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when did the death penalty stop in the uk | Capital punishment in the United Kingdom - wikipedia
Capital punishment in the United Kingdom was used from ancient times until the second half of the 20th century. The last executions in the United Kingdom were by hanging, and took place in 1964, prior to capital punishment being abolished for murder (in 1965 in Great Britain and in 1973 in Northern Ireland). Although unused, the death penalty remained a legally defined punishment for certain offences such as treason until it was completely abolished in 1998. In 2004 the 13th Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights became binding on the United Kingdom, prohibiting the restoration of the death penalty for as long as the UK is a party to the Convention.
Sir Samuel Romilly, speaking to the House of Commons on capital punishment in 1810, declared that "(there is) no country on the face of the earth in which there (have) been so many different offences according to law to be punished with death as in England ''. Known as the "Bloody Code '', at its height the criminal law included some 220 crimes punishable by death, including "being in the company of Gypsies for one month '', "strong evidence of malice in a child aged 7 -- 14 years of age '' and "blacking the face or using a disguise whilst committing a crime ''. Many of these offences had been introduced to protect the property of the wealthy classes that emerged during the first half of the 18th century, a notable example being the Black Act of 1723, which created 50 capital offences for various acts of theft and poaching. Crimes eligible for the death penalty included shoplifting and stealing sheep, cattle, and horses, and before abolition of the death penalty for theft in 1832, "English law was notorious for prescribing the death penalty for a vast range of offenses as slight as the theft of goods valued at twelve pence. ''
Whilst executions for murder, burglary and robbery were common, the death sentences for minor offenders were often not carried out. A sentence of death could be commuted or respited (permanently postponed) for reasons such as benefit of clergy, official pardons, pregnancy of the offender or performance of military or naval duty. Between 1770 and 1830, an estimated 35,000 death sentences were handed down in England and Wales, but only 7,000 executions were carried out.
In 1808 Romilly had the death penalty removed for pickpockets and lesser offenders, starting a process of reform that continued over the next 50 years. The death penalty was mandatory (although it was frequently commuted by the government) until the Judgement of Death Act 1823 gave judges the power to commute the death penalty except for treason and murder. The Punishment of Death, etc. Act 1832 reduced the number of capital crimes by two - thirds. In 1832, the death penalty was abolished for theft, counterfeiting, and forgery except for the forgery of wills and certain powers of attorney. Gibbeting was abolished in 1832 and hanging in chains was abolished in 1834. In 1837, the death penalty for forging wills and powers of attorney was abolished. The death penalty for rape was abolished in 1841. In 1861, several acts of Parliament (24 & 25 Vict; c. 94 to c. 100) further reduced the number of civilian capital crimes to five: murder, treason, espionage, arson in royal dockyards, and piracy with violence; there were other offences under military law. The death penalty remained mandatory for treason and murder unless commuted by the monarch.
The Royal Commission on Capital Punishment 1864 -- 66 concluded (with dissenting Commissioners) that there was not a case for abolition but recommended an end to public executions. This proposal was included in the Capital Punishment Amendment Act 1868. From that date executions in Great Britain were carried out only in prisons. The punishment of beheading and quartering those executed for treason was abolished in 1870. The last application of that punishment had been in 1820 and the last sentence to the punishment had been in 1839.
In 1908, the Children Act 1908 banned the execution of juveniles under the age of 16. In 1922 a new offence of Infanticide was introduced to replace the charge of murder for mothers killing their children in the first year of life. In 1930 a parliamentary Select Committee recommended that capital punishment be suspended for a trial period of five years, but no action was taken. From 1931 pregnant women could no longer be hanged (following the birth of their child) although in practice since the 18th century their sentences had always been commuted.
In 1933 the minimum age for capital punishment was raised to 18 under the Children and Young Persons Act 1933. The last known execution by the civilian courts of a person under 18 was that of Charles Dobel, 17, hanged at Maidstone together with his accomplice William Gower, 18, in January 1889. Harold Wilkins, at 16 years old, was the last juvenile sentenced to the death penalty in the United Kingdom, in 1932 for a sexually related murder, but he was reprieved due to age.
In 1938 the issue of the abolition of capital punishment was brought before parliament. A clause within the Criminal Justice Bill called for an experimental five - year suspension of the death penalty. When war broke out in 1939 the bill was postponed. It was revived after the war and to everyone 's surprise was adopted by a majority in the House of Commons (245 to 222). In the House of Lords the abolition clause was defeated but the remainder of the bill was passed. Popular support for abolition was absent and the government decided that it would be inappropriate for it to assert its supremacy by invoking the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 over such an unpopular issue.
Instead, then Home Secretary, James Chuter Ede, set up a new Royal Commission (the Royal Commission on Capital Punishment, 1949 -- 1953) with instructions to determine "whether the liability to suffer capital punishment should be limited or modified ''. The Commission 's report discussed a number of alternatives to execution by hanging (including the US methods of electrocution and gassing, and the then - theoretical lethal injection), but rejected them. It had more difficulty with the principle of capital punishment. Popular opinion believed that the death penalty acted as a deterrent to criminals, but the statistics within the report were inconclusive. Whilst the report recommended abolition from an ethical standpoint, it made no mention of possible miscarriages of justice. The public had by then expressed great dissatisfaction with the verdict in the case of Timothy Evans, who was tried and hanged in 1950 for murdering his baby daughter. It later transpired in 1953 that John Christie had strangled at least six women in the same house; he also confessed to killing Timothy 's wife. If the jury in Evans 's trial had known this, Evans would probably not have been found guilty. There were other cases in the same period where doubts arose over convictions and subsequent hangings, such as the notorious case of Derek Bentley.
The commission concluded that unless there was overwhelming public support in favour of abolition, the death penalty should be retained.
Between 1900 and 1949, 621 men and 11 women were executed in England and Wales. Ten German agents were executed during the First World War under the Defence of the Realm Act 1914, and 16 spies were executed during the Second World War under the Treachery Act 1940.
By 1957 a number of controversial cases highlighted the issue of capital punishment again. Campaigners for abolition were partially rewarded with the Homicide Act 1957. The Act brought in a distinction between capital and non-capital murder. Only six categories of murder were now punishable by execution:
The police and the government were of the opinion that the death penalty deterred offenders from carrying firearms and it was for this reason that such offences remained punishable by death.
In 1965 the Labour MP Sydney Silverman, who had committed himself to the cause of abolition for more than 20 years, introduced a Private Member 's Bill to suspend the death penalty for murder. It was passed on a free vote in the House of Commons by 200 votes to 98. The bill was subsequently passed by the House of Lords by 204 votes to 104.
The Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965 suspended the death penalty in Great Britain (but not in Northern Ireland) for murder for a period of five years, and substituted a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment; it further provided that if, before the expiry of the five - year suspension, each House of Parliament passed a resolution to make the effect of the Act permanent, then it would become permanent. In 1969 the Home Secretary, James Callaghan, proposed a motion to make the Act permanent, which was carried in the Commons on 16 December 1969, and a similar motion was carried in the Lords on 18 December. The death penalty for murder was abolished in Northern Ireland on 25 July 1973 under the Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1973.
Following the abolition of the death penalty for murder, the House of Commons held a vote during each subsequent parliament until 1997 to restore the death penalty. This motion was always defeated, but the death penalty still remained for other crimes:
However, no executions were carried out in the United Kingdom for any of these offences after the abolition of the death penalty for murder.
Nevertheless, there remained a working gallows at HMP Wandsworth, London, until 1994, which was tested every six months until 1992. This gallows is now housed in the Galleries of Justice in Nottingham.
England and in the United Kingdom: on 13 August 1964, Peter Anthony Allen, at Walton Prison in Liverpool, and Gwynne Owen Evans, at Strangeways Prison in Manchester, were executed for the murder of John Alan West on 7 April that year.
Scotland: Henry John Burnett, 21, on 15 August 1963 in Craiginches Prison, Aberdeen, for the murder of seaman Thomas Guyan.
Northern Ireland: Robert McGladdery, 26, on 20 December 1961 in Crumlin Road Gaol, Belfast, for the murder of Pearl Gamble.
Wales: Vivian Teed, 24, in Swansea on 6 May 1958, for the murder of William Williams, sub-postmaster of Fforestfach Post Office.
Northern Ireland and in the United Kingdom: Liam Holden in 1973 in Northern Ireland, for the capital murder of a British soldier during the Troubles. Holden was removed from the death cell in May 1973. In 2012 his conviction was quashed on appeal.
England: David Chapman, who was sentenced to hang in November 1965 for the murder of a swimming pool nightwatchman in Scarborough. He was released from prison in 1979 and later died in a car accident.
Scotland: Patrick McCarron in 1964 for shooting his wife. He committed suicide in prison in 1970.
Wales: Edgar Black, who was reprieved on 6 November 1963. He had shot his wife 's lover in Cardiff.
The Criminal Damage Act 1971 abolished the offence of arson in royal dockyards.
The Naval Discipline Act 1957 reduced the scope of capital espionage from "all spies for the enemy '' to spies on naval ships or bases. Later, the Armed Forces Act 1981 abolished the death penalty for espionage. (The Official Secrets Act 1911 had created another offence of espionage which carried a maximum sentence of fourteen years.)
Beheading was abolished as a method of execution for treason in 1973. Hanging, however, remained available until 1998 when, under a House of Lords amendment to the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, proposed by Lord Archer of Sandwell, the death penalty was abolished for treason and piracy with violence, replacing it with a discretionary maximum sentence of life imprisonment. These were the last civilian offences punishable by death.
On 20 May 1998 the House of Commons voted to ratify the 6th Protocol of the European Convention on Human Rights prohibiting capital punishment except "in time of war or imminent threat of war ''. The last remaining provisions for the death penalty under military jurisdiction (including in wartime) were removed when section 21 (5) of the Human Rights Act 1998 came into force on 9 November 1998. On 10 October 2003, effective from 1 February 2004, the UK acceded to the 13th Protocol, which prohibits the death penalty in all circumstances.
As a legacy from colonial times, several states in the West Indies still had the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the court of final appeal; although the death penalty has been retained in these states, the Privy Council would sometimes delay or deny executions. Some of these states severed links with the British court system in 2001 by transferring the responsibilities of the Privy Council to the Caribbean Court of Justice, to speed up executions.
Although not part of the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man and the bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey are British Crown dependencies.
In the Channel Islands, the last death sentence was passed in 1984; the last execution in the Channel Islands was in Jersey on 9 October 1959, when Francis Joseph Huchet was hanged for murder. The Human Rights (Amendment) (Jersey) Order 2006 amends the Human Rights (Jersey) Law 2000 to give effect to the 13th Protocol of the European Convention on Human Rights providing for the total abolition of the death penalty. Both of these laws came into effect on 10 December 2006. Capital punishment was abolished in Guernsey in 2003, and the 13th Protocol was extended to Guernsey in April 2004. Sark formally retained it until January 2004, when the Chief Pleas in a 14 -- 9 vote removed it from the statutes.
The last execution on the Isle of Man took place in 1872, when John Kewish was hanged for patricide. Capital punishment was not formally abolished by Tynwald (the island 's parliament) until 1993. Five persons were sentenced to death (for murder) on the Isle of Man between 1973 and 1992, although all sentences were commuted to life imprisonment. The last person to be sentenced to death in the UK or its dependencies was Anthony Teare, who was convicted at the Manx Court of General Gaol Delivery in Douglas for contract murder in 1992; he was subsequently retried and sentenced to life imprisonment in 1994. In 2004 the 13th Protocol was adopted, with an effective date of 1 November 2006.
Like the Crown dependencies, the British overseas territories are constitutionally not part of the United Kingdom. However, the British government 's ultimate responsibility for good governance of the territories has led it over recent years to pursue a policy of revoking all statutory provision for the death penalty in those territories where it had up until recently been legal.
The last executions in an overseas territory, and indeed the last on British soil, took place in Bermuda in 1977, when two men, Larry Tacklyn and Erskine Burrows, were hanged for the 1973 murder of the territory 's then Governor Sir Richard Sharples.
In 1991, the British government extended an Order in Council to its Caribbean territories whose effect was to abolish capital punishment for murder: Anguilla, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Montserrat and the Turks and Caicos Islands.
The British government was unable to extend the abolition via Order in Council to Bermuda, the UK 's most autonomous overseas territory with powers of almost total self - governance -- but warned that if voluntary abolition was not forthcoming it would be forced to consider the unprecedented step of "whether to impose abolition by means of an Act of Parliament ''. As a result, the Bermudian government introduced its own domestic legislation in 1999 to rectify the problem.
Further measures were subsequently adopted to revoke technicalities in British overseas territories ' domestic legislation as regards use of the death penalty for crimes of treason and piracy. In October 2002 the British government abolished the death penalty for treason and piracy in the Turks and Caicos Islands. Since then, the death penalty has been outlawed under all circumstances in all the UK 's overseas territories.
Since the death penalty 's suspension in 1965, there have been continued public and media calls for its reintroduction, particularly prompted by high - profile murder cases.
At the same time, there have been a number of miscarriages of justice since 1965 where someone convicted of murder has later had their conviction quashed on appeal and been released from prison, strengthening the argument of those who oppose the death penalty 's reintroduction. These include the Birmingham Six (cleared in 1991 of planting an IRA bomb which killed 21 people in 1974), the Guildford Four (cleared in 1989 of murdering five people in another 1974 IRA bombing), Stephen Downing (a Derbyshire man who was freed in 2001 after serving 27 years for the murder of a woman in a churchyard) and Barry George (who was freed in 2007 when his conviction for the 1999 murder of TV presenter Jill Dando was quashed on appeal).
Perhaps the first high - profile murder case which sparked widespread calls for a return of the death penalty was the Moors murders trial in 1966, the year after the death penalty 's suspension, in which Ian Brady and Myra Hindley were sentenced to life imprisonment for the murders of two children and a teenager in the Manchester area (they later confessed to a further two murders). Later in 1966, the murder of three policemen in West London also attracted widespread public support for the death penalty 's return. Other subsequent high - profile cases to have sparked widespread media and public calls for the death penalty 's return include "Yorkshire Ripper '' Peter Sutcliffe, convicted in 1981 of murdering 13 women and attacking seven others in the north of England, Roy Whiting, who murdered a seven - year - old girl in West Sussex in 2000, and Ian Huntley, a Cambridgeshire school caretaker who killed two 10 - year - old girls in 2002.
A November 2009 television survey showed that 70 % favoured reinstating the death penalty for at least one of the following crimes: armed robbery, rape, crimes related to paedophilia, terrorism, adult murder, child murder, child rape, treason, child abuse or kidnapping. However, respondents only favoured capital punishment for adult murder, the polling question asked by other organisations such as Gallup, by small majorities or pluralities: overall, 51 % favoured the death penalty for adult murder, while 56 % in Wales did, 55 % in Scotland, and only 49 % in England.
In August 2011, the Internet blogger Paul Staines -- who writes a political blog as Guido Fawkes and heads the Restore Justice Campaign -- launched an e-petition on the Downing Street website calling for the restoration of the death penalty for those convicted of the murder of children and police officers. The petition was one of several in support or opposition of capital punishment to be published by the government with the launch of its e-petitions website. Petitions attracting 100,000 signatures would prompt a parliamentary debate on a particular topic, but not necessarily lead to any Parliamentary Bills being put forward. When the petition closed on 4 February 2012 it had received 26,351 signatures in support of restoring capital punishment, but a counter-petition calling to retain the ban on capital punishment received 33,455 signatures during the same time period.
Also in August 2011, a representative survey conducted by Angus Reid Public Opinion showed that 65 % of Britons support reinstating the death penalty for murder in Great Britain, while 28 % oppose this course of action. Men and respondents aged over 35 are more likely to endorse the change.
In March 2015 a survey by the NatCen British Social Attitudes Report showed that public support for the death penalty had dropped to 48 per cent.
After Royal Assent for the Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965, supporters in Parliament have made several attempts to reintroduce capital punishment. On 23 November 1966, Duncan Sandys was refused leave to bring in a Bill to restore capital punishment for the murder of police or prison officers, by a vote of 170 to 292. Motions to make the five - year suspension of capital punishment under the 1965 Act permanent were opposed, but agreed by 343 to 185 in the House of Commons; in the House of Lords, an amendment to continue with a temporary suspension of capital punishment until 31 July 1973 was rejected by 174 to 220. In April 1973, the House of Commons voted against reintroduction.
The deaths of civilians in several IRA bombings in 1974 prompted a renewed debate. On 11 December 1974 Brian Walden moved a motion declaring that "the death penalty would neither deter terrorists nor increase the safety of the public ''; Jill Knight moved an amendment calling instead for introduction of legislation providing for death to be the penalty for acts of terrorism causing death. Her amendment was rejected by 217 to 369. A year later, Ivan Lawrence 's motion "That this House demands capital punishment for terrorist offences causing death '' was rejected by 232 to 361.
After the Conservatives ' victory in the 1979 general election, Eldon Griffiths (Parliamentary adviser to the Police Federation of England and Wales) moved a motion "that the sentence of capital punishment should again be available to the courts '' on 19 July 1979. While the motion was not expected to pass, the margin of its defeat (243 to 362) was much wider than expected. Later in the same Parliament, the Criminal Justice Bill provided an opportunity on 11 May 1982 for several new clauses to be proposed which would have reinstated capital punishment. The first, which simply declared that "A person convicted of murder shall be liable to capital punishment '', was tabled by Edward Gardner, and rejected by 195 to 357. It was followed by an alternative under which capital punishment would be available "as the penalty for an act of terrorism involving the loss of human life ''; this new clause was rejected by 176 to 332. A further new clause proposing capital punishment "as the penalty for murder by means of firearms or explosives '' was rejected by 176 to 343. Then a new clause allowing for capital punishment "as the penalty for murder of a police or prison officer '' was rejected by 208 to 332. Finally a new clause allowing capital punishment "as the penalty for murder in the course of robbery and burglary which involves the use of offensive weapons '' was rejected by 151 to 331.
The new Parliament in 1983 again prompted supporters of capital punishment to put their case. Sir Edward Gardner 's motion "That this House favours the restoration of the death penalty for murder '' was debated on 13 July 1983, with several amendments moved to restrict capital punishment to certain categories of murder. The amendments were voted on first: capital punishment for murder "resulting from acts of terrorism '' was rejected by 245 to 361, for murder "of a police officer during the course of his duties '' by 263 to 344, for murder "of a prison officer during the course of his duties '' by 252 to 348, for murder "by shooting or causing an explosion '' by 204 to 374, and for murder "in the course or furtherance of theft '' by 194 to 369. The main motion was then defeated by 223 to 368. Towards the end of the Parliament, a new clause proposed to the Criminal Justice Bill proposed to return the death penalty for "A person convicted by the unanimous verdict of a jury of the premeditated killing of another person or of knowingly and intentionally killing another person in a manner, or for a reason, or in circumstances which a reasonable person would consider to be evil '' was rejected by 230 to 342 on 1 April 1987.
The Criminal Justice Bill in 1988 provided a further opportunity for a debate; the new clause proposed by Roger Gale allowed for the jury in a murder case to "have the power, upon reaching a verdict of guilt of murder, to recommend... death in the manner authorised by law ''. It was rejected by 218 to 341.
The aforementioned bills were rejected despite support from then Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher.
On 17 December 1990 a new Criminal Justice Bill again saw amendments designed to reintroduce capital punishment. The first covered anyone over 18 "convicted of the murder of a police officer acting in the execution of his duty '' and was rejected by 215 to 350; a general reintroduction of death as the penalty for murder (with special provision for the Court of Appeal to decide whether to substitute a life sentence) was then rejected by 182 to 367. Capital punishment for "murder committed by means of firearms, explosives or an offensive weapon, or for the murder of a police or prison officer '' was rejected by 186 to 349.
The most recent Parliamentary debate on a question proposing reintroduction of capital punishment came on 21 February 1994 when new clauses to the Criminal Justice and Public Order Bill were moved. The first, providing for death as the sentence for "the murder of a police officer acting in the execution of his duty '', was rejected by 186 to 383; A new clause providing for general reintroduction with power for the Court of Appeal to substitute life imprisonment was rejected by 159 to 403. This would have been aimed at terrorists in the Northern Ireland conflict.
In June 2013 a new bill for capital punishment in England and Wales was introduced. This Bill has been withdrawn and will not progress any further.
The following parties support the reintroduction of capital punishment:
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who won the ncaa basketball championship in 1967 | 1967 NCAA University Division Basketball tournament - wikipedia
The 1967 NCAA University Division Basketball Tournament involved 23 schools playing in single - elimination play to determine the national champion of men 's NCAA Division I college basketball. It began on March 11, 1967, and ended with the championship game on March 25 in Louisville, Kentucky. A total of 27 games were played, including a third - place game in each region and a national third - place game.
UCLA, coached by John Wooden, won the national title with a 79 -- 64 victory in the final game over Dayton, coached by Don Donoher. Lew Alcindor (later named Kareem Abdul - Jabbar) of UCLA was named the tournament 's Most Outstanding Player. This was the first of seven consecutive NCAA titles for UCLA and the first of three consecutive Most Outstanding Player awards for Alcindor.
For the fifth time, Louisville and Freedom Hall would host the final Four. Once again all the venues used were either on college campuses or, in the case of Freedom Hall, the off - campus main venue for a college team. The tournament saw two new venues used for the first time. The tournament came to New England, the state of Rhode Island and the University of Rhode Island for the first time, with games played at Keaney Gym. This was one of two different venues used for East first round games, along with Cassell Coliseum. Meanwhile, for the third straight year the Midwest & West first round games were played at a single site. For the first time, the tournament came to Colorado, with games played at Colorado State Auditorium - Gymnasium (commonly referred to as Moby Gym for its whaleback - style roof). This would be the only time the tournament would be played at Colorado State University and is, to date, the only college campus in the state of Colorado to host tournament games (all other games have been played in downtown Denver). This would also be the last time the tournament would be held in Blacksburg, with Williamsburg hosting the tournament next within the state of Virginia, a few years later.
* -- Denotes overtime period
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who sings mind your own business with hank williams jr | Mind Your Own Business (song) - Wikipedia
"Mind Your Own Business '' is a 1949 song written and originally performed by Hank Williams.
"Mind Your Own Business '' was recorded on March 2, 1949, at Castle Studio in Nashville. During the same session, Williams also recorded "You 're Gonna Change (Or I 'm Gonna Leave) '', "My Son Calls Another Man Daddy '', and "Honky Tonk Blues ''. He is backed by Dale Potter (fiddle), Don Davis (steel guitar), Zeke Turner (lead guitar), Clyde Baum (mandolin), Jack Shook (rhythm guitar), and probably Ernie Newton (bass).
In the song, the narrator admonishes a local busybody for snooping and gossiping. While the delivery is light and breezy, the song 's lyrics were likely inspired by the singer 's own tempestuous relationship with wife Audrey Williams and the buzz it created. The opening lines seem to reference this: "If the wife and I are fussin ', brother that 's our right / ' Cause me and that sweet woman 's got a licence to fight... '' His delivery is measured, laconic, and dry. The day before, Hank had cut several duets with his wife Audrey, who by all accounts had limited singing talent. Introducing it in October 1949, he told his radio audience that it was a "little prophecy in song '', and indeed it would prove to be.
The song is similar in tone and structure to Williams ' first Billboard hit "Move It on Over '', with the singer couching his moral indignation in humor, allowing the subject matter to resonate with the public. "Mind Your Own Business '' went to # 6 on the C&W Best Seller list where it stayed for two weeks.
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is italy a member of the european union | Member state of the European Union - wikipedia
The European Union (EU) consists of 28 member states. Each member state is party to the founding treaties of the union and thereby subject to the privileges and obligations of membership. Unlike members of most international organisations, the member states of the EU are subjected to binding laws in exchange for representation within the common legislative and judicial institutions. Member states must agree unanimously for the EU to adopt policies concerning defence and foreign policy. Subsidiarity is a founding principle of the EU.
In 1957, six core states founded the EU 's predecessor, the European Economic Community (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany). The remaining states have acceded in subsequent enlargements. On 1 July 2013, Croatia became the newest member state of the EU. In order to accede, a state must fulfill the economic and political requirements known as the Copenhagen criteria, which require a candidate to have a democratic, free market government together with the corresponding freedoms and institutions, and respect for the rule of law. Enlargement of the Union is also contingent upon the consent of all existing members and the candidate 's adoption of the existing body of EU law, known as the acquis communautaire.
There is disparity in the size, wealth and political system of member states, but all have de jure equal rights. In practice, certain states are considerably more attractive than others, with the exception of Portugal, all EU states with consistent falling population trends from 2010 - 2017 are in Eastern Europe, exacerbating the East - West divide. While in some areas majority voting takes place where larger states have more votes than smaller ones, smaller states have disproportional representation compared to their population. No member state has withdrawn or been suspended from the EU, though some dependent territories or semi-autonomous areas have left. In June 2016, the United Kingdom held a referendum on membership of the EU, resulting in 51.89 % of votes cast in favour to leaving. Prime Minister Theresa May invoked Article 50 on 29 March 2017 to formally initiate the withdrawal process.
According to the Copenhagen criteria, membership of the European Union is open to any European country that is a stable, free market liberal democracy that respects the rule of law and human rights. Furthermore, it has to be willing to accept all the obligations of membership, such as adopting all previously agreed law (the 170,000 pages of acquis communautaire) and switching to the euro. In order to join the European Union, it is required for all member states to agree; if a single member state disagrees, the applying country is declined acceptance to the European Union. In addition to enlargement by adding new countries, the EU can also expand by having territories of member states, which are outside the EU, integrate more closely (for example in respect to the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles) or by a territory of a member state which had previously seceded and then rejoined (see withdrawal below).
Enlargement is, and has been, a principal feature of the Union 's political landscape. The EU 's predecessors were founded by the "Inner Six '', those countries willing to forge ahead with the Community while others remained skeptical. It was only a decade before the first countries changed their policy and attempted to join the Union, which led to the first skepticism of enlargement. French President Charles de Gaulle feared British membership would be an American Trojan horse and vetoed its application. It was only after de Gaulle left office and a 12 - hour talk by British Prime Minister Edward Heath and French President Georges Pompidou took place that the United Kingdom 's third application succeeded in 1970.
Applying in 1969 were the United Kingdom, Ireland, Denmark, and Norway. Norway, however, declined to accept the invitation to become a member when the electorate voted against it, leaving just the UK, Ireland and Denmark to join. But despite the setbacks, and the withdrawal of Greenland from Denmark 's membership in 1985, three more countries joined the Communities before the end of the Cold War. In 1987, the geographical extent of the project was tested when Morocco applied, and was rejected as it was not considered a European country.
The year 1990 saw the Cold War drawing to a close, and East Germany was welcomed into the Community as part of a reunited Germany. Shortly after, the previously neutral countries of Austria, Finland and Sweden acceded to the new European Union, though Switzerland, which applied in 1992, froze its application due to opposition from voters while Norway, which had applied once more, had its voters reject membership again. Meanwhile, the members of the former Eastern Bloc and Yugoslavia were all starting to move towards EU membership. Ten of these joined in a major enlargement on 1 May 2004 symbolising the unification of East and Western Europe in the EU. Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007.
Council of the EU
Presidency
The year 2013 saw the latest member, Croatia, accede to the Union, and the EU has prioritised membership for the rest of the Balkans -- namely Western Balkans. Albania, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Turkey are all formally acknowledged as candidates. Turkish membership, pending since the 1980s, is a more contentious issue but it entered negotiations in 2005. Relations between the EU and Turkey are strained after several incidents, mostly concerning the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt and the Turkish referendum, both of which resulting in the 2016 -- 17 purges in Turkey, resulting in the European Parliament asking for suspending membership talks. The still ongoing Cyprus dispute is the other major hurdle concerning Turkish membership.
Additionally, Bosnia and Kosovo are recognized as potential candidates for membership.
Each state has representation in the institutions of the European Union. Full membership gives the government of a member state a seat in the Council of the European Union and European Council. When decisions are not being taken by consensus, votes are weighted so that a country with a greater population has more votes within the Council than a smaller country (though the number of votes in relation to population is weighted disproportionately in favour of smaller member states). The Presidency of the Council of the European Union rotates between each of the member states, allowing each state six months to help direct the agenda of the EU.
Similarly, each state is assigned seats in Parliament according to their population (again, with the smaller countries receiving more seats per inhabitant than the larger ones). The members of the European Parliament have been elected by universal suffrage since 1979 (before that, they were seconded from national parliaments).
The national governments appoint one member each to the European Commission (in accord with its president), the European Court of Justice (in accord with other members) and the European Court of Auditors. Historically, larger member states were granted an extra Commissioner. However, as the body grew, this right has been removed and each state is represented equally. The six largest states are also granted an Advocates General in the Court of Justice. Finally, the Governing Council of the European Central Bank includes the governors of the national central banks (who may or may not be government appointed) of each euro area country.
The larger states traditionally carry more weight in negotiations, however smaller states can be effective impartial mediators and citizens of smaller states are often appointed to sensitive top posts to avoid competition between the larger states. This, together with the disproportionate representation of the smaller states in terms of votes and seats in parliament, gives the smaller EU states a greater clout than normally attributed to a state of their size. However most negotiations are still dominated by the larger states. This has traditionally been largely through the "Franco - German motor '' but Franco - German influence has diminished slightly following the influx of new members in 2004 (see G6).
While the member states are sovereign, the union partially follows a supranational system that is comparable to federalism. Previously limited to European Community matters, the practice, known as the "community method '', is currently used in most areas of policy. Combined sovereignty is delegated by each member to the institutions in return for representation within those institutions. This practice is often referred to as "pooling of sovereignty ''. Those institutions are then empowered to make laws and execute them at a European level.
If a state fails to comply with the law of the European Union, it may be fined or have funds withdrawn.
In contrast to other organisations, the EU 's style of integration has "become a highly developed system for mutual interference in each other 's domestic affairs ''. However, on defence and foreign policy issues (and, pre-Lisbon Treaty, police and judicial matters) less sovereignty is transferred, with issues being dealt with by unanimity and cooperation. Very early on in the history of the EU, the unique state of its establishment and pooling of sovereignty was emphasised by the Court of Justice:
By creating a Community of unlimited duration, having its own institutions, its own personality, its own legal capacity and capacity of representation on the international plane and, more particularly, real powers stemming from a limitation of sovereignty or a transfer of powers from the States to Community, the Member States have limited their sovereign rights and have thus created a body of law which binds both their nationals and themselves... The transfer by the States from their domestic legal system to the Community legal system of the rights and obligations arising under the Treaty carries with it a permanent limitation of their sovereign rights.
Yet, as sovereignty still originates from the national level, it may be withdrawn by a member state who wishes to leave. Hence, if a law is agreed that is not to the liking of a state, it may withdraw from the EU to avoid it. This however has not happened as the benefits of membership are often seen to outweigh the potentially negative impact of a specific law.
The question of whether EU law is superior to national law is subject to some debate. The treaties do not give a judgement on the matter but court judgements have established EU 's law superiority over national law and it is affirmed in a declaration attached to the Treaty of Lisbon (the European Constitution would have fully enshrined this). Some national legal systems also explicitly accept the Court of Justice 's interpretation, such as France and Italy, however in Poland it does not override the national constitution, which it does in Germany. The exact areas where the member states have given legislative competence to the EU are as follows. Every area not mentioned remains with member states.
As a result of the European sovereign debt crisis, some eurozone states required a bailout from the EU via the European Financial Stability Facility and European Financial Stability Mechanism (to be replaced by the European Stability Mechanism from 2013). In exchange for their bailout, Greece was required to accept a large austerity plan including privatisations and a sell off of state assets. In order to ensure that Greece complies with the EU 's demands, a "large - scale technical assistance '' from the European Commission and other member states has been deployed to Greek government ministries. Some, including the President of the Euro Group Jean - Claude Juncker, state that "the sovereignty of Greece will be massively limited. '' The situation of the bailed out countries (Greece, Portugal and Ireland) has been described as being a ward or protectorate of the EU with some such as the Netherlands calling for a formalisation of the situation.
A number of states are less integrated into the EU than others. In most cases this is because those states have gained an opt - out from a certain policy area. The most notable is the opt - out from the Economic and Monetary Union, the adoption of the euro as sole legal currency. Most states outside the Eurozone are obliged to adopt the euro when they are ready, but Denmark and the United Kingdom have obtained the right to retain their own independent currencies.
Ireland and the United Kingdom also do not participate in the Schengen Agreement, which eliminates internal EU border checks. Denmark has an opt out from the Common Security and Defence Policy; Denmark, Ireland and the UK have an opt - out on police and justice matters and Poland and the UK have an opt out from the Charter of Fundamental Rights.
There are a number of overseas member state territories which are legally part of the EU, but have certain exemptions based on their remoteness. These "outermost regions '' have partial application of EU law and in some cases are outside of Schengen or the EU VAT area -- however they are legally within the EU. They all use the euro as their currency.
Entry to the EU is limited to liberal democracies and Freedom House ranks all EU states as being totally free electoral democracies. All but 4 are ranked at the top 1.0 rating. However, the exact political system of a state is not limited, with each state having its own system based on its historical evolution.
Half of member states -- 14 out of 28 -- are parliamentary republics, while seven states are constitutional monarchies, meaning they have a monarch although political powers are exercised by elected politicians. Most republics and all the monarchies operate a parliamentary system whereby the head of state (president or monarch) has a largely ceremonial role with reserve powers. That means most power is in the hands of what is called in most of those countries the prime minister, who is accountable to the national parliament. Of the remaining republics, five operate a semi-presidential system, where competencies are shared between the president and prime minister, while one republic operates a presidential system, where the president is head of state and government.
