proved incompetent and Benteen showed his indifference -- I will not use the uglier words that have often been in my mind. Both failed Custer and he had to fight it out alone. ''
Recent archaeological work at the battlefield indicates that officers on Custer Hill restored some tactical control. E Company rushed off Custer Hill toward the Little Bighorn River but failed to reach it, which resulted in the total destruction of that company. This left about 50 - 60 men, mostly from F Company and the staff, on Last Stand Hill. The remainder of the battle took on the nature of a running fight. Modern archaeology and historical Indian accounts indicate that Custer 's force may have been divided into three groups, with the Indians ' attempting to prevent them from effectively reuniting. Indian accounts describe warriors (including women) running up from the village to wave blankets in order to scare off the soldiers ' horses. One 7th Cavalry trooper claimed finding a number of stone mallets consisting of a round cobble weighing 8 -- 10 pounds (about 4 kg) with a rawhide handle, which he believed had been used by the Indian women to finish off the wounded. Fighting dismounted, the soldiers ' skirmish lines were overwhelmed. Army doctrine would have called for one man in four to be a horseholder behind the skirmish lines and, in extreme cases, one man in eight. Later, the troops would have bunched together in defensive positions and are alleged to have shot their remaining horses as cover. As individual troopers were wounded or killed, initial defensive positions would have been abandoned as untenable.
Under threat of attack, the first U.S. soldiers on the battlefield three days later hurriedly buried the troopers in shallow graves, more or less where they had fallen. A couple of years after the battle, markers were placed where men were believed to have fallen, so the placement of troops has been roughly construed. The troops evidently died in several groups, including on Custer Hill, around Captain Myles Keogh, and strung out towards the Little Bighorn River.
Modern documentaries suggest that there may not have been a "Last Stand '' as traditionally portrayed in popular culture. Instead, archaeologists suggest that, in the end, Custer 's troops were not surrounded but rather overwhelmed by a single charge. This scenario corresponds to several Indian accounts stating Crazy Horse 's charge swarmed the resistance, with the surviving soldiers fleeing in panic. Many of these troopers may have ended up in a deep ravine 300 -- 400 yards away from what is known today as Custer Hill. At least 28 bodies (the most common number associated with burial witness testimony), including that of scout Mitch Bouyer, were discovered in or near that gulch, their deaths possibly the battle 's final actions. Although the marker for Mitch Bouyer has been accounted for as being accurate through archaeological and forensic testing, it is some 65 yards away from Deep Ravine. Other archaeological explorations done in Deep Ravine have found no human remains associated with the battle. According to Indian accounts, about 40 men made a desperate stand around Custer on Custer Hill, delivering volley fire. The great majority of the Indian casualties were probably suffered during this closing segment of the battle, as the soldiers and Indians on Calhoun Ridge were more widely separated and traded fire at greater distances for most of their portion of the battle than did the soldiers and Indians on Custer Hill.
After the Custer force was soundly defeated, the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne regrouped to attack Reno and Benteen. The fight continued until dark (approximately 9: 00 pm) and for much of the next day, with the outcome in doubt. Reno credited Benteen 's luck with repulsing a severe attack on the portion of the perimeter held by Companies H and M. On June 27, the column under General Terry approached from the north, and the Natives drew off in the opposite direction. The Crow scout White Man Runs Him was the first to tell General Terry 's officers that Custer 's force had "been wiped out. '' Reno and Benteen 's wounded troops were given what treatment was available at that time; five later died of their wounds. One of the regiment 's three surgeons had been with Custer 's column, while another, Dr. DeWolf, had been killed during Reno 's retreat. The only remaining doctor was Assistant Surgeon Henry R. Porter.
News of the defeat arrived in the East as the U.S. was observing its centennial. The Army began to investigate, although its effectiveness was hampered by a concern for survivors, and the reputation of the officers. Custer 's wife, Elisabeth Bacon Custer, in particular, guarded and promoted the ideal of him as the gallant hero, attacking any who cast an ill light on his reputation.
The Battle of the Little Bighorn had far - reaching consequences for the Natives. It was the beginning of the end of the ' Indian ' Wars and has even been referred to as "the Indians '' last stand '' in the area. Within 48 hours of the battle, the large encampment on the Little Bighorn broke up into smaller groups because there was not enough game and grass to sustain a large congregation of people and horses.
Oglala Sioux Black Elk recounted the exodus this way: "We fled all night, following the Greasy Grass. My two younger brothers and I rode in a pony - drag, and my mother put some young pups in with us. They were always trying to crawl out and I was always putting them back in, so I did n't sleep much. ''
The scattered Sioux and Cheyenne feasted and celebrated during July with no threat from soldiers. After their celebrations, many of the Natives returned to the reservation. Soon the number of warriors amounted to only about 600. Both Crook and Terry remained immobile for seven weeks after the battle, awaiting reinforcements and unwilling to venture out against the Sioux and Cheyenne until they had at least 2,000 men. Crook and Terry finally took the field against the Natives forces in August. General Nelson A. Miles took command of the effort in October 1876. In May 1877, Sitting Bull escaped to Canada. Within days, Crazy Horse surrendered at Fort Robinson, Nebraska. The Great Sioux War ended on May 7 with Miles ' defeat of a remaining band of Miniconjou Sioux.
Ownership of the Black Hills, which had been a focal point of the 1876 conflict, was determined by an ultimatum issued by the Manypenny Commission, according to which the Sioux were required to cede the land to the United States if they wanted the government to continue supplying rations to the reservations. Threatened with forced starvation, the Natives ceded Paha Sapa to the United States, but the Sioux never accepted the legitimacy of the transaction. They lobbied Congress to create a forum to decide their claim and subsequently litigated for 40 years; the United States Supreme Court in the 1980 decision United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians acknowledged that the United States had taken the Black Hills without just compensation. The Sioux refused the money subsequently offered and continue to insist on their right to occupy the land.
Modern - day accounts include Arapaho warriors in the battle, but the five Arapaho men who were at the encampments were there only by accident. While on a hunting trip they came close to the village by the river and were captured and almost killed by the Lakota who believed the hunters were scouts for the U.S. Army. Two Moon, a Northern Cheyenne leader, interceded to save their lives.
The 7th Cavalry was accompanied by a number of scouts and interpreters:
Native Americans
Native Americans
United States Army, Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer, 7th United States Cavalry Regiment, Commanding.
Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer †, commanding.
Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer †
Major Marcus Reno
Captain Frederick Benteen
First Lieutenant Edward Gustave Mathey
Second Lieutenant Charles Varnum (wounded), Chief of Scouts
Estimates of Native American casualties have differed widely, from as few as 36 dead (from Native American listings of the dead by name) to as many as 300. Lakota chief Red Horse told Col. W.H. Wood in 1877 that the Native Americans suffered 136 dead and 160 wounded during the battle. In 1881, Red Horse told Dr. C.E. McChesney the same numbers but in a series of drawings done by Red Horse to illustrate the battle, he drew only sixty figures representing Lakota and Cheyenne casualties. Of those sixty figures only thirty some are portrayed with a conventional Plains Indian method of indicating death. In the last 140 years, historians have been able to identify multiple Indian names pertaining to the same individual, which has greatly reduced previously inflated numbers. Today a list of positively known casualties exists that lists 99 names, attributed and consolidated to 31 identified warriors.
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties at Battle of Little Bighorn (Plate XLV)
Six unnamed Native American women and four unnamed children are known to have been killed at the beginning of the battle during Reno 's charge. Among them were two wives and three children of the Hunkpapa Leader Pizi (Gall).
The 7th Cavalry suffered 52 percent casualties: 16 officers and 242 troopers killed or died of wounds, 1 officer and 51 troopers wounded. Every soldier of the five companies with Custer was killed (except for some Crow scouts and several troopers that had left that column before the battle or as the battle was starting). Among the dead were Custer 's brothers Boston and Thomas, his brother - in - law James Calhoun, and his nephew Henry Reed.
In 1878, the army awarded 24 Medals of Honor to participants in the fight on the bluffs for bravery, most for risking their lives to carry water from the river up the hill to the wounded. Few on the non-Indian side questioned the conduct of the enlisted men, but many questioned the tactics, strategy and conduct of the officers. Indian accounts spoke of soldiers ' panic - driven flight and suicide by those unwilling to fall captive to the Indians. While such stories were gathered by Thomas Bailey Marquis in a book in the 1930s, it was not published until 1976 because of the unpopularity of such assertions. Although soldiers may have believed captives would be tortured, Indians usually killed men outright and took as captive for adoption only young women and children. Indian accounts also noted the bravery of soldiers who fought to the death.
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen+ 2 Indian Government scouts (?)
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen & dead cavalry horses
Beginning in July, the 7th Cavalry was assigned new officers and recruiting efforts began to fill the depleted ranks. The regiment, reorganized into eight companies, remained in the field as part of the Terry Expedition, now based on the Yellowstone River at the mouth of the Bighorn and reinforced by Gibbon 's column. On August 8, 1876, after Terry was further reinforced with the 5th Infantry, the expedition moved up Rosebud Creek in pursuit of the Lakota. It met with Crook 's command, similarly reinforced, and the combined force, almost 4,000 strong, followed the Lakota trail northeast toward the Little Missouri River. Persistent rain and lack of supplies forced the column to dissolve and return to its varying starting points. The 7th Cavalry returned to Fort Abraham Lincoln to reconstitute.
The U.S. Congress authorized appropriations to expand the Army by 2,500 men to meet the emergency after the defeat of the 7th Cavalry. For a session, the Democratic Party - controlled House of Representatives abandoned its campaign to reduce the size of the Army. Word of Custer 's fate reached the 44th United States Congress as a conference committee was attempting to reconcile opposing appropriations bills approved by the House and the Republican Senate. They approved a measure to increase the size of cavalry companies to 100 enlisted men on July 24. The committee temporarily lifted the ceiling on the size of the Army by 2,500 on August 15.
As a result of the defeat in June 1876, Congress responded by attaching what the Sioux call the "sell or starve '' rider (19 Stat. 192) to the Indian Appropriations Act of 1876 (enacted August 15, 1876), which cut off all rations for the Sioux until they terminated hostilities and ceded the Black Hills to the United States. The Agreement of 1877 (19 Stat. 254, enacted February 28, 1877) officially took away Sioux land and permanently established Indian reservations.
The Battle of the Little Bighorn was the subject of an 1879 U.S. Army Court of Inquiry in Chicago, held at Reno 's request, during which his conduct was scrutinized. Some testimony by non-Army officers suggested that he was drunk and a coward. The court found Reno 's conduct to be without fault. After the battle, Thomas Rosser, James O'Kelly, and others continued to question the conduct of Reno due to his hastily ordered retreat. Defenders of Reno at the trial noted that, while the retreat was disorganized, Reno did not withdraw from his position until it became apparent that he was outnumbered and outflanked by the Indians. Contemporary accounts also point to the fact that Reno 's scout, Bloody Knife, was shot in the head, spraying him with blood, possibly increasing his own panic and distress.
General Terry and others claimed that Custer made strategic errors from the start of the campaign. For instance, he refused to use a battery of Gatling guns, and turned down General Terry 's offer of an additional battalion of the 2nd Cavalry. Custer believed that the Gatling guns would impede his march up the Rosebud and hamper his mobility. His rapid march en route to the Little Bighorn averaged nearly 30 miles (48 km) a day, so his assessment appears to have been accurate. Custer planned "to live and travel like Indians; in this manner the command will be able to go wherever the Indians can '', he wrote in his Herald dispatch.
By contrast, each Gatling gun had to be hauled by four horses, and soldiers often had to drag the heavy guns by hand over obstacles. Each of the heavy, hand - cranked weapons could fire up to 350 rounds a minute, an impressive rate, but they were known to jam frequently. During the Black Hills Expedition two years earlier, a Gatling gun had turned over, rolled down a mountain, and shattered to pieces. Lieutenant William Low, commander of the artillery detachment, was said to have almost wept when he learned he had been excluded from the strike force.
Custer believed that the 7th Cavalry could handle any Indian force and that the addition of the four companies of the 2nd would not alter the outcome. When offered the 2nd Cavalry, he reportedly replied that the 7th "could handle anything. '' There is evidence that Custer suspected that he would be outnumbered by the Indians, although he did not know by how much. By dividing his forces, Custer could have caused the defeat of the entire column, had it not been for Benteen 's and Reno 's linking up to make a desperate yet successful stand on the bluff above the southern end of the camp.
The historian James Donovan believed that Custer 's dividing his force into four smaller detachments (including the pack train) can be attributed to his inadequate reconnaissance; he also ignored the warnings of his Crow scouts and Charley Reynolds. By the time the battle began, Custer had already divided his forces into three battalions of differing sizes, of which he kept the largest. His men were widely scattered and unable to support each other. Wanting to prevent any escape by the combined tribes to the south, where they could disperse into different groups, Custer believed that an immediate attack on the south end of the camp was the best course of action.
Criticism of Custer was not universal. While investigating the battlefield, Lieutenant General Nelson A. Miles wrote in 1877, "The more I study the moves here (on the Little Big Horn), the more I have admiration for Custer. '' Facing major budget cutbacks, the U.S. Army wanted to avoid bad press and found ways to exculpate Custer. They blamed the defeat on the Indians ' alleged possession of numerous repeating rifles and the overwhelming numerical superiority of the warriors.
The widowed Elizabeth Bacon Custer, who never remarried, wrote three popular books in which she fiercely protected her husband 's reputation. She lived until 1933, thus preventing much serious research until most of the evidence was long gone. In addition, Captain Frederick Whittaker 's 1876 book idealizing Custer was hugely successful. Custer as a heroic officer fighting valiantly against savage forces was an image popularized in Wild West extravaganzas hosted by showman "Buffalo Bill '' Cody, Pawnee Bill, and others. It was not until over half a century later that historians took another look at the battle and Custer 's decisions that led to his death and loss of half his command and found much to criticize.
General Alfred Terry 's Dakota column included a single battery of artillery, comprising two Rodman guns (3 - inch Ordnance rifle) and two Gatling guns. (According to historian Evan S. Connell, the precise number of Gatlings has not been established, ranging from two to three.)
Custer 's decision to reject Terry 's offer of the rapid - fire Gatlings has raised questions among historians as to why he refused them and what advantage their availability might have conferred on his forces at the Battle of the Little Bighorn.
One factor concerned Major Marcus Reno 's recent 8 - day reconnaissance - in - force of the Powder - Tongue - Rosebud Rivers, June 10 to 18. This deployment had demonstrated that artillery pieces mounted on gun carriages and hauled by horses no longer fit for cavalry mounts (so - called condemned horses) were cumbersome over mixed terrain and vulnerable to breakdowns. Custer, valuing the mobility of the 7th Cavalry and recognizing Terry 's acknowledgement of the regiment as "the primary strike force '' preferred to remain unencumbered by the Gatling guns. Custer insisted that the artillery was superfluous to his success, in that the 7th Cavalry alone was sufficient to cope with any force they should encounter, informing Terry: "The 7th can handle anything it meets ''. In addition to these practical concerns, a strained relationship with Major James Brisbin induced Custer 's polite refusal to integrate Brisbin 's Second Cavalry unit -- and the Gatling guns -- into his strike force, as it would disrupt any hierarchical arrangements that Custer presided over.
Historians have acknowledged the firepower inherent in the Gatling gun: they were capable of firing 350. 45 - 70 caliber rounds per minute. Jamming caused by black powder residue could lower that rate, raising questions as to their reliability under combat conditions. Researchers have further questioned the effectiveness of the guns under the tactics that Custer was likely to face with the Lakota and Cheyenne warriors. The Gatlings, mounted high on carriages, required the battery crew to stand upright during its operation, making them easy targets for Lakota and Cheyenne sharpshooters.
Historian Robert M. Utley, in a section entitled "Would Gatling Guns Have Saved Custer? '' presents two judgments from Custer 's contemporaries: General Henry J. Hunt, expert in the tactical use of artillery in Civil War, stated that Gatlings "would probably have saved the command '', whereas General Nelson A. Miles, participant in the Great Sioux War declared "(Gatlings) were useless for Indian fighting. ''
The Lakota and Cheyenne warriors that opposed Custer 's forces possessed a wide array of weaponry, from Stone Age war clubs and lances to the most advanced firearms of the day. The typical firearms carried by the Lakota and Cheyenne combatants were muzzleloaders, more often a cap - lock smoothbore, the so - called Indian trade musket or Leman guns distributed to Indians by the US government at treaty conventions. Less common were surplus. 58 caliber rifled muskets of American Civil War vintage such as the Enfield and Springfield. Metal cartridge weapons were prized by native combatants, such as the Henry and the Spencer lever - action rifles, as well as Sharps breechloaders. Bows and arrows were utilized by younger braves in lieu of the more potent firearms; effective up to 30 yards (27 meters), the arrows could readily maim or disable an opponent.
Sitting Bull 's forces had no assured means to supply themselves with firearms and ammunition. Nonetheless, they could usually procure these through post-traders, licensed or unlicensed, and from gunrunners who operated in the Dakota Territory: "... a horse or a mule for a repeater... buffalo hides for ammunition. '' Custer 's highly regarded guide, "Lonesome '' Charley Reynolds, informed his superior in early 1876 that Sitting Bull 's forces were amassing weapons, including numerous Winchester repeating rifles and abundant ammunition.
Of the guns owned by Lakota and Cheyenne fighters at the Little Bighorn, approximately 200 were repeating rifles corresponding to about 1 of 10 of the encampment 's two thousand able - bodied fighters who participated in the battle
The troops under Custer 's command carried two regulation firearms authorized and issued by the U.S. Army in early 1876: the breech - loading, single - shot Springfield Model 1873 carbine, and the 1873 Colt single - action revolver. The regulation M1860 saber or "long knives '' were not carried by troopers upon Custer 's order.
With the exception of a number of officers and scouts who opted for personally owned and more expensive rifles and handguns, the 7th Cavalry was uniformly armed.
Ammunition allotments provided 100 carbine rounds per trooper, carried on a cartridge belt and in saddlebags on their mounts. An additional 50 carbine rounds per man were reserved on the pack train that accompanied the regiment to the battlefield. Each trooper had 24 rounds for his Colt handgun. The opposing forces, though not equally matched in the number and type of arms, were comparably outfitted, and neither side held a overwhelming advantage in weaponry.
Two hundred or more Lakota and Cheyenne combatants are known to have been armed with Henry, Winchester, or similar lever - action repeating rifles at the battle. Virtually every trooper in the 7th Cavalry fought with the single - shot, breech - loading Springfield carbine and the Colt revolver.
Historians have asked whether the repeating rifles conferred a distinct advantage on Sitting Bull 's villagers that contributed to their victory over Custer 's carbine - armed soldiers.
Historian Michael L. Lawson offers a scenario based on archaeological collections at the "Henryville '' site, which yielded plentiful Henry rifle cartridge casings from approximately 20 individual guns. Lawson speculates that, though less powerful than the Springfield carbines, the Henry repeaters provided a barrage of fire at a critical point, driving Lieutenant James Calhoun 's L Company from Calhoun Hill and Finley Ridge, forcing them to flee in disarray back to Captain Myles Keogh 's I Company, and leading to the disintegration of that wing of Custer 's Battalion.
After exhaustive testing -- including comparisons to domestic and foreign single - shot and repeating rifles -- the Army Ordnance Board (whose members included officers Marcus Reno and Alfred Terry) authorized the Springfield as the official firearm for the United States Army.
The Springfield, manufactured in a. 45 - 70 long rifle version for the infantry and a. 45 - 55 light carbine version for the cavalry, was judged a solid firearm that met the long - term and geostrategic requirements of the United States fighting forces.
British historian Mark Gallear maintains that US government experts rejected the lever - action repeater designs, deeming them ineffective in the event of a clash with fully equipped European armies, or in case of an outbreak of another American civil conflict. Gallear 's analysis minimizes the allegation that rapid depletion of ammunition in lever - action models influenced the decision in favor of the single - shot Springfield. The Indian War, in this context, appears as a minor theatre of conflict, whose contingencies were unlikely to govern the selection of standard weaponry for an emerging industrialized nation.
The Springfield carbine is praised for its "superior range and stopping power '' by historian James Donovan, and author Charles M. Robinson reports that the rifle could be "loaded and fired much more rapidly than its muzzle loading predecessors, and had twice the range of repeating rifles such as the Winchester, Henry and Spencer. ''
Gallear points out that lever - action rifles, after a burst of rapid discharge, still required a reloading interlude that lowered their overall rate of fire; Springfield breechloaders "in the long run, had a higher rate of fire, which was sustainable throughout a battle. ''
The breechloader design patent for the Springfield 's Erskine S. Allin trapdoor system was owned by the US government and the firearm could be easily adapted for production with existing machinery at the Springfield Armory in Massachusetts. At time when funding for the post-war Army had been slashed, the prospect for economical production influenced the Ordnance Board member selection of the Springfield option.
The question as to whether the reported malfunction of the Model 1873 Springfield carbine issued to the 7th Cavalry contributed to their defeat has been debated for years.
That the weapon experienced jamming of the extractor is not contested, but its contribution to Custer 's defeat is considered negligible. This conclusion is supported by evidence from archaeological studies performed at the battlefield, where the recovery of Springfield cartridge casing, bearing tell - tale scratch marks indicating manual extraction, were rare. The flaw in the ejector mechanism was known to the Army Ordnance Board at the time of the selection of the Model 1873 rifle and carbine, and was not considered a significant shortcoming in the overall worthiness of the shoulder arm. With the ejector failure in US Army tests as low as 1: 300, the Springfield carbine was vastly more reliable than the muzzle - loading Springfields used in the Civil War.
Gallear addresses the post-battle testimony concerning the copper. 45 - 55 cartridges supplied to the troops in which an officer is said to have cleared the chambers of spent cartridges for a number of Springfield carbines. This testimony of widespread fusing of the casings offered to the Chief of Ordnance at the Reno Court of Inquiry in 1879 conflicts with the archaeological evidence collected at the battlefield. Field data showed that possible extractor failures occurred at a rate of approximately 1: 30 firings at the Custer Battlefield and at a rate of 1: 37 at the Reno - Benteen Battlefield.
Historian Thom Hatch observes that the Model 1873 Springfield, despite the known ejector flaw, remained the standard issue shoulder arm for US troops until the early 1890s. when the copper - cased, inside - primed cartridges were replaced with brass.
Soldiers under Custer 's direct command were annihilated on the first day of the battle (except for three Crow scouts and several troopers (including John Martin (Giovanni Martino)) that had left that column before the battle; one Crow scout, Curly, was the only survivor to leave after the battle had begun), although for years rumors persisted of other survivors.
Over 120 men and women would come forward over the course of the next 70 years claiming they were "the lone survivor '' of Custer 's Last Stand. The phenomenon became so widespread that one historian remarked, "Had Custer had all of those who claimed to be ' the lone survivor ' of his two battalions he would have had at least a brigade behind him when he crossed the Wolf Mountains and rode to the attack. ''
The historian Earl Alonzo Brininstool suggested he had collected at least 70 "lone survivor '' stories. Michael Nunnally, an amateur Custer historian, wrote a booklet describing 30 such accounts. W.A. Graham claimed that even Libby Custer received dozens of letters from men, in shocking detail, about their sole survivor experience. At least 125 alleged "single survivor '' tales have been confirmed in the historical record as of July 2012.
Frank Finkel, from Dayton, Washington, had such a convincing story that historian Charles Kuhlman believed the alleged survivor, going so far as to write a lengthy defense of Finkel 's participation in the battle. Douglas Ellison -- mayor of Medora, North Dakota, and an amateur historian -- also wrote a book in support of the veracity of Finkel 's claim, but most scholars reject it.
Some of these survivors held a form of celebrity status in the United States, among them Raymond Hatfield "Arizona Bill '' Gardner and Frank Tarbeaux. A few even published their own autobiographies, including their deeds at the Little Bighorn.
Almost as soon as men came forward implying or directly pronouncing their unique role in the battle, there were others who were equally opposed to any such claims. Theodore Goldin, a battle participant who later became a controversial historian on the event, wrote (in regards to Charles Hayward 's claim to have been with Custer and taken prisoner):
The Indians always insisted that they took no prisoners. If they did -- a thing I firmly believe -- they were tortured and killed the night of the 25th. As an evidence of this I recall the three charred and burned heads we picked up in the village near the scene of the big war dance, when we visited the village with Capt. Benteen and Lieut. Wallace on the morning of the 27th... I 'm sorely afraid, Tony, that we will have to class Hayward 's story, like that of so many others, as pure, unadulterated B.S. As a clerk at headquarters I had occasion to look over the morning reports of at least the six troops at Lincoln almost daily, and never saw his name there, or among the list of scouts employed from time to time... I am hoping that some day all of these damned fakirs will die and it will be safe for actual participants in the battle to admit and insist that they were there, without being branded and looked upon as a lot of damned liars. Actually, there have been times when I have been tempted to deny that I ever heard of the 7th Cavalry, much less participated with it in that engagement... My Medal of Honor and its inscription have served me as proof positive that I was at least in the vicinity at the time in question, otherwise I should be tempted to deny all knowledge of the event.
The only documented and verified survivor of Custer 's command (having been actually involved in Custer 's part of the battle) was Captain Keogh 's horse, Comanche. The wounded horse was discovered on the battlefield by General Terry 's troops, and although other cavalry mounts survived they had been taken by the Indians. Comanche eventually was returned to the fort and became the regimental mascot. Several other badly wounded horses were found and destroyed at the scene. Writer Evan S. Connell noted in Son of the Morning Star:
Comanche was reputed to be the only survivor of the Little Bighorn, but quite a few Seventh Cavalry mounts survived, probably more than one hundred, and there was even a yellow bulldog. Comanche lived on another fifteen years, and when he died, he was stuffed and to this day remains in a glass case at the University of Kansas. So, protected from moths and souvenir hunters by his humidity - controlled glass case, Comanche stands patiently, enduring generation after generation of undergraduate jokes. The other horses are gone, and the mysterious yellow bulldog is gone, which means that in a sense the legend is true. Comanche alone survived.
For more on survivor claims, see Custer Survivors in Little Bighorn Folklore.
The site of the battle was first preserved as a United States national cemetery in 1879 to protect the graves of the 7th Cavalry troopers. In 1946, it was re-designated as the Custer Battlefield National Monument, reflecting its association with Custer. In 1967, Major Marcus Reno was re-interred in the cemetery with honors, including an eleven - gun salute. Beginning in the early 1970s, there was concern within the National Park Service over the name Custer Battlefield National Monument failing to adequately reflect the larger history of the battle between two cultures. Hearings on the name change were held in Billings on June 10, 1991, and during the following months Congress renamed the site the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument.
United States memorialization of the battlefield began in 1879 with a temporary monument to the U.S. dead. In 1881, the current marble obelisk was erected in their honor. In 1890, marble blocks were added to mark the places where the U.S. cavalry soldiers fell.
Nearly 100 years later, ideas about the meaning of the battle have become more inclusive. The United States government acknowledged that Native American sacrifices also deserved recognition at the site. The 1991 bill changing the name of the national monument also authorized an Indian Memorial to be built near Last Stand Hill in honor of Lakota and Cheyenne warriors. The commissioned work by native artist Colleen Cutschall is shown in the photograph at right. On Memorial Day 1999, in consultation with tribal representatives, the U.S. added two red granite markers to the battlefield to note where Native American warriors fell. As of December 2006, a total of ten warrior markers have been added (three at the Reno -- Benteen Defense Site and seven on the Little Bighorn Battlefield).
The Indian Memorial, themed "Peace Through Unity '' l is an open circular structure that stands 75 yards (69 metres) from the 7th Cavalry obelisk. Its walls have some of the names of Indians who died at the site, as well as native accounts of the battle. The open circle of the structure is symbolic, as for many tribes, the circle is sacred. The "spirit gate '' window facing the Cavalry monument is symbolic as well, welcoming the dead cavalrymen into the memorial.
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alaska is half the size of the united states | Alaska - wikipedia
Coordinates: 64 ° N 150 ° W / 64 ° N 150 ° W / 64; - 150
Alaska (/ əˈlæskə / (listen)) is a U.S. state located in the northwest extremity of North America. The Canadian administrative divisions of British Columbia and Yukon border the state to the east, its most extreme western part is Attu Island, and it has a maritime border with Russia to the west across the Bering Strait. To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas -- the southern parts of the Arctic Ocean. The Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest. It is the largest state in the United States by area and the seventh largest subnational division in the world. In addition, it is the 3rd least populous and the most sparsely populated of the 50 United States; nevertheless, it is by far the most populous territory located mostly north of the 60th parallel in North America, its population (the total estimated at 738,432 by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2015) more than quadrupling the combined populations of Northern Canada and Greenland. Approximately half of Alaska 's residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area. Alaska 's economy is dominated by the fishing, natural gas, and oil industries, resources which it has in abundance. Military bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy.
The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30, 1867, for 7.2 million U.S. dollars at approximately two cents per acre ($4.74 / km). The area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11, 1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U.S. on January 3, 1959.
The name "Alaska '' (Russian: Аляска, tr. Alyaska) was introduced in the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer to the peninsula. It was derived from an Aleut, or Unangam idiom, which figuratively refers to the mainland of Alaska. Literally, it means object to which the action of the sea is directed.
Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States and has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands extend into the Eastern Hemisphere. Alaska is the only non-contiguous U.S. state on continental North America; about 500 miles (800 km) of British Columbia (Canada) separates Alaska from Washington. It is technically part of the continental U.S., but is sometimes not included in colloquial use; Alaska is not part of the contiguous U.S., often called "the Lower 48 ''. The capital city, Juneau, is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system.
The state is bordered by Yukon and British Columbia in Canada, to the east, the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean to the south and southwest, the Bering Sea, Bering Strait, and Chukchi Sea to the west and the Arctic Ocean to the north. Alaska 's territorial waters touch Russia 's territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian Big Diomede Island and Alaskan Little Diomede Island are only 3 miles (4.8 km) apart. Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U.S. states combined.
Alaska is the largest state in the United States by total area at 663,268 square miles (1,717,856 km), over twice the size of Texas, the next largest state. Alaska is larger than all but 18 sovereign countries. Counting territorial waters, Alaska is larger than the combined area of the next three largest states: Texas, California, and Montana. It is also larger than the combined area of the 22 smallest U.S. states.
There are no officially defined borders demarcating the various regions of Alaska, but there are six widely accepted regions:
The most populous region of Alaska, containing Anchorage, the Matanuska - Susitna Valley and the Kenai Peninsula. Rural, mostly unpopulated areas south of the Alaska Range and west of the Wrangell Mountains also fall within the definition of South Central, as do the Prince William Sound area and the communities of Cordova and Valdez.
Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the rest of the United States. As such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase. The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as the Tongass National Forest, the largest national forest in the United States. It contains the state capital Juneau, the former capital Sitka, and Ketchikan, at one time Alaska 's largest city. The Alaska Marine Highway provides a vital surface transportation link throughout the area, as only three communities (Haines, Hyder and Skagway) enjoy direct connections to the contiguous North American road system. Officially designated in 1963.
The Interior is the largest region of Alaska; much of it is uninhabited wilderness. Fairbanks is the only large city in the region. Denali National Park and Preserve is located here. Denali is the highest mountain in North America.
Southwest Alaska is a sparsely inhabited region stretching some 500 miles (800 km) inland from the Bering Sea. Most of the population lives along the coast. Kodiak Island is also located in Southwest. The massive Yukon -- Kuskokwim Delta, one of the largest river deltas in the world, is here. Portions of the Alaska Peninsula are considered part of Southwest, with the remaining portions included with the Aleutian Islands (see below).
The North Slope is mostly tundra peppered with small villages. The area is known for its massive reserves of crude oil, and contains both the National Petroleum Reserve -- Alaska and the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field. The city of Utqiaġvik, formerly known as Barrow, is the northernmost city in the United States and is located here. The Northwest Arctic area, anchored by Kotzebue and also containing the Kobuk River valley, is often regarded as being part of this region. However, the respective Inupiat of the North Slope and of the Northwest Arctic seldom consider themselves to be one people.
More than 300 small volcanic islands make up this chain, which stretches over 1,200 miles (1,900 km) into the Pacific Ocean. Some of these islands fall in the Eastern Hemisphere, but the International Date Line was drawn west of 180 ° to keep the whole state, and thus the entire North American continent, within the same legal day. Two of the islands, Attu and Kiska, were occupied by Japanese forces during World War II.
With its myriad islands, Alaska has nearly 34,000 miles (54,720 km) of tidal shoreline. The Aleutian Islands chain extends west from the southern tip of the Alaska Peninsula. Many active volcanoes are found in the Aleutians and in coastal regions. Unimak Island, for example, is home to Mount Shishaldin, which is an occasionally smoldering volcano that rises to 10,000 feet (3,048 m) above the North Pacific. It is the most perfect volcanic cone on Earth, even more symmetrical than Japan 's Mount Fuji. The chain of volcanoes extends to Mount Spurr, west of Anchorage on the mainland. Geologists have identified Alaska as part of Wrangellia, a large region consisting of multiple states and Canadian provinces in the Pacific Northwest, which is actively undergoing continent building.
One of the world 's largest tides occurs in Turnagain Arm, just south of Anchorage, where tidal differences can be more than 35 feet (10.7 m).
Alaska has more than three million lakes. Marshlands and wetland permafrost cover 188,320 square miles (487,747 km) (mostly in northern, western and southwest flatlands). Glacier ice covers about 28,957 square miles (75,000 km) of Alaska. The Bering Glacier is the largest glacier in North America, covering 2,008 square miles (5,200 km) alone.
According to an October 1998 report by the United States Bureau of Land Management, approximately 65 % of Alaska is owned and managed by the U.S. federal government as public lands, including a multitude of national forests, national parks, and national wildlife refuges. Of these, the Bureau of Land Management manages 87 million acres (35 million hectares), or 23.8 % of the state. The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. It is the world 's largest wildlife refuge, comprising 16 million acres (6.5 million hectares).
Of the remaining land area, the state of Alaska owns 101 million acres (41 million hectares), its entitlement under the Alaska Statehood Act. A portion of that acreage is occasionally ceded to organized boroughs, under the statutory provisions pertaining to newly formed boroughs. Smaller portions are set aside for rural subdivisions and other homesteading - related opportunities. These are not very popular due to the often remote and roadless locations. The University of Alaska, as a land grant university, also owns substantial acreage which it manages independently.
Another 44 million acres (18 million hectares) are owned by 12 regional, and scores of local, Native corporations created under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) of 1971. Regional Native corporation Doyon, Limited often promotes itself as the largest private landowner in Alaska in advertisements and other communications. Provisions of ANCSA allowing the corporations ' land holdings to be sold on the open market starting in 1991 were repealed before they could take effect. Effectively, the corporations hold title (including subsurface title in many cases, a privilege denied to individual Alaskans) but can not sell the land. Individual Native allotments can be and are sold on the open market, however.
Various private interests own the remaining land, totaling about one percent of the state. Alaska is, by a large margin, the state with the smallest percentage of private land ownership when Native corporation holdings are excluded.
The climate in Southeast Alaska is a mid-latitude oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb) in the southern sections and a subarctic oceanic climate (Köppen Cfc) in the northern parts. On an annual basis, Southeast is both the wettest and warmest part of Alaska with milder temperatures in the winter and high precipitation throughout the year. Juneau averages over 50 in (130 cm) of precipitation a year, and Ketchikan averages over 150 in (380 cm). This is also the only region in Alaska in which the average daytime high temperature is above freezing during the winter months.
The climate of Anchorage and south central Alaska is mild by Alaskan standards due to the region 's proximity to the seacoast. While the area gets less rain than southeast Alaska, it gets more snow, and days tend to be clearer. On average, Anchorage receives 16 in (41 cm) of precipitation a year, with around 75 in (190 cm) of snow, although there are areas in the south central which receive far more snow. It is a subarctic climate (Köppen: Dfc) due to its brief, cool summers.
The climate of Western Alaska is determined in large part by the Bering Sea and the Gulf of Alaska. It is a subarctic oceanic climate in the southwest and a continental subarctic climate farther north. The temperature is somewhat moderate considering how far north the area is. This region has a tremendous amount of variety in precipitation. An area stretching from the northern side of the Seward Peninsula to the Kobuk River valley (i. e., the region around Kotzebue Sound) is technically a desert, with portions receiving less than 10 in (25 cm) of precipitation annually. On the other extreme, some locations between Dillingham and Bethel average around 100 in (250 cm) of precipitation.
The climate of the interior of Alaska is subarctic. Some of the highest and lowest temperatures in Alaska occur around the area near Fairbanks. The summers may have temperatures reaching into the 90s ° F (the low - to - mid 30s ° C), while in the winter, the temperature can fall below − 60 ° F (− 51 ° C). Precipitation is sparse in the Interior, often less than 10 in (25 cm) a year, but what precipitation falls in the winter tends to stay the entire winter.
The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in Alaska are both in the Interior. The highest is 100 ° F (38 ° C) in Fort Yukon (which is just 8 mi or 13 km inside the arctic circle) on June 27, 1915, making Alaska tied with Hawaii as the state with the lowest high temperature in the United States. The lowest official Alaska temperature is − 80 ° F (− 62 ° C) in Prospect Creek on January 23, 1971, one degree above the lowest temperature recorded in continental North America (in Snag, Yukon, Canada).
The climate in the extreme north of Alaska is Arctic (Köppen: ET) with long, very cold winters and short, cool summers. Even in July, the average low temperature in Barrow is 34 ° F (1 ° C). Precipitation is light in this part of Alaska, with many places averaging less than 10 in (25 cm) per year, mostly as snow which stays on the ground almost the entire year.
Numerous indigenous peoples occupied Alaska for thousands of years before the arrival of European peoples to the area. Linguistic and DNA studies done here have provided evidence for the settlement of North America by way of the Bering land bridge. At the Upward Sun River site in the Tanana River Valley in Alaska, remains of an infant that was six weeks old were found. The baby 's DNA showed that she belonged to a population that was genetically separate from other native groups present elsewhere in the New World at the end of the Pleistocene. Ben Potter, the University of Alaska Fairbanks archaeologist who unearthed the remains at the Upward River Sun site in 2013, named this new group Ancient Beringians. The Tlingit people developed a society with a matrilineal kinship system of property inheritance and descent in what is today Southeast Alaska, along with parts of British Columbia and the Yukon. Also in Southeast were the Haida, now well known for their unique arts. The Tsimshian people came to Alaska from British Columbia in 1887, when President Grover Cleveland, and later the U.S. Congress, granted them permission to settle on Annette Island and found the town of Metlakatla. All three of these peoples, as well as other indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, experienced smallpox outbreaks from the late 18th through the mid-19th century, with the most devastating epidemics occurring in the 1830s and 1860s, resulting in high fatalities and social disruption.
The Aleutian Islands are still home to the Aleut people 's seafaring society, although they were the first Native Alaskans to be exploited by Russians. Western and Southwestern Alaska are home to the Yup'ik, while their cousins the Alutiiq ~ Sugpiaq lived in what is now Southcentral Alaska. The Gwich'in people of the northern Interior region are Athabaskan and primarily known today for their dependence on the caribou within the much - contested Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. The North Slope and Little Diomede Island are occupied by the widespread Inupiat people.
Some researchers believe that the first Russian settlement in Alaska was established in the 17th century. According to this hypothesis, in 1648 several koches of Semyon Dezhnyov 's expedition came ashore in Alaska by storm and founded this settlement. This hypothesis is based on the testimony of Chukchi geographer Nikolai Daurkin, who had visited Alaska in 1764 -- 1765 and who had reported on a village on the Kheuveren River, populated by "bearded men '' who "pray to the icons ''. Some modern researchers associate Kheuveren with Koyuk River.
The first European vessel to reach Alaska is generally held to be the St. Gabriel under the authority of the surveyor M.S. Gvozdev and assistant navigator I. Fyodorov on August 21, 1732, during an expedition of Siberian cossak A.F. Shestakov and Belorussian explorer Dmitry Pavlutsky (1729 -- 1735).
Another European contact with Alaska occurred in 1741, when Vitus Bering led an expedition for the Russian Navy aboard the St. Peter. After his crew returned to Russia with sea otter pelts judged to be the finest fur in the world, small associations of fur traders began to sail from the shores of Siberia toward the Aleutian Islands. The first permanent European settlement was founded in 1784.
Between 1774 and 1800, Spain sent several expeditions to Alaska in order to assert its claim over the Pacific Northwest. In 1789 a Spanish settlement and fort were built in Nootka Sound. These expeditions gave names to places such as Valdez, Bucareli Sound, and Cordova. Later, the Russian - American Company carried out an expanded colonization program during the early - to - mid-19th century.
Sitka, renamed New Archangel from 1804 to 1867, on Baranof Island in the Alexander Archipelago in what is now Southeast Alaska, became the capital of Russian America. It remained the capital after the colony was transferred to the United States. The Russians never fully colonized Alaska, and the colony was never very profitable. Evidence of Russian settlement in names and churches survive throughout southeast Alaska.
William H. Seward, the United States Secretary of State, negotiated the Alaska Purchase (also known as Seward 's Folly) with the Russians in 1867 for $7.2 million. Alaska was loosely governed by the military initially, and was administered as a district starting in 1884, with a governor appointed by the President of the United States. A federal district court was headquartered in Sitka.
For most of Alaska 's first decade under the United States flag, Sitka was the only community inhabited by American settlers. They organized a "provisional city government, '' which was Alaska 's first municipal government, but not in a legal sense. Legislation allowing Alaskan communities to legally incorporate as cities did not come about until 1900, and home rule for cities was extremely limited or unavailable until statehood took effect in 1959.
Starting in the 1890s and stretching in some places to the early 1910s, gold rushes in Alaska and the nearby Yukon Territory brought thousands of miners and settlers to Alaska. Alaska was officially incorporated as an organized territory in 1912. Alaska 's capital, which had been in Sitka until 1906, was moved north to Juneau. Construction of the Alaska Governor 's Mansion began that same year. European immigrants from Norway and Sweden also settled in southeast Alaska, where they entered the fishing and logging industries.
During World War II, the Aleutian Islands Campaign focused on the three outer Aleutian Islands -- Attu, Agattu and Kiska -- that were invaded by Japanese troops and occupied between June 1942 and August 1943. During the occupation, one Alaskan civilian was killed by Japanese troops and nearly fifty were interned in Japan, where about half of them died. Unalaska / Dutch Harbor became a significant base for the United States Army Air Forces and Navy submariners.
The United States Lend - Lease program involved the flying of American warplanes through Canada to Fairbanks and then Nome; Soviet pilots took possession of these aircraft, ferrying them to fight the German invasion of the Soviet Union. The construction of military bases contributed to the population growth of some Alaskan cities.
Statehood for Alaska was an important cause of James Wickersham early in his tenure as a congressional delegate. Decades later, the statehood movement gained its first real momentum following a territorial referendum in 1946. The Alaska Statehood Committee and Alaska 's Constitutional Convention would soon follow. Statehood supporters also found themselves fighting major battles against political foes, mostly in the U.S. Congress but also within Alaska. Statehood was approved by Congress on July 7, 1958. Alaska was officially proclaimed a state on January 3, 1959.
In 1960, the Census Bureau reported Alaska 's population as 77.2 % White, 3 % Black, and 18.8 % American Indian and Alaska Native.
On March 27, 1964, the massive Good Friday earthquake killed 133 people and destroyed several villages and portions of large coastal communities, mainly by the resultant tsunamis and landslides. It was the second-most - powerful earthquake in the recorded history of the world, with a moment magnitude of 9.2. It was over one thousand times more powerful than the 1989 San Francisco earthquake. The time of day (5: 36 pm), time of year and location of the epicenter were all cited as factors in potentially sparing thousands of lives, particularly in Anchorage.
The 1968 discovery of oil at Prudhoe Bay and the 1977 completion of the Trans - Alaska Pipeline System led to an oil boom. Royalty revenues from oil have funded large state budgets from 1980 onward. That same year, not coincidentally, Alaska repealed its state income tax.
In 1989, the Exxon Valdez hit a reef in the Prince William Sound, spilling over 11 million U.S. gallons (42 megaliters) of crude oil over 1,100 miles (1,800 km) of coastline. Today, the battle between philosophies of development and conservation is seen in the contentious debate over oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and the proposed Pebble Mine.
The Alaska Heritage Resources Survey (AHRS) is a restricted inventory of all reported historic and prehistoric sites within the state of Alaska; it is maintained by the Office of History and Archaeology. The survey 's inventory of cultural resources includes objects, structures, buildings, sites, districts, and travel ways, with a general provision that they are over 50 years old. As of January 31, 2012, over 35,000 sites have been reported.
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Alaska was 738,432 on July 1, 2015, a 3.97 % increase since the 2010 United States Census.
In 2010, Alaska ranked as the 47th state by population, ahead of North Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming (and Washington, D.C.). Estimates show North Dakota ahead as of 2017. Alaska is the least densely populated state, and one of the most sparsely populated areas in the world, at 1.2 inhabitants per square mile (0.46 / km), with the next state, Wyoming, at 5.8 inhabitants per square mile (2.2 / km). Alaska is the largest U.S. state by area, and the tenth wealthiest (per capita income). As of November 2014, the state 's unemployment rate was 6.6 %. As of 2018, it is one of 14 U.S. states that still has only one telephone area code.
According to the 2010 United States Census, Alaska, had a population of 710,231. In terms of race and ethnicity, the state was 66.7 % White (64.1 % Non-Hispanic White), 14.8 % American Indian and Alaska Native, 5.4 % Asian, 3.3 % Black or African American, 1.0 % Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 1.6 % from Some Other Race, and 7.3 % from Two or More Races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race made up 5.5 % of the population.
As of 2011, 50.7 % of Alaska 's population younger than one year of age belonged to minority groups (i.e., did not have two parents of non-Hispanic white ancestry).
According to the 2011 American Community Survey, 83.4 % of people over the age of five speak only English at home. About 3.5 % speak Spanish at home. About 2.2 % speak another Indo - European language at home and about 4.3 % speak an Asian language (including Tagalog) at home. About 5.3 % speak other languages at home.
The Alaska Native Language Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks claims that at least 20 Alaskan native languages exist and there are also some languages with different dialects. Most of Alaska 's native languages belong to either the Eskimo -- Aleut or Na - Dene language families however some languages are thought to be isolates (e.g. Haida) or have not yet been classified (e.g. Tsimshianic). As of 2014 nearly all of Alaska 's native languages were classified as either threatened, shifting, moribund, nearly extinct, or dormant languages.
A total of 5.2 % of Alaskans speak one of the state 's 20 indigenous languages, known locally as "native languages ''.
In October 2014, the governor of Alaska signed a bill declaring the state 's 20 indigenous languages as official languages. This bill gave the languages symbolic recognition as official languages, though they have not been adopted for official use within the government. The 20 languages that were included in the bill are:
According to statistics collected by the Association of Religion Data Archives from 2010, about 34 % of Alaska residents were members of religious congregations. 100,960 people identified as Evangelical Protestants, 50,866 as Roman Catholic, and 32,550 as mainline Protestants. Roughly 4 % are Mormon, 0.5 % are Jewish, 1 % are Muslim, 0.5 % are Buddhist, and 0.5 % are Hindu. The largest religious denominations in Alaska as of 2010 were the Catholic Church with 50,866 adherents, non-denominational Evangelical Protestants with 38,070 adherents, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints with 32,170 adherents, and the Southern Baptist Convention with 19,891 adherents. Alaska has been identified, along with Pacific Northwest states Washington and Oregon, as being the least religious states of the USA, in terms of church membership.
In 1795, the First Russian Orthodox Church was established in Kodiak. Intermarriage with Alaskan Natives helped the Russian immigrants integrate into society. As a result, an increasing number of Russian Orthodox churches gradually became established within Alaska. Alaska also has the largest Quaker population (by percentage) of any state. In 2009 there were 6,000 Jews in Alaska (for whom observance of halakha may pose special problems). Alaskan Hindus often share venues and celebrations with members of other Asian religious communities, including Sikhs and Jains.
Estimates for the number of Muslims in Alaska range from 2,000 to 5,000. The Islamic Community Center of Anchorage began efforts in the late 1990s to construct a mosque in Anchorage. They broke ground on a building in south Anchorage in 2010 and were nearing completion in late 2014. When completed, the mosque will be the first in the state and one of the northernmost mosques in the world.
The 2007 gross state product was $44.9 billion, 45th in the nation. Its per capita personal income for 2007 was $40,042, ranking 15th in the nation. According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Alaska had the fifth - largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 6.75 percent. The oil and gas industry dominates the Alaskan economy, with more than 80 % of the state 's revenues derived from petroleum extraction. Alaska 's main export product (excluding oil and natural gas) is seafood, primarily salmon, cod, Pollock and crab.
Agriculture represents a very small fraction of the Alaskan economy. Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock, dairy products, vegetables, and livestock. Manufacturing is limited, with most foodstuffs and general goods imported from elsewhere.
Employment is primarily in government and industries such as natural resource extraction, shipping, and transportation. Military bases are a significant component of the economy in the Fairbanks North Star, Anchorage and Kodiak Island boroughs, as well as Kodiak. Federal subsidies are also an important part of the economy, allowing the state to keep taxes low. Its industrial outputs are crude petroleum, natural gas, coal, gold, precious metals, zinc and other mining, seafood processing, timber and wood products. There is also a growing service and tourism sector. Tourists have contributed to the economy by supporting local lodging.
Alaska has vast energy resources, although its oil reserves have been largely depleted. Major oil and gas reserves were found in the Alaska North Slope (ANS) and Cook Inlet basins, but according to the Energy Information Administration, by February 2014 Alaska had fallen to fourth place in the nation in crude oil production after Texas, North Dakota, and California. Prudhoe Bay on Alaska 's North Slope is still the second highest - yielding oil field in the United States, typically producing about 400,000 barrels per day (64,000 m / d), although by early 2014 North Dakota 's Bakken Formation was producing over 900,000 barrels per day (140,000 m / d). Prudhoe Bay was the largest conventional oil field ever discovered in North America, but was much smaller than Canada 's enormous Athabasca oil sands field, which by 2014 was producing about 1,500,000 barrels per day (240,000 m / d) of unconventional oil, and had hundreds of years of producible reserves at that rate.
The Trans - Alaska Pipeline can transport and pump up to 2.1 million barrels (330,000 m) of crude oil per day, more than any other crude oil pipeline in the United States. Additionally, substantial coal deposits are found in Alaska 's bituminous, sub-bituminous, and lignite coal basins. The United States Geological Survey estimates that there are 85.4 trillion cubic feet (2,420 km) of undiscovered, technically recoverable gas from natural gas hydrates on the Alaskan North Slope. Alaska also offers some of the highest hydroelectric power potential in the country from its numerous rivers. Large swaths of the Alaskan coastline offer wind and geothermal energy potential as well.
Alaska 's economy depends heavily on increasingly expensive diesel fuel for heating, transportation, electric power and light. Though wind and hydroelectric power are abundant and underdeveloped, proposals for statewide energy systems (e.g. with special low - cost electric interties) were judged uneconomical (at the time of the report, 2001) due to low (less than 50 ¢ / gal) fuel prices, long distances and low population. The cost of a gallon of gas in urban Alaska today is usually 30 -- 60 ¢ higher than the national average; prices in rural areas are generally significantly higher but vary widely depending on transportation costs, seasonal usage peaks, nearby petroleum development infrastructure and many other factors.
The Alaska Permanent Fund is a constitutionally authorized appropriation of oil revenues, established by voters in 1976 to manage a surplus in state petroleum revenues from oil, largely in anticipation of the then recently constructed Trans - Alaska Pipeline System. The fund was originally proposed by Governor Keith Miller on the eve of the 1969 Prudhoe Bay lease sale, out of fear that the legislature would spend the entire proceeds of the sale (which amounted to $900 million) at once. It was later championed by Governor Jay Hammond and Kenai state representative Hugh Malone. It has served as an attractive political prospect ever since, diverting revenues which would normally be deposited into the general fund.
The Alaska Constitution was written so as to discourage dedicating state funds for a particular purpose. The Permanent Fund has become the rare exception to this, mostly due to the political climate of distrust existing during the time of its creation. From its initial principal of $734,000, the fund has grown to $50 billion as a result of oil royalties and capital investment programs. Most if not all the principal is invested conservatively outside Alaska. This has led to frequent calls by Alaskan politicians for the Fund to make investments within Alaska, though such a stance has never gained momentum.
Starting in 1982, dividends from the fund 's annual growth have been paid out each year to eligible Alaskans, ranging from an initial $1,000 in 1982 (equal to three years ' payout, as the distribution of payments was held up in a lawsuit over the distribution scheme) to $3,269 in 2008 (which included a one - time $1,200 "Resource Rebate ''). Every year, the state legislature takes out 8 % from the earnings, puts 3 % back into the principal for inflation proofing, and the remaining 5 % is distributed to all qualifying Alaskans. To qualify for the Permanent Fund Dividend, one must have lived in the state for a minimum of 12 months, maintain constant residency subject to allowable absences, and not be subject to court judgments or criminal convictions which fall under various disqualifying classifications or may subject the payment amount to civil garnishment.
The Permanent Fund is often considered to be one of the leading examples of a "Basic Income '' policy in the world.
The cost of goods in Alaska has long been higher than in the contiguous 48 states. Federal government employees, particularly United States Postal Service (USPS) workers and active - duty military members, receive a Cost of Living Allowance usually set at 25 % of base pay because, while the cost of living has gone down, it is still one of the highest in the country.
Rural Alaska suffers from extremely high prices for food and consumer goods compared to the rest of the country, due to the relatively limited transportation infrastructure.
Due to the northern climate and short growing season, relatively little farming occurs in Alaska. Most farms are in either the Matanuska Valley, about 40 miles (64 km) northeast of Anchorage, or on the Kenai Peninsula, about 60 miles (97 km) southwest of Anchorage. The short 100 - day growing season limits the crops that can be grown, but the long sunny summer days make for productive growing seasons. The primary crops are potatoes, carrots, lettuce, and cabbage.
The Tanana Valley is another notable agricultural locus, especially the Delta Junction area, about 100 miles (160 km) southeast of Fairbanks, with a sizable concentration of farms growing agronomic crops; these farms mostly lie north and east of Fort Greely. This area was largely set aside and developed under a state program spearheaded by Hammond during his second term as governor. Delta - area crops consist predominately of barley and hay. West of Fairbanks lies another concentration of small farms catering to restaurants, the hotel and tourist industry, and community - supported agriculture.
Alaskan agriculture has experienced a surge in growth of market gardeners, small farms and farmers ' markets in recent years, with the highest percentage increase (46 %) in the nation in growth in farmers ' markets in 2011, compared to 17 % nationwide. The peony industry has also taken off, as the growing season allows farmers to harvest during a gap in supply elsewhere in the world, thereby filling a niche in the flower market.
Alaska, with no counties, lacks county fairs. However, a small assortment of state and local fairs (with the Alaska State Fair in Palmer the largest), are held mostly in the late summer. The fairs are mostly located in communities with historic or current agricultural activity, and feature local farmers exhibiting produce in addition to more high - profile commercial activities such as carnival rides, concerts and food. "Alaska Grown '' is used as an agricultural slogan.
Alaska has an abundance of seafood, with the primary fisheries in the Bering Sea and the North Pacific. Seafood is one of the few food items that is often cheaper within the state than outside it. Many Alaskans take advantage of salmon seasons to harvest portions of their household diet while fishing for subsistence, as well as sport. This includes fish taken by hook, net or wheel.
Hunting for subsistence, primarily caribou, moose, and Dall sheep is still common in the state, particularly in remote Bush communities. An example of a traditional native food is Akutaq, the Eskimo ice cream, which can consist of reindeer fat, seal oil, dried fish meat and local berries.
Alaska 's reindeer herding is concentrated on Seward Peninsula, where wild caribou can be prevented from mingling and migrating with the domesticated reindeer.
Most food in Alaska is transported into the state from "Outside '', and shipping costs make food in the cities relatively expensive. In rural areas, subsistence hunting and gathering is an essential activity because imported food is prohibitively expensive. Though most small towns and villages in Alaska lie along the coastline, the cost of importing food to remote villages can be high, because of the terrain and difficult road conditions, which change dramatically, due to varying climate and precipitation changes. The cost of transport can reach as high as 50 ¢ per pound ($1.10 / kg) or more in some remote areas, during the most difficult times, if these locations can be reached at all during such inclement weather and terrain conditions. The cost of delivering a 1 US gallon (3.8 L) of milk is about $3.50 in many villages where per capita income can be $20,000 or less. Fuel cost per gallon is routinely 20 -- 30 ¢ higher than the continental United States average, with only Hawaii having higher prices.
Alaska has few road connections compared to the rest of the U.S. The state 's road system covers a relatively small area of the state, linking the central population centers and the Alaska Highway, the principal route out of the state through Canada. The state capital, Juneau, is not accessible by road, only a car ferry, which has spurred several debates over the decades about moving the capital to a city on the road system, or building a road connection from Haines. The western part of Alaska has no road system connecting the communities with the rest of Alaska.
One unique feature of the Alaska Highway system is the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel, an active Alaska Railroad tunnel recently upgraded to provide a paved roadway link with the isolated community of Whittier on Prince William Sound to the Seward Highway about 50 miles (80 km) southeast of Anchorage at Portage. At 2.5 miles (4.0 km), the tunnel was the longest road tunnel in North America until 2007. The tunnel is the longest combination road and rail tunnel in North America.
Built around 1915, the Alaska Railroad (ARR) played a key role in the development of Alaska through the 20th century. It links north Pacific shipping through providing critical infrastructure with tracks that run from Seward to Interior Alaska by way of South Central Alaska, passing through Anchorage, Eklutna, Wasilla, Talkeetna, Denali, and Fairbanks, with spurs to Whittier, Palmer and North Pole. The cities, towns, villages, and region served by ARR tracks are known statewide as "The Railbelt ''. In recent years, the ever - improving paved highway system began to eclipse the railroad 's importance in Alaska 's economy.
The railroad played a vital role in Alaska 's development, moving freight into Alaska while transporting natural resources southward (i.e., coal from the Usibelli coal mine near Healy to Seward and gravel from the Matanuska Valley to Anchorage). It is well known for its summertime tour passenger service.
The Alaska Railroad was one of the last railroads in North America to use cabooses in regular service and still uses them on some gravel trains. It continues to offer one of the last flag stop routes in the country. A stretch of about 60 miles (100 km) of track along an area north of Talkeetna remains inaccessible by road; the railroad provides the only transportation to rural homes and cabins in the area. Until construction of the Parks Highway in the 1970s, the railroad provided the only land access to most of the region along its entire route.
In northern Southeast Alaska, the White Pass and Yukon Route also partly runs through the state from Skagway northwards into Canada (British Columbia and Yukon Territory), crossing the border at White Pass Summit. This line is now mainly used by tourists, often arriving by cruise liner at Skagway. It was featured in the 1983 BBC television series Great Little Railways.
The Alaska Rail network is not connected to Outside. In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized $6 million to study the feasibility of a rail link between Alaska, Canada, and the lower 48.
Alaska Rail Marine provides car float service between Whittier and Seattle.
Many cities, towns and villages in the state do not have road or highway access; the only modes of access involve travel by air, river, or the sea.
Alaska 's well - developed state - owned ferry system (known as the Alaska Marine Highway) serves the cities of southeast, the Gulf Coast and the Alaska Peninsula. The ferries transport vehicles as well as passengers. The system also operates a ferry service from Bellingham, Washington and Prince Rupert, British Columbia, in Canada through the Inside Passage to Skagway. The Inter-Island Ferry Authority also serves as an important marine link for many communities in the Prince of Wales Island region of Southeast and works in concert with the Alaska Marine Highway.
In recent years, cruise lines have created a summertime tourism market, mainly connecting the Pacific Northwest to Southeast Alaska and, to a lesser degree, towns along Alaska 's gulf coast. The population of Ketchikan may rise by over 10,000 people on many days during the summer, as up to four large cruise ships at a time can dock, debarking thousands of passengers.
Cities not served by road, sea, or river can be reached only by air, foot, dogsled, or snowmachine, accounting for Alaska 's extremely well developed bush air services -- an Alaskan novelty. Anchorage and, to a lesser extent Fairbanks, is served by many major airlines. Because of limited highway access, air travel remains the most efficient form of transportation in and out of the state. Anchorage recently completed extensive remodeling and construction at Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport to help accommodate the upsurge in tourism (in 2012 -- 2013, Alaska received almost 2 million visitors).