The EU is divided between unicameral (single chamber) and bicameral (dual chamber) parliaments, with 15 unicameral national parliaments and 13 bicameral parliaments. The prime minister and government are usually directly accountable to the directly elected lower house and require its support to stay in office -- the exception being Cyprus with its presidential system. Upper houses are composed differently in different member states: it can be directly elected like the Polish senate, indirectly elected, for example, by regional legislatures like the Federal Council of Austria, unelected, but representing certain interest groups like the National Council of Slovenia, unelected (though by and large appointed by elected officials) as a remnant of a non-democratic political system in earlier times (as in the House of Lords in the United Kingdom). Most (though not all) elections in the EU use some form of proportional representation. The most common type of proportional representation is the party - list system.
There are also differences in the level of self - governance for the sub-regions of a member state. Most states, especially the smaller ones, are unitary states; meaning all major political power is concentrated at the national level. 10 states allocate power to more local levels of government. Austria, Belgium and Germany are full federations, meaning their regions have constitutional autonomies. Denmark, Finland, France and the Netherlands are federacies, meaning some regions have autonomy but most do not. Spain and Italy have system of devolution where regions have autonomy, but the national government retains the right to revoke it. The United Kingdom has a system of asymmetric devolution, whereby Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland enjoy a degree of self - government.
States such as France have a number of overseas territories, retained from their former empires. Some of these territories such as French Guiana are part of the EU (see outermost regions, above) while others are related to the EU or outside it, such as the Falkland Islands.
The Lisbon Treaty made the first provision of a member state to leave. The procedure for a state to leave is outlined in TEU Article 50 which also makes clear that "Any Member State may decide to withdraw from the Union in accordance with its own constitutional requirements ''. Although it calls for a negotiated withdrawal between the seceding state and the rest of the EU, if no agreement is reached two years after the seceding state notifying of its intention to leave, it would cease to be subject to the treaties anyway (thus ensuring a right to unilateral withdrawal). There is no formal limit to how much time a member state can take between adopting a policy of withdrawal, and actually triggering Article 50.
In a non-binding referendum in June 2016 the United Kingdom voted to withdraw from the EU. Termed "Brexit '', this has become government policy under Prime Minister Theresa May. UK government triggered Article 50 on 29 March 2017. Once triggered, formal talks could begin but there is no certainty of a deal and some EU officials are preparing to deal with a situation where no deal is reached after the two - year limit.
Prior to 2016, no member state had ever voted to withdraw. However Greenland, as a territory, did leave the EU in 1985 when gaining home rule from a member state (Denmark). The situation of Greenland being outside the EU while still subject to an EU member state had been discussed as a template for the pro-EU regions of the UK remaining within the EU or its single market.
Beyond the formal withdrawal of a member state, there are a number of independence movements such as Catalonia or Flanders which could result in a similar situation to Greenland. Were a territory of a member state to secede but wish to remain in the EU, some scholars claim it would need to reapply to join as if it were a new country applying from scratch. However, other studies claim internal enlargement is legally viable if, in case of a member state dissolution or secession, the resulting states are all considered successor states. There is also a European Citizens ' Initiative that aims at guaranteeing the continuity of rights and obligations of the European citizens belonging to a new state arising from the democratic secession of a European Union member state.
TEU Article 7 provides for the suspension of certain rights of a member state. Introduced in the Treaty of Amsterdam, Article 7 outlines that if a member persistently breaches the EU 's founding principles (liberty, democracy, human rights and so forth, outlined in TEU Article 2) then the European Council can vote to suspend any rights of membership, such as voting and representation as outlined above. Identifying the breach requires unanimity (excluding the state concerned), but sanctions require only a qualified majority.
The state in question would still be bound by the obligations treaties and the Council acting by majority may alter or lift such sanctions. The Treaty of Nice included a preventative mechanism whereby the Council, acting by majority, may identify a potential breach and make recommendations to the state to rectify it before action is taken against it as outlined above. However the treaties do not provide any mechanism to expel a member state outright.
There are a number of countries with strong links with the EU, similar to elements of membership. Following Norway 's decision not to join the EU, it remained one of the members of the European Economic Area which also includes Iceland and Liechtenstein (all former members have joined the EU, and Switzerland rejected membership). The EEA links these countries into the EU 's market, extending the four freedoms to these states. In return, they pay a membership fee and have to adopt most areas of EU law (which they do not have direct impact in shaping). The democratic repercussions of this have been described as "fax democracy '' (waiting for new laws to be faxed in from Brussels rather than being involved in drafting them).
A different example is Bosnia and Herzegovina, which has been under international supervision. The High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina is an international administrator who has wide - ranging powers over Bosnia and Herzegovina to ensure the peace agreement is respected. The High Representative is also the EU 's representative, and is in practice appointed by the EU. In this role, and since a major ambition of Bosnia and Herzegovina is to join the EU, the country has become a de facto protectorate of the EU. The EU appointed representative has the power to impose legislation and dismiss elected officials and civil servants, meaning the EU has greater direct control over Bosnia and Herzegovina than its own states. Indeed, the state 's flag was inspired by the EU 's flag.
In the same manner as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo is under heavy EU influence, particularly after the de facto transfer from UN to EU authority. In theory Kosovo is supervised by EU missions, with justice and policing personal training and helping to build up the state institutions. However the EU mission does enjoy certain executive powers over the state and has a responsibility to maintain stability and order. Like Bosnia, Kosovo has been termed an "EU protectorate ''.
However, there is also the largely defunct term of associate member. It has occasionally been applied to states which have signed an association agreement with the EU. Associate membership is not a formal classification and does not entitle the state to any of the representation of free movement rights that full membership allows. The term is almost unheard of in the modern context and was primarily used in the earlier days of the EU with countries such as Greece and Turkey. Turkey 's association agreement was the 1963 Ankara Agreement, implying that Turkey became an associate member that year. Present association agreements include the Stabilisation and Association Agreements with the western Balkans; these states are no longer termed "associate members ''.
Greenland (Greenland Treaty)
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who played wade kinsella in hart of dixie | Wilson Bethel - wikipedia
Stephen Wilson Bethel (born February 24, 1984), professionally known as Wilson Bethel, is an American actor. He is known for his roles as Wade Kinsella on Hart of Dixie, as Ryder Callahan on the CBS daytime soap opera The Young and the Restless and as Bullseye in the Netflix original TV series Daredevil. He is also the star and creator of the web series Stupid Hype on the CW 's new online platform CWD (CW Digital Studio).
Bethel was born in Hillsborough, New Hampshire, the son of Stephen Bethel and author Joyce Maynard. Before becoming a regular on The Young and the Restless, Bethel had been seen on television in various one - time roles on shows such as JAG, Cold Case, and NCIS. Those small parts were followed up by a role in the 2008 Vietnam War film, 1968 Tunnel Rats where he played the Army Special Ops soldier, Corporal Green. This was followed by his role as Corporal Evan "Q - Tip '' Stafford in the 2008 HBO mini-series Generation Kill; Bethel appeared in all 7 episodes as well as the HBO documentary short Making Generation Kill.
In Hart of Dixie, Bethel played Wade Kinsella, "bad - boy '' neighbor to the series ' central character, Zoe Hart. Production for the show began in early 2011 and it premiered on September 26, 2011. BuddyTV ranked him # 14 on its list of "TV 's Sexiest Men of 2011; '' in 2012 he was ranked # 2 on the same list.
In 2018, Bethel appeared in the third season of Daredevil as Lester / Bullseye.
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how often does spermatogeneis—the production of sperm—occur | Spermatogenesis - wikipedia
Spermatogenesis is the process in which an animal produces spermatozoa from spermatogonial stem cells by way of mitosis and meiosis. The initial cells in this pathway are called spermatogonia, which yield primary spermatocytes by mitosis. The primary spermatocyte divides meiotically (Meiosis I) into two secondary spermatocytes; each secondary spermatocyte divides into two spermatids by Meiosis II. These develop into mature spermatozoa, also known as sperm cells. Thus, the primary spermatocyte gives rise to two cells, the secondary spermatocytes, and the two secondary spermatocytes by their subdivision produce four spermatozoa.
Spermatozoa are the mature male gametes in many sexually reproducing organisms. Thus, spermatogenesis is the male version of gametogenesis, of which the female equivalent is oogenesis. In mammals it occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the male testes in a stepwise fashion. Spermatogenesis is highly dependent upon optimal conditions for the process to occur correctly, and is essential for sexual reproduction. DNA methylation and histone modification have been implicated in the regulation of this process. It starts at puberty and usually continues uninterrupted until death, although a slight decrease can be discerned in the quantity of produced sperm with increase in age (see Male infertility).
Spermatogenesis produces mature male gametes, commonly called sperm but more specifically known as spermatozoa, which are able to fertilize the counterpart female gamete, the oocyte, during conception to produce a single - celled individual known as a zygote. This is the cornerstone of sexual reproduction and involves the two gametes both contributing half the normal set of chromosomes (haploid) to result in a chromosomally normal (diploid) zygote.
To preserve the number of chromosomes in the offspring -- which differs between species -- each gamete must have half the usual number of chromosomes present in other body cells. Otherwise, the offspring will have twice the normal number of chromosomes, and serious abnormalities may result. In humans, chromosomal abnormalities arising from incorrect spermatogenesis results in congenital defects and abnormal birth defects (Down Syndrome, Klinefelter 's Syndrome) and in most cases, spontaneous abortion of the developing foetus.
Spermatogenesis takes place within several structures of the male reproductive system. The initial stages occur within the testes and progress to the epididymis where the developing gametes mature and are stored until ejaculation. The seminiferous tubules of the testes are the starting point for the process, where spermatogonial stem cells adjacent to the inner tubule wall divide in a centripetal direction -- beginning at the walls and proceeding into the innermost part, or lumen -- to produce immature sperm. Maturation occurs in the epididymis. The location (Testes / Scrotum) is specifically important as the process of spermatogenesis requires a lower temperature to produce viable sperm, specifically 1 ° - 8 ° C lower than normal body temperature of 37 ° C (98.6 ° F). Clinically, small fluctuations in temperature such as from an athletic support strap, causes no impairment in sperm viability or count.
For humans, the entire process of spermatogenesis is variously estimated as taking 74 days (according to tritium - labelled biopsies) and approximately 120 days (according to DNA clock measurements). Including the transport on ductal system, it takes 3 months. Testes produce 200 to 300 million spermatozoa daily. However, only about half or 100 million of these become viable sperm.
The entire process of spermatogenesis can be broken up into several distinct stages, each corresponding to a particular type of cell in humans. In the following table, ploidy, copy number and chromosome / chromatid counts are for one cell, generally prior to DNA synthesis and division (in G1 if applicable). The primary spermatocyte is arrested after DNA synthesis and prior to division.
Spermatocytogenesis is the male form of gametocytogenesis and results in the formation of spermatocytes possessing half the normal complement of genetic material. In spermatocytogenesis, a diploid spermatogonium, which resides in the basal compartment of the seminiferous tubules, divides mitotically, producing two diploid intermediate cells called primary spermatocytes. Each primary spermatocyte then moves into the adluminal compartment of the seminiferous tubules and duplicates its DNA and subsequently undergoes meiosis I to produce two haploid secondary spermatocytes, which will later divide once more into haploid spermatids. This division implicates sources of genetic variation, such as random inclusion of either parental chromosomes, and chromosomal crossover, to increase the genetic variability of the gamete.
Each cell division from a spermatogonium to a spermatid is incomplete; the cells remain connected to one another by bridges of cytoplasm to allow synchronous development. It should also be noted that not all spermatogonia divide to produce spermatocytes; otherwise, the supply of spermatogonia would run out. Instead, spermatogonial stem cells divide mitotically to produce copies of themselves, ensuring a constant supply of spermatogonia to fuel spermatogenesis.
Spermatidogenesis is the creation of spermatids from secondary spermatocytes. Secondary spermatocytes produced earlier rapidly enter meiosis II and divide to produce haploid spermatids. The brevity of this stage means that secondary spermatocytes are rarely seen in histological studies.
During spermiogenesis, the spermatids begin to form a tail by growing microtubules on one of the centrioles, which turns into basal body. These microtubules form an axoneme. Later the centriole is modified in the process of centrosome reduction. The anterior part of the tail (called midpiece) thickens because mitochondria are arranged around the axoneme to ensure energy supply. Spermatid DNA also undergoes packaging, becoming highly condensed. The DNA is packaged firstly with specific nuclear basic proteins, which are subsequently replaced with protamines during spermatid elongation. The resultant tightly packed chromatin is transcriptionally inactive. The Golgi apparatus surrounds the now condensed nucleus, becoming the acrosome.
Maturation then takes place under the influence of testosterone, which removes the remaining unnecessary cytoplasm and organelles. The excess cytoplasm, known as residual bodies, is phagocytosed by surrounding Sertoli cells in the testes. The resulting spermatozoa are now mature but lack motility, rendering them sterile. The mature spermatozoa are released from the protective Sertoli cells into the lumen of the seminiferous tubule in a process called spermiation.
The non-motile spermatozoa are transported to the epididymis in testicular fluid secreted by the Sertoli cells with the aid of peristaltic contraction. While in the epididymis the spermatozoa gain motility and become capable of fertilization. However, transport of the mature spermatozoa through the remainder of the male reproductive system is achieved via muscle contraction rather than the spermatozoon 's recently acquired motility.
At all stages of differentiation, the spermatogenic cells are in close contact with Sertoli cells which are thought to provide structural and metabolic support to the developing sperm cells. A single Sertoli cell extends from the basement membrane to the lumen of the seminiferous tubule, although the cytoplasmic processes are difficult to distinguish at the light microscopic level.
Sertoli cells serve a number of functions during spermatogenesis, they support the developing gametes in the following ways:
The intercellular adhesion molecules ICAM - 1 and soluble ICAM - 1 have antagonistic effects on the tight junctions forming the blood - testis barrier. ICAM - 2 molecules regulate spermatid adhesion on the apical side of the barrier (towards the lumen).
The process of spermatogenesis is highly sensitive to fluctuations in the environment, particularly hormones and temperature. Testosterone is required in large local concentrations to maintain the process, which is achieved via the binding of testosterone by androgen binding protein present in the seminiferous tubules. Testosterone is produced by interstitial cells, also known as Leydig cells, which reside adjacent to the seminiferous tubules.
Seminiferous epithelium is sensitive to elevated temperature in humans and some other species, and will be adversely affected by temperatures as high as normal body temperature. Consequently, the testes are located outside the body in a sack of skin called the scrotum. The optimal temperature is maintained at 2 ° C (man) -- 8 ° C (mouse) below body temperature. This is achieved by regulation of blood flow and positioning towards and away from the heat of the body by the cremasteric muscle and the dartos smooth muscle in the scrotum.
Dietary deficiencies (such as vitamins B, E and A), anabolic steroids, metals (cadmium and lead), x-ray exposure, dioxin, alcohol, and infectious diseases will also adversely affect the rate of spermatogenesis. In addition, the male germ line is susceptible to DNA damage caused by oxidative stress, and this damage likely has a significant impact on fertilization and pregnancy. Exposure to pesticides also affects spermatogenesis.
Hormonal control of spermatogenesis varies among species. In humans the mechanism is not completely understood; however it is known that initiation of spermatogenesis occurs at puberty due to the interaction of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and Leydig cells. If the pituitary gland is removed, spermatogenesis can still be initiated by follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and testosterone. In contrast to FSH, LH appears to have little role in spermatogenesis outside of inducing gonadal testosterone production.
FSH stimulates both the production of androgen binding protein (ABP) by Sertoli cells, and the formation of the blood - testis barrier. ABP is essential to concentrating testosterone in levels high enough to initiate and maintain spermatogenesis. Intratesticular testosterone levels are 20 -- 100 or 50 -- 200 times higher than the concentration found in blood, although there is variation over a 5 - to 10-fold range amongst healthy men. FSH may initiate the sequestering of testosterone in the testes, but once developed only testosterone is required to maintain spermatogenesis. However, increasing the levels of FSH will increase the production of spermatozoa by preventing the apoptosis of type A spermatogonia. The hormone inhibin acts to decrease the levels of FSH. Studies from rodent models suggest that gonadotropins (both LH and FSH) support the process of spermatogenesis by suppressing the proapoptotic signals and therefore promote spermatogenic cell survival.
The Sertoli cells themselves mediate parts of spermatogenesis through hormone production. They are capable of producing the hormones estradiol and inhibin. The Leydig cells are also capable of producing estradiol in addition to their main product testosterone. Estrogen has been found to be essential for spermatogenesis in animals. However, a man with estrogen insensitivity syndrome (a defective ERα) was found produce sperm with a normal sperm count, albeit abnormally low sperm viability; whether he was sterile or not is unclear. Levels of estrogen that are too high can be detrimental to spermatogenesis due to suppression of gonadotropin secretion and by extension intratesticular testosterone production. Prolactin also appears to be important for spermatogenesis.
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when did new york end the death penalty | Capital punishment in New York - wikipedia
While laws regarding the imposition of capital punishment in the State of New York are still on the books, it is no longer enforced as it is been declared unconstitutional in the state and this ruling has yet to be overturned. The last execution took place in 1963, when Eddie Mays was electrocuted at Sing Sing Prison. The state was the first to adopt the electric chair as a method of execution, which replaced hanging. Following the U.S. Supreme Court 's ruling declaring existing capital punishment statutes unconstitutional in Furman v. Georgia (1972), New York was without a death penalty until 1995, when then - Governor George Pataki signed a new statute into law, which provided for execution by lethal injection.
In June 2004, the state 's highest court ruled in People v. LaValle that the state 's death penalty statute violated the state constitution, and New York has had an effective moratorium on capital punishment since then. Subsequent legislative attempts at fixing or replacing the statute have failed, and in 2008 then - Governor David Paterson issued an executive order disestablishing New York 's death row. Legislative efforts to amend the statute have failed, and death sentences are no longer sought at the state level, though certain crimes that fall under the jurisdiction of the federal government are subject to the federal death penalty.
During various periods from the 1600s onward, New York law prescribed the death penalty for crimes such as sodomy, adultery, counterfeiting, perjury, and attempted rape or murder by slaves. In 1796, New York abolished the death penalty for crimes other than murder and treason, but arson was made a capital crime in 1808.
In 1860, the New York Legislature passed a bill which effectively, though unintentionally, abolished capital punishment in the state, by repealing hanging as a method of execution without prescribing an alternative method. The bill was signed by Governor Edwin D. Morgan in April 1860. The New York Court of Appeals ruled the statute unconstitutional, in part, as an ex post facto law. Governor Morgan signed legislation to restore the death penalty in 1861, and again in 1862 to fully repeal the earlier statute.
In 1886, newly elected New York State governor David B. Hill set up a three - member "New York Commission '' to determine a new, more humane system of execution to replace hanging. The commission included the human rights advocate and reformer Elbridge Thomas Gerry, New York lawyer and politician Matthew Hale, and Buffalo dentist and experimenter Alfred P. Southwick. Southwick had been developing an idea since the early 1880s of using electric current as a means of capital punishment after hearing about how relatively painlessly and quickly a drunken man died due to grabbing the energized parts on a generator. Southwick had published this proposal first in 1882 and, being a dentist accustomed to performing procedures on subjects in chairs, used the form of a chair in his designs, which became known as the "electric chair ''. The commission reviewed ancient and modern forms of execution including lethal injection but finally settled on electrocution in 1888. A bill making electrocution New York State 's form of execution passed the legislature and was signed by Governor Hill on June 4, 1888, set to go into effect on January 1, 1889.
The first individual to be executed in the electric chair was William Kemmler, on August 6, 1890. Current was passed through Kemmler for 17 seconds and he was declared dead, but witnesses noticed he was still breathing, and the current was turned back on. From start to finish, the execution took eight minutes. During the execution, blood vessels under the skin ruptured and bled, and some witness reported that Kemmler 's body set on fire.
From 1890 to 1963, 695 people were executed in New York. The first was William Kemmler on August 6, 1890, and the last was Eddie Lee Mays on August 15, 1963. Kemmler was the first person in the world known to be executed in an electric chair. Except for four individuals, all of the people executed during this period were convicted of murder. The four exceptions were Joseph Sacoda and Demetrius Gula, who were convicted of kidnapping and executed January 11, 1940, and Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, who were convicted of espionage and executed June 19, 1953.
In 1901, Leon Czolgosz was electrocuted for the assassination of U.S. President William McKinley.
Ruth Snyder was one of the very few women executed at Sing Sing. She was put to death in 1928 for the murder of her husband.
A lesser known case dates to January 1936, when serial killer Albert Fish was put to death for the cannibal murder of 10 - year - old Grace Budd. At age 65, Fish was the oldest person ever executed at Sing Sing.
Other notable cases are those of seven members of Mafia hit squad Murder, Inc between 1941 and 1944, and "Lonely hearts killer '' Raymond Fernandez and Martha Beck in 1951, who are believed to have killed as many as 20 women.
The most famous execution in state history occurred in June, 1953, when Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were put to death at Sing Sing for espionage against the United States.
In 1965, Governor Nelson Rockefeller, a liberal Republican who supported capital punishment, signed legislation which abolished the death penalty except for cases involving the murder of a police officer.
In the July 1972 decision in Furman v. Georgia, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down the existing death penalty procedures across the United States. The moratorium lasted until 1976, when the Court ruled in Gregg v. Georgia that states could resume capital punishment under reworked statutes.
On January 11, 1995, convicted killer Thomas J. Grasso, who had been sentenced to death by Oklahoma but was serving a sentence of 20 years to life in New York, was extradited from New York to Oklahoma to face execution. Grasso was transported to Buffalo Niagara International Airport and flown to Oklahoma. He was executed on March 20, 1995.
In 1995, fulfilling a campaign promise, newly elected Governor George Pataki, a Republican, signed legislation reinstating the death penalty in New York, establishing lethal injection as the method of execution.
On June 24, 2004, the New York Court of Appeals, the state 's highest court, held 4 -- 3 in People v. LaValle that the state 's death penalty statute violated the New York Constitution. Governor Pataki criticized the ruling and promised a quick legislative fix.
Between December 2004 and February 2005, public hearings were held in Manhattan and Albany. New York Law School Professor and death penalty advocate Robert Blecker advocated strongly in favor of reinstatement, while Manhattan District Attorney Robert M. Morgenthau strongly opposed reinstatement.
In 2007, the New York Court of Appeals heard arguments in People v. John Taylor, and, in rejecting the arguments of the Queens District Attorney, commuted the sentence to life without parole, leaving New York with an empty death row.
In the 2005 Democratic primary for Manhattan District Attorney, incumbent Robert Morgenthau 's successful campaign produced television advertisements criticizing opponent Leslie Crocker Snyder, a prosecutor who had stated in her autobiography that in one case, she would have been willing to give a lethal injection to a defendant herself, saying Snyder was "Wrong on the Death Penalty, Wrong for Manhattan ''. The New York Times endorsed Snyder but expressed concern about her support for the death penalty. For the duration of Morgenthau 's tenure as Manhattan District Attorney, he never once sought the death penalty in the period it was legal in New York.
In the 2009 Democratic primary in which Morgenthau did not run, Snyder ran for District Attorney again, against Cyrus Vance, Jr. (who would win) and Richard Aborn. Both opponents strongly opposed the death penalty, and criticized Snyder for her previous comments. Snyder accused Vance and Aborn of taking her comments out of context, and stated that her position on the death penalty had changed due to learning about wrongful convictions. Aborn said he would oppose attempts to restore it, and would "lead the effort against any attempt to revive it ''.
In 2005, supporters of the death penalty in the New York Legislature passed a bill restoring New York 's death penalty in the Republican - controlled State Senate, but the legislation was voted down by a legislative committee in the Democratic - controlled New York Assembly, and was not enacted into law.
In 2008, the State Senate again passed legislation that would have established the death penalty for the murder of law enforcement officers, but the Assembly did not act on the legislation.
In 2008, Governor David Paterson, a Democrat, issued an executive order requiring the removal of the state 's execution equipment.
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when you're in love the whole world is jewish album | You Do n't Have to be Jewish - wikipedia
You Do n't Have to be Jewish is a 1965 comedy album written by Bob Booker and George Foster, the team behind the 1962 comedy album The First Family. The album features Lou Jacobi, Betty Walker, Jack Gilford, Joe Silver, Jackie Kannon, Bob McFadden, Frank Gallop, and Arlene Golonka, in a variety of roles, mostly Jewish, performing a mixture of jokes and comedy sketches. The album was highly successful, with syndicated columnist Walter Winchell calling the album "the No. 1 seller in Suburbia '' and noting that as a popular gift "it has replaced the fountain pen at Bar Mitzvahs. '' A sequel, When You 're in Love, the Whole World is Jewish, largely reunited the original cast but replaced the unavailable Golonka with her friend Valerie Harper.
"You Do n't Have to be Jewish to love Levy 's '' was an advertising campaign for Levy 's rye bread that began in 1961 and ran through the 1970s.
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what is the electric potential at a point | Electric potential - wikipedia
An electric potential (also called the electric field potential or the electrostatic potential) is the amount of work needed to move a unit positive charge from a reference point to a specific point inside the field without producing any acceleration. Typically, the reference point is Earth or a point at Infinity, although any point beyond the influence of the electric field charge can be used.
According to classical electrostatics, electric potential is a scalar quantity denoted by (V), equal to the electric potential energy of any charged particle at any location (measured in joules) divided by the charge of that particle (measured in coulombs). By dividing out the charge on the particle a quotient is obtained that is a property of the electric field itself.
This value can be calculated in either a static (time - invariant) or a dynamic (varying with time) electric field at a specific time in units of joules per coulomb (JC), or volts (V). The electric potential at infinity is assumed to be zero.
A generalized electric scalar potential is also used in electrodynamics when time - varying electromagnetic fields are present, but this can not be so simply calculated. The electric potential and the magnetic vector potential together form a four vector, so that the two kinds of potential are mixed under Lorentz transformations.
Classical mechanics explores concepts such as force, energy, potential etc. Force and potential energy are directly related. A net force acting on any object will cause it to accelerate. As an object moves in the direction in which the force accelerates it, its potential energy decreases: the gravitational potential energy of a cannonball at the top of a hill is greater than at the base of the hill. As it rolls downhill its potential energy decreases, being translated to motion, inertial (kinetic) energy.
It is possible to define the potential of certain force fields so that the potential energy of an object in that field depends only on the position of the object with respect to the field. Two such force fields are the gravitational field and an electric field (in the absence of time - varying magnetic fields). Such fields must affect objects due to the intrinsic properties of the object (e.g., mass or charge) and the position of the object.
Objects may possess a property known as electric charge and an electric field exerts a force on charged objects. If the charged object has a positive charge the force will be in the direction of the electric field vector at that point while if the charge is negative the force will be in the opposite direction. The magnitude of the force is given by the quantity of the charge multiplied by the magnitude of the electric field vector.
The electric potential at a point r in a static electric field E is given by the line integral
V E = − ∫ C E ⋅ d l (\ displaystyle V_ (\ mathbf (E)) = - \ int _ (C) \ mathbf (E) \ cdot \ mathrm (d) (\ boldsymbol (\ ell)) \,)
where C is an arbitrary path connecting the point with zero potential to r. When the curl ∇ × E is zero, the line integral above does not depend on the specific path C chosen but only on its endpoints. In this case, the electric field is conservative and determined by the gradient of the potential:
E = − ∇ V E. (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (E) = - \ mathbf (\ nabla) V_ (\ mathbf (E)). \,)
Then, by Gauss 's law, the potential satisfies Poisson 's equation:
where ρ is the total charge density (including bound charge) and ∇ denotes the divergence.
The concept of electric potential is closely linked with potential energy. A test charge q has an electric potential energy U given by
The potential energy and hence also the electric potential is only defined up to an additive constant: one must arbitrarily choose a position where the potential energy and the electric potential are zero.
These equations can not be used if the curl ∇ × E ≠ 0, i.e., in the case of a nonconservative electric field (caused by a changing magnetic field; see Maxwell 's equations). The generalization of electric potential to this case is described below.
The electric potential created by a point charge Q, at a distance r from the charge (relative to the potential at infinity), can be shown to be
where ε is the dielectric constant (permittivity of vacuum). This is known as the Coulomb potential.
The electric potential due to a system of point charges is equal to the sum of the point charges ' individual potentials. This fact simplifies calculations significantly, since addition of potential (scalar) fields is much easier than addition of the electric (vector) fields.
The equation given above for the electric potential (and all the equations used here) are in the forms required by SI units. In some other (less common) systems of units, such as CGS - Gaussian, many of these equations would be altered.
When time - varying magnetic fields are present (which is true whenever there are time - varying electric fields and vice versa), it is not possible to describe the electric field simply in terms of a scalar potential V because the electric field is no longer conservative: ∫ C E ⋅ d l (\ displaystyle \ textstyle \ int _ (C) \ mathbf (E) \ cdot \ mathrm (d) (\ boldsymbol (\ ell))) is path - dependent because ∇ × E ≠ 0 (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (\ nabla) \ times \ mathbf (E) \ neq \ mathbf (0)) (Faraday 's law of induction).
Instead, one can still define a scalar potential by also including the magnetic vector potential A. In particular, A is defined to satisfy:
where B is the magnetic field. Because the divergence of the magnetic field is always zero due to the absence of magnetic monopoles, such an A can always be found. Given this, the quantity
is a conservative field by Faraday 's law and one can therefore write
where V is the scalar potential defined by the conservative field F.
The electrostatic potential is simply the special case of this definition where A is time - invariant. On the other hand, for time - varying fields,
unlike electrostatics.
The SI derived unit of electric potential is the volt (in honor of Alessandro Volta), which is why a difference in electric potential between two points is known as voltage. Older units are rarely used today. Variants of the centimeter gram second system of units included a number of different units for electric potential, including the abvolt and the statvolt.
Inside metals (and other solids and liquids), the energy of an electron is affected not only by the electric potential, but also by the specific atomic environment that it is in. When a voltmeter is connected between two different types of metal, it measures not the electric potential difference, but instead the potential difference corrected for the different atomic environments. The quantity measured by a voltmeter is called electrochemical potential or fermi level, while the pure unadjusted electric potential is sometimes called Galvani potential. The terms "voltage '' and "electric potential '' are a bit ambiguous in that, in practice, they can refer to either of these in different contexts.
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i just got back from the auto de fe | Auto - da - fé - wikipedia
An auto - da - fé or auto - de-fé (from Portuguese auto da fé, meaning "act of faith '') was the ritual of public penance of condemned heretics and apostates that took place when the Spanish Inquisition, Portuguese Inquisition or the Mexican Inquisition had decided their punishment, followed by the execution by the civil authorities of the sentences imposed.
The most extreme punishment imposed on those convicted was execution by burning. In popular usage, the term auto - da - fé, the act of public penance, came to mean the burning at the stake.
The first recorded auto - da - fé was held in Paris in 1242, under Louis IX.
On 1 November 1478, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella received permission from Pope Sixtus IV to name Inquisitors throughout their domains, to protect Catholicism as the true faith. It originally applied to the Crown of Castile -- the domain of Isabella -- but in 1483, Ferdinand extended it to his domain of the Crown of Aragon. Ferdinand 's action met with great resistance, and resulted in the assassination by conversos in 1485 of Pedro de Arbués. In spite of this social discontent it is considered that between 1487 and 1505 the Chapter of Barcelona processed more than 1000 people, of which only 25 were absolved.
The monarchs immediately began establishing permanent trials and developing bureaucracies to carry out investigations in most cities and communities in their empire. The first Iberian auto - da - fé took place in Seville in 1481; six of the men and women who participated in this first religious ritual were later executed. Later, Franciscan missionaries brought the Inquisition to the New World.
The exact number of people executed by the Inquisition is not known. Juan Antonio Llorente, the ex-secretary of the Holy Office, gave the following numbers for the Inquisition excluding the American colonies, Sicily and Sardinia: 31,912 burnt, 17,696 burned in effigy, and 291,450 reconciled de vehementi (required to perform an act of penance). Later in the nineteenth century, José Amador de los Ríos gave even higher numbers, stating that only between the years 1484 and 1525, 28,540 were burned in person, 16,520 burned in effigy and 303,847 penanced. However, after extensive examinations of archival records, modern scholars provide lower estimates, indicating that fewer than 10,000 were actually executed during the whole history of the Spanish Inquisition, perhaps around 3,000.
The Portuguese Inquisition was established in 1536 and lasted officially until 1821. Its influence was much weakened by the late 18th century under the government of the Marquês de Pombal. They were also held in the Portuguese colony of Goa following the establishment of the Inquisition there in 1562 -- 1563.
Autos - da - fé also took place in New Spain, the State of Brazil, and the Viceroyalty of Peru. Contemporary historians of the Conquistadors, such as Bernal Díaz del Castillo, recorded them. Although records are incomplete, one historian estimates that about 50 people were executed by the Mexican Inquisition.
The auto - da - fé was a major aspect of the tribunals, and the final step in the Inquisition process. It involved a Catholic Mass, prayer, a public procession of those found guilty, and a reading of their sentences.
An Inquisition usually began with the public proclamation of a grace period of 40 days. Anyone who was guilty or knew of someone who was guilty was urged to confess. If the accused were charged, they were presumed guilty. Officials could apply torture during the trial. Inquisitors were required to hear and record all testimony. Proceedings were to be kept secret, and the identity of witnesses was not known to the accused.
After the trial, officials proclaimed the prisoner 's sentence and administered in an auto - da - fé. The auto - da - fé was not an impromptu event, but thoroughly orchestrated. Preparations began a month in advance, and only occurred when the inquisition authorities believed there were enough prisoners in a given community or city. The ritual took place in public squares or esplanades and lasted several hours with ecclesiastical and civil authorities in attendance.
Bordering the city 's plaza, an all - night vigil would be held with prayers, ending in Mass at daybreak and a breakfast feast prepared for all who joined in.
The ceremony of public penitence then began with a procession of prisoners, who bore elaborate visual symbols on their garments and bodies. These symbols were called sanbenito, and were made of yellow sackcloth. They served to identify the specific acts of treason of the accused, whose identities were kept secret until the very last moment. In addition, the prisoners usually had no idea what the outcome of their trial had been or their sentencing.
The prisoners were taken outside the city walls to a place called the quemadero or burning place. There the sentences were read. Prisoners who were acquitted or whose sentence was suspended would fall on their knees in thanksgiving, but the condemned would be punished. Artistic representations of the auto - da - fé usually depict physical punishment such as whipping, torture, and burning at the stake.
The auto - da - fé was also a form of penitence for the public viewers, because they too were engaging in a process of reconciliation and by being involved were given the chance to confront their sins and be forgiven by the Church.
The auto - da - fé, usually represented as a heretic being burned at the stake, is a symbol used widely in the arts, especially in Europe.
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top 10 universities for electrical engineering in pakistan | Rankings of universities in Pakistan - Wikipedia
This article presents an overview of university rankings in Pakistan. Within Pakistan, the Higher Education Commission (HEC) provides official rankings of higher education institutions (HEIs) nationally, based on a multitude of criteria. There are also various magazines, newspapers and international agencies / standards which provide rankings and analysis.
According to the 2015 HEI rankings released by the HEC, the top five universities in Pakistan are, in descending order: Quaid - i - Azam University (QAU), University of the Punjab (PU), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), University of Agriculture in Faisalabad (UAF) and Aga Khan University (AKU).
As of 2016, six universities in Pakistan are currently placed by QS World University Rankings in the top 800 world rankings: National University of Sciences and Technology (# 501), Quaid - i - Azam University (# 651), Lahore University of Management Sciences (# 701), University of Engineering and Technology in Lahore (# 701), University of Karachi (# 701) and the University of Lahore (# 701).
Up to date, the HEC has published rankings for the years 2006, 2012, 2013, 2014 and most recently 2015. In addition to the top ten and general rankings, independent rankings are also provided for universities and institutes in the categories of agriculture and veterinary science; arts and design; business; engineering and technology; and medicine. The HEC ranking uses five criteria, all of which have specific weightings and are summed to give an aggregate score out of 100. Institutional rankings are determined based on this aggregate score. Each criterion and its weighting is dependent upon a set of sub-components. The five criteria, along with their weighted score and sub-components are summarised below:
According to the 2015 HEC rankings, the following comprise the overall top ranking higher education institutions in the country.
According to the 2015 HEC rankings, the following comprise the top ranking business schools in the country.
Rankings for computer science and information technology institutes are updated as of 2012.
According to the 2015 HEC rankings, the following comprise the top ranking engineering universities in the country.
According to the 2015 HEC rankings, the following comprise the top ranking medical schools in the country.
Notes:
The QS World University Rankings is one of the most widely referenced international ranking systems. Pakistan is ranked 50th globally in terms of its higher education system 's strength. The 2015 -- 2016 edition academically ranked the following Pakistani universities:
Research Papers in Economics (RePEc) ranks the top 25 % institutions and schools / faculties in the field of economics research, using its IDEAS database. The database takes a number of factors into account, such as item citations, journals and working papers, authorship and field - based ranks. The database rankings are updated on a monthly basis. Provided below are the most recent country rankings for Pakistan:
Notes:
The Round University Ranking, compiled by the RUR Ranking Agency in Russia in partnership with Thomson Reuters, ranks the top 750 universities based on standards of teaching, research, international diversity and financial sustainability. The following Pakistani universities are listed in the 2016 rankings:
The SCImago Institutions Rankings (SIR) are published by the SCImago Research Group, a Spanish academic research organisation. The rankings measure universities using indicators such as research, innovation and web visibility. Included below are the 19 Pakistani universities listed in these rankings and their positions in terms of the latter two indicators (as of 2014).
Notes:
The Times Higher Education World University Rankings is a prominent publication of university rankings, released by the UK - based Times Higher Education magazine. It includes overall, subject and reputation-wise rankings, 150 Under 50 rankings, as well as two regional rankings: Asia, and BRICS and Emerging Economies. In the 2015 -- 2016 edition, the following ranks were applicable to Pakistani universities:
Notes:
The GreenMetric Ranking of World Universities is published by Universitas Indonesia (UI). It ranks over 400 world universities according to their eco-friendly environment and commitment to sustainability. Three instruments are used as the basis of the ranking criteria: Environment, Economics and Equity. The 2015 edition includes the following overall and indicator - specific world rankings for Pakistani universities:
U-Multirank is an independent ranking system funded by the European Commission under the Erasmus Programme. The ranking is supported by a consortium of academics in Europe. It provides multi-dimensional listings for universities, in terms of academic fields as well as various education - specific indicators. Universities are rated against these indicators using a grading system, ranging from ' A ' (very good) to ' E ' (weak). The 2016 rankings include the following Pakistani universities along with their grades:
Notes:
The University Ranking by Academic Performance (URAP), developed at the Middle East Technical University in Turkey, ranks the top 2,000 global institutions with an emphasis on research impact and quality, and scientific productivity. It uses indicators such as articles published, citations, total documents, article and citation impact, and international collaboration. The 2015 -- 2016 edition provides the following national, international and regional rankings along with field - based ranks (as of 2014 -- 2015) for Pakistani universities:
Notes:
In the 2015 edition of top 500 international rankings, the U.S. News & World Report Best Global University Rankings listed the following Pakistani university:
The Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, published by the Spanish Cybermetrics Lab, provides a listing of national, regional and international rankings of universities in Pakistan based on their web presence. Shown below, as per the 2016 edition, are the top 20 rankings only:
uniRank, formerly 4 International Colleges and Universities (4icu.org), ranks universities and colleges country-wise based on their web popularity and online footprint. It is not an academic ranking. According to its website, uniRank uses an algorithm including web metrics from Moz Domain Authority, Alexa Global Rank, SimilarWeb Global Rank, Majestic Referring Domains and Majestic Trust Flow. The top 10 results in Pakistan include the following universities:
The HEC acknowledges that rankings are "a debatable subject all over the world ''. It defines its ranking system as a measure to strengthen the quality of higher education, provide a tool for self - assessment, as well as ensure that universities achieve domestic and international competitiveness in education, innovation and research. However, the HEC 's rankings have been subject to criticism among educationists and policy - making experts in Pakistan. Some critics claim the rankings give "more weight to quantity than quality '' of research, faculty and other key factors.
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what is the fox called in dora the explorer | Dora the Explorer - wikipedia
Dora the Explorer is an American educational animated TV series created by Chris Gifford, Valerie Walsh Valdes and Eric Weiner. Dora the Explorer became a regular series in 2000. The show is carried on the Nickelodeon cable television network, including the associated Nick Jr. channel. The show aired in reruns on "Nick on CBS '' for 6 years from September 16, 2000, to September 9, 2006. A Spanish - dubbed version first aired as part of a Nick en español block on NBC Universal - owned Telemundo through September 2006; since April 2008, this version of the program has been carried on Univision as part of the Planeta U block.
The series is co-produced by Nickelodeon Productions and Nickelodeon Animation Studio. Dora the Explorer is one of the longest - running shows of Nick Jr. During the sixth season, the show became the Nick Jr. series with the most episodes, surpassing Blue 's Clues with 143 episodes, having 144 after it had completed broadcasting on television. It ended on June 5, 2014 after 8 seasons and 172 episodes.
A live - action film adaptation is underway at Paramount Players and is scheduled for an August 2, 2019 release.
The series centers around Dora, a seven - year - old Latina girl, with a love of embarking on quests related to an activity that she wants to partake of or a place that she wants to go to, accompanied by her talking purple backpack and anthropomorphic monkey companion named Boots (named for his beloved pair of red boots). Each episode is based around a series of cyclical events that occur along the way during Dora 's travels, along with obstacles that she and Boots are forced to overcome or puzzles that they have to solve (with "assistance '' from the viewing audience) relating to riddles, the Spanish language, or counting. Common rituals may involve Dora 's encounters with Swiper, a bipedal, anthropomorphic masked thieving fox whose theft of the possessions of others must be prevented through fourth wall - breaking interaction with the viewer. To stop Swiper, Dora must say "Swiper no swiping '' three times. However, on occasions where Swiper steals the belongings of other people, the viewer is presented with the challenge of helping Boots and Dora locate the stolen items. Another obstacle involves encounters with another one of the program 's antagonists; the "Grumpy Old Troll '' dwelling beneath a bridge that Dora and Boots must cross, who challenges them with a riddle before permitting them the past that needs to be solved with the viewer 's help. Known for the constant breaking of the fourth - wall depicted in every episode, the audience is usually presented to two primary landmarks that must be passed before Dora can reach her destination, normally being challenged with games or puzzles along the way. The episode always ends with Dora successfully reaching the locale, singing the "We Did It! '' song with Boots in triumph.
On numerous occasions, television specials have been aired for the series in which the usual events of regular episodes are altered, threatened, or replaced. Usually said specials will present Dora with a bigger, more whimsical adventure than usual or with a magical task that must be fulfilled, or perhaps even offer a series of different adventures for Boots and Dora to travel through. They might be presented with an unusual, difficult task (such as assisting Swiper in his attempts to be erased from Santa Claus 's Naughty List) that normally is not featured in average episodes, or challenge Dora with a goal that must be achieved (such as the emancipation of a trapped mermaid). Sometimes, the specials have involved the debut of new characters, such as the birth of Dora 's superpowered twin baby siblings and the introduction of the enchanted anthropomorphic stars that accompany Dora on many of her quests.
The show was developed out of Nickelodeon 's desire to "come up with the next big hit '' similar to the network 's other hit preschool shows at the time Little Bear and Blue 's Clues. The creators sought to combine both shows format, with the narrative focus of Little Bear combined with the interactivity of Blue 's Clues. The creators further developed the concept by observing preschoolers with the creators coming to the conclusion that "they are little explorers ''
Dora is a Latina. According to a Nickelodeon spokesman, "she was developed to be pan-Latina to represent the diversity of Latino cultures ''. Initially the character was not planned to be Latina although after an executive at Nickelodeon attended a conference about the lack of Latino representation, the creators were asked if they could include such elements. At first there was hesitancy, but eventually they realized that they had "a great opportunity '' and the character was designed as such. Nickelodeon at first did not like the antagonist Swiper, at first with researchers stating that "he was bad modeling and unsettling to kids ''; however, the creators felt strongly about the inclusion of a villainous character and he remained in the final show.
On March 8, 2009, Mattel and Nickelodeon announced that Dora will receive a tweenage makeover, switching from a young age to a teenage attending middle school. Initially, it was announced that the new look would not be revealed until late 2009, but after a short controversy, the tween Dora was unveiled on March 16, 2009. The change was criticized by one writer that did not support the feminization of Dora 's image.
In 2012, a CGI opening was created for new episodes of the series.
In 2009, Mattel and Nickelodeon introduced a preteen version of Dora, with four friends named Naiya, Kate, Emma, and Alana, who call themselves the Explorer Girls. The Explorer Girls were included in the Dora and Friends spin - off in 2014.
Dora the Explorer has been produced in various other languages worldwide. It facilitates the learning of important foreign language words or phrases (mostly English, interspersed with a local language (e.g. Norwegian, Russian, Hindi, or German), with occasional use of Spanish (used in the Irish, Serbian, and Turkish versions)) through its simplicity and use of repetition.
As shown by the list above, the usual second language is English, but Spanish is used in the original American version in English (broadcast also for Malay speakers), in the Irish, Serbian, and the trilingual Turkish versions.
Two stage versions of Dora the Explorer toured North America, the first being "City of Lost Toys '', and the second being "Dora 's Pirate Adventure ''. Produced by Nickelodeon and LiveNation, these productions featured live actors portraying the roles of Dora and her friends, including Boots, Diego, Isa, and the Fiesta Trio. Many of the characters wore elaborate foam costumes designed to resemble the Dora characters. Each production featured a structure similar to an episode of the television series. City of Lost Toys featured Christina Bianco as Dora while Dora 's Pirate Adventure featured Danay Ferrer of the band Innosense in the role of Dora and Frankie Grande as Boots. Both productions featured a version of the popular Gloria Estefan song "Get On Your Feet '' as the final number of the show. Both productions were conceived by Chris Gifford, creator of the television show, and directed by Gip Hoppe.
There have been three Dora touring companies. The "City of Lost Toys '' company and the "Pirate Adventure '' company featured actors and crew that were members of Actor 's Equity and IATSE, respectively, the unions for professional actors and stagehands in the United States. The third company performs a reduced version of "Pirate Adventure '' and does not employ union personnel. This production is currently touring North America, and scheduled to travel to the United Kingdom and France.
There are many action figures and playsets available in many markets, along with DVDs, cosmetics, hygiene products, ride - ons, books, board games, plush dolls, apparel, handbags, play tents, play kitchens, and more. Licensees include Fisher - Price in the United States and Holland Publishing in the United Kingdom.
In 2004 Lego released four sets based on the TV series ' characters. These include 7330 Dora 's Treasure Island, 7331 Diego 's Rescue Truck, 7332 Dora and Boots at Play Park, and 7333 Dora and Diego 's Animal Adventure.
In 2007, lead paint used by a contract toy manufacturer in China prompted Mattel to issue recalls for nearly a million toys, many of which featured Sesame Street and Nickelodeon characters, including Dora the Explorer. Nickelodeon responded that they would introduce "third - party monitoring '' of all manufacturers of products under its brands.
Contains: Dora 's picnic, Follow those feet, Dora in the deep sea, I love my Papi!, Say "Cheese ''
Contains: Dora 's Backpack, Little Star, Happy Birthday, Mami!, Meet Diego!, Dora Saves the Prince, Dora 's Treasure Hunt, Good Night, Dora!
Contains: Dora 's Book of Manners, Dora Goes to School, Dora 's Fairy - Tale Adventure, Dora 's Chilly Day, Show Me Your Smile!, Dora 's Pirate Adventure, Big Sister Dora!
Video games based on the 2000 television show Dora the Explorer were released. In Canada, Cheerios offered a free Dora the Explorer the Game CD - ROMs in specially marked packages. However, packages sold in Quebec would only have the French version. Dora the Explorer: Barnyard Buddies is a video game released for the PlayStation in 2003 in the US, thus making it the first Dora the Explorer video game for the home consoles. It was not released in Europe until 2005 being one of the very last games released on that platform in that territory following the PlayStation 's discontinuation the following year and all production on PS1 games in 2006. Dora the Explorer: Super Star Adventures is an adventure video game for the Game Boy Advance released in 2004. It was developed by Imaginengine and published by Global Star.
Dora the Explorer: Journey to the Purple Planet is an action - adventure video game, developed by Monkey Bar Games, published by Global Star Software and powered by Vicious Engine. The game was released for GameCube in North America on October 13, 2005, and later in PAL regions on December 16, 2005. The PlayStation 2 version was released on PAL regions on December 2, 2005, and later in North America on February 9, 2006. The game is about Dora and Boots who finds some lost aliens from the purple planet. However, to take them home, she and Boots are required to collect keys to open the space gate, leading to the saturn planet. The game is unique in that it uses pictures and symbols to communicate rather than words. The object of the game is to capture one of the six explorer stars. Each explorer star has a special power such as the ability to be noisy or the ability to create music. In order to capture the star, the player must complete a hide - and - seek activity. These activities include maze navigation, matching games, side - scrolling race games, a "Frogger '' - type game, a complete - the - pattern activity and a song playing game.
Dora Puppy is a puppy simulator where players must help Dora take care of her puppy, Perrito, and help train him for doggie competitions. All the actions are performed by either tracing certain shapes with the stylus or calling out commands into the DS 's microphone. It was developed by Take - Two Interactive for the Nintendo DS and published by 2K Play in North America and Australia in 2009, and in Europe in 2010.
Dora the Explorer: Dora 's Cooking Club is a cooking video game for the Nintendo DS. It was published by 2K Play in 2010. In the game, players have to chop veggies, stir soups, top pizzas, and more using math skills. They may be sorting cookies into numbered groups or counting out different amounts of ingredients.
On August 31, 2017, the first five seasons of the show were added to the NOGGIN app.
In 2013, Nickelodeon announced that it will have a sequel to Dora the Explorer titled as Dora and Friends: Into the City!. It will star the Latina heroine Dora as a 10 - year - old who goes on city adventures with the Explorer Girls, accompanied by a male pal named Pablo. The series has been picked up for 20 episodes and aired on Nickelodeon on August 18, 2014.
On October 23, 2017, it was announced that a live - action film adaptation is in the works at Paramount Players and is slated for an August 2, 2019 release. It will be filmed in Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia at Village Roadshow Studios directed by James Bobin with the screenplay written by Nick Stoller and Kristin Burr producing. Unlike the TV series, the film is expected to follow the title character as a teenager. Dora 's cousin Diego is also confirmed to be a character in the film. On May 2, 2018 Isabela Moner was announced to portray the titular character.
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who played jason in the friday the 13th movies | Jason Voorhees - wikipedia
Jason Voorhees is the main character from the Friday the 13th series. He first appeared in Friday the 13th (1980) as the young son of camp cook - turned - murderer Mrs. Voorhees, in which he was portrayed by Ari Lehman. Created by Victor Miller, with contributions by Ron Kurz, Sean S. Cunningham, and Tom Savini, Jason was not originally intended to carry the series as the main antagonist. The character has subsequently been represented in various other media, including novels, video games, comic books, and a cross-over film with another iconic horror film character, Freddy Krueger.
The character has primarily been an antagonist in the films, whether by stalking and killing the other characters, or acting as a psychological threat to the protagonist, as is the case in Friday the 13th: A New Beginning. Since Lehman 's portrayal, the character has been represented by numerous actors and stuntmen, sometimes by more than one at a time; this has caused some controversy as to who should receive credit for the portrayal. Kane Hodder is the best known of the stuntmen to portray Jason Voorhees, having played the character in four consecutive films.
The character 's physical appearance has gone through many transformations, with various special makeup effects artists making their mark on the character 's design, including makeup artist Stan Winston. Tom Savini 's initial design has been the basis for many of the later incarnations. The trademark hockey goalie mask did not appear until Friday the 13th Part III. Since Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives, filmmakers have given Jason superhuman strength, regenerative powers, and near invulnerability. He has been seen as a sympathetic character, whose motivation for killing has been cited as being driven by the immoral actions of his victims and his own rage over having drowned as a child. Jason Voorhees has been featured in various humor magazines, referenced in feature films, parodied in television shows, and was the inspiration for a horror punk band. Several toy lines have been released based on various versions of the character from the Friday the 13th films. Jason Voorhees 's hockey mask is a widely recognized image in popular culture.
Jason Voorhees first appears during a nightmare of the main character Alice (Adrienne King) in the original Friday the 13th film; he becomes the main antagonist of the series in its sequels. As well as the films, there have been books and comics that have either expanded the universe of Jason, or been based on a minor aspect of him.
Jason made his first cinematic appearance in the original Friday the 13th on May 9, 1980. In this film, Jason is portrayed in the memories of his mother, Mrs. Voorhees (Betsy Palmer), and as a hallucination of the film 's protagonist, Alice (Adrienne King). Though the character makes no contemporary appearance onscreen, he propels the film 's plot -- Mrs. Voorhees, the cook at Camp Crystal Lake, seeks revenge for his death, which she blames on the camp counselors. Jason 's second appearance was in the sequel, Friday the 13th Part 2 (1981). Revealed to be alive, an adult Jason exacts revenge on Alice for decapitating his mother in the original film. Jason (Steven Dash and Warrington Gillette), returns to Crystal Lake, living there as a hermit and guarding it from all intruders. Five years later a group of teenagers arrive to set up a new camp, only to be murdered one by one by Jason, who wears a pillow case over his head to hide his face. Ginny (Amy Steel), the lone survivor, finds a cabin in the woods with a shrine built around the severed head of Mrs. Voorhees, and surrounded by mutilated corpses. Ginny fights back and slams a machete through Jason 's shoulder. Jason is left for dead as Ginny is taken away in an ambulance. In Friday the 13th Part III (1982), Jason (Richard Brooker) escapes to a nearby lake resort, Higgins Haven, to rest from his wounds. At the same time, Chris Higgins (Dana Kimmell) returns to the property with some friends. An unmasked and reclusive Jason kills anyone who wanders into the barn where he is hiding. Taking a hockey mask from a victim to hide his face, he leaves the barn to kill the rest of the group. Chris fends off Jason by slamming an axe into his head, but the night 's events drive her into hysteria as the police take her away.
Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter (1984) continues the story, with a presumed - dead Jason (Ted White) found by the police and taken to the morgue. Jason awakens at the morgue and kills an attendant and a nurse, and makes his way back to Crystal Lake. A group of teens renting a house there fall victim to Jason 's rampage. Jason then seeks out Trish (Kimberly Beck) and Tommy Jarvis (Corey Feldman) next door. While Trish distracts Jason, Tommy kills him. Friday the 13th: A New Beginning follows Tommy Jarvis (John Shepherd), who was committed to a mental hospital after the events of The Final Chapter, and has grown up constantly afraid that Jason (Tom Morga) will return. Jason 's body was supposedly cremated after Tommy killed him. Roy Burns (Dick Wieand) uses Jason 's persona to become a copycat killer at the halfway home to which Tommy was moved. Jason appears in the film only through Tommy 's dreams and hallucinations. In Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives (1986), Tommy (Thom Mathews), who has run away from a mental institution, visits Jason 's grave and learns that Jason 's body was never actually cremated, but buried in a cemetery near Crystal Lake. While attempting to destroy his body, Tommy inadvertently resurrects Jason (C.J. Graham) via a piece of cemetery fence that acts as a lightning rod. Now possessing superhuman abilities, Jason returns to Crystal Lake, now renamed Forest Green, and begins his killing spree anew. Tommy eventually lures Jason back to the lake where he drowned as a child and chains him to a boulder on the lake floor, but almost dies in the process. Tommy 's friend, Megan Garris, finishes Jason off by cutting his face with a boat propeller.
Friday the 13th Part VII: The New Blood (1988) begins an undisclosed amount of time after Jason Lives. Jason (Kane Hodder) is freed from his chains by the telekinetic Tina Shepard (Lar Park Lincoln), who was attempting to resurrect her father. Jason begins killing those who occupy Crystal Lake, and after a battle with Tina, is dragged back to the bottom of the lake by an apparition of Tina 's father. Friday the 13th Part VIII: Jason Takes Manhattan (1989) sees Jason return from the grave, brought back to life via an underwater electrical cable. He follows a group of students on their senior class trip to Manhattan, boarding the Lazarus to wreak havoc. Upon reaching Manhattan, Jason kills all the survivors but Rennie (Jensen Daggett) and Sean (Scott Reeves); he chases them into the sewers, where he is submerged in toxic waste and dies. Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday (1993) marked the second time Jason was officially killed according to studio canon. Through an unexplained resurrection, he returns to Crystal Lake, where he is hunted by the FBI. The FBI sets up a sting to kill Jason, which proves successful. Through mystical possession, however, Jason survives by passing his demon - infested heart from one being to the next. Though Jason does not physically appear throughout most of the film, it is learned he has a half - sister and a niece, and that he needs them to retrieve and reinhabit his body. After resurrecting it, Jason is stabbed by his niece Jessica Kimble (Kari Keegan) and dragged into Hell.
Jason X (2002) marked Kane Hodder 's last performance as Jason. The film starts off in 2010; Jason has returned after another unexplained resurrection. Captured by the U.S. government in 2008, Jason is being experimented upon in a research facility, where it has been determined that he has regenerative capabilities and that cryonic suspension is the only possible solution to stop him, since numerous attempts to execute him have proved unsuccessful. Jason escapes, killing all but one of his captors, and slices through the cryo - chamber, spilling cryonics fluid into the room, freezing himself and the only other survivor, Rowan (Lexa Doig). A team of students 445 years later discover Jason 's body. On the team 's spacecraft, Jason thaws from his cryonic suspension and begins killing the crew. Along the way, he is enhanced by a regenerative nanotechnology process, which gives him an impenetrable metal body. Finally, he is ejected into space and falls to the planet Earth 2, burning in the atmosphere.
Freddy vs. Jason (2003) is a crossover film in which Jason battles A Nightmare on Elm Street 's villain Freddy Krueger (Robert Englund), a supernatural killer who murders people in their dreams. Krueger has grown weak, as people in his home town of Springwood have suppressed their fear of him. Freddy, who is impersonating Jason 's mother (Paula Shaw), resurrects Jason (Ken Kirzinger) from Hell and sends him to Springwood to cause panic and fear. Jason accomplishes this, but refuses to stop killing. A battle ensues in both the dream world and Crystal Lake. The identity of the winner is left ambiguous, as Jason surfaces from the lake holding Freddy 's severed head, which winks and laughs.
In the 2009 Friday the 13th reboot, young Jason (Caleb Guss) witnesses his mother 's (Nana Visitor) beheading as a child and follows in her footsteps, killing anyone who comes to Crystal Lake. The adult Jason (Derek Mears) kidnaps Whitney Miller (Amanda Righetti), a girl who looks like his mother, and holds her prisoner in his underground tunnels. Months later, Whitney 's brother Clay (Jared Padalecki) comes to Crystal Lake and rescues her. Eventually, Whitney uses Jason 's devotion to his mother against him, stabbing him with his own machete while he is distracted when she appears.
Jason first appeared outside of film in the 1982 novelization of Friday the 13th Part 3 by Michael Avallone. Avallone chose to use an alternate ending, which was filmed for Part 3 but never used, as the ending for his 1982 adaptation. In the alternate film ending, Chris, who is in the canoe, hears Rick 's voice and immediately rushes back to the house. When she opens the door, Jason is standing there with a machete, and he decapitates her. Jason next appears in print in the 1986 novelization of Jason Lives by Simon Hawke, who also adapted the first three films in 1987 and 1988. Jason Lives specifically introduced Elias Voorhees, Jason 's father, a character that was slated to appear in the film but was cut by the studio. In the novel, instead of being cremated, Elias has Jason buried after his death.
Jason made his comic book debut in the 1993 adaptation of Jason Goes to Hell, written by Andy Mangels. The three - issue series was a condensed version of the film, with a few added scenes that were never shot. Jason made his first appearance outside of the direct adaptations in Satan 's Six No. 4, published in 1993, which is a continuation of the events of Jason Goes to Hell. In 1995, Nancy A. Collins wrote a three - issue, non-canonical miniseries involving a crossover between Jason and Leatherface. The story involves Jason stowing away aboard a train, after being released from Crystal Lake when the area is drained due to heavy toxic waste dumping. Jason meets Leatherface, who adopts him into his family after the two become friends. Eventually they turn on each other. In 1994 four young adult novels were released under the title of Friday the 13th. They did not feature Jason explicitly, but revolve around people becoming possessed by Jason when they put on his mask.
In 2003 and 2005, Black Flame published novelizations of Freddy vs. Jason and Jason X respectively. In 2005 they began publishing a new series of novels; one set was published under the Jason X title, while the second set utilized the Friday the 13th title. The Jason X series consisted of four sequels to the novelization of the film. Jason X: The Experiment was the first published. In this novel, Jason is being used by the government, who are trying to use his indestructibility to create their own army of "super soldiers ''. Planet of the Beast follows the efforts of Dr. Bardox and his crew as they try to clone the body of a comatose Jason, and shows their efforts to stay alive when Jason wakes from his coma. Death Moon revolves around Jason crash - landing at Moon Camp Americana. Jason is discovered below a prison site and unknowingly awakened in To The Third Power. Jason has a son in this book, conceived through a form of artificial insemination.
On May 13, 2005, Avatar Press began releasing new Friday the 13th comics. The first, titled Friday the 13th, was written by Brian Pulido and illustrated by Mike Wolfer and Greg Waller. The story takes place after the events of Freddy vs. Jason, where siblings Miles and Laura Upland have inherited Camp Crystal Lake. Knowing that Jason caused the recent destruction, Laura, unknown to her brother, sets out to kill Jason using a paramilitary group, so that she and her brother can sell the property. A three - issue miniseries titled Friday the 13th: Bloodbath was released in September 2005. Written by Brian Pulido and illustrated by Mike Wolfer and Andrew Dalhouse, the story involves a group of teenagers who come from Camp Tomorrow, a camp that sits on Crystal Lake, for work and a "party - filled weekend ''. The teenagers discover they share common family backgrounds, and soon awaken Jason, who hunts them. Brian Pulido returned for a third time in October 2005 to write Jason X. Picking up after the events of the Jason X film, Über - Jason is now on Earth II where a biological engineer, Kristen, attempts to subdue Jason, in hopes that she can use his regenerative tissue to save her own life and the lives of those she loves. In February 2006 Avatar published Friday the 13th: Jason vs. Jason X. Written and illustrated by Mike Wolfer, the story takes place after the events of the film Jason X. A salvage team discovers the spaceship Grendel and awakens a regenerated Jason Voorhees. The "original '' Jason and Über - Jason are drawn to each other, resulting in a battle to the death. In June 2006 a one - shot comic entitled Friday the 13th: Fearbook was released, written by Mike Wolfer with art by Sebastian Fiumara. The comic has Jason being captured and experimented upon by the Trent Organization; Jason escapes and seeks out Violet, the survivor of Friday the 13th: Bloodbath, who is being contained by the Trent Organization in their Crystal Lake headquarters.
The Friday the 13th novella storyline was not connected to the Jason X series, and did not continue the stories set forth by the films, but furthered the character of Jason in its own way. Friday the 13th: Church of the Divine Psychopath has Jason resurrected by a religious cult. Jason is stuck in Hell, when recently executed serial killer Wayne Sanchez persuades Jason to help him return to Earth in Friday the 13th: Hell Lake. In Hate - Kill - Repeat, two religious serial killers attempt to find Jason at Crystal Lake, believing that the three of them share the same contempt for those that break the moral code. In The Jason Strain, Jason is on an island with a group of convicts placed there by television executives running a reality game show. The character of Pamela Voorhees returns from the grave in Carnival of Maniacs. Pamela is in search of Jason, who is now part of a traveling sideshow and about to be auctioned off to the highest bidder.
In December 2006 DC Comics imprint Wildstorm began publishing new comic books about Jason Voorhees under the Friday the 13th moniker. The first set was a six - issue miniseries involving Jason 's return to Camp Crystal Lake, which is being renovated by a group of teenagers in preparation for its reopening as a tourist attraction. The series depicts various paranormal phenomena occurring at Crystal Lake. Jason 's actions in this storyline are driven by the vengeful spirits of a Native American tribe wiped out on the lake by fur traders sometime in the 19th century. On July 11 and August 15, 2007, Wildstorm published a two - part special entitled Friday the 13th: Pamela 's Tale. The two - issue comic book covers Pamela Voorhees ' journey to Camp Crystal Lake and the story of her pregnancy with Jason as she recounts it to hitchhiker Annie, a camp counselor who was killed in the original film. Wildstorm released another two - part special, entitled Friday the 13th: How I Spent My Summer Vacation, that was released on September 12 and October 10, 2007. The comic book provides new insight into the psychology of Jason Voorhees as he befriends a boy born with a skull deformity. Wildstorm released a six - issue series called Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash, starring the two killers and Ash from the Evil Dead series. In this story, Freddy uses the Necronomicon, which is in the Voorhees ' basement, to escape from Jason 's subconscious and "gain powers unlike anything he 's had before ''. Freddy attempts to use Jason to retrieve the book, stating it will make him a real boy. Ash, who is working at the local S - Mart in Crystal Lake, learns of the book 's existence and sets out to destroy it. Wildstorm released another two - issue miniseries on January 9 and February 13, 2008, titled Friday the 13th: Bad Land, written and illustrated by Ron Marz and Mike Huddleston respectively. The miniseries features Jason stalking a trio of teenaged hikers taking shelter from a blizzard in Camp Crystal Lake.
A sequel to Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash, subtitled The Nightmare Warriors, was released by Wildstorm in 2009. Jason escapes from the bottom of Crystal Lake to resume his hunt for Ash, but is captured by the U.S. government. Freddy helps him escape and appoints him the general of his Deadite army, using the Necronomicon to heal his accumulated injuries and decomposition; it removes his natural deformities in the process. At the climax of the story, Jason battles his nemesis Tommy Jarvis and his great - niece Stephanie Kimble; Stephanie impales him before Tommy decapitates him with a shard of glass. Jason 's soul is then absorbed by Freddy, who uses it to increase his own power.
Initially created by Victor Miller, Jason 's final design was a combined effort by Miller, Ron Kurz, and Tom Savini. The name "Jason '' is a combination of "Josh '' and "Ian '', Miller 's two sons, and "Voorhees '' was inspired by a girl that Miller knew at high school whose last name was Van Voorhees. Miller felt it was a "creepy - sounding name '', which was perfect for his character. Miller initially wrote Jason as a normal - looking child, but the crew behind the film decided he needed to be deformed. Victor Miller explained Jason was not meant to be a creature from the "Black Lagoon '' in his script, and scripted Jason as a mentally disabled young boy; it was Savini who made Jason deformed. Ron Kurz confirmed that Miller 's version of Jason was that of a normal child, but claims that it was his idea to turn Jason into a "mongoloid creature '', and have him "jump out of the lake at the end of the film ''. Miller later agreed the ending would not have been as good if he looked like "Betsy Palmer at eight years old ''. Miller wrote a scene where Alice dreams she is attacked in a canoe by Jason, and then she wakes up in a hospital bed. Miller 's intention was to get as close to Carrie 's ending as possible. Savini believed having Jason pop out of the lake would be psychologically disturbing to the audience, and since Alice is supposed to be dreaming, the crew could get away with adding anything they wanted.