Regular flights to most villages and towns within the state that are commercially viable are challenging to provide, so they are heavily subsidized by the federal government through the Essential Air Service program. Alaska Airlines is the only major airline offering in - state travel with jet service (sometimes in combination cargo and passenger Boeing 737 - 400s) from Anchorage and Fairbanks to regional hubs like Bethel, Nome, Kotzebue, Dillingham, Kodiak, and other larger communities as well as to major Southeast and Alaska Peninsula communities.
The bulk of remaining commercial flight offerings come from small regional commuter airlines such as Ravn Alaska, PenAir, and Frontier Flying Service. The smallest towns and villages must rely on scheduled or chartered bush flying services using general aviation aircraft such as the Cessna Caravan, the most popular aircraft in use in the state. Much of this service can be attributed to the Alaska bypass mail program which subsidizes bulk mail delivery to Alaskan rural communities. The program requires 70 % of that subsidy to go to carriers who offer passenger service to the communities.
Many communities have small air taxi services. These operations originated from the demand for customized transport to remote areas. Perhaps the most quintessentially Alaskan plane is the bush seaplane. The world 's busiest seaplane base is Lake Hood, located next to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, where flights bound for remote villages without an airstrip carry passengers, cargo, and many items from stores and warehouse clubs. In 2006 Alaska had the highest number of pilots per capita of any U.S. state.
Another Alaskan transportation method is the dogsled. In modern times (that is, any time after the mid-late 1920s), dog mushing is more of a sport than a true means of transportation. Various races are held around the state, but the best known is the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, a 1,150 - mile (1,850 km) trail from Anchorage to Nome (although the distance varies from year to year, the official distance is set at 1,049 miles or 1,688 km). The race commemorates the famous 1925 serum run to Nome in which mushers and dogs like Togo and Balto took much - needed medicine to the diphtheria - stricken community of Nome when all other means of transportation had failed. Mushers from all over the world come to Anchorage each March to compete for cash, prizes, and prestige. The "Serum Run '' is another sled dog race that more accurately follows the route of the famous 1925 relay, leaving from the community of Nenana (southwest of Fairbanks) to Nome.
In areas not served by road or rail, primary transportation in summer is by all - terrain vehicle and in winter by snowmobile or "snow machine, '' as it is commonly referred to in Alaska.
Alaska 's internet and other data transport systems are provided largely through the two major telecommunications companies: GCI and Alaska Communications. GCI owns and operates what it calls the Alaska United Fiber Optic system and as of late 2011 Alaska Communications advertised that it has "two fiber optic paths to the lower 48 and two more across Alaska. In January 2011, it was reported that a $1 billion project to connect Asia and rural Alaska was being planned, aided in part by $350 million in stimulus from the federal government.
Like all other U.S. states, Alaska is governed as a republic, with three branches of government: an executive branch consisting of the Governor of Alaska and the other independently elected constitutional officers; a legislative branch consisting of the Alaska House of Representatives and Alaska Senate; and a judicial branch consisting of the Alaska Supreme Court and lower courts.
The state of Alaska employs approximately 16,000 people statewide.
The Alaska Legislature consists of a 40 - member House of Representatives and a 20 - member Senate. Senators serve four - year terms and House members two. The Governor of Alaska serves four - year terms. The lieutenant governor runs separately from the governor in the primaries, but during the general election, the nominee for governor and nominee for lieutenant governor run together on the same ticket.
Alaska 's court system has four levels: the Alaska Supreme Court, the Alaska Court of Appeals, the superior courts and the district courts. The superior and district courts are trial courts. Superior courts are courts of general jurisdiction, while district courts only hear certain types of cases, including misdemeanor criminal cases and civil cases valued up to $100,000.
The Supreme Court and the Court of Appeals are appellate courts. The Court of Appeals is required to hear appeals from certain lower - court decisions, including those regarding criminal prosecutions, juvenile delinquency, and habeas corpus. The Supreme Court hears civil appeals and may in its discretion hear criminal appeals.
Although in its early years of statehood Alaska was a Democratic state, since the early 1970s it has been characterized as Republican - leaning. Local political communities have often worked on issues related to land use development, fishing, tourism, and individual rights. Alaska Natives, while organized in and around their communities, have been active within the Native corporations. These have been given ownership over large tracts of land, which require stewardship.
Alaska was formerly the only state in which possession of one ounce or less of marijuana in one 's home was completely legal under state law, though the federal law remains in force.
The state has an independence movement favoring a vote on secession from the United States, with the Alaskan Independence Party.
Six Republicans and four Democrats have served as governor of Alaska. In addition, Republican Governor Wally Hickel was elected to the office for a second term in 1990 after leaving the Republican party and briefly joining the Alaskan Independence Party ticket just long enough to be reelected. He officially rejoined the Republican party in 1994.
Alaska 's voter initiative making marijuana legal took effect on February 24, 2015, placing Alaska alongside Colorado and Washington as the first three U.S. states where recreational marijuana is legal. The new law means people over age 21 can consume small amounts of pot -- if they can find it. There is a rather lengthy and involved application process, per Alaska Measure 2 (2014). The first legal marijuana store opened in Valdez in October 2016.
To finance state government operations, Alaska depends primarily on petroleum revenues and federal subsidies. This allows it to have the lowest individual tax burden in the United States. It is one of five states with no state sales tax, one of seven states that do not levy an individual income tax, and one of the two states that has neither. The Department of Revenue Tax Division reports regularly on the state 's revenue sources. The Department also issues an annual summary of its operations, including new state laws that directly affect the tax division.
While Alaska has no state sales tax, 89 municipalities collect a local sales tax, from 1.0 -- 7.5 %, typically 3 -- 5 %. Other local taxes levied include raw fish taxes, hotel, motel, and bed - and - breakfast ' bed ' taxes, severance taxes, liquor and tobacco taxes, gaming (pull tabs) taxes, tire taxes and fuel transfer taxes. A part of the revenue collected from certain state taxes and license fees (such as petroleum, aviation motor fuel, telephone cooperative) is shared with municipalities in Alaska.
Fairbanks has one of the highest property taxes in the state as no sales or income taxes are assessed in the Fairbanks North Star Borough (FNSB). A sales tax for the FNSB has been voted on many times, but has yet to be approved, leading lawmakers to increase taxes dramatically on goods such as liquor and tobacco.
In 2014 the Tax Foundation ranked Alaska as having the fourth most "business friendly '' tax policy, behind only Wyoming, South Dakota, and Nevada.
Alaska regularly supports Republicans in presidential elections and has done so since statehood. Republicans have won the state 's electoral college votes in all but one election that it has participated in (1964). No state has voted for a Democratic presidential candidate fewer times. Alaska was carried by Democratic nominee Lyndon B. Johnson during his landslide election in 1964, while the 1960 and 1968 elections were close. Since 1972, however, Republicans have carried the state by large margins. In 2008, Republican John McCain defeated Democrat Barack Obama in Alaska, 59.49 % to 37.83 %. McCain 's running mate was Sarah Palin, the state 's governor and the first Alaskan on a major party ticket. Obama lost Alaska again in 2012, but he captured 40 % of the state 's vote in that election, making him the first Democrat to do so since 1968.
The Alaska Bush, central Juneau, midtown and downtown Anchorage, and the areas surrounding the University of Alaska Fairbanks campus and Ester have been strongholds of the Democratic Party. The Matanuska - Susitna Borough, the majority of Fairbanks (including North Pole and the military base), and South Anchorage typically have the strongest Republican showing. As of 2004, well over half of all registered voters have chosen "Non-Partisan '' or "Undeclared '' as their affiliation, despite recent attempts to close primaries to unaffiliated voters.
Because of its population relative to other U.S. states, Alaska has only one member in the U.S. House of Representatives. This seat is held by Republican Don Young, who was re-elected to his 21st consecutive term in 2012. Alaska 's at - large congressional district is one of the largest parliamentary constituencies in the world.
In 2008, Governor Sarah Palin became the first Republican woman to run on a national ticket when she became John McCain 's running mate. She continued to be a prominent national figure even after resigning from the governor 's job in July 2009.
Alaska 's United States Senators belong to Class 2 and Class 3. In 2008, Democrat Mark Begich, mayor of Anchorage, defeated long - time Republican senator Ted Stevens. Stevens had been convicted on seven felony counts of failing to report gifts on Senate financial discloser forms one week before the election. The conviction was set aside in April 2009 after evidence of prosecutorial misconduct emerged.
Republican Frank Murkowski held the state 's other senatorial position. After being elected governor in 2002, he resigned from the Senate and appointed his daughter, State Representative Lisa Murkowski as his successor. She won full six - year terms in 2004 and 2010.
Bill Walker, Governor
Byron Mallott, Lieutenant Governor
Lisa Murkowski, senior United States Senator
Dan Sullivan, junior United States Senator
Don Young, at - large United States Representative
Alaska is not divided into counties, as most of the other U.S. states, but it is divided into boroughs. Many of the more densely populated parts of the state are part of Alaska 's 16 boroughs, which function somewhat similarly to counties in other states. However, unlike county - equivalents in the other 49 states, the boroughs do not cover the entire land area of the state. The area not part of any borough is referred to as the Unorganized Borough.
The Unorganized Borough has no government of its own, but the U.S. Census Bureau in cooperation with the state divided the Unorganized Borough into 11 census areas solely for the purposes of statistical analysis and presentation. A recording district is a mechanism for administration of the public record in Alaska. The state is divided into 34 recording districts which are centrally administered under a State Recorder. All recording districts use the same acceptance criteria, fee schedule, etc., for accepting documents into the public record.
Whereas many U.S. states use a three - tiered system of decentralization -- state / county / township -- most of Alaska uses only two tiers -- state / borough. Owing to the low population density, most of the land is located in the Unorganized Borough. As the name implies, it has no intermediate borough government but is administered directly by the state government. In 2000, 57.71 % of Alaska 's area has this status, with 13.05 % of the population.
Anchorage merged the city government with the Greater Anchorage Area Borough in 1975 to form the Municipality of Anchorage, containing the city proper and the communities of Eagle River, Chugiak, Peters Creek, Girdwood, Bird, and Indian. Fairbanks has a separate borough (the Fairbanks North Star Borough) and municipality (the City of Fairbanks).
The state 's most populous city is Anchorage, home to 278,700 people in 2006, 225,744 of whom live in the urbanized area. The richest location in Alaska by per capita income is Halibut Cove ($89,895). Yakutat City, Sitka, Juneau, and Anchorage are the four largest cities in the U.S. by area.
As reflected in the 2010 United States Census, Alaska has a total of 355 incorporated cities and census - designated places (CDPs). The tally of cities includes four unified municipalities, essentially the equivalent of a consolidated city -- county. The majority of these communities are located in the rural expanse of Alaska known as "The Bush '' and are unconnected to the contiguous North American road network. The table at the bottom of this section lists the 100 largest cities and census - designated places in Alaska, in population order.
Of Alaska 's 2010 Census population figure of 710,231, 20,429 people, or 2.88 % of the population, did not live in an incorporated city or census - designated place. Approximately three - quarters of that figure were people who live in urban and suburban neighborhoods on the outskirts of the city limits of Ketchikan, Kodiak, Palmer and Wasilla. CDPs have not been established for these areas by the United States Census Bureau, except that seven CDPs were established for the Ketchikan - area neighborhoods in the 1980 Census (Clover Pass, Herring Cove, Ketchikan East, Mountain Point, North Tongass Highway, Pennock Island and Saxman East), but have not been used since. The remaining population was scattered throughout Alaska, both within organized boroughs and in the Unorganized Borough, in largely remote areas.
The Alaska Department of Education and Early Development administers many school districts in Alaska. In addition, the state operates a boarding school, Mt. Edgecumbe High School in Sitka, and provides partial funding for other boarding schools, including Nenana Student Living Center in Nenana and The Galena Interior Learning Academy in Galena.
There are more than a dozen colleges and universities in Alaska. Accredited universities in Alaska include the University of Alaska Anchorage, University of Alaska Fairbanks, University of Alaska Southeast, and Alaska Pacific University. Alaska is the only state that has no institutions that are part of the NCAA Division I.
The Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development operates AVTEC, Alaska 's Institute of Technology. Campuses in Seward and Anchorage offer 1 week to 11 - month training programs in areas as diverse as Information Technology, Welding, Nursing, and Mechanics.
Alaska has had a problem with a "brain drain ''. Many of its young people, including most of the highest academic achievers, leave the state after high school graduation and do not return. As of 2013, Alaska did not have a law school or medical school. The University of Alaska has attempted to combat this by offering partial four - year scholarships to the top 10 % of Alaska high school graduates, via the Alaska Scholars Program.
The Alaska State Troopers are Alaska 's statewide police force. They have a long and storied history, but were not an official organization until 1941. Before the force was officially organized, law enforcement in Alaska was handled by various federal agencies. Larger towns usually have their own local police and some villages rely on "Public Safety Officers '' who have police training but do not carry firearms. In much of the state, the troopers serve as the only police force available. In addition to enforcing traffic and criminal law, wildlife Troopers enforce hunting and fishing regulations. Due to the varied terrain and wide scope of the Troopers ' duties, they employ a wide variety of land, air, and water patrol vehicles.
Many rural communities in Alaska are considered "dry, '' having outlawed the importation of alcoholic beverages. Suicide rates for rural residents are higher than urban.
Domestic abuse and other violent crimes are also at high levels in the state; this is in part linked to alcohol abuse. Alaska has the highest rate of sexual assault in the nation, especially in rural areas. The average age of sexually assaulted victims is 16 years old. In four out of five cases, the suspects were relatives, friends or acquaintances.
Some of Alaska 's popular annual events are the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race that starts in Anchorage and ends in Nome, World Ice Art Championships in Fairbanks, the Blueberry Festival and Alaska Hummingbird Festival in Ketchikan, the Sitka Whale Fest, and the Stikine River Garnet Fest in Wrangell. The Stikine River attracts the largest springtime concentration of American bald eagles in the world.
The Alaska Native Heritage Center celebrates the rich heritage of Alaska 's 11 cultural groups. Their purpose is to encourage cross-cultural exchanges among all people and enhance self - esteem among Native people. The Alaska Native Arts Foundation promotes and markets Native art from all regions and cultures in the State, using the internet.
Influences on music in Alaska include the traditional music of Alaska Natives as well as folk music brought by later immigrants from Russia and Europe. Prominent musicians from Alaska include singer Jewel, traditional Aleut flautist Mary Youngblood, folk singer - songwriter Libby Roderick, Christian music singer - songwriter Lincoln Brewster, metal / post hardcore band 36 Crazyfists and the groups Pamyua and Portugal. The Man.
There are many established music festivals in Alaska, including the Alaska Folk Festival, the Fairbanks Summer Arts Festival, the Anchorage Folk Festival, the Athabascan Old - Time Fiddling Festival, the Sitka Jazz Festival, and the Sitka Summer Music Festival. The most prominent orchestra in Alaska is the Anchorage Symphony Orchestra, though the Fairbanks Symphony Orchestra and Juneau Symphony are also notable. The Anchorage Opera is currently the state 's only professional opera company, though there are several volunteer and semi-professional organizations in the state as well.
The official state song of Alaska is "Alaska 's Flag '', which was adopted in 1955; it celebrates the flag of Alaska.
Alaska 's first independent picture entirely made in Alaska was The Chechahcos, produced by Alaskan businessman Austin E. Lathrop and filmed in and around Anchorage. Released in 1924 by the Alaska Moving Picture Corporation, it was the only film the company made.
One of the most prominent movies filmed in Alaska is MGM 's Eskimo / Mala The Magnificent, starring Alaska Native Ray Mala. In 1932 an expedition set out from MGM 's studios in Hollywood to Alaska to film what was then billed as "The Biggest Picture Ever Made. '' Upon arriving in Alaska, they set up "Camp Hollywood '' in Northwest Alaska, where they lived during the duration of the filming. Louis B. Mayer spared no expense in spite of the remote location, going so far as to hire the chef from the Hotel Roosevelt in Hollywood to prepare meals.
When Eskimo premiered at the Astor Theatre in New York City, the studio received the largest amount of feedback in its history to that point. Eskimo was critically acclaimed and released worldwide; as a result, Mala became an international movie star. Eskimo won the first Oscar for Best Film Editing at the Academy Awards, and showcased and preserved aspects of Inupiat culture on film.
The 1983 Disney movie Never Cry Wolf was at least partially shot in Alaska. The 1991 film White Fang, based on Jack London 's novel and starring Ethan Hawke, was filmed in and around Haines. Steven Seagal 's 1994 On Deadly Ground, starring Michael Caine, was filmed in part at the Worthington Glacier near Valdez. The 1999 John Sayles film Limbo, starring David Strathairn, Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio, and Kris Kristofferson, was filmed in Juneau.
The psychological thriller Insomnia, starring Al Pacino and Robin Williams, was shot in Canada, but was set in Alaska. The 2007 film directed by Sean Penn, Into The Wild, was partially filmed and set in Alaska. The film, which is based on the novel of the same name, follows the adventures of Christopher McCandless, who died in a remote abandoned bus along the Stampede Trail west of Healy in 1992.
Many films and television shows set in Alaska are not filmed there; for example, Northern Exposure, set in the fictional town of Cicely, Alaska, was filmed in Roslyn, Washington. The 2007 horror feature 30 Days of Night is set in Barrow, but was filmed in New Zealand.
Many reality television shows are filmed in Alaska. In 2011 the Anchorage Daily News found ten set in the state.
U.S. federal government
Alaska state government
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when did america enter the vietnam war start | Role of the United States in the Vietnam War - Wikipedia
The role of the United States in the Vietnam War began after World War II and escalated into full commitment during the Vietnam War from 1955 to 1975. The U.S. involvement in South Vietnam stemmed from 20 long years of political and economic action. These had the common incentive of ending the growing communist domination in Vietnam. At the time, French forces, allies of the U.S., were backed by America -- President Harry S. Truman provided progressively increasing amounts of financial and military assistance to French forces fighting in Vietnam. From the spring of 1950, their involvement increased from just assisting French troops to providing direct military assistance to the associated states (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia). Eventually, U.S. missions were carried out at a more constant rate by sending out increasing number of military assistance from the United States. Their main intent was to restrict the Communist domination that was present in the government of Vietnam as it would soon lead to a chain of neighbouring countries adopting the same. This would have resulted in a change in balance of power throughout Southeast Asia. The U.S. foreign policy establishment saw national security interests being disturbed due to the rise of this communist expansion and strived to take any measure to end it. Their actions came to be questioned by other segments of government and society, however, including the US congress..
Estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3,812,000. The conflict also resulted in 58,318 US soldiers dead.
Feb 1965 - Operation Rolling Thunder begins
In 1961 the new administration of President John F. Kennedy remained essentially committed to the bi-partisan, anti-communist foreign policies inherited from the administrations of Presidents Truman and Eisenhower. During 1961, his first year in office, Kennedy found himself faced with a three - part crisis: The failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion in Cuba; the construction of the Berlin Wall by the Soviets; and a negotiated settlement between the pro-Western government of Laos and the Pathet Lao communist movement. Fearing that another failure on the part of the U.S. to stop communist expansion would fatally damage U.S. credibility with its allies, Kennedy realized, "Now we have a problem in making our power credible... and Vietnam looks like the place. '' The commitment to defend South Vietnam was reaffirmed by Kennedy on May 11 in National Security Action Memorandum 52, which became known as "The Presidential Program for Vietnam ''. Its opening statement reads:
U.S. objectives and concept of operations (are) to prevent communist domination of South Vietnam; to create in that country a viable and increasingly democratic society, and to initiate, on an accelerated basis, a series of mutually supporting actions of a military, political, economic, psychological, and covert character designed to achieve this objective.
Kennedy was intrigued by the idea of utilizing United States Army Special Forces for counterinsurgency conflicts in Third World countries threatened by the new "wars of national liberation ''. Originally intended for use behind front lines after a conventional invasion of Europe, Kennedy believed that the guerrilla tactics employed by Special Forces would be effective in the "brush fire '' war in South Vietnam. He saw British success in using such forces during the Malayan Emergency as a strategic template. Thus in May 1961 Kennedy sent detachments of Green Berets to South Vietnam.
The Diệm regime had been initially able to cope with the insurgency of the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF, or derogatively, Viet Cong) in South Vietnam with the aid of U.S. matériel and advisers, and, by 1962, seemed to be gaining the upper hand. Senior U.S. military leaders received positive reports from the U.S. commander, General Paul D. Harkins of the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, or MACV. By the following year, however, cracks began to appear in the façade of success. In January a possible victory that was turned into a stunning defeat for government forces at the Battle of Ap Bac caused consternation among both the military advisers in the field and among politicians in Washington, D.C. JFK also indicated to Walter Cronkite that the war may be unwinnable, and that it was ultimately a Vietnamese war, not an American war.
Diệm was already growing unpopular with many of his countrymen because of his administration 's nepotism, corruption, and its apparent bias in favor of the Catholic minority -- of which Diệm was a part -- at the expense of the Buddhist majority. This contributed to the impression of Diệm 's rule as an extension of the French Colonial regime. Promised land reforms were not instituted, and Diệm 's strategic hamlet program for village self - defense (and government control) was a disaster. The Kennedy administration grew increasingly frustrated with Diệm. In 1963, a crackdown by Diệm 's forces was launched against Buddhist monks protesting discriminatory practices and demanding a political voice. Diệm 's repression of the protests sparked the so - called Buddhist Revolt, during which several monks committed self - immolation, which was covered in the world press. The communists took full advantage of the situation and fueled anti-Diệm sentiment to create further instability.
On July 27, 1964, 5,000 additional U.S. military advisers were ordered to the Republic of Vietnam (RVN or South Vietnam), bringing the total American troop level to 21,000. Shortly thereafter an incident occurred off the coast of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) that was destined to escalate the conflict to new levels and lead to the full scale Americanization of the war.
On the evening of August 2, 1964, the destroyer USS Maddox was conducting an electronic intelligence collection mission in international waters (even as claimed by North Vietnam) in the Gulf of Tonkin when it was attacked by three P - 4 torpedo boats of the North Vietnamese Navy. Reports later reached the Johnson administration saying that the Maddox was under attack. Two nights later, after being joined by the destroyer C. Turner Joy, the Maddox again reported that both vessels were under attack. Regardless, President Johnson addressed Congress asking for more political power to utilize American military forces in South Vietnam, using the attack on the Maddox as cause to get what he wanted.
There was rampant confusion in Washington, but the incident was seen by the administration as the perfect opportunity to present Congress with "a pre-dated declaration of war '' in order to strengthen weakening morale in South Vietnam through reprisal attacks by the U.S. on the North. Even before confirmation of the phantom attack had been received in Washington, President Johnson had decided that an attack could not go unanswered.
Just before midnight he appeared on television and announced that retaliatory air strikes were underway against North Vietnamese naval and port facilities. Neither Congress nor the American people learned the whole story about the events in the Gulf of Tonkin until the publication of the Pentagon Papers in 1969. It was on the basis of the administration 's assertions that the attacks were "unprovoked aggression '' on the part of North Vietnam, that the United States Congress approved the Southeast Asia Resolution (also known as the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution) on August 7. The law gave the President broad powers to conduct military operations without an actual declaration of war. The resolution passed unanimously in the House of Representatives and was opposed in the Senate by only two members.
National Security Council members, including United States Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, Secretary of State Dean Rusk, and General Maxwell Taylor, agreed on November 28 to recommend that Johnson adopt a plan for a two - stage escalation of the bombing of North Vietnam.
In February 1965, a U.S. air base at Pleiku, in the Central Highlands of South Vietnam, was attacked twice by the NLF, resulting in the deaths of over a dozen U.S. personnel. These guerrilla attacks prompted the administration to order retaliatory air strikes against North Vietnam.
Operation Rolling Thunder was the code name given to a sustained strategic bombing campaign targeted against the North by aircraft of the U.S. Air Force and Navy that was inaugurated on March 2, 1965. Its original purpose was to bolster the morale of the South Vietnamese and to serve as a signaling device to Hanoi. U.S. airpower would act as a method of "strategic persuasion '', deterring the North Vietnamese politically by the fear of continued or increased bombardment. Rolling Thunder gradually escalated in intensity, with aircraft striking only carefully selected targets. When that did not work, its goals were altered to destroying North Vietnam 's will to fight by destroying the nation 's industrial base, transportation network, and its (continually increasing) air defenses. After more than a million sorties were flown and three - quarters of a million tons of bombs were dropped, Rolling Thunder was ended on November 11, 1968.
Other aerial campaigns (Operation Barrel Roll, Operation Steel Tiger, Operation Tiger Hound, and Operation Commando Hunt) were directed to counter the flow of men and material down the PAVN logistical system that flowed from North Vietnam through southeastern Laos, and into South Vietnam known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
President Johnson had already appointed General William C. Westmoreland to succeed General Harkins as Commander of MACV in June 1964. Under Westmoreland, the expansion of American troop strength in South Vietnam took place. American forces rose from 16,000 during 1964 to more than 553,000 by 1969. With the U.S. decision to escalate its involvement it had created the Many Flags program to legitimise intervention and ANZUS Pact allies Australia and New Zealand agreed to contribute troops and matériel to the conflict. They were joined by the Republic of Korea, Thailand, and ((the Philippines the Philippines)). The U.S. paid for (through aid dollars) and logistically supplied all of the allied forces.
Meanwhile, political affairs in Saigon were finally settling down -- at least as far as the Americans were concerned. On February 14 the most recent military junta, the National Leadership Committee, installed Air Vice-Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ as prime minister. In 1966, the junta selected General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu to run for president with Ky on the ballot as the vice-presidential candidate in the 1967 election. Thieu and Ky were elected and remained in office for the duration of the war. In the presidential election of 1971, Thieu ran for the presidency unopposed. With the installation of the Thieu and Ky government (the Second Republic), the U.S. had a pliable, stable, and semi-legitimate government in Saigon with which to deal.
With the advent of Rolling Thunder, American airbases and facilities needed to be constructed and manned for the aerial effort. On March 8, 1965, 3,500 United States Marines came ashore at Da Nang as the first wave of U.S. combat troops into South Vietnam, adding to the 25,000 U.S. military advisers already in place. The US Government deployment of ground forces to Da Nang had not been consulted with the South Vietnamese government. Instead the initial deployment and gradual build - up was a unilateral decision by the US government. On May 5 the U.S. 173rd Airborne Brigade became the first U.S. Army ground unit committed to the conflict in South Vietnam. On August 18, Operation Starlite began as the first major U.S. ground operation, destroying an NLF stronghold in ((Quảng Ngãi Province Quảng Ngãi Province)).
The North Vietnamese had already sent units of their regular army into southern Vietnam beginning in late 1964. Some officials in Hanoi had favored an immediate invasion of the South, and a plan was developed to use PAVN units to split southern Vietnam in half through the Central Highlands. The two imported adversaries first faced one another during Operation Silver Bayonet, better known as the Battle of the Ia Drang. During the savage fighting that took place, both sides learned important lessons. The North Vietnamese, began to adapt to the overwhelming American superiority in air mobility, supporting arms, and close air support by moving in as close as possible during confrontations, thereby negating the effects of the above.
On November 27, 1965, the Pentagon declared that if the major operations needed to neutralize North Vietnamese and NLF forces were to succeed, U.S. troop levels in South Vietnam would have to be increased from 120,000 to 400,000. In a series of meetings between Westmoreland and the President held in Honolulu in February 1966, Westmoreland claimed that the U.S. presence had succeeded in preventing the immediate defeat of the South Vietnamese government but that more troops would be necessary if systematic offensive operations were to be conducted. The issue then became in what manner American forces would be used.
The nature of the American military 's strategic and tactical decisions made during this period coloured the conflict for the duration of the American commitment. The logistical system in Laos and Cambodia should be cut by ground forces, isolating the southern battlefield. However, political considerations limited U.S. military actions, mainly because of the memory of Chinese reactions during the ((Korean War Korean War)). Ever present in the minds of diplomats, military officers, and politicians was the possibility of a spiraling escalation of the conflict into a superpower confrontation and the possibility of a nuclear exchange. Therefore, there would be no invasion of North Vietnam, the "neutrality '' of Laos and Cambodia would be respected, and Rolling Thunder would not resemble the bombing of Germany and Japan during the Second World War.
These limitations were not foisted upon the military as an afterthought. Before the first U.S. soldiers came ashore at Da Nang, the Pentagon was cognizant of all of the parameters that would be imposed by their civilian leaders, yet they still agreed that the mission could be accomplished within them. Westmoreland believed that he had found a strategy that would either defeat North Vietnam or force it into serious negotiations. Attrition was to be the key. The general held that larger offensive operations would grind down the communists and eventually lead to a "crossover point '' in PAVN / NLF casualties after which a decisive (or at least political) victory would be possible.
It is widely held that the average U.S. serviceman was nineteen years old, as evidenced by the casual reference in a pop song ("19 '' by Paul Hardcastle); the figure is cited by Lt. Col. Dave Grossman ret. of the Killology Research Group in his 1995 book On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society (p. 265). However, it is disputed by the Vietnam Helicopter Flight Crew Network Website, which claims the average age of MOS 11B personnel was 22. This compares with 26 years of age for those who participated in World War II. Soldiers served a one - year tour of duty. The average age of the U.S. military men who died in Vietnam was 22.8 years old.
The one - year tour of duty deprived units of experienced leadership. As one observer put it, "we were not in Vietnam for 10 years, but for one year 10 times. '' As a result, training programs were shortened. Some NCOs were referred to as "Shake ' N ' Bake '' to highlight their accelerated training. Unlike soldiers in World War II and Korea, there were no secure rear areas in which to get rest and relaxation. One unidentified soldier said to United Press International that there was nothing to do in Vietnam and therefore many of the men smoked marijuana. He said, "One of the biggest reasons that a lot of GIs do get high over here is there is nothing to do. This place is really a drag; it 's a bore over here. Like right now sitting around here, we are getting loaded. Whereas, it does n't really get you messed up; that 's I guess the main reason why we smoke it. ''
American forces would conduct operations against PAVN forces, pushing them further back into the countryside away from the heavily populated coastal lowlands. In the backcountry the U.S. could fully utilize its superiority in firepower and mobility to bleed the enemy in set - piece battles. The cleaning - out of the NLF and the pacification of the villages would be the responsibility of the South Vietnamese military. The adoption of this strategy, however, brought Westmoreland into direct conflict with his Marine Corps commander, General Lewis W. Walt, who had already recognized the security of the villages as the key to success. Walt had immediately commenced pacification efforts in his area of responsibility, but Westmoreland was unhappy, believing that the Marines were being underutilized and fighting the wrong enemy. In the end, MACV won out and Westmoreland 's search and destroy concept, predicated on the attrition of enemy forces, won the day.
Both sides chose similar strategies. PAVN, which had been operating a more conventional, large - unit war, switched back to small - unit operations in the face of U.S. military capabilities. The struggle moved to the villages, where the "hearts and minds '' of the South Vietnamese peasants, whose cooperation was absolutely necessary to military success, would be won or lost. The U.S. had given responsibility for this struggle to the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN), whose troops and commanders were notoriously unfit for the task.
For the American soldier, whose doctrine was one of absolute commitment to total victory, this strategy led to a frustrating small - unit war. Most of the combat was conducted by units smaller than battalion - size (the majority at the platoon level). Since the goal of the operations was to kill the enemy, terrain was not taken and held as in previous wars. Savage fighting and the retreat of the communists was immediately followed by the abandonment of the terrain just seized. Combined with this was the anger and frustration engendered among American troops by the effective tactics of the NLF, who conducted a war of sniping, booby traps, mines, and terror against the Americans.
As a result of the conference held in Honolulu, President Johnson authorized an increase in troop strength to 429,000 by August 1966. The large increase in troops enabled MACV to carry out numerous operations that grew in size and complexity during the next two years. For U.S. troops participating in these operations (Operation Masher / White Wing, Operation Attleboro, Operation Cedar Falls, Operation Junction City and dozens of others) the war boiled down to hard marching through some of the most difficult terrain on the planet and weather conditions that were alternately hot and dry, or cold and wet. It was the PAVN / NLF that actually controlled the pace of the war, fighting only when their commanders believed that they had the upper hand and then disappearing when the Americans and / or ARVN brought their superiority in numbers and firepower to bear. North Vietnam, utilizing the Ho Chi Minh and Sihanouk Trails, matched the U.S. at every point of the escalation, funneling manpower and supplies to the southern battlefields.
During the Vietnam War, the use of the helicopter, known as "Air Mobile '', was an essential tool for conducting the war. In fact, the whole conduct and strategy of the war depended on it. Vietnam was the first time the helicopter was used on a major scale, and in such important roles. Search and destroy missions, for example, would have been nearly impossible without it. Helicopters allowed American commanders to move large numbers of troops to virtually anywhere, regardless of the terrain or roads. Troops could also be easily resupplied in remote areas. The helicopter also provided another new and vital capability: medical evacuation. It could fly wounded soldiers to aid stations very quickly, usually within the critical first hour. This gave wounded soldiers a higher chance of survival in Vietnam than in any previous war. The helicopter was also adapted for many other roles in Vietnam, including ground attack, reconnaissance, and electronic warfare. Without the helicopter, the war would have been fought very differently.
By mid-1967, Westmoreland said that it was conceivable that U.S. forces could be phased out of the war within two years, turning over progressively more of the fighting to the ARVN. That fall, however, savage fighting broke out in the northern provinces. Beginning below the DMZ at Con Tien and then spreading west to the Laotian border near Dak To, large PAVN forces began to stand their ground and fight. This willingness of the communists to remain fixed in place inspired MACV to send reinforcements from other sectors of South Vietnam. The Border Battles had begun.
Most of the PAVN / NLF operational capability was possible only because of the unhindered movement of men along the Ho Chi Minh Trail. To threaten this flow of supplies, the Marine Corps established a combat base on the South Vietnamese side of the Laotian frontier, near the village of Khe Sanh. The U.S. used the base as a border surveillance position overlooking Route 9, the only east - west road that crossed the border in the province. Westmoreland also hoped to use the base as a jump - off point for any future incursion against the Trail system in Laos. During the spring of 1967, a series of small - unit actions near Khe Sanh prompted MACV to increase its forces. These small unit actions and increasing intelligence information indicated that the PAVN was building up significant forces just across the border.
Indeed, PAVN was doing just that. Two regular divisions (and later elements of a third) were moving toward Khe Sanh, eventually surrounding the base and cutting off its only road access. Westmoreland, contrary to the advice of his Marine commanders, reinforced the outpost. As far as he was concerned, if the communists were willing to mass their forces for destruction by American air power, so much the better. He described the ideal outcome as a "Dien Bien Phu in reverse ''. MACV then launched the largest concentrated aerial bombardment effort of the conflict (Operation Niagara) to defend Khe Sanh. Another massive aerial effort was undertaken to keep the beleaguered Marines supplied. There were many comparisons (by the media, Americans military and political officials, and the North Vietnamese) to the possibility of PAVN staging a repeat of its victory at Dien Bien Phu, but the differences outweighed the similarities in any comparison.
MACV used this opportunity to field its latest technology against the North Vietnamese. A sensor - driven, anti-infiltration system known as Operation Igloo White was in the process of being field tested in Laos as the siege of Khe Sanh began. Westmoreland ordered that it be employed to detect PAVN troop movements near the Marine base and the system worked well. By March, the long - awaited ground assault against the base had failed to materialize and communist forces began to melt back toward Laos. MACV (and future historians) were left with only questions. What was the goal of the PAVN? Was the siege a real attempt to stage another Dien Bien Phu? Or had the battles near the border (which eventually drew in half of MACV 's maneuver battalions) been a diversion, meant to pull forces away from the cities, where another PAVN offensive would soon commence?
General Westmoreland 's public reassurances that "the light at the end of the tunnel '' was near were countered when, on January 30, 1968, PAVN and NLF forces broke the truce that accompanied the Tết holiday and mounted their largest offensive thus far, in hopes of sparking a general uprising among the South Vietnamese. These forces, ranging in size from small groups to entire regiments, attacked nearly every city and major military installation in South Vietnam. The Americans and South Vietnamese, initially surprised by the scope and scale of the offensive, quickly responded and inflicted severe casualties on their enemies. The NLF was essentially eliminated as a fighting force and the places of the dead within its ranks were increasingly filled by North Vietnamese.
The PAVN / NLF attacks were speedily and bloodily repulsed in virtually all areas except Saigon, where the fighting lasted for three days, and in the old imperial capital of Huế, where it continued for a month. During the occupation of the historic city, 2,800 South Vietnamese were murdered by the NLF in the single worst massacre of the conflict. The hoped - for uprising never took place; indeed, the offensive drove some previously apathetic South Vietnamese to fight for the government. Another surprise for the communists was that the ARVN did not collapse under the onslaught, instead turning in a performance that pleased even its American patrons.
After the Tet Offensive, influential news magazines and newspapers, including the Wall Street Journal, Time and The New York Times, increasingly began to characterize the war as a stalemate. What shocked and dismayed the American public was the realization that either it had been lied to or that the American military command had been dangerously overoptimistic in its appraisal of the situation in Vietnam. The public could not understand how such an attack was possible after being told for several years that victory was just around the corner. The Tet Offensive came to embody the growing credibility gap at the heart of U.S. government statements. These realizations and changing attitudes forced the American public (and politicians) to face hard realities and to reexamine their position in Southeast Asia. Moreover, the U.S. media coverage made it even more clear that an overall victory in Vietnam was not imminent. It also massively weakened the domestic support for the Johnson administration at the time. The days of an open - ended commitment to the conflict were over.
The psychological impact of the Tet Offensive effectively ended the political career of Lyndon Johnson. On March 11, Senator Eugene McCarthy won 42 percent of the vote in the Democratic New Hampshire primary. Although Johnson was not on the ballot, commentators viewed this as a defeat for the President. Shortly thereafter, Senator Robert Kennedy announced his intention to seek the Democratic nomination for the 1968 presidential election. On March 31, in a speech that took America and the world by surprise, Johnson announced that "I shall not seek, and I will not accept the nomination of my party for another term as your President '' and pledged himself to devoting the rest of his term in office to the search for peace in Vietnam. Johnson announced that he was limiting bombing of North Vietnam to just north of the Demilitarized Zone and that U.S. representatives were prepared to meet with North Vietnamese counterparts in any suitable place "to discuss the means to bring this ugly war to an end ''. A few days later, much to Johnson 's surprise, North Vietnam agreed to contacts between the two sides. On May 13, what became known as the Paris peace talks began.
On March 16, 1968, three companies of Task Force Barker, part of the Americal Division, took part in a search and destroy operation near the village of My Lai, in Quảng Nam Province. Although not all of the members of the company participated, a significant number of them, led by Calley, did. He personally ordered the executions of hundreds of villagers in large groups. The killings ended only when an American helicopter crew, headed by Warrant Officer Hugh Thompson, Jr., discovered Calley 's unit in the act and threatened to attack them with his aircraft 's weapons unless they stopped. One of the soldiers on the scene was Ron Haeberle, a photographer for the newspaper Stars and Stripes, who took unobtrusive official black - and - white photos of the operation through the lens of his military - issued camera and color shots of the massacre with his personal camera. Although the operation appeared suspicious to Calley 's superiors, it was forgotten.
In 1969, investigative journalist Seymour Hersh exposed the My Lai massacre in print, and the Haeberle photos were released to the world media. The Pentagon launched an investigation headed by General William R. Peers to look into the allegations. After a flurry of activity, the Peers Commission issued its report. It declared that "an atmosphere of atrocity '' surrounded the event, concluding that a massacre had taken place and the crime had been covered up by the commander of the Americal Division and his executive officer. Perhaps 400 Vietnamese civilians, mostly old men, women, and children had been killed by Charlie company. Several men were charged in the killings, but only Calley was convicted. He was given a life sentence by a court - martial in 1970, but after numerous appeals he was finally set free; he had served just over three years of house arrest.
Although My Lai generated a lot of civilian recriminations and bad publicity for the military, it was not the only massacre. The Vietnam War Crimes Working Group Files made public in 1994 by the "Freedom of Information Act '' reveal seven, albeit much smaller, massacres previously unacknowledged by the Pentagon, in which at least 137 civilians had died. (1) Cover - ups may have occurred in other cases, as detailed in the Pulitzer Prize - winning series of articles concerning the Tiger Force of the 101st Airborne Division by the Toledo Blade in 2003.
Richard Nixon had campaigned in the 1968 presidential election under the slogan that he would end the war in Vietnam and bring "peace with honor ''. However, there was no plan to do this, and the American commitment continued for another five years. The goal of the American military effort was to buy time, gradually building up the strength of the South Vietnamese armed forces, and re-equipping it with modern weapons so that they could defend their nation on their own. This policy became the cornerstone of the so - called Nixon Doctrine. As applied to Vietnam, it was labeled Vietnamization.
Nixon 's papers show that in 1968, as a presidential candidate, he ordered Anna Chennault, his liaison to the South Vietnam government, to persuade them to refuse a cease - fire being brokered by President Lyndon Johnson. This action violated the Logan Act, banning private citizens from intruding into official government negotiations with a foreign nation, and has been said to constitute treason.
Soon after Tet, General Westmoreland was promoted to Army Chief of Staff and he was replaced by his deputy, General Creighton W. Abrams. Because of the change in American strategy posed by Vietnamization, Abrams pursued a very different approach. The U.S. was gradually withdrawing from the conflict, and Abrams favored smaller - scale operations aimed at PAVN / NLF logistics, more openness with the media, less indiscriminate use of American firepower, elimination of the body count as the key indicator of battlefield success, and more meaningful cooperation with South Vietnamese forces.
Vietnamization of the war, however, created a dilemma for U.S. forces: the strategy required that U.S. troops fight long enough for the ARVN to improve enough to hold its own against Communist forces. Morale in the U.S. ranks rapidly declined during 1969 -- 1972, as evidenced by declining discipline, worsening drug use among soldiers, and increased "fraggings '' of U.S. officers by disgruntled troops.
One of Nixon 's main foreign policy goals had been the achievement of a breakthrough in U.S. relations with the People 's Republic of China and the Soviet Union. An avowed anti-communist since early in his political career, Nixon could make diplomatic overtures to the communists without being accused of being "soft on communism ''. The result of his overtures was an era of détente that led to nuclear arms reductions by the U.S. and Soviet Union and the beginning of a dialogue with China. In this context, Nixon viewed Vietnam as simply another limited conflict forming part of the larger tapestry of superpower relations; however, he was still determined to preserve South Vietnam until such time as he could not be blamed for what he saw as its inevitable collapse (or a "decent interval '', as it was known). To this end he and National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger employed Chinese and Soviet foreign policy gambits to successfully defuse some of the anti-war opposition at home and secured movement at the negotiations that had begun in Paris.
China and the Soviet Union had been the principal backers of North Vietnam 's effort through large - scale military and financial aid. The two communist superpowers had competed with one another to prove their "fraternal socialist links '' with the regime in Hanoi. The North Vietnamese had become adept at playing the two nations off against one another. Even with Nixon 's rapprochement, their support of North Vietnam increased significantly in the years leading up to the U.S. departure in 1973, enabling the North Vietnamese to mount full - scale conventional offensives against the South, complete with tanks, heavy artillery, and the most modern surface - to - air missiles.
The credibility of the U.S. government again suffered in 1971 when The New York Times, The Washington Post and other newspapers serially published The Pentagon Papers (actually U.S. - Vietnam Relations, 1945 -- 1967). This top - secret historical study of the American commitment in Vietnam, from the Franklin Roosevelt administration until 1967, had been contracted to the RAND Corporation by Secretary of Defense McNamara. The documents were leaked to the press by Daniel Ellsberg, a former State Department official who had worked on the study.
The Pentagon Papers laid out the missteps taken by four administrations in their Vietnam policies. For example, they revealed the Johnson administration 's obfuscations to Congress concerning the Gulf of Tonkin incidents that had led to direct U.S. intervention; they exposed the clandestine bombing of Laos that had begun in 1964; and they detailed the American government 's complicity in the death of Ngô Đình Diệm. The study presented a continuously pessimistic view of the likelihood of victory and generated fierce criticism of U.S. policies.
The importance of the actual content of the papers to U.S. policy - making was disputed, but the window that they provided into the flawed decision - making process at the highest levels of the U.S. government opened the issue for other questions. Their publication was a news event and the government 's legal (Nixon lost to the Supreme Court) and extra-legal efforts (the "Plumbers '' break - in at the office of Ellsberg 's psychiatrist committed to gain material to discredit him, was one of the first steps on the road to Watergate) carried out to prevent their publication -- mainly on national security grounds -- then went on to generate yet more criticism and suspicion of the government by the American public.
By 1969 the policy of non-alignment and neutrality had worn thin for Prince Sihanouk, ruler of Cambodia. Pressures from the right in Cambodia caused the prince to begin a shift away from the pro-left position he had assumed in 1965 -- 1966. He began to make overtures for normalized relations with the U.S. and created a Government of National Salvation with the assistance of the pro-American General Lon Nol. Seeing a shift in the prince 's position, President Nixon ordered the launching of a top - secret bombing campaign, targeted at the PAVN / NLF Base Areas and sanctuaries along Cambodia 's eastern border.
On March 18, 1970, Sihanouk, who was out of the country on a state visit, was deposed by a vote of the National Assembly and replaced by General Lon Nol. Cambodia 's ports were immediately closed to North Vietnamese military supplies, and the government demanded that PAVN / NLF forces be removed from the border areas within 72 hours. On March 29, 1970, the Vietnamese had taken matters into their own hands and launched an offensive against the Cambodian army. A force of North Vietnamese quickly overran large parts of eastern Cambodia reaching to within 15 miles (24 km) of Phnom Penh allowing their allies, the Chinese - supported Khmer Rouge to extend their power. Nixon ordered a military incursion into Cambodia by U.S. and ARVN troops in order to both destroy PAVN / NLF sanctuaries bordering South Vietnam and to buy time for the U.S. withdrawal. During the Cambodian Campaign, U.S. and ARVN forces discovered and removed or destroyed a huge logistical and intelligence haul in Cambodia.
The incursion also sparked large - scale demonstrations on and closures of American college campuses. The expansion of the conflict into Cambodia was seen as an expansion of the conflict into yet another country, nullifying Nixon 's promises of de-escalating the war. During the ensuing protests, four students were killed and a score were wounded by Ohio National Guardsmen during a demonstration at Kent State University. Two other students were killed at Jackson State University in Mississippi. In an effort to lessen opposition to the U.S. commitment, Nixon announced on October 12 that the U.S. would withdraw 40,000 more troops from Vietnam before Christmas.
Following the coup, Sihanouk arrived in Beijing, where he established and headed a government in exile, throwing his substantial personal support behind the Khmer Rouge, the North Vietnamese, and the Laotian Pathet Lao.
In 1971 the U.S. authorized the ARVN to carry out an offensive operation aimed at cutting the Ho Chi Minh Trail in southeastern Laos. Besides attacking the PAVN logistical system (which would buy time for the U.S. withdrawal) the incursion would be a significant test of Vietnamization. Backed by U.S. air and artillery support (American troops were forbidden to enter Laos), the ARVN moved across the border along Route 9, utilizing the abandoned Marine outpost of Khe Sanh as a jumping - off point. At first, the incursion went well, but unlike the Cambodian operation of 1970, the PAVN decided to stand and fight, finally mustering around 60,000 men on the battlefield.
The North Vietnamese first struck the flanks of the ARVN column, smashed its outposts, and then moved in on the main ARVN force. Unlike previous encounters during the conflict, the PAVN fielded armored formations, heavy artillery, and large amounts of the latest anti-aircraft artillery. After two months of savage fighting, the ARVN retreated back across the border, closely pursued by the North Vietnamese. One half of the invasion force was killed or captured during the operation, and Vietnamization was seen as a failure.
On August 18, Australia and New Zealand decided to withdraw their troops from the conflict. The total number of U.S. forces in South Vietnam dropped to 196,700 on October 29, 1971, the lowest level since January 1966. On November 12, 1971, Nixon set a February 1, 1972 deadline for the removal of another 45,000 troops.
Vietnamization received another severe test in the spring of 1972 when the North Vietnamese launched a massive conventional offensive across the Demilitarized Zone. Beginning on March 30, the Easter Offensive (known as the Nguyễn Huệ Offensive to the North Vietnamese) quickly overran the three northernmost provinces of South Vietnam, including the provincial capital of Quảng Trị City. PAVN forces then drove south toward Huế.
Early in April, PAVN opened two additional operations. The first, a three - division thrust supported by tanks and heavy artillery, advanced out of Cambodia on April 5. The North Vietnamese seized the town of Loc Ninh and advanced toward the provincial capital of An Lộc in Bình Long Province. The second new offensive, launched from the tri-border region into the Central Highlands, seized a complex of ARVN outposts near Dak To and then advanced toward Kon Tum, threatening to split South Vietnam in two.
The U.S. countered with a buildup of American airpower to support ARVN defensive operations and to conduct Operation Linebacker, the first offensive bombing of North Vietnam since Rolling Thunder had been terminated in 1968. The PAVN attacks against Huế, An Lộc, and Kon Tum were contained and the ARVN launched a counteroffensive in May to retake the lost northern provinces. On September 10, the South Vietnamese flag once again flew over the ruins of the Citadel of Quảng Trị City, but the ARVN offensive then ran out of steam, conceding the rest of the occupied territory to the North Vietnamese. South Vietnam had countered the heaviest attack since Tet, but it was very evident that it was totally dependent on U.S. airpower for its survival. Meanwhile, the withdrawal of American troops, who numbered less than 100,000 at the beginning of the year, was continued as scheduled. By June only six infantry battalions remained. On August 12, the last American ground combat division left the country. However, the U.S. continued to operate the base At Long Binh. Combat patrols continued there until November 11 when the U.S. handed over the base to the South Vietnamese. After this, only 24,000 American troops remained in Vietnam and President Nixon announced that they would stay there until all U.S. POW 's were freed.
At the beginning of the North Vietnamese invasion, the media, including conservative commentator William F. Buckley, predicted the downfall of the Republic of Vietnam; Buckley even called for the firing of General Creighton Abrams as an incompetent military leader. But the ARVN succeeded in defeating General Giap and his huge invading army. His forces were shattered at the Battle of An Lộc, where he threw several divisions at the entrenched South Vietnamese forces, ultimately losing over half of his army as casualties. General Giap 's loss and subsequent retreat was viewed as so great a failure by the North Vietnamese Communist Party that Giap was relieved of his command. Although ARVN troops withstood and repelled the massive PAVN attack at An Lộc, American air power seems to have been a key to the ARVN success, just as it had been a key factor in supporting U.S. ground forces when they operated in South Vietnam prior to 1972. Thus, the 1973 withdrawal of U.S. military support and passage of Congressional resolutions cutting off U.S. funding for combat activities in Indochina (H.R. 9055 and H.J. Res. 636) opened the way for the 1975 defeat of the Republic of Vietnam.
During the run - up to the 1972 presidential election, the war was once again a major issue. An antiwar Democrat, George McGovern, ran against President Nixon. The president ended Operation Linebacker on October 22 after the negotiating deadlock was broken and a tentative agreement had been hammered out by U.S. and North Vietnamese representatives at the peace negotiations in Paris. The head of the U.S. negotiating team, Henry Kissinger, declared that "peace is at hand '' shortly before election day, dealing a death blow to McGovern 's already doomed campaign. Kissinger had not, however, counted on the intransigence of South Vietnamese President Thieu, who refused to accept the agreement and demanded some 90 changes in its text. These the North Vietnamese refused to accept, and Nixon was not inclined to put too much pressure on Thieu just before the election, even though his victory was all but assured. The mood between the U.S. and North further turned sour when Hanoi went public with the details of the agreement. The Nixon Administration claimed that North Vietnamese negotiators had used the pronouncement as an opportunity to embarrass the President and to weaken the United States. White House Press Secretary Ron Ziegler told the press on November 30 that there would be no more public announcements concerning U.S. troop withdrawals from Vietnam since force levels were down to 27,000.
Because of Thieu 's unhappiness with the agreement, primarily the stipulation that North Vietnamese troops could remain "in place '' on South Vietnamese soil, the negotiations in Paris stalled as Hanoi refused to accept Thieu 's changes and retaliated with amendments of its own. To reassure Thieu of American resolve, Nixon ordered a massive bombing campaign against North Vietnam utilizing B - 52s and tactical aircraft in Operation Linebacker II, which began on December 18 with large raids against both Hanoi and the port of Haiphong. Nixon justified his actions by blaming the impasse in negotiations on the North Vietnamese, causing one commentator to describe his actions as "War by tantrum ''. Although this heavy bombing campaign caused protests, both domestically and internationally, and despite significant aircraft losses over North Vietnam, Nixon continued the operation until December 29. He also exerted pressure on Thieu to accept the terms of the agreement reached in October.
On January 15, 1973, citing progress in peace negotiations, Nixon announced the suspension of all offensive actions against North Vietnam, to be followed by a unilateral withdrawal of all U.S. troops. The Paris Peace Accords on "Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam '' were signed on January 27, officially ending direct U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War.
The agreement called for the withdrawal of all U.S. personnel and an exchange of prisoners of war. Within South Vietnam, a cease - fire was declared (to be overseen by a multi-national, 1,160 - man International Control Commission force) and both ARVN and PAVN / NLF forces would remain in control of the areas they then occupied, effectively partitioning South Vietnam. Both sides pledged to work toward a compromise political solution, possibly resulting in a coalition government. To maximize the area under their control, both sides in South Vietnam almost immediately engaged in land - grabbing military operations, which turned into flashpoints. The signing of the Accords was the main motivation for the awarding of the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize to Henry Kissinger and to leading North Vietnamese negotiator Le Duc Tho. A separate cease - fire had been installed in Laos in February. Five days before the signing of the agreement in Paris, President Lyndon Johnson, whose presidency had been tainted with the Vietnam issue, died.
The first U.S. prisoners of war were released by North Vietnam on February 11, and all U.S. military personnel were ordered to leave South Vietnam by March 29. As an inducement for Thieu 's government to sign the agreement, Nixon had promised that the U.S. would provide financial and limited military support (in the form of air strikes) so that the South would not be overrun. But Nixon was fighting for his political life in the growing Watergate scandal and facing an increasingly hostile Congress that withheld funding. The President was able to exert little influence on a hostile public long sick of the Vietnam War.
Thus, Nixon (or his successor Gerald Ford) was unable to fulfill his promises to Thieu. At the same time, aid to North Vietnam from the Soviet Union increased. With the U.S. no longer heavily involved, both the U.S. and the Soviet Union no longer saw the war as significant to their relations. The balance of power shifted decisively in North Vietnam 's favor, and the North subsequently launched a major military offensive, the Ho Chi Minh Campaign, against the South that culminated in the surrender of the Republic of Vietnam to PAVN forces on April 30, 1975.
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when does carol have her baby on er | Carol Hathaway - wikipedia
Nurse Carol Hathaway Ross is a fictional character on the popular television show ER, portrayed by Julianna Margulies from 1994 to 2000. Julianna Margulies ' removal from the main cast opening credits was in the final episode of season 6.
Carol Hathaway is a registered nurse and is the nurse manager in the emergency room of Chicago 's County General Hospital. She holds a master 's degree in nursing and is left - handed.
Carol is sensitive towards the lack of recognition the ER nurses experience. She is sometimes hostile to the physician assistants, and once told surgeon Peter Benton in Season One, "Haleh may not be able to cross clamp an aorta, but she has over 20 years experience in emergency medicine and if you would step off your pedestal maybe you would realize it 's the nurses that make this place run and not you. ''
In Season 3, Carol intends to go to medical school and become a doctor, but decides against it because she sees that her job as a nurse is worthwhile.
In Season 4, Carol obtains funding for an ER clinic by getting money from Dr. John Carter 's grandmother, Millicent Carter. Carol 's clinic provides care for thousands for free.
In Season 5, after a fiasco with Doug Ross, a dying child, and an overdose of medication, Carol is forced to step down from her position with the clinic, and step down from being Nurse Manager.
Eight weeks after her suicide attempt, Carol returns to work. Although she later denies it, the staff suspect that her suicide attempt was brought about by her failed romance with Doug Ross, a womanizing pediatrician also working in the ER. Carol keeps Doug at a distance in both professional and private matters, which becomes difficult as Doug continually tries to win her back, on one such occasion showing up drunk on her doorstep, with flowers. While Carol harbors animosity towards the brash pediatrician, it becomes obvious to the viewer as well as the staff, that there are continuing feelings for him.
In an attempt to move on from her fractured relationship, Carol becomes engaged to orthopedic surgeon John "Tag '' Taglieri (Rick Rossovich). The relationship is tumultuous from the start, since Carol can not commit fully to Tag, and against his wishes, tries unsuccessfully to adopt a Russian child suffering from AIDS that was abandoned in the ER. Right before they are about to walk down the aisle, Tag leaves her at the altar, telling her he can not commit to someone who can not reciprocate those feelings. While hurt, the ER staff much like they have in a brazen attempt to save her life, continue to do so at the wedding reception, with food, drinks and music.
Carol, in an attempt to become more independent, purchases a run - down row house, which she plans on renovating. She later becomes involved with paramedic Ray "Shep '' Shepard (Ron Eldard), who moves in with her. Despite a promising start, their relationship is severely strained after Shep goes through a drastic personality change after the death of his work partner. Shep and his partner had decided to enter a burning building to save children who were trapped by the fire. Shep 's partner was badly burned and later died in the ICU. Shep becomes abrasive, and despite Carol 's attempts to get him professional help, he refuses, so she ends their relationship, refusing to watch someone she cares about self - destruct.
Without Shep 's extra income she is unable to afford her house. Things get even worse when a labor dispute arises concerning the reassignment of her nurses. As nurse manager for the ER, Carol is privy to management decisions, and she finds herself torn between her friends and the hospital administration. During a nurse sickout, Carol accidentally transfuses the wrong blood into a patient. Although it is unclear whether it was the blood or his other injuries that cause his death, Carol blames herself. The administration initially does not punish Carol for this incident and uses it to cast the sickout in a bad light, but she resents the administration 's actions and believes she is not being punished sufficiently for her error, so she talks to the press and gets suspended.
During her suspension, Carol is held hostage at gunpoint during an armed robbery at her local grocery store. She treats several injured people and manages to escape the incident, shaken but unharmed. Carol later takes the MCAT with Doug 's assistance and assumes she failed, when in fact she did very well. However, she opts not to pursue medical school, having only taken the test to prove she was capable. It was also during this time that Carol and Doug become closer as friends. Doug, the once - womanizing pediatrician, hits rock bottom, leading a life of celibacy after one of his one - night stands dies from a cocaine overdose. As he straightens out his life, Carol begins to see him differently, and after a surprise passionate embrace on her doorstep, Doug and Carol begin to rekindle their relationship.
Their relationship is held up by Carol 's insecurities and bitter memories of the past. Frightened over what the staff might think, Carol and Doug romance each other in secret, even though it 's obvious to the staff, who start an office pool over when they will out themselves. Doug 's attempts to make up for his past mistakes and commit to her eventually pushes her back. After kissing a firefighter and then confessing to Doug, he leaves her for awhile. The two eventually reconcile. Carol overcomes her insecurities and is finally able to put those demons to rest and commit fully to Doug. Soon after, the two decide to conceive a child. Carol opens up a free clinic in the ER, backed financially by colleague Dr. John Carter 's wealthy grandmother. The clinic is a success, helping many in the community.
Doug 's constant run - ins with authority begin to jeopardize not only his job, but also his relationship with Carol, who despite her devotion finds it increasingly hard to support his reckless decisions regarding patient care. This all comes to a head when a terminally ill boy dies under his care. Using a PCA machine from Carol 's clinic, Doug authorizes the mother, Joi, to administer enough pain medication to stop his heart. An ensuing scandal resulting from the police investigation ruins both their careers. Carol is forced to step down as Nurse Manager and give up control of her clinic and Doug is forbidden from seeing patients. Seeing no other way out, Doug resigns, leaving for Seattle to take a lucrative job offer despite Carol 's protests. Unbeknownst to Doug, Carol is pregnant with twins.
Carol delivers Tess and Kate Ross on Thanksgiving Day assisted by then - OB nurse Abby Lockhart with long - time friend and colleague Dr. Mark Greene as her birthing coach. When Doug learns of his twin daughters ' birth via a telephone call, he invites them to come and live with him in Seattle. Carol can not decide if it is the right thing to do; still hurt over his abrupt departure a year earlier, she attempts to raise their daughters alone. Dr. Luka Kovač, a new Attending from Croatia who lost his wife and children in the Croatian War of Independence, often helps her take care of the twins, and a tentative romance eventually develops as the two become closer, but Carol does n't see it going anywhere. Treating a woman dying of end - stage ovarian cancer and helping her family say goodbye moves Carol to reunite her own family, and after saying goodbye apologetically to Luka, she abruptly leaves work and flies to Seattle that day to reunite with Doug. It is later revealed that the day she left Chicago, Carol sent for her twin daughters to join her and Doug in Seattle.
Eight years later in the Season 14 episode, "Status Quo '', Jeanie Boulet mentions Doug and Carol when she returns to the ER after her ex-husband's death and learns of brain lesions due to AIDS progression in her son. Nurse Haleh Adams states that they are living happily in Seattle and that their twin daughters are now in second grade.
In the season 15 episode The Book of Abby, long - serving nurse Haleh Adams shows the departing Abby Lockhart a closet wall where all the past doctors and employees have put their locker name tags. Amongst them, the tag "Hathaway '' can be seen.
Carol Hathaway appears again in Season 15. She and Doug are now married and practice at the University of Washington Medical Center, where Carol is a transplant coordinator. During the episode, Carol and Doug help a grieving grandmother (Susan Sarandon) donate her grandson 's organs. One of the organs, a kidney, is given to "some doctor ''; unbeknownst to both Doug and Carol it is their former co-worker and friend John Carter. While on the job she met two current employees at Chicago County General Hospital Dr. Neela Rasgotra and Nurse Manager Sam Taggart.
Entertainment Weekly placed Hathaway in its list of the "30 Great TV Doctors and Nurses ''. Her relationship with Doug Ross was included in AOL TV 's list of the "Best TV Couples of All Time '' and in the same list by TV Guide.
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watch if we were a season korean drama | If We Were a Season - Wikipedia
If We Were a Season (Hangul: 우리 가 계절 이라면) is a South Korean single - episode television drama starring Chae Soo - bin, Jang Dong - yoon and Jinyoung. It aired on September 3, 2017 as part of Drama Special, a weekly program on KBS2 showing short dramas (usually single episodes), with each episode having a different story, cast, director, and writer.
Yoon Hae - rim (Chae Soo - bin) and Uhm Gi - seok (Jang Dong - yoon), two high school students born on the same day, are raised together as neighbours since birth. They are close and precious to each other. One day, a transfer student from Seoul, Oh Dong - kyeong (Jinyoung), appears. Will it shake up the close relationship and feelings they have for each other?
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what region of the united states do i live in | List of regions of the United States - wikipedia
This is a list of some of the regions in the United States.
Many regions in the United States are defined in law or regulations by the federal government.
The United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau region definition is "widely used... for data collection and analysis, '' and is the most commonly used classification system.
Regional divisions used by the United States Census Bureau:
Puerto Rico and other US territories are not part of any census region or census division.
The ten standard federal regions were established by OMB (Office of Management and Budget) Circular A-105, "Standard Federal Regions, '' in April, 1974, and required for all executive agencies. In recent years, some agencies have tailored their field structures to meet program needs and facilitate interaction with local, state and regional counterparts. However, the OMB must still approve any departures.
The Federal Reserve Act of 1913 divided the country into twelve districts with a central Federal Reserve Bank in each district. These twelve Federal Reserve Banks together form a major part of the Federal Reserve System, the central banking system of the United States. Missouri is the only U.S. state to have two Federal Reserve locations within its borders.
The Federal Circuit is not a regional circuit. Its jurisdiction is nationwide, but based on subject matter.
The Bureau of Economic Analysis defines regions for comparison of economic data.
The Energy Information Administration currently uses the PADD system established by Petroleum Administration for War in World War II. It is used for data collection on refining petroleum and its products. Each PADD is subdivided into refining districts.
PADD I can also be subdivided into 3 Subdistricts:
PADD system was established in World War II and therefore do n't accurately reflect current trends. The EIA has updated the PADD system with a complimentary set of regions to reflect this and will change it to suite current needs. (Note: Region 9 includes countries not part of the USA but is included for the sake of completion since it contains Puerto Rico)
There are also multi-territory regions:
In Connecticut, there are 14 official regions, each with a regional government that serves for the absence of county government in Connecticut. There are also a fair number of unofficial regions in Connecticut with no regional government.
"Upstate '' or "Up North ''
"Slower Lower ''
See Neighborhoods in the District of Columbia
Regions shared with other states:
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gopi goda meedha pilli full cast and crew | Gopi -- Goda meeda Pilli - Wikipedia
Gopi -- Goda Meedha Pilli is a Telugu comedy film, produced by Polisetti Rambabu & Palli Kesava Rao on RS Films and directed by Janardhana Maharshi. Starring Allari Naresh, Jagapathi Babu, Aarti Chhabria, Gowri Munjal in lead roles and music composed by Koti. The film recorded as Super Hit at box office.
Gopi is a story followed avidly by Lord Vishnu (Suresh) and Goddess Lakshmi (Rambha), who intervenes every once in a while with his observations. If it 's true that the whole universe resides in Vishnu, then the makers of this one already have the largest possible audience, without needing to rely on the material world. Good for them, since in this illusory world of ours that look tough.
Gopi (Allari Naresh) is a bachelor who rejects marriage proposals for a living. After about 250 women fail to live up to his standards, his parents (Tanikella Bharani & Hema) are fed - up with his character. Gopi sees Lakshmi (Gowri Munjal) when his friend Balaraju (Ali) is fixing a bride (Pelli Choopulu) and falls in love with her. He plots to get Balaraju to reject her and asks for her hand in marriage himself. Just as the marriage is about to happen, he goes to Bangalore for a job interview. On the way, he meets Priya (Aarti Chhabria), a dreaded terrorist Monica Judi. He falls for her beauty without realizing her true identity. Priya tries to use him as human bomb while he dreams of dumping Gowri Mumjal and marrying Priya. Gopi informs his parents about the intention of canceling the marriage with Lakshmi.
Balavinder Cheda (Jagapati Babu) is the CBI officer in charge of the operation of capturing the terrorist and her accomplice. He intervenes at the right time to rescue Gopi from the clutches of Monica. Freed from her, Gopi goes to the marriage venue. But instead of him, it is Vamsi (Vadde Naveen) Gopi 's cousin arranged by Gopi 's parents, who are getting ready to marry Lakshmi. Gopi realizes his mistake and apologizes. All promptly forgive him and he marries Lakshmi.
Music composed by Koti. Music released on Supreme Music Company.
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when does professor layton vs phoenix wright take place | Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney - Wikipedia
Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney is a visual novel adventure puzzle video game for the Nintendo 3DS, and was developed by both Level - 5 and Capcom, the former publishing it in Japan while Nintendo published it worldwide. The game is a crossover between two games series from both developers, combining the puzzle and exploration elements of Level - 5 's Professor Layton series, and the general trial mechanics of Capcom 's Ace Attorney adventure series, the latter enhanced by the addition of a few new elements. Shu Takumi, the series director for the Ace Attorney series, assisted with the scenario designs for the game. The plot focuses on Professor Layton and Phoenix Wright, along with their associated assistants, working together to solve the mystery behind a young girl that they both encounter separately, and a strange world they are brought to through her, with Layton focused on finding clues to solve the mystery, while Wright focuses on protecting people who are put on trial for being "witches ''.
The game was initially released in Japan on November 29, 2012, before eventually being released in Europe on March 28, 2014, Australia on March 29, 2014, and North America on August 29.
The game follows Professor Layton, Luke Triton, Phoenix Wright and Maya Fey as they attempt to solve the mystery of Labyrinthia. The game has two main styles of gameplay, Adventure and Witch Trial, which feature elements from the Professor Layton and Ace Attorney series respectively. The game features voice acting and animated cutscenes, a staple in the Professor Layton games but a first for the Ace Attorney series. This has since become a new standard for the latter series, starting with Dual Destinies, which was released in Japan after the crossover title.
During Adventure segments, players can explore various environments, conversing with characters and examining background objects in order to find clues to solving the mystery of Labyrinthia. The control scheme is similar to the one introduced in Professor Layton and the Miracle Mask, in which players navigate the environments by moving around a cursor on the screen. Investigating certain areas or conversing with certain characters reveals various puzzles, which task players with finding its solution. Solving these puzzles earn Picarats, with more earned for making fewer mistakes, which go towards unlocking bonus content. Throughout these sections, players may also find Hint Coins which can be spent to unlock hints whilst solving puzzles.
In the Witch Trial sections, players take control of Phoenix Wright as he cross-examines witnesses in order to defend his client. While cross-examining a witness, the player can press them for more details, which can sometimes yield new information or evidence. The player 's main task is to look for contradictions in the witness statements and present the evidence that contradicts their statement. If the player presents the wrong evidence at the wrong time, the player will lose a strike, with the game ending if the player loses all of their strikes. This time around, Phoenix will occasionally experience a "mob trial '', forcing him to cross-examine multiple witnesses at once. Whilst pressing one witness, another may react to one of their statements, and questioning them may yield new information or evidence. In addition to the Court Record, which contains evidence on the case, Phoenix also has access to the Grand Grimoire, a book of magic spells which can also be used as evidence. Hint coins found during the Adventure segments can also be used during trials, providing hints on how the player should progress. Additional Picarats are earned at the end of each trial based on how many strikes are remaining.
Level - 5 announced that they would release downloadable content for the game, including a new storyline, written by Shu Takumi, which would be split up in 12 episodes. It is playable when the game has been cleared once. The downloadable content, which included new puzzles and gallery items, was released every Wednesday for 24 weeks, starting on December 12, 2012, with the different kinds of downloadable content alternating each week.
In PAL regions, the content was offered in a similar manner, starting with a story episode on the game 's release date, and then releasing new content every week until the start of September. In North America, content was released regularly over the course of six weeks beginning on the game 's release date.
The downloadable story episodes, which are considered non-canon and frequently break the fourth wall, take place one year after the events of the game and feature Layton, Luke, Phoenix, and Maya returning to Labyrinthia for a visit.
In London, a woman named Espella Cantabella is chased by a mysterious force and seeks the aid of Professor Hershel Layton and his apprentice, Luke Triton. The three are attacked by what appears to be witches; Espella escapes on a cargo freighter while Layton and Luke are seemingly drawn into a medieval town called Labyrinthia via a book called "Historia Labyrinthia '' owned by Espella. Espella is quickly arrested for assault and theft when the freighter docks, following an attack on a freighter staff member. Phoenix Wright, an American defense attorney from Los Angeles, and his assistant Maya Fey, are in London as part of a legal exchange, and are assigned to Espella 's case. They ultimately deduce that Espella stumbled upon a jewel smuggling operation while on the freighter and was attacked by the supposed victim of the assault. Afterwards, they are supposedly drawn into Labyrinthia through Espella 's book as well.
Layton and Luke learn that witches supposedly reside in Labyrinthia, and the town is controlled by the Storyteller, a man who allegedly can turn anything he writes into reality. The town 's Knights of the Inquisition, led by High Inquisitor Darklaw, prosecute and execute by fire all discovered witches in the Witch 's Court. The Inquisition seeks to locate the Great Witch Bezella, the witches ' mythical leader who caused Labyrinthia 's devastating Legendary Fire millenia ago. Layton and Luke discover Phoenix and Maya, having been brainwashed into thinking they are bakers. When Espella is accused of witchcraft, she calls on Phoenix to defend her; he successfully disproves the charges, and he and Maya overcome their brainwashing.
As the four continue to investigate, Layton is attacked by a witch and turned into a gold statue. Maya is accused of the attack and the murder of alchemist Newton Belduke, but Phoenix proves that Belduke committed suicide and Maya did not attack Layton. He also learns that Espella is the Storyteller 's daughter. Belduke 's butler is outed as a witch; Espella confesses to being Bezella so she will not be executed. Maya rescues Espella, only to be apparently executed in her place, while Phoenix, Luke, and Espella escape.
The unharmed Layton and Maya awaken in a forest outside town, and discover a settlement populated by Shades, hooded worshipers of the Great Witch. The two discover underground ruins, where they regroup with Phoenix and his companions. The five discover the remnants of an ancient civilization that sealed a Bell of Ruin after it caused a disaster. The discovery causes Espella to suddenly have visions of the Legendary Fire, declare herself to be Bezella, and flee. When the group returns to town, Bezella appears and seemingly kills the Storyteller with a colossal fire dragon. Espella is arrested and charged with the murder, and Darklaw personally prosecutes the case. Layton and Luke depart for the Storyteller 's Tower to investigate, finding him alive and well at the tower 's summit. Layton realizes that the Storyteller 's story is being sabotaged by outside forces. Meanwhile, Phoenix deduces that Darklaw herself intended to frame Espella. Layton returns and assumes the role of prosecutor so Darklaw can testify. Over the course of this final trial, Espella, Darklaw, and the Storyteller all take the stand.
The Storyteller 's real name is revealed as Arthur Cantabella. He explains that Labyrinthia is an artificial research facility designed to test the human effects of a mind - controlling substance found in the groundwater that causes anyone who drinks it to lose consciousness at the sound of silver being struck, and all of its inhabitants are test subjects who volunteered to have their memories wiped so they could start new lives. The Legendary Fire occurred when the Bell of Ruin caused the townspeople to simultaneously fall unconscious as a result of these chemicals and the town 's fires got out of control. Believing herself responsible for ringing the bell, Espella became obsessed with the idea that she was possessed by the mythical Bezella, and Cantabella created Labyrinthia 's witches and mythology to counteract Espella 's condition. He had the Shades create the illusions of magic and indoctrinate anyone "killed '' as a result of witchcraft or the Witch Trials into their number. Belduke and Darklaw were both in on the project, and Belduke killed himself due to accumulated guilt over the long - term deception. Darklaw is revealed to be Belduke 's daughter and Espella 's childhood friend Eve, who blamed Cantabella for her father 's suicide; she lured Layton into Labyrinthia and sabotaged the story to exact revenge on him, and was forced to include Phoenix when he unwittingly got involved. Phoenix and Layton deduce that she was the one who rang the bell, and repressed the event afterwards.
Eve reconciles with Cantabella and Espella, who finally recovers from her trauma, and Cantabella concludes the Labyrinthia project and lifts the hypnosis. The townspeople decide to stay in Labyrinthia, and Phoenix, Layton, Maya, and Luke all return to the English mainland. Afterwards, Phoenix and Maya return to tackling their usual trials in Los Angeles, while Layton and Luke continue their puzzle - solving adventures in London.
The game was officially announced at the Level - 5 Vision 2010 press conference on October 19, 2010. The game was originally an idea that Akihiro Hino, CEO of Level - 5, came up with and a project that he himself proposed to Capcom, sometime after some initial development work had been completed on the project. Jun Suzuki, the producer for the Layton series, noted that Hino was a huge fan of the Ace Attorney series and even had challenged Suzuki to "produce something on par with Ace Attorney '' while developing the Layton games. The idea came as a surprise to Shu Takumi, series designer for the Ace Attorney series. Keiji Inafune, head of Capcom 's R&D Management Group, was "80 per cent certain '' that Takumi would refuse the idea. However, according to Inafune, Hino was able convince Takumi to accept the idea, giving him creative control as the main scenario writer for the project, although Takumi was not in charge of the script. The game features animated cutscenes produced by Bones.
Inafune stated the game is a true collaboration between the two companies jointly sharing in the effort, as opposed to the licensing of characters by one company; he felt that "we wanted to create a great history, which would have been impossible if both parties were not fully involved ''. Hino recognized that fans of both series would "want to see a showdown '' between the lead characters as well as sections where the two "join hands and take on a really big challenge ''. Both Level - 5 and Capcom are contributing towards the game 's development, though Capcom is specifically handling the visual design while Level - 5 will publish the game. The artwork style used is a mix between the detailed visuals from the Ace Attorney series and the flatter cartoons from the Layton games; the mixed style is a result of a drawn - out trial - and - error process to figure out how best to mix the two conflicting styles. The game will support the 3D effects on the Nintendo 3DS console; though Level - 5 's developers have already worked with this feature in the release of Professor Layton and the Miracle Mask in 2011, this will be the first Ace Attorney game to support that feature. Takumi was initially hesitant of this feature, but has since come to appreciate it, realizing that the 3D visuals "(let) us present the action from different angles and really (expand) the freedom of expression we have '' with the courtroom parts of the game.
The game was first hinted at as a crossover between Capcom and Level - 5 by Inafune, who was talking to Japanese business magazine Diamond prior to the Tokyo Game Show 2010, where he mentioned that he had great respect for Akihiro Hino, the CEO of Level - 5. On September 25, 2010 the game was outed on Twitter when Jiro Ishii of Level - 5 accidentally tweeted to Jin Fujisawa of Square Enix, "Huh? Oh, Gyakuten XX. I 'm making it, with Mr. Takumi! '' in Japanese. This led to rampant speculation of a new Ace Attorney game being developed by Level - 5, similar to how new Capcom games from established franchises are being developed externally, such as DmC: Devil May Cry being developed by British developer Ninja Theory. The mistake was quickly covered up by Jiro Ishii who tweeted later that day that, "A misunderstanding seems to be spreading, so let me say that I 'm currently working only on Time Travelers. '' Yo Oizumi and Maki Horikita, who voiced Professor Layton and Luke in previous games reprise their roles, whilst Phoenix and Maya are voiced by Hiroki Narimiya and Mirei Kiritani, who also played their roles in the Gyakuten Saiban live action film.
The game had originally only been announced for release in Japan, with Capcom gauging interest from the community over whether or not to localize it for other territories. In July 2011, Level - 5 International America Inc. conducted a Facebook poll in which fans were asked what currently Japan - only Level - 5 game they had the most interest in. Professor Layton Vs. Ace Attorney ultimately won the most votes, with over 6,000. Although the game had yet to be officially announced for release outside Japan, an English - language press release from Capcom at Tokyo Game Show 2011 hinted as such. Journalists had also noted the game 's listing on various Western online retailer, further suggesting a release outside Japan. Level - 5 's CEO Akihiro Hino had earlier stated that Professor Layton vs. Ace Attorney will be released in North America and Europe by its international studio in 2013, however a more recent statement from Level 5 following its Japanese release asserted that a Western release had not been confirmed or announced.
During Japan Expo 2013 in France, when asked about a localization of the game, Level - 5 CEO Akihiro Hino said that "something was in the works '', but that he could n't talk about it at the time. Level - 5 International America posted about it on their Facebook page later the same day. A release for North America and Europe was finally confirmed on Nintendo 's Nintendo Direct presentation on August 7, 2013, slated for release in 2014. Due to the fact the North American release fully retains the European localisation as is, this is the first Professor Layton game in the region that features Maria Darling 's voice as Luke Triton, instead of Lani Minella as in previous games.
The soundtrack to the game was a collaborative effort between Professor Layton series ' composer Tomohito Nishiura and newcomer Yasumasa Kitagawa -- both of them, aside from composing new tracks, arranged music from previous installments of both franchises, with Kitagawa arranging some compositions from Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney composer Masakazu Sugimori. Nishiura and Kitagawa arranged and orchestrated the music with the help of Yumiko Hashizume and Norihito Sumitomo; whom had both previously worked on the Professor Layton series. Professor Layton vs. Ace Attorney contains re-orchestrated versions of various tracks from both series ' games, as well as newly composed pieces. While the arranged pieces were used mostly with gameplay, the animated cutscenes were accompanied by more cinematic orchestral music. All orchestral pieces were performed by Layton Grand Caravan Orchestra.
Awarding it a score of 9 out of ten, Oliver Jia of Game-OST.com praised the album as "the soundtrack that fans of both series have been wanting for years. '' Luna Lee of RPGFan Music similarly responded favorably to the soundtrack, but criticized the tracks for being, "segregated into two camps and (having) few overlaps with one another. ''
Japanese pre-orders of the game included a special bonus soundtrack containing five musical tracks and a celluloid film strip containing select animation cels. The entire soundtrack was officially released on a 3 - disc set as Layton Kyouju VS Gyakuten Saiban Mahou Ongaku Taizen (lit. Professor Layton vs. Gyakuten Saiban Magical Mystery Music) on April 10, 2013. The first disc contains all Professor Layton related tracks, the second disc contains all Ace Attorney related tracks, and the third disc contains the music used during the cinematic cutscenes throughout the game.
Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney received "favorable '' reviews according to video game review aggregator Metacritic. Chris Kohler of Wired, in playing the Japanese version, felt the game was a missed opportunity for the crossover; while he thought the gameplay mechanics and the tweaks worked well with complementary styles, he noted that only the two main cast members from each series were brought into the game, and that the game relied on new and what he considered uninteresting characters to flesh out the story.
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when do tony and ziva fall in love | Tony DiNozzo and Ziva David - wikipedia
Tony DiNozzo and Ziva David are fictional characters from the American police procedural drama NCIS. Tony, an original character, is portrayed by Michael Weatherly, and Ziva, who first appeared in the third season, is portrayed by Cote de Pablo. Frequently referred to by the portmanteau "Tiva '' (for Tony and Ziva), the characters ' flirtation and the idea of them eventually beginning a relationship became a subject of interest among viewers, and by 2010, TV Guide reported that "many fans have become obsessed with the romantic tension between Weatherly 's character and co-worker Ziva ''. Focus and media coverage on the pair escalated over the years, particularly after NCIS became the most watched television series in America during its tenth season.
The characters were initially scripted as having a "cat and mouse '' relationship, something that continues into the later seasons. The pairing develops at a slow pace throughout the series and is dealt a number of obstacles. This includes Tony 's "commitment phobias '', Ziva 's trust issues, a series of other love interests, and Ziva being taken captive and presumed dead between Seasons 6 and 7.
In the season 13 finale, Ziva is killed by a mortar attack arranged by former CIA Agent Trent Kort, and Tony learns that he and Ziva have a daughter, who she named after her sister, Tali. These events drive Tony to leave NCIS to care for their daughter.
Michael Weatherly was cast for the role of Anthony "Tony '' DiNozzo in 2003 and appeared in every episode of the show 's first 13 seasons. The character is portrayed as "complex '': he is a former Baltimore homicide detective with a "heroic spirit '' as well as a "total dinosaur in terms of sexual politics ''.
In the second season finale, NCIS series regular Caitlin Todd was killed off after Sasha Alexander, her portrayer, decided to permanently leave the show. Shortly afterwards, series creator Donald P. Bellisario voiced intentions to replace Todd with another female lead, whom he stated would be "someone foreign who brings a whole new attitude ''. He expressed hopes that the new character would be drastically different from Todd, who was "kind of uptight ''.
One aspect Bellisario wanted to change was the way the character would interact with Tony. Though Tony and Kate had a "wonderful dynamic '', he ultimately thought that "(she) treated (him) like a big brother '' and decided "to bring in a character that causes Tony to have to sit back and not quite be able to handle her ''.
Cote de Pablo, who was one of the last to audition, was set to perform opposite Michael Weatherly to test for chemistry. Weatherly improvised during the audition by brushing her hair back and commenting, "You remind me of Salma Hayek. '' De Pablo, who was initially upset by the departure from the script, stayed in character and "dismissed him completely ''. She later said in an interview, "He totally did it with the other (actresses). One other girl sort of flirted back with him, and she was sort of open. Which is what actors do! They 're sort of open. But I got lucky and got the part because I responded the way they felt was right. ''
According to Bellisario, CBS chief executive Leslie Moonves "took one look at her and said, Wow! '' Co-executive producer Charles Floyd Johnson commented, "When you get actors who really listen and respond organically in the moment to what they 're hearing, sometimes magic happens. They really seemed to get that immediately, and that does n't always happen. ''
Producers eventually decided to make de Pablo 's character, who was given "the arresting name of Ziva David '', an Israeli agent. Bellisario had previously discussed possibly scripting her as European or Australian. She is introduced as having a soldier mentality and as "(someone) who was comfortable in her own sexuality and used to working with men on an equal footing ''.
Tony and Ziva first meet in the "Kill Ari '' two - part story arc at the beginning of Season 3 during the manhunt for Ari Haswari, Kate 's killer and Ziva 's half - brother. Michael Weatherly and Cote de Pablo both point to "Under Covers '', the eighth episode of that season, as the catalyst for the flirtation between the characters. The episode involves Tony and Ziva being sent undercover as a married couple, an assignment that requires them to simulate sexual relations in order to solidify their cover. De Pablo commented, "Michael and I talked about all of those scenes right before we did them. We had a totally different way of looking at it. In our minds, we thought the characters were n't faking anything. They just got carried away. Then all of the sudden after that, they saw each other in a different light. '' Weatherly discussed the creation of the "Under Covers '' scenario:
"This episode was so much fun to shoot. Cote de Pablo, who plays Ziva, came to me right before we were shooting the first scene where we kissed, and said, ' I 've never kissed anyone on camera before. ' I was expecting this timid little bird kiss, like a little peck, but she was like a lioness -- she practically ate my head off! This is where TIVA (Tony + Ziva) started. We were told to really have fun with it, they wanted a sexy thing happening, and Cote delivered. I was just sort of along for the ride. And let 's be honest, three out of the four letters in ' TIVA ' are from Ziva, so what is the ' T ' then? The crucible, is it the cross? I do n't think so. ''
At the time, Bellisario said that he "kind of (likes) what 's going on now '' and that it was unlikely that the relationship would be taken further any time in the immediate future. De Pablo agreed, saying, "I would think if the characters get together, the whole mystery would be done. I think it will be a lot more fun to play the tension. '' She elaborated in another interview, "My character has sort of this understated flirtation with Michael 's character, Tony. She gets jealous, but I think she would never admit it or hook up with someone in the workplace. He scares her to death. He is the epitome of the American man and all of the things that come out of his mouth are brutally stupid. ''
Tony is renowned for his juvenile sense of humor and "commitment phobias '' while Ziva is characterized as "a tease '' early on, a factor that de Pablo enjoyed playing "because (she 's) so not that in real life ''. Some aspects of Ziva 's personality disturb him, such as the fact that she sleeps with a gun in her hand and snores very loudly. However, as co-workers, they respect each other despite their frequent exchange of sarcastic remarks. Both have had a string of failed romances.
Team leader Gibbs (Mark Harmon) resigns in Hiatus (Part II), the third season finale, and appoints Tony as his replacement. During the 2006 summer break, it was reported that Ziva would fall under suspicion of being a spy in the fall premiere, and in the opening episode, "Shalom '', she is framed by the Iranian government for the murder of a terrorist in FBI custody and the two agents guarding him. When she initially goes to the Israeli embassy to report their deaths, which she witnessed, Mossad Officer Michael Bashan asks her directly, "Did you or did you not sleep with him? '' In response to her confusion, Bashan tells her that he knows that Tony has been visiting her apartment at least once a week for the past three months and that Mossad officers have been spying on her, evidently on orders from her father, Mossad Director Eli David.
Throughout the episode, Tony vigorously defends Ziva 's innocence to the FBI, as well as berating any agent who dares question her loyalty when her car is found at a bombing in downtown Georgetown. She is eventually cleared of all wrongdoing. Though Ziva never addresses Bashan 's accusation and her relationship with Tony is left undefined, there is no overt romantic connection in subsequent episodes.
Shortly afterwards, Tony begins dating Jeanne Benoit (Scottie Thompson) and is shown to be on the verge of a serious commitment for the first time within the series. His romance with Jeanne continues to progress throughout the year, and he remains tight - lipped about it when his colleagues notice the change in his behavior. When questioned about the effects this would have on Tony and Ziva 's relationship, de Pablo commented, "Am I just being jealous? I do n't know. I still love him very much, but I 've sort of thrown away that possibility because I think he 's really struggling with some immense feelings for somebody else. '' In an interview with Chicago Tribune, she clarified that Ziva "does have feelings for DiNozzo, '' but that she was uncertain that this would be addressed.
In the Season 4 finale, "Angel of Death '', it is made apparent that Tony and Jeanne 's relationship was orchestrated by NCIS Director Jenny Shepard (Lauren Holly) in hopes of catching Jeanne 's father, an arms dealer, though Tony had fallen in love while on assignment. Jeanne breaks it off following this revelation, and their storyline is ultimately given closure in the fifth season episode "Internal Affairs ''.
Bellisario stepped down as executive producer in May 2007 after series star Mark Harmon threatened to walk due to alleged "overly long production days '', and co-executive producer Charles Floyd Johnson and head writer Shane Brennan took over afterwards.
Following the fatal shooting of Director Shepard in the fifth season finale, the NCIS team is disbanded by the new Director Vance: McGee is sent to cyber crimes, Ziva is returned to Israel, and Tony is deployed on an aircraft carrier.
Season 6 focuses more on Ziva and Tony, but leaves their relationship undefined. Gibbs manages to have Ziva and McGee transferred back to the team in the premiere, but Tony is still acting as agent afloat on the USS Seahawk. In the following episode, Ziva accompanies Gibbs onto the Seahawk as part of a murder investigation and notices that Tony has pictures of her in a bikini pinned up in his room. After the investigation is closed, his deployment is ended prematurely and he is allowed to return to the team in the conclusion of the episode.
As the season progresses, Ziva seems to have become involved with someone while in Israel but refuses to discuss it. In "Nine Lives '', after she plans a visit to Israel, Tony looks through her desk and finds a picture of an unidentified man (Merik Tadros). Before she leaves, he tells her to have a good trip ("Nisiya Tova '') in Hebrew, demonstrating that he had at least made some effort to learn that phrase. In "Cloak '', Ziva disobeys Gibbs ' orders to not engage during a war game, attacking the guards to defend Tony. Later they both say that they are "tired of pretending '': Tony about the politics in the hunt for the mole within the team, which required the team to withhold information from each other, and Ziva for reasons undisclosed.
Producers and writers for NCIS were initially divided over how to proceed with Tadros ' character. In January 2009, some were suggesting possibly making him a relative of Ziva, an idea Cote de Pablo opposed. It was also proposed that Ziva would "stop toying with (Tony) completely '' which would "drive him even more insane ''. De Pablo relayed, "We 're going to play around with the idea that it could possibly be real love, and see how (he) deals with it. '' In March, executive producer Shane Brennan stated, "You 've got what you might want to call a triangle. It 's a triangle with very, very pointy ends. Someone 's going to get hurt. '' He continued, "Something tragic will happen to Tony. Something tragic will happen to Ziva as well. ''
This comes to a head when Tadros appeared again portraying Mossad Officer Michael Rivkin in the "Legend '' two - part, which also served as a backdoor pilot for the show 's spin - off, NCIS: Los Angeles. He arrives in the United States during the NCIS team 's hunt for members of a terrorist sleeper cell. Working independently, he draws ire from the agency when he kills suspects rather than bringing them in for questioning. Tony begins to doubt Ziva 's loyalty to NCIS when she continues to defend Rivkin, and it becomes apparent by the end of Part II that she is involved in a relationship with him as the two are seen lying together in bed in the last few seconds of "Legend Part 2 ''.
More details were released in the days preceding the finale. Michael Weatherly disclosed, "The way this season is ending, and what 's gon na happen with Ziva and Tony and Rivkin, it 's pretty massive and explosive, and it 's gon na span four episodes. '' De Pablo added, "We could not be farther away from kissing. I 'm telling you, it 's not ' I hate you ' (kissing sound) anger; it 's ' I want to kill you ' anger. Like, ' I want to shoot you in the head, but instead I 'm gon na put my gun on your knee ' anger.... He does something to her that is almost unforgivable. However, the reason he does it is because he truly believes it 's going to help her. Little does he know that he almost kills her. '' When asked how the storyline would affect Tony and Ziva 's interactions, Tadros replied, "I think that love can hurt and heal. In this case, we 'll have opportunity to see both of those things take place. I do n't want to say too much, but... I think it will only make their connection stronger, as they learn a lot more about each other. ''
Viewers speculated that Ziva 's romance with Rivkin was "arranged '' and something that she was "trapped '' in. Tadros responded:
"Well, with the underworld of espionage, you would never really know. They could easily have been paired and had to be in love and then had to learn to love each other... The way I 've always approached it is that Rivkin loves Ziva. They 've always wanted to add some suspense and mystery to all of it, but I would always say to the directors, ' How could I not love her? ' But he also has a job to do. And so does she. (Executive producer) Shane (Brennan) is a genius, so it 's been a great pleasure to just go along for this ride. I 'm excited to watch the finale (airing May 19) myself just to see how it all plays out! ''
Tony confronts a drunken Rivkin at Ziva 's apartment in the episode directly prior to the finale. When he attempts to arrest Rivkin for killing the leader of the terrorist cell in Los Angeles and also an ICE agent (which Mossad leader Eli David later reveals was an accident), a fight breaks out between the two men which eventually results in Tony being forced to shoot Rivkin in self - defense due to the fact that Rivkin is about to stab Tony with a piece of glass. Though he had acted in self - defense, Rivkin later succumbs to his injuries and dies with his death having serious repercussions for Tony and Ziva 's relationship, culminating in Ziva leaving NCIS to resume working for Mossad in the finale, "Aliyah ''. She is quickly assigned to take Rivkin 's place on a mission to take down a terrorist in Somalia. In the closing moments of the episode, she is shown to have been captured and tortured nearly beyond recognition by a terrorist demanding information on NCIS.
Brennan reportedly kept the cliffhanger ending a secret from most of the cast, saying that "those pages were only in one copy of the script ''. Shortly after "Aliyah '' aired, it was assured that Ziva "will be back next season. But she 'll be a changed woman. ''
During the summer hiatus, de Pablo admitted that she was to a point tired of the producers teasing the pairing and said, "I wish the writers would just make it easy for us and just say, ' You know, go into the elevator and kiss passionately. ' Or, (have us say) say, ' I do n't like you. ' '' She added, "But I 've always thought that, deep inside, Tony loves Ziva and Ziva loves Tony, but she 's almost ashamed of saying it because he 's so stupid. In the best of ways. That personal that he comes out with, that frat boy thing -- he 's hiding constantly from the truth. It 's just a big facade and she sees right through it. ''
In Season 7 premiere "Truth or Consequences '', Tony initiates a mission of revenge against the terrorists believed to be responsible for Ziva 's (presumed) death, traveling to Somalia along with Gibbs and McGee to avenge her murder. After intentionally allowing himself to be captured and interrogated, he finds that Ziva is actually still alive, having been held hostage the entire time. Upon being brought into the room to talk to him, she is shown to have been severely beaten and very weak as well as unsure of how to react at Tony 's presence. Ziva asks why Tony is in Somalia, saying that he should not have come. Tony, under truth serum, first deflects. When Ziva asks again, he replies, "I could n't live without you, I guess. ''
Eventually, Gibbs kills their captor with a long range head shot, allowing them to return safely to the US. In the following episode, there seems to be a great degree of awkwardness between them, which is ultimately resolved when Ziva confronts Tony in the men 's room and thanks him, saying he would "always have her back '' before kissing him on the cheek.
Though Tony and Ziva 's "will they / wo n't they '' tension appeared to progress during the first few episodes of the seventh season, Cote de Pablo had already stated that it would not be resolved in the immediate future. Michael Weatherly opined that putting the two characters together at the time would be "Kryptonite '' due to Ziva 's assassin background.
Ziva resigns from Mossad in the fourth episode of the season, "Good Cop, Bad Cop '', and applies to become a full - fledged NCIS agent, effectively becoming the "probie '' on the team.
In December 2009, TV Fanatic announced that "the January 26 episode finds Tony and Ziva hopping a plane to the most romantic city on earth. The city of light, and of love. That 's right, Ziva and Tony in Paris! You would n't believe it, but as if that were n't enough, their French hotel totally screws up the reservation and the two bad - ass agents end up... gulp... sharing a room together. '' Executive producer Shane Brennan disclosed, "There will be a realization that the spark is still there. It does n't mean that something is going to be resolved, but it does mean that the journey may have started again. It 's a long road back. When you think about what they went through, for them to resolve what happened and come to terms with that, it 's a long road back. ''
During the episode, Ziva tells a witness that she and Tony shared a hotel room, and that she took the couch so she would n't have to hear Tony whine about his back. Tony in turn tells McGee that he took the couch. Ziva asks him why he lied and he returns the question. There was much speculation on the part of fans about whether the characters might have shared more than was divulged, but Weatherly said in response, "The truth of what happened is probably something that can be discovered inside the episode itself. If you really listen to what they say, I think it is pretty clear what happened: Nothing. '' He clarified that Tony and Ziva had "a tremendous amount of fun '' in Paris and that, "Ziva had more fun with Tony than she thought she was going to have, which maybe shocked her a little bit, because she was so angry at him after he killed her boyfriend last year. '' Cote de Pablo added, "Michael has his views of what happened in Paris. I have mine. We have n't discussed it. But all I can say is it was good. '' Shortly afterwards, Glenn Diaz from BuddyTV reported that the cast was divided on whether or not the characters should be allowed to progress beyond "unfulfilled sexual tension ''.
In the following episode "Masquerade '', Ziva mentions her time in Somalia, but refuses to give Tony much more than a few terse statements about it, though he was obviously willing to listen to her. In the final episode of Season 7, "Rule Fifty - One '', Tony misses Ziva 's citizenship ceremony due to an unexpected assignment from Director Vance, despite his personal promises to her that he would be there.
Executive producer Shane Brennan left NCIS to focus on the spinoff, NCIS: Los Angeles, and was replaced by Gary Glasberg in 2011.
The series introduced new love interests for both Tony and Ziva in the latter half of Season 8, and in February 2011, Michael Ausiello from TVLine announced that Ziva 's boyfriend "Ray arrives in this season 's 20th episode and is described as a handsome, charming, intelligent federal agent of Mediterranean or Latin American descent. He has a strong, nice - guy demeanor but -- I 'm quoting from the casting notice here -- ' there 's a hint of a mystery behind his smile. ' '' A week later, Glasberg described the character as a "fun, smart, exciting addition '', and Michael Weatherly commented, "I think it 's going to be interesting. Tony cares about Ziva and wants to make sure she 's not mixed up with the wrong kind of guy, so he 's going to be watchful and protective of her. '' After Enrique Murciano was cast for the role of Ray Cruz, Cote de Pablo said, "You never know if you 're gon na have chemistry, and since I had no say in the casting, I was sort of waiting to meet this famous Enrique Murciano. '' She went on to describe his appearance in the show: "There 's a lovely scene in which he basically brings his interpretation of ' fancy ' candlelight dinner, which takes place by the vending machines at NCIS. It 's really funny. There 's kissing involved. We kept it light and we kept it fun, and we kept it like two people who are genuinely in to each other and wanting to move things along. It 's about what 's going on between the lines. These two people are touchy - feely, and that 's different for Ziva. ''
The character of Erica Jane "EJ '' Barrett (Sarah Jane Morris) was set to be introduced in the episode "One Last Score '', which also marked Weatherly 's directing debut. Weatherly divulged, "With the appearance of EJ, suddenly there 's a renewed spirit that Tony has always had in him -- it 's what made him to go Africa and rescue Ziva with McGee. (Sometimes) he acts like a goofball because that 's what people expect, but in this episode he comes away from that place. We 'll see what the audience thinks, but for me, he feels potential and possibility in a way that he has n't for years. EJ is a mirror, so he sees that hope for himself again. '' He added, "She 's the diametric opposite of Ziva -- physically, and in her demeanor, her way of being. She has her eccentricities as well, which makes her adorable to Tony and highly irritating to Ziva. ''
Around the same time, a "major serial killer plot '' was launched that would center on "a murdering psychopath '' called the Port to Port killer. TVLine reported, "this menace will prove to be extremely formidable -- so much so that Gibbs will be forced to expand his team. ''
At the end of EJ 's first episode, she begins a sexual relationship with Tony. She is a team leader, having accepted the assignment in Rota, Spain that Tony had turned down several years prior. Ray, a CIA agent, first appears in "Two - Faced '' after having evidently dated Ziva for several months. Ziva abruptly ends their relationship after learning that he had lied to her directly about his reasoning for being in Washington, D.C. and by omission about his role in the Port to Port killer case.
In the episode "Swan Song '', former NCIS agent Mike Franks is killed by the Port to Port killer, who is identified as Lieutenant Jonas Cobb, and Ziva turns to Tony for comfort while the team is grieving over his death. She is kidnapped by Cobb in the following episode, the Season 8 finale, and Tony shows great concern. When EJ assures him that they will find Ziva, he replies that "it 's just different for some of us ''.
EJ takes an extended leave of absence with the conclusion of the season, ending her affair with Tony. Ziva and Ray repair their relationship somewhat, and he gives her an empty ring box as a "promise '' before leaving for a long - term assignment. Glasberg commented, "Ziva and Ray are a little open - ended at the moment. There is n't any closure to it. We 'll have to see where it leads, but I think he was pretty clear that he has a job to do at the moment, and that 's gon na be the primary focus for him. '' The use of the ring box was criticized by viewers as an "empty gesture ''.
EJ returns for a guest appearance in the Season 9 episode "Housekeeping ''. After a fallout with Tony, she tells him that Ziva respects him and cares about him. He at first deflects but then says, "Surround yourself with people you would give your own life for. '' At the end of the show, he and Ziva have a brief discussion about their relationship but are interrupted when Ray calls her. Ray returns after spending several months on his overseas assignment in the following episode and proposes to Ziva, much to her shock.
Glasberg said that Tony would not openly oppose the possibility of her getting engaged, explaining, "Tony wants Ziva to be happy. He 's protective of her and cares about her and has feelings for her, and, at the end of the day, wants to make sure that she 's safe and happy with the direction of her life. '' Though Ziva accepts Ray 's proposal after some hesitation, she confronts him and breaks off the engagement after realizing that he had killed a woman on American soil while attempting to rectify a failure from overseas.
In the ninth season finale, "Till Death Do Us Part '', a bomb is planted by domestic terrorist Harper Dearing. Tony and Ziva, feeling bad about missing Jimmy and Breena 's wedding, try to cheer each other up by joking about how awful weddings are -- an exchange that begins to take on meaning when they become wistful about "the vow, the ring, the kiss, the ketubah... '' and eloping instead of dealing with all the fuss. Later, when the Navy Yard is seconds from exploding, Ziva refuses to leave the building without Tony. The bomb goes off while they are still in the elevator; Ziva and Tony fall to the ground, with Tony 's arm around her waist, and their free hands clasped tightly as the elevator appears to crash.
Glasberg stated that the Season 10 premiere would "pick up with them in that elevator '' and that there would be "some conversations ''. When questioned about the framing of the situation, he replied that their time trapped in the elevator would be the "trajectory '' for a more in depth look at the relationship later in the tenth season. He added, "The consensus was to do that more of that this season, to peel back some layers and find little moments -- and (ever since then) we 're finding opportunities I think the Tony and Ziva fans will really enjoy. ''
The tenth season was promoted as "Season X '', and Michael Weatherly dubbed it the "Year of Tiva '', saying, "This is the year. Trust me. This is the year. '' Cote de Pablo was more apprehensive and said, "I think that is maybe Michael and his wishful thinking. I 've had years in which I thought, ' Oh my God, this a Tiva year, ' and there have been years he thought were Tiva years.... The truth is, we have yet to find out where that storyline is going to go. I think they 're toying around with us like they always do. ''
However, shortly after the season began, TV Guide announced, "In a November episode of CBS ' NCIS, the origins of Tony 's fascination with cinema will be explained -- and strengthen his bond with Ziva. '' This involved him finding an old camera with photographs of his mother and later showing them to Ziva. Weatherly stated, "She was really the beginning of his love for movies and why that is such a deep, penetrating part of who he is. The last gift she gave him was to turn to the movies as a moral compass. '' De Pablo divulged, "We end up going deeper with each other than ever before. It 's a profound, soft, vulnerable moment. ''
This was followed by "Ziva reminiscing with her partner about her dead sister (Tali) ''. In "Shell Shock (Part II) '', she attempts to purchase tickets to the opera but is unable due to it being sold out. Tony, believing her to be going on a date, badgers her until she admits that she goes to the opera every year on her deceased sister 's birthday, as Tali had wanted to be a singer. Unable to obtain tickets for her himself, he makes a CD of opera music and gives it to her to listen to.
In the eleventh episode of Season 10 and the first of 2013, "Shabbat Shalom '', Ziva 's estranged father Eli is killed in a house attack, along with Director Vance 's wife Jackie. Glasberg discussed the ramifications that would be shown in the following episode, "Shiva '', saying, "There 's a part of Ziva that 's wounded, and broken, and Tony is there for her -- as a friend, and as a coworker... We end up back in Tony 's apartment, and there 's some really lovely, emotional stuff that happens. '' He added, "You 'll really see Tony be there for her and support her and emotionally be strong for her. It 's all the things I hope that people who enjoy the Tony - Ziva relationship will look for. '' Throughout the episode, Tony attempts to comfort Ziva, taking her to his apartment as a precaution against the possibility of her being the next target and bringing her long - time Israeli friend Shmeil Pinkhas to stay with them. Near the end of the episode, he comes to see her off as she prepares to fly to Israel for Eli 's funeral and assures her in Hebrew that she is not alone.
When asked if the dynamic between the characters would continue to progress, de Pablo remarked, "I have a feeling that they 're going to want to play with that (relationship) a little bit more and see where that goes. I think they 're always testing that relationship and they 're always throwing things at it to see how far they can take (it). It 's already a very complex relationship. They 're very close; they 're very good friends; and they trust each other. So, I think the complexity of it all can go further and I think they 're going to explore more. '' Pauley Perrette, who portrays series regular Abby Sciuto, openly opposed it and said, "I do n't want any of our cast members to be in relationships on screen at all. I like things the way they are, so I 'm not in (to) that. I 'm petitioning against it. ''
"Berlin '', set later in the season, features Tony and Ziva departing for Germany to track down Ilan Bodnar, her father 's killer. Before the episode aired, Glasberg disclosed that they would share a slow dance while there, resulting in "a very personal moment of vulnerability where her guard goes down and she lets herself melt into his arms ''. De Pablo added, "You also see (Tony) as a man Teddy Bear -- like, a very sweet but manly man, a guy who 's really taking care of a situation and really wants to make it better, a guy who 's not looking for the joke or is uncomfortable staring at a woman or reaching out to hold her hand. '' This is highlighted in the closing scenes as the two of them drive home from the airport, and Ziva explains her animosity towards Orli Elbaz (Marina Sirtis), the new director of Mossad: Elbaz was the reason her parents split up. She tells Tony, "If it were not for Orli, things would be different. I would be a different person. '' Tony then takes her hand, and Ziva intertwines their fingers together. Tony replies, "Then I should catch her before she leaves, you know, and thank her. '' The episode ends with a cliffhanger when an unknown vehicle crashes into them, leaving their fates unknown.
De Pablo described the filming of the dancing scene:
"Michael and I crafted that scene. We felt the moment was very intimate, and we thought that just looking at each other was enough. And the director kept saying, ' No, I want the moment to be longer, ' and we had to sort of fight the director. Finally, I had to say, ' Listen, if there was any more time of staring into each other 's eyes, it would be like, cut to a hotel room. '... so finding the length of the moment became a topic. We certainly enjoyed it. I told (Tony) -- without really realizing what I was saying and then I realized it came out the wrong way -- I said, ' God, I felt a little drunk when I was staring at you. ' I 'm not sure if it was because by the end of the day we were both so tired or if it was because it was just such a magical moment. ''
They both survive the crash, and despite being urged to back off by various other characters, Ziva ultimately kills Bodnar in the following episode. This leads to DOD investigator Richard Parsons (Colin Hanks) initiating a witch hunt against the team and Ziva being aggressively interrogated about her conduct in the aftermath of her father 's death. When he accuses her of sleeping with an old friend while in Israel, Tony, who had been viewing the interrogation from the observation room, abruptly ends it and forces Parsons out. When he approaches Ziva about the accusation, she admits that it was a "moment of weakness '' because she felt alone. This obviously hurts Tony, and he says, "My Hebrew must not be as good as I thought because I could 've sworn when I dropped you off at the airport, I told you you are not alone ''. Ziva recalls this, and Tony says that they must have different interpretations before walking away. Despite this, he later confronts Parsons, demanding that Ziva be left alone and calling her his best friend.
In the following episode, the Season 10 finale, tension exists until Ziva privately tells Tony that she is sorry if she hurt him during the ordeal, that she cares too much about their friendship, and that she does not want things to be awkward between them. He kisses her forehead and assures her that "nothing is awkward between friends ''.
Despite concerns to the contrary, Glasberg denied that Ziva "friend zoned '' Tony in the finale. He explained, "It might not satisfy everyone out there, but I think we 're getting there -- she even reaches up with her hand and puts it very gently, and in a lovely way, on his shoulder before that kiss happens. I think there are gestures being made that have definitely advanced from where we were a year ago. '' In response to complaints about the pace of the development, he said, "There are a lot of fans who would like to see that story advance much faster than we 're doing it, but I firmly believe a little goes a long way and there are ways to tease it and to flirt that are just as significant and just as meaningful. '' He maintained, "We made huge strides. Their relationship has evolved, has changed. They 're a little more open with each other and a little more emotionally connected, certainly more than where we were at the beginning of the season. (The couple 's closeness) may not be the big leap that a lot of people would like it to be, but I also feel like we 're enjoying the pace at which this is happening. That 's not to say we 're not headed in the direction everyone would like to go, but I think we 're getting there. It 's very complicated when two agents who are working together get into a relationship, and that 's something that (Tony and Ziva) would be very conscious of. So I think they would tread lightly, which is why, in theory, we 're treading lightly and being very careful about the steps that we take. ''
On July 10, 2013 it was announced that Cote De Pablo would not be returning to her role as Ziva David for the upcoming 11th season. De Pablo stated "I 've had 8 great years with NCIS and Ziva David. I have huge respect and affection for Mark, Gary, Michael, David, Rocky, Pauley, Brian, Sean, all of the team and CBS. I look forward to finishing Ziva 's story. '' However it was announced that Cote De Pablo would return for the beginning of season 11 to wrap up Ziva 's storyline. Show runner Gary Glasberg stated in an interview with EW that: "The amazing resolution you 're going to see is pretty damn heart - wrenching and we 're incredibly proud of it, '' he writes. "Prepare yourselves for a moment in television history. Images that will end up in the archives. I could n't be happier with how my NCIS family stepped up and did some of the most emotional work we 've ever done. ''
On September 24, 2013 the episode "Whiskey Tango Foxtrot '' aired and on October 1, 2013 "Past, Present, and Future '' aired, opening with the introduction of a new threat: Benham Parsa and also the Brotherhood of Doubt.
In the episode, "Past, Present and Future '', Tony heads to Israel to search for Ziva but eventually finds no sign of her, although a few months later he finds her in hiding at the very farmhouse where she was born, Ziva having gone to examine herself and her past.
Tony and Ziva share their first on - screen kiss as themselves on the tarmac in Tel - Aviv. However, in 2013, showrunner Gary Glasberg told TVLine the characters had shared another smooch in a previous season, but it did not make the cut. The couple previously kissed in season 3, episode 8 Under Covers during a covert operation as married assassins.
Despite Tony 's efforts to persuade Ziva to return to the United States and NCIS, Ziva instead chooses to stay in Israel, with Tony reluctantly returning to the United States although Tony manages to find Ziva 's Star of David necklace in his jacket pocket.
In the season 13 finale "Family First, '' after learning of Ziva 's death in the bombing of her Israel home caused by Trent Kort, the NCIS crew mourn her. Tony is then introduced to his almost two - year - old daughter, Tali. Conflicted, Tony asks Mossad Director Orli Elbaz about Ziva 's motivations for not telling him about Tali. Orli tells him that she wanted to, especially as Tali grew but that she feared he would not be pleased, to which Tony tells her "Then she never knew me at all. '' Later in the episode, Tony finds a picture of him and Ziva in Paris, to which Tali points to each of them, saying "Ima '' and "Abba '' indicating that she knew who he was, her father.
After killing Kort, Tony and Gibbs have a heart to heart, where DiNozzo informs him that he is moving on from NCIS, with his daughter, his family.
Evidently we have a daughter, me and Ziva. She knew me better than I thought. When McGee called, something hit me. I got this feeling, something I 'd never felt before. In that moment, I did n't want Trent Kort dead. All I wanted to do was take care of Tali. Everything she had in her life was gone. Except me. I 'm it. I 'm everything to that little girl now. And I 've never been anybody 's everything before. But that 's it. I 'm done now. I 'm going to take Tali to Israel, look for some answers. Then I 'm going to take her to Paris. Ziva loves Paris. And you got ta believe what you got ta believe. (holds out his right hand as if to offer Gibbs a handshake) I 'd say thank you but it does n't quite cover it, boss.
Speaking of Ziva 's fate, Glasberg stated "Tremendous thought was put into every element of what you saw last night... down to the lines of dialogue, the specific wordage. At the end of the day, I leave it in the hands of our fantastic fans and audience ''.
Over the seasons, Tony and Ziva 's flirtation attracted much media attention, commentary, and praise. Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune wrote that the characters ' "love - hate banter gives the show extra zip '' during Cote de Pablo 's first year on the show. They have been called a "power couple '' by Entertainment Weekly and "one of TV 's hottest couples '' by TV Guide. In May 2009, they were pictured on the cover of TV Guide Magazine and described as "TV 's hottest love - hate relationship ''.
Fondness for the pairing led to a dislike for some of Tony and Ziva 's other love interests on the show; by contrast, EJ, Tony 's ex, became well - received after encouraging him to pursue a relationship with Ziva.
The pairing 's slow progression was discussed by reviewers, and Ariane Lange from BuzzFeed referred to it as "their sexual - tension - ridden not - quite - love affair ''. Some viewers became frustrated with the show 's seeming unwillingness to allow the characters to enter an actual relationship. Ryan expressed sentiment on the matter in 2009: "It 's hard not to enjoy the chemistry between investigators Ziva David (Cote de Pablo) and Tony DiNozzo (Michael Weatherly)... It makes me grind my teeth with frustration that TV writers and producers are so averse to putting will - they - or - wo n't - they couples together. '' Executive producer Gary Glasberg admitted to feeling pressure from the audience to pair them officially.
The couple was not universally accepted among viewers, and a portion of the audience felt that pairing the characters would disrupt the dynamics of the series. Matt Webb Mitovich from TVLine suggested that the dispute among fans over how far "Tiva '' should be taken had left producers in a "no win '' situation, saying, "Quite honestly, I think NCIS and show boss Gary Glasberg face a tremendously difficult juggling act with this (would - be) couple because it is TV 's most watched program, and like a game of Jenga, you ca n't be quite sure which slight move could send things toppling. Is NCIS No. 1 because it metes out exactly 25 milligrams of romance every third episode, and never a bit more? Is there a fear that going all - in with Tiva will soap up the show too much? ''
In 2010, Kate Stroup listed Tony and Ziva among Entertainment Weekly 's "10 ' Will They / Wo n't They ' TV Couples '', saying, "The chemistry is undeniable. '' In 2012, they appeared again in the magazine 's "30 Best ' Will They / Wo n't They? ' TV Couples ''. Similarly, the pair was included in BuddyTV 's compile of "The Top 12 Will - They - or - Wo n't - They Couples of 2012 '' and TV Guide 's top 15 "TV Duos Who Should Do It ''.
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alicia keys love me like you'll never see me again | Like You 'll Never See Me Again - wikipedia
"Like You 'll Never See Me Again '' is a song by American singer Alicia Keys from her third studio album As I Am (2007). Written and produced by Keys and Kerry Brothers, Jr., it was released in November 2007 as the album 's second single. The song was first heard on October 25, 2007 on Atlanta 's V103 WVEE radio station. An official remix of the song featuring rapper Ludacris exists.
Upon its release, the song peaked at number twelve on the Billboard Hot 100 and became Keys ' second consecutive R&B chart - topper, remaining atop the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart for seven weeks. It was ranked number forty - seven on Billboard 's Top Hot 100 Hits of 2008. The song went on to replace "No One '' at number one on the US R&B / Hip - Hop charts. In 2008, the song won two NAACP Image Awards for Outstanding Music Video and Outstanding Song and an ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Music Award for Top R&B / Hip - Hop Song.
In January 2008, it was used in advertisements for the ABC soap opera All My Children, hyping the return of supercouple Jesse Hubbard and Angie Baxter. The song was used once again in the February 15, 2008 episode of the series, when the couple was reunited after twenty years.
"Like You 'll Never See Me Again '' was written and produced by Keys and Kerry Brothers, Jr... Keys explained to MTV News that the song is "about living every moment as if it 's your last. Because if it 's our last time to say, ' I love you, ' then let it be that we did n't forget that. ''
The song received critical acclaim. Nate Chinem from New York Times wrote that the song is "a distant cousin to Prince 's ' Purple Rain '. '' J. Freedom du Lac from Washington Post agreed, writing that "the sexy, Prince - ly track is by far the album 's best track. Rodney Dugue from Spin wrote that the song is a "dreamy lullaby, where she ponders whether she 'll be appreciated after a lover stops calling her name. '' Edna Gundersen from USA Today praised the track, referring to it as an "instant and enchanting classic, where Keys simply dazzles, demonstrating her lock on the future regardless of the industry 's fate. '' Stephanie Merrit from The Observer called it a "sweet, caramel - smooth track. ''
Nick Levine wrote for Digital Spy a very positive review, writing that it is "a smoochy, seductive soul ballad, built around a delicate, Oriental - sounding piano riff, it gives Keys plenty of chance to show off her breathy, Mariah-esque upper register. Best of all, like all Keys ' most impressive moments, its melody has a timeless quality that allows it to transcend its modish R&B production. ''
"Like You 'll Never See Me Again '' debuted at number thirty - seven on the Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs as the Hot Shot debut of the week, jumping to number twenty - two in its second week, number fifteen in its third week, and to then number nine in its fourth. After climbing to number three in its fifth week, the song reached number two in its sixth week, and then rose to number one in its ninth week, beating off Keys ' own song "No One '' -- this made Keys the second artist since the R&B chart began using Nielsen SoundScan data in 1992 to succeed herself at number one, as "Like You 'll Never See Me Again '' jumped from number two to number one and traded places with "No One '', which had ruled the chart for ten weeks. Rapper Nelly accomplished this feat in 2002 with "Hot in Herre '' and "Dilemma ''. The song spent seven weeks atop the chart, after which it remained at number two for six weeks thereafter. As of the charting week of September 13, 2008, "Like You 'll Never See Me Again '' has remained on the chart for forty - five consecutive weeks, all of them inside the top fifty. Billboard ranked it as the most successful song on the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart of 2008. On the Billboard Hot 100, it debuted at number ninety - three, jumped to number forty - five in its second week, and subsequently peaked at number twelve.
"Like You 'll Never See Me Again '' was released on February 25, 2008 in the United Kingdom, peaking at number fifty - three, while "No One '' was a non-mover at number twenty - six. It became her lowest - charting single there so far. In Australia, it debuted and peaked at number seventy - seven on the ARIA Singles Chart, number forty - four on the Physical Singles Chart, and number nineteen on the Urban Singles Chart the week of April 14, 2008.
The video, directed by Diane Martel, features cameos by Common (with whom Keys had previously worked with in the 2007 motion picture Smokin ' Aces) as Keys ' love interest who is critically injured in a motorcycle accident and Keys ' mother Terri Augello as a hospital medic. It tells the story backwards, and the viewer learns that the couple had been arguing. The video premiered on November 13, 2007 on MTV 's Total Request Live and BET 's 106 & Park. It debuted at number two on VH1 's VSpot Top 20 Countdown on February 23, 2008. Alicia described the video for this song as: "heart - wrenching. If your heart does n't feel me, then you are dead! ''.
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who is responsible for synthesizing primers for dna replication what kind of primers are they | Primase - wikipedia
DNA primase is an enzyme involved in the replication of DNA and is a type of RNA polymerase. Primase catalyzes the synthesis of a short RNA (or DNA in some organisms) segment called a primer complementary to a ssDNA template. Primase is of key importance in DNA replication because no known replicative DNA polymerases can initiate the synthesis of a DNA strand without an initial RNA or DNA primer (for temporary DNA elongation). After this elongation the RNA piece is removed by a 5 ' to 3 ' exonuclease and refilled with DNA.
In bacteria, primase binds to the DNA helicase forming a complex called the primosome. Primase is activated by DNA helicase where it then synthesizes a short RNA primer approximately 11 ± 1 nucleotides long, to which new nucleotides can be added by DNA polymerase.