When it came time to cast the role of Jason, Ari Lehman, who had received a part in Sean Cunningham 's Manny 's Orphans, arrived to read for the character of Jack. Before he could get started, Cunningham walked in and offered him a different part: Jason. Without having read a single word, Cunningham just looked at Ari and said, "You 're the right size, you 've got it. '' In the original Friday the 13th, Ari Lehman is seen only in a brief flashback as the surprise ending. Subsequent actors who portrayed a young Jason include Timothy Burr Mirkovich in Jason Takes Manhattan and Spencer Stump in Freddy vs. Jason. The adult role of Jason Voorhees has been played by various actors, some not credited, others taking great pride in their parts. Due to the physical demands the adult character requires, and the lack of emotional depth depicted, many of the actors since have been stuntmen. The most well - known among them is Kane Hodder, who is cited as the best to play the role.
Many ideas were suggested for the sequel to Friday the 13th, including making the title part of a serialized film series, where each succeeding film would be its own story and not related to any previous film under the Friday the 13th moniker. It was Phil Scuderi, one of the producers for the original film, which suggested bringing Jason back for the sequel. The director Steve Miner felt it was the obvious direction to take the series, as he felt the audience wanted to know more about the child who attacked Alice in the lake. Miner decided to pretend as if Alice did not see the "real Jason '' in her dream, and Jason had survived his drowning as a boy and had grown up. After killing Jason in The Final Chapter, it was the director Joseph Zito 's intention to leave the door open for the studio to make more films with Tommy Jarvis as the main antagonist. Screenwriter Barney Cohen felt Jarvis would become a substitute for Jason, but the idea was never fully developed in A New Beginning. Director and co-screenwriter Danny Steinmann disliked the idea of Jason not being the killer, but decided to use Tommy 's fear of Jason as the primary story. This idea was immediately abandoned in Jason Lives, when A New Beginning did not spark the "creative success '' the studio was looking for. Executive producer Frank Mancuso, Jr. wanted to bring Jason back, and he did not care how it was achieved. In yet another alteration of the series ' continuity, Tom McLoughlin chose to ignore the idea that Jason had survived his drowning, instead presenting him as always having been some sort of supernatural force. Since A New Beginning, no sequel has attempted to replace Jason as the main antagonist. Miller, who has not seen any of the sequels, took issue with all of them because they made Jason the villain. Miller believes the best part of his screenplay was that it was about a mother avenging the senseless death of her son. Miller stated, "Jason was dead from the very beginning; he was a victim, not a villain. ''
Jason Voorhees went from deceased child to full - grown man for Friday the 13th Part 2, and Warrington Gillette was hired to play the role. Gillette auditioned for the role of Paul; that role eventually went to John Furey. Under the belief that he had attended the Hollywood Stuntman 's School, Gillette was offered the role of Jason Voorhees. Initially Gillette was unsure about the character, but the idea of starring in his first film grew on Gillette, and he also thought the role was amusing. It became apparent Gillette could not perform the necessary stunts, so the stunt coordinator Cliff Cudney brought in Steve Daskawisz. Daskawisz filmed all of the scenes except the opening sequence and the unmasking shot at the end; Gillette returned for the unmasking scenes. Gillette received credit for playing Jason, while Daskawisz was given credit as the stunt double. When Part 3 was released the following year, Daskawisz was credited as Jason for the reused footage from the climax of the film. Initially, Daskawisz was asked to return to the role for Part 3, but it would have required him to pay for his own transportation and housing during filming. Having secured a part on Guiding Light, Daskawisz declined.
Now wanting a "bigger and stronger - looking '' Jason, one that was also "more athletic and powerful '', Steve Miner hired former British trapeze artist Richard Brooker. After a simple conversation, Miner decided he was the right person for the job. Being new to the country, Brooker believed that "playing a psychopathic killer '' was the best way into the movie business. Brooker became the first actor to wear Jason 's now - signature hockey mask. According to Brooker, "It felt great with the mask on. It just felt like I really was Jason because I did n't have anything to wear before that. '' For The Final Chapter, Joseph Zito brought his own spin to the character, one that required a "real hardcore stuntman ''; Ted White was hired to perform the role. White, who only took the job for the money, did "get into the Jason psychology '' when he arrived on the set. White went so far as to not speak to any of the other actors for long stretches. As filming continued, White 's experience was not pleasant, and in one instance, he went to battle for co-star Judie Aronson, who played Samantha, when the director kept her naked in the lake for extended periods of time. Displeased with his experience from filming, White had his name removed from the credits. As with Friday the 13th Part 2, there was confusion over who performed the role in A New Beginning, partly because Jason is not the literal antagonist in the film. When Ted White turned down the opportunity to return, Dick Wieand was cast. Wieand is credited as Roy Burns, the film 's actual murderer, but it was stuntman Tom Morga who performed in the few flashes of Jason, as well as portraying Roy in almost all of the masked scenes. Wieand has been outspoken about his lack of enthusiasm over his role in the film. Feeling alienated during the shoot, Wieand spent most of his time in his trailer. By comparison, Morga enjoyed his time as Jason and made sure he "really got into the character ''.
A nightclub manager in Glendale, C.J. Graham, was interviewed for the role of Jason in Jason Lives, but was initially passed over because he had no experience as a stuntman. Dan Bradley was hired, but Paramount executives felt Bradley did not have the right physique to play the role, and Graham was hired to replace him. Although Bradley was replaced early during filming, he can be seen in the paintball sequence of the film. Graham opted to perform most of his own stunts, including the scene where Jason catches on fire while battling Tommy in the lake. The rest of the cast spoke highly of Graham, remarking that he never complained during all the uncomfortable situations he was placed in. Graham had no intention of being an actor or a stuntman, but the idea of playing the "bad guy '', and the opportunity to wear the prosthetics, intrigued him. Graham was not brought back to reprise the role, but has often been cited as speaking highly of his time in the part.
Kane Hodder took over the role in The New Blood, and played Jason in the next four films. He previously worked alongside director John Carl Buechler on a film called Prison. Based on his experience working with Hodder, Buechler petitioned Frank Mancuso Jr. to hire him, but Mancuso was apprehensive about Hodder 's limited size. Knowing he planned to use full body prosthetics, Buechler scheduled a test screening, the first in Friday the 13th history for the character, and Mancuso immediately gave Hodder approval upon seeing him. It is Buechler 's contention that Hodder gave Jason his first true personality, based on the emotions, specifically the rage, that Hodder would emit while acting the part. According to Hodder, he wanted to "get in touch with Jason 's thirst for revenge '' and try to better understand his motivation to kill. After viewing the previous films, Hodder decided that he would approach Jason as a more "quick and agile '' individual than he had been portrayed in the previous sequels. John Carl Buechler felt that Kane had "natural affinity for the role '' -- so much that Kane 's appearance, when wearing the mask, would often terrify the cast, the crew, and in one incident a lone stranger that he came across on his walk back to his trailer. Initially Frank Mancuso Jr. and Barbara Sachs planned to use a Canadian stuntperson for Jason Takes Manhattan. Hodder acted as his own voice, calling and requesting that he be allowed to reprise the role; the ultimate decision was left to director Rob Hedden, who intended to use Hodder, because he felt Hodder knew the lore of the series. With Sean Cunningham 's return as producer for Jason Goes to Hell, Hodder felt his chances of reprising the role were even better: Hodder had worked as Cunningham 's stunt coordinator for years. Regardless, Adam Marcus, the director for Jason Goes to Hell, always intended to hire Hodder for the role. Jason X would mark Hodder 's last performance as Jason, to date. Todd Farmer, who wrote the screenplay for Jason X, knew Hodder would play Jason from the beginning. Jim Isaac was a fan of Hodder 's work on the previous films, so hiring him was an easy decision.
New Line believed Freddy vs. Jason needed a fresh start, and choose a new actor for Jason. Cunningham disagreed with their decision, believing Hodder was the best choice for the role. Hodder did receive the script for Freddy vs. Jason, and had a meeting with director Ronny Yu and New Line executives, but Matthew Barry and Yu felt the role should be recast to fit Yu 's image of Jason. According to Hodder, New Line failed to provide him with a reason for the recasting, but Yu has explained he wanted a slower, more deliberate Jason, and less of the aggressive movements that Hodder had used in the previous films. Yu and development executive Jeff Katz recognized the outcry among fans over the replacement of Hodder as Jason, but stood by their choice in recasting.
The role eventually went to Ken Kirzinger, a Canadian stuntman who worked on Jason Takes Manhattan. There are conflicting reports over the reason Kirzinger was cast. According to Yu, Kirzinger was hired because he was taller than Robert Englund, the actor who portrays Freddy Krueger. Kirzinger stands 6 feet 5 inches (1.96 m), compared to the 6 feet 3 inches (1.91 m) of Kane Hodder, and Yu wanted a much larger actor to tower over the 5 - foot - 10 - inch (1.78 m) Englund. Kirzinger believes his experience on Part VIII helped him land the part, as Kirzinger doubled for Hodder on two scenes for the film, but also believes he was simply sized up and handed the job. Although he was hired by the creative crew, New Line did not officially cast Kirzinger until first seeing him on film. Kirzinger 's first scene was Jason walking down Elm Street. New Line wanted a specific movement in Jason 's walk; Kirzinger met their expectations and signed a contract with the studio. However, concerns that test audiences were confused by the film 's original ending caused the studio to reshoot the final scene. Actor Douglas Tait was brought in to film the new ending, as he was available for the reshoot and had been the production 's second choice to portray the role of Jason during the original casting.
For the 2009 remake, stuntman Derek Mears was hired to portray Jason Voorhees at the recommendation of makeup special effects supervisor Scott Stoddard. Mears 's pleasant demeanor had the studio worried about his ability to portray such a menacing character on screen, but Mears assured them he would be able to perform the role. When Mears auditioned for the role he was asked why they should hire an actor over just another guy in a mask. As Mears explained, portraying Jason is similar to Greek mask work, where the mask and the actor are two separate entities, and, based on the scene, there will be various combinations of mask and actor in the performance.
The physical design of Jason Voorhees has gone through changes, some subtle and some radical. For Friday the 13th, the task of coming up with Jason 's appearance was the responsibility of Tom Savini, whose design for Jason was inspired by someone Savini knew as a child whose eyes and ears did not line up straight. The original design called for Jason to have hair, but Savini and his crew opted to make him bald, so he would look like a "hydrocephalic, mongoloid pinhead '', with a dome - shaped head. Savini created a plaster mold of Ari Lehman 's head and used that to create prosthetics for his face. Lehman personally placed mud -- from the bottom of the lake -- all over his body to make himself appear "really slimy. ''
For Part 2, Steve Miner asked Carl Fullerton, the make - up effects supervisor, to stick to Savini 's original design, but Fullerton only had one day to design and sculpt a new head. Fullerton drew a rough sketch of what he believed Jason should look like, and had it approved by Miner. Fullerton added long hair to the character. Gillette had to spend hours in a chair as they applied rubber forms all over his face, and had to keep one eye closed while the "droopy eye '' application was in place. Gillette 's eye was closed for twelve hours at a time while he was filming the final scenes of the film. False teeth created by a local dentist were used to distort Gillette 's face. Much of the basic concept of Fullerton 's design was eliminated for Part 3. Miner wanted to use a combination of the designs from Tom Savini and Carl Fullerton, but as work progressed the design began to lean more and more toward Savini 's concept. Stan Winston was hired to create a design for Jason 's head, but the eyes were level and Doug White, the make - up artist for Part 3, needed a droopy right eye. White did keep Winston 's design for the back of the head, because the crew did not have the time to design an entirely new head for Jason. The process of creating Jason 's look was hard work for White, who had to constantly make alterations to Richard Brooker 's face, even up to the last day of filming.
The script for Part 3 called for Jason to wear a mask to cover his face, having worn a bag over his head in Part 2; what no one knew at the time was that the mask chosen would become a trademark for the character, and one instantly recognizable in popular culture in the years to come. During production, Steve Miner called for a lighting check. None of the effects crew wanted to apply any make - up for the light check, so they decided to just throw a mask on Brooker. The film 's 3D effects supervisor, Martin Jay Sadoff, was a hockey fan, and had a bag of hockey gear with him on the set. He pulled out a Detroit Red Wings goaltender mask for the test. Miner loved the mask, but it was too small. Using a substance called VacuForm, Doug White enlarged the mask and created a new mold to work with. After White finished the molds, Terry Ballard placed red triangles on the mask to give it a unique appearance. Holes were punched into the mask and the markings were altered, making it different from Sadoff 's mask. There were two prosthetic face masks created for Richard Brooker to wear underneath the hockey mask. One mask was composed of approximately 11 different appliances and took about six hours to apply to Brooker 's face; this mask was used for scenes where the hockey mask was removed. In the scenes where the hockey mask is over the face, a simple head mask was created. This one - piece mask would slip on over Brooker 's head, exposing his face but not the rest of his head.
Tom Savini agreed to return to make - up duties for The Final Chapter because he felt he should be the one to bring Jason full circle in terms of his look from child to man. Savini used his design from the original Friday the 13th, with the same practice of application as before, but molded from Ted White 's face. Since Jason is not the actual killer in A New Beginning, it was not necessary to do any major designing for Jason 's look. Only a head mask to cover the top and back of the head, like the one Brooker wore while wearing the hockey mask, was needed for the film. Make - up artist Louis Lazzara, who cites A New Beginning as almost a direct sequel to The Final Chapter, did base his head - mask on Tom Savini 's design for The Final Chapter.
Friday the 13th Part VII: The New Blood sought to make Jason more of a "classic monster along the lines of Frankenstein. '' From the beginning, Buechler tried to tie the previous films together by having Jason 's appearance reflect that of the damage he received in the previous installments. Buechler wanted the motor boat damage from Jason Lives, and the axe and machete cuts Jason received in Part 3 and Part 4 to part of the design for The New Blood. Since Jason had been submerged under water in the previous entry, the effects team wanted Jason to appear "rotted '', with bones and ribs showing, and for Jason 's features to have a more defined feel to them. Howard Berger was inspired by Carl Fullerton 's design in The New Blood, and wanted to incorporate the exposed flesh concept into his model for Jason Goes to Hell. Berger designed Jason 's skin to overlap with the mask, to make it appear as if the skin and mask had fused and the mask could no longer be removed. Gregory Nicotero and Berger sculpted a full - body, foam latex suit for Kane Hodder to wear under the costume. The idea was to reveal as much of Jason 's skin as possible, because Nicotero and Berger knew the physical character would not be seen for most of the film.
Stephen Dupuis was given the task of redesigning Jason for the tenth Friday the 13th film. One concept brought into the film was Jason 's regenerative abilities. Dupuis gave the character more hair and more of a natural flesh appearance to illustrate the constant regeneration the character goes through; Dupuis wanted a more "gothic '' design for Jason, so he added chains and shackles, and made the hockey mask more angular. Jim Isaac and the rest of his crew wanted to create an entirely new Jason at some point in the film. The idea was for the teens to completely destroy Jason 's body, allowing the futuristic technology to bring him back to life. What was referred to as Über - Jason was designed to have chunks of metal growing from his body, bonded by tendrils that grew into the metal, all pushing through a leather suit. The metal was created from VacuForm, the same material used to increase the size of the original hockey mask, and was attached by Velcro. The tendrils were made from silicone. All of the pieces were crafted onto one suit, including an entire head piece, which Hodder wore. The make - up effects team added zippers along the side of the suit, which allowed Hodder to enter and exit the suit within 15 minutes.
By the time Freddy vs. Jason entered production there had been ten previous Friday the 13th films. Make - up effects artist Terezakis wanted to put his own mark on Jason 's look -- he wanted Jason to be less rotted and decomposed and more defined, so that the audience would see a new Jason, but still recognized the face. Terezakis tried to keep continuity with the previous films, but recognized that had he followed them too literally, then "Jason would have been reduced to a pile of goo. '' Ronny Yu wanted everything surrounding the hockey mask to act as a frame, making the mask the focal point of each shot. To achieve this, Terezakis created a "pooled - blood look '' for the character by painting the skin black, based on the idea the blood had pooled in the back of his head because he had been lying on his back for a long time. As with other make - up artists before him, Terezakis followed Savini 's original skull design, and aged it appropriately.
For the 2009 version of Friday the 13th, effects artist Scott Stoddard took inspiration from Carl Fullerton 's design in Friday the 13th Part 2 and Tom Savini 's work in Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter. Stoddard wanted to make sure that Jason appeared human and not like a monster. Stoddard 's vision of Jason includes hair loss, skin rashes, and the traditional deformities in his face, but he attempted to craft Jason 's look in a way that would allow for a more human side to be seen. Stoddard took inspiration from the third and fourth films when designing Jason 's hockey mask. The make - up artist managed to acquire an original set piece, which he studied and later sculpted. Although he had a model of one of the original masks, Stoddard did not want to replicate it in its entirety. As Stoddard explains, "Because I did n't want to take something that already existed, there were things I thought were great, but there were things I wanted to change a bit. Make it custom, but keep all the fundamental designs. Especially the markings on the forehead and cheeks. Age them down a bit, break them up. '' In the end, Stoddard crafted six versions of the mask, each with varying degrees of wear.
In his original appearance, Jason was scripted as a mentally disabled young boy. Since Friday the 13th, Jason Voorhees has been depicted as a non-verbal, indestructible, machete - wielding mass murderer. Jason is primarily portrayed as being completely silent throughout the film series. Exceptions to this include flashbacks of Jason as a child, and a brief scene in Jason Takes Manhattan where the character cries out "Mommy, please do n't let me drown! '' in a child 's voice before being submerged in toxic waste, and in Jason Goes To Hell where his spirit possesses other individuals. Online magazine Salon 's Andrew O'Hehir describes Jason as a "silent, expressionless... blank slate. '' When discussing Jason psychologically, Sean S. Cunningham said, "... he does n't have any personality. He 's like a great white shark. You ca n't really defeat him. All you can hope for is to survive. '' Since Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives, Jason has been a "virtually indestructible '' being. Tom McLoughlin, the film 's director, felt it was silly that Jason had previously been just another guy in a mask, who would kill people left and right, but get "beaten up and knocked down by the heroine at the end ''. McLoughlin wanted Jason to be more of a "formidable, unstoppable monster ''. In resurrecting Jason from the dead, McLoughlin also gave him the weakness of being rendered helpless if trapped beneath the waters of Crystal Lake; inspired by vampire lore, McLoughlin decided that Jason had in fact drowned as a child, and that returning him to his original resting place would immobilize him. This weakness would be presented again in The New Blood, and the idea that Jason had drowned as a child was taken up by director Rob Hedden as a plot element in Jason Takes Manhattan.
Many have given suggestions as Jason 's motivation for killing. Ken Kirzinger refers to Jason as a "psychotic mama 's boy gone horribly awry... very resilient. You ca n't kill him, but he feels pain, just not like everyone else. '' Kirzinger goes on to say that Jason is a "psycho - savant '', and believes his actions are based on pleasing his mother, and not anything personal. Andrew O'Hehir has stated, "Coursing hormones act, of course, as smelling salts to prudish Jason, that ever - vigilant enforcer of William Bennett - style values. '' Todd Farmer, writer for Jason X, wrote the scene where Jason wakes from cryonic hibernation just as two of the teenagers are having sex. Farmer liked the idea that sex acts triggered Jason back to life. Whatever his motivations, Kane Hodder believes there is a limit to what he will do. According to Hodder, Jason might violently murder any person he comes across, but when Jason Takes Manhattan called for Hodder to kick the lead character 's dog, Hodder refused, stating that, while Jason has no qualms against killing humans, he is not bad enough to hurt animals. Another example from Jason Takes Manhattan, involves Jason being confronted by a street gang of young teenage boys one of whom threatens him with a knife, however Jason chooses not to kill them and instead scares them off by lifting up his mask and showing them his face. Likewise, director Tom McLoughlin chose not to have Jason harm any of the children he encounters in Jason Lives, stating that Jason would not kill a child, out of a sympathy for the plight of children generated by his own death as a child.
In an early draft of Freddy vs. Jason, it was decided that one of the villains needed a redeemable factor. Ronald D. Moore, co-writer of the first draft, explained that Jason was the easiest to make redeemable, because no one had previously ventured into the psychology surrounding the character. Moore saw the character as a "blank slate '', and felt he was a character the audience could really root for. Another draft, penned by Mark Protosevich, followed Moore 's idea of Jason having a redeemable quality. In the draft, Jason protects a pregnant teenager named Rachel Daniels. Protosevich explained, "It gets into this whole idea of there being two kinds of monsters. Freddy is a figure of actual pure evil and Jason is more like a figure of vengeance who punishes people he feels do not deserve to live. Ultimately, the two of them clash and Jason becomes an honorable monster. '' Writers Damian Shannon and Mark Swift, who wrote the final draft of the film, disagreed about making Jason a hero, although they drew comparisons between the fact that Freddy was a victimizer and Jason was a victim. They stated, "We did not want to make Jason any less scary. He 's still a brutal killer... We never wanted to put them in a situation where Jason is a hero... They 're both villains to be equally feared. '' Brenna O'Brien, co-founder of Fridaythe13thfilms.com, saw the character as having sympathetic qualities. She stated, "(Jason) was a deformed child who almost drowned and then spent the rest of his childhood growing up alone in the woods. He saw his mother get murdered by a camp counselor in the first Friday the 13th, and so now he exacts his revenge on anyone who returns to Camp Crystal Lake. Teenage fans can identify with that sense of rejection and isolation, which you ca n't really get from other killers like Freddy Krueger and Michael Myers. ''
As Jason went through some characterization changes in the 2009 film, Derek Mears likens him more to a combination of John Rambo, Tarzan, and the Abominable Snowman from Looney Tunes. To him, this Jason is similar to Rambo because he sets up the other characters to fall into his traps. Like Rambo, he is more calculated because he feels that he has been wronged and he is fighting back; he is meant to be more sympathetic in this film. Fuller and Form contend that they did not want to make Jason too sympathetic to the audience. As Brad Fuller explains, "We do not want him to be sympathetic. Jason is not a comedic character, he is not sympathetic. He 's a killing machine. Plain and simple. ''
In 2005, California State University 's Media Psychology Lab surveyed 1,166 people Americans aged from 16 to 91 on the psychological appeal of movie monsters. Many of the characteristics associated with Jason Voorhees were appealing to the participants. In the survey, Jason was considered to be an "unstoppable killing machine. '' Participants were impressed by the "cornucopic feats of slicing and dicing a seemingly endless number of adolescents and the occasional adult. '' Out of the ten monsters used in the survey -- which included vampires, Freddy Krueger, Frankenstein 's monster, Michael Myers, Godzilla, Chucky, Hannibal Lecter, King Kong, and the Alien -- Jason scored the highest in all the categories involving killing variables. Further characteristics that appealed to the participants included Jason 's "immortality, his apparent enjoyment of killing (and) his superhuman strength. ''
Jason Voorhees is one of the leading cultural icons of American popular culture. In 1992 Jason was awarded the MTV Lifetime Achievement Award. He was the first of only three completely fictional characters to be presented the award; Godzilla (1996) and Chewbacca (1997) are the others. Jason was named No. 26 in Wizard magazine 's "100 greatest villains of all time ''. Universal Studios theme parks, in collaboration with New Line Cinema, used the character for their Halloween Horror Nights event.
The character has been produced and marketed as merchandise over the years. In 1988 Screamin ' Toys produced a model kit where owners could build their own Jason statuette. The kit required the owner to cut and paint various parts in order to assemble the figure. Six years later, Screamin ' Toys issued a new model kit for Jason Goes to Hell. Both kits are now out of production. McFarlane Toys released two toy lines, one in 1998 and the other in 2002. The first was a figure of Jason from Jason Goes to Hell, and the other was of Über - Jason from Jason X. Since McFarlane 's last toy line in 2002, there has been a steady production of action figures, dolls, and statuettes. These include tie - ins with the film Freddy vs. Jason (2003). In April 2010 Sideshow Toys released a polystone statue of Jason, based on the version appearing in the 2009 remake.
Jason has made an appearance in five video games. He first appeared in a 1985 Commodore 64 game. His next appearance was in 1989, when LJN, an American game company known for its games based on popular movies in the 1980s and early 1990s, released Friday the 13th on the Nintendo Entertainment System. The premise involved the gamer, who picks one of six camp counselors as their player, trying to save the campers from Jason, while battling various enemies throughout the game. On October 13, 2006, a Friday the 13th game was released for mobile phones. The game puts the user in the persona of Jason as he battles the undead. Jason also appears as a playable character in the fighting game Mortal Kombat X as a downloadable content bonus character. A new Friday the 13th video game was released in 2017, which allows players to take control of Jason or camp counselors in a multiplayer format focused on Jason trying to kill the counselors before they can escape or time runs out.
The character has been referenced, or made cameo appearances, in various entertainment mediums. Outside of literature sources based on the character, Jason has been featured in a variety of magazines and comic strips. Cracked magazine has released several issues featuring parodies of Jason, and he has been featured on two of their covers. Mad magazine has featured the character in almost a dozen stories. He has appeared twice in the comic strip Mother Goose and Grimm. The Usagi Yojimbo antagonist Jei is based on Voorhees; his name, with the honorific "- san '' attached, is in fact a pun on Voorhees ' first name.
Many musical artists have made references to Jason Voorhees. Inspired by his own experience, Ari Lehman founded a band called FIRSTJASON. Lehman 's band is classified as horror punk, and is influenced by the sounds of the Dead Kennedys and The Misfits. The band 's name pays homage to Lehman 's portrayal of Jason Voorhees in the original Friday the 13th. One of the band 's songs is entitled "Jason is Watching ''. In 1986, coinciding with the release of Jason Lives, Alice Cooper released "He 's Back (The Man Behind the Mask) '' from his album Constrictor. The song was written to "signal Jason 's big return '' to the cinema, as he had been almost entirely absent in the previous film. Rapper Eminem has referenced Jason in several of his songs. The song "Criminal '', from the album The Marshall Mathers LP, mentions Jason specifically, while songs "Amityville '' and "Off the Wall '' -- the latter featured fellow rapper Redman -- contain Harry Manfredini 's music "ki, ki, ki... ma, ma, ma '' from the film series. Eminem sometimes wears a hockey mask during concerts. Other rap artists that have referenced Jason include Tupac Shakur, Dr. Dre, LL Cool J, and Insane Clown Posse. In 1989, Puerto Rican rapper Vico C had a song titled "Viernes 13 '' which featured Jason in Puerto Rico. The song was so popular in the island that Vico C wrote a second part titled "Viernes 13, Parte II ''. VH1 issued an advertisement for their Vogue Fashion Awards which was labeled "Friday the 20th '', and featured Jason 's mask created out of rhinestone.
Jason has been referenced or parodied in other films. In the film Scream, directed by Freddy Krueger creator Wes Craven, actress Drew Barrymore 's character is being stalked by a killer who calls her on her home phone. In order to survive, she must answer the man 's trivia questions. One question is "name the killer in Friday the 13th. '' She incorrectly guesses Jason, who did not become the killer for the film series until Part 2. Writer Kevin Williamson claimed his inspiration for this scene came when he asked this question in a bar while a group was playing a movie trivia quiz game. He received a free drink, because nobody got the answer right. In another Wes Craven film, Cursed, a wax sculpture of Jason, from Jason Goes to Hell, can be seen in a wax museum. In 2014, Jason made a cameo appearance in the RadioShack Super Bowl XLVIII commercial "The ' 80s Called ''.
Jason has also been referenced by several television shows. The stop motion animated television show Robot Chicken features Jason in three of its comedy sketches. In episode seventeen, "Operation: Rich in Spirit '', the mystery - solving teenagers from Scooby - Doo arrive at Camp Crystal Lake to investigate the Jason Voorhees murders, and are killed off one by one. Velma is the only survivor, and in typical Scooby - Doo fashion, she rips off Jason 's mask to reveal his true identity: Old Man Phillips. In episode nineteen, "That Hurts Me '', Jason reappears, this time as a housemate of "Horror Movie Big Brother '', alongside other famous slasher movie killers such as Michael Myers, Freddy Krueger, Leatherface, Pinhead, and Ghostface. Three years later, in episode sixty - two, Jason is shown on the days before and after a typical Friday the 13th. Jason is spoofed in the season five episode of Family Guy entitled "It Takes a Village Idiot, and I Married One ''. The so - called "Mr. Voorhees '' explains to Asian reporter Trisha Takanawa how happy he is to see local wildlife return following the cleanup and rejuvenation of Lake Quahog. He reappears later in the episode as the manager of the "Britches and Hose '' clothing store. As opposed to his monstrous personality in the films, Jason is depicted here as polite and articulate, albeit still a psychopath; he murders random swimmers and threatens to kill his employee if she screws up. In an episode of The Simpsons, Jason appears in a Halloween episode sitting on the couch with Freddy Krueger waiting for the family to arrive. When Freddy asks where the family is, Jason responds, "Ehh, whaddya gon na do? '' and turns the TV on. He also appears in The Simpsons episode "Stop, or My Dog Will Shoot! '', alongside Pinhead, menacing Bart in a fantasy sequence. The South Park episodes "Imaginationland Episode II '' and "III '' feature Jason among an assortment of other villains and monsters as an inhabitant of the "bad side '' of Imaginationland, a world populated by fictional characters. This version of Jason has an effeminate voice and describes the removal of Strawberry Shortcake 's eyeball as "super hardcore ''. Experimental pop artist Eric Millikin created a large mosaic portrait of Jason Voorhees out of Halloween candy and spiders as part of his "Totally Sweet '' series in 2013.
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a torsen-style transfer case uses gears that are similar to a | Limited - slip differential - wikipedia
A limited - slip differential is a type of differential that allows its two output shafts to rotate at different speeds but limits the maximum difference between the two shafts.
In an automobile, such limited - slip differentials are sometimes used in place of a standard differential, where they convey certain dynamic advantages, at the expense of greater complexity.
In 1932, Ferdinand Porsche designed a Grand Prix racing car for the Auto Union company. The high power of the design caused one of the rear wheels to experience excessive wheel spin at any speed up to 160 km / h (100 mph). In 1935, Porsche commissioned the engineering firm ZF to design a limited - slip differential to improve performance. The ZF "sliding pins and cams '' became available, and one example was the Type B - 70 for early VWs, although technically this was an automatic locking differential, not a limited - slip.
The main advantage of a limited - slip differential is demonstrated by considering the case of a standard (or "open '') differential in off - roading or snow situations where one wheel begins to slip. In such a case with a standard differential, the slipping or non-contacting wheel will receive the majority of the power (in the form of low - torque, high rpm rotation), while the contacting wheel will remain stationary with respect to the ground. The torque transmitted by an open differential will always be equal at both wheels; if one tire is on a slippery surface, the supplied torque will easily overcome the available traction at a very low number. For example, the right tire might begin to spin as soon as 70 N m (50 lb ft) of torque is placed on it, since it is on an icy surface. Since the same amount of torque is always felt at both wheels, regardless of the speed which they are turning, this means that the wheel with traction can not receive more than 70 Nm of torque either, which is far less than is required to move the vehicle. Meanwhile, the tire on the slippery surface will simply spin, absorbing all of the actual power output (which is a function of torque provided over time), even though both wheels are provided the same (very low) amount of torque. In this situation, a limited - slip differential prevents excessive power from being allocated to one wheel, and so keeps both wheels in powered rotation, ensuring that the traction will not be limited to the wheel which can handle the minimum amount of power. The advantages of LSD in high - power, rear wheel drive automobiles were demonstrated during the United States "Muscle - Car '' era from the mid 1960s through the early 1970s. Cars of this era normally were rear wheel drive and did not feature independent suspension for the rear tires (but instead used a live axle). With a live axle, when high torque is applied through the differential, the traction on the right rear tire is lower as the axle naturally wants to turn with the torsion of the drive shaft (but is held stationary by being mounted to the vehicle frame). This coined the term "one wheel peel ''. As such, "Muscle - Cars '' with LSD or "posi '' (positraction) were at a distinct advantage to their wheel - spinning counterparts.
Automotive limited - slip differentials all contain a few basic elements. First, all have a gear train that, like an open differential, allows the output shafts to spin at different speeds while holding the sum of their speeds proportional to that of the input shaft.
Second, all have some sort of mechanism that applies a torque (internal to the differential) that resists the relative motion of the output shafts. In simple terms, this means they have some mechanism which resists a speed difference between the outputs, by creating a resisting torque between either the two outputs, or the outputs and the differential housing. There are many mechanisms used to create this resisting torque. The type of limited - slip differential typically gets its name from the design of this resisting mechanism. Examples include viscous and clutch - based LSDs. The amount of limiting torque provided by these mechanisms varies by design and is discussed later in the article.
A limited - slip differential has a more complex torque - split and should be considered in the case when the outputs are spinning the same speed and when spinning at different speeds. The torque difference between the two axles is called Trq. (In this work it is called Trq for torque friction). Trq is the difference in torque delivered to the left and right wheel. The magnitude of Trq comes from the slip - limiting mechanism in the differential and may be a function of input torque (as in the case of a gear differential), or the difference in the output speeds (as in the case of a viscous differential).
The torque delivered to the outputs is:
When traveling in a straight line, where one wheel starts to slip (and spin faster than the wheel with traction), torque is reduced to the slipping wheel (Trq) and provided to the slower wheel (Trq).
In the case when the vehicle is turning and neither wheel is slipping, the inside wheel will be turning slower than the outside wheel. In this case the inside wheel will receive more torque than the outside wheel, which can result in understeer.
When both wheels are spinning at the same speed, the torque distribution to each wheel is:
This means the maximum torque to either wheel is statically indeterminate but is in the range of 1⁄2 Trq ± (1⁄2 Trq).
Several types of LSD are commonly used in passenger cars.
In this differential the maximum torque difference between the two outputs, Trq, is a fixed value at all times regardless of torque input to the differential or speed difference between the two outputs. Typically this differential used spring - loaded clutch assemblies.
This type includes helical gear limited - slip differentials and clutch, cone (an alternative type of clutch) where the engagement force of the clutch is a function of the input torque applied to the differential (as the engine applies more torque the clutches grip harder and Trq decreases).