The RNA segments are first synthesized by primase and then elongated by DNA polymerase. Then the DNA polymerase forms a protein complex with two primase subunits to form the alpha DNA Polymerase primase complex. Primase is one of the most error prone and slow polymerases. Primases in organisms such as E. coli, synthesize around 2000 to 3000 primers at the rate of one primer per second. Primase also acts as a halting mechanism to prevent the leading strand from outpacing the lagging strand by halting the progression of the replication fork. The rate determining step in primase is when the first phosphodiester bond is formed between two molecules of RNA. The crystal structure of primase in E. coli with a core containing the DnaG protein was determined in the year 2000. The DnaG and primase complex is cashew shaped and contains three subdomains. The central subdomain forms a toprim fold which is made of a mixture five beta sheets and six alpha helices. The toprim fold is used for binding regulators and metals. The primase uses a phosphotransfer domain for the transfer coordination of metals, which makes it distinct from other polymerases. The side subunits contain a NH2 and COOH terminal made of alpha helixes and beta sheets. The NH2 terminal interacts with a zinc binding domain and COOH - terminal region which interacts with DnaB - ID. The replication mechanisms differ between different bacteria and viruses where the primase covalently link to helicase in viruses such as the T7 bacteriophage. In viruses such as herpes simplex virus (HSV - 1), primase can form complexes with helicase. The primase - helicase complex is used to unwind dsDNA and synthesizes the lagging strand using RNA primers The majority of primers synthesized by primase are two to three nucleotides long.
In addition to priming DNA during replication, primases may have additional functions in the DNA replication process, such as polymerization of DNA or RNA, terminal transfer, translesion synthesis (TLS), non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and may also be involved in restarting stalled replication forks. Primases typically synthesize primers from ribonucleotides (NTPs); however, primases with polymerase capabilities also have an affinity for deoxyribonucleotides (dNTPs). Primases with terminal transferase functionality are capable of adding nucleotides to the 3 ' end of a DNA strand independently of a template. Other enzymes involved in DNA replication, such as helicases, may also exhibit primase activity.
Eukaryote and archaeal primases tend to be more similar to each other, in terms of structure and mechanism, than they are to bacterial primases. The archaea - eukaryotic primase (AEP) superfamily, which most eukaryal and archaeal primases belong to, has recently been redefined as a primase - polymerase family in recognition of the many roles played by enzymes in this family. This classification also emphasizes the broad origins of AEP primases; the superfamily is now recognized as transitioning between RNA and DNA functions. While bacterial primases (DnaG - type) are composed of a single protein unit (a monomer) and synthesize RNA primers, AEP primases are usually composed of two different primase units (a heterodimer) and synthesize two - part primers with both RNA and DNA components.
Eukaryotic primases belong to the AEP superfamily.
Human PrimPol (ccdc111) serves both primase and polymerase functions, like many archaeal primases; exhibits terminal transferase activity in the presence of manganese; and plays a significant role in translesion synthesis and in restarting stalled replication forks. PrimPol is actively recruited to damaged sites through its interaction with RPA, an adapter protein that facilitates DNA replication and repair.
PrimPol has a zinc finger domain similar to that of some viral primases, which is essential for translesion synthesis and primase activity and may regulate primer length. Unlike most primases, PrimPol is uniquely capable of starting DNA chains with dNTPs.
Archaeal primases tend to belong to the AEP superfamily, although some DnaG - like (bacteria - like) primases have been found in archaeal genomes.
PriS, the archaeal primase small subunit, has a role in translesion synthesis (TLS) and can bypass common DNA lesions. Most archaea lack the specialized polymerases that perform TLS in eukaryotes and bacteria. PriS alone preferentially synthesizes strings of DNA; but in combination with PriL, the large subunit, RNA polymerase activity is increased.
In Sulfolobus solfataricus, the primase heterodimer PriSL can act as a primase, polymerase, and terminal transferase. PriSL is thought to initiate primer synthesis with NTPs and then switch to dNTPs. The enzyme can polymerize RNA or DNA chains, with DNA products reaching as long as 7000 nucleotides (7 kb). It is suggested that this dual functionality may be a common feature of archaeal primases.
Archaeal primase PolpTN2, a fusion of domains homologous to PriS and PriL, exhibits both primase and DNA polymerase activity, as well as terminal transferase function. Unlike most primases, PolpTN2 forms primers composed exclusively of dNTPs.
Bacterial primases belong to a superfamily of DnaG - type primases, which are structurally distinct from primases in the AEP superfamily. While functionally similar, the two primase superfamilies evolved independently of each other.
Bacterial LigD, primarily involved in non-homologous end joining repair pathways, is also capable of primase, DNA and RNA polymerase, and terminal transferase activity. DNA polymerization activity can produce chains over 7000 nucleotides (7 kb) in length, while RNA polymerization produces chains up to 1 kb long.
BcMCM is a bacterial multifunctional complex composed of fused helicase and primase domains. The enzyme has both primase and polymerase functions in addition to helicase function.
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what is the minimum number of fleet master chiefs | Master chief petty officer - wikipedia
Master chief petty officer (MCPO) is the ninth, and highest, enlisted rate (pay grade E-9) in the United States Navy and United States Coast Guard, just above senior chief petty officer (SCPO). Master chief petty officers are addressed as "Master Chief (last name) '' in the colloquial and they constitute the top 1.25 % of the enlisted members of the maritime forces.
Prior to 1958, chief petty officer was the highest enlisted rate in both the U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard. This changed on 20 May 1958 with the passage of Public Law 85 - 422, the Military Pay Act of 1958, which established two new enlisted pay grades of E-8 and E-9 in all five branches of the U.S. Armed Forces. In the U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard, the new E-8 pay grade was titled Senior Chief Petty Officer and the new E-9 pay grade as Master Chief Petty Officer, with the first selectees promoting to their respective grades in 1959 and 1960.
In the Navy, advancement to master chief petty officer is similar to that of chief petty officer and senior chief petty officer. It carries requirements of time in service, superior evaluation scores, and selection by a board of master chiefs. Similarly, senior chief petty officers and chief petty officers are chosen by selection boards. In the Coast Guard, advancement to master chief petty officer is similar to other advancements consisting of competition with other advancement - eligible senior chief petty officers. Eligible candidates are prioritized based on written examination scores, evaluations, award points, time in service, and time in grade. Master chief petty officers are then selected monthly from this prioritization list as positions become available.
Petty officers of all grades possess both a rate (the enlisted term for rank) and rating (job, similar to a military occupational specialty (MOS) in other branches). The full title (most commonly used) is a combination of the two. Thus, a master chief petty officer with the rating of fire controlman would properly be called a master chief fire controlman.
Each rating has an official abbreviation, such as FC for fire controlman, FT for fire control technician, and STS for sonar technician, submarines. When combined with the rate abbreviation (CM for master chief), it produces the full rate designation, such as FCCM for master chief fire controlman. It is not uncommon practice to refer to the master chief by this shorthand in all but the most formal correspondence (such as printing and inscription on awards). Mostly, though, they are simply called "Master Chief '', regardless of rating.
The rate insignia for a master chief is a white eagle with spread wings above three chevrons. The chevrons are topped by a rocker (arc) that goes behind the eagle. Two inverted silver stars (a reference to the stars used on the sleeves of line officers) are placed above the eagle. Between the arc and the top chevron is the specialty mark of the enlisted rating. This is used on the service dress blue, dinner dress blue jacket, and dinner dress white jacket uniforms. On other uniforms, the insignia used for shirt collars and caps is the one that has become universally accepted as the symbol of the chief petty officer. This is a gold foul anchor (note: the proper term is "foul anchor '', not "fouled '') superimposed with a silver "USN '' (Navy) or a silver shield (Coast Guard). As on the rating badge, this is capped by two five - pointed stars, showing one ray down.
Master chief petty officers are generally considered to be the technical experts in their fields. They serve at sea and ashore in commands of all sizes. Many master chiefs choose to enter the command master chief petty officer program. If selected, a master chief receives additional leadership training and is assigned to a command as the command master chief (CMDCM). The command master chief is the senior enlisted person at a command and as such works as a liaison between the commanding officer and the enlisted ranks, serving as the senior enlisted leader. In this capacity, the CMDCM assists the commanding officer in issues of quality of life, discipline, training, and morale. On submarines, the CMDCM is called the chief of the boat or "COB ''. The CMDCM insignia has a silver star in lieu of the enlisted rating between the arc and the top chevron.
These two ranks are equivalent and their insignia is also the same -- a master chief rating badge with two gold stars above the eagle and a gold star for the rating insignia.
A force master chief petty officer (FORCM) is a master chief who has virtually the same responsibility as command master chiefs, but for larger force commands rather than a single unit. There are 16 force master chief positions in the Navy:
A fleet master chief petty officer (FLTCM) is a master chief who again has virtually the same responsibility as command master chiefs, but for larger fleet commands. There are four fleet master chief positions in the Navy:
There exists one post that is unique -- master chief petty officer of the Navy (MCPON, pronounced "mick - ponn ''). The holder of this post is the most senior enlisted member in the U.S. Navy. The MCPON adds a third star above the rating insignia described earlier, and all three stars are gold (silver on the gold foul anchor collar device). Likewise, the rating specialty mark is replaced by a gold star. In September 2016, Steven S. Giordano assumed the role of MCPON, replacing Michael D. Stevens.
The master chief petty officer of the Coast Guard (MCPOCG) is the most senior enlisted member in the U.S. Coast Guard. The MCPOCG adds a third star above the rating insignia described earlier, and all three stars are gold (silver on the gold foul anchor collar device). Likewise, the rating specialty mark is replaced by a gold shield. The current master chief petty officer of the Coast Guard is Steven W. Cantrell.
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how many christmas specials of gavin and stacey are there | List of Gavin & Stacey episodes - wikipedia
Gavin & Stacey is a British romantic situation comedy that follows the long - distance relationship of Gavin (Mathew Horne) from Billericay in Essex, England, and Stacy (Joanna Page) from Barry in the Vale of Glamorgan, Wales. The writers of the show, actors James Corden and Ruth Jones, also co-star as Gavin and Stacey 's friends, Smithy and Nessa. Other prominent cast members include Alison Steadman and Larry Lamb, who play Gavin 's parents, Pam and Mick, and Melanie Walters and Rob Brydon, who portray Stacey 's mother, Gwen, and her uncle, Bryn.
The show was produced by Baby Cow Productions for BBC Wales. It ran for a total of 20 episodes, broadcast from 13 May 2007 to 1 January 2010, comprising three series and two Christmas specials. Initially, the series was shown on (now digital - only since 2016) channel BBC Three, but a growing following meant that it was subsequently moved to BBC Two, and finally BBC One. The last episodes of the final series formed a significant part of the prime time BBC seasonal programming, and were broadcast on Christmas Day 2009 and New Year 's Day 2010.
It 's Christmas and the Welsh contingent have been invited to celebrate the festive season with the Shipmans. So with the help of Dave and his coach, Nessa and the Wests head east. In Essex, Mick 's preoccupied with the new love of his life -- a handsome Norfolk turkey -- and Smithy ca n't wait to spend his first Christmas with his baby Neil. Pam has laid on a fabulous spread, Bryn 's got his mistletoe at the ready, and as the bubbly starts flowing it looks set to be a cracker of a Christmas. Then, Gavin makes a startling announcement that he is moving to Wales, and all hell breaks loose! Pete punches Dave after he makes a comment about Dawn, and Pam challenges a hostile Nessa. Bryn and Jason talk about the fateful fishing trip but are interrupted by Dave before any details are revealed. Dave proposes to Nessa on Christmas Day, which she accepts. Presents are given out, with some choice wrapping from Smithy.
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who describes democracy as the tyranny of the majority | Tyranny of the majority - wikipedia
Tyranny of the majority (or tyranny of the masses) refers to an inherent weakness of majority rule in which the majority of an electorate can and does place its own interests above, and at the expense of, those in the minority. This results in oppression of minority groups comparable to that of a tyrant or despot, argued John Stuart Mill in his famous 1859 book On Liberty.
Potentially, through tyranny of the majority, a disliked or unfavored ethnic, religious, political, social, or racial group may be deliberately targeted for oppression by the majority element acting through the democratic process.
American founding father Alexander Hamilton, writing to Thomas Jefferson from the Constitutional Convention, argued the same fears regarding the use of pure direct democracy by the majority to elect a demagogue who, rather than work for the benefit of all citizens, set out to either harm those in the minority or work only for those of the upper echelon. The Electoral College mechanism present in the indirect United States presidential election system, and the phenomenon of faithless electors allowed for within it, was, in part, deliberately created as a safety measure not only to prevent such a scenario, but also to prevent the use of democracy to overthrow democracy for an authoritarian, dictatorial or other system of oppressive government. As articulated by Hamilton, one reason the Electoral College was created was so "that the office of President will never fall to the lot of any man who is not in an eminent degree endowed with the requisite qualifications ''.
The scenarios in which tyranny perception occurs are very specific, involving a sort of distortion of democracy preconditions:
In both cases, in a context of a nation, constitutional limits on the powers of a legislative body, and the introduction of a Bill of Rights have been used to counter the problem. A separation of powers (for example a legislative and executive majority actions subject to review by the judiciary) may also be implemented to prevent the problem from happening internally in a government.
A term used in Classical and Hellenistic Greece for oppressive popular rule was ochlocracy ("mob rule ''). Tyranny meant rule by one man whether undesirable or not.
While James Madison referred to the same idea as "the violence of majority faction '' in The Federalist Papers, for example Federalist 10, the phrase "tyranny of the majority '' was used by John Adams in 1788. It was also used by Edmund Burke in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), where he said that "The tyranny of a multitude is a multiplied tyranny. '' It was further popularised by John Stuart Mill in On Liberty (1859). The Federalist Papers and the phrase (in translation) is used at least once in the first sequel to Human, All Too Human (1879). Ayn Rand wrote that individual rights are not subject to a public vote, and that the political function of rights is precisely to protect minorities from oppression by majorities and "the smallest minority on earth is the individual ''.
In Herbert Marcuse 's 1965 essay "Repressive Tolerance '', he said "tolerance is extended to policies, conditions, and modes of behavior which should not be tolerated because they are impeding, if not destroying, the chances of creating an existence without fear and misery '' and that "this sort of tolerance strengthens the tyranny of the majority against which authentic liberals protested ''.
In 1994, legal scholar Lani Guinier used the phrase as the title for a collection of law review articles.
Regarding recent American politics (specifically initiatives), Donovan et al. argue that:
One of the original concerns about direct democracy is the potential it has to allow a majority of voters to trample the rights of minorities. Many still worry that the process can be used to harm gays and lesbians as well as ethnic, linguistic, and religious minorities... Recent scholarly research shows that the initiative process is sometimes prone to produce laws that disadvantage relatively powerless minorities... State and local ballot initiatives have been used to undo policies -- such as school desegregation, protections against job and housing discrimination, and affirmative action -- that minorities have secured from legislatures.
The notion that, in a democracy, the greatest concern is that the majority will tyrannise and exploit diverse smaller interests, has been criticised by Mancur Olson in The Logic of Collective Action, who argues instead that narrow and well organised minorities are more likely to assert their interests over those of the majority. Olson argues that when the benefits of political action (e.g., lobbying) are spread over fewer agents, there is a stronger individual incentive to contribute to that political activity. Narrow groups, especially those who can reward active participation to their group goals, might therefore be able to dominate or distort political process, a process studied in public choice theory.
Anti-federalists of public choice theory point out that vote trading can protect minority interests from majorities in representative democratic bodies such as legislatures. They continue that direct democracy, such as statewide propositions on ballots, does not offer such protections.
The "no tyranny '' and "tyranny '' situations can be characterizated in any simple democratic decision - making context, as a deliberative assembly.
Herbert Spencer, in "The Right to Ignore the State '' (1851), pointed the problem with the following example
Suppose, for the sake of argument, that, struck by some Malthusian panic, a legislature duly representing public opinion were to enact that all children born during the next ten years should be drowned. Does anyone think such an enactment would be warrantable? If not, there is evidently a limit to the power of a majority.
Suppose a deliberative assembly of a building condominium with 13 voters, deciding, with majority rule, about "X or Y '',
Suppose that the final result is "8 votes for X and 5 votes for Y '', so 8, as a majority, blue wins. As collectively (13 voters) the decision is legitimate.
It is a centralized decision about all common use rooms, "one color for all rooms '', and it is also legitimate. Voters have some arguments against "each room with its color '', rationalizing the centralization: some say that common rooms need uniform decisions; some prefer the homogeneous color style, and all other voters have no style preference; an economic analysis demonstrates (and all agree) that a wholesale purchase of one color paint for all rooms is better.
Centralization excess is the most usual case. Suppose that each floor has some kind of local governance, so in some aspects the condominium is a "federation of floors ''. Suppose that only on the third floor the majority of residents manifested some preference to "each floor with different color '' style, and all of the third floor residents likes the red color. The cost difference, to purchase another color for one floor, is not significant when compared with the condominium contributions.
In this conditions some tyranny perception arrives, and the subsidiarity principle can be used to contest the central decision.
In the above no - tyranny scenario, suppose no floor federation, but (only) a room with some local governance. Suppose that the gym room is not used by all, but there is a "community '' of regulars, there is a grouping of voters by its activity as speed - cyclists (illustrated as spiked hair), that have the gym room key for some activities on Sundays. They are acting collectively to preserve the gym room for a local cyclists group.
In this situation the following facts hold:
There is no "enforced minoritarianism ''; it seems a legitimate characterization of a relevant (and not dominant) minority. This is a tyranny of the majority situation because:
In this situation, even with no formal federation structure, the minority and a potential local governance emerged: the tyranny perception arrives with it.
Secession of the Confederate States of America from the United States was anchored by a version of subsidiarity, found within the doctrines of John C. Calhoun. Antebellum South Carolina utilized Calhoun 's doctrines in the Old South as public policy, adopted from his theory of concurrent majority. This "localism '' strategy was presented as a mechanism to circumvent Calhoun 's perceived tyranny of the majority in the United States. Each state presumptively held the Sovereign power to block federal laws that infringed upon states ' rights, autonomously. Calhoun 's policies directly influenced Southern public policy regarding slavery, and undermined the Supremacy Clause power granted to the federal government. The subsequent creation of the Confederate States of America catalyzed the American Civil War.
19th century concurrent majority theories held logical counterbalances to standard tyranny of the majority harms originating from Antiquity and onward. Essentially, illegitimate or temporary coalitions that held majority volume could disproportionately outweigh and hurt any significant minority, by nature and sheer volume. Calhoun 's contemporary doctrine was presented as one of limitation within American democracy to prevent traditional tyranny, whether actual or imagined.
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the rolling stones i can't get no satisfaction meaning | (I Ca n't Get No) Satisfaction - wikipedia
"(I Ca n't Get No) Satisfaction '' is a song by the English rock band the Rolling Stones, released in 1965. It was written by Mick Jagger and Keith Richards and produced by Andrew Loog Oldham. Richards ' three - note guitar riff -- intended to be replaced by horns -- opens and drives the song. The lyrics refer to sexual frustration and commercialism.
The song was first released as a single in the United States in June 1965 and was also featured on the American version of the Rolling Stones ' fourth studio album, Out of Our Heads, released that July. "Satisfaction '' was a hit, giving the Stones their first number one in the US. In the UK, the song initially was played only on pirate radio stations, because its lyrics were considered too sexually suggestive. It later became the Rolling Stones ' fourth number one in the United Kingdom.
In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine placed "(I Ca n't Get No) Satisfaction '' in the second spot on its list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''. The song was added to the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress in 2006.
Richards wrote Satisfaction in his sleep and recorded a rough version of the riff on a Philips cassette player. He had no idea he had written it. He said when he listened to the recording in the morning, there was about two minutes of acoustic guitar before you could hear him drop the pick and "then me snoring for the next forty minutes ''. Sources vary as to where this story happened. While they make reference to a hotel room at the Fort Harrison Hotel in Clearwater, Florida, a house in Chelsea and the London Hilton, Keith Richards wrote in his most recent autobiography that he was in his flat in Carlton Hill, St. John 's Wood. He specifies that Mick Jagger wrote the lyrics by the pool in Clearwater, four days before they went into the studio, hence the confusion.
The Rolling Stones first recorded the track on 10 May 1965 at Chess Studios in Chicago, Illinois, which included Brian Jones on harmonica. The Stones lip - synched to a dub of this version the first time they debuted the song on the American music variety television programme Shindig! The group re-recorded it two days later at RCA Studios in Hollywood, California, with a different beat and the Maestro fuzzbox adding sustain to the sound of the guitar riff. Richards envisioned redoing the track later with a horn section playing the riff: "this was just a little sketch, because, to my mind, the fuzz tone was really there to denote what the horns would be doing. '' The other Rolling Stones, as well as producer and manager Andrew Loog Oldham and sound engineer David Hassinger eventually outvoted Richards and Jagger so the track was selected for release as a single. The song 's success boosted sales of the Gibson fuzzbox so that the entire available stock sold out by the end of 1965.
Author Gary West cites a different source for the release of "Satisfaction '' in interviewing WTRY radio (Troy, NY) DJ Joe Condon. In the interview, Condon clearly states that his radio station began playing "Satisfaction '' on 29 April 1965, making the above recording date impossible. It can be assumed that "Satisfaction '' was probably recorded earlier in April, and that WTRY was playing a test pressing.
Like most of the Stones ' pre-1966 recordings, "Satisfaction '' was originally released in mono only. In the mid-1980s, a true stereo version of the song was released on German and Japanese editions of the CD reissue of Hot Rocks 1964 -- 1971. The stereo mix features a piano (played by session player Jack Nitzsche, who also provides the song 's iconic tambourine) and acoustic guitar that are barely audible in the original mono release (both instruments are also audible on a bootleg recording of the instrumental track). This stereo mix of "Satisfaction '' also appeared on a radio - promo CD of rare stereo tracks provided to US radio stations in the mid-1980s, but has not yet been featured on a worldwide commercial CD; even later pressings of the German and Japanese Hot Rocks CDs feature the mono mix, making the earlier releases with the stereo mix collectors ' items. For the worldwide 2002 reissue of Hot Rocks, an alternative quasi-stereo mix was used featuring the lead guitar, bass, drums, and vocals in the center channel and the acoustic guitar and piano "split '' left and right via a delay effect.
The song opens with the guitar riff, which is joined by the bass halfway through. It is repeated three times with the drums and acoustic guitar before the vocal enters with the line: "I ca n't get no satisfaction ''. The key is E major, but with the 3rd and 7th degree occasionally lowered, creating - in the first part of the verses ("I ca n't get no... '') - a distinctive mellow sound. The accompanying chords (i.e. E major, D major and A major) are borrowed from the E mixolydian scale, which is often used in blues and rock.
The title line is an example of a negative concord. Jagger sings the verses in a tone hovering between cynical commentary and frustrated protest, and then leaps half singing and half yelling into the chorus, where the guitar riff reappears. The lyrics outline the singer 's irritation with the increasing commercialism of the modern world, where the radio broadcasts "useless information '' and a man on television tells him "how white my shirts can be -- but he ca n't be a man ' cause he does n't smoke the same cigarettes as me. '' Jagger also describes the stress of being a celebrity, and the tensions of touring. The reference in the verse to not getting any "girl reaction '' was fairly controversial in its day, interpreted by some listeners (and radio programmers) as meaning a girl willing to have sex. Jagger commented that they "did n't understand the dirtiest line '', as afterwards the girl asks him to return the following week as she is "on a losing streak, '' an apparent reference to menstruation. The song closes with a fairly subdued repetition of the song 's title, followed suddenly by a full shout of the line, with the final words repeated into the fade - out.
In its day the song was perceived as disturbing because of both its sexual connotations and the negative view of commercialism and other aspects of modern culture; critic Paul Gambaccini stated: "The lyrics to this were truly threatening to an older audience. This song was perceived as an attack on the status quo ''. When the Rolling Stones performed the song on Shindig! in 1965, the line "trying to make some girl '' was censored, although a performance on The Ed Sullivan Show on 13 February 1966 was uncensored. Forty years later, when the band performed three songs during the February 2006 Super Bowl XL halftime show, "Satisfaction '' was the only one of the three songs not censored as it was broadcast.
"Satisfaction '' was released as a single in the US by London Records on 6 June 1965, with "The Under - Assistant West Coast Promotion Man '' as its B - side. The single entered the Billboard Hot 100 charts in America in the week ending 12 June 1965, remaining there for 14 weeks, reaching the top on 10 July by displacing the Four Tops ' "I Ca n't Help Myself (Sugar Pie Honey Bunch) ''. "Satisfaction '' held the number one spot for four weeks, being knocked off on 7 August by "I 'm Henry the Eighth, I Am '' by Herman 's Hermits. While in its eighth week on the American charts, the single was certified a gold record award by the RIAA for shipping over a million copies across the United States, giving the band their first of many gold disc awards in America. Later the song was also released by London Records on Out of Our Heads in America. Billboard ranked the record as the No. 3 song of 1965.
"Satisfaction '' was not immediately released by Decca Records in Great Britain. Decca was already in the process of preparing a live Rolling Stones EP for release, so the new single did not come out in Britain until 20 August, with "The Spider and the Fly '' on the B - side. The song peaked at number one for two weeks, replacing Sonny & Cher 's "I Got You Babe '', between 11 and 25 September, before being toppled by the Walker Brothers ' "Make It Easy on Yourself ''.
In the decades since its release, "Satisfaction '' has repeatedly been acclaimed by the music industry. In 1976, Britain 's New Musical Express listed "Satisfaction '' 7th among the top 100 singles of all time. There was a resurgence of interest in the song after it was prominently featured in the 1979 movie Apocalypse Now. In 1991, Vox listed "Satisfaction '' among "100 records that shook the world ''. In 1999, BMI named "Satisfaction '' as the 91st-most performed song of the 20th century. In 2000, VH1 listed "Satisfaction '' first among its "Top 100 Greatest Rock Songs ''; the same year, "Satisfaction '' also finished runner - up to "Yesterday '' in a list jointly compiled by Rolling Stone and MTV. In 2003, Q placed the song 68th out of its "1001 Best Songs Ever ''. In 2004, Rolling Stone 's panel of judges named "Satisfaction '' as the second - greatest song of all time, coming in second to Bob Dylan 's "Like a Rolling Stone ''. Newsweek magazine has called the opening riff "five notes that shook the world ''.
Jagger commented on the song 's appeal:
It was the song that really made the Rolling Stones, changed us from just another band into a huge, monster band... It has a very catchy title. It has a very catchy guitar riff. It has a great guitar sound, which was original at that time. And it captures a spirit of the times, which is very important in those kinds of songs... Which was alienation.
The song has become a staple at Rolling Stones shows. They have performed it on nearly every tour since its release, and concert renditions have been included on the albums Got Live If You Want It!, Still Life, Flashpoint, Live Licks, Shine a Light, and Sweet Summer Sun: Hyde Park Live. One unusual rendition is included in Robert Frank 's film Cocksucker Blues from the 1972 tour, when the song was performed by both the Rolling Stones and Stevie Wonder 's band as the second half of a medley with Wonder 's "Uptight ''.
A live performance in Hampton Roads, Virginia, in 1981 was released as an official music video.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Otis Redding recorded a rendition of "Satisfaction '' for his album Otis Blue / Otis Redding Sings Soul, released in 1965. Redding claimed that he did not know the lyrics of the song. "I use a lot of words different than the Stones ' version, '' he noted. "That 's because I made them up. '' Of that session, Steve Cropper said, "... if you ever listened to the record you can hardly understand the lyrics, right? I set down to a record player and copied down what I thought the lyrics were and I handed Otis a piece of paper and before we got through with the cut, he threw the paper on the floor and that was it. '' Music writer Robert Christgau described it as an "anarchic reading '' of the Stones ' original. Redding 's soul - style arrangement featured horns playing the main riff, as Keith Richards had originally intended. In 2003, Ronnie Wood noted that the Rolling Stones ' later concert renditions of the number reflect Redding 's interpretation.
Jonathan King covered the song on his 1972 album Bubble Rock Is Here to Stay as a country and western version which Mick Jagger loved. It was released as a single and became a UK Top 30 hit in 1974.
The American avant - garde / experimental collective The Residents recorded and released their own performance of "Satisfaction '' in 1976. Originally released in an edition of only 200 copies, the cover quickly became a cult sensation, thanks in part to the success of Devo 's cover the following year, necessitating a re-press in 1978 of 30,000 copies. Brad Laner, writing for Dangerous Minds, states the cover "is nearly everything the better known version by Devo from a year later is not: Loose, belligerent, violent, truly fucked - up. A real stick in the eye of everything conventionally tasteful in 1976 America. ''
The American new wave band Devo released their rendition of "(I Ca n't Get No) Satisfaction '' as a single in 1977, initially in a self - produced version on their own label Booji Boy Records. The song was re-recorded with Brian Eno as producer for their first album, and that version was also released as a single in 1978, this time by Warner Brothers Records, after it was played for Mick Jagger 's approval. Steve Huey of AllMusic stated that the cover version "reworks the original 's alienation into a spastic freak - out that 's nearly unrecognizable ''. This version of the song was featured prominently in the 1995 Martin Scorsese epic crime film Casino.
The quirky music video for the song and several others from this album received significant airplay on the upstart MTV. A notable feature of the video was dancer Craig Allen Rothwell, known as Spazz Attack, whose signature dance move, a forward flip onto his back, drew him significant attention.
Britney Spears recorded the song with producer Rodney "Darkchild '' Jerkins for her second studio album, Oops!... I Did It Again, on 24 February 2000 at Pacifique Recording Studios in Hollywood.
Spears ' cover received mixed reviews from critics. While reviewing Oops!, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic selected the song as Track Pick, describing "the clenched - funk revision of the Stones ' deathless ' Satisfaction ' '' as emblematic of a "bewildering magpie aesthetic '' on Spears ' early albums. Robert Christgau declared the song a ' choice cut, ' meaning a good song on an otherwise lackluster album, '' while a New Musical Express review gave the cover a negative review, saying, "the long - awaited (...) (Spears ') cover of the Stones ' ' (I Ca n't Get No) Satisfaction ' is a letdown ''.
Spears first performed the cover on her 2000 's Oops!... I Did It Again World Tour. The performance ended with a dance sequence set to the familiar Richards guitar lick that was omitted from her recorded version (played here by her guitarist "Skip ''). Spears also performed "(I Ca n't Get No) Satisfaction '' on the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards.
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kenny rogers i wish i could hurt that way again | I Wish That I Could Hurt That Way Again - Wikipedia
"I Wish That I Could Hurt That Way Again '' is a song written by Curly Putman, Rafe VanHoy and Don Cook, and first recorded by American country music artist Kenny Rogers, released in 1978 on his multi-million selling album The Gambler, although Rogers did not release it as a single the album included two number 1 singles in the title cut and "She Believes In Me ''.
T. Graham Brown released a cover version in April 1986 as the second single from his album I Tell It Like It Used to Be. Brown 's version reached # 3 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart.
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if it's tuesday this must be belgium (1969) | If It 's Tuesday, This Must Be Belgium - wikipedia
If It 's Tuesday, This Must Be Belgium is a 1969 DeLuxe Color romantic comedy film made by Wolper Pictures and released by United Artists. It was directed by Mel Stuart, filmed on location throughout Europe, and features many cameo appearances from various stars. The film starred Suzanne Pleshette, Ian McShane, Mildred Natwick, Murray Hamilton, Sandy Baron, Michael Constantine, Norman Fell, Peggy Cass, Marty Ingels, Pamela Britton, and Reva Rose.
The title, also used by a 1965 documentary on CBS television that filmed one such tour, was taken from a New Yorker cartoon by Leonard Dove. Published in the June 22, 1957, issue of the magazine, the cartoon depicts a young woman near a tour bus and a campanile, frustratedly exclaiming "But if it 's Tuesday, it has to be Siena, '' thereby humorously illustrating the whirlwind nature of European tour schedules. This concept formed the premise of the film 's plot. Donovan sings "Lord of the Reedy River, '' which he had also written. He also wrote the film 's title song, performed by J.P. Rags. J.P. Rags is a pseudonym for Douglas Cox.
Locations where the film was shot include first: London, Great Britain; second: the Netherlands; third: Brussels and Bastogne, Belgium; fourth: Rhineland - Palatinate (with the boat on the Rhein - River from Koblenz to Wiesbaden, Germany; fifth: Switzerland; and last: Venice and Rome, Italy. The film poster shows the cast on the normally pedestrianized Grote Markt square of Antwerp, Belgium, posing for a typical souvenir photo in front of the city hall, with their tour bus obstructing the view of the Brabo fountain which is normally a favorite photo - op with other tourists.
Charlie (McShane) is an amorous English tour guide who takes groups of Americans on whirlwind 18 - day sightseeing tours of Europe. Among his various clients on his latest trip are Samantha (Pleshette) with whom he wants to have an affair, a man who desires a pair of custom - made Italian shoes from a certain cobbler in Rome, another man who is secretly being set up for a surprise marriage with his Italian cousin, and an Army veteran who is reliving his World War II experiences.
If It 's Tuesday, This Must Be Belgium earned estimated rentals of $3 million in the United States during its initial run.
Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote in his review: "IF IT 'S TUESDAY, This Must Be Belgium may be the first cartoon caption ever made into a feature - length movie. If I remember correctly, that was the legend that appeared some years ago under a New Yorker Magazine cartoon showing two harried American travelers, in the middle of a relentlessly picturesque village, consulting their tour schedule. It was a nice cartoon, made timely by the great wave of tourism that swept Europe in the 1950 's. Subsequently, I 'm told, there was a television documentary that explored more or less this same phenomenon -- the boom in pre-paid (two in a room), packaged culture junkets. Now, some years after the subject seemed really fresh, a movie has been made about one such 18 - day, 9 - country excursion. Even if you do n't accept the fact that just about everything that could be said about American tourism was said earlier by Mark Twain, Henry James or even Woody Allen, If It 's Tuesday, This Must Be Belgium is a pretty dim movie experience, like a stopover in an airport where the only reading matter is yesterday 's newspapers. ''
Roger Ebert wrote in his review: "Someone -- Mark Twain? -- once said that the American tourist believes English can be understood anywhere in the world if it 's spoken loudly and slowly enough. To this basic item of folklore, other characteristics of the typical American tourist have been added from year to year: He wears sunglasses, Bermuda shorts and funny shirts. He has six cameras hanging around his neck. He orders hamburgers in secluded little Parisian restaurants. He talks loudly, and the female of his species is shrill and critical. He is, in short, a plague. This sort of American tourist does still exist, but in much smaller numbers. My observation during several visits to Europe is that the American tourist has become poorer and younger than he used to be, and awfully self - conscious about being an American. On the average, he 's likely to be quieter and more tactful than the average German or French tourist (who does n't have to prove anything). The interesting thing about If It 's Tuesday, This Must Be Belgium is that it depicts this new American tourist. That 's amazing because movies of this sort usually tend to be 10 years behind the times, and I went expecting another dose of the Bermuda shorts syndrome. "If It 's Tuesday '' is n't a great movie by any means, but it manages to be awfully pleasant. I enjoyed it more or less on the level I was intended to, as a low - key comedy presenting a busload of interesting actors who travel through England, Belgium, Germany, and Italy on one of those whirlwind tours. There is a lot of scenery, but not too much, and some good use of locations in Venice and Rome. There are also some scenes that are better than they should be because they 're well - acted. Murray Hamilton is in a lot of these scenes, and they 're reminders that he has been in a disproportionate number of the best recent comedies: The President 's Analyst, Two for the Road, and The Graduate (he was Mr. Robinson). '' (Ebert 's opinion of Hamilton 's acting was well - founded -- and Hamilton did play Mr. Robinson in The Graduate -- but the actor was not in either Two for the Road or The President 's Analyst. Rather, it was William Daniels who appeared in all three of the named comedies in the 1960s (he played Benjamin 's father in The Graduate).
If It 's Tuesday, This Must Be Belgium was remade in 1987 as a made - for - TV movie titled If It 's Tuesday, It Still Must Be Belgium directed by Bob Sweeney. The film starred Claude Akins, Lou Liberatore, Courteney Cox, Bruce Weitz, Stephen Furst, Anna Maria Horsford, Kene Holliday. Kiel Martin, David Leisure, Doris Roberts, Tracy Nelson, Richard Moll, David Oliver, Lou Jacobi, and Peter Graves.
If It 's Tuesday, This Must Be Belgium was released in theatres on April 24, 1969. The film was released on DVD on May 20, 2008. Olive Films released a Blu - Ray edition in 2016.
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when is a boarding penalty called in hockey | Boarding (ice hockey) - wikipedia
Boarding in ice hockey is a penalty called when an offending player pushes, trips or checks an opposing player violently into the boards of the hockey rink. The boarding call is quite often a major penalty due to the likelihood of injury sustained by the player who was boarded, and officials have the discretion to call a game misconduct or a match penalty (if they feel the offense was a deliberate attempt to injure) on the offending player. However, in the NHL, if the boarded player sustains a head or facial injury, the offending player receives an automatic game misconduct. If no injury is sustained, then a minor penalty will be called. In college ice hockey, the player does not need to be injured for it to be a major penalty. Boarding is usually assessed against a player when the opposing player is hit 4 -- 5 feet away from the boards and hits one 's head against the boards on the way down.
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when do brown trout spawn in new york | Brown trout - wikipedia
Salmo trutta morpha trutta Salmo trutta morpha fario Salmo trutta morpha lacustris
The brown trout (Salmo trutta) is a European species of salmonid fish that has been widely introduced into suitable environments globally. It includes both purely freshwater populations, referred to as the riverine ecotype, Salmo trutta morpha fario, and a lacustrine ecotype, S. trutta morpha lacustris, also called the lake trout, as well as anadromous forms known as the sea trout, S. trutta morpha trutta. The latter migrates to the oceans for much of its life and returns to fresh water only to spawn. Sea trout in the Ireland and Britain have many regional names: sewin in Wales, finnock in Scotland, peal in the West Country, mort in North West England, and white trout in Ireland.
The lacustrine morph of brown trout is most usually potamodromous, migrating from lakes into rivers or streams to spawn, although evidence indicates stocks spawn on wind - swept shorelines of lakes. S. trutta morpha fario forms stream - resident populations, typically in alpine streams, but sometimes in larger rivers. Anadromous and nonanadromous morphs coexisting in the same river appear genetically identical. What determines whether or not they migrate remains unknown.
The scientific name of the brown trout is Salmo trutta. The specific epithet trutta derives from the Latin trutta, meaning, literally, "trout ''. Behnke (2007) relates that the brown trout was the first species of trout described in the 1758 edition of Systema Naturae by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus. Systema Naturae established the system of binomial nomenclature for animals. Salmo trutta was used to describe anadromous or sea - run forms of brown trout. Linnaeus also described two other brown trout species in 1758. Salmo fario was used for riverine forms. Salmo lacustris was used for lake - dwelling forms.
The native range of brown trout extends from northern Norway and White Sea tributaries in Russia in the Arctic Ocean to the Atlas Mountains in North Africa. The western limit of their native range is Iceland in the north Atlantic, while the eastern limit is in Aral Sea tributaries in Afghanistan and Pakistan.
Brown trout have been widely introduced into suitable environments around the world, including North and South America, Australasia, Asia, and South and East Africa. Introduced brown trout have established self - sustaining, wild populations in many introduced countries. The first introductions were in Australia in 1864 when 300 of 1500 brown trout eggs from the River Itchen survived a four - month voyage from Falmouth, Cornwall, to Melbourne on the sailing ship Norfolk. By 1866, 171 young brown trout were surviving in a Plenty River hatchery in Tasmania. Thirty - eight young trout were released in the river, a tributary of the River Derwent in 1866. By 1868, the Plenty River hosted a self - sustaining population of brown trout which became a brood source for continued introduction of brown trout into Australian and New Zealand rivers. Successful introductions into the Natal and Cape Provinces of South Africa took place in 1890 and 1892, respectively. By 1909, brown trout were established in the mountains of Kenya. The first introductions into the Himalayas in northern India took place in 1868, and by 1900, brown trout were established in Kashmir and Madras.
The first introductions in Canada occurred in 1883 in Newfoundland and continued up until 1933. The only Canadian regions without brown trout are Yukon and Northwest Territories. Introductions into South America began in 1904 in Argentina. Brown trout are now established in Chile, Peru, and the Falklands. In the 1950s and 1960s, Edgar Albert de la Rue (fr), a French geologist, began the introduction of several species of salmonids on the remote Kerguelen Islands in the southern Indian Ocean. Of the seven species introduced, only brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis, and brown trout survived to establish wild populations. Sea - run forms of brown trout exceeding 20 lb (9.1 kg) are caught by local anglers on a regular basis.
The first introductions into the U.S. started in 1883 when Fred Mather, a New York pisciculturist and angler, under the authority of the U.S. Fish Commissioner, Spencer Baird, obtained brown trout eggs from a Baron Lucius von Behr, president of the German Fishing Society (de). The von Behr brown trout came from both mountain streams and large lakes in the Black Forest region of Baden - Württemberg. The original shipment of "von Behr '' brown trout eggs were handled by three hatcheries, one on Long Island, the Cold Spring Hatchery operated by Mather, one in Caledonia, New York operated by pisciculturalist Seth Green, and other hatchery in Northville, Michigan. Additional shipments of "von Behr '' brown trout eggs arrived in 1884. In 1885, brown trout eggs from Loch Leven, Scotland, arrived in New York. These "Loch Leven '' brown trout were distributed to the same hatcheries. Over the next few years, additional eggs from Scotland, England, and Germany were shipped to U.S. hatcheries. Behnke (2007) believed all life forms of brown trout -- anadromous, riverine and lacustine -- were imported into the U.S. and intermingled genetically to create what he calls the American generic brown trout and a single subspecies the North European brown trout (S. t. trutta).
In April 1884, the U.S. Fish Commission released 4900 brown trout fry into the Baldwin River, a tributary of the Pere Marquette River in Michigan. This was the first release of brown trout into U.S. waters. Between 1884 and 1890, brown trout were introduced into suitable habitats throughout the U.S. By 1900, 38 states and two territories had received stocks of brown trout. Their adaptability resulted in most of these introductions establishing wild, self - sustaining populations.
The fish is not considered to be endangered, although, in some cases, individual stocks are under various degrees of stress mainly through habitat degradation, overfishing, and artificial propagation leading to introgression. Increased frequency of excessively warm water temperatures in high summer causes a reduction in dissolved oxygen levels which can cause "summer kills '' of local populations if temperatures remain high for sufficient duration and deeper / cooler or fast, turbulent more oxygenated water is not accessible to the fish. This phenomenon can be further exacerbated by eutrophication of rivers due to pollution -- often from the use of agricultural fertilizers within the drainage basin.
Overfishing is a problem where anglers fail to identify and return mature female fish into the lake or stream. Each large female removed can result in thousands fewer eggs released back into the system when the remaining fish spawn.
Another threat is other introduced organisms. For example, in Canada 's Bow River, a non-native alga Didymosphenia geminata -- common name rock snot (due to appearance) -- has resulted in reduced circulation of water amongst the substrate of the river bed in affected areas. This, in turn, can greatly reduce the number of trout eggs which survive to hatch. Over time, this leads to reduction of the population of adult fish in the areas affected by the algae, forming a circle of decline. Rock snot is believed to have spread accidentally on the soles of the footwear of visitors from areas where the alga is native. The wide variety of issues that adversely affect brown trout throughout its range do not exclusively affect brown trout, but affect many or all species within a water body, thus altering the ecosystem in which the trout reside.
In small streams, brown trout are important predators of macroinvertebrates, and declining brown trout populations in these specific areas affect the entire aquatic food web.
Global climate change is also of concern. S. trutta morpha fario prefers well - oxygenated water in the temperature range of 60 to 65 ° F (16 to 18 ° C). S. trutta bones from an archaeological site in Italy, and ancient DNA extracted from some of these bones, indicate that both abundance and genetic diversity increased markedly during the colder Younger Dryas period, and fell during the warmer Bølling - Allerød event.
Cover or structure is important to trout, and they are more likely to be found near submerged rocks and logs, undercut banks, and overhanging vegetation. Structure provides protection from predators, bright sunlight, and higher water temperatures. Access to deep water for protection in winter freezes, or fast water for protection from low oxygen levels in summer are also ideal. Trout are more often found in heavy and strong currents.
The brown trout is a medium - sized fish, growing to 20 kg (44 lb) or more and a length of about 100 cm (39 in) in some localities, although in many smaller rivers, a mature weight of 1.0 kg (2.2 lb) or less is common. S. t. lacustris reaches an average length of 40 -- 80 cm (16 -- 31 in) with a maximum length of 140 cm (55 in) and about 60 pounds (27 kg). The spawning behaviour of brown trout is similar to that of the closely related Atlantic salmon. A typical female produces about 2,000 eggs per kg (900 eggs per lb) of body weight at spawning. On September 11, 2009, a 41.45 - lb (18.80 - kg) brown trout was caught by Tom Healy in the Manistee River system in Michigan, setting a new state record. As of late December 2009, the fish captured by Healy was confirmed by both the International Game Fish Association and the Fresh Water Fishing Hall of Fame as the new all - tackle world record for the species. This fish now supplants the former world record from the Little Red River in Arkansas.
Brown trout can live 20 years, but as with the Atlantic salmon, a high proportion of males die after spawning, and probably fewer than 20 % of anadromous female kelts recover from spawning. The migratory forms grow to significantly larger sizes for their age due to abundant forage fish in the waters where they spend most of their lives. Sea trout are more commonly female in less nutrient - rich rivers. Brown trout are active both by day and by night and are opportunistic feeders. While in fresh water, their diets frequently include invertebrates from the streambed, other fish, frogs, mice, birds, and insects flying near the water 's surface. The high dietary reliance upon insect larvae, pupae, nymphs, and adults allows trout to be a favoured target for fly fishing. Sea trout are fished for especially at night using wet flies. Brown trout can be caught with lures such as spoons, spinners, jigs, plugs, plastic worm imitations, and live or dead baitfish. Freshwater brown trout range in colour from largely silver with relatively few spots and a white belly, to the more well - known brassy brown cast fading to creamy white on the fish 's belly, with medium - sized spots surrounded by lighter halos. The more silver forms can be mistaken for rainbow trout. Regional variants include the so - called "Loch Leven '' trout, distinguished by larger fins, a slimmer body, and heavy black spotting, but lacking red spots. The continental European strain features a lighter golden cast with some red spotting and fewer dark spots. Notably, both strains can show considerable individual variation from this general description. Early stocking efforts in the United States used fish taken from Scotland and Germany.
Brown trout rarely form hybrids with other species; if they do, they are almost invariably infertile. One such example is the tiger trout, a hybrid with the brook trout.
Field studies have demonstrated that brown trout fed on several animal prey species, aquatic invertebrates being the most abundant prey items. However, brown trout also feed on other taxa such as terrestrial invertebrates (e.g. Hymenoptera) or other fish. Moreover, in brown trout, as in many other fish species, a change in the diet composition normally occurs during the life of the fish, and piscivorous behaviour is most frequent in large brown trout. These shifts in the diet during fish lifecycle transitions may be accompanied by a marked reduction in intraspecific competition in the fish population, facilitating the partitioning of resources.
First feeding of newly emerged fry is very important for brown trout survival in this phase of the lifecycle, and first feeding can occur even prior to emergence. Fry start to feed before complete yolk absorption and the diet composition of newly emerged brown trout is composed of small prey such as chironomid larvae or baetid nymphs.
The species has been widely introduced for sport fishing into North America, South America, Australia, New Zealand, and many other countries, including Bhutan, where they are the focus of a specialised fly fishery. First planting in the United States occurred April 11, 1884, into the Baldwin River, one mile east of Baldwin, MI. Brown trout have had serious negative impacts on upland native fish species in some of the countries where they have been introduced, particularly Australia. Because of the trout 's importance as a food and game fish, it has been artificially propagated and stocked in many places in its range, and fully natural populations (uncontaminated by allopatric genomes) probably exist only in isolated places, for example in Corsica or in high alpine valleys on the European mainland.
Farming of brown trout has included the production of infertile triploid fish by increasing the water temperature just after fertilisation of eggs, or more reliably, by a process known as pressure shocking. Triploids are favoured by anglers because they grow faster and larger than diploid trout. Proponents of stocking triploids argue, because they are infertile, they can be introduced into an environment that contains wild brown trout without the negative effects of cross-breeding. However, stocking triploids may damage wild stocks in other ways. Triploids certainly compete with diploid fish for food, space, and other resources. They could also be more aggressive than diploid fish and they may disturb spawning behaviour.
Scottish and Irish sea trout populations in recent years have seriously declined, possibly due to infestation by sea lice from salmon farms.
The brown trout has been a popular quarry of European anglers for centuries. It was first mentioned in angling literature as "fish with speckled skins '' by Roman author AElian (circa 200 AD) in On the Nature of Animals. This work is credited with describing the first instance of fly fishing for trout, the trout being the brown trout found in Macedonia. The Treatyse of Fysshynge with an Angle (1496) by Dame Juliana Berners, O.S.B is considered a foundational work in the history of recreational fishing, especially fly fishing. One of the most prominent fish described in the work is the brown trout of English rivers and streams:
The trout, because he is a right dainty fish and also a right fervent biter, we shall speak of next. He is in season from March until Michaelmas. He is on clean gravel bottom and in a stream.
The renowned The Compleat Angler (1653) by Izaak Walton is replete with advice on "the trout '':
The Trout is a fish highly valued, both in this and foreign nations. He may be justly said, as the old poet said of wine, and we English say of venison, to be a generous fish: a fish that is so like the buck, that he also has his seasons; for it is observed, that he comes in and goes out of season with the stag and buck. Gesner says, his name is of a German offspring; and says he is a fish that feeds clean and purely, in the swiftest streams, and on the hardest gravel; and that he may justly contend with all fresh water fish, as the Mullet may with all sea fish, for precedency and daintiness of taste; and that being in right season, the most dainty palates have allowed precedency to him.
Throughout the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, angling authors, mostly British, some French, and later American, writing about trout fishing were writing about fishing for brown trout. Once brown trout were introduced into the U.S. in the 1880s, they became a major subject of American angling literature. In 1889, Frederic M. Halford, a British angler, author published Dry - Fly Fishing in Theory and Practice, a seminal work codifying a half century of evolution of fly fishing with floating flies for brown trout. In the late 19th century, American angler and writer Theodore Gordon, often called the "Father of American Dry Fly Fishing '' perfected dry - fly techniques for the newly arrived, but difficult - to - catch brown trout in Catskill rivers such as the Beaverkill and Neversink Rivers. In the early 20th century, British angler and author G.E.M. Skues pioneered nymphing techniques for brown trout on English chalk streams. His Minor Tactics of the Chalk Stream (1910) began a revolution in fly fishing techniques for trout. In 1917, Scottish author Hamish Stuart published the first comprehensive text, The Book of The Sea Trout, specifically addressing angling techniques for the anadromous forms of brown trout.
Introductions of brown trout into the American West created new angling opportunities, none so successful from an angling perspective as was the introduction of browns into the upper Firehole River in Yellowstone National Park in 1890. One of the earliest accounts of trout fishing in the park is from Mary Trowbridge Townsend 's 1897 article in Outing Magazine "A Woman 's Trout Fishing in Yellowstone Park '' in which she talks about catching the von Behr trout in the river:
Long dashes down stream taxed my unsteady footing; the sharp click and whirr of the reel resounded in desperate efforts to hold him somewhat in check; another headlong dash, then a vicious bulldog shake of the head as he sawed back and forth across the rocks. Every wile inherited from generations of wily ancestors was tried until, in a moment of exhaustion, the net was slipped under him. Wading ashore with my prize, I had barely time to notice his size -- a good four - pounder, and unusual markings, large yellow spots encircled by black, with great brilliancy of iridescent color -- when back he flopped into the water and was gone. However, I took afterward several of the same variety, known in the Park as the Von Baer (sic) trout, and which I have since found to be the Salmo fario, the veritable trout of Izaak Walton.
Within the US, brown trout introductions have created self - sustaining fisheries throughout the country. Many are considered "world - class '' such as in the Great Lakes and in several Arkansas tailwaters. Outside the US and outside its native range in Europe, introduced brown trout have created "world - class '' fisheries in New Zealand, Patagonia and the Falklands.
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where is tauriel in the lord of the rings | Tauriel - wikipedia
Tauriel is a fictional character from Peter Jackson 's feature film adaptation of J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Hobbit. The character does not appear in the original book, but was created by Peter Jackson, Philippa Boyens and Fran Walsh as an expansion of material adapted from the book, and first appears in the second and third films in that trilogy, The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug and The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies. She is a Woodland Elf whose name has been translated as "Daughter of the forest '', and is the head of the Mirkwood Elven guard. She is played by Canadian actress Evangeline Lilly, who was nominated for several awards for her performance in The Desolation of Smaug, with some of the stunt work performed by Australian stuntwoman Ingrid Kleinig.
The character of Tauriel was created for the films, having no equivalent character in the original novel. She first appears in the second film of the trilogy, The Desolation of Smaug, released December 13, 2013. Prior to the decision to have three films instead of two, Tauriel was described as having a more substantial role in what was then the final film, The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies, which had been planned for release in 2013, but was finalized as the third part of the trilogy, which was released in December 2014.
In The Desolation of Smaug, the hobbit Bilbo Baggins, and thirteen dwarves, while traveling to Lonely Mountain, pass through the black forest of Mirkwood, where they are attacked and captured by giant spiders. The spiders are then attacked by the Wood Elves, led by Legolas and Tauriel. Tauriel in particular saves Kíli by killing two spiders that attacki him, but the Elves subsequently take the dwarves as prisoners for trespassing on their land. It is later mentioned that Tauriel is a talented warrior and was therefore made leader of the Mirkwood border guards. Legolas, the son of Mirkwood 's Elven king Thranduil, is indicated to be attracted to her, but as she is a lowly Silvan Elf, she does not believe herself worthy of him. Thranduil, in fact, makes it clear that he does not consider her to be a suitable match for his son and warns her not to give Legolas false hope
During the dwarves ' imprisonment, Tauriel forms a romantic bond with Kili. When the dwarves escape with Bilbo 's help, the pursuing Elves are attacked by orcs, during which Tauriel again uses her fighting skills to save Kili, though Kili is struck in the leg with an orc 's arrow, which Tauriel later learns from a captured orc is a Morgul - cursed weapon that will slowly kill him. Just before Thranduil seals off his kingdom upon learning that an evil entity has returned and is amassing great power in the south, Tauriel goes after the dwarves. Legolas follows, and initially tries to convince her to return, but when Tauriel refuses, saying that the Elves are part of Middle Earth and will be drawn into this inevitable war, Legolas joins her pursuit.
After acquiring provisions at Esgaroth, the dwarves leave for the Lonely Mountain, Kili, Fili, Bofur and Óin stay behind, with Kili suffering from the effects of the poison. By the time Tauriel and Legolas reach Esgaroth, the dwarves are being attacked by orcs. They repel the invaders, and Tauriel uses her knowledge of herbs and elvish medicine to heal Kili 's wound, saving his life once again.
In The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies, during Smaug 's attack on Esgaroth, Tauriel and the dwarves facilitate the evacuation of Bard 's family, though Bain leaves their company and helps Bard kill Smaug. The following morning, as the dwarves set out for Erebor to rejoin their company, Kili asks Tauriel to come with them, but her duties with Legolas forces them to part. When a messenger from Thranduil arrives to announce her banishment from the Mirkwood Realm for disobeying his orders, she joins Legolas in investigating the old fortress Gundabad, where they witness the departure of an army led by Bolg to join the forces of his father Azog marching against Erebor.
Hurrying towards the mountain, the two Elves arrive in the thick of the Battle of the Five Armies. When Tauriel witnesses Thranduil attempting to leave the battlefield, with the intent of sparing his people further bloodshed, she confronts him with her bow and a nocked arrow, refusing to abandon Kili to death. Thranduil, dismissing the depth of her feelings for Kili, destroys her bow, though he spares her life despite her defiance. Learning that Kili had joined Thorin 's pursuit of Azog, she and Legolas hurry to Azog 's command post, the Ravenhill, to aid the dwarves.
Running to find Kili, Tauriel is intercepted and brought to her knees by Bolg. Before the Orc can strike the fatal blow, however, Kili intervenes on her behalf, and Bolg kills him instead. In retaliation, Tauriel tackles Bolg, throwing him and herself off a ruined platform onto the rocks beneath, thus leading to Bolg 's final battle with Legolas, who kills Bolg. Following the resolution of the battle, Thranduil finds Tauriel weeping over Kili 's body, finally acknowledging that her feelings for the young dwarf were genuine.
In 1937 J.R.R. Tolkien published the fantasy novel The Hobbit, whose plot centres on a group consisting of the titular Bilbo Baggins, Gandalf the wizard and thirteen dwarves, who go in search of a treasure guarded by the dragon, Smaug. During the course of their travels, they enter the black forest of Mirkwood, where they find themselves in the dungeons of the Silvan Elves. During the climactic Battle of Five Armies at the end of the story, the dwarves, men and elves band together to fight an army of goblins and wargs.
Although the character Tauriel does not appear in this story, she was created to be the head of the Elven guard by Peter Jackson and his writing partners Philippa Boyens and Fran Walsh, (who is also Jackson 's wife and producing partner) in order to expand the world of the elves of Mirkwood Forest, and to bring another woman to the cast, which is otherwise dominated by men. The character Tauriel is a Silvan Elf, which means she is of a much lower order than the elves that had previously been seen in The Lord of the Rings film series, and holds a lower social status than characters like Arwen, Galadriel, Elrond, and Legolas. A Woodland Elf, her name has been translated as "Forest Daughter. ''
In June 2011 Peter Jackson announced that actress Evangeline Lilly, who was known for her portrayal of Kate Austen in the ABC television drama Lost, was cast in the role. Lilly, who had been a fan of Tolkien 's books since she was 13, expressed some trepidation at the reaction of Tolkien purists to a character that does not appear in Tolkien 's written works, but stated that creating the character for the adaptation was justified: "I believe she is authentic, because Tolkien refers to The Woodland Elves, he just does n't talk about who they are specifically... (Peter and Fran) know that world so well. They 're not going to create a character that is not true to Tolkien 's world. '' Nonetheless, following the June 12, 2013 release of the first trailer for the film, some fans expressed dissatisfaction with the creation of a character that did not originate in the source material.
As head of the Elven guard, Lilly says of Tauriel, "She 's slightly reckless and totally ruthless and does n't hesitate to kill. '' Lilly also describes Tauriel as a nonconformist, explaining that as a result of her relative youth among Elves, she is brash and impulsive, tending to rebel against the established social order of the Elves. Lilly explains, "She 's only 600 years old, she 's just a baby. So she 's a bit more impulsive, and she 's a bit more immature. I think she 's more easily romanticized by a lot of things. '' Alluding to Tauriel 's pursuit of the dwarves in The Desolation of Smaug after Thranduil closes his kingdom 's borders and forbids any interference on the part of Elves in outside affairs, and her refusal to fight alongside him in The Battle of the Five Armies, Lilly explains, "In a very out of character move for an elf, she 's broken ranks and disobeyed authority. That 's driven from her own conviction about what is right and what is wrong. She feels so much at odds with Thranduil, that she feels the need to defy him. I think that any defiant role that boxes authority is an easy fit for me, because in life I 'm a little bit like that. '' However, Tauriel also has a "softer side '', and her character arc includes a love story. Though she and Legolas first met as children, and their relationship is significant, her romantic arc is not with him, as she develops a mutual attraction to the dwarf Kili. Legolas ' father, the Elven king Thranduil, is fond of Tauriel, and "sees something very special in her '', though she understands that Thranduil would not approve of her pairing with his son, which Thranduil confirms in The Desolation of Smaug when he tells her not to give Legolas false hope of such a relationship. Lilly accepted the role under the condition that her role in The Hobbit would not include a love triangle. When she was called back into production for reshoots following the decision to split the story into three films instead of two, she was told that such a plot device would indeed be added to the story.
Filming of Tauriel 's scenes began in September 2011 in New Zealand, and was expected to last a year. Lilly stated that she enjoyed the relaxed atmosphere of the set, and the familiar experience of filming with a male - dominated cast, which was reminiscent of her work on Lost and The Hurt Locker. Lilly employed a language coach in order to effect the Elvish language.
In addition to the red wig she wore to effect Tauriel 's knee - length red hair, Lilly, when given a choice of wearing small, medium or large prosthetic ears, chose the large ones, which are three times the size of the prosthetics Orlando Bloom wore as Legolas, though Lilly believed that the length of her hair would distract attention from the ears. In terms of costuming, unlike previous female Elves who were noblewomen that wore complex formal gowns, Tauriel is a border guard and soldier, and therefore wears more pragmatic Elven military garb. The character is proficient in a variety of weapons, but mainly wields a bow and two daggers, weapons that are also used by the character Legolas, who also appears with her in The Hobbit films. Lilly employed a stunt coach for action scenes. She noted that the experience of having had her first child in May 2011 made aspects of filming the fighting scenes more strenuous than expected, commenting, "Recovering from labor is like recovering from a full - body injury, and I did n't realize to what extent that was true until I started training for elf fighting. My hips do n't move like they used to move, my back does n't move like it used to move, my shoulders are sore every day. But it 's fun. '' Although Lilly requested to do the character 's wirework herself, on account of her experience doing her own stunts on Lost, that work was performed by Lilly 's stunt double, Australian stuntwoman Ingrid Kleinig.
Tauriel is part of Lego set No. 79001 titled Escape from Mirkwood Spiders, together with minifigures of Legolas and the Dwarves Fíli and Kíli, and set No. 79016 titled Attack on Lake - Town, with minifigures of Bard, Bain, and 2 Hunter Orcs.
For her performance as Tauriel, Evangeline Lilly was nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress, the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress in an Action Movie, the Empire Award for Best Supporting Actress, and the 2014 Kids ' Choice Awards.
In an article written in The Huffington Post, Clarence Haynes compared Tauriel to Katniss Everdeen from The Hunger Games, describing both of them as archetypical embodiments of the ancient Greek goddess Artemis. Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post, in his review of The Desolation of Smaug, welcomed Tauriel 's addition to the set of characters and called her "a sort of pointy - eared Lara Croft ''.
Shaun Gunner, Chairman of the Tolkien Society, praised the inclusion of Tauriel as "the biggest gem and missed opportunity of this film '' stating that she provides "a strong and warm voice in the story '' but that the writers "were wrong to cheapen the character by putting her in a love - triangle ''. Fan reaction to Tauriel 's appearance in The Hobbit films, and to other changes made by Jackson in adapting Tolkien 's book for the screen, were parodied in the song and video "Who the ' ell is Tauriel? '' by The Esgaroth Three.
In Mad magazine 's parody of The Desolation of Smaug, writer Desmond Devlin emphasized the similarity of the setting in which actress Evangeline Lilly 's character was placed with that of her character on Lost, with her statement, "I ca n't believe I 'm back in another weird forest, fighting random threats and making random alliances on a vague and poorly - defined mission. I thought I was done with that stuff when they cancelled Lost! '' Devlin, who had begun a running joke of alluding to Legolas (called Legolamb in the parody) being effeminate in the magazine 's parodies of the original Lord of the Rings trilogy, also used Tauriel to return to that gag, as well as referencing Tauriel 's lack of canonicity.
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where is striated muscle found in the body | Striated muscle tissue - Wikipedia
Striated muscle tissue is a muscle tissue that features repeating functional units called sarcomeres, in contrast with smooth muscle tissue which does not. The presence of sarcomeres manifests as a series of bands visible along the muscle fibers, which is responsible for the striated appearance observed in microscopic images of this tissue. There are 3 types of specific striated muscles, these being:
Contractions in striated muscles are voluntary, except for the heart muscle, in which contractions are regulated involuntarily by the sinoatrial node. Cardiac muscle is often treated separately from the other striated muscles, as it has somewhat different characteristics. During voluntary contractions, a striated muscle is extended by the action of an antagonistic muscle. All striated muscles are attached to some component of the skeleton, unlike smooth muscle which comprises hollow organs such as the intestines or blood vessels. The fibers of striated muscle have a cylindrical shape with blunt ends, whereas those in smooth muscle can be described as being spindle - like with tapered ends. Two other characteristics that differentiate striated muscle from smooth muscle are the facts that the former has higher amounts of mitochondria and contains cells that are multinucleated.
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when did jackie robinson get the mvp award | Jackie Robinson - Wikipedia
Jack Roosevelt Robinson (January 31, 1919 -- October 24, 1972) was an American professional baseball second baseman who became the first African American to play in Major League Baseball (MLB) in the modern era. Robinson broke the baseball color line when the Brooklyn Dodgers started him at first base on April 15, 1947. When the Dodgers signed Robinson, they heralded the end of racial segregation in professional baseball that had relegated black players to the Negro leagues since the 1880s. Robinson was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962.
Robinson had an exceptional 10 - year MLB career. He was the recipient of the inaugural MLB Rookie of the Year Award in 1947, was an All - Star for six consecutive seasons from 1949 through 1954, and won the National League Most Valuable Player Award in 1949 -- the first black player so honored. Robinson played in six World Series and contributed to the Dodgers ' 1955 World Series championship.
In 1997, MLB "universally '' retired his uniform number, 42, across all major league teams; he was the first pro athlete in any sport to be so honored. MLB also adopted a new annual tradition, "Jackie Robinson Day '', for the first time on April 15, 2004, on which every player on every team wears No. 42.
Robinson 's character, his use of nonviolence, and his unquestionable talent challenged the traditional basis of segregation which then marked many other aspects of American life. He influenced the culture of and contributed significantly to the civil rights movement. Robinson also was the first black television analyst in MLB, and the first black vice president of a major American corporation, Chock full o'Nuts. In the 1960s, he helped establish the Freedom National Bank, an African - American - owned financial institution based in Harlem, New York. After his death in 1972, in recognition of his achievements on and off the field, Robinson was posthumously awarded the Congressional Gold Medal and Presidential Medal of Freedom.
Robinson was born on January 31, 1919, into a family of sharecroppers in Cairo, Georgia. He was the youngest of five children born to Mallie (McGriff) and Jerry Robinson, after siblings Edgar, Frank, Matthew (nicknamed "Mack ''), and Willa Mae. His middle name was in honor of former President Theodore Roosevelt, who died 25 days before Robinson was born. After Robinson 's father left the family in 1920, they moved to Pasadena, California.
The extended Robinson family established itself on a residential plot containing two small houses at 121 Pepper Street in Pasadena. Robinson 's mother worked various odd jobs to support the family. Growing up in relative poverty in an otherwise affluent community, Robinson and his minority friends were excluded from many recreational opportunities. As a result, Robinson joined a neighborhood gang, but his friend Carl Anderson persuaded him to abandon it.
In 1935, Robinson graduated from Washington Junior High School and enrolled at John Muir High School (Muir Tech). Recognizing his athletic talents, Robinson 's older brothers Mack (himself an accomplished athlete and silver medalist at the 1936 Summer Olympics) and Frank inspired Jackie to pursue his interest in sports.
At Muir Tech, Robinson played several sports at the varsity level and lettered in four of them: football, basketball, track, and baseball. He played shortstop and catcher on the baseball team, quarterback on the football team, and guard on the basketball team. With the track and field squad, he won awards in the broad jump. He was also a member of the tennis team.
In 1936, Robinson won the junior boys singles championship in the annual Pacific Coast Negro Tennis Tournament and earned a place on the Pomona annual baseball tournament all - star team, which included future Hall of Famers Ted Williams and Bob Lemon. In late January 1937, the Pasadena Star - News newspaper reported that Robinson "for two years has been the outstanding athlete at Muir, starring in football, basketball, track, baseball and tennis. ''
After Muir, Robinson attended Pasadena Junior College (PJC), where he continued his athletic career by participating in basketball, football, baseball, and track. On the football team, he played quarterback and safety. He was a shortstop and leadoff hitter for the baseball team, and he broke school broad - jump records held by his brother Mack. As at Muir High School, most of Jackie 's teammates were white. While playing football at PJC, Robinson suffered a fractured ankle, complications from which would eventually delay his deployment status while in the military. In 1938, he was elected to the All - Southland Junior College Team for baseball and selected as the region 's Most Valuable Player.
That year, Robinson was one of 10 students named to the school 's Order of the Mast and Dagger (Omicron Mu Delta), awarded to students performing "outstanding service to the school and whose scholastic and citizenship record is worthy of recognition. '' Also while at PJC, he was elected to the Lancers, a student - run police organization responsible for patrolling various school activities.
An incident at PJC illustrated Robinson 's impatience with authority figures he perceived as racist -- a character trait that would resurface repeatedly in his life. On January 25, 1938, he was arrested after vocally disputing the detention of a black friend by police. Robinson received a two - year suspended sentence, but the incident -- along with other rumored run - ins between Robinson and police -- gave Robinson a reputation for combativeness in the face of racial antagonism. While at PJC, he was motivated by a preacher (the Rev. Karl Downs) to attend church on a regular basis, and Downs became a confidant for Robinson, a Christian. Toward the end of his PJC tenure, Frank Robinson (to whom Robinson felt closest among his three brothers) was killed in a motorcycle accident. The event motivated Jackie to pursue his athletic career at the nearby University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), where he could remain closer to Frank 's family.
After graduating from PJC in spring 1939, Robinson enrolled at UCLA, where he became the school 's first athlete to win varsity letters in four sports: baseball, basketball, football, and track.
He was one of four black players on the Bruins ' 1939 football team; the others were Woody Strode, Kenny Washington, and Ray Bartlett. Washington, Strode, and Robinson made up three of the team 's four backfield players. At a time when only a few black students played mainstream college football, this made UCLA college football 's most integrated team. They went undefeated with four ties at 6 -- 0 -- 4.
In track and field, Robinson won the 1940 NCAA championship in the long jump at 24 ft 10 ⁄ in (7.58 m). Belying his future career, Robinson 's "worst sport '' at UCLA was baseball; he hit. 097 in his only season, although in his first game he went 4 - for - 4 and twice stole home.
While a senior at UCLA, Robinson met his future wife, Rachel Isum (b. 1922), a UCLA freshman who was familiar with Robinson 's athletic career at PJC. He played football as a senior, but the 1940 Bruins won only one game. In the spring, Robinson left college just shy of graduation, despite his mother 's and Isum 's reservations. He took a job as an assistant athletic director with the government 's National Youth Administration (NYA) in Atascadero, California.
After the government ceased NYA operations, Robinson traveled to Honolulu in the fall of 1941 to play football for the semi-professional, racially integrated Honolulu Bears. After a short season, Robinson returned to California in December 1941 to pursue a career as running back for the Los Angeles Bulldogs of the Pacific Coast Football League. By that time, however, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor had taken place, drawing the United States into World War II and ending Robinson 's nascent football career.
In 1942, Robinson was drafted and assigned to a segregated Army cavalry unit in Fort Riley, Kansas. Having the requisite qualifications, Robinson and several other black soldiers applied for admission to an Officer Candidate School (OCS) then located at Fort Riley. Although the Army 's initial July 1941 guidelines for OCS had been drafted as race neutral, few black applicants were admitted into OCS until after subsequent directives by Army leadership. As a result, the applications of Robinson and his colleagues were delayed for several months. After protests by heavyweight boxing champion Joe Louis (then stationed at Fort Riley) and the help of Truman Gibson (then an assistant civilian aide to the Secretary of War), the men were accepted into OCS. The experience led to a personal friendship between Robinson and Louis. Upon finishing OCS, Robinson was commissioned as a second lieutenant in January 1943. Shortly afterward, Robinson and Isum were formally engaged.
After receiving his commission, Robinson was reassigned to Fort Hood, Texas, where he joined the 761st "Black Panthers '' Tank Battalion. While at Fort Hood, Robinson often used his weekend leave to visit the Rev. Karl Downs, President of Sam Huston College (now Huston - Tillotson University) in nearby Austin, Texas; Downs had been Robinson 's pastor at Scott United Methodist Church while Robinson attended PJC.
An event on July 6, 1944 derailed Robinson 's military career. While awaiting results of hospital tests on the ankle he had injured in junior college, Robinson boarded an Army bus with a fellow officer 's wife; although the Army had commissioned its own unsegregated bus line, the bus driver ordered Robinson to move to the back of the bus. Robinson refused. The driver backed down, but after reaching the end of the line, summoned the military police, who took Robinson into custody. When Robinson later confronted the investigating duty officer about racist questioning by the officer and his assistant, the officer recommended Robinson be court - martialed. After Robinson 's commander in the 761st, Paul L. Bates, refused to authorize the legal action, Robinson was summarily transferred to the 758th Battalion -- where the commander quickly consented to charge Robinson with multiple offenses, including, among other charges, public drunkenness, even though Robinson did not drink.
By the time of the court - martial in August 1944, the charges against Robinson had been reduced to two counts of insubordination during questioning. Robinson was acquitted by an all - white panel of nine officers. The experiences Robinson was subjected to during the court proceedings would be remembered when he later joined MLB and was subjected to racist attacks. Although his former unit, the 761st Tank Battalion, became the first black tank unit to see combat in World War II, Robinson 's court - martial proceedings prohibited him from being deployed overseas; thus, he never saw combat action.
After his acquittal, he was transferred to Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky, where he served as a coach for army athletics until receiving an honorable discharge in November 1944. While there, Robinson met a former player for the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro American League, who encouraged Robinson to write the Monarchs and ask for a tryout. Robinson took the former player 's advice and wrote to Monarchs ' co-owner Thomas Baird.
After his discharge, Robinson briefly returned to his old football club, the Los Angeles Bulldogs. Robinson then accepted an offer from his old friend and pastor Rev. Karl Downs to be the athletic director at Samuel Huston College in Austin, then of the Southwestern Athletic Conference. The job included coaching the school 's basketball team for the 1944 -- 45 season. As it was a fledgling program, few students tried out for the basketball team, and Robinson even resorted to inserting himself into the lineup for exhibition games. Although his teams were outmatched by opponents, Robinson was respected as a disciplinarian coach, and drew the admiration of, among others, Langston University basketball player Marques Haynes, a future member of the Harlem Globetrotters.
In early 1945, while Robinson was at Sam Huston College, the Kansas City Monarchs sent him a written offer to play professional baseball in the Negro leagues. Robinson accepted a contract for $400 per month. Although he played well for the Monarchs, Robinson was frustrated with the experience. He had grown used to a structured playing environment in college, and the Negro leagues ' disorganization and embrace of gambling interests appalled him. The hectic travel schedule also placed a burden on his relationship with Isum, with whom he could now communicate only by letter. In all, Robinson played 47 games at shortstop for the Monarchs, hitting. 387 with five home runs, and registering 13 stolen bases. He also appeared in the 1945 Negro League All - Star Game, going hitless in five at - bats.
During the season, Robinson pursued potential major - league interests. No black man had played in the major leagues since Moses Fleetwood Walker in 1884, but the Boston Red Sox nevertheless held a tryout at Fenway Park for Robinson and other black players on April 16. The tryout, however, was a farce chiefly designed to assuage the desegregationist sensibilities of powerful Boston City Councilman Isadore Muchnick. Even with the stands limited to management, Robinson was subjected to racial epithets. He left the tryout humiliated, and more than fourteen years later, in July 1959, the Red Sox became the last major league team to integrate its roster.
Other teams, however, had more serious interest in signing a black ballplayer. In the mid-1940s, Branch Rickey, club president and general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, began to scout the Negro leagues for a possible addition to the Dodgers ' roster. Rickey selected Robinson from a list of promising black players and interviewed him for possible assignment to Brooklyn 's International League farm club, the Montreal Royals. Rickey was especially interested in making sure his eventual signee could withstand the inevitable racial abuse that would be directed at him. In a famous three - hour exchange on August 28, 1945, Rickey asked Robinson if he could face the racial animus without taking the bait and reacting angrily -- a concern given Robinson 's prior arguments with law enforcement officials at PJC and in the military. Robinson was aghast: "Are you looking for a Negro who is afraid to fight back? '' Rickey replied that he needed a Negro player "with guts enough not to fight back. '' After obtaining a commitment from Robinson to "turn the other cheek '' to racial antagonism, Rickey agreed to sign him to a contract for $600 a month, equal to $8,156 today. Rickey did not offer compensation to the Monarchs, instead believing all Negro league players were free agents due to the contracts ' not containing a reserve clause. Among those Rickey discussed prospects with was Wendell Smith, writer for the black weekly Pittsburgh Courier, who according to Cleveland Indians owner and team president Bill Veeck "influenced Rickey to take Jack Robinson, for which he 's never completely gotten credit. ''
Although he required Robinson to keep the arrangement a secret for the time being, Rickey committed to formally signing Robinson before November 1, 1945. On October 23, it was publicly announced that Robinson would be assigned to the Royals for the 1946 season. On the same day, with representatives of the Royals and Dodgers present, Robinson formally signed his contract with the Royals. In what was later referred to as "The Noble Experiment '', Robinson was the first black baseball player in the International League since the 1880s. He was not necessarily the best player in the Negro leagues, and black talents Satchel Paige and Josh Gibson were upset when Robinson was selected first. Larry Doby, who broke the color line in the American League the same year as Robinson, said, "One of the things that was disappointing and disheartening to a lot of the black players at the time was that Jack was not the best player. The best was Josh Gibson. I think that 's one of the reasons why Josh died so early -- he was heartbroken. ''
Rickey 's offer allowed Robinson to leave behind the Monarchs and their grueling bus rides, and he went home to Pasadena. That September, he signed with Chet Brewer 's Kansas City Royals, a post-season barnstorming team in the California Winter League. Later that off - season, he briefly toured South America with another barnstorming team, while his fiancée Isum pursued nursing opportunities in New York City. On February 10, 1946, Robinson and Isum were married by their old friend, the Rev. Karl Downs.
In 1946, Robinson arrived at Daytona Beach, Florida, for spring training with the Montreal Royals of the Class AAA International League (the designation of "AAA '' for the highest level of minor league baseball was first used in the 1946 season). Clay Hopper, the manager of the Royals, asked Rickey to assign Robinson to any other Dodger affiliate, but Rickey refused.
Robinson 's presence was controversial in racially charged Florida. As he was not allowed to stay with his teammates at the team hotel, he lodged instead at the home of a local black politician. Since the Dodgers organization did not own a spring training facility (the Dodger - controlled spring training compound in Vero Beach known as "Dodgertown '' did not open until spring 1948), scheduling was subject to the whim of area localities, several of which turned down any event involving Robinson or Johnny Wright, another black player whom Rickey had signed to the Dodgers ' organization in January. In Sanford, Florida, the police chief threatened to cancel games if Robinson and Wright did not cease training activities there; as a result, Robinson was sent back to Daytona Beach. In Jacksonville, the stadium was padlocked shut without warning on game day, by order of the city 's Parks and Public Property director. In DeLand, a scheduled day game was postponed, ostensibly because of issues with the stadium 's electrical lighting.
After much lobbying of local officials by Rickey himself, the Royals were allowed to host a game involving Robinson in Daytona Beach. Robinson made his Royals debut at Daytona Beach 's City Island Ballpark on March 17, 1946, in an exhibition game against the team 's parent club, the Dodgers. Robinson thus became the first black player to openly play for a minor league team against a major league team since the de facto baseball color line had been implemented in the 1880s.
Later in spring training, after some less - than - stellar performances, Robinson was shifted from shortstop to second base, allowing him to make shorter throws to first base. Robinson 's performance soon rebounded. On April 18, 1946, Roosevelt Stadium hosted the Jersey City Giants ' season opener against the Montreal Royals, marking the professional debut of the Royals ' Jackie Robinson and the first time the color barrier had been broken in a game between two minor league clubs. Pitching against Robinson was Warren Sandel who had played against him when they both lived in California. During Robinson 's first at bat, the Jersey City catcher, Dick Bouknight, demanded that Sandel throw at Robinson, but Sandel refused. Although Sandel induced Robinson to ground out at his first at bat, in his five trips to the plate, Robinson ended up with four hits, including his first hit, a three - run home run, in the game 's third inning. He also scored four runs, drove in three, and stole two bases in the Royals ' 14 -- 1 victory. Robinson proceeded to lead the International League that season with a. 349 batting average and. 985 fielding percentage, and he was named the league 's Most Valuable Player. Although he often faced hostility while on road trips (the Royals were forced to cancel a Southern exhibition tour, for example), the Montreal fan base enthusiastically supported Robinson. Whether fans supported or opposed it, Robinson 's presence on the field was a boon to attendance; more than one million people went to games involving Robinson in 1946, an amazing figure by International League standards. In the fall of 1946, following the baseball season, Robinson returned home to California and briefly played professional basketball for the short - lived Los Angeles Red Devils.
The following year, six days before the start of the 1947 season, the Dodgers called Robinson up to the major leagues. With Eddie Stanky entrenched at second base for the Dodgers, Robinson played his initial major league season as a first baseman. On April 15, 1947, Robinson made his major league debut at the relatively advanced age of 28 at Ebbets Field before a crowd of 26,623 spectators, more than 14,000 of whom were black. Although he failed to get a base hit, he walked and scored a run in the Dodgers ' 5 -- 3 victory. Robinson became the first player since 1880 to openly break the major league baseball color line. Black fans began flocking to see the Dodgers when they came to town, abandoning their Negro league teams.
Robinson 's promotion met a generally positive, although mixed, reception among newspapers and white major league players. However, racial tension existed in the Dodger clubhouse. Some Dodger players insinuated they would sit out rather than play alongside Robinson. The brewing mutiny ended when Dodgers management took a stand for Robinson. Manager Leo Durocher informed the team, "I do not care if the guy is yellow or black, or if he has stripes like a fuckin ' zebra. I 'm the manager of this team, and I say he plays. What 's more, I say he can make us all rich. And if any of you can not use the money, I will see that you are all traded. ''
Robinson was also derided by opposing teams. Some, notably the St. Louis Cardinals, threatened to strike if Robinson played, but also to spread the walkout across the entire National League. Existence of the plot was leaked by the Cardinals ' team physician, Robert Hyland, to a friend, the New York Herald Tribune 's Rutherford "Rud '' Rennie. The reporter, concerned about protecting Hyland 's anonymity and job, in turn leaked it to his Tribune colleague and editor, Stanley Woodward, whose own subsequent reporting with other sources protected Hyland. The Woodward article made national headlines. After the threat was exposed, National League President Ford Frick and Baseball Commissioner Happy Chandler let it be known that any striking players would be suspended. "You will find that the friends that you think you have in the press box will not support you, that you will be outcasts, '' threatened Chandler. "I do not care if half the league strikes. Those who do it will encounter quick retribution. All will be suspended and I do n't care if it wrecks the National League for five years. This is the United States of America and one citizen has as much right to play as another. '' Woodward 's article received the E.P. Dutton Award in 1947 for Best Sports Reporting. New York Times columnist Red Smith turned to the Cardinals ' 1947 racial strike in 1977, as a spate of commemorative articles appeared on the 30th anniversary of Robinson 's signing with the Dodgers. Smith remembered his old Herald Tribune colleagues ' part in exposing the players ' strike conspiracy. It would have succeeded, wrote Smith, "... if Rud Rennie and Stanley Woodward had n't exposed their intentions in the New York Herald Tribune. ''
Robinson nonetheless became the target of rough physical play by opponents (particularly the Cardinals). At one time, he received a seven - inch gash in his leg from Enos Slaughter. On April 22, 1947, during a game between the Dodgers and the Philadelphia Phillies, Phillies players and manager Ben Chapman called Robinson a "nigger '' from their dugout and yelled that he should "go back to the cotton fields ''. Rickey later recalled that Chapman "did more than anybody to unite the Dodgers. When he poured out that string of unconscionable abuse, he solidified and united thirty men. ''
Robinson did, however, receive significant encouragement from several major league players. Robinson named Lee "Jeep '' Handley, who played for the Phillies at the time, as the first opposing player to wish him well. Dodgers teammate Pee Wee Reese once came to Robinson 's defense with the famous line, "You can hate a man for many reasons. Color is not one of them. '' In 1948, Reese put his arm around Robinson in response to fans who shouted racial slurs at Robinson before a game in Cincinnati. A statue by sculptor William Behrends, unveiled at KeySpan Park on November 1, 2005, commemorates this event by representing Reese with his arm around Robinson. Jewish baseball star Hank Greenberg, who had to deal with racial epithets during his career, also encouraged Robinson. Following an incident where Greenberg collided with Robinson at first base, he "whispered a few words into Robinson 's ear '', which Robinson later characterized as "words of encouragement. '' Greenberg had advised him to overcome his critics by defeating them in games. Robinson also talked frequently with Larry Doby, who endured his own hardships since becoming the first black player in the American League with the Cleveland Indians, as the two spoke to one another via telephone throughout the season.
Robinson finished the season having played in 151 games for the Dodgers, with a batting average of. 297, an on - base percentage of. 383, and a. 427 slugging percentage. He had 175 hits (scoring 125 runs) including 31 doubles, 5 triples, and 12 home runs, driving in 48 runs for the year. Robinson led the league in sacrifice hits, with 28, and in stolen bases, with 29. His cumulative performance earned him the inaugural Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award (separate National and American League Rookie of the Year honors were not awarded until 1949).
Following Stanky 's trade to the Boston Braves in March 1948, Robinson took over second base, where he logged a. 980 fielding percentage that year (second in the National League at the position, fractionally behind Stanky). Robinson had a batting average of. 296 and 22 stolen bases for the season. In a 12 -- 7 win against the St. Louis Cardinals on August 29, 1948, he hit for the cycle -- a home run, a triple, a double, and a single in the same game. The Dodgers briefly moved into first place in the National League in late August 1948, but they ultimately finished third as the Braves went on to win the league title and lose to the Cleveland Indians in the World Series.
Racial pressure on Robinson eased in 1948 as a number of other black players entered the major leagues. Larry Doby (who broke the color barrier in the American League on July 5, 1947, just 11 weeks after Robinson) and Satchel Paige played for the Cleveland Indians, and the Dodgers had three other black players besides Robinson. In February 1948, he signed a $12,500 contract (equal to $127,320 today) with the Dodgers; while a significant amount, this was less than Robinson made in the off - season from a vaudeville tour, where he answered pre-set baseball questions, and a speaking tour of the South. Between the tours, he underwent surgery on his right ankle. Because of his off - season activities, Robinson reported to training camp 30 pounds (14 kg) overweight. He lost the weight during training camp, but dieting left him weak at the plate. In 1948, Wendell Smith 's book, Jackie Robinson: My Own Story, was released.
In the spring of 1949, Robinson turned to Hall of Famer George Sisler, working as an advisor to the Dodgers, for batting help. At Sisler 's suggestion, Robinson spent hours at a batting tee, learning to hit the ball to right field. Sisler taught Robinson to anticipate a fastball, on the theory that it is easier to subsequently adjust to a slower curveball. Robinson also noted that "Sisler showed me how to stop lunging, how to check my swing until the last fraction of a second ''. The tutelage helped Robinson raise his batting average from. 296 in 1948 to. 342 in 1949. In addition to his improved batting average, Robinson stole 37 bases that season, was second place in the league for both doubles and triples, and registered 124 runs batted in with 122 runs scored. For the performance Robinson earned the Most Valuable Player Award for the National League. Baseball fans also voted Robinson as the starting second baseman for the 1949 All - Star Game -- the first All - Star Game to include black players.
That year, a song about Robinson by Buddy Johnson, "Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball? '', reached number 13 on the charts; Count Basie recorded a famous version. Ultimately, the Dodgers won the National League pennant, but lost in five games to the New York Yankees in the 1949 World Series.
Summer 1949 brought an unwanted distraction for Robinson. In July, he was called to testify before the United States House of Representatives ' Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) concerning statements made that April by black athlete and actor Paul Robeson. Robinson was reluctant to testify, but he eventually agreed to do so, fearing it might negatively affect his career if he declined.
In 1950, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman with 133. His salary that year was the highest any Dodger had been paid to that point: $35,000 ($356,003 in 2017 dollars). He finished the year with 99 runs scored, a. 328 batting average, and 12 stolen bases. The year saw the release of a film biography of Robinson 's life, The Jackie Robinson Story, in which Robinson played himself, and actress Ruby Dee played Rachael "Rae '' (Isum) Robinson. The project had been previously delayed when the film 's producers refused to accede to demands of two Hollywood studios that the movie include scenes of Robinson being tutored in baseball by a white man. The New York Times wrote that Robinson, "doing that rare thing of playing himself in the picture 's leading role, displays a calm assurance and composure that might be envied by many a Hollywood star. ''
Robinson 's Hollywood exploits, however, did not sit well with Dodgers co-owner Walter O'Malley, who referred to Robinson as "Rickey 's prima donna ''. In late 1950, Rickey 's contract as the Dodgers ' team President expired. Weary of constant disagreements with O'Malley, and with no hope of being re-appointed as President of the Dodgers, Rickey cashed out his one - quarter financial interest in the team, leaving O'Malley in full control of the franchise. Rickey shortly thereafter became general manager of the Pittsburgh Pirates. Robinson was disappointed at the turn of events and wrote a sympathetic letter to Rickey, whom he considered a father figure, stating, "Regardless of what happens to me in the future, it all can be placed on what you have done and, believe me, I appreciate it. ''
Before the 1951 season, O'Malley reportedly offered Robinson the job of manager of the Montreal Royals, effective at the end of Robinson 's playing career. O'Malley was quoted in the Montreal Standard as saying, "Jackie told me that he would be both delighted and honored to tackle this managerial post '' -- although reports differed as to whether a position was ever formally offered.
During the 1951 season, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman for the second year in a row, with 137. He also kept the Dodgers in contention for the 1951 pennant. During the last game of the regular season, in the 13th inning, he had a hit to tie the game, and then won the game with a home run in the 14th. This forced a best - of - three playoff series against the crosstown rival New York Giants.
Despite Robinson 's regular - season heroics, the Dodgers lost the pennant on Bobby Thomson 's famous home run, known as the Shot Heard ' Round the World, on October 3, 1951. Overcoming his dejection, Robinson dutifully observed Thomson 's feet to ensure he touched all the bases. Dodgers sportscaster Vin Scully later noted that the incident showed "how much of a competitor Robinson was. '' He finished the season with 106 runs scored, a batting average of. 335, and 25 stolen bases.
Robinson had what was an average year for him in 1952. He finished the year with 104 runs, a. 308 batting average, and 24 stolen bases. He did, however, record a career - high on - base percentage of. 436. The Dodgers improved on their performance from the year before, winning the National League pennant before losing the 1952 World Series to the New York Yankees in seven games. That year, on the television show Youth Wants to Know, Robinson challenged the Yankees ' general manager, George Weiss, on the racial record of his team, which had yet to sign a black player. Sportswriter Dick Young, whom Robinson had described as a "bigot '', said, "If there was one flaw in Jackie, it was the common one. He believed that everything unpleasant that happened to him happened because of his blackness. '' The 1952 season was the last year Robinson was an everyday starter at second base. Afterward, Robinson played variously at first, second, and third bases, shortstop, and in the outfield, with Jim Gilliam, another black player, taking over everyday second base duties. Robinson 's interests began to shift toward the prospect of managing a major league team. He had hoped to gain experience by managing in the Puerto Rican Winter League, but according to the New York Post, Commissioner Happy Chandler denied the request.
In 1953, Robinson had 109 runs, a. 329 batting average, and 17 steals, leading the Dodgers to another National League pennant (and another World Series loss to the Yankees, this time in six games). Robinson 's continued success spawned a string of death threats. He was not dissuaded, however, from addressing racial issues publicly. That year, he served as editor for Our Sports magazine, a periodical focusing on Negro sports issues; contributions to the magazine included an article on golf course segregation by Robinson 's old friend Joe Louis. Robinson also openly criticized segregated hotels and restaurants that served the Dodger organization; a number of these establishments integrated as a result, including the five - star Chase Park Hotel in St. Louis.
In 1954, Robinson had 62 runs scored, a. 311 batting average, and 7 steals. His best day at the plate was on June 17, when he hit two home runs and two doubles. The following autumn, Robinson won his only championship when the Dodgers beat the New York Yankees in the 1955 World Series. Although the team enjoyed ultimate success, 1955 was the worst year of Robinson 's individual career. He hit. 256 and stole only 12 bases. The Dodgers tried Robinson in the outfield and as a third baseman, both because of his diminishing abilities and because Gilliam was established at second base. Robinson, then 37 years old, missed 49 games and did not play in Game 7 of the World Series. Robinson missed the game because manager Walter Alston decided to play Gilliam at second and Don Hoak at third base. That season, the Dodgers ' Don Newcombe became the first black major league pitcher to win twenty games in a year.
In 1956, Robinson had 61 runs scored, a. 275 batting average, and 12 steals. By then, he had begun to exhibit the effects of diabetes, and to lose interest in the prospect of playing or managing professional baseball. After the season, Robinson was traded by the Dodgers to the arch - rival New York Giants for Dick Littlefield and $35,000 cash (equal to $315,043 today). The trade, however, was never completed; unbeknownst to the Dodgers, Robinson had already agreed with the president of Chock full o'Nuts to quit baseball and become an executive with the company. Since Robinson had sold exclusive rights to any retirement story to Look magazine two years previously, his retirement decision was revealed through the magazine, instead of through the Dodgers organization.
Robinson 's major league debut brought an end to approximately sixty years of segregation in professional baseball, known as the baseball color line. After World War II, several other forces were also leading the country toward increased equality for blacks, including their accelerated migration to the North, where their political clout grew, and President Harry Truman 's desegregation of the military in 1948. Robinson 's breaking of the baseball color line and his professional success symbolized these broader changes and demonstrated that the fight for equality was more than simply a political matter. Martin Luther King, Jr. said that he was "a legend and a symbol in his own time '', and that he "challenged the dark skies of intolerance and frustration. '' According to historian Doris Kearns Goodwin, Robinson 's "efforts were a monumental step in the civil - rights revolution in America... (His) accomplishments allowed black and white Americans to be more respectful and open to one another and more appreciative of everyone 's abilities. ''
Beginning his major league career at the relatively advanced age of twenty - eight, he played only ten seasons from 1947 to 1956, all of them for the Brooklyn Dodgers. During his career, the Dodgers played in six World Series, and Robinson himself played in six All - Star Games. In 1999, he was posthumously named to the Major League Baseball All - Century Team.
Robinson 's career is generally considered to mark the beginning of the post -- "long ball '' era in baseball, in which a reliance on raw power - hitting gave way to balanced offensive strategies that used footspeed to create runs through aggressive baserunning. Robinson exhibited the combination of hitting ability and speed which exemplified the new era. He scored more than 100 runs in six of his ten seasons (averaging more than 110 runs from 1947 to 1953), had a. 311 career batting average, a. 409 career on - base percentage, a. 474 slugging percentage, and substantially more walks than strikeouts (740 to 291). Robinson was one of only two players during the span of 1947 -- 56 to accumulate at least 125 steals while registering a slugging percentage over. 425 (Minnie Miñoso was the other). He accumulated 197 stolen bases in total, including 19 steals of home. None of the latter were double steals (in which a player stealing home is assisted by a player stealing another base at the same time). Robinson has been referred to by author David Falkner as "the father of modern base - stealing ''.
-- Robinson, on his legacy
Historical statistical analysis indicates Robinson was an outstanding fielder throughout his ten years in the major leagues and at virtually every position he played. After playing his rookie season at first base, Robinson spent most of his career as a second baseman. He led the league in fielding among second basemen in 1950 and 1951. Toward the end of his career, he played about 2,000 innings at third base and about 1,175 innings in the outfield, excelling at both.
Assessing himself, Robinson said, "I 'm not concerned with your liking or disliking me... all I ask is that you respect me as a human being. '' Regarding Robinson 's qualities on the field, Leo Durocher said, "Ya want a guy that comes to play. This guy did n't just come to play. He come to beat ya. He come to stuff the goddamn bat right up your ass. ''
Robinson portrayed himself in the 1950 motion picture The Jackie Robinson Story. Other portrayals include:
Robinson was also the subject of a 2016 PBS documentary, Jackie Robinson, which was directed by Ken Burns and features Jamie Foxx doing voice - over as Robinson.
Robinson once told future Hall of Fame inductee Hank Aaron that "the game of baseball is great, but the greatest thing is what you do after your career is over. '' Robinson retired from baseball at age 37 on January 5, 1957. Later that year, after he complained of numerous physical ailments, his doctors diagnosed him with diabetes, a disease that also afflicted his brothers. Although Robinson adopted an insulin injection regimen, the state of medicine at the time could not prevent the continued deterioration of Robinson 's physical condition from the disease.
In his first year of eligibility for the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962, Robinson encouraged voters to consider only his on - field qualifications, rather than his cultural impact on the game. He was elected on the first ballot, becoming the first black player inducted into the Cooperstown museum.
In 1965, Robinson served as an analyst for ABC 's Major League Baseball Game of the Week telecasts, the first black person to do so. In 1966, Robinson was hired as general manager for the short - lived Brooklyn Dodgers of the Continental Football League. In 1972, he served as a part - time commentator on Montreal Expos telecasts.
On June 4, 1972, the Dodgers retired his uniform number, 42, alongside those of Roy Campanella (39) and Sandy Koufax (32). From 1957 to 1964, Robinson was the vice president for personnel at Chock full o'Nuts; he was the first black person to serve as vice president of a major American corporation. Robinson always considered his business career as advancing the cause of black people in commerce and industry. Robinson also chaired the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People 's (NAACP) million - dollar Freedom Fund Drive in 1957, and served on the organization 's board until 1967. In 1964, he helped found, with Harlem businessman Dunbar McLaurin, Freedom National Bank -- a black - owned and operated commercial bank based in Harlem. He also served as the bank 's first chairman of the board. In 1970, Robinson established the Jackie Robinson Construction Company to build housing for low - income families.
Robinson was active in politics throughout his post-baseball life. He identified himself as a political independent, although he held conservative opinions on several issues, including the Vietnam War (he once wrote to Martin Luther King, Jr. to defend the Johnson Administration 's military policy). After supporting Richard Nixon in his 1960 presidential race against John F. Kennedy, Robinson later praised Kennedy effusively for his stance on civil rights. Robinson was angered by conservative Republican opposition to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, though a higher percentage of Democrats voted against it in both the House and Senate. He became one of six national directors for Nelson Rockefeller 's unsuccessful campaign to be nominated as the Republican candidate for the 1964 presidential election. After the party nominated Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona instead, Robinson left the party 's convention commenting that he now had "a better understanding of how it must have felt to be a Jew in Hitler 's Germany ''. He later became special assistant for community affairs when Rockefeller was re-elected governor of New York in 1966. Switching his allegiance to the Democrats, he subsequently supported Hubert Humphrey against Nixon in 1968.
Robinson protested against the major leagues ' ongoing lack of minority managers and central office personnel, and he turned down an invitation to appear in an old - timers ' game at Yankee Stadium in 1969. He made his final public appearance on October 15, 1972, throwing the ceremonial first pitch before Game 2 of the World Series at Riverfront Stadium in Cincinnati. He gratefully accepted a plaque honoring the twenty - fifth anniversary of his MLB debut, but also commented, "I 'm going to be tremendously more pleased and more proud when I look at that third base coaching line one day and see a black face managing in baseball. '' This wish was only fulfilled after Robinson 's death: following the 1974 season, the Cleveland Indians gave their managerial post to Frank Robinson (no relation to Jackie), a Hall of Fame - bound player who would go on to manage three other teams. Despite the success of these two Robinsons and other black players, the number of African - American players in Major League Baseball has declined since the 1970s.
After Robinson 's retirement from baseball, his wife Rachel Robinson pursued a career in academic nursing. She became an assistant professor at the Yale School of Nursing and director of nursing at the Connecticut Mental Health Center. She also served on the board of the Freedom National Bank until it closed in 1990. She and Jackie had three children: Jackie Robinson Jr. (1946 -- 1971), Sharon Robinson (b. 1950), and David Robinson (b. 1952).
Robinson 's eldest son, Jackie Robinson Jr., had emotional trouble during his childhood and entered special education at an early age. He enrolled in the Army in search of a disciplined environment, served in the Vietnam War, and was wounded in action on November 19, 1965. After his discharge, he struggled with drug problems. Robinson Jr. eventually completed the treatment program at Daytop Village in Seymour, Connecticut, and became a counselor at the institution. On June 17, 1971, he was killed in an automobile accident at age 24. The experience with his son 's drug addiction turned Robinson Sr. into an avid anti-drug crusader toward the end of his life.
Robinson did not long outlive his son. Complications from heart disease and diabetes weakened Robinson and made him almost blind by middle age. On October 24, 1972, nine days after his appearance at the World Series, Robinson died of a heart attack at his home on 95 Cascade Road in North Stamford, Connecticut; he was 53 years old. Robinson 's funeral service on October 27, 1972, at Upper Manhattan 's Riverside Church adjacent to Grant 's Tomb in Morningside Heights, attracted 2,500 mourners. Many of his former teammates and other famous baseball players served as pallbearers, and the Rev. Jesse Jackson gave the eulogy. Tens of thousands of people lined the subsequent procession route to Robinson 's interment site at Cypress Hills Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York, where he was buried next to his son Jackie and mother - in - law Zellee Isum. Twenty - five years after Robinson 's death, the Interboro Parkway was renamed the Jackie Robinson Parkway in his memory. This parkway bisects the cemetery in close proximity to Robinson 's gravesite.
After Robinson 's death, his widow founded the Jackie Robinson Foundation, and she remains an officer as of 2018. On April 15, 2008, she announced that in 2010 the foundation will be opening a museum devoted to Jackie in Lower Manhattan. Robinson 's daughter, Sharon, became a midwife, educator, director of educational programming for MLB, and the author of two books about her father. His youngest son, David, who has six children, is a coffee grower and social activist in Tanzania.
According to a poll conducted in 1947, Robinson was the second most popular man in the country, behind Bing Crosby. In 1999, he was named by Time on its list of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century. Also in 1999, he ranked number 44 on the Sporting News list of Baseball 's 100 Greatest Players and was elected to the Major League Baseball All - Century Team as the top vote - getter among second basemen. Baseball writer Bill James, in The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract, ranked Robinson as the 32nd greatest player of all time strictly on the basis of his performance on the field, noting that he was one of the top players in the league throughout his career. Robinson was among the 25 charter members of UCLA 's Athletics Hall of Fame in 1984. In 2002, Molefi Kete Asante included Robinson on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans. Robinson has also been honored by the United States Postal Service on three separate postage stamps, in 1982, 1999, and 2000.
The City of Pasadena has recognized Robinson in several ways. Brookside Park, situated next to the Rose Bowl, features a baseball diamond and stadium named Jackie Robinson Field. The city 's Human Services Department operates the Jackie Robinson Center, a community outreach center that provides health services. In 1997, a $325,000 bronze sculpture (equal to $495,450 today) by artists Ralph Helmick, Stu Schecter, and John Outterbridge depicting oversized nine - foot busts of Robinson and his brother Mack was erected at Garfield Avenue, across from the main entrance of Pasadena City Hall; a granite footprint lists multiple donors to the commission project, which was organized by the Robinson Memorial Foundation and supported by members of the Robinson family.
Major League Baseball has honored Robinson many times since his death. In 1987, both the National and American League Rookie of the Year Awards were renamed the "Jackie Robinson Award '' in honor of the first recipient (Robinson 's Major League Rookie of the Year Award in 1947 encompassed both leagues). On April 15, 1997, Robinson 's jersey number, 42, was retired throughout Major League Baseball, the first time any jersey number had been retired throughout one of the four major American sports leagues. Under the terms of the retirement, a grandfather clause allowed the handful of players who wore number 42 to continue doing so in tribute to Robinson, until such time as they subsequently changed teams or jersey numbers. This affected players such as the Mets ' Butch Huskey and Boston 's Mo Vaughn. The Yankees ' Mariano Rivera, who retired at the end of the 2013 season, was the last player in Major League Baseball to wear jersey number 42 on a regular basis. Since 1997, only Wayne Gretzky 's number 99, retired by the NHL in 2000, has been retired league - wide. There have also been calls for MLB to retire number 21 league - wide in honor of Roberto Clemente, a sentiment opposed by the Robinson family. The Hispanics Across America advocacy group wants Clemente 's number set aside the way the late Robinson 's No. 42 was in 1997, but Sharon Robinson maintained the position that such an honor should remain in place for Jackie Robinson only.
As an exception to the retired - number policy, MLB began honoring Robinson by allowing players to wear number 42 on April 15, Jackie Robinson Day, which is an annual observance that started in 2004. For the 60th anniversary of Robinson 's major league debut, MLB invited players to wear the number 42 on Jackie Robinson Day in 2007. The gesture was originally the idea of outfielder Ken Griffey, Jr., who sought Rachel Robinson 's permission to wear the number. After receiving her permission, Commissioner Bud Selig not only allowed Griffey to wear the number, but also extended an invitation to all major league teams to do the same. Ultimately, more than 200 players wore number 42, including the entire rosters of the Los Angeles Dodgers, New York Mets, Houston Astros, Philadelphia Phillies, St. Louis Cardinals, Milwaukee Brewers, and Pittsburgh Pirates. The tribute was continued in 2008, when, during games on April 15, all members of the Mets, Cardinals, Washington Nationals, and Tampa Bay Rays wore Robinson 's number 42. On June 25, 2008, MLB installed a new plaque for Robinson at the Baseball Hall of Fame commemorating his off - the - field impact on the game as well as his playing statistics. In 2009, all uniformed personnel (players, managers, coaches, and umpires) wore number 42 on April 15.
At the November 2006 groundbreaking for Citi Field, the new ballpark for the New York Mets, it was announced that the main entrance, modeled on the one in Brooklyn 's old Ebbets Field, would be called the Jackie Robinson Rotunda. The rotunda was dedicated at the opening of Citi Field on April 16, 2009. It honors Robinson with large quotations spanning the inner curve of the facade and features a large freestanding statue of his number, 42, which has become an attraction in itself. Mets owner Fred Wilpon announced that the Mets -- in conjunction with Citigroup and the Jackie Robinson Foundation -- will create a Jackie Robinson Museum and Learning Center, located at the headquarters of the Jackie Robinson Foundation at One Hudson Square, along Canal Street in lower Manhattan. Along with the museum, scholarships will be awarded to "young people who live by and embody Jackie 's ideals. '' The museum hopes to open by 2019. At Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles, a statue of Robinson was introduced in 2017.
Since 2004, the Aflac National High School Baseball Player of the Year has been presented the "Jackie Robinson Award ''.
Robinson has also been recognized outside of baseball. In December 1956, the NAACP recognized him with the Spingarn Medal, which it awards annually for the highest achievement by an African - American. President Ronald Reagan posthumously awarded Robinson the Presidential Medal of Freedom on March 26, 1984, and on March 2, 2005, President George W. Bush gave Robinson 's widow the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award bestowed by Congress; Robinson was only the second baseball player to receive the award, after Roberto Clemente. On August 20, 2007, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and his wife, Maria Shriver, announced that Robinson was inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts in Sacramento.
A number of buildings have been named in Robinson 's honor. The UCLA Bruins baseball team plays in Jackie Robinson Stadium, which, because of the efforts of Jackie 's brother Mack, features a memorial statue of Robinson by sculptor Richard H. Ellis. The stadium also unveiled a new mural of Robinson by Mike Sullivan on April 14, 2013. City Island Ballpark in Daytona Beach, Florida was renamed Jackie Robinson Ballpark in 1990 and a statue of Robinson with two children stands in front of the ballpark. His wife Rachel was present for the dedication on September 15. 1990. A number of facilities at Pasadena City College (successor to PJC) are named in Robinson 's honor, including Robinson Field, a football / soccer / track facility named jointly for Robinson and his brother Mack. The New York Public School system has named a middle school after Robinson, and Dorsey High School plays at a Los Angeles football stadium named after him. In 1976, his home in Brooklyn, the Jackie Robinson House, was declared a National Historic Landmark. Brooklyn residents want to turn his home into a city landmark. Robinson also has an asteroid named after him, 4319 Jackierobinson. In 1997, the United States Mint issued a Jackie Robinson commemorative silver dollar, and five - dollar gold coin. That same year, New York City renamed the Interboro Parkway in his honor.
In 2011, the U.S. placed a plaque at Robinson 's Montreal home to honor the ending of segregation in baseball. The house, at 8232 avenue de Gaspé near Jarry Park, was Robinson 's residence when he played for the Montreal Royals during 1946. In a letter read during the ceremony, Rachel Robinson, Jackie 's widow, wrote: "I remember Montreal and that house very well and have always had warm feeling for that great city. Before Jack and I moved to Montreal, we had just been through some very rough treatment in the racially biased South during spring training in Florida. In the end, Montreal was the perfect place for him to get his start. We never had a threatening or unpleasant experience there. The people were so welcoming and saw Jack as a player and as a man. ''
On November 22, 2014, UCLA announced that it would officially retire the number 42 across all university sports, effective immediately. While Robinson wore several different numbers during his UCLA career, the school chose 42 because it had become indelibly identified with him. The only sport this did not affect was men 's basketball, which had previously retired the number for Walt Hazzard (although Kevin Love was actually the last player in that sport to wear 42, with Hazzard 's blessing). In a move paralleling that of MLB when it retired the number, UCLA allowed three athletes (in women 's soccer, softball, and football) who were already wearing 42 to continue to do so for the remainder of their UCLA careers. The school also announced it would prominently display the number at all of its athletic venues.
A jersey Robinson brought home with him in 1947 after his rookie season was sold at an auction for $2.05 million on November 19, 2017. The price was the highest ever paid for a post-World War II jersey.
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show me a map of the snake river | Snake River - wikipedia
The Snake River is a major river of the greater Pacific Northwest in the United States. At 1,078 miles (1,735 km) long, it is the largest tributary of the Columbia River, the largest North American river that empties into the Pacific Ocean. Rising in western Wyoming, the river flows through the Snake River Plain of southern Idaho, then through the rugged Hells Canyon area via northeastern Oregon and the rolling Palouse Hills, to reach its mouth near the Washington Tri-Cities area, where it enters the Columbia. Its drainage basin encompasses parts of six U.S. states, and its average discharge is over 54,000 cubic feet per second (1,500 m / s).
Rugged mountains divided by rolling plains characterize the physiographically diverse watershed of the Snake River. The Snake River Plain was created by a volcanic hotspot which now lies underneath Yellowstone National Park, where the headwaters of the Snake River arise. Gigantic glacial - retreat flooding episodes that occurred during the previous Ice Age carved out many topographical features, including various canyons and ridges along the middle and lower Snake River. Two of these catastrophic flooding events significantly affected the river and its surrounds.
More than 11,000 years ago, prehistoric Native Americans lived along the Snake. Salmon from the Pacific Ocean spawned by the millions in the river. These fish were central to the lives of the people along the Snake below Shoshone Falls. By the time Lewis and Clark crossed the Rockies and sighted the valley of a Snake tributary, the Nez Perce and Shoshone were the most powerful peoples in the region. Some tribes adopted use of horses after contact with Europeans, which reshaped their hunting and cultures for the next few hundred years before outside settlement. Later explorers and fur trappers further changed and used the resources of the Snake River basin. At one point, a hand sign made by the Shoshones representing fish was misinterpreted to represent a snake, giving the Snake River its name.
By the middle 19th century, the Oregon Trail, a pioneer trail of which a major portion followed the Snake River, had been established by aspiring settlers and traders. Steamboats and railroads moved agricultural products and minerals along the river throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. The powerful, steep flow of the Snake River has been used since the 1890s to generate hydroelectricity, enhance navigation, and provide irrigation water from fifteen major dams built on the lower river, transforming it into a series of reservoirs. Several of these have been proposed for removal in order to restore some of the river 's once - tremendous salmon runs.
Formed by the confluence of three tiny headstreams on the southwest flank of Two Oceans Plateau in western Wyoming and Yellowstone National Park, the Snake starts out as a small river flowing west and south into Jackson Lake. Its first 50 miles (80 km) run through the valley of Jackson Hole, which cuts between the Teton Range and the Continental Divide. The Snake takes a large bend northwest through Snake River Canyon, cutting through the Snake River Range and into eastern Idaho, receiving first the Hoback and Greys rivers before entering Palisades Reservoir. There it is also met by the Salt River at the mouth of Star Valley. After passing through Palisades Dam, the Snake River flows through the Snake River Plain, a vast physiographic province extending through southern Idaho across the massif of the Rocky Mountains and underlain by the Snake River Aquifer, one of the most productive aquifers in the United States.
Southwest of the city of Rexburg, the Snake receives from the right the Henrys Fork, sometimes called the North Fork of the Snake River. The confluence with the Henrys Fork takes the river southwards through downtown Idaho Falls, rounding the Fort Hall Indian Reservation and into American Falls Reservoir, receiving the Portneuf River. The Portneuf River Valley is an overflow channel that in the last glacial period carried floodwaters from pluvial Lake Bonneville into the Snake River Plain, carving out many topographic features and significantly altering the Snake River landscape. The Snake River resumes its journey westwards, then enters the Snake River Canyon of Idaho, where it drops over Shoshone Falls, a waterfall that marks the historical upriver limit of migrating salmon, and passing under the Perrine Bridge. Close to Twin Falls, the Snake approaches the southernmost point in its entire course, after which it starts to flow generally northwest.
Shortly after it passes within 30 miles (48 km) of the Idaho state capital of Boise, the river surges past the state border into Oregon, close to where it meets the Owyhee, Boise and Payette rivers. The Snake River begins to define the roughly 200 - mile - long (320 km) Idaho -- Oregon state border, which follows the river into Hells Canyon, a steep and spectacular gorge that cuts through the Salmon River Mountains and Blue Mountains of Idaho and Oregon. Hells Canyon is one of the most rugged and treacherous portions of the course of the Snake River, which pioneers on the Oregon Trail and steamboat operators in the 19th century had great difficulty negotiating. There were hundreds of rapids in Hells Canyon, some of which have been stilled by the three dams of the Hells Canyon Hydroelectric Project: Hells Canyon, Oxbow, and Brownlee.
The Salmon River, the largest tributary of the Snake River, meets it in one of the most remote areas of its entire course, nearly at the halfway point in Hells Canyon. From there, the Snake crosses into Washington and Idaho, receiving the Grande Ronde River from the west before receiving the Clearwater River at Lewiston, the uppermost major city on the navigable stretch of the Snake. As the Snake leaves Hells Canyon and spreads into the low - lying Palouse Hills of eastern Washington, the Lower Snake River Project 's four dams have transformed the Snake River into a series of reservoirs. The confluence of the Snake and Columbia rivers has been submerged in Lake Wallula, the reservoir of McNary Dam. The Columbia River flows about 325 miles (523 km) further west to the Pacific Ocean, cutting through the Cascade Range by way of the Columbia River Gorge.
As recently as 165 million years ago, most of western North America was still part of the Pacific Ocean. The nearly complete subduction of the Farallon Plate underneath the westward - moving North American Plate created the Rocky Mountains, which were pushed up by rising magma trapped between the sinking Farallon plate and the North American plate. As the North American Plate moved westwards over a stationary hotspot beneath the crust, a series of tremendous lava flows and volcanic eruptions carved out the Snake River Plain beginning about 12 million years ago, west of the Continental Divide. Even larger lava flows of Columbia River basalts issued over eastern Washington, forming the Columbia Plateau southeast of the Columbia River and the Palouse Hills in the lower Snake. Separate volcanic activity formed the northwestern portion of the plain, an area far from the path of the hotspot which now lies beneath Yellowstone National Park. At this point, the Snake River watershed was beginning to take shape.
The Snake River Plain and the gap between the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range formed a "moisture channel, '' running as far inland as the headwaters of the Snake River. Rainclouds from the Pacific Ocean blown into the moisture channel travel eastwards over 1,000 miles (1,600 km). When the Teton Range uplifted about 9 million years ago along a detachment fault running north -- south through the central Rockies, rainclouds began to encounter a barrier at the eastern end of the channel, engorging the headwaters of the Snake River with frequent rainfall. These rains fed the Snake River, helping it to cut through the Tetons, forming the Snake River Canyon of Wyoming. About 6 million years ago, the Salmon River Mountains and Blue Mountains at the far end of the plain began to rise, and as the river cut through the rising mountains, the ancestral Hells Canyon was formed. Lake Idaho, formed during the Miocene, covered a large portion of the Snake River Plain between Twin Falls and Hells Canyon, and its lava dam was finally breached about 2 million years ago.
Lava flowing from Cedar Butte in present southeast Idaho blocked the Snake River at Eagle Rock, about 42,000 years ago, near the present - day site of American Falls Dam. A 40 - mile - long (64 km) lake, known as American Falls Lake, formed behind the barrier. The lake was stable and survived for nearly 30,000 years. About 14,500 years ago, pluvial Lake Bonneville in the Great Salt Lake area, formed in the last glacial period, spilled catastrophically down the Portneuf River into the Snake in an event known as the Bonneville Flood. This was one of the first in a series of catastrophic flooding events in the Northwest known as the Ice Age Floods.
The deluge caused American Falls Lake to breach its natural lava dam, which was rapidly eroded with only the 50 - foot - high (15 m) American Falls left in the end. The flood waters of Lake Bonneville, approximately twenty times the flow of the Columbia River or 5,300,000 cubic feet per second (150,000 m / s), swept down the Snake River, leaving debris and sediment deposits across southern Idaho. For miles on either side of the Snake, flood waters stripped away soils and scoured the underlying basalt bedrock, in the process creating Shoshone Falls, Twin Falls, Crane Falls, and Swan Falls, while cutting and deepening gorges and canyons along the way. The Bonneville flood waters continued through Hells Canyon. The flood widened Hells Canyon but did not deepen it.
As the Bonneville Floods rushed down the Snake River, the Missoula Floods occurred in the same period, but farther north. The Missoula Floods, which took place more than 40 times in the time span from 15,000 to 13,000 years ago, were caused by Glacial Lake Missoula on the Clark Fork repeatedly being impounded by ice dams then breaking through, with the lake 's water rushing over much of eastern Washington in massive surges far larger than the Lake Bonneville Flood. These floods pooled behind the Cascade Range into enormous lakes and spilled over the northern drainage divide of the Snake River watershed, carving deep canyons through the Palouse Hills. The Palouse River canyon was the largest of the many gorges cut through the Palouse Hills, and could not have become as large as it now is if it were not for the Missoula Floods. The Lake Bonneville Floods and the Missoula Floods helped widen and deepen the Columbia River Gorge, a giant water gap which allows water from the Columbia and Snake rivers to take a direct route through the Cascade Range to the Pacific.
The massive amounts of sediment deposited by the Lake Bonneville Floods in the Snake River Plain also had a lasting effect on most of the middle Snake River. The high hydraulic conductivity of the mostly - basalt rocks in the plain led to the formation of the Snake River Aquifer, one of the most productive aquifers in North America. Many rivers and streams flowing from the north side of the plain sink into the aquifer instead of flowing into the Snake River, a group of watersheds called the lost streams of Idaho. The aquifer filled to hold nearly 100,000,000 acre feet (120 km) of water, underlying about 10,000 square miles (26,000 km) in a plume 1,300 feet (400 m) thick. In places, water exits from rivers at rates of nearly 600 cubic feet per second (17 m / s). Much of the water lost by the Snake River as it transects the plain issues back into the river at its western end, by way of many artesian springs.
The Snake River is the thirteenth longest river in the United States. Its watershed is the 10th largest among North American rivers, and covers almost 108,000 square miles (280,000 km) in portions of six U.S. states: Wyoming, Idaho, Nevada, Utah, Oregon, and Washington, with the largest portion in Idaho. Most of the Snake River watershed lies between the Rocky Mountains on the east and the Columbia Plateau on the northwest. The largest tributary of the Columbia River, the Snake River watershed makes up about 41 % of the entire Columbia River Basin. Its average discharge at the mouth constitutes 31 % of the Columbia 's flow at that point. Above the confluence, the Snake is slightly longer than the Columbia -- 1,078 miles (1,735 km) compared to 928 miles (1,493 km) -- and its drainage basin is slightly larger -- 4 % bigger than the upstream Columbia River watershed.
The mostly semi-arid, even desert climate of the Snake River watershed on average, receives less than 12 inches (300 mm) of precipitation per year. However, precipitation in the Snake River watershed varies widely. At Twin Falls, in the center of the Snake River Plain, the climate is nearly desert, with an annual rainfall of just 9.24 inches (235 mm), although the average snowfall is 13.1 inches (330 mm). This desert climate occupies the majority of the basin of the Snake River, so although it is longer than the Columbia River above the Tri-Cities, its discharge is on average significantly less. However, in the high Rockies of Wyoming, in the upper Jackson Hole area, the average precipitation is over 30 inches (760 mm), and snowfall averages 252 inches (6,400 mm). Most of the Snake River basin consists of wide, arid plains and rolling hills, bordered by high mountains. In the upper parts of the watershed, however, the river flows through an area with a distinct alpine climate. There are also stretches where the river and its tributaries have incised themselves into tight gorges. The Snake River watershed includes parts of Yellowstone National Park, Grand Teton National Park, Hells Canyon National Recreation Area, and many other national and state parks.