Torque sensing LSDs respond to driveshaft torque, so that the more driveshaft input torque present, the harder the clutches, cones or gears are pressed together, and thus the more closely the drive wheels are coupled to each other. Some include spring loading to provide some small torque so that with little or no input torque (trailing throttle / gearbox in neutral / main clutch depressed) the drive wheels are minimally coupled. The amount of preload (hence static coupling) on the clutches or cones is affected by the general condition (wear) and by how tightly they are loaded.
The clutch type has a stack of thin clutch - discs, half of which are coupled to one of the drive shafts, the other half of which are coupled to the spider gear carrier. The clutch stacks may be present on both drive shafts, or on only one. If on only one, the remaining drive shaft is linked to the clutched drive shaft through the spider gears. In a cone type the clutches are replaced by a pair of cones which are pressed together achieving the same effect.
One method for creating the clamping force is the use of a cam - ramp assembly such as used in a Salisbury / ramp style LSD. The spider gears mount on the pinion cross shaft which rests in angled cutouts forming cammed ramps. The cammed ramps are not necessarily symmetrical. If the ramps are symmetrical, the LSD is 2 way. If they are saw toothed (i.e. one side of the ramp is vertical), the LSD is 1 way. If both sides are sloped, but are asymmetric, the LSD is 1.5 way. (See the discussion of 2, 1.5 and 1 way below)
An alternative is to use the natural separation force of the gear teeth to load the clutch. An example is the center differential of the 2011 Audi Quattro RS 5.
As the input torque of the driveshaft tries to turn the differential center, internal pressure rings (adjoining the clutch stack) are forced sideways by the pinion cross shaft trying to climb the ramp, which compresses the clutch stack. The more the clutch stack is compressed, the more coupled the wheels are. The mating of the vertical ramp (80 -- 85 ° in practice to avoid chipping) surfaces in a one - way LSD on overrun produces no cam effect or corresponding clutch stack compression.
Broadly speaking, there are three input torque states: load, no load, and over run. During load conditions, as previously stated, the coupling is proportional to the input torque. With no load, the coupling is reduced to the static coupling. The behavior on over run (particularly sudden throttle release) determines whether the LSD is 1 way, 1.5 way, or 2 way.
A 2 - way differential will have the same limiting torque Trq in both the forward and reverse directions. This means the differential will provide some level of limiting under engine braking.
A 1 - way differential will provide its limiting action in only one direction. When torque is applied in the opposite direction it behaves like an open differential. In the case of a FWD car it is argued to be safer than a 2 - way differential. The argument is if there is no additional coupling on over run, i.e. a 1 - way LSD as soon as the driver lifts the throttle, the LSD unlocks and behaves somewhat like a conventional open differential. This is also the best for FWD cars, as it allows the car to turn in on throttle release, instead of ploughing forward.
A 1.5 - way differential refers to one where the forward and reverse limiting torques, Trq, are different but neither is zero as in the case of the 1 - way LSD. This type of differential is common in racing cars where a strong limiting torque can aid stability under engine braking.
Geared, torque - sensitive mechanical limited - slip differentials use worm gears and spur gears to distribute and differentiate input power between two drive wheels or front and back axles. This is a completely separate design from the most common beveled spider gear designs seen in most automotive applications. As torque is applied to the gears, they are pushed against the walls of the differential housing, creating friction. The friction resists the relative movement of the outputs and creates the limiting torque Trq.
Unlike other friction - based LSD designs that combine a common spider gear "open '' differential in combination with friction materials that inhibit differentiation, the torque sensing design is a unique type of differential, with torque bias inherent to its design, not as an add - on. Torque bias is only applied when needed, and does not inhibit differentiation. The result is a true differential that does not bind up like LSD and locking types, but still gives increased power delivery under many road conditions.
Examples include:
Speed - sensitive differentials limit the torque difference between the outputs, Trq, based on the difference in speed between the two output shafts. Thus for small output speed differences the differential 's behavior may be very close to an open differential. As the speed difference increase the limiting torque increases. This results in different dynamic behavior as compared to a torque sensitive differential.
The viscous type is generally simpler because it relies on hydrodynamic friction from fluids with high viscosity. Silicone - based oils are often used. Here, a cylindrical chamber of fluid filled with a stack of perforated discs rotates with the normal motion of the output shafts. The inside surface of the chamber is coupled to one of the driveshafts, and the outside coupled to the differential carrier. Half of the discs are connected to the inner, the other half to the outer, alternating inner / outer in the stack. Differential motion forces the interleaved discs to move through the fluid against each other. In some viscous couplings when speed is maintained the fluid will accumulate heat due to friction. This heat will cause the fluid to expand, and expand the coupler causing the discs to be pulled together resulting in a non-viscous plate to plate friction and a dramatic drop in speed difference. This is known as the hump phenomenon and it allows the side of the coupler to gently lock. In contrast to the mechanical type, the limiting action is much softer and more proportional to the slip, and so is easier to cope with for the average driver. New Process Gear used a viscous coupling of the Ferguson style in several of their transfer cases including those used in the AMC Eagle.
Viscous LSDs are less efficient than mechanical types, that is, they "lose '' some power. In particular, any sustained load which overheats the silicone results in sudden permanent loss of the differential effect. They do have the virtue of failing gracefully, reverting to semi-open differential behavior. Typically a visco - differential that has covered 60,000 miles (97,000 km) or more will be functioning largely as an open differential. The silicone oil is factory sealed in a separate chamber from the gear oil surrounding the rest of the differential. This is not serviceable; when the differential 's behavior deteriorates, the VLSD center must be replaced.
This style limited - slip differential works by using a gerotor pump to hydraulically compress a clutch to transfer torque to the wheel that is rotating slower. The gerotor pump uses the differential carrier or cage to drive the outer rotor of the pump and one axle shaft to drive the inner rotor. When there is a difference between the left and right wheels ' speed, the pump pressurizes the hydraulic fluid causing the clutch to compress. thereby causing the torque to be transferred to the wheel that is rotating slower. These pump - based systems have lower and upper limits on applied pressure which allows the differential to work like a conventional or open differential until there is a significant speed difference between the right and left wheel, and internal damping to avoid hysteresis. The newest gerotor pump based system has computer regulated output for more versatility and no oscillation.
An electronic limited - slip differential will typically have a planetary or bevel gear set similar to that of an open differential and a clutch pack similar to that in a torque sensitive or gerotor pump based differential. In the electronic unit the clamping force on the clutch is controlled externally by a computer or other controller. This allows the control of the differential 's limiting torque, Trq, to be controlled as part of a total chassis management system. An example of this type of differential is Subaru 's DCCD used in the 2011 Subaru WRX STi. Another example is the Porsche PSD system used on the Porsche 928. A third example is the SAAB XWD (Haldex Generation 4) with eLSD, it uses a common (electronically controlled via the vehicle computer network) hydraulic power pack to control both the longitudinal and transversal torque transfer of the XWD system. The same Haldex system is used on several other GM Epsilon based vehicles such as the Cadillac SRX etc.
These systems are alternatives to a traditional limited - slip differential. The systems harness various chassis sensors such as speed sensors, anti-lock braking system (ABS) sensors, accelerometers, and microcomputers to electronically monitor wheel slip and vehicle motion. When the chassis control system determines a wheel is slipping, the computer applies the brakes to that wheel. A significant difference between the limited - slip differential systems listed above and this brake - based system, is that brake - based systems do not inherently send the greater torque to the slower wheel, plus the added brake friction material wear that results from the use of such a system if the vehicle is driven in an environment where the brake - based system will activate on a regular basis.
BMW 's electronic limited - slip differential used on the F10 5 Series is an example of such a system. Another example began on the first year (1992) production of the re-styled, and new 4.6 L V - 8 overhead cam Ford Crown Victoria model with its optional anti-lock brakes. This option was available on the 1992 Crown Victoria, onward; on those cars equipped with anti-lock brakes.
In the 1950s and 1960s many manufacturers began to apply brand names to their LSD units. Packard pioneered the LSD under the brand name "Twin Traction '' in 1956, becoming one of the first manufacturers. Other factory names for LSDs include:
In The Beach Boys ' song 409, the lyrics mention the presence of a limited - slip differential: "... My four - speed, dual - quad, Positraction 4 - 0 - 9 (4 - 0 - 9, 4 - 0 - 9). ''
In the 1992 film My Cousin Vinny, the proof of innocence of two young men falsely accused of murder relies heavily on a photograph of tire marks made by a car which has a limited - slip differential, which (as Marisa Tomei 's character famously declares in an Oscar - winning performance) "was not available on the ' 64 Buick Skylark, '' the car driven by the defendants. She argues that the evidence proves, rather, that the getaway car was a 1963 Pontiac Tempest, which did offer an optional Safe - T - Track (Pontiac 's version of Positraction) limited - slip differential.
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what are intensive and extensive properties explain each with two example | Intensive and extensive properties - Wikipedia
Physical properties of materials and systems can often be categorized as being either intensive or extensive quantities, according to how the property changes when the size (or extent) of the system changes. According to IUPAC, an intensive property is one whose magnitude is independent of the size of the system. An extensive property is one whose magnitude is additive for subsystems.
An intensive property is a bulk property, meaning that it is a physical property of a system that does not depend on the system size or the amount of material in the system. Examples of intensive properties include temperature, T, refractive index, n, density, ρ, and hardness of an object, η (IUPAC symbols are used throughout this article). When a diamond is cut, the pieces maintain their intrinsic hardness (until the sample reduces to a few atoms thick), so hardness is independent of the size of the system, for larger samples.
By contrast, an extensive property is additive for subsystems. This means the system could be divided into any number of subsystems, and the extensive property measured for each subsystem; the value of the property for the system would be the sum of the property for each subsystem. For example, both the mass, m, and the volume, V, of a diamond are directly proportional to the amount that is left after cutting it from the raw mineral.
The ratio of two extensive properties of the same object or system is an intensive property. For example, the ratio of an object 's mass and volume, which are two extensive properties, is density, which is an intensive property.
The terms intensive and extensive quantities were introduced by Richard C. Tolman in 1917.
An intensive property is a physical quantity whose value does not depend on the amount of the substance for which it is measured. For example, the temperature of a system in thermal equilibrium is the same as the temperature of any part of it. If the system is divided the temperature of each subsystem is identical. The same applies to the density of a homogeneous system; if the system is divided in half, the mass and the volume change in the identical ratio and the density remains unchanged. Additionally, the boiling point of a substance is another example of an intensive property. For example, the boiling point of water is 100 ° C at a pressure of one atmosphere, which remains true regardless of quantity.
The distinction between intensive and extensive properties has some theoretical uses. For example, in thermodynamics, according to the state postulate: - "The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties ''. Other intensive properties are derived from those two variables.
Examples of intensive properties include:
The IUPAC Gold Book defines an extensive property as a physical quantity whose magnitude is additive for subsystems. The value of such an additive property is proportional to the size of the system it describes, or to the quantity of matter in the system. For example, the amount of heat required to melt ice at constant temperature and pressure is an extensive property, known as the enthalpy of fusion. The amount of heat required to melt one ice cube would be much less than the amount of heat required to melt an iceberg, so it is dependent on the quantity.
Extensive properties are not just dependent on the amount of material in a system; the relation must be additive. If, say, a property depended on the square of the mass, it would not be an extensive property. (Consider a system consisting of two 1 gram weights. The total mass is 2 g, squaring that gives 4 g. Squaring and summing the individual masses gives 2 g. This property is not additive for the two subsystems.)
Dividing one extensive property by another extensive property generally gives an intensive value -- for example: mass (extensive) divided by volume (extensive) gives density (intensive).
Examples of extensive properties include:
Properties can be combined to give new properties, which may be called derived or composite properties. For example, mass and volume can be combined to give density. These composite properties can also be classified as intensive or extensive. Suppose a composite property F (\ displaystyle F) is a function of a set of intensive properties (a i) (\ displaystyle \ (a_ (i) \)) and a set of extensive properties (A j) (\ displaystyle \ (A_ (j) \)), which can be shown as F ((a i), (A j)) (\ displaystyle F (\ (a_ (i) \), \ (A_ (j) \))). If the size of the system is changed by some scaling factor, α (\ displaystyle \ alpha), only the extensive properties will change, since intensive properties are independent of the size of the system. The scaled system, then, can be represented as F ((a i), (α A j)) (\ displaystyle F (\ (a_ (i) \), \ (\ alpha A_ (j) \))).
Intensive properties are independent of the size of the system, so the property F is an intensive property if for all values of the scaling factor, α (\ displaystyle \ alpha),
(This is equivalent to saying that intensive composite properties are homogeneous functions of degree 0 with respect to (A j) (\ displaystyle \ (A_ (j) \)).)
It follows, for example, that the ratio of two extensive properties is an intensive property. To illustrate, consider a system having a certain mass, m (\ displaystyle m), and volume, V (\ displaystyle V). The density, ρ (\ displaystyle \ rho) is equal to mass (extensive) divided by volume (extensive): ρ = m V (\ displaystyle \ rho = (\ frac (m) (V))). If the system is scaled by the factor α (\ displaystyle \ alpha), then the mass and volume become α m (\ displaystyle \ alpha m) and α V (\ displaystyle \ alpha V), and the density becomes ρ = α m α V (\ displaystyle \ rho = (\ frac (\ alpha m) (\ alpha V))); the two α (\ displaystyle \ alpha) s cancel, so this could be written mathematically as ρ (α m, α V) = ρ (m, V) (\ displaystyle \ rho (\ alpha m, \ alpha V) = \ rho (m, V)), which is analogous to the equation for F (\ displaystyle F) above.
The property F (\ displaystyle F) is an extensive property if for all α (\ displaystyle \ alpha),
(This is equivalent to saying that extensive composite properties are homogeneous functions of degree 1 with respect to (A j) (\ displaystyle \ (A_ (j) \)).) It follows from Euler 's homogeneous function theorem that
where the partial derivative is taken with all parameters constant except A j (\ displaystyle A_ (j)). This last equation can be used to derive thermodynamic relations.
A specific property is obtained by dividing an extensive property of a system by its mass. For example, heat capacity is an extensive property of a system. Dividing heat capacity, C, by the mass of the system gives the specific heat capacity, c, which is an intensive property. When the extensive property is represented by an upper - case letter, the symbol for the corresponding intensive property is usually represented by a lower - case letter. Common examples are given in the table below.
If the amount of substance in moles can be determined, then each of these thermodynamic properties may be expressed on a molar basis, and their name may be qualified with the adjective molar, yielding terms such as molar volume, molar internal energy, molar enthalpy, and molar entropy. The symbol for molar quantities may be indicated by adding a subscript "m '' to the corresponding extensive property. For example, molar enthalpy is H. A well known molar volume, V, is that of an ideal gas at standard conditions for temperature and pressure, with the value 22.41 L / mol. Molar Gibbs free energy is commonly referred to as chemical potential, symbolized by μ, particularly when discussing a partial molar Gibbs free energy μ for a component i in a mixture.
The general validity of the division of physical properties into extensive and intensive kinds has been addressed in the course of science. Redlich noted that, although physical properties and especially thermodynamic properties are most conveniently defined as either intensive or extensive, these two categories are not all - inclusive and some well - defined physical properties conform to neither definition. Redlich also provides examples of mathematical functions that alter the strict additivity relationship for extensive systems, such as the square or square root of volume, which may occur in some contexts, albeit rarely used.
Other systems, for which standard definitions do not provide a simple answer, are systems in which the subsystems interact when combined. Redlich pointed out that the assignment of some properties as intensive or extensive may depend on the way subsystems are arranged. For example, if two identical galvanic cells are connected in parallel, the voltage of the system is equal to the voltage of each cell, while the electric charge transferred (or the electric current) is extensive. However, if the same cells are connected in series, the charge becomes intensive and the voltage extensive. The IUPAC definitions do not consider such cases.
Some intensive properties do not apply at very small sizes. For example, viscosity is a macroscopic quantity and is not relevant for extremely small systems. Likewise, at a very small scale color is not independent of size, as shown by quantum dots, whose color depends on the size of the "dot ''.
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when is sicario 2 coming out in canada | Sicario: Day of the Soldado - Wikipedia
Sicario: Day of the Soldado (released in the UK as Sicario 2: Soldado) is a 2018 American action thriller film directed by Stefano Sollima and written by Taylor Sheridan. A sequel to 2015 's Sicario, the film features Benicio del Toro, Josh Brolin and Jeffrey Donovan reprising their roles, with Isabela Moner, Manuel Garcia - Rulfo, and Catherine Keener joining the cast. The story relates to the drug war at the U.S. - Mexico border and an attempt by the United States government to incite increased conflict among the cartels.
Sicario: Day of the Soldado was released in the United States on June 29, 2018, by Sony Pictures Releasing under its Columbia Pictures label, while it was distributed internationally by Lionsgate. The film is dedicated to the memory of Jóhann Jóhannsson, the composer of the first film, who died in February 2018. It received generally favorable reviews from critics, who called it a "brutal - but - worthy '' follow - up to the first film, and praised Brolin and del Toro 's performances, although some disliked the pacing and lack of reason for a sequel. The film has been criticized for its perceived negative stereotypes of Mexicans and Muslims.
A suicide bombing in a Kansas City retail shop kills 15 people. In response, the United States government gives CIA agent Matt Graver permission to use extreme measures to combat Mexican drug cartels, who are suspected of having transported the Islamic terrorists across the border. Graver and the DoD decide the best option is to start a war between the major cartels, and Graver recruits black operative Alejandro Gillick for the mission. Gillick kills a high - profile lawyer of the Matamoros cartel in Mexico City, and later Graver and his team kidnap the daughter of the kingpin of their rival in a false flag operation.
Graver, Gillick, and their team take Isabela to Texas and stage a "rescue '' with the DEA and local police to make her think she was kidnapped by her father 's enemies. Gillick bonds with Isabela and the team attempts to transport her back to Mexico, planning to leave her in territory controlled by her father 's rivals in order to further escalate the conflict. However, the Mexican police escort for their trip back across the border double - crosses them and attacks the U.S. vehicles in an ambush. Graver and his team are forced to kill dozens of corrupt Mexican policemen to escape the ambush.
Isabela runs away amidst the chaos and Gillick goes after her alone. Meanwhile, the U.S. government determines that at least two of the suicide bombers in Kansas City were actually U.S. citizens from New Jersey, not foreign nationals -- and thus were not smuggled into the United States from Mexico by the drug cartels. In order to quell tensions with Mexico, the U.S. president orders the CIA to abandon the mission and erase all proof of U.S. involvement by having Isabela executed as part of the cover - up. Therefore Graver orders Gillick to kill Isabela, but he refuses and turns rogue to keep her alive. Graver assembles his team to hunt them both in Mexico. Gillick and Isabela try to enter the United States disguised as illegal immigrants, as it would be illegal for the CIA to execute Isabela on U.S. territory.
Miguel, a Mexican - American "coyote '', recognizes Gillick from a chance encounter in a parking lot. He alerts his boss, and Gillick and Isabela are captured. They force Miguel to execute Gillick. Miguel hesitates and unwillingly shoots Gillick in the head and the gang leaves him for dead. Miguel is disappointed with the gang and leaves them after this incident. Graver and his team track the Mexican gang and Isabela with the help of the GPS transmitter that she was wearing and kill all the gang members. Graver takes pity on Isabela and brings her back to the United States to put her in witness protection rather than following his orders to kill her. Meanwhile, Gillick wakes up finding the bullet went through his jaw, takes one of the gang members ' cars, and drives for the border. One year later, Gillick finds Miguel and asks him if he wants to become a sicario.
In September 2015, Lionsgate commissioned a sequel to Sicario, centering on Benicio del Toro 's character. The project was being overseen by writer Taylor Sheridan, with Denis Villeneuve initially involved. In April 2016, producers Molly Smith and Trent Luckinbill said Emily Blunt, del Toro and Josh Brolin would return. By June 1, 2016, Italian director Stefano Sollima had been hired to direct what was now titled Soldado from a script by Sheridan. On October 27, 2016, Catherine Keener was cast in the film, which Lionsgate and Black Label Media financed, and which was produced by Thunder Road 's Basil Iwanyk, Black Label 's Molly Smith and Thad and Trent Luckinbill, and Edward McDonnell. By November 2016, Blunt was no longer attached. The following month, Isabela Moner, David Castaneda and Manuel Garcia - Rulfo joined the cast. Jeffrey Donovan, who returned as Steve Forsing, said that the story would focus on Forsing, Gillick and Graver "going down into Mexico to basically start a war, on purpose, between the rival Mexican cartels, '' and described the film as a "stand - alone spin - off '' rather than a sequel or prequel. In January 2017, Elijah Rodriguez, Matthew Modine and Ian Bohen also joined the cast. Sheridan said, "if Sicario is a film about the militarization of police and that blending over, this is removing the policing aspect from it. ''
Principal photography on the film began in New Mexico on November 8, 2016.
Hildur Guðnadóttir composed the score for the film, after collaborating with Jóhann Jóhannsson on the first film as cello soloist. The soundtrack was released by Varese Sarabande Records.
The film was originally set to be released by Lionsgate in the United States, under the title Soldado, but a disagreement between Lionsgate and production company Black Label Media saw the U.S. and Canadian distribution rights change to Columbia Pictures, who then changed the title to Sicario 2: Soldado and then thereafter to Sicario: Day of the Soldado, in the North American market. Columbia Pictures distributes the film in the US, Canada, Latin America, and Spain, while Lionsgate distributes it in the UK, as well as handling international rights. In August 2017, Sony set the release date for June 29, 2018.
On December 19, 2017, the first trailer was released. The second trailer debuted on March 19, 2018, confirming the new title as Sicario: Day of the Soldado. The film was released outside North America under the title Sicario 2: Soldado in some locations, and in Italy, the Philippines and others keeping the initial title of Soldado.
As of July 15, 2018, Sicario: Day of the Soldado has grossed $43.2 million in the United States and Canada, and $15.8 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $59 million. The studio has stated the production budget was $35 million, although Deadline Hollywood reported the film cost as high as $45 million before prints and advertising.
In the United States and Canada, Day of the Soldado was released alongside Uncle Drew, and was initially projected to gross around $12 million from 3,055 theaters in its opening weekend. After making $7.5 million on its first day (including $2 million from Thursday night previews), estimates were raised to $19 million. Its debut was ultimately $19.1 million, an improvement over the $12.1 million the first film took in during its wide expansion, and third at the box office that weekend, behind Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom and Incredibles 2. It fell 61 % in its second weekend, to $7.3 million, finishing fifth at the box office.
On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, Day of the Soldado holds an approval rating of 64 % based on 215 reviews, with an average rating of 6.4 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Though not as strong as its predecessor, Sicario: Day of the Soldado succeeds as a stylish, dynamic thriller -- even if its amoral machismo makes for grim viewing. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 61 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale, down from the first film 's "A -- ''.
Variety 's Peter Debruge called the film "tense, tough, and shockingly ruthless at times, '' and wrote, "Soldado may not be as masterful as Villeneuve 's original, but it sets up a world of possibilities for elaborating on a complex conflict far too rich to be resolved in two hours ' time. '' Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter praised the film as a "worthy, rough - and - tough sequel '', highlighting the direction, lead performances and Sheridan 's script, and saying "Sicario: Day of the Soldado emerges as a dynamic action drama in its own right. ''
Darren Franich of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a ' B ' rating, praising the performance of Del Toro while criticizing the plot, stating: "Alejandro (played by Del Toro) assassinates a cartel functionary in broad daylight... He executes the man, firing his gun exactly 417 times. So Sicario 2 is junk, but it 's terrifically stylish junk. Director Stefano Solima has worked in Italian crime thrillers, and he brings a run - and - gun humanity to this, suggesting complexities of border society where the first film defaulted to moody hellscapery ''.
Time magazine 's Stephanie Zacharek found the film to be adequate, though lacking the presence of a character in the sequel as emotive as the one played by Emily Blunt in the original, stating: "There 's not a Blunt in sight, though special task force macho men Matt Graver and Alejandro... return. This time their job is to stir up a war between rival Mexican drug cartels; part of the scheme involves kidnapping a drug lord 's scrappy teenage daughter. Although she has enough teen - beat orneriness to kick both Matt 's and Alejandro 's butts, the movie does n't let her. ''
In an opinion piece for NBC News, Ani Bundel called the film "as implausible as it is irresponsible '' and criticized the use of negative stereotypes, concluding that the film "is the worst kind of propaganda, in that it probably does n't even realize just how harmful it really is. '' Monica Castillo at IndieWire describes the first film as an unsympathetic portrayal of Mexicans, and compares the sequel to state - sanctioned propaganda, decrying the "xenophobic absurdity '' of it.
In June 2018, prior to the release of Soldado, producer Trent Luckinbill stated that a third film is in development.
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who sang i miss you like the deserts | Like the Deserts Miss the Rain - Wikipedia
Like the Deserts Miss the Rain is a compilation album by the British band Everything but the Girl, released in 2002. Some copies include a bonus disc featuring four additional songs. An accompanying DVD with the same title was also released the same year. The album 's title derives from a lyric from their song "Missing, '' off 1994 's Amplified Heart.
All tracks composed by Tracey Thorn and Ben Watt, except where indicated.
All tracks previously unreleased.
Disc 2:
Videos
Live
Demos
Extras include: Photo gallery, interactive video mix of "Temperamental ''
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who wrote the prayer song by andrea bocelli | The Prayer (Celine Dion and Andrea Bocelli song) - wikipedia
"The Prayer '' is a popular song written by David Foster, Carole Bayer Sager, Alberto Testa and Tony Renis. It is most commonly known as a duet between Celine Dion and Andrea Bocelli. It is from Quest for Camelot: Music from the Motion Picture, the second single from Dion 's Christmas album These Are Special Times and the first from Bocelli 's album Sogno and was released as a promotional single on 1 March 1999. The song won the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song in 1999 and a Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals in 2000.
Originally "The Prayer '' was recorded as two separate solo versions, Dion 's in English and Bocelli 's in Italian. They appeared on the Quest for Camelot soundtrack in May 1998. The duet was included on albums by both artists, released a few months later on Sogno and These Times Are Special Times. Bocelli sung original Italian while Dion translated into English. The song won the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song from the 1998 film Quest for Camelot, the second win in a row for a Celine Dion song. In that film, Dion sang it as a solo with slightly different lyrics. It was also nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song in 1999 and a Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals in 2000. Dion performed it with Bocelli at both ceremonies.
It was also featured on Dion 's compilation The Collector 's Series, Volume One (2000) and greatest hits My Love: Ultimate Essential Collection (2008). A re-recorded solo version by Celine Dion (renamed "A Mother 's Prayer '') appeared on her 2004 album Miracle. Dion performed "The Prayer '' live during her Taking Chances Tour as a virtual duet with Bocelli on the screen; the performance was released in the Taking Chances World Tour: The Concert CD / DVD. The song appeared also on Bocelli 's 2007 compilation The Best of Andrea Bocelli: Vivere. Dion joined Bocelli to perform the song in his Concerto: One Night in Central Park concert in 2011; the performance was subsequently released on CD and DVD. Both Dion and Bocelli have sung the song with other artists, and various other artists have recorded the song, either as a duet or a solo.
The original version of "The Prayer '' failed to chart on the US Billboard Hot 100, but was very popular on the adult contemporary charts in both Canada and the United States, peaking at number 6 and number 22 respectively. It has also become popular during Christmas, weddings and, in some cases, funerals and religious services.
Paul Verna from Billboard called this song a "gorgeous duet. '' Chuck Taylor from Billboard reviewed "The Prayer '', calling it "a breathtaking, ultra-lush song, and the tour de force combination of Dion and Bocelli (which) will send a half - dozen chills up your spine. '' Although he felt that the song is "an unorthodox track for the radio, '' Taylor called it "affecting, '' "heartwarming, '' "absolutely exquisite '' and "one of Dion 's most radiant performances ever. ''
1999 North American promotional CD maxi single
Celine Dion first performed "The Prayer '' live with Josh Groban, in 1999, when then 17 - year old Groban filled in for Andrea Bocelli at rehearsal for the 1999 Grammy Awards. The two performed the song during her CBS TV special That 's Just the Woman in Me, aired on 15 February 2008. This version was released as a music download in the U.S. and Canada two days earlier. It proved to be much more successful than the original, entering the Billboard Hot 100 at number 70, it also appeared on a few other Billboard charts: Pop 100 at number 50, Hot Digital Songs at number 32 and Hot Digital Tracks at number 29. The single sold 37,531 copies in its first week. In Canada, the song peaked at number 37 on the Canadian Hot 100 and number 19 on the Canadian Top Digital Downloads.
2008 North American digital single
Callea first performed this song during Australian Idol 2004, in the week of ' contestants choice '. He received a standing ovation for this performance and the "Grand Royal Touchdown '' from judge Mark Holden. He would go on to be runner - up in this series.
At the completion of the show, Callea was signed to Sony BMG, and he released "The Prayer '' as his debut single.
It was released in Australia on 19 December 2004 and debuted at number 1 on the ARIA Charts. It stayed there for five weeks and was certified 4x platinum by ARIA. It became the fastest - selling single by any Australian artist, and was the second highest selling single in Australia in the last decade overall, and for an Australian artist. The song was included on Callea 's debut album Anthony Callea.
Callea has performed "The Prayer '' at numerous concerts as well as the Carols by Candlelight in Melbourne. In 2006, he performed the song in front of Queen Elizabeth at a Commonwealth Day Service He also performed it as a duet with Tina Arena on her Symphony of Life CD / DVD, released in 2012.
"The Prayer '' was released as a two - track CD single
The video includes excerpts of Callea recording the song and was released in 2004.
shipments figures based on certification alone
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where was journey to the center of the earth written | Journey to the Center of the Earth - wikipedia
Journey to the Center of the Earth (French: Voyage au centre de la Terre, also translated under the titles A Journey to the Centre of the Earth and A Journey to the Interior of the Earth) is an 1864 science fiction novel by Jules Verne. The story involves German professor Otto Lidenbrock who believes there are volcanic tubes going toward the centre of the Earth. He, his nephew Axel, and their guide Hans descend into the Icelandic volcano Snæfellsjökull, encountering many adventures, including prehistoric animals and natural hazards, before eventually coming to the surface again in southern Italy, at the Stromboli volcano.
The genre of subterranean fiction already existed long before Verne. However, the present book considerably added to its popularity and influenced later such writings. For example, Edgar Rice Burroughs explicitly acknowledged Verne 's influence on his own Pellucidar series.
The story begins in May 1863, in the Lidenbrock house in Hamburg, Germany, with Professor Lidenbrock rushing home to peruse his latest purchase, an original runic manuscript of an Icelandic saga written by Snorri Sturluson (Snorre Tarleson in some versions of the story), "Heimskringla ''; the chronicle of the Norwegian kings who ruled over Iceland. While looking through the book, Lidenbrock and his nephew Axel find a coded note written in runic script along with the name of a 16th - century Icelandic alchemist, Arne Saknussemm. (This was a first indication of Verne 's love for cryptography. Coded, cryptic, or incomplete messages as a plot device would continue to appear in many of his works and in each case Verne would go a long way to explain not only the code used but also the mechanisms used to retrieve the original text.) Lidenbrock and Axel transliterate the runic characters into Latin letters, revealing a message written in a seemingly bizarre code. Lidenbrock attempts a decipherment, deducing the message to be a kind of transposition cipher; but his results are as meaningless as the original.
Professor Lidenbrock decides to lock everyone in the house and force himself and the others (Axel, and the maid, Martha) to go without food until he cracks the code. Axel discovers the answer when fanning himself with the deciphered text: Lidenbrock 's decipherment was correct, and only needs to be read backwards to reveal sentences written in rough Latin. Axel decides to keep the secret hidden from Professor Lidenbrock, afraid of what the Professor might do with the knowledge, but after two days without food he can not stand the hunger and reveals the secret to his uncle. Lidenbrock translates the note, which is revealed to be a medieval note written by Saknussemm, who claims to have discovered a passage to the centre of the Earth via Snæfell in Iceland. In what Axel calls bad Latin, the deciphered message reads:
In Snefflls (sic) Iokulis kraterem kem delibat umbra Skartaris Iulii intra kalendas deskende, audas uiator, te (sic) terrestre kentrum attinges. Kod feki. Arne Saknussemm.
In slightly better Latin, with errors amended:
In Sneffels Jokulis craterem, quem delibat umbra Scartaris, Julii intra kalendas descende, audax viator, et terrestre centrum attinges; quod feci. Arne Saknussemm
which, when translated into English, reads:
Descend, bold traveller, into the crater of the jökull of Snæfell, which the shadow of Scartaris touches (lit: tastes) before the Kalends of July, and you will attain the centre of the earth. I did it. Arne Saknussemm
Professor Lidenbrock is a man of astonishing impatience, and departs for Iceland immediately, taking his reluctant nephew with him. Axel, who, in comparison, is anti-adventurous, repeatedly tries to reason with him, explaining his fears of descending into a volcano and putting forward various scientific theories as to why the journey is impossible, but Professor Lidenbrock repeatedly keeps himself blinded against Axel 's point of view. After a rapid journey via Kiel and Copenhagen, they arrive in Reykjavík, where the two procure the services of Hans Bjelke (a Danish - speaking Icelander eiderdown hunter) as their guide, and travel overland to the base of the volcano.
In late June, they reach the volcano, which has three craters. According to Saknussemm 's message, the passage to the center of the Earth is through the one crater that is touched by the shadow of a nearby mountain peak at noon. However, the text also states that this is only true during the last days of June. During the next few days, with July rapidly approaching, the weather is too cloudy for any shadows. Axel silently rejoices, hoping this will force his uncle -- who has repeatedly tried to impart courage to him only to succeed in making him even more cowardly still -- to give up the project and return home. Alas for Axel, however, on the second to last day, the sun comes out and the mountain peak shows the correct crater to take.
After descending into the crater, the three travellers set off into the bowels of the Earth, encountering many strange phenomena and great dangers, including a chamber filled with firedamp, and steep - sided wells around the "path ''. After taking a wrong turn, they run out of water and Axel almost dies, but Hans taps into a neighbouring subterranean river. Lidenbrock and Axel name the resulting stream the "Hansbach '' in his honour and the three are saved. At another point, Axel becomes separated from the others and is lost several miles from them. Luckily, a strange acoustic phenomenon allows him to communicate with them from some miles away, and they are soon reunited.
After descending many miles, following the course of the Hansbach, they reach an unimaginably vast cavern. This underground world is lit by electrically charged gas at the ceiling, and is filled with a very deep subterranean ocean, surrounded by a rocky coastline covered in petrified trees and giant mushrooms. The travelers build a raft out of trees and set sail. The Professor names this sea the "Lidenbrock Sea '' and the port as "Port Gräuben '', after the name of his goddaughter. While on the water, they see several prehistoric creatures such as a giant Ichthyosaurus, which fights with a Plesiosaurus and wins. After the battle between the monsters, the party comes across an island with a huge geyser, which Lidenbrock names "Axel Island ''.
A lightning storm again threatens to destroy the raft and its passengers, but instead throws them onto the coastline. This part of the coast, Axel discovers, is alive with prehistoric plant and animal life forms, including giant insects and a herd of mastodons. On a beach covered with bones, Axel discovers an oversized human skull. Axel and Lidenbrock venture some way into the prehistoric forest, where Professor Lidenbrock points out, in a shaky voice, a prehistoric human, more than twelve feet in height, leaning against a tree and watching a herd of mastodons. Axel can not be sure if he has really seen the man or not, and he and Professor Lidenbrock debate whether or not a proto - human civilization actually exists so far underground. The three wonder if the creature is a man - like ape, or an ape - like man. The sighting of the creature is considered the most alarming part of the story, and the explorers decide that it is better not to alert it to their presence as they fear it may be hostile.
The travellers continue to explore the coastline, and find a passageway marked by Saknussemm as the way ahead. However, it is blocked by what appears to be a recent cave - in and two of the three, Hans and the Professor, despair at being unable to hack their way through the granite wall. The adventurers plan to blast the rock with gun cotton and paddle out to sea to escape the blast. Upon executing the plan, however, they discover that behind the rockfall was a seemingly bottomless pit, not a passage to the center of the Earth. The travellers are swept away as the sea rushes into the large open gap in the ground. After spending hours being swept along at lightning speeds by the water, the raft ends up inside a large volcanic chimney filling with water and magma. Terrified, the three are rushed upwards, through stifling heat, and are ejected onto the surface from a side - vent of a stratovolcano. When they regain consciousness, they discover that they have been ejected from Stromboli, a volcanic island located in southern Italy. They return to Hamburg to great acclaim -- Professor Lidenbrock is hailed as one of the great scientists of history, Axel marries his sweetheart Gräuben, and Hans eventually returns to his peaceful life in Iceland. The Professor has some regret that their journey was cut short.
At the very end of the book, Axel and Lidenbrock realize why their compass was behaving strangely after their journey on the raft. They realize that the needle was pointing the wrong way after being struck by an electric fireball which nearly destroyed the wooden raft.
The book was inspired by Charles Lyell 's Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man of 1863 (and probably also influenced by Lyell 's earlier ground - breaking work Principles of Geology, published 1830 -- 33). By that time geologists had abandoned a literal biblical account of Earth 's development and it was generally thought that the end of the last glacial period marked the first appearance of humanity, but Lyell drew on new findings to put the origin of human beings much further back in the deep geological past. Lyell 's book also influenced Louis Figuier 's 1867 second edition of La Terre avant le déluge ("The Earth before the flood '') which included dramatic illustrations of savage men and women wearing animal skins and wielding stone axes, in place of the Garden of Eden shown in the 1863 edition.
It is noteworthy that at the time of writing Verne had no hesitation with having sympathetic German protagonists with whom the reader could identify. Verne 's attitude to Germans would drastically change in the aftermath of the 1871 Franco - Prussian War. After 1871, the sympathetic if eccentric Professor Otto Lidenbrock would be replaced in Verne 's fiction by the utterly evil and demonic Professor Schultze of The Begum 's Fortune.
The first English edition was published in its entirety by Henry Vickers in 12 installments of a Boys magazine entitled "The Boys Journal ''. The plates are more numerous than the book form which was published with an 1872 title page. If it was released in 1871 as a single volume it was late in the year. This "True '' first edition also found in an octavo normal book size (not Annual size), has been overlooked by bibliographers. It has a place of pre-eminence up to about a 3rd of the way through the 12 monthly issues and then slides down into the main body of the journal. The Magazine does not seem to have survived in its loose format of 12 individual parts.
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what teams have beat the patriots in super bowls | List of Super Bowl champions - wikipedia
The Super Bowl is the annual American football game that determines the champion of the National Football League (NFL). The game culminates a season that begins in the previous calendar year, and is the conclusion of the NFL playoffs. The contest is held in an American city, chosen three to four years beforehand, usually at warm - weather sites or domed stadiums. Since January 1971, the winner of the American Football Conference (AFC) Championship Game has faced the winner of the National Football Conference (NFC) Championship Game in the culmination of the NFL playoffs.
Before the 1970 merger between the American Football League (AFL) and the National Football League (NFL), the two leagues met in four such contests. The first two were marketed as the "AFL -- NFL World Championship Game '', but were also casually referred to as "the Super Bowl game '' during the television broadcast. Super Bowl III in January 1969 was the first such game that carried the "Super Bowl '' moniker in official marketing; the names "Super Bowl I '' and "Super Bowl II '' were retroactively applied to the first two games. The NFC / NFL leads in Super Bowl wins with 27, while the AFC / AFL has won 25. Twenty franchises, including teams that have relocated to another city, have won the Super Bowl.
The Pittsburgh Steelers (6 -- 2) have won the most Super Bowls with six championships, while the New England Patriots (5 -- 5), the Dallas Cowboys (5 -- 3), and the San Francisco 49ers (5 -- 1) have five wins. New England has the most Super Bowl appearances with ten, while the Buffalo Bills (0 -- 4) have the most consecutive appearances with four (all losses) from 1990 to 1993. The Miami Dolphins are the only other team to have at least three consecutive appearances: 1972 -- 1974. The Denver Broncos (3 -- 5) and Patriots have each lost a record five Super Bowls. The Minnesota Vikings (0 -- 4) and the Bills have lost four. The record for consecutive wins is two and is shared by seven franchises: the Green Bay Packers (1966 -- 1967), the Miami Dolphins (1972 -- 1973), the Pittsburgh Steelers (1974 -- 1975 and 1978 -- 1979, the only team to accomplish this feat twice), the San Francisco 49ers (1988 -- 1989), the Dallas Cowboys (1992 -- 1993), the Denver Broncos (1997 -- 1998), and the New England Patriots (2003 -- 2004). Among those, Dallas (1992 -- 1993; 1995) and New England (2001; 2003 -- 2004) are the only teams to win three out of four consecutive Super Bowls. The 1972 Dolphins capped off the only perfect season in NFL history with their victory in Super Bowl VII. The only team with multiple Super Bowl appearances and no losses is the Baltimore Ravens, who in winning Super Bowl XLVII defeated and replaced the 49ers in that position. Four current NFL teams have never appeared in a Super Bowl, including franchise relocations and renaming: the Cleveland Browns, Detroit Lions, Jacksonville Jaguars, and Houston Texans, though both the Browns (1964) and Lions (1957) had won NFL championship games prior to the creation of the Super Bowl.
Numbers in parentheses in the table are Super Bowl appearances as of the date of that Super Bowl and are used as follows:
Seven franchises have won consecutive Super Bowls, one of which (Pittsburgh) has accomplished it twice:
No franchise has yet won three Super Bowls in a row, although several have come close:
Three franchises have lost consecutive Super Bowls:
In the sortable table below, teams are ordered first by number of appearances, then by number of wins, and finally by number of years since last appearing in a Super Bowl. In the "Seasons '' column, bold years indicate winning seasons, and italic years indicate games not yet completed.
Four current teams have never reached the Super Bowl. Two of them held NFL league championships prior to Super Bowl I in the 1966 NFL season:
In addition, Detroit, Houston, and Jacksonville have hosted Super Bowls, making Cleveland the only current NFL city that has neither hosted nor had its team play in a Super Bowl.
Although Jacksonville and Houston have never appeared in a Super Bowl, there are teams whose most recent Super Bowl appearance is older than when Jacksonville and Houston joined the NFL (1995 and 2002, respectively), resulting in longer Super Bowl droughts than these teams for the following eight teams.
Two of these teams have not appeared in the Super Bowl since before the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970:
However, the Jets and the Chiefs are the only non-NFL teams to win the Super Bowl, both being members of the now - defunct AFL at the time.
The most recent Super Bowl appearance for the following teams was after the AFL -- NFL merger, but prior to the 1995 regular season:
Eight teams have appeared in the Super Bowl without ever winning. In descending order of number of appearances, they are:
The following teams have faced each other more than once in the Super Bowl:
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how many episodes in season 15 of grey's anatomy | List of Grey 's Anatomy episodes - wikipedia
Grey 's Anatomy is an American medical drama television series that premiered on American Broadcasting Company (ABC) as a mid-season replacement on March 27, 2005. The series has aired for thirteen seasons, and focuses on the fictional lives of surgical interns and residents as they evolve into seasoned doctors while trying to maintain personal lives. The show 's premise originated with Shonda Rhimes, who serves as an executive producer, along with Betsy Beers, Mark Gordon, Krista Vernoff, Rob Corn, Mark Wilding, and Allan Heinberg. The series was created to be racially diverse, utilizing a color - blind casting technique. It is primarily filmed in Los Angeles. The show 's title is a play on Gray 's Anatomy, the classic human anatomy textbook.
Episodes have been broadcast on Thursday nights since Grey 's third season. The first two seasons aired after Desperate Housewives in the Sunday 10: 00 pm EST time - slot. All episodes are approximately forty - three minutes, excluding commercials, and are broadcast in both high - definition and standard. Episodes are also available for download at the iTunes Store in standard and high definition, and Amazon Video, with new episodes appearing the day after their live airings. ABC Video on demand also releases episodes of the show, typically one to two days after their premieres. Recent episodes are available at ABC 's official Grey 's Anatomy website, and on Hulu. In 2009, ABC signed a deal allowing Grey 's Anatomy episodes to be streamed on Netflix.
Grey 's Anatomy was among the ten highest - rated shows in the United States from the show 's first through fourth season. The show 's episodes have won a number of awards, including a Golden Globe Award for Best Drama Series, a People 's Choice Award for Favorite TV Drama, and multiple NAACP Image Awards for Outstanding Drama Series. Since its premiere, Buena Vista Home Entertainment has distributed all seasons on DVD. There have been several special episodes recapping events from previous episodes, and two series of webisodes.
As of February 8, 2018, 305 episodes of Grey 's Anatomy have aired, including five specials. On February 10, 2017, ABC renewed the series for a fourteenth season, which featured the show 's 300th episode.
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how far is monroe nc from the coast | North Carolina - wikipedia
As of 2000
North Carolina (/ ˌnɔːrθ kærəˈlaɪnə / (listen)) is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the U.S. states. The state is divided into 100 counties. The capital is Raleigh. The most populous municipality is Charlotte, which is the third largest banking center in the United States after New York City and San Francisco.
The state has a wide range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet (2,037 m) at Mount Mitchell, the highest point in North America east of the Mississippi River. The climate of the coastal plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the state falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles (500 km) from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a subtropical highland climate.
North Carolina is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, and the Atlantic Ocean on the east. The United States Census Bureau places North Carolina in the South Atlantic division of the southern region.
North Carolina consists of three main geographic regions: the Atlantic coastal plain, occupying the eastern portion of the state; the central Piedmont region, and the Mountain region in the west, which is part of the Appalachian Mountains. The coastal plain consists of more specifically - defined areas known as the Outer Banks, a string of sandy, narrow barrier islands separated from the mainland by sounds or inlets, including Albemarle Sound and Pamlico Sound, the tidewater region, the native home of the venus flytrap, and the inner coastal plain, where longleaf pine trees are native.
So many ships have been lost off Cape Hatteras that the area is known as the "Graveyard of the Atlantic ''; more than 1,000 ships have sunk in these waters since records began in 1526. The most famous of these is the Queen Anne 's Revenge (flagship of the pirate Blackbeard), which went aground in Beaufort Inlet in 1718.
The coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, the elevation at which waterfalls first appear on streams and rivers. The Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the state 's most populous region, containing the six largest cities in the state by population. It consists of gently rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. Small, isolated, and deeply eroded mountain ranges and peaks are located in the Piedmont, including the Sauratown Mountains, Pilot Mountain, the Uwharrie Mountains, Crowder 's Mountain, King 's Pinnacle, the Brushy Mountains, and the South Mountains. The Piedmont ranges from about 300 feet (91 m) in elevation in the east to about 1,500 feet (460 m) in the west.
The western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, and Black Mountains. The Black Mountains are the highest in the eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet (2,037 m), the highest point east of the Mississippi River.
North Carolina has 17 major river basins. The five basins west of the Blue Ridge Mountains flow to the Gulf of Mexico, while the remainder flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Of the 17 basins, 11 originate within the state of North Carolina, but only four are contained entirely within the state 's border -- the Cape Fear, the Neuse, the White Oak, and the Tar -- Pamlico basin.
Elevation above sea level is most responsible for temperature change across the state, with the mountain area being coolest year - round. The climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream, especially in the coastal plain. These influences tend to cause warmer winter temperatures along the coast, where temperatures only occasionally drop below the freezing point at night. The coastal plain averages around 1 inch (2.5 cm) of snow or ice annually, and in many years, there may be no snow or ice at all.
The Atlantic Ocean exerts less influence on the climate of the Piedmont region, which has hotter summers and colder winters than along the coast, though the average daily maximum is still below 90 ° F (32 ° C) in most locations.
North Carolina experiences severe weather in both summer and winter, with summer bringing threat of hurricanes, tropical storms, heavy rain, and flooding. Destructive hurricanes that have hit North Carolina include Hurricane Fran, Hurricane Floyd, and Hurricane Hazel, the latter being the strongest storm ever to make landfall in the state, as a Category 4 in 1954. Hurricane Isabel ranks as the most destructive of the 21st century.
North Carolina averages fewer than 20 tornadoes per year, many of them produced by hurricanes or tropical storms along the coastal plain. Tornadoes from thunderstorms are a risk, especially in the eastern part of the state. The western Piedmont is often protected by the mountains, which tend to break up storms as they try to cross over; the storms will often re-form farther east. A phenomenon known as "cold - air damming '' often occurs in the northwestern part of the state, which can weaken storms but can also lead to major ice events in winter.
In April 2011, the worst tornado outbreak in North Carolina 's history occurred. Thirty confirmed tornadoes touched down, mainly in the Eastern Piedmont and Sandhills, killing at least 24 people.
Woodland - culture American Indians were in the area around 1000 BCE; starting around 750 CE, Mississippian - culture Indians created larger political units with stronger leadership and more stable, longer - term settlements. During this time, important buildings were constructed as pyramidal, flat - topped buildings. By 1550, many groups of American Indians lived in present - day North Carolina, including Chowanoke, Roanoke, Pamlico, Machapunga, Coree, Cape Fear Indians, Waxhaw, Waccamaw, and Catawba.
Juan Pardo explored the area in 1566 -- 1567, establishing Fort San Juan in 1567 at the site of the Native American community of Joara, a Mississippian culture regional chiefdom in the western interior, near the present - day city of Morganton. The fort lasted only 18 months; the local inhabitants killed all but one of the 120 men Pardo had stationed at a total of six forts in the area. A later expedition by Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe followed in 1584, at the direction of Sir Walter Raleigh.
In June 1718, the pirate Blackbeard ran his flagship, the Queen Anne 's Revenge, aground at Beaufort Inlet, North Carolina, in present - day Carteret County. After the grounding her crew and supplies were transferred to smaller ships. In November, after appealing to the governor of North Carolina, who promised safe - haven and a pardon, Blackbeard was killed in an ambush by troops from Virginia. In 1996 Intersal, Inc., a private firm, discovered the remains of a vessel likely to be the Queen Anne 's Revenge, which was added to the US National Register of Historic Places.
North Carolina became one of the English Thirteen Colonies and with the territory of South Carolina was originally known as the Province of Carolina. The northern and southern parts of the original province separated in 1729. Originally settled by small farmers, sometimes having a few slaves, who were oriented toward subsistence agriculture, the colony lacked cities or towns. Pirates menaced the coastal settlements, but by 1718 the pirates had been captured and killed. Growth was strong in the middle of the 18th century, as the economy attracted Scots - Irish, Quaker, English and German immigrants. The colonists generally supported the American Revolution, as the number of Loyalists was smaller than in some other colonies.
During colonial times, Edenton served as the state capital beginning in 1722, and New Bern was selected as the capital in 1766. Construction of Tryon Palace, which served as the residence and offices of the provincial governor William Tryon, began in 1767 and was completed in 1771. In 1788 Raleigh was chosen as the site of the new capital, as its central location protected it from coastal attacks. Officially established in 1792 as both county seat and state capital, the city was named after Sir Walter Raleigh, sponsor of Roanoke, the "lost colony '' on Roanoke Island.
North Carolina made the smallest per - capita contribution to the war of any state, as only 7,800 men joined the Continental Army under General George Washington; an additional 10,000 served in local militia units under such leaders as General Nathanael Greene. There was some military action, especially in 1780 -- 81. Many Carolinian frontiersmen had moved west over the mountains, into the Washington District (later known as Tennessee), but in 1789, following the Revolution, the state was persuaded to relinquish its claim to the western lands. It ceded them to the national government so that the Northwest Territory could be organized and managed nationally.
After 1800, cotton and tobacco became important export crops. The eastern half of the state, especially the Tidewater region, developed a slave society based on a plantation system and slave labor. Many free people of color migrated to the frontier along with their European - American neighbors, where the social system was looser. By 1810, nearly 3 percent of the free population consisted of free people of color, who numbered slightly more than 10,000. The western areas were dominated by white families, especially Scots - Irish, who operated small subsistence farms. In the early national period, the state became a center of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian democracy, with a strong Whig presence, especially in the West. After Nat Turner 's slave uprising in 1831, North Carolina and other southern states reduced the rights of free blacks. In 1835 the legislature withdrew their right to vote.
On May 20, 1861, North Carolina was the last of the Confederate states to declare secession from the Union, 13 days after the Tennessee legislature voted for secession. Some 125,000 North Carolinians served in the military; 20,000 were killed in battle, the most of any state in the Confederacy, and 21,000 died of disease. The state government was reluctant to support the demands of the national government in Richmond, and the state was the scene of only small battles.
With the defeat of the Confederacy in 1865, the Reconstruction Era began. The United States abolished slavery without compensation to slaveholders or reparations to freedmen. A Republican Party coalition of black freedmen, northern carpetbaggers and local scalawags controlled state government for three years. The white conservative Democrats regained control of the state legislature in 1870, in part by Ku Klux Klan violence and terrorism at the polls, to suppress black voting. Republicans were elected to the governorship until 1876, when the Red Shirts, a paramilitary organization that arose in 1874 and was allied with the Democratic Party, helped suppress black voting. More than 150 black Americans were murdered in electoral violence in 1876.
Democrats were elected to the legislature and governor 's office, but the Populists attracted voters displeased with them. In 1896 a biracial, Populist - Republican Fusionist coalition gained the governor 's office. The Democrats regained control of the legislature in 1896 and passed laws to impose Jim Crow and racial segregation of public facilities. Voters of North Carolina 's 2nd congressional district elected a total of four African - American congressmen through these years of the late 19th century.
Political tensions ran so high that a small group of white Democrats in 1898 planned to take over the Wilmington government if their candidates were not elected. In the Wilmington Insurrection of 1898, more than 1,500 white men attacked the black newspaper and neighborhood, killed numerous men, and ran off the white Republican mayor and aldermen. They installed their own people and elected Alfred M. Waddell as mayor, in the only coup d'état in United States history.
In 1899 the state legislature passed a new constitution, with requirements for poll taxes and literacy tests for voter registration which disfranchised most black Americans in the state. Exclusion from voting had wide effects: it meant that black Americans could not serve on juries or in any local office. After a decade of white supremacy, many people forgot that North Carolina had ever had thriving middle - class black Americans. Black citizens had no political voice in the state until after the federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 were passed to enforce their constitutional rights. It was not until 1992 that another African American was elected as a US Representative from North Carolina.
As in the rest of the former Confederacy, North Carolina had become a one - party state, dominated by the Democratic Party. Impoverished by the Civil War, the state continued with an economy based on tobacco, cotton and agriculture. Towns and cities remained few in the east. A major industrial base emerged in the late 19th century in the western counties of the Piedmont, based on cotton mills established at the fall line. Railroads were built to connect the new industrializing cities. The state was the site of the first successful controlled, powered and sustained heavier - than - air flight, by the Wright brothers, near Kitty Hawk on December 17, 1903. In the first half of the 20th century, many African Americans left the state to go North for better opportunities, in the Great Migration. Their departure changed the demographic characteristics of many areas.
North Carolina was hard hit by the Great Depression, but the New Deal programs of Franklin D. Roosevelt for cotton and tobacco significantly helped the farmers. After World War II, the state 's economy grew rapidly, highlighted by the growth of such cities as Charlotte, Raleigh, and Durham in the Piedmont. Raleigh, Durham, and Chapel Hill form the Research Triangle, a major area of universities and advanced scientific and technical research. In the 1990s, Charlotte became a major regional and national banking center. Tourism has also been a boon for the North Carolina economy as people flock to the Outer Banks coastal area and the Appalachian Mountains anchored by Asheville.
By the 1970s, spurred in part by the increasingly leftward tilt of national Democrats, conservative whites began to vote for Republican national candidates and gradually for more Republicans locally. The Greensboro Sit - ins played a crucial role in the Civil Rights Movement to bring full equality to American blacks.
North Carolina was inhabited for thousands of years by succeeding cultures of prehistoric indigenous cultures. Before 200 AD, they were building earthwork mounds, which were used for ceremonial and religious purposes. Succeeding peoples, including those of the ancient Mississippian culture established by 1000 AD in the Piedmont, continued to build or add on to such mounds. In the 500 -- 700 years preceding European contact, the Mississippian culture built large, complex cities and maintained far - flung regional trading networks. Its largest city was Cahokia, located in present - day Illinois near the Mississippi River.
Historically documented tribes in the North Carolina region include the Carolina Algonquian - speaking tribes of the coastal areas, such as the Chowanoke, Roanoke, Pamlico, Machapunga, Coree, and Cape Fear Indians, who were the first encountered by the English; the Iroquoian - speaking Meherrin, Cherokee, and Tuscarora of the interior; and Southeastern Siouan tribes, such as the Cheraw, Waxhaw, Saponi, Waccamaw, and Catawba.
Spanish explorers traveling inland in the 16th century met Mississippian culture people at Joara, a regional chiefdom near present - day Morganton. Records of Hernando de Soto attested to his meeting with them in 1540. In 1567 Captain Juan Pardo led an expedition to claim the area for the Spanish colony and to establish another route to protect silver mines in Mexico. Pardo made a winter base at Joara, which he renamed Cuenca. His expedition built Fort San Juan and left a contingent of 30 men there, while Pardo traveled further, and built and garrisoned five other forts. He returned by a different route to Santa Elena on Parris Island, South Carolina, then a center of Spanish Florida. In the spring of 1568, natives killed all but one of the soldiers and burned the six forts in the interior, including the one at Fort San Juan. Although the Spanish never returned to the interior, this effort marked the first European attempt at colonization of the interior of what became the United States. A 16th - century journal by Pardo 's scribe Bandera and archaeological findings since 1986 at Joara have confirmed the settlement.
In 1584, Elizabeth I granted a charter to Sir Walter Raleigh, for whom the state capital is named, for land in present - day North Carolina (then part of the territory of Virginia). It was the second American territory which the English attempted to colonize. Raleigh established two colonies on the coast in the late 1580s, but both failed. The fate of the "Lost Colony '' of Roanoke Island remains one of the most widely debated mysteries of American history. Virginia Dare, the first English child to be born in North America, was born on Roanoke Island on August 18, 1587; Dare County is named for her.
As early as 1650, settlers from the Virginia colony moved into the area of Albemarle Sound. By 1663, King Charles II of England granted a charter to start a new colony on the North American continent; it generally established North Carolina 's borders. He named it Carolina in honor of his father Charles I. By 1665, a second charter was issued to attempt to resolve territorial questions. In 1710, owing to disputes over governance, the Carolina colony began to split into North Carolina and South Carolina. The latter became a crown colony in 1729.
In the 1700s, a series of smallpox epidemics swept the South, causing high fatalities among the Native Americans, who had no immunity to the new disease (it had become endemic in Europe). According to the historian Russell Thornton, "The 1738 epidemic was said to have killed one - half of the Cherokee, with other tribes of the area suffering equally. ''
After the Spanish in the 16th century, the first permanent European settlers of North Carolina were English colonists who migrated south from Virginia. The latter had grown rapidly and land was less available. Nathaniel Batts was documented as one of the first of these Virginian migrants. He settled south of the Chowan River and east of the Great Dismal Swamp in 1655. By 1663, this northeastern area of the Province of Carolina, known as the Albemarle Settlements, was undergoing full - scale English settlement. During the same period, the English monarch Charles II gave the province to the Lords Proprietors, a group of noblemen who had helped restore Charles to the throne in 1660. The new province of "Carolina '' was named in honor and memory of King Charles I (Latin: Carolus). In 1712, North Carolina became a separate colony. Except for the Earl Granville holdings, it became a royal colony seventeen years later. A large revolt happened in the state in 1711 known as Cary 's Rebellion.
Differences in the settlement patterns of eastern and western North Carolina, or the Low Country and uplands, affected the political, economic, and social life of the state from the 18th until the 20th century. The Tidewater in eastern North Carolina was settled chiefly by immigrants from rural England and the Scottish Highlands. The upcountry of western North Carolina was settled chiefly by Scots - Irish, English, and German Protestants, the so - called "cohee ''. Arriving during the mid - to late 18th century, the Scots - Irish from what is today Northern Ireland were the largest non-English immigrant group before the Revolution; English indentured servants were overwhelmingly the largest immigrant group before the Revolution. During the American Revolutionary War, the English and Highland Scots of eastern North Carolina tended to remain loyal to the British Crown, because of longstanding business and personal connections with Great Britain. The English, Welsh, Scots - Irish, and German settlers of western North Carolina tended to favor American independence from Britain.
Most of the English colonists had arrived as indentured servants, hiring themselves out as laborers for a fixed period to pay for their passage. In the early years the line between indentured servants and African slaves or laborers was fluid. Some Africans were allowed to earn their freedom before slavery became a lifelong status. Most of the free colored families formed in North Carolina before the Revolution were descended from unions or marriages between free white women and enslaved or free African or African - American men. Because the mothers were free, their children were born free. Many had migrated or were descendants of migrants from colonial Virginia. As the flow of indentured laborers to the colony decreased with improving economic conditions in Great Britain, planters imported more slaves, and the state 's legal delineations between free and slave status tightened, effectively hardening the latter into a racial caste. The economy 's growth and prosperity was based on slave labor, devoted first to the production of tobacco.
On April 12, 1776, the colony became the first to instruct its delegates to the Continental Congress to vote for independence from the British Crown, through the Halifax Resolves passed by the North Carolina Provincial Congress. The dates of both of these events are memorialized on the state flag and state seal. Throughout the Revolutionary War, fierce guerrilla warfare erupted between bands of pro-independence and pro-British colonists. In some cases the war was also an excuse to settle private grudges and rivalries. A major American victory in the war took place at King 's Mountain along the North Carolina -- South Carolina border; on October 7, 1780, a force of 1000 mountain men from western North Carolina (including what is today the state of Tennessee) and southwest Virginia overwhelmed a force of some 1000 British troops led by Major Patrick Ferguson. Most of the soldiers fighting for the British side in this battle were Carolinians who had remained loyal to the Crown (they were called "Tories '' or Loyalists). The American victory at Kings Mountain gave the advantage to colonists who favored American independence, and it prevented the British Army from recruiting new soldiers from the Tories.
The road to Yorktown and America 's independence from Great Britain led through North Carolina. As the British Army moved north from victories in Charleston and Camden, South Carolina, the Southern Division of the Continental Army and local militia prepared to meet them. Following General Daniel Morgan 's victory over the British Cavalry Commander Banastre Tarleton at the Battle of Cowpens on January 17, 1781, southern commander Nathanael Greene led British Lord Charles Cornwallis across the heartland of North Carolina, and away from the latter 's base of supply in Charleston, South Carolina. This campaign is known as "The Race to the Dan '' or "The Race for the River. ''
In the Battle of Cowan 's Ford, Cornwallis met resistance along the banks of the Catawba River at Cowan 's Ford on February 1, 1781, in an attempt to engage General Morgan 's forces during a tactical withdrawal. Morgan had moved to the northern part of the state to combine with General Greene 's newly recruited forces. Generals Greene and Cornwallis finally met at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse in present - day Greensboro on March 15, 1781. Although the British troops held the field at the end of the battle, their casualties at the hands of the numerically superior Continental Army were crippling. Following this "Pyrrhic victory '', Cornwallis chose to move to the Virginia coastline to get reinforcements, and to allow the Royal Navy to protect his battered army. This decision would result in Cornwallis ' eventual defeat at Yorktown, Virginia, later in 1781. The Patriots ' victory there guaranteed American independence.
On November 21, 1789, North Carolina became the twelfth state to ratify the Constitution. In 1840, it completed the state capitol building in Raleigh, still standing today. Most of North Carolina 's slave owners and large plantations were located in the eastern portion of the state. Although North Carolina 's plantation system was smaller and less cohesive than that of Virginia, Georgia, or South Carolina, significant numbers of planters were concentrated in the counties around the port cities of Wilmington and Edenton, as well as suburban planters around the cities of Raleigh, Charlotte, and Durham in the Piedmont. Planters owning large estates wielded significant political and socio - economic power in antebellum North Carolina, which was a slave society. They placed their interests above those of the generally non-slave - holding "yeoman '' farmers of western North Carolina. In mid-century, the state 's rural and commercial areas were connected by the construction of a 129 - mile (208 km) wooden plank road, known as a "farmer 's railroad '', from Fayetteville in the east to Bethania (northwest of Winston - Salem).
Besides slaves, there were a number of free people of color in the state. Most were descended from free African Americans who had migrated along with neighbors from Virginia during the 18th century. The majority were the descendants of unions in the working classes between white women, indentured servants or free, and African men, indentured, slave or free. After the Revolution, Quakers and Mennonites worked to persuade slaveholders to free their slaves. Some were inspired by their efforts and the language of the Revolution to arrange for manumission of their slaves. The number of free people of color rose markedly in the first couple of decades after the Revolution.
On October 25, 1836, construction began on the Wilmington and Raleigh Railroad to connect the port city of Wilmington with the state capital of Raleigh. In 1849 the North Carolina Railroad was created by act of the legislature to extend that railroad west to Greensboro, High Point, and Charlotte. During the Civil War, the Wilmington - to - Raleigh stretch of the railroad would be vital to the Confederate war effort; supplies shipped into Wilmington would be moved by rail through Raleigh to the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia.
During the antebellum period, North Carolina was an overwhelmingly rural state, even by Southern standards. In 1860 only one North Carolina town, the port city of Wilmington, had a population of more than 10,000. Raleigh, the state capital, had barely more than 5,000 residents.
While slaveholding was slightly less concentrated than in some Southern states, according to the 1860 census, more than 330,000 people, or 33 % of the population of 992,622, were enslaved African Americans. They lived and worked chiefly on plantations in the eastern Tidewater. In addition, 30,463 free people of color lived in the state. They were also concentrated in the eastern coastal plain, especially at port cities such as Wilmington and New Bern, where a variety of jobs were available. Free African Americans were allowed to vote until 1835, when the state revoked their suffrage in restrictions following the slave rebellion of 1831 led by Nat Turner. Southern slave codes criminalized willful killing of a slave in most cases.
In 1860, North Carolina was a slave state, in which one - third of the population was enslaved. This was a smaller proportion than in many Southern states. The state did not vote to join the Confederacy until President Abraham Lincoln called on it to invade its sister state, South Carolina, becoming the last or second - to - last state to officially join the Confederacy. The title of "last to join the Confederacy '' has been disputed; although Tennessee 's informal secession on May 7, 1861, preceded North Carolina 's official secession on May 20, the Tennessee legislature did not formally vote to secede until June 8, 1861.
North Carolina was the site of few battles, but it provided the Confederacy with at least 125,000 troops, which is far more than any other state did. Approximately 40,000 of those troops died: more than half of disease, the remainder from battlefield wounds and from starvation. North Carolina also supplied about 15,000 Union troops. Elected in 1862, Governor Zebulon Baird Vance tried to maintain state autonomy against Confederate President Jefferson Davis in Richmond.
After secession, some North Carolinians refused to support the Confederacy. Some of the yeoman farmers in the state 's mountains and western Piedmont region remained neutral during the Civil War, while some covertly supported the Union cause during the conflict. Approximately 2,000 North Carolinians from western North Carolina enlisted in the Union Army and fought for the North in the war. Two additional Union Army regiments were raised in the coastal areas of the state, which were occupied by Union forces in 1862 and 1863. Numerous slaves escaped to Union lines, where they became essentially free.