Much of the area along the river, within a few miles of its banks, is irrigated farmland, especially in its middle and lower course. Irrigation dams include American Falls Dam, Minidoka Dam, and C.J. Strike Dam. Aside from water from the river, water is also pulled from the Snake River Aquifer for irrigation. Major cities along the river include Jackson in Wyoming, Twin Falls, Idaho Falls, Boise, and Lewiston in Idaho, and the Tri-Cities in Washington (Kennewick, Pasco and Richland). There are fifteen dams in total along the Snake River, which aside from irrigation, also produce electricity, maintain a navigation channel along part of the river 's route, and provide flood control. However, fish passage is limited to the stretch below Hells Canyon.
The Snake River watershed is bounded by several other major North American watersheds, which drain both to the Atlantic or the Pacific, or into endorheic basins. On the southwest side a divide separates the Snake watershed from Oregon 's Harney Basin, which is endorheic. On the south, the Snake watershed borders that of the Humboldt River in Nevada, and the watershed of the Great Salt Lake (the Bear, Jordan and Weber rivers) on the south. The Snake River also shares a boundary with the Green River to the southeast; the Green River drains parts of Wyoming and Utah and is the largest tributary of the Colorado River. On the western extremity for a short stretch the Continental Divide separates the Snake watershed from the Bighorn River, a tributary of the Yellowstone River, which the Snake begins near. On the north the Snake River watershed is bounded by the Red Rock River, a tributary of the Beaverhead River, which flows into the Jefferson River and into the Missouri River, part of the Gulf of Mexico drainage basin.
The rest of the Snake River watershed borders on several other major Columbia River tributaries - mostly the Spokane River to the north, but also Clark Fork in Montana to the northeast and the John Day River to the west. Of these, the Clark Fork (via the Pend Oreille River) and the Spokane join the Columbia above the Snake, while the John Day joins downstream of the Snake, in the Columbia River Gorge. It is of note that the northeastern divide of the Snake River watershed forms the Idaho - Montana boundary, so the Snake River watershed does not extend into Montana.
Mountain ranges in the Snake watershed include the Teton Range, Bitterroot Range, Clearwater Mountains, Seven Devils Mountains, and the extreme northwestern end of the Wind River Range. Grand Teton is the highest point in the Snake River watershed, reaching 13,775 feet (4,199 m) in elevation. The elevation of the Snake River is 358 feet (109 m) when it joins the Columbia River.
Agricultural runoff from farms and ranches in the Snake River Plain and many other areas has severely damaged the ecology of the river throughout the 20th century. After the first irrigation dams on the river began operation in the first decade of the 20th century, much of the arable land in a strip a few miles wide along the Snake River was cultivated or turned to pasture, and agricultural return flows began to pollute the Snake. Runoff from several feedlots was dumped into the river until laws made the practice illegal. Fertilizer, manure and other chemicals and pollutants washed into the river greatly increase the nutrient load, especially of phosphorus, fecal coliforms and nitrogen. During low water, algae blooms occur throughout the calm stretches of the river, depleting its oxygen supply.
Much of the return flows do not issue directly back into the Snake River, but rather feed the Snake River Aquifer underneath the Snake River Plain. Water diverted from the river for irrigation, after absorbing any surface pollutants, re-enters the ground and feeds the aquifer. Although the aquifer has maintained its level, it has become increasingly laced with contaminants. Water in the aquifer eventually travels to the west side of the Snake River Plain and re-enters the river as springs. Throughout much of the Snake River Plain and Hells Canyon, excessive sediment is also a recurring problem. In December 2007, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a permit requiring owners of fish farms along the Snake River to reduce their phosphorus discharge by 40 %. Pollutant levels in Hells Canyon upstream of the Salmon River confluence, including that of water temperature, dissolved nutrients, and sediment, are required to meet certain levels.
The Snake River 's average flow is 54,830 cubic feet per second (1,553 m / s). The United States Geological Survey recorded the river 's discharge from a period of 1963 -- 2000 at a stream gauge below Ice Harbor Dam. In that period, the largest average annual flow recorded was 84,190 cu ft / s (2,384 m / s) in 1997, and the lowest was 27,100 cu ft / s (770 m / s) in 1992. The lowest recorded daily mean flow was 2,700 cu ft / s (76 m / s) on February 4, 1979. On August 27, 1965, there was temporarily no flow as a result of testing at Ice Harbor Dam. The highest recorded flow was 312,000 cu ft / s (8,800 m / s) on June 19, 1974. The highest flow ever recorded on the Snake River was at a different USGS stream gauge near Clarkston, which operated from 1915 to 1972. This gauge recorded a maximum flow of 369,000 cu ft / s (10,400 m / s) -- more than the Columbia 's average discharge -- on May 29, 1948. An even larger peak discharge, estimated at 409,000 cu ft / s (11,600 m / s), occurred during the flood of June 1894.
The river 's flow is also measured at several other points in its course. Above Jackson Lake, Wyoming, the discharge is about 885 cu ft / s (25.1 m / s) from a drainage area of 486 square miles (1,260 km). At Minidoka, Idaho, about halfway through the Snake River Plain, the river 's discharge rises to 7,841 cu ft / s (222.0 m / s). However, at Buhl, Idaho, only about 50 miles (80 km) downstream, the river 's flow decreases to 4,908 cu ft / s (139.0 m / s) because of agricultural diversions and seepage. But at the border of Idaho and Oregon, near Weiser at the beginning of Hells Canyon, the Snake 's flow rises to 17,780 cu ft / s (503 m / s) after receiving several major tributaries such as the Payette, Owyhee and Malheur. The discharge further increases to 19,530 cu ft / s (553 m / s) at Hells Canyon Dam on the border of Idaho and Oregon. At Anatone, Washington, downstream of the confluence with the Salmon, one of the Snake 's largest tributaries, the mean discharge is 34,560 cu ft / s (979 m / s).
Canadian explorer David Thompson first recorded the Native American name of the Snake River as Shawpatin when he arrived at its mouth by boat in 1800. When the Lewis and Clark Expedition crossed westwards into the Snake River watershed in 1805, they first gave it the name Lewis River, Lewis Fork or Lewis 's Fork, as Meriwether Lewis was the first of their group to sight the river. They also made note of the "Snake Indians '' who lived along the river, who were actually the Shoshone tribe, and learned that the Native Americans called the river Ki - moo - e-nim or Yam - pah - pa (for an herb that grew prolifically along its banks). Later American explorers, some of whom were originally part of the Lewis and Clark expedition, journeyed into the Snake River watershed and records show a variety of names have been associated with the river. The explorer Wilson Price Hunt of the Astor Expedition named the river as Mad River. Others gave the river names including Shoshone River (after the tribe) and Saptin River. Eventually, the name Snake River was derived from an S - shaped gesture the Shoshone tribe made with their hands to represent swimming salmon. Explorers misinterpreted it to represent a snake, giving the river its present - day name.
People have been living along the Snake River for at least 11,000 years. Historian Daniel S. Meatte divides the prehistory of the western Snake River Basin into three main phases or "adaptive systems ''. The first he calls "Broad Spectrum Foraging '', dating from 11,500 to 4,200 years before present. During this period people drew upon a wide variety of food resources. The second period, "Semisedentary Foraging '', dates from 4,200 -- 250 years before present and is distinctive for an increased reliance upon fish, especially salmon, as well as food preservation and storage. The third phase, from 250 to 100 years before present, he calls "Equestrian Foragers ''. It is characterized by large horse - mounted tribes that spent long amounts of time away from their local foraging range hunting bison. In the eastern Snake River Plain there is some evidence of Clovis, Folsom, and Plano cultures dating back over 10,000 years ago.
Early fur traders and explorers noted regional trading centers, and archaeological evidence has shown some to be of considerable antiquity. One such trading center in the Weiser area existed as early as 4,500 years ago. The Fremont culture may have contributed to the historic Shoshones, but it is not well understood. Another poorly understood early cultural component is called the Midvale Complex. The introduction of the horse to the Snake River Plain around 1700 helped in establishing the Shoshone and Northern Paiute cultures.
On the Snake River in southeastern Washington there are several ancient sites. One of the oldest and most well - known is called the Marmes Rockshelter, which was used from over 11,000 years ago to relatively recent times. The Marmes Rockshelter was flooded in 1968 by Lake Herbert G. West, the Lower Monumental Dam 's reservoir.
Eventually, two large Native American groups controlled most of the Snake River: the Nez Perce, whose territory stretched from the southeastern Columbia Plateau into northern Oregon and western Idaho, and the Shoshone, who occupied the Snake River Plain both above and below Shoshone Falls. Lifestyles along the Snake River varied widely. Below Shoshone Falls, the economy centered on salmon, who often came up the river in enormous numbers. Salmon were the mainstay of the Nez Perce and most of the other tribes below Shoshone Falls. Above the falls, life was significantly different. The Snake River Plain forms one of the only relatively easy paths across the main Rocky Mountains for many hundreds of miles, allowing Native Americans both east and west of the mountains to interact. As a result, the Shoshone centered on a trading economy.
According to legend, the Nez Perce tribe was first founded in the valley of the Clearwater River, one of the Snake River 's lowermost major tributaries. At its height, there were at least 27 Nez Perce settlements along the Clearwater River and 11 more on the Snake between the mouth of the Clearwater and Imnaha Rivers. There were also villages on the Salmon River, Grande Ronde River, Tucannon River, and the lower Hells Canyon area. The Snake River 's annual salmon run, which was estimated at that time to exceed four million in good years, supported the Nez Perce, who lived in permanent, well - defined villages, unlike the nomadic southeastern tribes along the Snake River. The Nez Perce also were involved in trade with the Flathead tribe to the north and other middle Columbia River tribes. However, they were enemies to the Shoshone and the other upstream Snake River tribes.
The Shoshone or Shoshoni were characterized by nomadic groups that took their culture from the earlier Bitterroot culture and Great Basin tribes that migrated north via the Owyhee River. They were the most powerful tribe in the Rocky Mountains area, and were known to many Great Plains tribes as the "Snakes ''. In the 18th century, Shoshone territory extended beyond the Snake River Plain, extending over the Continental Divide into the upper Missouri River watershed and even further north into Canada. A smallpox epidemic brought by European explorers and fur trappers was responsible for wiping out much of the Shoshone east of the Rocky Mountains, but the Shoshone continued to occupy the Snake River Plain. Eventually, the Shoshone culture merged with that of the Paiute and Bannock tribes, which came from the Great Basin and the Hells Canyon area, respectively. The Bannock brought with them the skill of buffalo hunting and horses they had acquired from Europeans, changing the Shoshone way of life significantly.
The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804 -- 06) was the first American group to cross the Rocky Mountains and sail down the Snake and Columbia rivers to the Pacific Ocean. Meriwether Lewis supposedly became the first American to sight the drainage basin of the Snake River after he crossed the mountains a few days ahead of his party on August 12, 1805, and sighted the Salmon River valley (a major Snake tributary) from Lemhi Pass, a few miles from the present - day site of Salmon, Idaho. The party later traveled north, descended the Lemhi River to the Salmon and attempted to descend it to the Snake, but found it impassable because of its violent rapids. The expedition named the Snake River the Lewis River, Lewis 's River, or Lewis Fork, in his honor, and they traveled northwards to the Lochsa River, which they traveled via the Clearwater River into the lower Snake, and into the Columbia. They also referred to the Shoshone Indians as the "Snake Indians '', which became the present - day name of the river. The name "Lewis Fork '', however, did not last.
Later American explorers traveled throughout the Snake River area and up its major tributaries beginning in 1806, just after Lewis and Clark had returned. The first was John Ordway in 1806, who also explored the lower Salmon River. John Colter in 1808 was the first to sight the upper headwaters of the Snake River, including the Jackson Hole area. In 1810, Andrew Henry, along with a party of fur trappers, discovered the Henrys Fork of the Snake River, which is now named after him. Donald Mackenzie sailed the lower Snake River in 1811, and later explorers included Wilson Price Hunt of the Astor Expedition (who gave the river the name "Mad River ''), Ramsay Crooks, Francisco Payelle, John Grey, Thyery Goddin, and many others after the 1830s. Many of these later explorers were original members of the Lewis and Clark Expedition who had returned to map and explore the area in greater detail. Even later, American fur trappers scouted the area for beaver streams, but Canadian trappers from the British Hudson 's Bay Company were by now a major competitor.
The Hudson 's Bay Company first sent fur trappers into the Snake River watershed in 1819. The party of three traveled into the headwaters of the Owyhee River, a major southern tributary of the Snake, but disappeared. Meanwhile, as American fur trappers kept coming to the region, the Hudson 's Bay Company ordered the Canadian trappers to kill as many beavers as they could, eventually nearly eradicating the species from the Snake River watershed, under the "rationale (that) if there are no beavers, there will be no reason for the Yanks ((Americans)) to come. '' Their goal was to eventually gain rights over the Oregon Territory, a region covering Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and parts of Montana and Wyoming (most of the present - day region called the Pacific Northwest). However, the area was eventually annexed into the United States.
By the middle 19th century, the Oregon Trail had been established, generally following much of the Snake River. One crossing the trail made over the Snake River was near the present - day site of Glenns Ferry. Several years later, a ferry was established at the site, replacing the old system where pioneers had to ford the wide, powerful and deep Snake. Another place where pioneers crossed the Snake was further upstream, at a place called "Three Island Crossing '', near the mouth of the Boise River. This area has a group of three islands (hence the name) that splits the Snake into four channels each about 200 feet (61 m) wide. Some emigrants chose to ford the Snake and proceed down the west side and recross the river near Fort Boise into Hells Canyon, continue down the drier east side into the gorge, or float the Snake and Columbia to the Willamette River, the destination of the Oregon Trail. The reason for the Three Island Crossing was the better availability of grass and water access. Numerous ferries have provided crossings of the upper Snake from the Brownlee Ferry at the head of Hell 's Canyon to Menor 's Ferry, which operates today at Moose, Wyoming. Sophistication varied from reed boats pulled by Indians on horse back at Snake Fort, Fort Boise, as described by Narcissa Whitman in 1836 to an electric operated ferry, the Swan Falls Ferry, at Swan Falls Dam of the early 20th century.
Unlike the Columbia River, it was far more difficult for steamboats to navigate on the Snake. The Columbia River drops 2,690 feet (820 m) from source to mouth, while the Snake drops over 8,500 feet (2,600 m) in elevation over a length more than 200 miles (320 km) shorter. Still, from the 1860s to the 1940s, steamboats traveled on the Snake River from its mouth at the Columbia River to near the mouth of the Imnaha River in lower Hells Canyon. However, most of the steamboats only sailed from the river 's mouth to Lewiston, located at the confluence of the Snake and Clearwater rivers. This stretch of the river is the easiest to navigate for watercraft since it has the least elevation change, although it still contained over 60 sets of rapids.
Passenger and freight service downstream of Lewiston lasted throughout the late 19th century and persisted until the introduction of railroads in the Palouse Hills grain - growing region and ultimately, the construction of dams on the lower Snake to facilitate barge traffic, which caused the demise of both the steamboats and the railroad. Lewiston, 140 miles (230 km) from the confluence of the Snake and Columbia and 465 miles (748 km) from the mouth of the Columbia on the Pacific Ocean, became connected with Portland and other Pacific ports via steamboat service from the mouth of the Snake through the Columbia River Gorge. A commonly traveled route was from Wallula, Washington, 120 miles (190 km) downstream of the Snake River 's mouth, upstream to Lewiston. The Oregon Steam Navigation Company launched the Shoshone at Fort Boise in 1866 which provided passenger and freight service on the upper Snake for the Boise and Owyhee mines.
By the 1870s, the OSN Company, owned by the Northern Pacific Railroad, was operating seven steamboats for transporting wheat and grain from the productive Palouse region along the Snake and Columbia to lower Columbia River ports. These boats were the Harvest Queen, John Gates, Spokane, Annie Faxon, Mountain Queen, R.R. Thompson, and Wide West, all of which were built on the Columbia River. However, there were more resources along the Snake River than wheat and grain. In the 1890s, a huge copper deposit was discovered at Eureka Bar in Hells Canyon. Several ships were built specifically to transport ore from there to Lewiston: these included Imnaha, Mountain Gem, and Norma. In 1893 the Annie Faxon suffered a boiler explosion and sank on the Snake below Lewiston.
Many factors have influenced the construction of dams along the Snake River. A total of fifteen dams have been constructed along the Snake River for a multitude of different purposes, from its headwaters in the Rocky Mountains to its mouth on Lake Wallula, a slackwater reservoir formed behind McNary Dam on the Columbia River. Dams on the Snake can be grouped into three major categories. From its headwaters to the beginning of Hells Canyon, many small dams block the Snake to provide irrigation water. Between here and Hells Canyon, the first dam on the Snake, Swan Falls Dam, was built in 1901. In Hells Canyon, a cascade of dams produce hydroelectricity from the river 's lofty decrease in elevation over a comparatively small distance. Finally, a third cascade of dams, from Hells Canyon to the mouth, facilitates navigation. Many different government and private agencies have worked to build dams on the Snake River, which now serve an important purpose for people living in the Snake 's drainage basin and trade of agricultural products to Pacific seaports.
The Minidoka Irrigation Project of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, created with the passage of the Reclamation Act of 1902, involved the diversion of Snake River water into the Snake River Plain upstream of Shoshone Falls in order to irrigate approximately 1,100,000 acres (4,500 km) in the Snake River Plain and store 4,100,000 acre feet (5.1 km) of water in Snake River reservoirs. The first studies for irrigation in the Plain were conducted by the United States Geological Survey in the late 19th century, and the project was authorized on April 23, 1904. The first dam constructed for the project was Minidoka Dam in 1904; its power plant began operating in 1909, producing 7 MW of electricity. This capacity was revised to 20 MW in 1993. However, Minidoka Dam was not the only dam constructed for the project. As far upstream as Jackson Lake in Wyoming, the Jackson Lake Dam was built in 1907 to raise the lake level for providing additional water storage for dry years. American Falls Dam, upstream of Minidoka, was completed in 1927 and replaced in 1978. As the dams were constructed above Shoshone Falls, the historical upriver limit of salmon and also a total barrier to boats and ships, no provisions were made for fish passage or navigation. Several other irrigation dams were also built - including Twin Falls Dam and Palisades Dam.
The Hells Canyon Project was built and maintained by Idaho Power Company starting in the 1940s, and was the second of the three major water projects on the river. The three dams of the project, Brownlee Dam, Oxbow Dam and Hells Canyon Dam, are located in upper Hells Canyon. All three dams are primarily for power generation and flood control, and do not have fish passage or navigation locks. Brownlee Dam, the most upriver dam, was constructed in 1959, and generates 728 MW of power. Oxbow Dam, the second dam in the project, was built in 1961 and generates 220 MW. The dam was named for a 3 - mile - wide (4.8 km) bend in the Snake River, shaped like an oxbow, although not an oxbow lake. Hells Canyon Dam was the last and most downriver of the three, was constructed in 1967 and generates 450 MW.
Downriver of the Hells Canyon is the Lower Snake River Project, authorized by the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1945, which was created by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to create a navigable channel on the Snake River from its mouth to the beginning of Hells Canyon. These dams are, in downstream order: Lower Granite Lock and Dam, Little Goose Lock and Dam, Lower Monumental Lock and Dam, and Ice Harbor Lock and Dam. Dredging work was also done throughout the length of the navigation channel to facilitate ship passage. These dams form a cascade of reservoirs with no stretches of free - flowing river in between. Immediately below Ice Harbor Dam is Lake Wallula, formed by the construction of the McNary Dam on the Columbia River. (McNary Dam is not part of the Lower Snake River Project.) Above Lower Granite Dam, the river channel from Lewiston to Johnson Bar, just below Hells Canyon, is also maintained for jet - boats as this section is too rugged for ships. These dams have been proposed for removal, and if they were to be removed, it would be the largest dam removal project ever undertaken in the United States. The removal has been proposed on the grounds that it would restore salmon runs to the lower Snake River and the Clearwater River and other smaller tributaries. Idaho 's Snake river once teemed with sockeye salmon. However, there are almost no wild sockeye salmon left in the river due to a number of factors.
There are many reasons why Sockeye Salmon in the Snake River are reduced in number. One reason is that the river runs through three different states, and is over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) long. Salmon swimming upstream in this river are faced with predators and dams. The Snake River has fifteen dams and is extremely difficult for salmon to access because of hydroelectric dams. Hell 's Canyon Dam blocks passage to the entire upper Snake River. The Grand Coulee Dam also blocks spawning grounds to the famous "June Hogs '' (legendary Chinook salmon that weighed over 100 pounds (45 kg)).
Between 1985 and 2007, only an average of 18 sockeye salmon returned to Idaho each year. Serious conservation efforts by wildlife biologists and fish hatcheries have captured the few remaining wild sockeye salmon, collected their sperm and eggs, and in a laboratory, have them spawn. Instead of spawning naturally, these sockeye begin their lives in an incubator in a fishery biologist 's laboratory. These baby salmon then are transported by ship, bypassing the dams. (The dams can hurt juvenile baby sockeye salmon with their powerful tides and currents, which suck the baby salmon down.) Another conservation effort that has helped the salmon recover, is the destruction of old, outdated dams, such as the Lewiston Dam on the Clearwater River, a tributary of the Snake. After destroying the dam, salmon populations noticeably recovered.
Another interesting recovery method conservationists and biologists are using is called Fish Transportation. Since many juvenile salmon perish at each dam while swimming out to the ocean, massive ships filter and collect these baby salmon by size and take them out to the ocean for a ride, where they can be guaranteed to make it alive to saltwater. This method raises controversy to the effectiveness and costs, since this method is extremely expensive, almost costing $15 million. Another similar method to transport fish across the dams is the "Fish Gun '' method. Engineers at Whooshh Innovations have developed a "Whooshh Fish Transport System '' that literally collects salmon and shoots them above the dam at high speed in an effort to get them across the dams.
Overall, these combined efforts have had good success. In the summer of 2006, the Snake River reportedly only had 3 sockeye salmon that returned to their spawning grounds. In the summer of 2013, more than 13,000 sockeye salmon returned to the spawning grounds.
In the 1960s and 1970s the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers built four dams and locks on the lower Snake River to facilitate shipping. The lower Columbia River has likewise been dammed for navigation. Thus a deep shipping channel through locks and slackwater reservoirs for heavy barges exists from the Pacific Ocean to Lewiston, Idaho. Most barge traffic originating on the Snake River goes to deep - water ports on the lower Columbia River, such as Portland. Grain, mostly wheat, is the main product shipped from the Snake, and nearly all of it is exported internationally from the lower Columbia River ports.
The shipping channel is authorized to be at least 14 feet (4 m) deep and 250 feet (76 m) wide. Where river depths were less than 14 feet (4 m), the shipping channel has been dredged in most places. Dredging and redredging work is ongoing and actual depths vary over time. With a channel about 5 feet (1.5 m) deeper than the Mississippi River system, the Columbia and Snake rivers can float barges twice as heavy. Agricultural products from Idaho and eastern Washington are among the main goods transported by barge on the Snake and Columbia rivers. Grain, mainly wheat, accounts for more than 85 % of the cargo barged on the lower Snake River. In 1998, over 123,000,000 US bushels (4.3 × 10 l; 980,000,000 US dry gal; 950,000,000 imp gal) of grain were barged on the Snake. Before the completion of the lower Snake dams, grain from the region was transported by truck or rail to Columbia River ports around the Tri-Cities. Other products barged on the lower Snake River include peas, lentils, forest products, and petroleum.
The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) divides the Snake River 's watershed into two freshwater ecoregions: the "Columbia Unglaciated '' ecoregion and the "Upper Snake '' ecoregion. Shoshone Falls marks the boundary between the two. The WWF placed the ecoregion boundary about 50 kilometres (31 mi) downriver from Shoshone Falls in order to include the Big Wood River (the main tributary of the Malad River) in the Upper Snake ecoregion, because the Wood River is biologically distinct from the rest of the downriver Snake. Shoshone Falls has presented a total barrier to the upstream movement of fish for 30,000 to 60,000 years. As a result, only 35 % of the fish fauna above the falls, and 40 % of the Wood River 's fish fauna, are shared with the lower Snake River.
The Upper Snake freshwater ecoregion includes most of southeastern Idaho and extends into small portions of Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada, including major freshwater habitats such as Jackson Lake. Compared to the lower Snake River and the rest of the Columbia River 's watershed, the Upper Snake ecoregion has a high level of endemism, especially among freshwater molluscs such as snails and clams. There are at least 21 snail and clam species of special concern, including 15 that appear to exist only in single clusters. There are 14 fish species found in the Upper Snake region that do not occur elsewhere in the Columbia 's watershed, but which do occur in Bonneville freshwater ecoregion of western Utah, part of the Great Basin and related to the prehistoric Lake Bonneville. The Wood River sculpin (Cottus leiopomus) is endemic to the Wood River. The Shoshone sculpin (Cottus greenei) is endemic to the small portion of the Snake River between Shoshone Falls and the Wood River.
The Snake River below Shoshone Falls is home to thirty - five native fish species, of which twelve are also found in the Columbia River and four of which are endemic to the Snake: the relict sand roller (Percopsis transmontana) of the Percopsidae family, the shorthead sculpin (Cottus confusus), the maginated sculpin (Cottus marginatus), and the Oregon chub (Oregonichthys crameri). The Oregon chub is also found in the Umpqua River and nearby basins. The lower Snake River also supports seven species of Pacific salmon and trout (Oncorhynchus). There are also high, often localized levels of mollusc endemism, especially in Hells Canyon and the basins of the Clearwater River, Salmon River, and middle Snake River. The mollusc richness extends into the lower Columbia River and tributaries such as the Deschutes River.
Aside from aquatic species, much of the Snake River watershed supports larger animals including numerous species of mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles. Especially in the headwaters and the other mountainous areas strewn throughout the watershed, the gray wolf, grizzly bear, wolverine, mountain lion and Canada lynx are common. It has been determined that there are 97 species of mammals in the upper part of the Snake River, upstream from the Henrys Fork confluence. Pronghorn and bighorn sheep are common in the area drained by the "lost streams of Idaho '', several rivers and large creeks that flow south from the Rocky Mountains and disappear into the Snake River Aquifer. About 274 bird species, some endangered or threatened, use the Snake River watershed, including bald eagle, peregrine falcon, whooping crane, greater sage - grouse, and yellow - billed cuckoo. Barrow 's goldeneye are a species of bird that occurs commonly along the lower section of the Snake River.
Ten amphibian and twenty species of reptiles inhabit the upper Snake River 's wetland and riparian zones. Several species of frogs are common in the "lost streams '' basin and the northeasternmost part of the Snake River watershed, including the inland tailed frog, northern leopard frog, western toad, Columbia spotted frog, long - toed salamander, spadefoot toad. However, in the lower and middle portions of the Snake River watershed, several native species have been severely impacted by agriculture practices and the resulting non-native species supported by them. Introduced birds include the gray partridge, ring - necked pheasant, and chukar. Other non-native species include the bullfrog, brown - headed cowbird, and European starling, attracted by the construction of cities and towns.
The Snake River watershed includes a diversity of vegetation zones both past and present. A majority of the watershed was once covered with shrub - steppe grassland, most common in the Snake River Plain and also the Columbia Plateau in southeastern Washington. Riparian zones, wetlands and marshes once occurred along the length of the Snake River and its tributaries. In higher elevations, conifer forests, of which ponderosa pine is most common, dominate the landscape. The basin ranges from semi-desert to alpine climates, providing habitat for hundreds of species of plants. In the lowermost part of the watershed, in southeastern Washington, the Snake River is surrounded by an area called the Columbia Plateau Ecoprovince, which is now mostly occupied by irrigated farms. The rest of the Plateau area is characterized by low hills, dry lakes, and an arid, nearly desert climate.
The headwaters of the Snake River and the high mountains elsewhere in the watershed were historically heavily forested. These include aspen, Douglas fir, and spruce fir, comprising about 20 % of the historic watershed. At the base of mountains and in the Lost River basin, sagebrush was and is the predominant vegetation cover. Because of deforestation, up to one quarter of the forests have been taken over by sagebrush, leaving the remaining forests to cover about 15 % of the watershed. However, the lodgepole pine has increased in number, taking over historic stands of other conifers. There are also up to 118 species of rare or endemic plants that occur in the Snake River watershed.
The Snake River was once one of the most important rivers for the spawning of anadromous fish -- which are hatched in the headwaters of rivers, live in the ocean for most of their lives, and return to the river to spawn -- in the United States. The river supported species including chinook salmon, coho salmon, and sockeye salmon, as well as steelhead, white sturgeon, and Pacific lamprey. It is known that before the construction of dams on the river, there were three major chinook salmon runs in the Snake River; in the spring, summer and fall, totaling about 120,000 fish, and the sockeye salmon run was about 150,000. The historical barrier to fish migration on the Snake River was Shoshone Falls, a waterfall that occurs as the Snake River passes through the Snake River Plain.
Since the early 20th century, when Swan Falls Dam was constructed on the middle Snake River upstream of Hells Canyon, the fifteen dams and reservoirs on the river have posed an increasing problem for migrating salmon. Agricultural lands and their resulting runoff have also had a significant impact on the success rate of migrating fish. Salmon can travel up the Snake River as far as Hells Canyon Dam, using the fish passage facilities of the four lower Snake River dams, leaving the Clearwater, Grande Ronde and Salmon river to sustain spawning salmon. Rising in several forks in the Clearwater Mountains of central Idaho, the Clearwater and Salmon River watersheds are nearly undeveloped with the enormous exception of Dworshak Dam on the North Fork Clearwater River. The watershed of the Grande Ronde in northeastern Oregon is also largely undeveloped. The four reservoirs formed by the lower Snake River dams -- Lake Sacagawea, Lake Herbert G. West, Lake Bryan, and Lower Granite Lake -- have also formed problems, as the downstream current in the pools is often not enough for the fish to sense, confusing their migration routes.
At the confluence of the Snake and Clearwater Rivers, young salmon that swim down from spawning gravels in the headwaters of the Clearwater River often delay their migrations because of a significant temperature difference. (Prior to the removal of Lewiston Dam on the main Clearwater and Grangeville Dam on the South Fork Clearwater, the Clearwater was completely unusable by migrating salmon.) Agricultural runoff and water held in reservoirs higher upstream on the Snake warm its waters as it flows through the Snake River Plain, so as the Snake meets the Clearwater, its average temperature is much higher. Directly below the confluence, the river flows into Lower Granite Lake, formed by Lower Granite Dam, the uppermost dam of the Lower Snake River Project. Paradoxically, the combination of these factors gives the young salmon further time to grow and to feed in Lower Granite Lake, so when they begin the migration to the Pacific Ocean, they often have a higher chance at survival, compared to those salmon who migrate to the ocean earlier.
A controversy has erupted since the late 20th century over the four lower Snake River dams, with the primary argument being that removing the dams would allow anadromous fish to reach the lower Snake River tributaries -- the Clearwater River, the Tucannon River and the Grande Ronde River -- and spawn in much higher numbers. However, removal of the dams has been fiercely opposed by some groups in the Pacific Northwest. Because much of the electricity in the Northwest comes from dams, removing the four dams would create a hole in the energy grid that would not be immediately replaceable. Navigation on the lower Snake would also suffer, as submerged riffles, rapids and islands would be exposed by the removal of the dams. Irrigation pumps for fields in southeastern Washington would also have to reach further to access the water of the Snake River. However, aside from restoring salmon runs, dam removal proponents argue that the power is replaceable, that the grain transportation system could be replaced by railroads, and that only one of the four reservoirs supplies irrigation water. Irrigators in the Snake River Plain would likely need to allow less water into the Snake River during low flow in order to create a current in the four lower reservoirs, and recreation and tourism would likely benefit.
The Salmon River is the second largest tributary. Although the Salmon has a larger drainage than the Clearwater, the Salmon drains much drier country and therefore has a smaller discharger than the Clearwater, about 8,000,000 acre feet (9.9 km) annually compared to about 11,000,000 acre feet (14 km) annually for the Clearwater River.
The Snake River has over 20 major tributaries, most of which are in the mountainous regions of the basin. The largest by far is the Clearwater River, which drains 9,000 square miles (23,000 km) in north central Idaho. Many of the rivers that flow into the Snake River Plain from the north sink into the Snake River Aquifer, but still contribute their water to the river. Aside from rivers, the Snake is fed by many significant springs, many of which arise from the aquifer on the west side of the plain.
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where is the nucleus found in the atom | Atomic nucleus - wikipedia
The atomic nucleus is the small, dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom, discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford based on the 1909 Geiger -- Marsden gold foil experiment. After the discovery of the neutron in 1932, models for a nucleus composed of protons and neutrons were quickly developed by Dmitri Ivanenko and Werner Heisenberg. An atom is composed of a positively - charged nucleus, with a cloud of negatively - charged electrons surrounding it, bound together by electrostatic force. Almost all of the mass of an atom is located in the nucleus, with a very small contribution from the electron cloud. Protons and neutrons are bound together to form a nucleus by the nuclear force.
The diameter of the nucleus is in the range of 6985175659999999999 ♠ 1.7566 fm (6985175659999999999 ♠ 1.7566 × 10 m) for hydrogen (the diameter of a single proton) to about 6986117142000000000 ♠ 11.7142 fm for the heaviest atom uranium. These dimensions are much smaller than the diameter of the atom itself (nucleus + electron cloud), by a factor of about 26,634 (uranium atomic radius is about 6990156000000000000 ♠ 156 pm (6990156000000000000 ♠ 156 × 10 m)) to about 60,250 (hydrogen atomic radius is about 6989529200000000000 ♠ 52.92 pm).
The branch of physics concerned with the study and understanding of the atomic nucleus, including its composition and the forces which bind it together, is called nuclear physics.
The nucleus was discovered in 1911, as a result of Ernest Rutherford 's efforts to test Thomson 's "plum pudding model '' of the atom. The electron had already been discovered earlier by J.J. Thomson himself. Knowing that atoms are electrically neutral, Thomson postulated that there must be a positive charge as well. In his plum pudding model, Thomson suggested that an atom consisted of negative electrons randomly scattered within a sphere of positive charge. Ernest Rutherford later devised an experiment with his research partner Hans Geiger and with help of Ernest Marsden, that involved the deflection of alpha particles (helium nuclei) directed at a thin sheet of metal foil. He reasoned that if Thomson 's model were correct, the positively charged alpha particles would easily pass through the foil with very little deviation in their paths, as the foil should act as electrically neutral if the negative and positive charges are so intimately mixed as to make it appear neutral. To his surprise, many of the particles were deflected at very large angles. Because the mass of an alpha particle is about 8000 times that of an electron, it became apparent that a very strong force must be present if it could deflect the massive and fast moving alpha particles. He realized that the plum pudding model could not be accurate and that the deflections of the alpha particles could only be explained if the positive and negative charges were separated from each other and that the mass of the atom was a concentrated point of positive charge. This justified the idea of a nuclear atom with a dense center of positive charge and mass.
The term nucleus is from the Latin word nucleus, a diminutive of nux ("nut ''), meaning the kernel (i.e., the "small nut '') inside a watery type of fruit (like a peach). In 1844, Michael Faraday used the term to refer to the "central point of an atom ''. The modern atomic meaning was proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1912. The adoption of the term "nucleus '' to atomic theory, however, was not immediate. In 1916, for example, Gilbert N. Lewis stated, in his famous article The Atom and the Molecule, that "the atom is composed of the kernel and an outer atom or shell ''
The nucleus of an atom consists of neutrons and protons, which in turn are the manifestation of more elementary particles, called quarks, that are held in association by the nuclear strong force in certain stable combinations of hadrons, called baryons. The nuclear strong force extends far enough from each baryon so as to bind the neutrons and protons together against the repulsive electrical force between the positively charged protons. The nuclear strong force has a very short range, and essentially drops to zero just beyond the edge of the nucleus. The collective action of the positively charged nucleus is to hold the electrically negative charged electrons in their orbits about the nucleus. The collection of negatively charged electrons orbiting the nucleus display an affinity for certain configurations and numbers of electrons that make their orbits stable. Which chemical element an atom represents is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus; the neutral atom will have an equal number of electrons orbiting that nucleus. Individual chemical elements can create more stable electron configurations by combining to share their electrons. It is that sharing of electrons to create stable electronic orbits about the nucleus that appears to us as the chemistry of our macro world.
Protons define the entire charge of a nucleus, and hence its chemical identity. Neutrons are electrically neutral, but contribute to the mass of a nucleus to nearly the same extent as the protons. Neutrons can explain the phenomenon of isotopes (same atomic number with different atomic mass.) The main role of neutrons is to reduce electrostatic repulsion inside the nucleus.
Protons and neutrons are fermions, with different values of the strong isospin quantum number, so two protons and two neutrons can share the same space wave function since they are not identical quantum entities. They are sometimes viewed as two different quantum states of the same particle, the nucleon. Two fermions, such as two protons, or two neutrons, or a proton + neutron (the deuteron) can exhibit bosonic behavior when they become loosely bound in pairs, which have integral spin.
In the rare case of a hypernucleus, a third baryon called a hyperon, containing one or more strange quarks and / or other unusual quark (s), can also share the wave function. However, this type of nucleus is extremely unstable and not found on Earth except in high energy physics experiments.
The neutron has a positively charged core of radius ≈ 0.3 fm surrounded by a compensating negative charge of radius between 0.3 fm and 2 fm. The proton has an approximately exponentially decaying positive charge distribution with a mean square radius of about 0.8 fm.
Nuclei can be spherical, rugby ball - shaped (prolate deformation), discus - shaped (oblate deformation), triaxial (a combination of oblate and prolate deformation) or pear - shaped.
Nuclei are bound together by the residual strong force (nuclear force). The residual strong force is a minor residuum of the strong interaction which binds quarks together to form protons and neutrons. This force is much weaker between neutrons and protons because it is mostly neutralized within them, in the same way that electromagnetic forces between neutral atoms (such as van der Waals forces that act between two inert gas atoms) are much weaker than the electromagnetic forces that hold the parts of the atoms together internally (for example, the forces that hold the electrons in an inert gas atom bound to its nucleus).
The nuclear force is highly attractive at the distance of typical nucleon separation, and this overwhelms the repulsion between protons due to the electromagnetic force, thus allowing nuclei to exist. However, the residual strong force has a limited range because it decays quickly with distance (see Yukawa potential); thus only nuclei smaller than a certain size can be completely stable. The largest known completely stable nucleus (i.e. stable to alpha, beta, and gamma decay) is lead - 208 which contains a total of 208 nucleons (126 neutrons and 82 protons). Nuclei larger than this maximum are unstable and tend to be increasingly short - lived with larger numbers of nucleons. However, bismuth - 209 is also stable to beta decay and has the longest half - life to alpha decay of any known isotope, estimated at a billion times longer than the age of the universe.
The residual strong force is effective over a very short range (usually only a few femtometres (fm); roughly one or two nucleon diameters) and causes an attraction between any pair of nucleons. For example, between protons and neutrons to form (NP) deuteron, and also between protons and protons, and neutrons and neutrons.
The effective absolute limit of the range of the strong force is represented by halo nuclei such as lithium - 11 or boron - 14, in which dineutrons, or other collections of neutrons, orbit at distances of about 6986100000000000000 ♠ 10 fm (roughly similar to the 6985800000000000000 ♠ 8 fm radius of the nucleus of uranium - 238). These nuclei are not maximally dense. Halo nuclei form at the extreme edges of the chart of the nuclides -- the neutron drip line and proton drip line -- and are all unstable with short half - lives, measured in milliseconds; for example, lithium - 11 has a half - life of 6997880000000000000 ♠ 8.8 ms.
Halos in effect represent an excited state with nucleons in an outer quantum shell which has unfilled energy levels "below '' it (both in terms of radius and energy). The halo may be made of either neutrons (NN, NNN) or protons (PP, PPP). Nuclei which have a single neutron halo include Be and C. A two - neutron halo is exhibited by He, Li, B, B and C. Two - neutron halo nuclei break into three fragments, never two, and are called Borromean nuclei because of this behavior (referring to a system of three interlocked rings in which breaking any ring frees both of the others). He and Be both exhibit a four - neutron halo. Nuclei which have a proton halo include B and P. A two - proton halo is exhibited by Ne and S. Proton halos are expected to be more rare and unstable than the neutron examples, because of the repulsive electromagnetic forces of the excess proton (s).
Although the standard model of physics is widely believed to completely describe the composition and behavior of the nucleus, generating predictions from theory is much more difficult than for most other areas of particle physics. This is due to two reasons:
Historically, experiments have been compared to relatively crude models that are necessarily imperfect. None of these models can completely explain experimental data on nuclear structure.
The nuclear radius (R) is considered to be one of the basic quantities that any model must predict. For stable nuclei (not halo nuclei or other unstable distorted nuclei) the nuclear radius is roughly proportional to the cube root of the mass number (A) of the nucleus, and particularly in nuclei containing many nucleons, as they arrange in more spherical configurations:
The stable nucleus has approximately a constant density and therefore the nuclear radius R can be approximated by the following formula,
where A = Atomic mass number (the number of protons Z, plus the number of neutrons N) and r = 1.25 fm = 1.25 × 10 m. In this equation, the "constant '' r varies by 0.2 fm, depending on the nucleus in question, but this is less than 20 % change from a constant.
In other words, packing protons and neutrons in the nucleus gives approximately the same total size result as packing hard spheres of a constant size (like marbles) into a tight spherical or almost spherical bag (some stable nuclei are not quite spherical, but are known to be prolate).
Models of nuclear structure include:
Early models of the nucleus viewed the nucleus as a rotating liquid drop. In this model, the trade - off of long - range electromagnetic forces and relatively short - range nuclear forces, together cause behavior which resembled surface tension forces in liquid drops of different sizes. This formula is successful at explaining many important phenomena of nuclei, such as their changing amounts of binding energy as their size and composition changes (see semi-empirical mass formula), but it does not explain the special stability which occurs when nuclei have special "magic numbers '' of protons or neutrons.
The terms in the semi-empirical mass formula, which can be used to approximate the binding energy of many nuclei, are considered as the sum of five types of energies (see below). Then the picture of a nucleus as a drop of incompressible liquid roughly accounts for the observed variation of binding energy of the nucleus:
Volume energy. When an assembly of nucleons of the same size is packed together into the smallest volume, each interior nucleon has a certain number of other nucleons in contact with it. So, this nuclear energy is proportional to the volume.
Surface energy. A nucleon at the surface of a nucleus interacts with fewer other nucleons than one in the interior of the nucleus and hence its binding energy is less. This surface energy term takes that into account and is therefore negative and is proportional to the surface area.
Coulomb Energy. The electric repulsion between each pair of protons in a nucleus contributes toward decreasing its binding energy.
Asymmetry energy (also called Pauli Energy). An energy associated with the Pauli exclusion principle. Were it not for the Coulomb energy, the most stable form of nuclear matter would have the same number of neutrons as protons, since unequal numbers of neutrons and protons imply filling higher energy levels for one type of particle, while leaving lower energy levels vacant for the other type.
Pairing energy. An energy which is a correction term that arises from the tendency of proton pairs and neutron pairs to occur. An even number of particles is more stable than an odd number.
A number of models for the nucleus have also been proposed in which nucleons occupy orbitals, much like the atomic orbitals in atomic physics theory. These wave models imagine nucleons to be either sizeless point particles in potential wells, or else probability waves as in the "optical model '', frictionlessly orbiting at high speed in potential wells.
In the above models, the nucleons may occupy orbitals in pairs, due to being fermions, which allows explanation of even / odd Z and N effects well - known from experiments. The exact nature and capacity of nuclear shells differs from those of electrons in atomic orbitals, primarily because the potential well in which the nucleons move (especially in larger nuclei) is quite different from the central electromagnetic potential well which binds electrons in atoms. Some resemblance to atomic orbital models may be seen in a small atomic nucleus like that of helium - 4, in which the two protons and two neutrons separately occupy 1s orbitals analogous to the 1s orbital for the two electrons in the helium atom, and achieve unusual stability for the same reason. Nuclei with 5 nucleons are all extremely unstable and short - lived, yet, helium - 3, with 3 nucleons, is very stable even with lack of a closed 1s orbital shell. Another nucleus with 3 nucleons, the triton hydrogen - 3 is unstable and will decay into helium - 3 when isolated. Weak nuclear stability with 2 nucleons (NP) in the 1s orbital is found in the deuteron hydrogen - 2, with only one nucleon in each of the proton and neutron potential wells. While each nucleon is a fermion, the (NP) deuteron is a boson and thus does not follow Pauli Exclusion for close packing within shells. Lithium - 6 with 6 nucleons is highly stable without a closed second 1p shell orbital. For light nuclei with total nucleon numbers 1 to 6 only those with 5 do not show some evidence of stability. Observations of beta - stability of light nuclei outside closed shells indicate that nuclear stability is much more complex than simple closure of shell orbitals with magic numbers of protons and neutrons.
For larger nuclei, the shells occupied by nucleons begin to differ significantly from electron shells, but nevertheless, present nuclear theory does predict the magic numbers of filled nuclear shells for both protons and neutrons. The closure of the stable shells predicts unusually stable configurations, analogous to the noble group of nearly - inert gases in chemistry. An example is the stability of the closed shell of 50 protons, which allows tin to have 10 stable isotopes, more than any other element. Similarly, the distance from shell - closure explains the unusual instability of isotopes which have far from stable numbers of these particles, such as the radioactive elements 43 (technetium) and 61 (promethium), each of which is preceded and followed by 17 or more stable elements.
There are however problems with the shell model when an attempt is made to account for nuclear properties well away from closed shells. This has led to complex post hoc distortions of the shape of the potential well to fit experimental data, but the question remains whether these mathematical manipulations actually correspond to the spatial deformations in real nuclei. Problems with the shell model have led some to propose realistic two - body and three - body nuclear force effects involving nucleon clusters and then build the nucleus on this basis. Three such cluster models are the 1936 Resonating Group Structure model of John Wheeler, Close - Packed Spheron Model of Linus Pauling and the 2D Ising Model of MacGregor.
As with the case of superfluid liquid helium, atomic nuclei are an example of a state in which both (1) "ordinary '' particle physical rules for volume and (2) non-intuitive quantum mechanical rules for a wave - like nature apply. In superfluid helium, the helium atoms have volume, and essentially "touch '' each other, yet at the same time exhibit strange bulk properties, consistent with a Bose -- Einstein condensation. The nucleons in atomic nuclei also exhibit a wave - like nature and lack standard fluid properties, such as friction. For nuclei made of hadrons which are fermions, Bose - Einstein condensation does not occur, yet nevertheless, many nuclear properties can only be explained similarly by a combination of properties of particles with volume, in addition to the frictionless motion characteristic of the wave - like behavior of objects trapped in Erwin Schrödinger 's quantum orbitals.
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who sang everything is gonna be alright | Everything 's Gonna Be Alright - wikipedia
Everything 's Gonna Be Alright may refer to:
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who wrote my baby thinks he's a train | My Baby Thinks He 's a Train - Wikipedia
"My Baby Thinks He 's a Train '' is a song written by Leroy Preston, and recorded by American country music artist Rosanne Cash. It was released in August 1981 as the second single from the album Seven Year Ache. "My Baby Thinks He 's a Train '' was Rosanne Cash 's second number one on the country chart. The single stayed at number one for a single week and spent a total of 11 weeks on the country chart.
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why all monosaccharides are reducing sugar but not all disaccharides | Reducing sugar - wikipedia
A reducing sugar is any sugar that is capable of acting as a reducing agent because it has a free aldehyde group or a free ketone group. All monosaccharides are reducing sugars, along with some disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. The monosaccharides can be divided into two groups: the aldoses, which have an aldehyde group, and the ketoses, which have a ketone group. Ketoses must first tautomerize to aldoses before they can act as reducing sugars. The common dietary monosaccharides galactose, glucose and fructose are all reducing sugars.
Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharides and can be classified as either reducing or nonreducing. Nonreducing disaccharides like sucrose and trehalose have glycosidic bonds between their anomeric carbons and thus can not convert to an open - chain form with an aldehyde group; they are stuck in the cyclic form. Reducing disaccharides like lactose and maltose have only one of their two anomeric carbons involved in the glycosidic bond, meaning that they can convert to an open - chain form with an aldehyde group.
The aldehyde functional group allows the sugar to act as a reducing agent, for example in the Tollens ' test or Benedict 's test. The cyclic hemiacetal forms of aldoses can open to reveal an aldehyde and certain ketoses can undergo tautomerization to become aldoses. However, acetals, including those found in polysaccharide linkages, can not easily become free aldehydes.
Reducing sugars react with amino acids in the Maillard reaction, a series of reactions that occurs while cooking food at high temperatures and that is important in determining the flavor of food. Also, the levels of reducing sugars in wine, juice, and sugarcane are indicative of the quality of these food products.
A reducing sugar is one that reduces another compound and is itself oxidized; that is, the carbonyl carbon of the sugar is oxidized to a carboxyl group.
A sugar is classified as a reducing sugar only if it has an open - chain form with an aldehyde group or a free hemiacetal group. Monosaccharides which contain an aldehyde group are known as aldoses, and those with a ketone group are known as ketoses. The aldehyde can be oxidized via a redox reaction in which another compound is reduced. Thus, a reducing sugar is one that reduces certain chemicals. Sugars with ketone groups in their open chain form are capable of isomerizing via a series of tautomeric shifts to produce an aldehyde group in solution. Therefore, ketone - bearing sugars like fructose are considered reducing sugars but it is the isomer containing an aldehyde group which is reducing since ketones can not be oxidized without decomposition of the sugar. This type of isomerization is catalyzed by the base present in solutions which test for the presence of aldehydes. Aldoses or aldehyde - bearing sugars are reducing also because during oxidation of aldoses, there are certain oxidizing agents that are reduced.
The reducing end of a disaccharide is the monosaccharide with a free anomeric carbon that is not involved in a glycosidic bond and is thus capable of converting to the open - chain form. Recall that disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides and may be either reducing or nonreducing. However, even a reducing disaccharide will only have one reducing end, as disaccharides are held together by glycosidic bonds, which consist of at least one anomeric carbon. With one anomeric carbon unable to convert to the open - chain form, only the free anomeric carbon is available to reduce another compound. A nonreducing disaccharide has both anomeric carbons tied up in the glycosidic bond.
Similarly, reducing polysaccharides have only one reducing end, assuming that there is no branching.
All monosaccharides are reducing sugars because all monosaccharides have an aldehyde group (if they are aldoses) or can tautomerize in solution to form an aldehyde group (if they are ketoses). This includes common monosaccharides like galactose, glucose, glyceraldehyde, fructose, ribose, and xylose.
Many disaccharides, like cellobiose, lactose and maltose, also have a reducing form, as one of the two units may have an open - chain form with an aldehyde group. However, sucrose and trehalose, in which the anomeric carbons of the two units are linked together, are nonreducing disaccharides since neither of the rings is capable of opening.
In glucose polymers such as starch and starch - derivatives like glucose syrup, maltodextrin and dextrin the macromolecule begins with a reducing sugar, a free aldehyde. More hydrolyzed starch contains more reducing sugars. The percentage of reducing sugars present in these starch derivatives is called dextrose equivalent (DE).
Glycogen is a highly branched polymer of glucose that serves as the main form of carbohydrate storage in animals. It is a reducing sugar with only one reducing end; no matter how large the glycogen molecule is or how many branches it has, each branch ends in a nonreducing sugar residue. When glycogen is broken down to be used as an energy source, glucose units are removed one at a time from the nonreducing ends by enzymes.
Several qualitative tests are used to detect the presence of reducing sugars. Two of them use solutions of copper (II) ions: Benedict 's reagent (Cu in aqueous sodium citrate) and Fehling 's solution (Cu in aqueous sodium tartrate). The reducing sugar reduces the copper (II) ions in these test solutions to copper (I), which then forms a brick red copper (I) oxide precipitate. Reducing sugars can also be detected with the addition of Tollen 's reagent, which consist of silver ions (Ag) in aqueous ammonia. When Tollen 's reagent is added to an aldehyde, it precipitates silver metal, often forming a silver mirror on clean glassware.
3, 5 - Dinitrosalicylic acid is another test reagent, one that allows quantitative detection. It reacts with a reducing sugar to form 3 - amino - 5 - nitrosalicylic acid, which can be measured by spectrophotometry to determine the amount of reducing sugar that was present.
Sugars having acetal or ketal linkages are not reducing sugars, as they do not have free aldehyde chains. They therefore do not react with any of the reducing - sugar test solutions. However, a non-reducing sugar can be hydrolyzed using dilute hydrochloric acid. After hydrolysis and neutralization of the acid, the product may be a reducing sugar that gives normal reactions with the test solutions.
All carbohydrates respond positively to Molisch 's reagent but the test has a faster rate when it comes to monosaccharides.
Fehling 's solution was used for many years as a diagnostic test for diabetes, a disease in which blood glucose levels are dangerously elevated by a failure to produce enough insulin (Type 1 diabetes) or by an inability to respond to insulin (Type 2 diabetes). By measuring the amount of oxidizing agent (in this case, Fehling 's solution) reduced by glucose, it is possible to determine the concentration of glucose in the blood or in the urine. This then enables the right amount of insulin to be injected to bring blood glucose levels back into the normal range.
The carbonyl groups of reducing sugars react with the amino groups of amino acids in the Maillard reaction, a complex series of reactions that occurs when cooking food. Maillard reaction products (MRPs) are diverse; some are beneficial to human health, while others are toxic. However, the overall effect of the Maillard reaction is to decrease the nutritional value of food. One example of a toxic product of the Mailard reaction is acrylamide, a neurotoxin and possible carcinogen that is formed from free asparagine and reducing sugars when cooking starchy foods at high temperatures (above 120 ° C).
The level of reducing sugars in wine, juice, and sugarcane are indicative of the quality of these food products, and monitoring the levels of reducing sugars during food production has improved market quality. The conventional method for doing so is the Lane - Eynon method, which involves titrating the reducing sugar with copper (II) in Fehling 's solution in the presence of methylene blue, a common redox indicator. However, it is inaccurate, expensive, and sensitive to impurities.
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a. who takes the salute at the grand parade on republic day | Delhi Republic Day parade - Wikipedia
The Delhi Republic Day parade is the largest and most important of the parades marking the Republic Day celebrations in India. The parade takes place every year on 26 January at Rajpath, New Delhi. It is the main attraction of India 's Republic Day celebrations, which last for 3 days. The parade showcases India 's defence capability and its cultural and social heritage.
To mark the importance of the Republic Day, every year a grand parade is held in the capital, New Delhi, from the Raisina Hill Rashtrapati Bhavan (the President 's residence), along the Rajpath, past India Gate. Prior to its commencement, the Prime Minister lays a floral wreath at the Amar Jawan Jyoti, a memorial to fallen soldiers at the India Gate at one end of Rajpath, which is followed by two minutes silence in the memory of fallen soldiers. It is a solemn reminder of the sacrifice of the martyrs who died for the country in the freedom movement and the succeeding wars for the defence of sovereignty of their country. Thereafter he / she reaches the main dais at Rajpath to join other dignitaries, subsequently the President arrives along with the chief guest of the occasion. They are escorted on horseback by the President 's Bodyguard.
First, the president unfurls the National flag, as the National Anthem is played, and a 21 - gun salute is given as the PBG renders the National Salute. Next, important awards like the Ashok Chakra and Kirti Chakra are given away by the President, before the regiments of Armed Forces start their march past. The President comes forward to award the medals of bravery to the people from the armed forces for their exceptional courage in the field and also the civilians, who have distinguished themselves by their different acts of valour in different situations. Children who receive the National Bravery Award ride past the spectators on colourfully decorated elephants or vehicles.
Nine to twelve different regiments of the Indian Army in addition to the Navy, and Air Force with their bands march past in all their finery and official decorations. The President of India who is the Commander - in - Chief of the Indian Armed Forces, takes the salute. Twelve contingents of various para-military forces of India and other civil forces also take part in this parade. One of the unique sights of the parade is the camel mounted Border Security Force contingent, which is the only camel mounted military force in the world. The best N.C.C. cadets, selected from all over the country consider it an honour to participate in this event, as do the school children from various schools in the capital. They spend many days preparing for the event and no expense is spared to see that every detail is taken care of, from their practice for the drills, the essential props and their uniforms. 22 to 30 floats exhibiting the cultures of the various states and union territories of India, including floats of union ministries and state enterprises are in the grand parade, which is broadcast nationwide on television and radio. These moving exhibits depict scenes of activities of people in those states and the music and songs of that particular state accompany each display. Each display brings out the diversity and richness of the culture of India and the whole show lends a festive air to the occasion. Around 1200 schoolchildren present cultural dances as part of the parade. The 2016 Republic Day marked the return of K - 9 Dog Squad to the parade after 26 years.
The parade traditionally ends with dare devil motor cycle riding by motorcycle units of the Armed Forces and a flypast by the Indian Air Force jets and helicopters carrying the national flag and the flags of the three services.
Comprising over 25 marching and mounted contingents, various military vehicles, 20 military bands, 30 cultural tableaux and 30 aircraft in addition to cultural performers and 1200 schoolchildren, India 's Republic Day Parade in New Delhi is the most spectacular regular parade in the world.
Every part of the country is represented in the parade, which makes the Republic Day parade very popular. A full dress rehearsal Parade is also organized on 23 January every year to take stock of the preparedness.
The Beating Retreat ceremony officially denotes the end of Republic Day festivities. It is conducted on the evening of 29 January, the third day after the Republic Day. It is performed by the bands of the three wings of the military, the Indian Army, Indian Navy and Indian Air Force. The venue is Raisina Hills and an adjacent square, Vijay Chowk, flanked by the north and south block of the Rashtrapati Bhavan (President 's Palace) towards the end of Rajpath.
The Chief Guest of the function is the President of India who arrives escorted by the Presidential Body Guard (PBG), a cavalry unit. When the President arrives, the PBG commander asks the unit to give the National Salute, which is followed by playing of the Indian National Anthem, Jana Gana Mana, by the Army developed the ceremony of display by the massed bands in which Military Bands, Pipe and Drum Bands, Buglers and Trumpeters from various Army Regiments besides bands from the Navy and Air Force take part which play popular tunes like Abide With Me, Mahatma Gandhi 's favourite hymn, and Saare Jahan Se Achcha at the end.
Since 1950, India has been hosting a head of state or government of another country as the state guest of honour for Republic Day celebrations in New Delhi. During 1950 -- 1954, Republic Day celebrations were organised at different venues (like Irwin Stadium (National Stadium), Kingsway (Rajpath), Red Fort and Ramlila grounds). It was only starting 1955 when the parade in its present form was organised at Rajpath. The guest country is chosen after a deliberation of strategic, economic and political interests. During the 1950s -- 1970s, a number of NAM and Eastern Bloc countries were hosted by India. In the post-Cold War era, India has also invited several Western leaders on a state visit during the Republic Day. It is notable that before India fought wars with China and Pakistan, leaders from these countries were invited as state guests for the Republic Day celebrations. Interestingly, Pakistan Food and Agriculture Minister was the second state guest from that country for Republic Day in 1965, a few days after which the two countries went to a war. Countries which have been invited multiple times include India 's neighbours (Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Mauritius), defence allies (Russia / USSR, France and Britain), trade partners (Brazil) and NAM allies (Nigeria, Indonesia and erstwhile Yugoslavia). France has the distinction of being the guest of honour for the maximum (five) number of times followed by four visits from Bhutan and three visits each from Mauritius and USSR / Russia. In 2015, the US President Barack Obama was the Chief Guest at Republic Day celebrations, followed by French president François Hollande during the 2016 Republic Day parade. In 2017, Crown Prince Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan from the United Arab Emirates was the Chief Guest of the parade.
In 2016, French Army soldiers and French Army Band took part in the 67th Republic Day parade. This marked the first time since the beginning of the parade in 1950, that a foreign army contingent marched down the Rajpath during the Republic Day parade.
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what is the soundtrack for guardians of the galaxy | Guardians of the Galaxy (Soundtrack) - wikipedia
Guardians of the Galaxy: Awesome Mix Vol. 1 (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) is the soundtrack album for the Marvel Studios film of the same name. Featuring the songs present on Peter Quill 's mixtape in the film, the album was released by Hollywood Records on July 29, 2014. A separate film score album, Guardians of the Galaxy (Original Score), composed by Tyler Bates, was also released by Hollywood Records on the same date, along with a deluxe version featuring both albums. The soundtrack album reached number one on the US Billboard 200 chart, becoming the first soundtrack album in history consisting entirely of previously released songs to top the chart.
The album topped the Billboard Top Soundtracks for 11 consecutive weeks and 16 weeks in total. As of April 2017, it has sold over 1.75 million copies in the United States alone, and has been certified Platinum by the RIAA. The album was the US 's second best - selling soundtrack album of 2014, behind only the soundtrack to Frozen.
In August 2013 the film 's director, James Gunn, posted on his Facebook page that Tyler Bates would be composing the film 's score. Gunn stated that Bates will write some of the score first so that he can film to the music, as opposed to scoring to the film. In February 2014, Gunn revealed that the film would incorporate songs from the 1970s and 1980s, such as "Hooked on a Feeling '', on a mixtape in Quill 's Walkman, which acts as a way for him to stay connected to the Earth, home and family he lost. In May 2014, Gunn added that using the songs from the 70s and 80s were "cultural reference points '', saying, "It 's striking the balance throughout the whole movie, through something that is very unique, but also something that is easily accessible to people at the same time. The music and the Earth stuff is one of those touchstones that we have to remind us that, yeah, (Quill) is a real person from planet Earth who 's just like you and me. Except that he 's in this big outer space adventure. ''
All songs -- with the exception of "Spirit in the Sky '', which is played in the trailer -- are featured in the film. "Never Been to Spain '' by Three Dog Night, "Magic '' by Pilot, and "Livin ' Thing '' by Electric Light Orchestra were also used during filming; however, the scenes in which they were featured were cut from the final version of the film. "Wichita Lineman '' by Glen Campbell and "Mama Told Me (Not to Come) '' by Three Dog Night were originally considered for the film instead of "Moonage Daydream ''. "Fox on the Run '' by Sweet and "Surrender '' by Cheap Trick were also considered for the film. Both would be used for Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 's Awesome Mix Vol. 2.
By August 2014, Guardians of the Galaxy: Awesome Mix Vol. 1 had reached the top of the Billboard 200 chart, becoming the first soundtrack album in history consisting entirely of previously released songs to top the chart. By September 2014, Guardians of the Galaxy: Awesome Mix Vol. 1 was the second best - selling soundtrack album in the US (after Frozen) with 426,000 copies sold at that time. The album was also the second soundtrack album released by Disney Music Group that year (also after Frozen) to reach No. 1 on the aforementioned chart. The album was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America, eight weeks after its release. An exclusive vinyl LP edition of the soundtrack was also released on September 16, 2014. On November 28, 2014, the soundtrack got a limited edition cassette tape release exclusive to retailers associated with Record Store Day 's Black Friday event, and is the first cassette release by Disney Music Group since 2003 's Classic Disney: 60 Years of Musical Magic. The soundtrack became the fifth best - selling album of 2014, selling a total of 898,000 copies that year. In January 2015, the album was certified platinum by the RIAA. It has sold 1.75 million total copies in the United States, with 11,000 coming from cassette sales. Worldwide, Guardians of the Galaxy: Awesome Mix Vol. 1 sold over 2.5 million copies in 2014.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
All music composed by Tyler Bates.
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what is the main sign of lung disease | Medical sign - wikipedia
A medical sign is an objective indication of some medical fact or characteristic that may be detected by a patient or anyone, especially a physician, before or during a physical examination of a patient. For example, whereas a tingling paresthesia is a symptom (only the person experiencing it can directly observe their own tingling feeling), erythema is a sign (anyone can confirm that the skin is redder than usual). Symptoms and signs are often nonspecific, but often combinations of them are at least suggestive of certain diagnoses, helping to narrow down what may be wrong. In other cases they are specific even to the point of being pathognomonic.
Some signs may have no meaning to the patient, and may even go unnoticed, but may be meaningful and significant to the healthcare provider in assisting diagnosis.
Examples of signs include elevated blood pressure, a clubbing of the ends of fingers (which may be a sign of lung disease, or many other things), a staggering gait (human) and arcus senilis of the eyes.
The term sign is not to be confused with the term indication, which in medicine denotes a valid reason for using some treatment.
The art of interpreting clinical signs was originally called semiotics (a term now used for the study of sign communication in general) in English. This term, then written semeiotics (derived from the Greek adjective σημειωτικός: semeiotikos, "to do with signs ''), was first used in English in 1670 by Henry Stubbes (1631 -- 1676), to denote the branch of medical science relating to the interpretation of signs:
Signs are different from symptoms, the subjective experiences, such as fatigue, that patients might report to their examining physician.
For convenience, signs are commonly distinguished from symptoms as follows: Both are something abnormal, relevant to a potential medical condition, but a symptom is experienced and reported by the patient, while a sign is discovered by the physician during examination or by a clinical scientist by means of an in vivo examination of the patient.
A slightly different definition views signs as any indication of a medical condition that can be objectively observed (i.e., by someone other than the patient), whereas a symptom is merely any manifestation of a condition that is apparent to the patient (i.e., something consciously affecting the patient). From this definition, it can be said that an asymptomatic patient is uninhibited by disease. However, a doctor may discover the sign hypertension in an asymptomatic patient, who does not experience "dis - ease '', and the sign indicates a disease state that poses a hazard to the patient. With this set of definitions, there is some overlap -- certain things may qualify as both a sign and a symptom (e.g., a bloody nose).
Lester S. King, author of Medical Thinking, argues that an "essential feature '' of a sign is that there is both a sign (or "signifier '') and a "thing signified ''. And, because "the essence of a sign is to convey information '', it can only be a sign, properly speaking, if it has meaning. Therefore, "a sign ceases to be a sign when you can not read it ''. A person, who has and exercises the knowledge required to understand the significance or indication or meaning of the sign, is necessary for something to be a complete sign. A physical phenomenon that is not actually interpreted as a sign pointing to something else is, in medicine, merely a symptom. Thus, King rejects "these present - day views (distinguishing signs from symptoms based on patient - subjective versus clinician - objective), however widely accepted, as quite faulty, at variance not only with ordinary usage but with the entire history of medicine. ''
"(A) symptom is a phenomenon, caused by an illness and observable directly in experience. We may speak of it as a manifestation of illness. When the observer reflects on that phenomenon and uses it as a base for further inferences, then that symptom is transformed into a sign. As a sign it points beyond itself -- perhaps to the present illness, or to the past or to the future. That to which a sign points is part of its meaning, which may be rich and complex, or scanty, or any gradation in between. In medicine, then, a sign is thus a phenomenon from which we may get a message, a message that tells us something about the patient or the disease. A phenomenon or observation that does not convey a message is not a sign. The distinction between signs and symptom rests on the meaning, and this is not perceived but inferred. ''
Medical signs may be classified by the type of inference that may be made from their presence, for example:
"(If the patient 's facial) appearance may be described thus: the nose sharp, the eyes sunken, the temples fallen in, the ears cold and drawn in and their lobes distorted, the skin of the face hard, stretched and dry, and the colour of the face pale or dusky.... and if there is no improvement within (a prescribed period of time), it must be realized that this sign portends death. ''
"Symptoms become signs when they permit inference. Ordinarily, one single symptom by itself -- such as pain or swelling, or discoloration, or bloody discharge -- would not permit any specific inference, but when symptoms occur in clusters and form a pattern, then the aggregate might point to a particular disease. The pathognomonic sign, however, does not need any other manifestation to lead the physician to the correct diagnosis. It constitutes a one - to - one relationship -- the sign and the disease are uniquely related. The pathognomonic sign was the "clincher '', the datum that established the diagnosis unequivocally. ''
Prior to the nineteenth century there was little difference in the powers of observation between physician and patient. Most medical practice was conducted as a joint co-operative interaction between the physician and his aristocratic patient as equals; this was gradually replaced by a "monolithic consensus of opinion imposed from within the community of medical investigators ''. Whilst each noticed much the same things, the physician had a more informed interpretation of those things: "the physicians knew what the findings meant and the layman did not ''.
However, the patient was gradually removed from the medical interaction due to significant technological advances such as:
The introduction of the techniques of percussion and auscultation into medical practice altered the relationship between physician and patient in a very significant way, specifically because these techniques relied almost entirely upon the physician listening to the sounds of the patient 's body.
Not only did this development greatly reduce the patient 's capacity to observe and contribute to the process of diagnosis, it also meant that the patient was often instructed to stop talking, and remain silent.
As these sorts of evolutionary changes continued to take place in medical practice, it was increasingly necessary to uniquely identify data that was accessible only to the physician, and to be able to differentiate those observations from others that were also available to the patient, and it just seemed natural to use "signs '' for the class of physician - specific data, and "symptoms '' for the class of observations available to the patient.
King proposes a more advanced notion; namely, that a sign is something that has meaning, regardless of whether it is observed by the physician or reported by the patient:
The belief that a symptom is a subjective report of the patient, while a sign is something that the physician elicits, is a 20th - century product that contravenes the usage of two thousand years of medicine. In practice, now as always, the physician makes his judgments from the information that he gathers. The modern usage of signs and symptoms emphasizes merely the source of the information, which is not really too important. Far more important is the use that the information serves. If the data, however derived, lead to some inferences and go beyond themselves, those data are signs. If, however, the data remain as mere observations without interpretation, they are symptoms, regardless of their source. Symptoms become signs when they lead to an interpretation. The distinction between information and inference underlies all medical thinking and should be preserved.
In some senses, the process of diagnosis is always a matter of assessing the likelihood that a given condition is present in the patient. In a patient who presents with haemoptysis (coughing up blood), the haemoptysis is very much more likely to be caused by respiratory disease than by the patient having broken their toe. Each question in the history taking allows the medical practitioner to narrow down their view of the cause of the symptom, testing and building up their hypotheses as they go along.
Examination, which is essentially looking for clinical signs, allows the medical practitioner to see if there is evidence in the patient 's body to support their hypotheses about the disease that might be present.
A patient who has given a good story to support a diagnosis of tuberculosis might be found, on examination, to show signs that lead the practitioner away from that diagnosis and more towards sarcoidosis, for example. Examination for signs tests the practitioner 's hypotheses, and each time a sign is found that supports a given diagnosis, that diagnosis becomes more likely.
Special tests (blood tests, radiology, scans, a biopsy, etc.) also allow a hypothesis to be tested. These special tests are also said to show signs in a clinical sense. Again, a test can be considered pathognonomic for a given disease, but in that case the test is generally said to be "diagnostic '' of that disease rather than pathognonomic. An example would be a history of a fall from a height, followed by a lot of pain in the leg. The signs (a swollen, tender, distorted lower leg) are only very strongly suggestive of a fracture; it might not actually be broken, and even if it is, the particular kind of fracture and its degree of dislocation need to be known, so the practitioner orders an x-ray -- and, for example, if the x-ray were to show a fractured tibia, the film would be diagnostic of the fracture.
Medical sign Symptom Syndrome
Medical diagnosis Differential diagnosis Prognosis
Acute Chronic Cure / Remission
Disease Eponymous disease Acronym or abbreviation
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where does the chicago cubs team train in the spring | Sloan Park - Wikipedia
Sloan Park is an American baseball park in Mesa, Arizona which opened in 2014. The primary operator is the Chicago Cubs and the ballpark serves as their spring training home and is also the home of the Arizona League Cubs of the Arizona League and the Mesa Solar Sox of the Arizona Fall League. Sloan Park was built and paid for by residents of the City of Mesa, approved by ballot measure. It was primarily built to house spring training operations for the Chicago Cubs, who had previously played at nearby Hohokam Stadium. The stadium design was led by Populous. The dimensions of the playing surface closely match those of the Cubs ' regular home stadium, Wrigley Field.
With a capacity of 15,000, Sloan Park is the largest spring training stadium by capacity in Major League Baseball, surpassing Camelback Ranch in Glendale (coincidentally, spring training home of the Cubs ' in - city rival the Chicago White Sox) by 2,000 seats.
Formerly known as Cubs Park, on January 8, 2015, it was announced that Sloan Valve Company had signed a naming - rights deal to the ballpark, giving it its current Sloan Park name.
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when does the elf on a shelf appear | The Elf on the Shelf - wikipedia
The Elf on the Shelf: A Christmas Tradition is a 2005 children 's picture book, written by Carol Aebersold and her daughter Chanda Bell, and illustrated by Coë Steinwart. The book tells a Christmas - themed story, written in rhyme, that explains how Santa Claus knows who is naughty and who is nice. It describes elves visiting children between Thanksgiving and Christmas Eve, after which they return to the North Pole until the next holiday season. The Elf on the Shelf comes in a keepsake box that features a hardbound picture book and a small soft toy in the form of a pixie scout elf.
The story describes how Santa 's "scout Elves '' hide in people 's homes to watch over events. Once everyone goes to bed, the scout elf flies back to the North Pole to report to Santa the activities, good and bad, that have taken place throughout the day. Before the family wakes up each morning, the scout elf flies back from the North Pole and hides. By hiding in a new spot each morning around the house, the scout elf plays an on - going game of hide and seek with the family.
The Elf on the Shelf explains that scout elves get their magic by being named and being loved by a child. In the back of each book, families have an opportunity to write their elf 's name and the date that they adopted it. Once the elf is named, the scout elf receives its special Christmas magic, which allows it to fly to and from the North Pole.
The book tells how the magic might disappear if the scout elf is touched, so the rule for The Elf on the Shelf states, "There 's only one rule that you have to follow, so I will come back and be here tomorrow: Please do not touch me. My magic might go, and Santa wo n't hear all I 've seen or I know. '' Although families are told not to touch their scout elf, they can speak to it and tell it all their Christmas wishes so that it can report back to Santa accurately.
The story ends on Christmas Day with the elf leaving to stay with Santa for the rest of the year until the following Christmas season.
The Elf on the Shelf was written in 2004 by Carol Aebersold and daughter Chanda Bell over a cup of tea. Bell suggested they write a book about an old tradition of an elf sent from Santa who came to watch over them at Christmas time. Aebersold 's other daughter, Christa Pitts, was recruited by the family to share her expertise in sales and marketing. Together, the trio devoted the next three years promoting their self - published book and attending book signings and trade shows.
The Elf on the Shelf won the Best Toy Award by Learning Express, won Book of the Year Award from Creative Child Awards and National Best Books Award sponsored by USA Book News in 2008. In 2012, The Elf on the Shelf made its first appearance in the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade alongside fellow parade newcomers Hello Kitty and Papa Smurf. In 2013, The Elf on the Shelf hit the # 1 spot on the USA Today Bestsellers List.
On 26 November 2011, the book aired on CBS as a 30 - minute animated TV show, An Elf 's Story: The Elf on the Shelf, directed by Chad Eikhoff. The Washington Post criticized the quality of the animation and dismissed it as "just a half - hour advertisement for a book and a toy '', which it felt would not join "the canon of prime - time animated Christmas specials that actually move the spirit ''. Common Sense Media disagreed, calling the special "a great addition to families ' holiday TV traditions ''; however, they also warn parents about the consumer - driven nature of the story, and make note of its lack of educational value.
In October 2013, The Elf on the Shelf: A Birthday Tradition was released. Written and illustrated by the same team that created the first book, it offers instructions for inviting a scout elf to visit for a child 's birthday party and describes how the elf decorates a chair for the child. In April 2014, two supplemental birthday products were released: The Elf on the Shelf Birthday Countdown Game and The Elf on the Shelf Birthday Chair Decoration Kit.
The Elf on the Shelf was parodied as "The Gnome in the Home '' in "The Nightmare After Krustmas, '' a 2016 episode of The Simpsons.
A Jewish counterpart to Elf On The Shelf was created: "Mensch on the Bench, '' a stuffed toy that looks a bit like a rabbi or a Hasidic Jew. Jewish father Neal Hoffman, a former Hasbro Toys toy marketing executive, raised more than $20,000, using the crowdfunding website Kickstarter to fund creation of the toy in the Spring of 2011. "Mensch '', in Yiddish, means a person of integrity or honor.
Cody Decker, the starting left fielder for Team Israel at the 2017 World Baseball Classic, brought the team 's mascot, a five - foot version of "Mensch on the Bench, '' with him to Asia from the United States for the World Baseball Classic. Decker said he "tried getting him a first - class ticket. But that did n't fly, so he was put in a duffel bag and checked. '' The mascot proved to be a big hit. He has his own locker, sits on Team Israel 's bench in the dugout during every game, and sat alongside Decker at a press conference in South Korea. Decker said:
"He 's a mascot, he 's a friend, he 's a teammate, he 's a borderline deity to our team... He brings a lot to the table... Every team needs their Jobu. He was ours. He had his own locker, and we even gave him offerings: Manischewitz, gelt, and gefilte fish... He is everywhere and nowhere all at once. His actual location is irrelevant because he exists in higher metaphysical planes. But he 's always near. ''
Team Israel Manager Jerry Weinstein said: "He 's on the team. Everybody brings something to the team, and certainly The Mensch is a unifying factor for the ball club. '' Pitcher Gabe Cramer said: "The Mensch on the Bench is... a symbol we can rally around as a team. We are proud to be Jewish, but we know how to make and take a joke, something Jews have a long history of doing. The Mensch is a great way to have fun in the dugout while reminding us of why we 're here and who we 're representing. ''
The Elf has received some criticism from cultural reviewers. The Atlantic columnist Kate Tuttle calls it "a marketing juggernaut dressed up as a tradition '' whose purpose is "to spy on kids '' and that one should n't "bully your child into thinking that good behavior equals gifts. '' Washington Post reviewer Hank Stuever characterized the concept as "just another nannycam in a nanny state obsessed with penal codes ''. Writing for Psychology Today, Dr. David Kyle Johnston calls it a "dangerous parental crutch '', with much the same reasoning as what he terms the "Santa lie ''. Professor Laura Pinto suggests that it conditions kids to accept the surveillance state and that it communicates to children that "it 's okay for other people to spy on you, and you 're not entitled to privacy. '' She argues that "if you grow up thinking it 's cool for the elves to watch me and report back to Santa, well, then it 's cool for the NSA to watch me and report back to the government. '' Pinto 's main point is simply for parents to consider the Elf 's message. "The rule of play is that kids get to interact with a doll or video game or what have you, but not so with the Elf on the Shelf: The rule is that you do n't touch the elf. Think about the message that sends. ''
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how old is prince in hollyoaks in real life | List of Hollyoaks characters (2016) - wikipedia
Hollyoaks is a British television soap opera that was first broadcast on 23 October 1995. The following is a list of characters that appeared in the serial in 2016, by order of first appearance. All characters were introduced by executive producer, Bryan Kirkwood. The first character to be introduced was James Nightingale (Gregory Finnegan), a mysterious solicitor who begins manipulating Cindy Cunningham (Stephanie Waring), while February saw the arrival of the Marnie Nightingale, the Nightingale family matriarch. Liam Donovan (Maxim Baldry), Jesse Donovan (Luke Jerdy), and Adam Donovan (Jimmy Essex), the half - brothers of Grace Black (Tamara Wall) were introduced in March and April, with Lisa Loveday (Rachel Adedeji), the missing daughter of Simone Loveday (Jacqueline Boatswain) and Louis Loveday (Karl Collins), making her first appearance in late April.
DS Armstrong (Andrew Hayden - Smith), a police officer, debuted in June. August saw the first appearance of Maria (Fernanda Diniz), the former wife of Diego Salvador Martinez Hernandez De La Cruz (Juan Pablo Yepez), Ryan Knight, the fiancée of Amy Barnes (Ashley Slanina - Davies), and Courtney Campbell (Amy Conachan), the cousin of Cameron Campbell (Cameron Moore). Tracey Donovan (Lisa Maxwell), the mother of Grace, Liam, Jesse and Adam, joined the recurring cast in September, while Juanita Salvador Martinez Hernandez De La Cruz (Jacey Sallés), the mother of Diego, and Billy Brodie (Clive Russell), the estranged brother of Jack Osborne (Jimmy McKenna), were introduced for guest appearances.
Nick Savage, the nephew of Dirk Savage (David Kennedy), and Eva Falco (Kerry Bennett), the estranged niece of Jack, made their first appearances as regular characters in September. The McQueen family were expanded in November with the arrivals of Goldie McQueen (Chelsee Healey), Prince McQueen (Malique Thompson - Dwyer) and Hunter McQueen (Theo Graham). Tabitha Maxwell - Brown (Linda Gray), the mother of Marnie, was also introduced in November, while Dr. Barton (Amanda Muggleton), a doctor treating Nancy Osborne (Jessica Fox), appeared in December.
James Nightingale, played by Gregory Finnegan, made his first screen appearance on 12 January 2016. The character and Finnegan 's casting was announced on 24 December 2015. James works as a solicitor and a Hollyoaks publicist said that James would cause "terrible trouble locally '' upon arriving in the show and specifically target established character Cindy Cunningham (Stephanie Waring). Ste Hay (Kieron Richardson) and Harry Thompson (Parry Glasspool) will be confused as to why he spends time with Cindy as they believe that James is gay (which was later confirmed). They added that secrets about James would later be revealed. Waring described James as being "very alluring and dashing, so of course Cindy is immediately taken in by his knight - in - shining - armour routine. ''
Marnie Julie Nightingale, played by Lysette Anthony, is the ex-wife of Mac Nightingale (David Easter) and the mother of Nathan Nightingale (Jared Garfield), Ellie Nightingale (Sophie Porley) and James Nightingale (Gregory Finnegan). She made her first on - screen appearance on 1 February 2016.
Marnie arrives in Hollyoaks revealing that she has been working with her son, James, with the inadvertent help of Cindy, to drain her ex-husband, Mac, of his finances as he was awarded everything by the courts when they divorced. She threatens to take away their daughter, Ellie, if he does not comply. Mac then gives her a large amount of money to keep her away from Ellie. Before she and James leave Hollyoaks, her other son, Nathan, accidentally reveals to her that Alfie is the biological son of Mac and Cindy. Marnie is furious and goes to The Dog in the Pond where she reveals to everybody that Alfie is Mac and Cindy 's son. Marnie then attempts to persuade Diane O'Connor (Alex Fletcher) and Tony Hutchinson (Nick Pickard) to sell The Hutch to her in an attempt to get closer to her children. However, their several attempts fail. Marnie, with the help of James, steal Diane 's laptop to see whether if the restaurant is close to bankruptcy. It is then revealed that the restaurant could be bankrupt by Easter, so she and James then return to the restaurant in a bid to persuade Diane and Tony into selling the restaurant. However, Diane 's nephew Scott Drinkwell (Ross Adams) catches them with the laptop as they return it. Marnie later learns that Tony earned money from betting with Darren Osborne (Ashley Taylor Dawson). She later informs Diane of this, leaving her upset. Marnie later helps Ellie open up a beauty parlour. At first, Ellie 's beauty parlour is unsuccessful. However, when Ellie helps Freddie Roscoe (Charlie Clapham) and Tegan Lomax (Jessica Ellis) raise money for charity, her business starts to become a success.
After informing Alfie 's family, Cindy then tells Marnie that Alfie 's cancer had returned. This leaves Marnie shocked and upset. Marnie then tells Cindy that she had tried to be a good mother to Alfie, but she could n't love him as much as she loved Nathan, James and Ellie. Marnie, Cindy and Neeta then put aside their differences so that they can all be there for Alfie. After learning about Rachel 's death, Marnie becomes devastated. She later meets Freddie at The Loft. The pair start talking and they then both go back to Freddie 's house, where they have sex. The next day, Marnie learns that Freddie is going on a date with Ellie. She pretends that she and Freddie have n't met before and she introduces herself as Ellie 's mother, leaving Freddie horrified. Marnie follows Ellie and Freddie as they go on a date at The Loft. While Ellie leaves, Marnie tells Freddie if she does n't back away from her daughter, then she will tell her everything that happened between them. The next day, Freddie breaks up with Ellie, leaving her devastated. However, Ellie and Freddie later get back together again, much to Marnie 's dismay. Since they got back together, Marnie has been constantly threatening Freddie to leave Ellie alone, but Freddie refuses. Freddie even blackmails her at one point by using a picture of Marnie kissing him. He said if she tries to break them up, he will show both Ellie and Mac the picture and they will never forgive her for what she did. Marnie and James continue their plan into getting The Hutch. Some of their plans have include getting Scott to distil alcoholic drinks, using Myra McQueen (Nicole Barber - Lane) to bankrupt Tony as she wants £ 8,000 from Tony as compensation for having a neck injury caused by Scott and manipulating Scott into burning The Hutch down. Marnie and James are successful in buying The Hutch and rename it to "Nightingales ''; at its opening, Ellie is furious since her mother told her that she would turn the restaurant into a cosmetics shop to fulfill her daughter 's dream.
When Marnie 's mother, Tabitha Maxwell - Brown (Linda Gray), visited the family, the majority of them were overwhelmed, apart from Mac who did not get along with Tabitha. Tabitha returned to America when Marnie proclaimed her love for Mac. In a bid to not lose her relationship with Ellie, Marnie claimed she had a brain tumour. When Mac discovered the truth surrounding her brain tumour, he threatened to reveal the truth. The family were left devastated when Nathan died after falling from a window and following this, Mac told the family that Marnie had been misdiagnosed and was not ill.
The character and casting was announced on 24 January 2016. It has been said that Marnie will waste no time in causing "chaos for Mac '' and has been billed as "a complex, intriguing and hilarious matriarch with a big broken heart '' and that she can start a fight in an empty room. Marnie arrives in the village to help her son, James, take down Mac for events that happened in the past by using Cindy Cunningham (Stephanie Waring) against him, however she is unaware that Cindy is Alfie Nightingale 's (Richard Linnell) biological mother and the reason for her divorce from Mac. A reporter writing for the Inside Soap Yearbook described Marnie 's entrance as "the classiest '' of 2016, before noting that she arrived wearing "the biggest hat ever seen in soap! '' In August 2017, Anthony was longlisted for Best Bad Girl at the Inside Soap Awards, while she and Nicole Barber - Lane (Myra McQueen) were longlisted for Best Partnership.
Liam Donovan, played by Maxim Baldry, made his first on screen appearance on 28 March 2016. Liam, alongside his brothers Adam (Jimmy Essex) and Jesse (Luke Jerdy), were introduced as the brothers of Grace Black (Tamara Wall).
Liam first appears in Hollyoaks at Dee Valley Hospital after his now ex-girlfriend accidentally burned his bum with a pair of hair straighteners. While receiving treatment for the burn, he catches the eyes of nurses Tegan Lomax (Jessica Ellis) and Celine McQueen (Sarah George). They pretend to be disinterested with him, but when they see him at The Loft, Celine makes a move on him when Tegan reacts to having too many alcoholic drinks. Celine and Liam make out in a hot tub but when she realises it was a girls ' night, she heads back home with him. Later on, Tegan and Liam start to hang out and when they arrive at her house, they start kissing on the sofa. Liam ditches Tegan before she wakes up. After both dates, Celine and Tegan text Liam behind each other 's backs. After learning about what happened, Celine and Tegan start fighting over him. When Lindsey Roscoe (Sophie Austin) gets annoyed with their behaviours, she makes them give their work badges to her and randomly selects who should go on the next date with him. Lindsey randomly selects Celine for the next date, which makes Tegan annoyed and jealous. However, Liam does n't turn up to the date, leaving Celine angry. After Liam does n't show up to the date, Celine and Tegan swear that they wo n't speak to another man until the summer. Unbeknownst to them, the pair text Liam constantly behind each other 's backs. Later on, while Liam is in the hot tub, Tegan and Celine steal and make off with his clothes as revenge for two - timing them, leaving him naked in the tub.
The concept for the character was announced on 16 February 2016 whilst further details, such as the character 's name and casting were announced on the 21 March 2016. Liam will arrive in the village when he is admitted to hospital, where he catches the eye of both Tegan Lomax (Jessica Ellis) and Celine McQueen (Sarah George). Baldry said if his first scenes were anything to go by, then Liam will "get to know some of the Hollyoaks ladies very well. '' It 's been said that Liam "bails on relationships before things get too serious. '' A reporter writing for the Inside Soap Yearbook 2017 described the Donovan brothers as "tasty '', adding that they "set temperatures rising in Hollyoaks ''.
It was announced on the 11 April 2017 that Baldry would be leaving the role of Liam after just over a year on the show. He left after securing a 50,000 money deal after kidnapping Grace 's girlfriend, Esther Bloom (Jazmine Franks).
Jesse Donovan, played by Luke Jerdy, made his first on screen appearance on 6 April 2016. Jesse, alongside his brothers Adam (Jimmy Essex) and Liam (Maxim Baldry), were introduced as the half - brothers of Grace Black (Tamara Wall).
Jesse first appears with his brother Liam Donovan when they pretend to be police officers. He questions Tegan Lomax (Jessica Ellis) and Celine McQueen (Sarah George) about the disappearance of the clothes and wallet belonging to Liam. He then takes them down to the police station for further questioning. However, it is revealed that it was a plan to get back at Tegan and Celine for stealing Liam 's belongings. After Jesse reveals that he is really Liam 's brother, Celine threatens to have him arrested for impersonating a police officer. Jesse returns with Liam a couple of weeks later, and is attracted to Tegan 's older sister, Leela Lomax (Kirsty - Leigh Porter), however he is scared off by her controlling boyfriend, Cameron Campbell (Cameron Moore). Jesse later invites Ellie Nightingale (Sophie Porley) and Neeta Kaur (Amrit Maghera) to his and Liam 's house party, and Neeta falls asleep in his arms with Ellie maliciously photographing her. Ellie 's manipulative mother, Marnie (Lysette Anthony), shows Neeta 's fiancé, Mac Nightingale (David Easter) the photograph, so he savagely attacks Jesse in his own home, with Neeta screaming for him to stop. This subsequently puts a strain on Mac and Neeta 's relationship, as she becomes frightened of his temper after watching his attack on Jesse. Jesse is later distressed after Liam is accidentally shot by their older half - sister, Grace, however is thrilled when he survives and begins a relationship with Celine, despite protests from Liam, who had had sex with her before. Jesse is devastated when Celine dumps him favour of marrying Diego Salvador Martinez Hernandez De La Cruz (Juan Pablo Yepez), unaware it is a scam so the McQueen family can inherit Diego 's multi-million pound inhertiance. At the wedding, they do not marry because Celine can not go through with it, but when she confesses this to Jesse, he chooses not to date her.
In January 2017, Jesse is arrested and imprisoned for Celine 's murder after she goes missing. This came about after Adam discovered that Jesse had a one - night stand with his former fiancée, Darcy Wilde (Aisling Jarrett - Gavin), before she went missing. Later, Celine 's real murderer is revealed to be Cameron, so Jesse is released, however receives abuse from his customers about Celine 's disappearance. In June 2017, he begins a relationship with Darcy.
The concept for the character was announced on 16 February 2016 whilst further details such as the character 's name and casting were announced on 21 March 2016. Jesse, as with the rest of the Donovans will be Grace Black 's (Tamara Wall) brothers. Jerdy has said that his character is "cheeky, loyal and has a real zest for life. '' He has been billed as "a fool for love, who 's always unlucky with the ladies because his over-enthusiasm leads to him being friend - zoned. '' A reporter writing for the Inside Soap Yearbook 2017 described the Donovan brothers as "tasty '', adding that they "set temperatures rising in Hollyoaks ''. In August 2017, Jerdy was longlisted for Funniest Male at the Inside Soap Awards.
Adam Donovan, played by Jimmy Essex, made his first on screen appearance on 6 April 2016. Adam, alongside his brothers Jesse (Luke Jerdy) and Liam (Maxim Baldry), were introduced as the brothers of Grace Black (Tamara Wall).
The concept for the character was announced on 16 February 2016 whilst further details such as the character 's name and casting were announced on 21 March 2016. Adam, as with the rest of the Donovans will be Grace Black 's (Tamara Wall) brothers. A show insider has teased that Adam has "a strong conscience, which stops him from straying over certain lines that Grace would n't think twice about crossing. '' A reporter writing for the Inside Soap Yearbook 2017 described the Donovan brothers as "tasty '', adding that they "set temperatures rising in Hollyoaks ''.
Adam arrives looking for his brothers, Liam and Jesse, and reveals himself as Grace 's oldest half - brother. He insists that Liam and Jesse must come home, but he decides to stay after Grace 's husband, Trevor Royle (Greg Wood), is murdered on their wedding day.
Lisa Loveday, played by Rachel Adedeji, made her first on screen appearance on 29 April 2016. Lisa is the daughter of Simone (Jacqueline Boatswain) and Louis Loveday (Karl Collins) and brother of Zack Loveday (Duayne Boachie) who had been missing for 15 years.
Lisa first appears in Hollyoaks at the police station when her kidnapper and adoptive mother, Margaret Smith (Suzette Llewellyn), is arrested for kidnapping her. Her mother Simone Loveday (Jacqueline Boatswain) and father Louis Loveday (Karl Collins) are stunned to see her. Louis and Simone later do a DNA test to see if she 's really their daughter, and the results come back as positive. Lisa later confronts Sonia Albright (Kiza Deen) after she discovered that she stole her life. Lisa then attacks Sonia for stealing her life, and Zack Loveday (Duayne Boachie) breaks them up and separates them. Zack later takes Lisa back to his house and he and his parents show her objects and pictures from the past, which she remembers. Lisa later goes to the police station to confront Margaret, who she 's angry with for kidnapping her and making her believe that her parents and brother were killed in a car crash. However, Margaret manipulates Lisa into by saying she took her in because her parents did n't love her. She believes what she says and later disowns the Lovedays for having Margaret arrested. As a result of Margaret 's manipulation, Lisa wrecks Price Slice. As soon as Simone and Louis walk in, she pours some sauce on Sonia 's hair and blames her for all of the damage. Simone believes her, but Zack and Louis do not. After the incident, Louis sees Joanne on the street and they talk about what had happened. Joanne reveals that nobody knows what Lisa is truly like, and therefore, Louis grows even more suspicious of Lisa afterwards. Eventually, Sonia pleads guilty to the wreckage with Joanne by her side at the police station, even though she did n't really do it. Joanne tells her that it would be better to plead not guilty, but Sonia objects to this idea.
Lisa later begins a feud with Sonia, trying to separate her from Zack and ruin her life. Lisa persuades Simone to take the restaurant away from Sonia in which she does leaving Lisa the manager. Lisa forms friendships with Holly Cunningham (Amanda Clapham), Ellie Nightingale (Sophie Porley) and Cleo McQueen (Nadine Rose Mulkerrin). When Sonia applies for a course at Hollyoaks University, Lisa ruins it revealing about Sonia imposing her. This leads to a fight between them, leading to Lisa hurting her ankle. In order to spite Sonia more, Lisa sets Holly with Zack however the plan does not work, leaving her furious. Lisa is furious when Simone and Louis accept his relationship with Sonia, so Lisa decides to begin a relationship with Jesse Donovan (Luke Jerdy), leaving Simone angry. After a failed romance with Nathan Nightingale (Jared Garfield), Lisa 's friend, Cleo, sets both Lisa and Nathan up. They begin a problematic relationship, but however, during a village blackout, they have sex. However, after getting engaged to Nathan and moving in with him and his family, Lisa has sex with Nathan 's father, Mac Nightingale (David Easter), and the pair swear each other to secrecy. Mac and Lisa then begin an affair
The character of Lisa has been known since 2015, but former friend Sonia Albright (Kiza Deen) has been pretending to be her. Lisa has been billed as "a loud and brassy party animal '' and "is on a mission to claim back the family that is rightfully hers ''. Rachel Adedeji was cast in the role of Lisa and had already begun filming with the show when her casting was announced. Adedeji stated she was "excited '' to have joined the show 's cast, but said it was "quite a pressure '' to be introduced as Lisa because "she is such an anticipated arrival ''. Adedeji added that Lisa 's backstory had "turned her into a tough cookie ''. Adedeji 's agent informed her that Hollyoaks were interested in hiring her. She attended a meeting with production and read for the part. Adedeji told Lorraine Kelly that her character has "sass '' and is "feisty ''.
In August 2017, Adedeji was longlisted for Sexiest Female at the Inside Soap Awards.
Detective Sergeant Gavin Armstrong, played by Andrew Hayden - Smith, made his first on screen appearance on 15 June 2016 as a detective sergeant who starts to investigate the disappearance of Patrick Blake (Jeremy Sheffield).
DS Gavin Armstrong first appears with D.S. Geoff Thorpe (James Bradshaw). Armstrong and Thorpe meet with Patrick 's daughter, Sienna Blake (Anna Passey), and Thorpe introduces her to Armstrong, informing her that he will be taking over the investigation into Patrick 's disappearance. Thorpe then reveals that they have found some new evidence, intriguing Sienna. Armstrong and Thorpe take Sienna to the woods, where they reveal that her daughter and Patrick 's real murderer, Nico Blake (Persephone Swales - Dawson), as their new witness. Armstrong reveals he believes that Patrick 's wife, Maxine Minniver (Nikki Sanderson), was the person who murdered Patrick, and Sienna agrees to help the police get a confession from Maxine. Armstrong later reveals to Sienna that Maxine 's boyfriend, "Mike Jones '', is Warren Fox (Jamie Lomas) and Sienna persuades Warren to help them get a confession from Maxine.
Armstrong develops a sudden attraction to Leela Lomax (Kirsty - Leigh Porter), who begins receiving sinister messages. Leela immediately reports this to the police and Armstrong takes charge of the case. Armstrong implies to Leela that her friend, Zack Loveday (Duayne Boachie), could be stalking her, which Leela assumes. Armstrong provides Leela with her stalker 's number and when she calls it, the phone rings in her daughter, Peri Lomax 's (Ruby O'Donnell), bag. Peri denies any involvement and Armstrong concludes the stalker planted the phone on Peri. He later claims that Leela 's former husband, Cameron Campbell (Cameron Moore), who is a serial killer, has escaped from prison, with the Lomax family losing their electricity shortly after. Armstrong fixes their electricity and claims Cameron had been hiding and never escaped. Leela thanks Armstrong and it is revealed that he is stalking Leela and watching her after planting a virus on her laptop.
Armstrong later deliberately interrupts an intimate moment between Leela and Zack. Following the murder of Amy Barnes ' (Ashley Slanina - Davies), Armstrong arrests her former partner, Ste Hay (Kieron Richardson) and makes him confess to her murder. Armstrong supports Leela and they have sex, although Leela rejects him the following day, claiming it to be a mistake. Frustrated, Armstrong graffitis Leela 's wall, which Leela reports to the police. Armstrong 's colleague and Amy 's widower, Ryan Knight (Duncan James), takes a statement from Leela and realises Armstrong is her stalker, but decides not to report it at risk of Ste being acquitted of Amy 's murder. When Armstrong plants spray paint in Zack 's bag and arrests him, Ryan releases Zack from custody and tells Leela that a man serving jail time is her stalker, before warning Armstrong and telling him to take sick leave and seek psychiatric help. However, as he is leaving, Armstrong watches Leela through his hidden camera.
Armstrong returns two months later just as Leela and Zack are about to reunite. A jealous Armstrong pushes Zack down the steps outside the Lomax house. Zack is rushed to hospital where he says he was pushed. Zack 's dad Louis reports this to DS Armstrong who promises to find Zack 's attacker as he is clearly dangerous. Armstrong breaks into Leela 's flat, stealing a photo of her and her nightgown. However, when Leela reports the theft to him he slips up by revealing information he was n't supposed to know. Leela confronts Armstrong who blackmails her into silence by threatening to tell Zack that Louis is Daniel 's biological father.
Armstrong then turns his attentions to Dirk Savage 's wife, Cindy Cunningham. He moves in with Dirk and Cindy as a lodger, sets up a fake website with nasty messages about Cindy and then plays the role of the hero. Armstrong then arranges for Dirk to receive a false telephone call claiming that his daughter Liberty has been in an accident. After Dirk leaves, Armstrong persuades Cindy to attend a conference in Liverpool. Armstrong accompanies Cindy to protect her, having booked adjacent rooms at the hotel for Cindy and himself. When Cindy realises the conference is a fake, Armstrong convinces her that she should stay in a locked room with him for her safety. Armstrong deliberately spills wine on Cindy 's dress and tries to kiss her. Cindy rejects Armstrong, reminding him she is married to Dirk. While in the bathroom, Cindy receives a phone call from Leela warning her that Armstrong is her stalker. Cindy runs for it. Armstrong is arrested but later released on bail.
The character and casting was announced on 12 May 2016. A Hollyoaks spokesperson has billed him as "young, driven, and ambitious '', with Hayden - Smith stating that his character is "very authoritative so anyone hiding secrets is anxious when they are in his presence, and rightly so. ''
Maria, played by Fernanda Diniz, will make her first on screen appearance on 1 August 2016. Maria is the sister of established character Diego Salvador Martinez Hernandez De La Cruz (Juan Pablo Yepez),.
Maria arrives in Hollyoaks unexpectedly, surprising her brother Diego. She then meets Mercedes, who says to both of them that she 's staying in Hollyoaks for a little while. Mercedes then offers to take her bag, but Maria is reluctant. Then the pair tussle over it, then the bag drops onto the floor, revealing a stash of drugs. It is then revealed that Maria has smuggled cocaine into the village so she can give the drugs to a drug dealer. Mercedes then orders Diego to kick Maria out, but Maria ca n't go until she has given the drugs. Maria then meets Diego 's girlfriend Myra. Myra first believed that Diego was cheating on her with Maria, but when he introduced her as his sister, she was shocked that his sister came unexpectedly. When Myra helps Maria with her belongings, Maria and Diego talk Spanish in private. Maria blackmails him into helping her with the deal, otherwise she will reveal his darkest secret to Myra - who he really is. Later on, Maria, Diego and Mercedes talk about the drugs, which Myra overhears. Diego and Maria lie about the drug deal and that Maria has been taking drugs so she can relieve her physical pain. Maria and Diego go to the Hollyoaks city wall. However, Maria suddenly collapses and is taken back to the McQueen house. Diego offers to take the drugs for her, but Maria refuses as the dealer is expecting a female. Maria then suggests that Mercedes take the drugs as she is a female too, but Mercedes refuses to.
The character had been previously mentioned on - screen, but her arrival and casting was not announced until 26 July 2016. Maria arrives in the village unexpectedly, to the shock of Diego, sparking immediate chaos. It was revealed that she would tell Diego and Mercedes McQueen (Jennifer Metcalfe) that she is smuggling drugs, with the latter ordering Diego to get rid of Maria and the drugs. Diego and Maria later meet with a dealer in order to "solve her problems once and for all '', but Diego 's partner Myra McQueen (Nicole Barber - Lane) would "start to smell a rat ''.
Detective Sergeant Ryan Knight, played by Blue singer Duncan James, made his first appearance on 12 August 2016. He is introduced as Amy Barnes ' (Ashley Slanina - Davies) fiancée following her return to the show.
The character and casting was announced on 22 May 2016. Ryan has been billed as "a good guy in a committed relationship who will move into the village. He is a grounded family man with principles and integrity but who will fight tooth and nail for what he believes in. '' Slanina - Davies was reintroduced following her 2012 departure, with James confirmed to be playing Amy 's fiancée, Ryan alongside the announcement. Ryan was described as the "polar opposite '' of Amy 's ex-partner Ste Hay (Kieron Richardson). It was announced that Ryan would "go head - to - head '' with Ste for a storyline tackling blended family life. A show spokesperson teased that "viewers will be torn between luckless Ste and a man who on paper is a better example for his children but not their dad. ''
On 8 August 2016, the show announced that a new storyline would begin on - screen which would find Ryan under suspicion of child abuse. The storyline would begin when Ste discovers a bruise on his and Amy 's daughter, Leah Barnes ' (Ela - May Dermican) arm and supsect Ryan to be responsible. Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy described the storyline as "explosive ''.
For his portrayal of Ryan, James was nominated for Best Newcomer at the 22nd National Television Awards.
Courtney Campbell, played by Amy Conachan, is the cousin of Cameron Campbell (Cameron Moore) and his brother Lockie (Nick Rhys). She made her first on screen appearance on 29 August 2016.
Courtney arrived in Hollyoaks, to the shock of Cameron who ordered her to leave. Cameron 's fiancée Leela Lomax (Kirsty Leigh Porter) convinced him to let Courtney stay and they later discussed childhood memories, where Courtney revealed she held a grudge against Cameron because he destroyed her favourite teddy bear. Courtney persuaded Tom Cunningham (Ellis Hollins) into allowing Cameron 's daughter Peri Lomax (Ruby O'Donnell) to see her infant daughter. Courtney questioned the whereabouts of Lockie, which unnerved Cameron. She also bonded with Alfie Nightingale (Richard Linnell) over their love of science and revealed that she is a science teacher. Courtney clashed with Sally St. Claire (Annie Wallace), unaware she is the headmistress of Hollyoaks High School, the school she is hoping to begin work at. When she discovers Sally 's identity, she apologies and is offered a job. Courtney launches a poster campaign and website looking for Lockie, to the shock of Cameron who orders her to stop as the stress is bad for a pregnant Leela. Courtney agrees to end her search, but subsequently the police notify the Campbells that Lockie 's body has been found. Upon being asked to identify the body, Cameron informs the police that it is not Lockie; but tells his family the body was Lockie 's. Courtney is saddened and announces she is returning to Scotland. But she does n't go.
The character and casting was announced on 18 July 2016. Courtney arrives in the village searching for Lockie following his disappearance. She will also become a science teacher at Hollyoaks High School.
Tracey Donovan, played by Lisa Maxwell, made her first on screen appearance on 12 September 2016. Tracey is the mother of established characters Clare Devine (Gemma Bissix), Grace Black (Tamara Wall), Adam Donovan (Jimmy Essex), Liam Donovan (Maxim Baldry) and Jesse Donovan (Luke Jerdy) and the ex-wife of the character Fraser Black (Jesse Birdsall).
The character and casting was announced on 7 August 2016, with further details about the character revealed on 8 August 2016. Maxwell filmed her first scenes prior to the announcement of her casting. The character is billed as a "train wreck '' who has had a "tough life '', which Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy described as not being "a huge shock '' considering she was married to Fraser, a "dangerous gangster ''. Tracey 's backstory states that she left Grace and her sister Clare Devine (Gemma Bissix) when they were "very young '' in an attempt to "escape the dark clutches '' of "evil '' Fraser. It continued to state that Grace has since "resented '' her mother because she was left to live a "dangerous life of crime and corruption '', whilst her mother went onto to meet a man who she had three more children, Adam, Liam and Jesse, with. Kilkelly observed that Tracey 's backstory explained why the three brothers were "so happy - go - lucky '' in comparison to Grace.
It was teased that there could be "fireworks '' when Tracey and Grace reunite because they "are not the best of friends '' and there is "not a lot of love lost between them. '' A show insider added that Tracey would add an "interesting dynamic '' to the Donovan family and that Maxwell "enjoyed '' filming, with show bosses believing that the audience would "love '' scenes between Maxwell and Wall. For the role, Maxwell has required to have a "make - under '' to make her appear older on - screen as there is only a 13 - year age difference between Maxwell and Wall, with her describing the "make - under '' as "great, terrific fun ''. The Sun reported that Tracey 's arrival in the village "could spell disaster '' for Grace 's family and that she would "reveal a shocking secret which could mean bad news '' for Adam, Liam and Jesse. Kilkelly said that he "hardly recognised '' Maxwell in her first promotional image. Executive producer Bryan Kirkwood later revealed that Maxwell would become a "recurring guest star '', meaning that she would "pop up from time to time '' and not move into the village on a regular basis.
Juanita Salvador Martinez Hernandez De La Cruz, played by Jacey Sallés made her first on - screen appearance on 19 September 2016. She was introduced as the mother of Diego Salvador Martinez Hernandez De La Cruz (Juan Pablo Yepez).
Juanita is first mentioned when Diego and his much older pregnant fiancée, Myra McQueen (Nicole Barber - Lane), are struggling financially, and Diego states that Juanita is worth £ 5 million. Excited, Myra calls Juanita in from Venezuela in order to get Diego 's inheritance. However, upon her arrival, Juanita sees Myra 's face on front - page news after conning the newspaper company into believing that Jesse Donovan (Luke Jerdy) is her unborn child 's father. Panicked after hearing Juanita insulting her, Myra asks her niece Celine McQueen (Sarah George) to pretend to be Diego 's fiancée, which she does and Juanita takes a shining to her. She promises to return for their wedding, and so Celine revises Diego 's ancestry in order to be believed as Diego 's fiancée. This hurts Myra having to watch Diego and Celine marry, and equally hurts Celine who is desperate to be with her lover, Jesse.
Juanita later returns for Celine and Myra 's daughter Mercedes McQueen 's (Jennifer Metcalfe) hen parties, who is getting married to Joe Roscoe (Ayden Callaghan) at the same time that Diego will marry Celine. Juanita insults the family home and Cindy Savage (Stephanie Waring), which instantly leads to her becoming unwelcome around the village. The hen night ends disastrously, however, when Mercedes, Cindy and Tegan Lomax (Jessica Ellis) are all arrested for fighting. On the day of the wedding, Diego and Celine are prepared to marry as Juanita watches on, however a visit from Jesse throws Celine 's intentions. As Diego and Celine say their vows, Myra arrives and stops the wedding, revealing to Juanita that she is engaged to Diego and that Diego is the father of her unborn baby. Juanita then gives Diego an ultimatum: he either leaves Myra or he will not get his share of her inheritance. Diego chooses to be with Myra and their baby, and so Juanita storms out of the church, infuriated.
The character and casting was announced on 21 August 2016. It was reported that Juanita would arrive in Hollyoaks to meet his new partner. She was billed as "a glamorous and feisty woman with an iron will, who always wanted the best for her son ''. Sallés told Susan Hill from the Daily Star that she apologised to fellow cast members for nasty remarks her character makes. She added "Juanita is like a pantomime villain -- the sort of character you 'd boo and hiss. She 's so vile and rude. ''
William "Billy '' Brodie, played by Clive Russell, appeared in two episodes on 20 September 2016 and 21 September 2016. Billy was introduced as Jack Osborne 's (Jimmy McKenna) brother and the father of Eva Falco (Kerry Bennett).
Jack receives a visiting order from Billy and visits him in prison. It becomes clear that Jack is hiding a huge secret, which Billy is aware of and uses this to persuade Jack to give him a large amount of money. However, Jack refuses, and Billy reveals that he is dying from a heart condition. The following day, Billy is rushed to hospital where his daughter Eva visits him and he asks her not to interfere with Jack anymore. Billy dies shortly afterwards, with Eva ignoring her father 's requests and seeking revenge on Jack. One year after his death, his name was finally cleared when his brother Jack confess the truth.
The character had been referenced several times on screen before being cast, with more details about the character along with his casting was announced on 20 August 2016. Billy is set to reveal a deadly secret to Eva which will "make a large impact on the Osborne family. ''
Nicholas "Nick '' Savage, played by Ben - Ryan Davies, made his first on screen appearance on 21 September 2016. He is introduced as Dirk Savage 's (David Kennedy) nephew. He made his final appearance on 29 June 2017.
Nick first arrives when his uncle Dirk Savage 's (David Kennedy) wife Cindy (Stephanie Waring) opens the door for Nick, who introduces himself. Nick reveals that Dirk allowed him to stay for university. Nick starts working at The Hutch when Marnie Nightingale (Lysette Anthony) employs him. Nick can not cope with being a waiter and decides to swap jobs with Cindy. During "Freshers '' week, Cindy 's daughter Holly Cunningham (Amanda Clapham) introduces him to her friends and unknown to Nick, Holly is attracted to him. Holly is upset when Tegan Lomax (Jessica Ellis) flirts with Nick. Nick confronts Freddie Roscoe (Charlie Clapham) when he argues with Ellie Nightingale (Sophie Porley). Ellie later kisses Nick and they start talking. They later go to Ellie 's bedroom, where a drunken Ellie falls asleep, however Nick misreads the situation and continues kissing Ellie. Ellie is shocked the following morning when Nick claims that they had sex, as Ellie does not remember giving her consent. Ellie starts acting awkwardly with Nick, who has begun flirting with Holly, which worries Ellie.
In 2017, Nick is later arrested after Ellie reports to the police for raping her, but the charges are dropped after Lisa Loveday (Rachel Adedeji) reports it as a fake, due to her part for revenge to Ellie 's father, Mac Nightingale (David Easter). However, Nick later turns against Ellie, and offers his condolences following the death of her older brother, Nathan Nightingale (Jared Garfield). Nick begins an affair with Tegan, having sex regularly at work. When Tegan believes she is pregnant, Nick rejects her, so Tegan tells Holly about their affair. Holly forgives Nick, and they reconcile. Nick and Holly go to his graduation party at The Dog, where Zack Loveday (Duayne Boachie) tells Nick that he and Holly kissed. Nick humiliates Holly, but she forgives him and they go back home. Nick wants to have sex with Holly, but she refuses. Nick ignores her pleas and rapes her, in a similar fashion to Ellie. The next day, Holly confronts Nick about her not giving consent, but he becomes aggressive and defensive towards her. Holly reports Nick to the police after telling Ellie what Nick has done to her. Nick is released on bail and goes to the hospital to talk to Tegan. When Tegan refuses to allow him to stay with her and her family, he brands her a "bitch ''. Nick talks to Holly, blackmailing her by threatening to uploard their sex tape online if she refuses to retract her statement. Nick tells Dirk that neither Ellie or Holly consented to having sex. Dirk phones the police and Nick confesses to raping Ellie and Holly. He is arrested and thrown out by his parents. Nick asks for Dirk 's help, but he is reluctant. While waiting for Dirk at the folly, Nick is confronted by Holly and she asks him to leave. Nick is sentenced to 7 years imprisonment for the rapes of Ellie and Holly, and must serve at least 3 and a half years, before he is considered for parole.
The character and casting was announced on 18 August 2016. Nick is Dirk 's fun - loving nephew who 's able to make "a dodgy deal like any true Savage and he 's also a typical ladies ' man '' who will catch the eyes of several female residents of the village. Nick has been billed as "fun - loving '', "the popular boy who all the lads wanted to be friends with and all the girls fancied '' and someone able to make "a dodgy deal like any true Savage and he 's also a typical ladies ' man ''. It was reported that Nick would catch the eyes of several female residents of the village. It was also announced that Nick would be involved in a storyline which would see the issue of sexual consent explored. The show worked with Rape Crisis and youth charity The Mix when creating the storyline and show bosses hoped that the storyline would "divide opinions '', but promised that the issue would be "sensitively explored ''. The storyline would begin where Ellie and Nick have sex after getting drunk during Fresher 's Week, but the following morning Ellie would wake up with no recollection of what happened. Davies said that he was "really interested '' in seeing his character 's progress throughout the story. He added that it was "a very important issue '' which carried "big responsibility ''. Davies said that he was "honoured '' that the show had entrusted him with the storyline. Zoë Bailie from The Mix said that the story "could n't be more timely '' and added that "working together with Hollyoaks, we hope to break down the myths surrounding consent. We want to help young people understand what consent is, what it is n't and importantly how to make sure they have it before entering into a sexual experience. ''
Detective Inspector Eva Falco, played by Kerry Bennett, is the niece of Jack Osborne (Jimmy McKenna). She first appeared on 21 September 2016 and made her final appearance on 17 January 2017.
Eva is first seen visiting her father, Billy Brodie (Clive Russell), in hospital and is left devastated when he dies. Despite warning from Billy not to, Eva seeks revenge on Billy 's brother, Jack, believing he is responsible for her father 's life in prison. She breaks into his home and trashes the place, with Jack and Esther Bloom (Jazmine Franks) reporting the crime to the police. Eva is revealed as the detective in charge of the investigation and informs Jack and Esther that there is nothing to worry about. Eva later meets Liam Donovan (Maxim Baldry) in The Loft nightclub and they have sex. When she discovers he was planning to use her, Eva decides to use Liam in her plan to take revenge on Jack. Eva asks Liam to look after some drugs for her, which she took from the evidence room at the police station, however she later takes them back and allows Liam to believe that he has lost them. Eva tells Liam that she needs a large amount of money to pay the drug dealer, and is frustrated when Liam confides in his older half - sister, Grace Black (Tamara Wall), who is a former gangster. Eva later explains to Liam that the drug dealer she is dealing with has threatened to kill her, however she will be spared if she murders somebody in return. Eva then gives Liam a photograph of Jack, and orders him to kill him. However, after talking to Jack 's cancer - stricken foster daughter Jade Albright (Kassius Nelson), Eva stops Liam from murdering Jack with a car boot lid. Eva continues her hate campaign against Jack, and on the day of Billy 's funeral, is furious to see Jack laying flowers in his memory. Eva then charges over to the Osbornes armed with a gun, however Liam contacts Jack and warns him that he is in danger. Cindy Savage (Stephanie Waring) later visits the Osbornes to find that the entire family has vanished without a trace.
Liam is certain that Eva is involved with the disappearance of Jack and his family, but she explains that when she arrived at the Osbornes ', they had already gone. Liam later finds a message from Tom Cunningham (Ellis Hollins) to his girlfriend Peri Lomax (Ruby O'Donnell), asking to meet her in the folley, however he keeps this from Eva. After Cindy phones the police on Liam, believing he knows something about the Osbornes ' disappearance, Eva finds Tom 's message in Liam 's wallet, and is furious that Liam kept it from her, because Tom could have led her to Jack. When Liam attempts to thwart her plans yet again, Eva records Liam confessing that Grace shot him, and blackmails him into keeping quiet. She later finds an address for Kim Butterfield (Daisy Wood - Davis), to whom Jack has been transferring money monthly. She questions Kim, but her interrogation is disrupted by the arrival of Grace and Cindy. Eva then threatens Liam, saying that if Grace does not leave her to find the Osbornes herself, she will give her recorded confession to the police. Liam later forgives Eva, and they continue their relationship, but she is still intent on finding the Osbornes. She is thrilled when Tegan Lomax (Jessica Ellis) informs her that Kim had visited the hospital in search of medication, and so Eva puts all hospitals in the borough on alert. She is called to one hospital where Jack 's son, Darren Osborne (Ashley Taylor Dawson), has brought his wife Nancy (Jessica Fox), but is frustrated to find that they have vanished.
Eva refuses to give up the search for the family, and is later informed by Peri that Tom is back in the village. When Tom refuses to reveal the Osbornes ' whereabouts during questioning, Eva threatens to charge him with murdering the Osbornes unless he tells her. Tom 's former guardian, Sam "O.B. '' O'Brien (Darren Jeffries), later promises Eva that he will get Tom to confess. However, when Eva leaves Tom in a police car momentarily to take her to the Osbornes, O.B. appears and helps Tom escape, with the whole village doubting Eva 's abilities as a detective over the incident, infuriating her. It is later revealed that O.B. is an ally of Jack 's, and is helping him find out who wants him dead, and he reveals his suspicions of Eva 's motives. O.B. also shares this with Grace, who worries due to Eva 's relationship with Liam. Eva continues her quest to find the Osbornes as 2016 comes to an end, and is stunned when she bumps into Jack on New Year 's Eve. She takes him back to the Osborne household armed with a gun, where Darren, Nancy and Jack 's wife Frankie (Helen Pearson) arrive and she holds them all hostage. It is then revealed that when they were teenagers, Billy was feuding with a local schoolboy and severely beat him up, and taunted Jack to do the same. Jack kicked the schoolboy, which was the blow that lead to his death. Jack was then manipulated by the police to get Billy imprisoned, who then manipulated Eva to believe that Jack was responsible for the way her life turned out. Suddenly, Kim, Grace and Esther arrive and as Jack and Darren attempt to wrestle the gun off Eva, the trigger is pulled and Esther is shot, leaving her in a coma.
Eva goes into hiding, knowing that Grace is after her. Liam and Jack, who has now been exiled from his family, help Eva to escape the village, which ultimately leads to Liam being banished from his family, too. Liam remains in contact with Eva, and after convincing his older brother, Adam Donovan (Jimmy Essex) to help them financially, Liam leaves the village with Eva. Elsewhere, Esther regains consciousness in hospital and suffers from post-traumatic amnesia, and orders Grace to get revenge on Eva for shooting her. At the train station, Eva fears that the police will catch her, but she and Liam manage to board the train. However, after Liam leaves for a moment, he returns to find Eva seemingly sleeping, but finds the back of her head bleeding and realises that she is dead. Grace is then shown leaving the train station, having shot Eva in the back of the head for what she did to Esther. An investigation into Eva 's murder is then underway, with Liam working with DS Geoff Thorpe (James Bradshaw) to bring Grace down. Liam is later devastated when DS Thorpe reveals that Eva was pregnant with his baby when she died, making him more determined to get a confession out of Grace.