Confederate troops from all parts of North Carolina served in virtually all the major battles of the Army of Northern Virginia, the Confederacy 's most famous army. The largest battle fought in North Carolina was at Bentonville, which was a futile attempt by Confederate General Joseph Johnston to slow Union General William Tecumseh Sherman 's advance through the Carolinas in the spring of 1865. In April 1865, after losing the Battle of Morrisville, Johnston surrendered to Sherman at Bennett Place, in what is today Durham. North Carolina 's port city of Wilmington was the last Confederate port to fall to the Union, in February 1865, after the Union won the nearby Second Battle of Fort Fisher, its major defense downriver.
The first Confederate soldier to be killed in the Civil War was Private Henry Wyatt from North Carolina, in the Battle of Big Bethel in June 1861. At the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863, the 26th North Carolina Regiment participated in Pickett / Pettigrew 's Charge and advanced the farthest into the Northern lines of any Confederate regiment. During the Battle of Chickamauga, the 58th North Carolina Regiment advanced farther than any other regiment on Snodgrass Hill to push back the remaining Union forces from the battlefield. At Appomattox Court House in Virginia in April 1865, the 75th North Carolina Regiment, a cavalry unit, fired the last shots of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia in the Civil War. For many years, North Carolinians proudly boasted that they had been "First at Bethel, Farthest at Gettysburg and Chickamauga, and Last at Appomattox. ''
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of North Carolina was 10,146,788 on July 1, 2016, a 6.4 % increase since the 2010 United States Census. Of the people residing in North Carolina, 58.5 % were born in North Carolina, 33.1 % were born in another US state, 1.0 % were born in Puerto Rico, U.S. Island areas, or born abroad to American parent (s), and 7.4 % were born in another country. As of 2011, 49.8 % of North Carolina 's population younger than age 1 were minorities.
Demographics of North Carolina covers the varieties of ethnic groups that reside in North Carolina, along with the relevant trends.
The state 's racial composition in the 2010 Census:
As of 2011, 49.8 % of North Carolina 's population younger than age 1 were minorities (meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white).
As of 2010, 89.66 % (7,750,904) of North Carolina residents age 5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 6.93 % (598,756) spoke Spanish, 0.32 % (27,310) French, 0.27 % (23,204) German, and Chinese (which includes Mandarin) was spoken as a main language by 0.27 % (23,072) of the population over the age of five. In total, 10.34 % (893,735) of North Carolina 's population age 5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.
North Carolina residents, like those of other Southern states, since the colonial era have historically been overwhelmingly Protestant, first Anglican, then Baptist and Methodist. By the late 19th century, the largest Protestant denomination was the Baptist. After the Civil War, black Baptists were not allowed in white churches, due to segregation, and set up their own independent congregations. Black Baptists went on to develop their own state and national associations, to be free of white supervision.
While the Baptists in total (counting both blacks and whites) have maintained the majority in this part of the country (known as the Bible Belt), the population in North Carolina practices a wide variety of faiths, including Judaism, Islam, Baha'i, Buddhism, and Hinduism. As of 2010 the Southern Baptist Church was the biggest denomination, with 4,241 churches and 1,513,000 members; the second largest was the United Methodist Church, with 660,000 members and 1,923 churches. The third was the Roman Catholic Church, with 428,000 members in 190 congregations. The fourth greatest was the Presbyterian Church (USA), with 186,000 members and 710 congregations; this denomination was brought by Scots - Irish immigrants who settled the backcountry in the colonial era.
The state also has a special history with the Moravian Church, as settlers of this faith (largely of German origin) found a home in the Winston - Salem area in the 18th and 19th centuries. Presbyterians, historically Scotish - Irish, have had a strong presence in Charlotte and in Scotland County.
Currently, the rapid influx of northerners and immigrants from Latin America is steadily increasing ethnic and religious diversity: the number of Roman Catholics and Jews in the state has increased, as well as general religious diversity. The second - largest Protestant denomination in North Carolina after Baptist traditions is Methodism, which is strong in the northern Piedmont, especially in populous Guilford County. There are also a substantial number of Quakers in Guilford County and northeastern North Carolina. Many universities and colleges in the state have been founded on religious traditions, and some currently maintain that affiliation, including:
The state also has several major seminaries, including the Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary in Wake Forest, and the Hood Theological Seminary (AME Zion) in Salisbury.
In 2016, the US Census Bureau released 2015 population estimate counts for North Carolina 's counties. Mecklenburg County has the largest population, while Wake County has the second largest population in North Carolina.
In 2016, the US Census Bureau released 2015 population estimate counts for North Carolina 's cities with populations above 70,000. Charlotte has the largest population, while Raleigh has the highest population density of North Carolina 's largest cities.
North Carolina has three major Combined Statistical Areas with populations of more than 1.6 million (U.S. Census Bureau 2015 estimates):
North Carolina has a very diverse economy because of its great availability of hydroelectric power, its pleasant climate, and its wide variety of soils. The state ranks third among the South Atlantic states in population, but leads the region in industry and agriculture. North Carolina leads the nation in the production of tobacco, textiles, and furniture. Charlotte, the state 's largest city, is a major textile and trade center. According to a Forbes article written in 2013 Employment in the "Old North State '' has gained many different industry sectors. See the following article summary: science, technology, energy and math, or STEM, industries in the area surrounding North Carolina 's capital have grown 17.9 percent since 2001, placing Raleigh - Cary at No. 5 among the 51 largest metro areas in the country where technology is booming. In 2010, North Carolina 's total gross state product was $424.9 billion, while the state debt in November 2012, according to one source, totalled US $2.4 bn, while according to another, was in 2012 US $57.8 bn. In 2011, the civilian labor force was at around 4.5 million with employment near 4.1 million. The working population is employed across the major employment sectors. The economy of North Carolina covers 15 metropolitan areas. In 2010, North Carolina was chosen as the third - best state for business by Forbes Magazine, and the second - best state by Chief Executive Officer Magazine.
North Carolina is the leading U.S. state in production of flue - cured tobacco and sweet potatoes, and comes second in the farming of pigs and hogs, trout, and turkeys. In the three most recent USDA surveys (2002, 2007, 2012), North Carolina also ranked second in the production of Christmas trees.
Based on American Community Survey 2010 - 2014 data, North Carolina 's median household income was $46,693. It ranked forty - first out of fifty states plus the District of Columbia for median household income. North Carolina had the fourteenth highest poverty rate in the nation at 17.6 %. 13 % of families were below the poverty line.
Since 2000, there has been a clear division in the economic growth of North Carolina 's urban and rural areas. While North Carolina 's urban areas have enjoyed a prosperous economy with steady job growth, low unemployment, and rising wages, many of the state 's rural counties have suffered from job loss, rising levels of poverty, and population loss as their manufacturing base has declined. According to one estimate, one - half of North Carolina 's 100 counties have lost population since 2010, primarily due to the poor economy in many of North Carolina 's rural areas. However, the population of the state 's urban areas is steadily increasing.
Transportation systems in North Carolina consist of air, water, road, rail, and public transportation including intercity rail via Amtrak and light rail in Charlotte. North Carolina has the second - largest state highway system in the country as well as the largest ferry system on the east coast.
North Carolina 's airports serve destinations throughout the United States and international destinations in Canada, Europe, Central America, and the Caribbean. In 2013 Charlotte Douglas International Airport ranked as the 23rd busiest airport in the world.
North Carolina has a growing passenger rail system with Amtrak serving most major cities. Charlotte is also home to North Carolina 's only light rail system known as the Lynx.
The government of North Carolina is divided into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. These consist of the Council of State (led by the Governor), the bicameral legislature (called the General Assembly), and the state court system (headed by the North Carolina Supreme Court). The state constitution delineates the structure and function of the state government. North Carolina has 13 seats in the U.S. House of Representatives and two seats in the U.S. Senate.
North Carolina 's party loyalties have undergone a series of important shifts in the last few years: While the 2010 midterms saw Tar Heel voters elect a bicameral Republican majority legislature for the first time in over a century, North Carolina has also become a Southern swing state in presidential races. Since Southern Democrat Jimmy Carter 's comfortable victory in the state in 1976, the state had consistently leaned Republican in presidential elections until Democrat Barack Obama narrowly won the state in 2008. In the 1990s, Democrat Bill Clinton came within a point of winning the state in 1992 and also only narrowly lost the state in 1996. In the early 2000s, Republican George W. Bush easily won the state by over 12 points, but by 2008, demographic shifts, population growth, and increased liberalization in heavily populated areas such as the Research Triangle, Charlotte, Greensboro, Winston - Salem, Fayetteville, and Asheville, propelled Barack Obama to victory in North Carolina, the first Democrat to win the state since 1976. In 2012, North Carolina was again considered a competitive swing state, with the Democrats even holding their 2012 Democratic National Convention in Charlotte. However, Republican Mitt Romney ultimately eked out a 2 - point win in North Carolina, the only 2012 swing state that Obama lost, and one of only two states (along with Indiana) to flip from Obama in 2008 to the GOP in 2012.
In 2012, the state elected a Republican Governor (Pat McCrory) and Lieutenant Governor (Dan Forest) for the first time in more than two decades, while also giving the Republicans veto - proof majorities in both the State House of Representatives and the State Senate. Several U.S. House of Representatives seats also flipped control, with the Republicans holding nine seats to the Democrats ' four. In the 2014 mid-term elections, Republican David Rouzer won the state 's Seventh Congressional District seat, increasing the congressional delegation party split to 10 - 3 in favor of the GOP.
Elementary and secondary public schools are overseen by the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction. The North Carolina Superintendent of Public Instruction is the secretary of the North Carolina State Board of Education, but the board, rather than the superintendent, holds most of the legal authority for making public education policy. In 2009, the board 's chairman also became the "chief executive officer '' for the state 's school system. North Carolina has 115 public school systems, each of which is overseen by a local school board. A county may have one or more systems within it. The largest school systems in North Carolina are the Wake County Public School System, Charlotte - Mecklenburg Schools, Guilford County Schools, Winston - Salem / Forsyth County Schools, and Cumberland County Schools. In total there are 2,425 public schools in the state, including 99 charter schools. North Carolina Schools were segregated until the Brown v. Board of Education trial and the release of the Pearsall Plan.
In 1795, North Carolina opened the first public university in the United States -- the University of North Carolina (now named the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill). More than 200 years later, the University of North Carolina system encompasses 17 public universities including North Carolina State University, North Carolina A&T State University, North Carolina Central University, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, East Carolina University, Western Carolina University, Winston - Salem State University, the University of North Carolina at Asheville, the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, the University of North Carolina at Pembroke, UNC Wilmington, Elizabeth City State University, Appalachian State University, Fayetteville State University, and UNC School of the Arts, and. Along with its public universities, North Carolina has 58 public community colleges in its community college system. The largest university in North Carolina is currently North Carolina State University, with more than 34,000 students.
North Carolina is also home to many well - known private colleges and universities, including Duke University, Wake Forest University, Pfeiffer University, Lees - McRae College, Davidson College, Barton College, North Carolina Wesleyan College, Elon University, Guilford College, Livingstone College, Salem College, Shaw University (the first historically black college or university in the South), Laurel University, Meredith College, Methodist University, Belmont Abbey College (the only Catholic college in the Carolinas), Campbell University, University of Mount Olive, Montreat College, High Point University, Lenoir - Rhyne University (the only Lutheran university in North Carolina) and Wingate University.
North Carolina is home to three major league sports franchises: the Carolina Panthers of the National Football League and the Charlotte Hornets of the National Basketball Association are based in Charlotte, while the Raleigh - based Carolina Hurricanes play in the National Hockey League. The Panthers and Hurricanes are the only two major professional sports teams that have the same geographical designation while playing in different metropolitan areas. The Hurricanes are the only major professional team from North Carolina to have won a league championship, having captured the Stanley Cup in 2006. North Carolina is also home to two other top - level professional teams in less prominent sports -- the Charlotte Hounds of Major League Lacrosse and the North Carolina Courage of the National Women 's Soccer League.
While North Carolina has no Major League Baseball team, it does have numerous minor league baseball teams, with the highest level of play coming from the AAA - affiliated Charlotte Knights and Durham Bulls. Additionally, North Carolina has minor league teams in other team sports including soccer and ice hockey, most notably North Carolina FC and the Charlotte Checkers, both of which play in the second tier of their respective sports.
In addition to professional team sports, North Carolina has a strong affiliation with NASCAR and stock - car racing, with Charlotte Motor Speedway in Concord hosting two Cup Series races every year. Charlotte also hosts the NASCAR Hall of Fame, while Concord is the home of several top - flight racing teams, including Hendrick Motorsports, Roush Fenway Racing, Richard Petty Motorsports, Stewart - Haas Racing, and Chip Ganassi Racing. Numerous other tracks around North Carolina host races from low - tier NASCAR circuits as well.
Golf is a popular summertime leisure activity, and North Carolina has hosted several important professional golf tournaments. Pinehurst Resort in Pinehurst has hosted a PGA Championship, Ryder Cup, two U.S. Opens, and one U.S. Women 's Open. The Wells Fargo Championship is a regular stop on the PGA Tour and is held at Quail Hollow Club in Charlotte, while the Wyndham Championship is played annually in Greensboro.
College sports are also popular in North Carolina, with 18 schools competing at the Division I level. The Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) is headquartered in Greensboro, and both the ACC Football Championship Game (Charlotte) and the ACC Men 's Basketball Tournament (Greensboro) were most recently held in North Carolina. College basketball in particular is very popular, buoyed by the Tobacco Road rivalries between Duke, North Carolina, North Carolina State, and Wake Forest. The ACC Championship Game and the Belk Bowl are held annually in Charlotte 's Bank of America Stadium, featuring teams from the ACC and the Southeastern Conference. Additionally, the state has hosted the NCAA Men 's Basketball Final Four on two occasions, in Greensboro in 1974 and in Charlotte in 1994.
Every year the Appalachian Mountains attract several million tourists to the Western part of the state, including the historic Biltmore Estate. The scenic Blue Ridge Parkway and Great Smoky Mountains National Park are the two most visited national park and unit in the United States with over 25 million visitors in 2013. The City of Asheville is consistently voted as one of the top places to visit and live in the United States, known for its rich art deco architecture, mountain scenery and outdoor activities, and liberal and happy residents.
In Raleigh many tourists visit the Capital, African American Cultural Complex, Contemporary Art Museum of Raleigh, Gregg Museum of Art & Design at NCSU, Haywood Hall House & Gardens, Marbles Kids Museum, North Carolina Museum of Art, North Carolina Museum of History, North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, North Carolina Sports Hall of Fame, Raleigh City Museum, J.C. Raulston Arboretum, Joel Lane House, Mordecai House, Montfort Hall, and the Pope House Museum. The Carolina Hurricanes NHL hockey team is also located in the city.
In the Charlotte area, amenities include the Carolina Panthers NFL football team and Charlotte Hornets basketball team, Carowinds amusement park, Charlotte Motor Speedway, U.S. National Whitewater Center, and the Discovery Place. Nearby Concord has the Great Wolf Lodge and Sea Life Aquarium.
In the Conover -- Hickory area, Hickory Motor Speedway, RockBarn Golf and Spa, home of the Greater Hickory Classic at Rock Barn; Catawba County Firefighters Museum, and SALT Block attract many tourists to Conover. Hickory which has Valley Hills Mall.
The Piedmont Triad, or center of the state, is home to Krispy Kreme, Mayberry, Texas Pete, the Lexington Barbecue Festival, and Moravian cookies. The internationally acclaimed North Carolina Zoo in Asheboro attracts visitors to its animals, plants, and a 57 - piece art collection along five miles of shaded pathways in the world 's largest - land - area natural - habitat park. Seagrove, in the central portion of the state, attracts many tourists along Pottery Highway (NC Hwy 705). MerleFest in Wilkesboro attracts more than 80,000 people to its four - day music festival; and Wet ' n Wild Emerald Pointe water park in Greensboro is another attraction.
The Outer Banks and surrounding beaches attract millions of people to the Atlantic beaches every year.
The mainland northeastern part of the state, having recently adopted the name the Inner Banks, is also known as the Albemarle Region, for the Albemarle Settlements, some of the first settlements on North Carolina 's portion of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. The regions historic sites are connected by the Historic Albemarle Tour.
North Carolina provides a large range of recreational activities, from swimming at the beach to skiing in the mountains. North Carolina offers fall colors, freshwater and saltwater fishing, hunting, birdwatching, agritourism, ATV trails, ballooning, rock climbing, biking, hiking, skiing, boating and sailing, camping, canoeing, caving (spelunking), gardens, and arboretums. North Carolina has theme parks, aquariums, museums, historic sites, lighthouses, elegant theaters, concert halls, and fine dining.
North Carolinians enjoy outdoor recreation utilizing numerous local bike paths, 34 state parks, and 14 national parks. National Park Service units include the Appalachian National Scenic Trail, the Blue Ridge Parkway, Cape Hatteras National Seashore, Cape Lookout National Seashore, Carl Sandburg Home National Historic Site at Flat Rock, Fort Raleigh National Historic Site at Manteo, Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Guilford Courthouse National Military Park in Greensboro, Moores Creek National Battlefield near Currie in Pender County, the Overmountain Victory National Historic Trail, Old Salem National Historic Site in Winston - Salem, the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail, and Wright Brothers National Memorial in Kill Devil Hills. National Forests include Uwharrie National Forest in central North Carolina, Croatan National Forest in Eastern North Carolina, Pisgah National Forest in the northern mountains, and Nantahala National Forest in the southwestern part of the state.
North Carolina has rich traditions in art, music, and cuisine. The nonprofit arts and culture industry generates $1.2 billion in direct economic activity in North Carolina, supporting more than 43,600 full - time equivalent jobs and generating $119 million in revenue for local governments and the state of North Carolina. North Carolina established the North Carolina Museum of Art as the first major museum collection in the country to be formed by state legislation and funding and continues to bring millions into the NC economy. Also see this list of museums in North Carolina.
One of the more famous arts communities in the state is Seagrove, the handmade - pottery capital of the U.S., where artisans create handcrafted pottery inspired by the same traditions that began in this community more than 200 years ago. With nearly 100 shops and galleries scattered throughout the area, visitors can find everything from traditional tableware to folk and collectible art pieces and historical reproductions.
North Carolina boasts a large number of noteworthy jazz musicians, some among the most important in the history of the genre. These include: John Coltrane, (Hamlet, High Point); Thelonious Monk (Rocky Mount); Billy Taylor (Greenville); Woody Shaw (Laurinburg); Lou Donaldson (Durham); Max Roach (Newland); Tal Farlow (Greensboro); Albert, Jimmy and Percy Heath (Wilmington); Nina Simone (Tryon); and Billy Strayhorn (Hillsborough).
North Carolina is also famous for its tradition of old - time music, and many recordings were made in the early 20th century by folk - song collector Bascom Lamar Lunsford. Musicians such as the North Carolina Ramblers helped solidify the sound of country music in the late 1920s, while the influential bluegrass musician Doc Watson also hailed from North Carolina. Both North and South Carolina are hotbeds for traditional rural blues, especially the style known as the Piedmont blues.
Ben Folds Five originated in Winston - Salem, and Ben Folds still records and resides in Chapel Hill.
The British band Pink Floyd is named, in part, after Chapel Hill bluesman Floyd Council.
The Research Triangle area has long been a well - known center for folk, rock, metal, jazz and punk. James Taylor grew up around Chapel Hill, and his 1968 song "Carolina in My Mind '' has been called an unofficial anthem for the state. Other famous musicians from North Carolina include J. Cole, Shirley Caesar, Roberta Flack, Clyde McPhatter, Nnenna Freelon, Warren Haynes, Jimmy Herring, Michael Houser, Eric Church, Future Islands, Randy Travis, Ryan Adams, Ronnie Milsap, Anthony Hamilton, The Avett Brothers and Luke Combs.
Metal and punk acts such as Corrosion of Conformity, Between the Buried and Me, and Nightmare Sonata are native to North Carolina.
EDM producer Porter Robinson hails from Chapel Hill.
North Carolina is the home of more American Idol finalists than any other state: Clay Aiken (season two), Fantasia Barrino (season three), Chris Daugherty (season five), Kellie Pickler (season five), Bucky Covington (season five), Anoop Desai (season eight), Scotty McCreery (season ten), and Caleb Johnson (season thirteen). North Carolina also has the most American Idol winners with Barrino, McCreery, and Johnson.
In the mountains, the Brevard Music Center hosts choral, orchestral, and solo performances during its annual summer schedule.
Also, see the North Carolina Music Hall of Fame.
North Carolina has a variety of shopping choices. SouthPark Mall in Charlotte is currently the largest in the Carolinas, with almost 2.0 million square feet. Other major malls in Charlotte include Northlake Mall and Carolina Place Mall in nearby suburb Pineville. Other major malls throughout the state include Hanes Mall in Winston - Salem; Crabtree Valley Mall, North Hills Mall, and Triangle Town Center in Raleigh; Friendly Center and Four Seasons Town Centre in Greensboro; Oak Hollow Mall in High Point; Concord Mills in Concord; Valley Hills Mall in Hickory; Cross Creek Mall in Fayetteville; and The Streets at Southpoint and Northgate Mall in Durham and Independence Mall in Wilmington, North Carolina, and Tanger Outlets in Charlotte, Nags Head, Blowing Rock, and Mebane, North Carolina.
A culinary staple of North Carolina is pork barbecue. There are strong regional differences and rivalries over the sauces and methods used in making the barbecue. The common trend across Western North Carolina is the use of premium grade Boston butt. Western North Carolina pork barbecue uses a tomato - based sauce, and only the pork shoulder (dark meat) is used. Western North Carolina barbecue is commonly referred to as Lexington barbecue after the Piedmont Triad town of Lexington, home of the Lexington Barbecue Festival, which attracts over 100,000 visitors each October. Eastern North Carolina pork barbecue uses a vinegar - and - red - pepper - based sauce and the "whole hog '' is cooked, thus integrating both white and dark meat.
Krispy Kreme, an international chain of doughnut stores, was started in North Carolina; the company 's headquarters are in Winston - Salem. Pepsi - Cola was first produced in 1898 in New Bern. A regional soft drink, Cheerwine, was created and is still based in the city of Salisbury. Despite its name, the hot sauce Texas Pete was created in North Carolina; its headquarters are also in Winston - Salem. The Hardee 's fast - food chain was started in Rocky Mount. Another fast - food chain, Bojangles ', was started in Charlotte, and has its corporate headquarters there. A popular North Carolina restaurant chain is Golden Corral. Started in 1973, the chain was founded in Fayetteville, with headquarters located in Raleigh. Popular pickle brand Mount Olive Pickle Company was founded in Mount Olive in 1926. Fast casual burger chain Hwy 55 Burgers, Shakes & Fries also makes its home in Mount Olive. Cook Out, a popular fast - food chain featuring burgers, hot dogs, and milkshakes in a wide variety of flavors, was founded in Greensboro in 1989 and has begun expanding outside of North Carolina. In 2013, Southern Living named Durham -- Chapel Hill the South 's "Tastiest City. ''
Over the last decade, North Carolina has become a cultural epicenter and haven for internationally prize - winning wine (Noni Bacca Winery), internationally prized cheeses (Ashe County), "L'institut International aux Arts Gastronomiques: Conquerront Les Yanks les Truffes, January 15, 2010 '' international hub for truffles (Garland Truffles), and beer making, as tobacco land has been converted to grape orchards while state laws regulating alcohol content in beer allowed a jump in ABV from 6 % to 15 %. The Yadkin Valley in particular has become a strengthening market for grape production, while Asheville recently won the recognition of being named ' Beer City USA. ' Asheville boasts the largest breweries per capita of any city in the United States. Recognized and marketed brands of beer in North Carolina include Highland Brewing, Duck Rabbit Brewery, Mother Earth Brewery, Weeping Radish Brewery, Big Boss Brewing, Foothills Brewing, Carolina Brewing Company, Lonerider Brewing, and White Rabbit Brewing Company. North Carolina has large grazing areas for beef and dairy cattle. Truck farms can be found in North Carolina. A truck farm is a small farm where fruits and vegetables are grown to be sold at local markets. The state 's shipping, commercial fishing, and lumber industries are important to its economy. Service industries, including education, health care, private research, and retail trade, are also important. Research Triangle Park, a large industrial complex located in the Raleigh - Durham area, is one of the major centers in the country for electronics and medical research
Tobacco was one of the first major industries to develop after the Civil War. Many farmers grew some tobacco, and the invention of the cigarette made the product especially popular. Winston - Salem is the birthplace of R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company (RJR), founded by R.J. Reynolds in 1874 as one of 16 tobacco companies in the town. By 1914 it was selling 425 million packs of Camels a year. Today it is the second - largest tobacco company in the U.S. (behind Altria Group). RJR is an indirect wholly owned subsidiary of Reynolds American Inc., which in turn is 42 % owned by British American Tobacco.
Several ships have been named after the state. Most famous is the USS North Carolina, a World War II battleship. The ship served in several battles against the forces of Imperial Japan in the Pacific theater during the war. Now decommissioned, it is part of the USS North Carolina Battleship Memorial in Wilmington. Another USS North Carolina, a nuclear attack submarine, was commissioned in Wilmington, North Carolina, on May 3, 2008.
The state maintains a group of protected areas known as the North Carolina State Park System, which is managed by the North Carolina Division of Parks & Recreation (NCDPR), an agency of the North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources (NCDENR).
Fort Bragg, near Fayetteville and Southern Pines, is a large and comprehensive military base and is the headquarters of the XVIII Airborne Corps, 82nd Airborne Division, and the U.S. Army Special Operations Command. Serving as the air wing for Fort Bragg is Pope Field, also located near Fayetteville.
Located in Jacksonville, Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, combined with nearby bases Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS) Cherry Point, MCAS New River, Camp Geiger, Camp Johnson, Stone Bay and Courthouse Bay, makes up the largest concentration of Marines and sailors in the world. MCAS Cherry Point is home of the 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing. Located in Goldsboro, Seymour Johnson Air Force Base is home of the 4th Fighter Wing and 916th Air Refueling Wing. One of the busiest air stations in the United States Coast Guard is located at the Coast Guard Air Station in Elizabeth City. Also stationed in North Carolina is the Military Ocean Terminal Sunny Point in Southport.
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Coordinates: 35 ° 30 ′ N 80 ° 00 ′ W / 35.5 ° N 80 ° W / 35.5; - 80
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director whose films include an adaption of charlie and the chocolate factory | Helena Bonham Carter - Wikipedia
Helena Bonham Carter CBE (born 26 May 1966) is an English actress best known for her roles in low - budget arthouse and independent films to large - scale Hollywood productions. She was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her role as Kate Croy in The Wings of the Dove (1997). For her role as Queen Elizabeth in The King 's Speech (2010), she was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress and won the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. She also won the 2010 International Emmy Award for Best Actress for her role as British author Enid Blyton in the TV film Enid (2009).
Bonham Carter began her film career playing the title character in Lady Jane (1986), and playing Lucy Honeychurch in A Room with a View (1985). Her other film roles include Ophelia in Hamlet (1990), Where Angels Fear to Tread (1991), Howards End (1992), Elizabeth Lavenza in Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein (1994), Woody Allen 's Mighty Aphrodite (1995), Marla Singer in Fight Club (1999), Bellatrix Lestrange in the Harry Potter series (2007 -- 11), Skynet in Terminator Salvation (2009), Miss Havisham in Great Expectations (2012), Madame Thénardier in Les Misérables (2012), the Fairy Godmother in Cinderella (2015) and Rose Weil in Ocean 's 8 (2018). She has frequently collaborated with director Tim Burton; in Planet of the Apes (2001), Big Fish (2003), Corpse Bride (2005), Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2005), Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007), Dark Shadows (2012), and playing the Red Queen in Alice in Wonderland (2010) and its sequel Alice Through the Looking Glass (2016). Her other television films include A Pattern of Roses (1983), Fatal Deception: Mrs. Lee Harvey Oswald (1993), Live from Baghdad (2002), Toast (2010), and Burton & Taylor (2013). In 2018, she is set to portray Princess Margaret in the Netflix drama series The Crown.
She was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2012 New Year Honours list for services to drama, and in January 2014, the British prime minister, David Cameron, announced that Bonham Carter had been appointed to Britain 's new national Holocaust Commission.
Bonham Carter was born in Islington, London. Her father, Raymond Bonham Carter, who came from a prominent British political family, was a merchant banker and served as the alternative British director representing the Bank of England at the International Monetary Fund in Washington, D.C., during the 1960s. Her mother, Elena (née Propper de Callejón), is a psychotherapist who is three quarters Jewish and whose own parents were diplomat Eduardo Propper de Callejón and painter, Baroness Hélène Fould - Springer. Helena 's paternal grandmother was politician and feminist icon Violet Asquith, daughter of H.H. Asquith, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during the first half of the First World War.
Bonham Carter is the youngest of three children, with two brothers, Edward and Thomas. They were brought up in Golders Green and she was educated at South Hampstead High School, and completed her A-levels at Westminster School. Bonham Carter was denied admission to King 's College, Cambridge, not because of her academic performance but because college officials were afraid that she would leave during the course to pursue her acting career.
When Bonham Carter was five her mother had a serious nervous breakdown, from which it took her three years to recover. Upon her recovery, her experience in therapy led her to become a psychotherapist herself -- Bonham Carter has paid her to read her scripts and deliver her opinion of the characters ' psychological motivations. Five years after her mother 's recovery, her father was diagnosed with acoustic neuroma. He suffered complications during an operation to remove the tumour that led to a stroke that left him half - paralysed and using a wheelchair. With her brothers at college, Bonham Carter was left to help her mother cope. She later studied her father 's movements and mannerisms for her role in The Theory of Flight. He died in January 2004.
Bonham Carter, who has no formal acting training, entered the field winning a national writing contest (1979) and used the money to pay for her entry into the actors ' Spotlight directory. She made her professional acting début at the age of 16 in a television commercial. She also had a part in a minor TV film, A Pattern of Roses.
Her first lead film role was as Lady Jane Grey in Lady Jane (1986), which was given mixed reviews by critics. Her breakthrough role was Lucy Honeychurch in A Room with a View (1985), which was filmed after Lady Jane but released two months earlier. Bonham Carter also appeared in episodes of Miami Vice as Don Johnson 's love interest during the 1986 -- 87 season and then, in 1987 opposite Dirk Bogarde in The Vision, Stewart Granger in A Hazard of Hearts and John Gielgud in Getting It Right. Bonham Carter was originally cast in the role of Bess McNeill in Breaking the Waves, but backed out during production due to "the character 's painful psychic and physical exposure '', according to Roger Ebert. The role went to Emily Watson, who was nominated for an Academy Award for her performance.
In 1994, Bonham Carter appeared in a dream sequence during the second series of the British sitcom Absolutely Fabulous, as Edina Monsoon 's daughter Saffron, who was normally played by Julia Sawalha. Throughout the series, references were made to Saffron 's resemblance to Bonham Carter.
Her early films led to her being typecast as a "corset queen '', and "English rose '', playing pre - and early 20th century characters, particularly in Merchant - Ivory films. She played Olivia in Trevor Nunn 's film version of Twelfth Night in 1996. One of the high points of her early career was her performance as the scheming Kate Croy in the 1997 film adaption of The Wings of the Dove which was highly acclaimed internationally and netted her first Golden Globe and Academy Award nominations. She has since expanded her range, with her more recent films being Fight Club, Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were - Rabbit, and her then - partner Tim Burton 's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, Corpse Bride, Big Fish, Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street, and Alice in Wonderland.
Bonham Carter speaks French fluently, and starred in a 1996 French film Portraits chinois. In August 2001, she was featured in Maxim. She played her second Queen of England when she was cast as Anne Boleyn in the ITV1 mini-series Henry VIII; however, her role was restricted, as she was pregnant with her first child at the time of filming. Bonham Carter was a member of the 2006 Cannes Film Festival jury that unanimously selected The Wind That Shakes the Barley as best film.
In May 2006, Bonham Carter launched her own fashion line, "The Pantaloonies '', with swimwear designer Samantha Sage. Their first collection, called Bloomin ' Bloomers, is a Victorian style selection of camisoles, mob caps, and bloomers. The duo are now working on Pantaloonies customised jeans, which Bonham Carter describes as "a kind of scrapbook on the bum ''.
Bonham Carter played Bellatrix Lestrange in the final four Harry Potter films (2007 -- 2011). While filming Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, she accidentally ruptured the eardrum of Matthew Lewis (playing Neville Longbottom) when she stuck her wand in his ear. Bonham Carter received positive reviews as Bellatrix, described as a "shining but underused talent ''. She played Mrs. Lovett, Sweeney Todd 's (Johnny Depp) amorous accomplice in the film adaptation of Stephen Sondheim 's Broadway musical, Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street, directed by Tim Burton. Bonham Carter received a nomination for the Golden Globe for Best Actress for her performance. She won the Best Actress award in the 2007 Evening Standard British Film Awards for her performances in Sweeney Todd and Conversations With Other Women, along with another Best Actress award at the 2009 Empire Awards. Bonham Carter also appeared in the fourth Terminator film entitled Terminator Salvation, playing a small but pivotal role.
Bonham Carter joined the cast of Tim Burton 's 2010 film, Alice in Wonderland as The Red Queen. She appears alongside Johnny Depp, Anne Hathaway, Mia Wasikowska, Crispin Glover and Harry Potter co-star Alan Rickman. Her role was an amalgamation of The Queen of Hearts and The Red Queen. In early 2009, Bonham Carter was named one of The Times 's top 10 British Actresses of all time. She appeared on the list with fellow actresses Julie Andrews, Helen Mirren, Maggie Smith, Judi Dench, and Audrey Hepburn.
In 2010, Bonham Carter played Lady Elizabeth Bowes - Lyon / Queen Elizabeth in the film The King 's Speech. As of January 2011, she had received numerous plaudits for her performance, including nominations for the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role and the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. She won her first BAFTA Award, but lost the Academy Award to Melissa Leo for The Fighter.