The character and casting was announced on 18 August 2016. Her backstory states that she "drifted in and out of care homes '' due to her father, Billy, disappearing and her mother dying at a young age. This transformed Eva into "an angry tearaway '', until she joined the police force. Eva eventually found her father, but comes to the village looking for the person who kept them apart in order to take revenge on them. The character left the series in scenes that aired on 17 January 2017. Eva was killed - off when Grace murdered her while Eva and Liam were travelling on a train. Her departure had been teased through the show 's social media platforms on 16 January. On her departure, Bennett said "I 've had such an amazing time and felt so welcomed and supported from the start. I 'm sad to be leaving - six months has flown by way too fast - but it feels awesome to have been involved in such a great storyline on such a fabulous production. ''
Goldie McQueen, played by former Waterloo Road actress Chelsee Healey, made her first on screen appearance on 9 November 2016. Goldie was introduced as a new member of the McQueen family. Healey had previously been announced to be joining the show on 16 July 2016, when she confirmed the news on social media and was spotted reading through a script on the show 's set, but details of her character were not announced until 26 July 2016. Of her casting, Healey said, "I am absolutely thrilled to join Hollyoaks. I 've grown up watching it so to be in it is unbelievable. It was an irresistible opportunity, especially to play this character. ''
It was confirmed that Goldie would be joined by her 15 - year - old twin sons, Prince and Hunter (Malique Thompson - Dwyer and Theo Graham). Goldie and her sons arrive in search of their "posh and distant relatives '' Myra McQueen (Nicole Barber - Lane), Mercedes McQueen (Jennifer Metcalfe) and John Paul McQueen (James Sutton), who are not pleased by their arrival. Goldie was billed as a "tough, gobby and abouselty shameless (...) good old - fashioned McQueen '' that would "never back down in a fight '' and always get involved in a scam to earn quick money. A show spokesperson said that Goldie would arrive in the village "in the hope of mooching off the family she 's scarcely had anything to do with '', but that the only thing she cares about more than money is her children, who she had when she was a teenager. Healey expressed her disbelief at playing a mother, but stated that Thompson - Dwyer and Graham were "fantastic to work with '' and that all three were "delighted '' by the new family unit. She also compared the wardrobe to her younger self 's wardrobe.
Healey 's pregnancy and temporary departure from the series was announced on 21 January 2017. Show producers created storylines to allow Healey absence from the show, but promised "plenty of drama '' for Goldie before she leaves. The character will depart on 4 July 2017 after deciding to take the blame for a robbery that Prince committed, before escaping court and fleeing the village. Healey departed alongside Metcalfe, who also took maternity leave from her role as Mercedes. In August 2017, Healey was longlisted for Funniest Female at the Inside Soap Awards.
Goldie arrives in Hollyoaks, but Myra is against letting her stay because she is troublesome. When she is kicked out, she brings Prince and Hunter to the village and Myra allows them to move in with her. Goldie and the McQueens are devastated when relative Celine McQueen (Sarah George) goes missing and this draws Goldie and Celine 's boyfriend Jesse Donovan (Luke Jerdy) closer. They kiss but agree to remain friends. The McQueens are devastated when Celine is later found dead after being murdered by Cameron Campbell (Cameron Moore). Goldie videos Mercedes and Ryan Knight (Duncan James) kissing, and uses this to blackmail Ryan to not charge Prince and Hunter for stealing Harry Thompson (Parry Glasspool) engagement ring. Mercedes finds out and forces Goldie to delete it, she does but restores the video. Goldie uses this to blackmail Ryan. Her cousin, John Paul, discovers the video. Goldie is surprised when her ex-boyfriend and Prince and Hunter 's father, Shane Sweeney (Lanre Malaolu) arrives in the village, having been released from prison. Shane reveals he and Goldie met when she worked as a stripper and announces his intentions to reconcile with his sons and Goldie, and she accepts.
Tabitha "Tabby '' Maxwell - Brown, played by Linda Gray, made her first on screen appearance on 15 November 2016. She is the mother of Marnie Nightingale (Lysette Anthony) and appeared for a guest stint in November 2016. The character was reintroduced for a longer stint in early 2017.
The character and casting was announced on 17 August 2016. Gray previously played Sue Ellen Ewing in the American soap Dallas. Tabitha "whips up a storm just like Sue Ellen did '' when she arrives, following the death of her husband, and is said to have "fierce and affectionate bond '' with Marnie, although she will not be a fan of her ex-husband, Mac Nightingale (David Easter). Executive producer, Bryan Kirkwood, decided to cast Gray after watching episodes of Dallas with his husband. On her casting, Gray said, "I love England, I read the script, she 's feisty, I love the feisty ones. My motto is ' choose wisely ' - and I think I 've chosen wisely. '' Gray signed up to appear in the show for an initial one - week run. Daniel Kilkelly from Digital Spy described the character as having many stories of her "fabulous lifestyle '' but is actually "lonely and harbours hurt feelings '' because she is now so distant from the rest of her family. Kilkelly described Gray 's casting as "Soapland 's casting coup of the year ''. Gray began filming on 17 September 2016.
Kirkwood said in October 2016 that he would like Gray to join the show on a more permanent basis and revealed that the show and Gray had had conversations on her returning. He said, "The conversations are continuing and she feels like a really natural member of the Nightingale family. If you look at the linear between her, Marnie and Ellie - all three of them are all stunning women and I believe in it. I believe she is part of that family. '' On 14 December 2016, it was announced that Gray would return to the cast as a semi-regular character. A show spokesperson said, "Everyone loved having Linda around last year and we ca n't wait to see her back. She 's due back on set in Liverpool next week and is looking forward to working with her on - screen family again. '' Gray returned to filming on 10 January 2017 and was later spotted filming an unknown family member 's funeral.
Prince McQueen, played by Malique Thompson - Dwyer, made his first on screen appearance on 17 November 2016 as the son of Goldie McQueen (Chelsee Healey).
The character and casting was announced on 26 July 2016 alongside that of his mother Goldie and twin brother Hunter (Theo Graham). Prince was described as a "cocky and swaggering '' 15 - year old who has "confidence in spades and more front than Blackpool ''. He was billed as having "a rebellious and adventurous spirit '' causing him to "live in the moment '', but also has trouble "listening to authority '', something that Sophie Dainty of Digital Spy described as "a trait that seems to run in the McQueen family. '' Healey said that she, Thompson - Dwyer and Graham were overjoyed by their family unit. Lily Drinkwell (Lauren McQueen) was introduced as a new love interest for Prince in January 2017. McQueen commented that Lily and Prince were total opposites and that no one would think to put them together.
In August 2017, Thompson - Dwyer and McQueen were longlisted for Best Partnership at the Inside Soap Awards.
Hunter McQueen, played by Theo Graham, made his first on screen appearance on 17 November 2016 as the son of Goldie McQueen (Chelsee Healey).
The character and casting was announced on 26 July 2016 alongside that of his mother Goldie and twin brother Prince (Malique Thompson - Dwyer). Hunter was billed as the "more sensitive twin '' who believes himself to be a graffiti artist. He is a "creative and free spirited '' 15 - year old who "tries his best to stay out of trouble '', something "easier said than done '' due to Prince 's rebellious nature. Healey said that she, Thompson - Dwyer and Graham were "delighted '' by their "new family unit ''. In August 2017, Graham was longlisted for Best Newcomer at the Inside Soap Awards.
Dr. Barton, played by Amanda Muggleton, made her first on screen appearance on 13 December 2016.
The character and casting was announced on 9 December 2016. Dr. Barton is the doctor that Darren Osborne (Ashley Taylor Dawson) takes Nancy Osborne (Jessica Fox) to after she begins to feel unwell after they suspect that she is suffering from multiple sclerosis. Dr. Barton only appeared in one episode.
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show me a picture of the south african flag | Flag of South Africa - Wikipedia
The flag of South Africa was adopted on 27 April 1994, at the beginning of South Africa 's 1994 general election, to replace the flag that had been used since 1928. The new national flag, designed by the then State Herald of South Africa Frederick Brownell, was chosen to represent the country 's new democracy after the end of apartheid.
The flag has horizontal bands of red (on the top) and blue (on the bottom), of equal width, separated by a central green band which splits into a horizontal "Y '' shape, the arms of which end at the corners of the hoist side (and follow the flag 's diagonals). The "Y '' embraces a black isosceles triangle from which the arms are separated by narrow yellow bands; the red and blue bands are separated from the green band and its arms by narrow white stripes. The stripes at the fly end are in the 5: 1: 3: 1: 5 ratio.
At the time of its adoption, the South African flag was the only national flag in the world to comprise six colours in its primary design and without a seal and brocade. The design and colours are a synopsis of principal elements of the country 's flag history. Individual colours, or colour combinations have different meanings for different people and therefore no universal symbolism should be attached to any of the colours.
The central design of the flag, beginning at the flagpost in a "V '' form and flowing into a single horizontal band to the outer edge of the fly, can be interpreted as the convergence of diverse elements within South African society, taking the road ahead in unity. The theme of convergence and unity ties in with the motto "Unity is Strength '' of the previous South African Coat of Arms.
The design therefore represents a converging of paths, the merging of both the past and the present.
According to the flag 's designer, the red symbolizes the blood that was shed during the various wars and conflicts in the country. It is also suggested that the blue represents the sky and the two oceans that flank the country. The green symbolizes the farms and the rich, natural environment of the country, while the yellow represents the natural resources, particularly gold. Finally, it is said that the black represents black South Africans, while the white represents the white population of the country.
The Anglo - Boer War between 1899 and 1902 ended with the Treaty of Vereeniging on 31 May 1902 and resulted in what is now South Africa falling under the British Union Flag. The former Boer Republics of the Orange Free State and the Zuid - Afrikaanse Republiek (Transvaal) became British colonies along with the existing Cape and Natal colonies. Each was also entitled to a colonial flag following in the British tradition.
On 31 May 1910 these four colonies came together to form the Union of South Africa and the individual colonial flags were no longer used and new South African flags came into being. Once again, as a British dominion the British Union Flag was to continue as the national flag and the standard British ensign pattern was used as a basis for distinctive South African flags.
As was the case throughout the British Empire, the Red and Blue Ensigns were the official flags for merchant and government vessels at sea, and the British Admiralty authorised them to be defaced in the fly with the shield from the South African coat of arms. These ensigns were not intended to be used as the Union 's national flag, although they were used by some people as such. Although these ensigns were primarily intended for maritime use, they were also flown on land.
The South Africa Red Ensign was South Africa 's de facto national flag between 1910 and 1928 and was flown at times from Government buildings.
The Blue Ensign was flown over the Union 's offices abroad between 1910 and 1928.
The design of the Red Ensign was modified slightly in 1912 when the shield was placed on a white disc so as to make it more distinguishable. The Red Ensign continued to be used as the flag of the South African merchant marine until 1951.
These flags never enjoyed much popular support due to the animosities lingering after the Anglo - Boer War. The Afrikaner descendants of the Dutch settlers from the former Boer Republics found the prominent position of the British Union Flag to be offensive while the English - speakers saw any move to remove it as an Afrikaner plot to deprive them of their imperial symbol.
Due to the lack of popularity of these flags, there were intermittent discussions about the desirability of a more distinctive national flag for South Africa after 1910, it was only after a coalition government took office in 1925 that a bill was introduced in Parliament to introduce a national flag for the Union. This provoked often violent controversy that lasted for three years based on whether the British Union Flag should be included in the new flag design or not. The Natal Province even threatened to secede from the Union should it be decided to remove it.
Finally, a compromise was reached that resulted in the adoption of a separate flag for the Union in late 1927 and the design was first hoisted on 31 May 1928. The design was based on the so - called Van Riebeeck flag or "Prince 's Flag '' (Prinsenvlag in Afrikaans) that was originally the Dutch flag; it consisted of orange, white, and blue horizontal stripes. A version of this flag had been used as the flag of the Dutch East India Company (known as the VOC) at the Cape (with the VOC logo in the centre) from 1652 until 1795. The South African addition to the design was the inclusion of three smaller flags centred in the white stripe. The miniature flags were the British Union Flag (mirrored) towards the hoist, the flag of the Orange Free State hanging vertically in the middle and the Transvaal Vierkleur towards the fly. The position of each of the miniature flags is such that each has equal status. However, to ensure that the Dutch flag in the canton of the Orange Free State flag is placed nearest to the upper hoist of the main flag, the Free State flag must be reversed. The British Union Flag, which is nearest to the hoist and is thus in a more favoured position, is spread horizontally from the Free State flag towards the hoist and is thus also reversed. Although placed horizontally furthest from the hoist, to balance the British Union Flag, the Vierkleur is the only one of the miniature flags which is spread in the same direction as the main flag. This compensates for its otherwise less favourable position. In this arrangement, each of the miniature flags enjoy equal precedence. Note that the miniature flag of the Orange Free State contains a miniature of the Dutch flag, making the South African flag the only flag in the world containing a flag in a flag in a flag.
The choice of the Prinsenvlag as the basis upon which to design the South African flag had more to do with compromise than Afrikaner political desires, as the Prinsenvlag was believed to be the first flag hoisted on South African soil by Jan van Riebeeck of the VOC and was politically neutral, as it was no longer the national flag of any nation. A further element of this compromise was that the British Union Flag would continue to fly alongside the new South African national flag over official buildings. This dual flag arrangement continued until 1957 when the British Union Flag lost its official status per an Act of Parliament.
Following a referendum the country became a republic on 31 May 1961, but the design of the flag remained unchanged. However, there was intense pressure to change the flag, particularly from Afrikaners who still resented the fact that the British Union Flag was a part of the flag. In 1968, the then Prime Minister, John Vorster, proposed the adoption of a new flag from 1971, to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the declaration of a republic but this never materialised.
The present South African national flag was first flown on 27 April 1994, the day of the 1994 election. However, the flag was first intended to be an interim flag only, and its design was decided upon only a week beforehand.
The choice of a new flag was part of the negotiation process set in motion when Nelson Mandela was released from prison in 1990. When a nationwide public competition was held in 1993, the National Symbols Commission received more than 7,000 designs. Six designs were shortlisted and presented to the public and the Negotiating Council, but none elicited enthusiastic support. A number of design studios were then contacted to submit further proposals, but these also did not find favour. Parliament went into recess at the end of 1993 without a suitable candidate for the new national flag.
In February 1994, Cyril Ramaphosa and Roelf Meyer, the chief negotiators of the African National Congress and the National Party government of the day respectively, were given the task of resolving the flag issue. A final design was adopted on 15 March 1994, derived from a design developed by the State Herald Fred Brownell, who had also previously designed the Flag of Namibia. This interim flag was hoisted for the first time on the 27 April 1994, the day when the nation 's first fully inclusive elections commenced which resulted in Nelson Mandela being inaugurated as South Africa 's first democratically elected president on 10 May 1994.
The proclamation of the new national flag by South African President F.W. de Klerk was only published on 20 April 1994, a mere seven days before the flag was to be inaugurated, sparking a frantic last - minute flurry for flag manufacturers. As stated in South Africa 's post-apartheid interim constitution, the flag was to be introduced on an interim probationary period of five years, after which there would be discussion about whether or not to change the national flag in the final draft of the constitution. The Constitutional Assembly was charged with the responsibility of drafting the country 's new constitution and had called for submissions, inter alia, on the issues of its various national symbols. It received 118 submissions recommending the retention of the new flag and 35 suggesting changes to it. Thus on 28 September 1995 it decided that the flag should be retained unchanged and accordingly it was included as Section One of the Constitution of South Africa which came into force in February 1997.
The South African government published guidelines for proper display of the flag at designated flag stations, in Government Notice 510 of 8 June 2001 (Gazette number 22356). These rules apply only to official flag stations and not to the general public.
The Southern African Vexillological Association (SAVA), a non-official association for the study of flags, published their own guide for proper display of the flag in 2002. This guide has no official authority but was drawn up with generally accepted vexillological etiquette and principles in mind.
An addendum to the Transitional Executive Council agenda (April 1994) described the flag in heraldic terms as follows:
The National flag shall be rectangular in the proportion of two in the width to three to the length; per pall from the hoist, the upper band red (chilli) and lower band blue, with a black triangle at the hoist; over the partition lines a green pall one fifth the width of the flag, fimbriated white against the red and blue, and gold against the black triangle at the hoist, and the width of the pall and its fimbriations is one third the width of the flag.
Schedule One of the Constitution of South Africa (1996) replaced the heraldic definition and described the flag in plain English as follows:
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who is the inventor of post it notes | Post-it Note - wikipedia
A Post-it Note (or sticky note) is a small piece of paper with a re-adherable strip of glue on its back, made for temporarily attaching notes to documents and other surfaces. A low - tack pressure - sensitive adhesive allows the notes to be easily attached, removed and even re-posted elsewhere without leaving residue. Originally small yellow squares, Post-it Notes and related products are available in various colors, shapes and sizes.
Although 3M 's patent expired in 1997, "Post-it '' and the original notes ' distinctive yellow color remain registered company trademarks, with terms such as "repositionable notes '' used for similar offerings manufactured by competitors. While use of the trademark ' Post-it ' in a representative sense refers to any sticky note, no legal authority has ever held the trademark to be generic.
In 1968, Dr. Spencer Silver, a scientist at 3M in the United States, was attempting to develop a super-strong adhesive. Instead he accidentally created a "low - tack, '' reusable, pressure - sensitive adhesive. For five years, Silver promoted his "solution without a problem '' within 3M both informally and through seminars but failed to gain acceptance. In 1974 a colleague who had attended one of his seminars, Art Fry, came up with the idea of using the adhesive to anchor his bookmark in his hymn book. Fry then utilized 3M 's officially sanctioned "permitted bootlegging '' policy to develop the idea. The original notes ' yellow color was chosen by accident, as the lab next - door to the Post-It team had only yellow scrap paper to use.
3M launched the product as "Press ' n Peel '' bookmark in stores in four cities in 1977, but results were disappointing. A year later 3M instead issued free samples directly to consumers in Boise, Idaho, with 94 percent of those who tried them indicating they would buy the product. The product was sold as "Post-Its '' in 1979 when the rollout introduction began, and was sold across the United States from April 6, 1980. The following year they were launched in Canada and Europe.
In 2003, the company came out with "Post-it Brand Super Sticky Notes, '' with a stronger glue that adheres better to vertical and non-smooth surfaces.
Until 3M 's patent expired in the 1990s, Post-it type notes were produced only in the company 's plant in Cynthiana, Kentucky.
In 2018 3M launched the new "Post-It Extreme Notes '' designed to be more durable and water - resistant and to stick to a variety of surfaces to which regular Post-It notes do not easily adhere. The Post-It Extreme Notes were specifically designed with work environments like construction and manufacturing in mind.
Inventor Alan Amron has made claims to be the inventor who in 1973 disclosed the technology used on the Post-it Note to 3M in 1974. His 1997 suit against 3M was settled and 3M paid Amron. As part of the settlement, Amron undertook not to make future claims against the company except if ever a breach of the settlement agreement should occur. However, in 2016, he launched a further suit against 3M, asserting that 3M were wrongly claiming to be the inventors, and seeking $400 million in damages. At a preliminary hearing, a federal judge ordered the parties to undergo mediation. The suit was subsequently dismissed declaring the previous 1998 settlement agreement to be upheld.
In July of 2016 a former 3M marketing department employee, Daniel Dassow, voluntarily came forward as an eyewitness that in 1974 Alan Amron had in fact disclosed his Press - on memo sticky notes invention to 3M.
"The Yellow Stickee Diary of a Mad Secretary, '' by Rosa Maria Arenas, is the mini graphic journal of an office worker / artist, exhibited July 7 - August 25, 2013, at the Michigan Institute of Contemporary Art (MICA) Gallery in Lansing, Michigan. The 41 drawings displayed are a tiny percentage of the more than 2000 original drawings that constitute the Yellow Stickee Diary Project which Arenas created while working temp jobs from 1994 to 2005. Printed with archival inks on archival paper, the reproductions include "stickee sized '' (3 '' × 5 ") framed prints and enlargements of the original drawings (which were all done on Post-It Notes).
In 2012, Turkish artist Ardan Özmenoğlu was selected to have a solo exhibition at Bertrand Delacroix Gallery in the art district of Chelsea, Manhattan. The exhibition, titled "E Pluribus Unum '' (Latin for "Out of many, one ''), opened November 15, 2012 and featured large scale works on Post-It Notes.
In 2004, Paola Antonelli, a curator of architecture and design, included Post-it Notes in a show entitled "Humble Masterpieces ''.
Rebecca Murtaugh, a California artist who uses Post-it Notes in her artwork, in 2001 created an installation by covering her whole bedroom with $1000 worth of the notes, using the ordinary yellow for objects she saw as having less value and neon colors for more important objects, such as the bed.
In 2000, the 20th anniversary of Post-it Notes was celebrated by having artists create artworks on the notes. One such work, by the artist R.B. Kitaj, sold for £ 640 in an auction, making it the most valuable Post-It Note on record.
The Lennon Wall, a message board created during the 2014 Hong Kong protests from a stretch of curved staircase in the Central Government Complex, is covered in multi-coloured Post-It Notes with handwritten messages from supporters.
Satiregram, a parody account on Instagram by Euzcil Castaneto, showcases handwritten messages on Post-it Notes that describe typical pictures people would post on Instagram.
Virtual Post-It Notes have been created for computer in the form of desktop notes. These include 3M 's own "Post-it Brand Software Notes, '' "Stickies '' in Mac OS, "Sticky Notes '' in Windows, or other for - fee applications like ShixxNOTE. Virtual Post-It -- like notes are also available online using Evernote, Google Keep, or Microsoft OneNote.
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where are the iguazu falls located on a map | Iguazu falls - wikipedia
Iguazú Falls or Iguaçu Falls (Spanish: Cataratas del Iguazú (kataˈɾatas ðel iɣwaˈsu); Guarani: Chororo Yguasu (ɕoɾoɾo ɨɣwasu); Portuguese: Cataratas do Iguaçu (kataˈɾatɐs du iɡwaˈsu)) are waterfalls of the Iguazu River on the border of the Argentine province of Misiones and the Brazilian state of Paraná. Together, they make up the largest waterfall system in the world. The falls divide the river into the upper and lower Iguazu. The Iguazu River rises near the city of Curitiba. For most of its course, the river flows through Brazil; however, most of the falls are on the Argentine side. Below its confluence with the San Antonio River, the Iguazu River forms the boundary between Argentina and Brazil.
The name "Iguazú '' comes from the Guarani or Tupi words "y '' (ɨ), meaning "water '', and "ûasú "(waˈsu), meaning "big ''. Legend has it that a deity planned to marry a beautiful woman named Naipí, who fled with her mortal lover Tarobá in a canoe. In a rage, the deity sliced the river, creating the waterfalls and condemning the lovers to an eternal fall. The first European to record the existence of the falls was the Spanish Conquistador Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca in 1541.
The staircase character of the falls consists of a two - step waterfall formed by three layers of basalt. The steps are 35 and 40 m in height. The columnar basalt rock sequences are part of the 1000 m thick Serra Geral Formation within the Paleozoic - Mesozoic Paraná Basin. The tops of these sequences are characterized by 8 - 10 m of highly resistant vesicular basalt and the contact between these layers controls the shape of the falls. Headwater erosion rates are estimated at 1.4 - 2.1 cm / year.
The Iguazu Falls are located where the Iguazu River tumbles over the edge of the Paraná Plateau, 23 kilometres (14 mi) upriver from the Iguazu 's confluence with the Paraná River. Numerous islands along the 2.7 - kilometre - long (1.7 mi) edge divide the falls into many separate waterfalls and cataracts, varying between 60 and 82 m (197 and 269 ft) high. The number of these smaller waterfalls fluctuates from 150 to 300, depending on the water level. About half of the river 's flow falls into a long and narrow chasm called the Devil 's Throat (Garganta del Diablo in Spanish or Garganta do Diabo in Portuguese).
The Devil 's Throat canyon is 80 - 90 wide and 70 - 80 m deep. Left of this canyon, another part of the river forms 160 - 200 individual falls, which merge into a single front during flood stage. The largest falls are named San Martín, Adam and Eva, Penoni, and Bergano.
About 900 m (2,950 ft) of the 2.7 km (1.7 mi) length does not have water flowing over it. The water of the lower Iguazu collects in a canyon that drains into the Paraná River, a short distance downstream from the Itaipu Dam. The junction of the water flows marks the border between Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay. Some points in the cities of Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil, Puerto Iguazú, Argentina, and Ciudad del Este, Paraguay, have access to the Iguazu River, where the borders of all three nations may be seen, a popular tourist attraction for visitors to the three cities.
The Iguazu Falls are arranged in a way that resembles a reversed letter "J ''. The Argentina -- Brazil border runs through the Devil 's Throat. On the right bank is the Brazilian territory, which is home to more than 95 % of the Iguazu River basin but has just over 20 % of the jumps of these falls, and the left side jumps are Argentine, which makes up almost 80 % of the falls.
Two international airports are close to Iguazú Falls: the Argentine Cataratas del Iguazú International Airport (IGR) and the Brazilian Foz do Iguaçu International Airport (IGU). Bus and taxi services are available from and to the Airport - Falls. Aerolíneas Argentinas and LATAM Argentina have direct flights from Buenos Aires to Iguazu International Airport Krause. Azul, GOL, and LATAM Brasil offer services from main Brazilian cities to Foz do Iguaçu.
The falls may be reached from two main towns, with one on either side of the falls: Foz do Iguaçu in Brazil and Puerto Iguazú in Argentina, as well as from Ciudad del Este, Paraguay, on the other side of the Paraná River from Foz do Iguaçu. The falls are shared by the Iguazú National Park (Argentina) and Iguaçu National Park (Brazil). The two parks were designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1984 and 1987, respectively.
The first proposal for a Brazilian national park aimed at providing a pristine environment to "future generations '', just as "it had been created by God '' and endowed with "all possible preservation, from the beautiful to the sublime, from the picturesque to the awesome '' and "an unmatched flora '' located in the "magnificent Iguaçú waterfalls ''. These were the words used by André Rebouças, an engineer, in his book Provinces of Paraná, Railways to Mato Grosso and Bolivia, which started up the campaign aimed at preserving the Iguaçu Falls in 1876. At this time, Yellowstone National Park in the U.S., the first national park in the world, was four years old.
On the Brazilian side, a walkway along the canyon has an extension to the lower base of Devil 's Throat. Helicopter rides offering aerial views of the falls have been available from Brazil, but Argentina has prohibited such helicopter tours because of the adverse environmental impact on the flora and fauna of the falls. From Foz do Iguaçu airport, the park may be reached by taking a taxi or bus to the entrance of the park. Their park has an entrance fee on both sides. Once inside, free and frequent buses are provided to various points within the park. The town of Foz do Iguaçu is about 20 km (12 mi) away, and the airport is between the park and the town. The Argentine access, across the forest, is by a Rainforest Ecological Train very similar to the one in Disney 's Animal Kingdom. The train brings visitors to the entrance of Devil 's Throat, as well as the upper and lower trails. The Paseo Garganta del Diablo is a 1 km - long (0.6 mi) trail that brings visitors directly over the falls of Devil 's Throat, the highest and deepest of the falls. Other walkways allow access to the elongated stretch of falls across the forest on the Argentine side and to the boats that connect to San Martin Island. Also on the Argentine side, inflatable boat services take visitors very close to the falls.
The Brazilian transportation system aims at allowing the increase in the number of visitors, while reducing the adverse environmental impact, through an increase in the average number of passengers per vehicle inside the park. The new transportation system has 72 - passenger capacity and panoramic - view, double - deck buses. The upper deck is open, which enables visitors a broad view of the flora and fauna during the trip to the falls. The bus combustion systems are in compliance with the CONAMA (phase IV) and EURO (phase II) emissions and noise requirements. The reduction in the number of vehicles, of noise levels, and speed, is enabling tourists to observe increasing numbers of wild animals along the route. Each bus has an exclusive paint scheme, representing some of the most common wild animals found in the Iguaçú National Park, including the spotted jaguars, butterflies, raccoons, prego monkeys, coral snakes, toucans, parrots, and yellow - breasted caimans.
Upon seeing Iguazu, the United States First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt reportedly exclaimed, "Poor Niagara! '' (which, at 50 m or 165 feet, are a third shorter). Often, Iguazu also is compared with Victoria Falls in Southern Africa, which separates Zambia and Zimbabwe. Iguazu is wider, but because it is split into roughly 275 distinct falls and large islands, Victoria has the largest curtain of water in the world, at more than 1,600 m (5,249 ft) wide and over 100 m (328 ft) in height (in low flow, Victoria is split into five by islands; in high flow it may be uninterrupted). The only wider falls are extremely large rapid - like falls, such as the Boyoma Falls (Stanley Falls).
With the flooding of the Guaíra Falls in 1982, Iguazu currently has the sixth - greatest average annual flow of any waterfall in the world, following number five Niagara, with an average rate of 1,746 m / s (61,660 cu ft / s). Its maximum recorded flow was 45,700 m / s (1,614,000 cu ft / s) in 9 June 2014. By comparison, the average flow of Niagara Falls is 2,400 m / s (85,000 cu ft / s), with a maximum recorded flow of 8,300 m / s (293,000 cu ft / s). The average flow at Victoria Falls is 1,088 m / s (38,420 cu ft / s), with a maximum recorded flow of 7,100 m / s (250,000 cu ft / s).
The Iguazu Falls experience a humid subtropical climate (Cfa, according to the Köppen climate classification) with abundant precipitation and high temperatures year - round. During the summer of 2006, a severe drought caused the Iguazu River to become diminished, reducing the amount of water flowing over the falls to 300 cubic metres per second (11,000 cu ft / s) until early December. This was unusual, as dry periods normally last only a few weeks.
Aerial view of the Iguazu Falls from a helicopter
Iguazu Falls from the Argentine side
Iguazu Falls from the Brazilian side
Aerial view, from the Argentine side
Bosetti waterfall
Falls and Brazilian tourist complex
Iguazu Falls have been featured in several TV shows and movies, including:
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the population of which of the following is maximum on the earth | Lists of organisms by population - wikipedia
This is a collection of lists of organisms by their population. While of the most numbers are estimates, they have been made by the experts in their fields. Species population is a science falling under the purview of Population ecology and biogeography. Individuals are counted by census, as carried out for the piping plover; using the transect method, as done for the mountain plover; and beginning in 2012 by satellite, with the emperor penguin being the first subject counted in this manner.
More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. According to another study, the number of described species has been estimated at 1,899,587. 2000 -- 2009 saw approximately 17,000 species described per year. The total number of undescribed organisms is unknown, but marine microbial species alone could number 20,000,000. The number of quantified species will ipso facto always lag behind the number of described species, and species contained in these lists tend to be on the K side of the r / K selection continuum. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one - thousandth of one percent described. The total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 10 and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC (trillion (million million) tonnes of carbon). In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth.
It is estimated that the most numerous bacteria are of a species of the Pelagibacterales (or SAR11) clade, perhaps Pelagibacter ubique, and the most numerous viruses are bacteriophages infecting these species. It is estimated that the oceans contain about 2.4 × 10 (24 billion billion billion) SAR11 cells.
There are an estimated 3,500,000,000,000 (3.5 trillion) fish in the ocean. In the last 100 years, the number of small fish -- such as pilchards, herrings, anchovies, sprats and sardines -- has more than doubled. It is caused by a major decline in big ' predator fish ' such as sharks, tuna and cod due to over-fishing.
Recent figures indicate that there are more than 200 million insects for each human on the planet. An article in The New York Times claimed that the world holds 300 pounds of insects for every pound of humans. Ants have colonised almost every landmass on Earth. Their population is estimated as 10 -- 10 billion.
According to NASA in 2005, there were over 400 billion trees on our globe. However, more recently, in 2015, using better methods, the global tree count has been estimated at about 3 trillion. Other studies show that the Amazonian forest alone yields approximately 430 billion trees. Extrapolations from data compiled over a period of 10 years suggest that greater Amazonia, which includes the Amazon Basin and the Guiana Shield, harbors around 390 billion individual trees.
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where does the tradition of hanging stockings come from | Christmas stocking - wikipedia
A Christmas stocking is an empty sock or sock - shaped bag that is hung on Christmas Eve so that Santa Claus (or Father Christmas) can fill it with small toys, candy, fruit, coins or other small gifts when he arrives. These small items are often referred to as stocking stuffers or stocking fillers. In some Christmas stories, the contents of the Christmas stocking are the only toys the child receives at Christmas from Santa Claus; in other stories (and in tradition), some presents are also wrapped up in wrapping paper and placed under the Christmas tree. Tradition in Western culture threatens that a child who behaves badly during the year will receive only a piece or pile of coal. However, coal is rarely if ever left in a stocking, as it is considered cruel. Some people even put their Christmas stocking by their bedposts so Santa Claus can fill it by the bed while they sleep.
While there are no written records of the origin of the Christmas Stocking, there are popular legends that attempt to tell the history of this Christmas tradition. One such legend has several variations, but the following is a good example:
This led to the custom of children hanging stockings or putting out shoes, eagerly awaiting gifts from Saint Nicholas. Sometimes the story is told with gold balls instead of bags of gold. That is why three gold balls, sometimes represented as oranges, are one of the symbols for St. Nicholas. And so, St. Nicholas is a gift - giver. This is also the origin of three gold balls being used as a symbol for pawnbrokers.
A tradition that began in a European country originally, children simply used one of their everyday socks, but eventually special Christmas stockings were created for this purpose. The Christmas stocking custom is derived from the Germanic / Scandinavian figure Odin. According to Phyllis Siefker, children would place their boots, filled with carrots, straw, or sugar, near the chimney for Odin 's flying horse, Sleipnir, to eat. Odin would reward those children for their kindness by replacing Sleipnir 's food with gifts or candy. This practice, she claims, survived in Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands after the adoption of Christianity and became associated with Saint Nicholas as a result of the process of Christianization. Today, stores carry a large variety of styles and sizes of Christmas stockings, and Christmas stockings are also a popular homemade craft. This claim is disputed though as there are no records of stocking filling practices related to Odin until there is a merging of St. Nicholas with Odin. St. Nicholas had an earlier merging with the Grandmother cult in Bari, Italy where the grandmother would put gifts in stockings. This merged St. Nicholas would later travel north and merge with the Odin cults.
Many families create their own Christmas stockings with each family member 's name applied to the stocking so that Santa will know which stocking belongs to which family member.
According to the Guinness World Records, the largest recorded Christmas stocking measured 51 m 35 cm (168 ft 5.65 in) in length and 21 m 63 cm (70 ft 11.57 in) in width (heel to toe) and was produced by a volunteer emergency services organisation in Carrara, Tuscany, Italy, on 5 January 2011. To fulfill the Guinness guideline that the stocking contain presents, volunteers filled it with balloons containing sweets.
Prior to this the record had been broken in London on 14 December 2007 by volunteers of The Children 's Society, whose stocking measured 32.56 m long and 14.97 m wide.
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who wrote walk a mile in my shoes | Walk a Mile in My Shoes - Wikipedia
"Walk a Mile in My Shoes '' is a song written by Joe South, who had a hit with it in 1970. South was also producer and arranger of the track, and of its B - side, "Shelter ''. The single was credited to "Joe South and the Believers ''; the Believers included his brother Tommy South and his sister - in - law Barbara South.
The song 's highest position on the Billboard Hot 100 was # 12, which was also its highest position in the Cashbox chart. It also reached highs of # 56 country and # 3 Adult Contemporary in Billboard, and made # 10 in the RPM chart in Canada. It was South 's second and final record to reach the top 20 of the Billboard chart.
The song concerns racial tolerance and the need for perspective and compassion.
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when does radio disney music awards come on 2018 | 2018 Radio Disney Music Awards - wikipedia
The 2018 Radio Disney Music Awards were held on June 22, 2018, at the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood, California. The ceremony was shown on Radio Disney and Disney Channel the following night on June 23, 2018 from 8: 30 p.m. - 01: 30 a.m. (EDT) and on Disney International HD on July 29, 2018 from 8 p.m. to 9 p.m (IST). It was cancelled on Disney Channel in Southeast Asia due to unknown reasons.
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when was the uk voting age lowered to 18 | Voting age - Wikipedia
A voting age is a minimum age established by law that a person must attain before they become eligible to vote in a public election. Today, the most common voting age is 18 years; however, voting ages as low as 16 and as high as 25 exist (see list below). Most countries have set a minimum voting age, often set in their constitution. In a number of countries voting is compulsory for those eligible to vote, while in most it is optional.
When the right to vote was being established in democracies, the voting age was generally set at 21 or higher. In the 1970s many countries reduced the voting age to 18. Debate is ongoing in a number of countries on proposals to reduce the voting age to or below 16.
Before the Second World War, the voting age in almost all countries was 21 years or higher. Czechoslovakia was the first to reduce the voting age to 20 years in 1946, and by 1968 a total of 17 countries had lowered their voting age. Many countries, particularly in Western Europe, reduced their voting ages to 18 years during the 1970s, starting with the United Kingdom (1970), with the United States (26th Amendment) (1971), Canada, Germany (1972), Australia (1974), France (1974) and others following soon afterwards. By the end of the 20th century, 18 had become by far the most common voting age. However, a few countries maintain a voting age of 20 years or higher. It was argued that 18 - year - old men could be drafted to go to war, and many people felt they should be able to vote at the age of 18.
In the late 20th and early 21st centuries voting ages were lowered to 18 in India, Switzerland, Austria and Morocco. Japan was due to make the change to 18 in 2016. A dispute is continuing in the Maldives.
Around the year 2000 a number of countries began to consider whether the voting age ought to be reduced further, with arguments most often being made in favour of a reduction to 16. The earliest moves came during the 1990s, when the voting age for municipal elections in some States of Germany was lowered to 16. Lower Saxony was the first state to make such a reduction, in 1995, and four other states did likewise.
Arguments against lowering the voting age to sixteen include lack of political maturity and arguments for include encouraging interest in politics in young people.
During the 2000s several proposals for a reduced voting age were put forward in U.S. states, including California, Florida and Alaska, but none was successful. A national reduction was proposed in 2005 in Canada and in the Australian state of New South Wales, but these proposals were not adopted. In May 2009, Danish Member of Parliament Mogens Jensen presented an initiative to the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg to lower the voting age in Europe to 16.
In 2007, Austria became the first member of the European Union to adopt a voting age of 16 for most purposes. The voting age had been reduced in Austria from 19 to 18 at all levels in 1992. At that time a voting age of 16 was proposed by the Green Party, but was not adopted.
The voting age for municipal elections in some states was lowered to 16 shortly after 2000. Three states had made the reduction by 2003 (Burgenland, Carinthia and Styria), and in May 2003 Vienna became the fourth. Salzburg followed suit, and so by the start of 2005 the total had reached at least five states out of nine. As a consequence of state law, reduction of the municipal voting age in the states of Burgenland, Salzburg and Vienna resulted in the reduction of the regional voting age in those states as well.
After the 2006 election, the winning SPÖ - ÖVP coalition announced on 12 January 2007 that one of its policies would be the reduction of the voting age to 16 for elections in all states and at all levels in Austria. The policy was set in motion by a Government announcement on 14 March, and a bill proposing an amendment to the Constitution was presented to the legislature on 2 May. On 5 June the National Council approved the proposal following a recommendation from its Constitution Committee. During the passage of the bill through the chamber relatively little opposition was raised to the reduction, with four out of five parties explicitly supporting it; indeed, there was some dispute over which party had been the first to suggest the idea. Greater controversy surrounded the other provisions of the bill concerning the Briefwahl, or postal vote, and the extension of the legislative period for the National Council from four to five years. A further uncontroversial inclusion was a reduction in the candidacy age from 19 to 18. The Federal Council approved the Bill on 21 June, with no party voting against it. The voting age was reduced when the Bill 's provisions came into force on 1 July 2007. Austria thus became the first member of the European Union, and the first of the developed world democracies, to adopt a voting age of 16 for all purposes. Lowering the voting age encouraged political interest in young people in Austria. More sixteen and seventeen year olds voted than eighteen to twenty - one year olds in Austria.
Brazil lowered the voting age from 18 to 16 in the 1988 constitution. The presidential election of 1989 was the first with the lower voting age. People between the ages 18 and 70 are required to vote.
On 20 November 2013, Malta lowered the voting age from 18 to 16 for local elections starting from 2015. The proposal had wide support from both the government and opposition, social scientists and youth organizations.
On Monday 29 January 2018, the Maltese Parliament will be debating to lower the voting age to 16 for General Elections, European Parliament Elections and referenda.
On Monday, 5 March 2018, the Maltese Parliament unanimously voted in favour of ammeding the constitution, lowering the official voting age from 18 to 16, making Malta the second state in the EU to lower its voting age to 16.
The Representation of the People Act 1969 lowered the voting age from 21 to 18, with effect from 1970 and remained in force until the Scottish Independence Referendum Act 2013 which allowed 16 year olds to vote for the first time, but only in Scotland and only in that particular referendum. The Scottish Parliament reduced the voting age to 16 for its own and Scottish local elections in 2015.
Men in military service who turned 19 during the first world war were entitled to vote in 1918 irrespective of their age as part of the Representation of the People Act 1918 which also allowed some women over the age of 30 to vote. The Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928 brought the voting age for women down to 21.
The reduction of the voting age to 16 in the United Kingdom was first given serious consideration on 15 December 1999, when the House of Commons considered in Committee an amendment proposed by Simon Hughes to the Representation of the People Bill. This was the first time the reduction of a voting age below 18 had ever been put to a vote in the Commons. The Government opposed the amendment, and it was defeated by 434 votes to 36.
The Votes at 16 coalition, a group of political and charitable organisations supporting a reduction of the voting age to 16, was launched on 29 January 2003. At that time a Private Member 's Bill was also proposed in the House of Lords by Lord Lucas, and received a Second Reading on 9 January.
In 2004, the UK Electoral Commission conducted a major consultation on the subject of the voting and candidacy ages, and received a significant response. In its conclusions it recommended that the voting age remain at 18. On 29 November 2005 the House of Commons voted 136 - 128 (on a free vote) against a Private Member 's Bill for a reduction in the voting age to 16 proposed by Liberal Democrat MP Stephen Williams. Parliament chose not to include a provision reducing the voting age in the Electoral Administration Act during its passage in 2006.
On 27 February 2006, the report of the Power Inquiry called for a reduction of the voting age, and of the candidacy age for the House of Commons, to 16. On the same day the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gordon Brown, indicated in an article in The Guardian that he favoured a reduction provided it was made concurrently with effective citizenship education.
The UK Ministry of Justice published on 3 July 2007 a Green Paper entitled The Governance of Britain, in which it proposed the establishment of a "Youth Citizenship Commission ''. The Commission would examine the case for lowering the voting age. On launching the Paper in the House of Commons, PM Gordon Brown said: "Although the voting age has been 18 since 1969, it is right, as part of that debate, to examine, and hear from young people themselves, whether lowering that age would increase participation. ''
The Scottish National Party 's conference voted unanimously on 27 October 2007 for a policy of reducing the voting age to 16, as well as in favour of a campaign for the necessary power to be devolved to the Scottish Parliament.
During the Youth Parliament debates of 30 October 2009 in the House of Commons, Votes at 16 was debated and young people of that age group voted for it overwhelmingly as a campaign priority. Since that debate the issue has been raised in Prime Minister 's Questions and has also gained the widespread support of the major political parties.
In April 2015, Labour announced that it would support the policy if it won an overall majority in the 2015 general election.
There was some criticism about not reducing the voting age to 16 years for the referendum on the membership in the European Union in 2016.
In September 2011, it was announced that the voting age was likely to be reduced from 18 to 16 for the Scottish independence referendum. This was approved by the Scottish Parliament in June 2013.
In June 2015, the Scottish Parliament voted unanimously to reduce the voting age to 16 for Scottish Parliament elections and Scottish local government elections.
Moves to lower the voting age to 16 were successful in each of the three British Crown dependencies from 2006 to 2008. The Isle of Man was the first to amend its law, when in July 2006 it reduced the voting age to 16 for its general elections, with the House of Keys approving the move by 19 votes to 4.
Jersey followed suit on 4 July 2007, when it approved in principle a reduction of the voting age to 16. The States of Jersey voted narrowly in favour, by 25 votes to 21, and the legislative amendments were adopted on 26 September. The law was sanctioned by Order in Council on 12 December, and was brought into force on 1 April, in time for the general elections in late 2008.
On 31 October 2007, a proposal for a reduction made by the House Committee of the States of Guernsey, and approved by the States ' Policy Committee, was adopted by the assembly by 30 votes to 15. An Order in Council sanctioning the law was made on 12 December, and it was registered at the Court of Guernsey on 19 December. It came into force immediately, and the voting age was accordingly reduced in time for the Guernsey general election, 2008.
Alderney and Sark, each part of the Bailiwick of Guernsey, have autonomy in deciding the question. Both have yet to favour a reduction to 16.
In the United States, the debate about lowering voting age from 21 to 18 began during World War II and intensified during the Vietnam War, when most of those subjected to the draft were too young to vote, and the image of young men being forced to risk their lives in the military without the privileges of voting successfully pressured legislators to lower the voting age nationally and in many states. By 1968, several states had lowered the voting age below 21 years: Alaska and Hawaii 's minimum age was 20, Kentucky 's was 19, and Georgia 's was 18. In 1970, the Supreme Court in Oregon v. Mitchell ruled that Congress had the right to regulate the minimum voting age in federal elections; however, not at local and state level.
The 26th Amendment (passed and ratified in 1971) set the voting age for federal and state elections at 18 years, but does not prevent states from establishing a lower voting age. Except for the express limitations provided for in Amendments XIV, XV, XIX and XXVI, voter qualifications for House and Senate elections are largely delegated to the States under Article I, Section 2 and Amendment XVII of the United States Constitution, which respectively state that "The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. '' and "The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures. ''
21 states permit 17 - year - olds to vote in primary elections and caucuses if they will be 18 by election day: Alaska, Connecticut, Hawaii, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Mississippi, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Virginia, Vermont, and Washington. Alaska, Kansas, North Dakota and Washington allow 17 - year - olds to participate in Democrat caucuses, but not in the Republican caucus. Minnesota allows 17 - year - olds to participate in presidential caucuses, but may not vote in primary elections for other offices. New Hampshire allows anyone who will be 18 years old by the time of next election to register, meaning some 17 - year - olds can register to vote in this state.
Currently, the Maine Green Independent Party, the state branch of the Green Party of the United States, calls for the lowering of the voting age to 17. Youth suffrage appears to be gaining ground in Massachusetts; three of the four Democratic United States Senate candidates in 2010 supported lowering the voting age.
In 2013, the City of Takoma Park, Maryland became the first place in the United States to lower its voting age to 16, for local (but not general) elections and referendums.
Iran had been unique in awarding suffrage at 15, but raised the age to 18 in January 2007 despite the opposition of the Government. In May 2007 the Iranian Cabinet proposed a bill to reverse the increase.
On 6 May 2007, the Swiss Canton of Glarus reduced the voting age from 18 to 16 for cantonal and local elections.
The New Zealand Green Party MP Sue Bradford announced on 21 June 2007 that she intended to introduce her Civics Education and Voting Age Bill on the next occasion upon which a place became available for the consideration of Members ' Bills. When this happened on 25 July Bradford abandoned the idea, citing an adverse public reaction. The Bill would have sought to reduce the voting age to 16 in New Zealand and make civics education part of the compulsory curriculum in schools.
A request to lower the voting age to 16 was made during consideration of revisions to the Constitution of Venezuela in 2007. Cilia Flores, president of the National Assembly, announced that the Mixed Committee for Constitutional Reform had found the idea acceptable. Following approval in the legislature the amendment formed part of the package of constitutional proposals, and was defeated in the 2007 referendum.
A report suggesting that consideration be given to reducing the voting age to 16 in the Australian Capital Territory in Canberra, Australia was tabled in the territorial legislature on 26 September 2007 and defeated.
In 2015, federal Opposition Leader Bill Shorten said that the voting age should be lowered to 16.
Luxembourg has compulsory voting from the age of 18. A proposal by the government to introduce optional voting for those aged 16 and 17 was rejected by 81 % of voters in a June 2015 referendum.
Eighteen is the most common voting age, with a small minority of countries differing from this rule. Those with a national minimum age of 17 include East Timor, Greece, Indonesia, North Korea, South Sudan and Sudan. The minimum age is 16 in Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Cuba, Ecuador, Nicaragua and the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey (three self - governing British Crown Dependencies). People aged 16 -- 18 can vote in Bosnia, Serbia and Montenegro if employed. The highest minimum voting age is 21 in several nations. Some countries have variable provision for the minimum voting age, whereby a lower age is set for eligibility to vote in state, regional or municipal elections.
The only known maximum voting age is in the Holy See, where the franchise for electing a new Pope is restricted to Cardinals under the age of 80.
The following is an alphabetical list of voting ages in the various countries of the world.
The following is a chronological list of the dates upon which countries lowered the voting age to 18; unless otherwise indicated, the reduction was from 21. In some cases the age was lowered decrementally, and so the "staging points '' are also given. Some information is also included on the relevant legal instruments involved.
This is a further list, similar to the above but of the dates upon which countries lowered the voting age to 16; unless otherwise indicated, the reduction was from 18.
The following are political parties and other campaigning organisations that have either endorsed a lower voting age or who favour its removal.
In 2013, the Constitutional Convention was asked to consider reducing the voting age to 17 and recommended lowering it to 16. The then government agreed to hold a referendum, but in 2015 postponed it indefinitely to give priority to other referendums.
No political party had decreed that its members should all follow the party line about lowering voting age policy, resulting in public differences of view. Most parties had splits in their members and supporters, taking different sides.
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who does morty's voice in rick and morty | Justin Roiland - wikipedia
Justin Roiland (born February 21, 1980) is an American actor, animator, writer, producer, and director. He is best known as the co-creator and executive producer of the Adult Swim animated series Rick and Morty, in which he voices both of the show 's titular characters, the voice of Oscar on the Disney Channel 's animated television show Fish Hooks, as well as the Earl of Lemongrab on Cartoon Network 's Adventure Time, and several characters (most notably the character of Blendin Blandin) on Gravity Falls.
Roiland grew up on an almond orchard in Manteca, California. He attended Sierra High School for all of his time in high school up to the first quarter of his senior year and then transferred to Manteca High School for the remainder of his senior year, graduating in 1998. After high school he attended Modesto Junior College in Modesto, California.
He eventually moved to Los Angeles, and in early 2004, got involved with Channel101, an L.A. media collective started by Dan Harmon and Rob Schrab, where he made and acted in numerous movie shorts (such as 2 Girls One Cup: The Show, House of Cosbys and a small role as musician "Christopher Cross '' in the series "Yacht Rock '') and in the VH1 television show Acceptable TV. He appeared regularly on The Sarah Silverman Program on Comedy Central as "Blonde Craig ''.
He now works as a voice actor, most notably as the title characters of Rick and Morty, for which he is also co-creator, co-writer and executive producer with Dan Harmon. In addition, he has voiced several other characters in Rick and Morty. Since 2010, he has co-hosted The Grandma 's Virginity Podcast with Rick and Morty writer, Ryan Ridley, and Steven Universe producer, Jackie Buscarino. He stated at the Rick and Morty panel at San Diego Comic - Con International 2014 that one of his main influences was Pendleton Ward and that he enjoyed watching The Ren & Stimpy Show as a child. In his interview to The Rolling Stone he stated that he enjoys making cartoons and games as it lets him do all the work in his apartment, without a need to leave his house.
On August 25, 2016, Roiland launched virtual reality studio Squanchtendo, a portmanteau of the company Nintendo and Rick and Morty character Squanchy. It was later renamed to Squanch Games. Its first full - length title, Accounting+, made in collaboration with William Pugh 's studio, will be released for PSVR on Dec. 19.
Justin Roiland 's Solo Vanity Card Productions! is an animation studio founded by animator and voice actor Justin Roiland. The studio is best known for producing Rick and Morty for Adult Swim.
In August 2016, Roiland set up a video game studio, initially named Squanchtendo, and later renamed to Squanch Games in December 2017.
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the girl who kicked the hornet's nest movie trilogy | The Girl Who Kicked the Hornets ' Nest (film) - wikipedia
The Girl Who Kicked the Hornets ' Nest (Swedish: Luftslottet som sprängdes = English: The castle in the sky that blew up) is a 2009 Swedish drama thriller film directed by Daniel Alfredson. It is based on the bestselling novel of the same name by the late Swedish author and journalist Stieg Larsson, the third and final entry in his Millennium series. The film was also the last film for veteran actor Per Oscarsson, who died in a house fire on 31 December 2010.
The film begins at the conclusion of The Girl Who Played with Fire. Computer hacker Lisbeth Salander is airlifted to a hospital in Gothenburg, to recover from gunshot wounds inflicted by her father, crime boss Alexander Zalachenko. Journalist Mikael Blomkvist, who Salander helped on a previous case, resumes his efforts to clear her of several murder charges, knowing that she was framed by the "Section, '' a group within the Swedish Security Service that illegally sheltered Zalachenko after he defected from the Soviet Union.
Section members Evert Gullberg and Fredrik Clinton decide to silence Zalachenko and Salander to preserve their secrets. Gullberg arrives at the hospital and kills Zalachenko, but is unable to reach Salander; he then commits suicide. Clinton plans to have Salander recommitted to the mental hospital where the Section had her institutionalized as a child after she nearly killed Zalachenko. His collaborator in this plan is Dr. Peter Teleborian, the hospital 's administrator, who "treated '' the young Salander by putting her in restraints for the smallest infractions.
Blomkvist persuades her doctor to sneak an Internet phone into Salander 's room, whereupon Salander contacts her fellow hacker, Plague, to see if he can find something on Teleborian. She then tells Blomkvist that Annika Giannini, her lawyer and Blomkvist 's sister, has permission to use a video showing her state - appointed guardian Nils Bjurman raping her; Bjurman, a former Section employee, is one of the people she is accused of murdering.
Ronald Niedermann, Zalachenko 's son and enforcer who previously tried to kill Salander 's girlfriend Miriam, has remained a fugitive, wanted for killing a police officer. Sonny, of an outlaw motorcycle gang that Salander encountered in the previous film, is informed that Niedermann went to his home to hide out. There, Sonny finds his brother dead and his girlfriend badly injured. She tells him that Niedermann was the culprit, and Sonny vows revenge.
On the day of her murder trial, Salander enters court with piercings, a mohawk, black makeup, and black leather clothing. Called as an expert witness for the prosecution, Teleborian characterizes Salander as delusional and violent, but Giannini gradually demolishes his credibility, using Salander 's words and files from the hospital. She shows the video proving Bjurman raped Salander.
As Giannini presents her case, the police arrest the people involved with the Section and seize their place of operation. In court, Blomkvist and Giannini prove that Teleborian made a false diagnosis on orders from the Section, and that the evidence against her was planted. Teleborian is then arrested for possession of child pornography, which Plague had discovered after hacking into his laptop. The court releases Salander.
Salander goes to check on a property she has inherited from her father and discovers the warehouse where Niedermann was hiding. Niedermann tries to kill her, but she nails his feet to the floor with a nail gun. She calls Sonny and tells the bikers where to find him, and then calls the police.
Blomkvist visits Salander to tell her that the motorcycle gang killed Niedermann and were arrested at the warehouse afterwards. They then reconcile and go their separate ways.
The film was released in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark on 29 November 2009, and in Finland and Iceland in January 2010. The film was subsequently released in other European countries throughout the spring and summer of 2010. The film opened the Scottsdale (Arizona) International Film Festival on 1 October 2010, and was screened on 13 October 2010 at the Mill Valley (California) Film Festival; the film then had a limited release in United States and Canadian theaters beginning 29 October 2010.
The Girl Who Kicked the Hornets ' Nest received mixed reviews from critics. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 53 % based on 125 reviews, with an average score of 5.8 / 10, the consensus being, "Slow and mostly devoid of the stellar chemistry between its two leads, The Girl Who Kicked the Hornets ' Nest is a disappointingly uneven conclusion to the Millennium trilogy. ''
Despite the low rating, the film did receive positive reviews from such noteworthy critics as Peter Travers, James Berardinelli, and Roger Ebert, who gave the film three out of four stars, stating, "These are all very well - made films. Like most European films, they have adults who are grown - ups, not arrested adolescents. Mikael and Erika, his boss and lover, have earned the lines in their faces, and do n't act like reckless action heroes. They make their danger feel so real to us that we realize the heroes of many action movies do n't really believe they 're in any danger at all. ''
Reviewing the original Swedish version in national daily newspaper Svenska Dagbladet, Jan Söderqvist is dismissive of the thin plot: his article is titled ' No, it does n't last the distance ', and laments that "the whole responsibility for carrying this grandiose production rests on Lisbeth Salander 's slender shoulders ''. But Söderqvist remains enthusiastic about Rapace and her character, Lisbeth Salander: "Salander is, on the other hand, undeniably an original and fascinating character, full of possibilities and secrets, and if Noomi Rapace builds an international acting career on these three films I have nothing to say against it. '' Söderqvist continues: "There is an enticing darkness in her glance and a brittle hardness about her defences that more than matches her tattoos. ''
Maaret Koskinen, reviewing the film in Sweden 's national daily Dagens Nyheter, found it a pity "that the subsequent Millennium films dribble away a given golden opportunity '' and "devalue an unprecedented accumulation of popular cultural capital. '' All that remains in the third section, writes Koskinen, is a skeleton (of the book 's power). Besides, she notes, "one sees Noomi Rapace far too little. ''
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who has the most confirmed kills as a sniper | List of snipers - wikipedia
A sniper is a trained marksman who operates alone, in a pair, or with a sniper team to maintain close visual contact with a target and engage the targets from concealed positions or distances exceeding the detection capabilities of enemy personnel.
Some notable military snipers include:
.
Not all snipers are highly trained professional soldiers. The term is sometimes used to describe criminals firing from cover at long range with a rifle and police sharpshooters. Some notable non-military snipers include:
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what part of a gun is the barrel | Gun barrel - wikipedia
A gun barrel is a part of firearms and artillery pieces. It is the straight shooting tube, usually made of rigid high - strength metal, through which a deflagration or rapid expansion of high - pressure gases are released in order to propel a projectile out of the end at a high velocity. The hollow interior of the barrel is called the bore.
The first firearms were made at a time when metallurgy was not advanced enough to cast tubes able to withstand the explosive forces of early cannon, so the pipe (often built from staves of metal) needed to be braced periodically along its length, producing an appearance somewhat reminiscent of a storage barrel.
A gun barrel must be able to hold in the expanding gas produced by the propellants to ensure that optimum muzzle velocity is attained by the projectile as it is being pushed out by the expanding gas (es). Modern small arms barrels are made of materials known and tested to withstand the pressures involved. Artillery pieces are made by various techniques providing reliably sufficient strength.
Early firearms were muzzle - loading, with the gunpowder and then the shot loaded from the front end (muzzle) of the barrel, capable of only a low rate of fire. Breech loading provided a higher rate of fire, but early breech - loading guns lacked an effective way of sealing the escaping gases that leaked from the back end of the barrel, reducing the available muzzle velocity. During the 19th century effective breechblocks were invented that sealed a breech - loading weapon against the escape of propellant gases.
Gun barrels are usually metal. The early Chinese, the inventors of gunpowder, used bamboo, a naturally tubular stalk, as the first barrels in gunpowder projectile weapons. Early European guns were made of wrought iron, usually with several strengthening bands of the metal wrapped around circular wrought iron rings and then welded into a hollow cylinder. The Chinese were the first to master cast - iron cannon barrels. Bronze and brass were favoured by gunsmiths, largely because of their ease of casting and their resistance to the corrosive effects of the combustion of gunpowder or salt water when used on naval vessels.
Early cannon barrels were very thick for their caliber. Manufacturing defects such as air bubbles trapped in the metal were common, and key factors in many gun explosions; the defects made the barrel too weak to withstand the pressures of firing, causing it to fragment explosively.
The muzzle is the end of barrel from which the projectile will exit. Precise machining of the muzzle is crucial to accuracy, because it is the last point of contact between the barrel and the projectile. If gaps exist between the muzzle and the projectile, escaping propellant gases may spread unevenly and deflect the projectile from its intended path (see transitional ballistics).
In the case of rifled weapons, the contour of a muzzle is designed to keep the rifling safe from damage, so it is commonly recessed or protected by a convex crown, which is sometimes recessed from the outside rim of the muzzle to avoid accidental damage.
When firing a gun, a bright flash is often seen at the muzzle (known as a muzzle flash) and is produced by the hot gases escaping the barrel. The size of the flash depends on various factors such as barrel length, the type and amount of powder used by the cartridge, etc. Flash suppressors are attached to the muzzle of the weapon to diminish these effects.
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