Bonham Carter signed to play author Enid Blyton in the BBC Four television biopic, Enid. It was the first depiction of Blyton 's life on the screen, and Bonham Carter starred with Matthew Macfadyen and Denis Lawson. She received her first Television BAFTA Nomination for Best Actress, for Enid. In 2010, she starred with Freddie Highmore in the Nigel Slater biopic Toast, which was filmed in the West Midlands and received a gala at the 2011 Berlin International Film Festival. She received the Britannia Award for British Artist of the Year from BAFTA LA in 2011.
In 2012, Bonham Carter appeared as Miss Havisham in Mike Newell 's adaptation of the Charles Dickens novel, Great Expectations. In April 2012, she appeared in Rufus Wainwright 's music video for his single "Out of the Game '', featured on the album of the same name. Bonham Carter co-starred in a film adaptation of the musical Les Misérables, released in 2012. She played the role of Madame Thénardier.
On 17 May 2012, it was announced that Bonham Carter would be appearing in the 2013 adaptation of Reif Larsen 's book The Selected Works of T.S. Spivet, entitled The Young and Prodigious T.S. Spivet. Her casting was announced alongside that of Kathy Bates, Kyle Catlett and Callum Keith Rennie, with Jean - Pierre Jeunet directing. She also appeared in a short film directed by Roman Polanski for the clothing brand Prada. The short was entitled A Therapy and she appeared as a therapy patient to Ben Kingsley 's therapist.
In 2013, she played Red Harrington, a peg - legged brothel madam, who assists Reid and Tonto in locating Cavendish, in the movie The Lone Ranger. Also that year, Bonham Carter narrated poetry for The Love Book App, an interactive anthology of love literature developed by Allie Byrne Esiri. Also in 2013, Bonham Carter appeared as Elizabeth Taylor, alongside Dominic West as Richard Burton, in BBC4 's Burton & Taylor which premiered at the 2013 Hamptons International Film Festival. She played the Fairy Godmother in the 2015 live - action re-imagining of Walt Disney 's Cinderella.
In 2016, Bonham Carter reprised her role of the Red Queen in Alice Through the Looking Glass. In June 2018, Bonham Carter starred in a spin - off of the Ocean 's Eleven Trilogy, titled Ocean 's 8, alongside Sandra Bullock, Cate Blanchett, Anne Hathaway, and Sarah Paulson.
In early October 2008, it was reported that Bonham Carter had become a patron of the charity Action Duchenne, the national charity established to support parents and sufferers of Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
In August 2014, Bonham Carter was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run - up to September 's referendum on that issue.
In August 2008, four of her relatives were killed in a safari bus crash in South Africa, and she was given indefinite leave from filming Terminator Salvation, returning later to complete filming.
In the 1990s, Bonham Carter briefly dated Rufus Sewell.
In 1994, Bonham Carter and Kenneth Branagh met while filming Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein. They began an affair, while Branagh was still married to Emma Thompson, whom he had met in 1987 while filming the BBC Series Fortunes of War and married in 1989. At the time, Thompson 's career was soaring, while Branagh was struggling to make a success of his first big - budget film (Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein). Following his affair with Bonham Carter, Branagh and Thompson divorced in 1995. However, in 1999, after five years together, Bonham Carter and Branagh also called it quits.
Thompson has gone on to have "no hard feelings, '' towards Bonham Carter, calling the past "blood under the bridge. '' She explained, "You ca n't hold on to anything like that. It 's pointless. I have n't got the energy for it. Helena and I made our peace years and years ago. She 's a wonderful woman. '' Thompson and Bonham Carter later went on to star together in the Harry Potter series.
In 2001, Bonham Carter began a relationship with American director Tim Burton, whom she met while filming Planet of the Apes. Burton subsequently took to casting her in his films, including Big Fish, Corpse Bride, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street, Alice in Wonderland and Dark Shadows. After their separation, Bonham Carter mentioned, "it might be easier to work together without being together any more. He always only cast me with great embarrassment. ''
Bonham Carter and Burton lived in two adjoining houses in Belsize Park, London. Bonham Carter owned one of the houses, Burton later purchased the other and they connected the two. In 2006, they bought the Mill House in Sutton Courtenay, England. It was previously leased by her grandmother, Violet Bonham Carter, and owned by her great - grandfather, former British prime minister H.H. Asquith.
Bonham Carter and Burton have two children together: son Billy Raymond Burton (born October 2003) and daughter Nell Burton (born December 2007). Bonham Carter has stated that her daughter Nell is named after all the "Helens '' in her family. Bonham Carter told The Daily Telegraph and several other interviewers of her struggles with infertility and the difficulties she had during her pregnancies. She noted that before the conception of her daughter, she and Burton had been trying for a baby for two years and although they conceived naturally, they were considering IVF.
On 23 December 2014, Bonham Carter and Burton announced that they had "separated amicably '' earlier that year. Of the separation, Bonham Carter was refreshingly open with the public about the difficulty. She told Harper 's Bazaar: "Everyone always says you have to be strong and have a stiff upper lip, but it 's okay to be fragile... You 've got to take very small steps, and sometimes you wo n't know where to go next because you 've lost yourself. '' She added: "With divorce, you go through massive grief -- it is a death of a relationship, so it 's utterly bewildering. Your identity, everything, changes. ''
Bonham Carter is known for her unconventional and eccentric sense of fashion. Vanity Fair named her on its 2010 Best - Dressed List and she was selected by Marc Jacobs to be the face of his autumn / winter 2011 advertising campaign. She has cited Vivienne Westwood and Marie Antoinette as her main style influences.
Bonham Carter 's paternal grandparents were British Liberal politicians Sir Maurice Bonham Carter and Lady Violet Bonham Carter. Helena is descended on her father 's side from John Bonham Carter, Member of Parliament for Portsmouth. Helena 's paternal great - grandfather was H. H. Asquith, 1st Earl of Oxford and Asquith and Prime Minister of Britain 1908 -- 1916. She is the great - niece of Asquith 's son, Anthony Asquith, English director of such films as Carrington V.C. and The Importance of Being Earnest, and a first cousin of the economist Adam Ridley and of politician Jane Bonham Carter.
Bonham Carter is a distant cousin of actor Crispin Bonham - Carter. Other prominent distant relatives include Lothian Bonham Carter, who played first - class cricket for Hampshire, his son, Vice Admiral Sir Stuart Bonham Carter, who served in the Royal Navy in both world wars, and pioneering English nurse Florence Nightingale.
Her maternal grandfather, Spanish diplomat Eduardo Propper de Callejón, saved thousands of Jews from the Holocaust during the Second World War, for which he was recognised as Righteous Among the Nations (his own father was a Bohemian Jew). He later served as Minister - Counselor at the Spanish Embassy in Washington, D.C.
Her maternal grandmother, Baroness Hélène Fould - Springer, was from an upper class Jewish family; she was the daughter of Baron Eugène Fould - Springer (a French banker descended from the Ephrussi family and the Fould dynasty) and Marie Cecile von Springer (whose father was Austrian - born industrialist Baron Gustav von Springer, and whose mother was from the de Koenigswarter family). Hélène Fould - Springer converted to Catholicism after the Second World War. Hélène 's sister was the French philanthropist Liliane de Rothschild (1916 -- 2003), the wife of Baron Élie de Rothschild, of the prominent Rothschild family (who had also married within the von Springer family in the 19th century); Liliane 's other sister, Therese Fould - Springer, was the mother of British writer David Pryce - Jones.
Bonham Carter has been the recipient of a BAFTA Award, a Critics ' Choice Movie Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award, as well as receiving further nominations for two Academy Awards, seven Golden Globe Awards and three Primetime Emmy Awards. She has received other prestigious awards such as a Satellite Award and two National Board of Review awards.
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where does santa clause the movie take place | The Santa Clause - wikipedia
The Santa Clause is a 1994 American Christmas fantasy family comedy film directed by John Pasquin. The first film in the Santa Clause film series, it stars Tim Allen as Scott Calvin, an ordinary man who accidentally causes Santa Claus to fall from his roof on Christmas Eve. When he and his young son, Charlie, finish St. Nick 's trip and deliveries, they go to the North Pole where Scott learns that he must become the new Santa and convince those he loves that he is indeed Father Christmas.
This was Pasquin and Allen 's first movie collaboration after they both worked together on the TV series Home Improvement. Pasquin and Allen would later work again on the films Jungle 2 Jungle and Joe Somebody, and on the television series Last Man Standing.
The film was followed by two sequels, The Santa Clause 2 (2002) and The Santa Clause 3: The Escape Clause (2006). In comparison to the original, the former received mixed critical response while the latter was panned by most critics.
Scott Calvin (Tim Allen) is a successful executive at a toy company. However, he spends less and less time with his son Charlie (Eric Lloyd), to the point where Charlie is not too happy to spend Christmas with Scott. After Charlie is dropped off by Scott 's ex-wife, Laura (Wendy Crewson) and her new husband Neil (Judge Reinhold), the two are left alone at Scott 's residence. However, he burns their turkey meal and the two are forced to go to Denny 's for dinner. After reading Charlie the book ' Twas the night before Christmas, Charlie wakes Scott up after hearing noises on the roof.
Rushing outside, Scott startles a man dressed as Santa on the roof, causing him to slip and fall. Attempting to help the man, Scott finds a card on him that states "If something should happen to me, put on my suit, the Reindeer will know what to do, '' after which the body disappears. Charlie comes outside and discovers reindeer and a sleigh on the roof. Pushed by his son, Scott puts on the Santa suit and delivers a few gifts before the reindeer take them to the North Pole. Bernard (David Krumholtz), the head elf, explains to Scott that, because he put on the suit, he is now Santa, and gives him one year to get his affairs in order before taking over Santa 's duties. Overwhelmed, Scott changes into pajamas and falls asleep. Eventually waking up in his own bed, Scott believes he had an elaborate dream, until Charlie begins telling him events of the previous night.
Over the course of the next year, strange things begin to occur. Scott begins gaining a significant amount of weight, hitting 192 pounds, including forty - five pounds in a week. His facial hair regrows quickly after shaving and his hair turns stark white. As if he was pregnant, Scott begins craving sweets, adopting a diet consisting mainly of milk and cookies. Scott 's rapid weight gain causes his clothes to stop fitting, requiring him to wear sweatpants and t - shirts that reveal his jiggly, swollen, and massive gut. This eventually leads to Laura and Neil visiting a judge and arranging to suspend Scott 's visitation rights, thinking he is losing touch with reality. Scott eventually visits Charlie anyway, and is convinced that he is Santa. Bernard appears, and whisks both to the North Pole to begin preparations for Christmas.
Laura and Neil believe Scott has kidnapped Charlie and contact the police. At the North Pole, Scott sets out for Christmas with Charlie in tow. However, upon arriving at his old home, Scott is arrested. The elves eventually send a crack team of extraction elves to rescue him. Scott returns to Laura 's house and reveals that he is Santa to them. Initially unbelieving, eventually both come around and believe that Scott is now Santa. After a very public departure, Scott travels the world delivering gifts. Using a magic snow globe given to him by Bernard, Charlie summons Scott back home. Laura agrees to let Charlie go with Scott to deliver the gifts and to the two head off into the night.
This film was entirely shot in the Greater Toronto Area. Oakville served as the city of Lakeside, Illinois. It was originally going to be released under the Hollywood Pictures banner, but was moved to Walt Disney Pictures after positive test screenings among children (despite Hollywood Pictures received a marquee credit -- placement of the studio 's production logo on marketing materials with the film 's opening titles). Prior to filming, Tim Allen took up Santa 's diet of milk and cookies to help him gain forty - five pounds for his role as Santa.
The Santa Clause grossed over USD $144 million in the United States and Canada, and over $189 million worldwide, making it a box - office hit. The film has since gone on to become a Christmas classic. Freeform and AMC have played the film during the holiday season with record ratings.
The film received generally positive reviews from the critics. The film currently holds a "Certified Fresh '' rating of 75 % on Rotten Tomatoes, with 39 positive reviews from 52 counted and an average rating of 6 / 10. The consensus from the site is "The Santa Clause is utterly undemanding, but it 's firmly rooted in the sort of good old - fashioned holiday spirit missing from too many modern yuletide films. ''
Note that songs listed here (and in the movie credits) can not always be found on CD soundtracks.
The film 's soundtrack was released on October 10, 1994 in the United States.
This film was first released on Home Video (VHS) on October 20, 1995. The first DVD was released in October 29, 2002. The Santa Clause along with its sequels were released in a three movie DVD collection in 2007. All three movies were released as a Blu - ray set on October 16, 2012.
Towards the beginning of the film a brief exchange between Scott and Laura takes place in which Laura hands Scott a piece of paper with Neil 's mother 's phone number on it. Scott then says "1 - 800 - SPANK - ME. I know that number. '' In the United States, the exchange was removed from the 1999 DVD release as well as the 2002 Special Edition DVD and VHS releases and the 2012 Blu - ray release after a 1996 incident in which a child from Steilacoom, Washington called the number and racked up a $400 phone bill. On television airings, the phone number is changed to "1 - 800 - POUND ''. The line remains intact on the 1995 VHS release.
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what is the relationship between iran and israel | Iran -- Israel relations - wikipedia
Iranian -- Israeli relations can be divided into four major phases: the period from 1947 -- 53, the friendly period during the era of the Pahlavi dynasty, the worsening period from the 1979 Iranian Revolution to 1990, and finally the hostility since the end of the First Gulf War. In 1947, Iran was among 13 countries that voted against the UN Partition Plan for Palestine. Two years later, Iran also voted against Israel 's admission to the United Nations. Nevertheless, Iran was the second Muslim - majority country to recognize Israel as a sovereign state after Turkey. After the 1953 coup d'état, which re-installed pro-Western Mohammad Reza Pahlavi to power, relations between the two countries significantly improved.
After the 1979 Revolution, Iran severed all diplomatic and commercial ties with Israel, and its Islamic government does not recognize the legitimacy of Israel as a state. The turn from cold peace to hostility started in the early 1990s, shortly after the collapse of the Soviet Union and defeat of the Iraqi Army during Desert Storm, after which relative power in the Middle East shifted towards Iran and Israel. The conflict escalated in the early 1990s, as Yitzhak Rabin 's government adopted a more aggressive posture on Iran. Rhetorical conflict heated up during the presidency of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, who made inflammatory statements against Israel. Other factors which contributed to the escalation of tensions include Iran 's development of nuclear technology relative to Israel 's long - stated Begin Doctrine, Iranian funding of groups like Hezbollah, Islamic Jihad and Hamas, and alleged involvement in terrorist attacks such as the 1992 attack on Israeli embassy in Buenos Aires and the 1994 AMIA bombing, alleged Israeli support for groups like People 's Mujahedin of Iran or Jundallah and alleged covert operations in Iran including assassinations and explosions.
The beginnings of Jewish history in Iran dates from late Biblical times. The biblical books of Isaiah, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles, and Esther contain references to the life and experiences of Jews in Persia. In the book of Ezra, the Persian king Cyrus the Great is credited with permitting and enabling the Jews to return to Jerusalem and rebuild their Temple; its reconstruction was carried out "according to the decree of Cyrus, and Darius, and Artaxerxes king of Persia '' (Ezra 6: 14). This is said to have taken place in the late sixth century BC, by which time there was a well - established and influential Jewish community in Persia. Persian Jews have lived in the territories of today 's Iran for over 2,700 years, since the first Jewish diaspora when Shalmaneser V conquered the (Northern) Kingdom of Israel (722 BC) and sent the Israelites into captivity at Khorasan. In 586 BC, the Babylonians expelled large populations of Jews from Judea to the Babylonian captivity. Jews who migrated to ancient Persia mostly lived in their own communities.
The Jewish Bible 's Ketuvim ends in Second Chronicles with the decree of Cyrus, which returned the exiles to the Promised Land from Babylon along with a commission to rebuild the temple.
' Thus saith Cyrus, king of Persia: All the kingdoms of the earth hath Yahweh, the God of heaven, given me; and He hath charged me to build Him a house in Jerusalem, which is in Judah. Whosoever there is among you of all His people -- may Yahweh, his God, be with him -- let him go there. ' (2 Chronicles 36: 23)
This edict is also fully reproduced in the Book of Ezra.
"In the first year of King Cyrus, Cyrus the king issued a decree: ' Concerning the house of God at Jerusalem, let the temple, the place where sacrifices are offered, be rebuilt and let its foundations be retained, its height being 60 cubits and its width 60 cubits; with three layers of huge stones and one layer of timbers. And let the cost be paid from the royal treasury. Also let the gold and silver utensils of the house of God, which Nebuchadnezzar took from the temple in Jerusalem and brought to Babylon, be returned and brought to their places in the temple in Jerusalem; and you shall put them in the house of God. ' (Ezra 6: 3 -- 5)
As a result of Cyrus 's policies, the Jews honored him as a dignified and righteous king. However, there is no evidence that the declaration reflected a unique attitude towards Jews. Rather, it may have been part of his renowned tolerance towards the cultures and religions of the people under his rule. The historical nature of this decree has been challenged. Professor Lester L Grabbe argues that there was no decree but that there was a policy that allowed exiles to return to their homelands and rebuild their temples. He also argues that the archaeology suggests that the return was a "trickle '', taking place over perhaps decades, resulting in a maximum population of perhaps 30,000. Philip R. Davies called the authenticity of the decree "dubious '', citing Grabbe and adding that J. Briend argued against "the authenticity of Ezra 1.1 -- 4 is J. Briend, in a paper given at the Institut Catholique de Paris on 15 December 1993, who denies that it resembles the form of an official document but reflects rather biblical prophetic idiom. '' Mary Joan Winn Leith believes that the decree in Ezra might be authentic and along with the Cylinder that Cyrus, like earlier rules, was through these decrees trying to gain support from those who might be strategically important, particularly those close to Egypt which he wished to conquer. He also wrote that "appeals to Marduk in the cylinder and to Yahweh in the biblical decree demonstrate the Persian tendency to co-opt local religious and political traditions in the interest of imperial control. ''
According to the Bible, Cyrus ordered rebuilding the Second Temple in the same place as the first; however, he died before it was completed. Darius the Great came to power in the Persian empire and ordered the completion of the temple. According to the Bible, the prophets Haggai and Zechariah urged this work. The temple was ready for consecration in the spring of 515 BCE, more than twenty years after the Jews ' return to Jerusalem.
According to the Book of Esther, during the reign of Persian King Ahasuerus, generally identified as Xerxes the Great (son of Darius the Great) in 6th century BCE, the vizier Haman instigated a plot to kill all the Jews of ancient Persia. The plot was thwarted by Queen Esther who ordered the hanging of Haman and his ten sons. This event is celebrated as the holiday of Purim.
In 1947, Iran was one of the eleven nations selected to form a Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) to recommend a resolution to the issue of the Palestine Mandate. After much deliberation the committee presented a Partition plan for Palestine, which had the support of eight out of eleven members of the committee. Iran along with India and Yugoslavia opposed the plan, predicting it would lead to an escalation of violence. Maintaining that peace could only be established through a single federal state, Iran voted against the partition plan when it was adopted by the UN General Assembly. The Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, predicted that the partition would lead to generations of fighting.
From the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 until the Iranian Revolution and the fall of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1979, Israel and Iran maintained close ties. Iran was the second Muslim - majority country to recognize Israel as a sovereign state after Turkey. Israel viewed Iran as a natural ally as a non-Arab power on the edge of the Arab world, in accordance with David Ben Gurion 's concept of an alliance of the periphery. Israel had a permanent delegation in Tehran which served as a de facto embassy, before Ambassadors were exchanged in the late 1970s.
After the Six - Day War, Iran supplied Israel with a significant portion of its oil needs and Iranian oil was shipped to European markets via the joint Israeli - Iranian Eilat - Ashkelon pipeline. Brisk trade between the countries continued until 1979, with Israeli construction firms and engineers active in Iran. El Al, the Israeli national airline, operated direct flights between Tel Aviv and Tehran. Iranian - Israeli military links and projects were kept secret, but they are believed to have been wide - ranging, for example the joint military project Project Flower (1977 -- 79), an Iranian - Israeli attempt to develop a new missile.
Considerable debts owed to Iran by Israel for business conducted before the Iranian revolution, in the order of a billion dollars, were not paid to Iran. Some of the debt comes from oil purchased by Israel, and a larger amount arises from operation of the Trans - Israel oil pipeline and associated port facilities, which were a joint venture between Israeli companies and the National Iranian Oil Company. The Israeli cabinet decided against paying the debt at a meeting in 1979 and granted legal indemnity to the Israeli companies which owed it. At least one Israeli bank account is known to hold $250 million owed to Iran. Since the 1980s, Iran has been suing in the European courts for payment of the debt and has won several cases. However payment of the debt is legally complicated by the international sanctions against Iran and by the fact that Israel classifies Iran as an enemy state. In May 2015 a European court ordered the Eilat Ashkelon Pipeline Company to pay $1.1 billion to Iran, which Israel refused to do.
During Ayatollah Khomeini 's campaign to overthrow Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Israel, which had relatively warm relations with the Shah, became an issue. Khomeini declared Israel an "enemy of Islam '' and ' The Little Satan ' -- the United States was called ' The Great Satan '.
In the immediate aftermath of the 1979 Iranian Revolution which witnessed the establishment of the Islamic Republic, Iran cut off all official relations; official statements, state institutes, events and sanctioned initiatives adopted a sharp anti-Zionist stance. Following the break - off of diplomatic relations on 18 February, the Israeli Embassy in Tehran was closed and handed over to the Palestinian Liberation Organisation.
According to Trita Parsi, author of Treacherous Alliance: The Secret Dealings of Israel, Iran and the United States, (Yale University Press, 2007), Iran 's strategic imperatives compelled the Khomeini government to maintain clandestine ties to Israel, while hope that the periphery doctrine could be resurrected motivated the Jewish State 's assistance to Iran.. However, at the same time, Iran provided support for Islamist - Shia Lebanese parties, helping to consolidate them into a single political and military organization, Hezbollah, and providing them the ideological indoctrination, military training and equipment to attack Israeli and American targets.
Israel sold Iran US $75 million worth of arms from stocks of Israel Military Industries, Israel Aircraft Industries and Israel Defense Forces stockpiles, in their Operation Seashell in 1981. Material included 150 M - 40 antitank guns with 24,000 shells for each gun, spare parts for tank and aircraft engines, 106 mm, 130 mm, 203 mm and 175 mm shells and TOW missiles. This material was transported first by air by Argentine airline Transporte Aéreo Rioplatense and then by ship. The same year Israel provided active military support against Iraq by destroying the Osirak nuclear reactor near Baghdad, which the Iranians themselves had previously targeted, but the doctrine established by the attack would increase potential conflict in future years.
Arms sales to Iran that totaled an estimated $500 million from 1981 to 1983 according to the Jafe Institute for Strategic Studies at Tel Aviv University. Most of it was paid for by Iranian oil delivered to Israel. "According to Ahmad Haidari, "an Iranian arms dealer working for the Khomeini government, roughly 80 % of the weaponry bought by Tehran '' immediately after the onset of the war originated in Israel.
According to Mark Phythian, the fact "that the Iranian air force could function at all '' after Iraq 's initial attack and "was able to undertake a number of sorties over Baghdad and strike at strategic installations '' was "at least partly due to the decision of the Reagan administration to allow Israel to channel arms of US origin to Iran to prevent an easy and early Iraqi victory. ''
Despite all the speeches of Iranian leaders and the denunciation of Israel at Friday prayers, there were never less than around one hundred Israeli advisers and technicians in Iran at any time throughout the war, living in a carefully guarded and secluded camp just north of Tehran, where they remained even after the ceasefire.
Israel 's support was "crucial '' to keeping Iran 's air force flying against Iraq. Israeli sales also included spare parts for U.S. - made F - 4 Phantom jets. Newsweek also reported that after an Iranian defector landed his F - 4 Phantom jet in Saudi Arabia in 1984, intelligence experts determined that many of its parts had originally been sold to Israel, and had then been re-exported to Tehran in violation of U.S. law. Ariel Sharon believed it was important to "leave a small window open '' to the possibility of good relations with Iran in the future.
Ayatollah Ali Khamenei in December 2000 called Israel a "cancerous tumour '' that should be removed from the region. In 2005 he emphasized that "Palestine belongs to Palestinians, and the fate of Palestine should also be determined by the Palestinian people ''. In 2005 Khamenei clarified Iran 's position after an international furore erupted over a remark attributed to President Ahmadinejad according to which Israel should be "wiped off the map '' by saying that "the Islamic Republic has never threatened and will never threaten any country. ''
On 15 August 2012, during a meeting with veterans of the Iran -- Iraq War, Ayatollah Khamenei said that he was confident that "the fake Zionist (regime) will disappear from the landscape of geography. '' In addition, on 19 August, Khamenei reiterated comments made by President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, which members of the international community, including the United States, France, European Union foreign policy chief Catherine Ashton, and United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki - moon condemned, during which he called Israel a "cancerous tumour in the heart of the Islamic world '' and said that its existence is responsible for many problems facing the Muslim world.
Under reformist Iranian President Mohammad Khatami, elected in 1997, some believed Iran -- Israel relations would improve. Khatami called Israel an "illegal state '' and a "parasite, '' but also said in 1999 Jews would be "safe in Iran '' and all religious minorities would be protected. A report indicates that Iran tried in 2003 to initiate a rapprochement with Israel by recognizing its existence in a proposal to the United States. The report claims that Iran 's peace proposal with Israel was not accepted by the United States. In January 2004, Khatami spoke to an Israeli reporter who asked him on what grounds Iran would recognize Israel. This was believed to be the first time he had spoken publicly with an Israeli. At the funeral of Pope John Paul II in April 2005, Khatami was seated close to the Iranian - born Israeli President Moshe Katsav, who is from the same province, the Yazd Province, as Khatami. Katsav said that he shook Khatami 's hand and the two had a brief conversation about Iran. However, Khatami denied this.
With the election of Mahmud Ahmedinijiad, a hardliner of the Iranian politics, the relations of the countries became increasingly strained as the countries became to be engaged in a series of proxy conflicts and covert operations against each other.
During the 2006 Lebanon War, Iranian Revolutionary Guards were believed to have directly assisted Hezbollah fighters in their attacks on Israel. Multiple sources suggested that hundreds of Revolutionary Guard operatives participated in the firing of rockets into Israel during the war, and secured Hezbollah 's long - range missiles. Revolutionary Guard operatives were allegedly seen operating openly at Hezbollah outposts during the war. In addition, Revolutionary Guard operatives were alleged to have supervised Hezbollah 's attack on the INS Hanit with a C - 802 anti-ship missile. The attack severely damaged the warship and killed four crewmen. It is alleged that between six and nine Revolutionary Guard operatives were killed by the Israeli military during the war. According to the Israeli media their bodies were transferred to Syria and from there, flown to Tehran.
During and immediately after the Gaza War, the Israeli Air Force, with the assistance of Israeli commandos, was reported to have carried out three airstrikes against Iranian arms being smuggled to Hamas through Sudan, as Iran launched an intensive effort to supply Hamas with weapons and ammunition. Israel hinted that it was behind the attacks. Two truck convoys were destroyed, and an arms - laden ship was sunk in the Red Sea. On 4 November 2009, Israel captured a ship in the eastern Mediterranean Sea and its cargo of hundreds of tons of weapons allegedly bound from Iran to Hezbollah.
In 2010, a wave of assassinations targeting Iranian nuclear scientists began. The assassinations were widely believed to be the work of Mossad, Israel 's foreign intelligence service. According to Iran and global media sources, the methods used to kill the scientists is reminiscent of the way Mossad had previously assassinated targets. The assassinations were alleged to be an attempt to stop Iran 's nuclear program, or to ensure that it can not recover following a strike on Iranian nuclear facilities. In the first attack, particle physicist Masoud Alimohammadi was killed on 12 January 2010 when a booby - trapped motorcycle parked near his car exploded. On 12 October 2010, an explosion occurred at an IRGC military base near the city of Khorramabad, killing 18 soldiers. On 29 November 2010, two senior Iranian nuclear scientists, Majid Shahriari and Fereydoon Abbasi, were targeted by hitmen on motorcycles, who attached bombs to their cars and detonated them from a distance. Shahriari was killed, while Abbasi was severely wounded. On 23 July 2011, Darioush Rezaeinejad was shot dead in eastern Tehran. On 11 January 2012, Mostafa Ahmadi Roshan and his driver were killed by a bomb attached to their car from a motorcycle.
In June 2010 Stuxnet, an advanced computer worm was discovered. It is believed that it had been developed by US and Israel to attack Iran 's nuclear facilities. In a study conducted by Institute for Science and International Security it is estimated that Stuxnet might have damaged as many as 1,000 centrifuges (10 % of all installed) in the Natanz enrichment plant. Other computer viruses and malware, including Duqu and Flame, were reportedly related to Stuxnet. Iran claims that its adversaries regularly engineer sales of faulty equipment and attacks by computer viruses to sabotage its nuclear program.
On 15 March 2011, Israel seized a ship from Syria bringing Iranian weapons to Gaza. In addition, the Mossad was also suspected of being responsible for an explosion that reportedly damaged the nuclear facility at Isfahan. Iran denied that any explosion had occurred, but The Times reported damage to the nuclear plant based on satellite images, and quoted Israeli intelligence sources as saying that the blast indeed targeted a nuclear site, and was "no accident ''. Hours after the blast took place, Hezbollah fired two rockets into northern Israel, causing property damage. The Israel Defense Forces reacted by firing four artillery shells at the area from where the launch originated. It was speculated that the attack was ordered by Iran and Syria as a warning to Israel. The Israeli attack was reported to have killed 7 people, including foreign nationals. Another 12 people were injured, of whom 7 later died in hospital. The Mossad was also suspected of being behind an explosion at a Revolutionary Guard missile base in November 2011. The blast killed 17 Revolutionary Guard operatives, including General Hassan Moqaddam, described as a key figure in Iran 's missile program. Israeli journalist Ron Ben - Yishai wrote that several lower - ranked Iranian missile experts had probably been previously killed in several explosions at various sites.
In response to Israeli covert operations, Iranian agents reportedly began trying to hit Israeli and Jewish targets; potential targets were then placed on high alert. Yoram Cohen, the head of Shin Bet, claimed that three planned attacks in Turkey, Azerbaijan and Thailand were thwarted at the last minute. On 11 October 2011, the United States claimed to have foiled an alleged Iranian plot that included bombing the Israeli and Saudi embassies in Washington DC and Buenos Aires. On 13 February 2012, Israeli embassy staff in Georgia and India were targeted. In Georgia, a car bomb failed to explode near the embassy and was safely detonated by Georgian police. In India, the car bomb exploded, injuring four people. Amongst the wounded was the wife of an Israeli Defense Ministry employee. Israel accused Iran of being behind the attacks. The following day, three alleged Iranian agents were uncovered in Bangkok, Thailand, thought to have been planning to kill Israeli diplomatic officials, including the ambassador, by attaching bombs to embassy cars. The cell was uncovered when one of their bombs exploded. Police responded, and the Iranian agent present at the house threw an explosive device at officers that tore his legs off, and was subsequently taken into custody. A second suspect was arrested as he tried to catch a flight out of the country, and the third escaped to Malaysia, where he was arrested by Malaysian Federal Police. Thai police subsequently arrested two people suspected of involvement. Indian police arrested a Delhi - based journalist in connection with February 's car bomb, which injured four Israelis including the wife of an Israeli diplomat. Syed Mohammed Kazmi the journalist was arrested on 6 March 2012, he is said to have been in contact with a suspect police believe might have stuck a magnetic bomb to the diplomat 's car. It is said Kazmi was an Indian citizen who worked for an Iranian publication.
In late February 2012, WikiLeaks published confidential emails from Stratfor, a US - based private intelligence company, which were stolen by the hacking group Anonymous. Among the information released was a claim that Israeli commandos, in collaboration with Kurdish fighters, destroyed several underground Iranian facilities used for nuclear and defense research projects. Khamenei has accused Israel of helping Jundallah to carry out attacks in Iran. According to a New Yorker report, members of the Mujahideen - e-Khalq received training in the U.S. and Israeli funding for their operations against the Iranian government.
On 18 July 2012, a bus carrying Israeli tourists in Bulgaria was destroyed in a bombing attack that killed five Israeli tourists and the driver, and injured 32 people. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu blamed Iran and Hezbollah for the attack. In July 2012, a senior Israeli defense official stated that since May 2011, more than 20 terrorist attacks planned by Iran and Hezbollah against Israeli targets worldwide had been foiled, including in South Africa, Azerbaijan, Kenya, Turkey, Thailand, Cyprus, Bulgaria, Nepal, and Nigeria, and that Iranian and Hezbollah operatives were incarcerated in jails throughout the world.
On 6 October 2012, Israeli airplanes shot down a small UAV as it flew over northern Negev. Hezbollah confirmed it sent the drone and Nasrallah said in a televised speech that the drone 's parts were manufactured in Iran. On 24 October 2012, Sudan claimed that Israel had bombed a munitions factory, allegedly belonging to Iran 's Revolutionary Guard, south of Khartoum. In November 2012, Israel reported that an Iranian ship was being loaded with rockets to be exported to countries within range of Israel and that Israel "will attack and destroy any shipment of arms ''. In January 2013, the Fordo nuclear plant was hit by an explosion. Iranian officials suspected Mossad or CIA were responsible. On 25 April 2013, Israeli aircraft shot down a drone off the coast of Haifa, allegedly belonging to Hezbollah.
On 30 January 2013, Israeli aircraft allegedly struck a Syrian convoy transporting Iranian weapons to Hezbollah. Other sources stated the targeted site was a military research center in Jamraya responsible for developing biological and chemical weapons. Two additional air strikes reportedly took place on 3 and 5 May 2013. Both targeted long - ranged weapons sent from Iran to Hezbollah. According to anonymous US officials, Israel launched another airstrike or cruise missile attack on 5 July. It targeted Russian - made Yakhont anti-ship missiles near the city of Latakia, and killed several Syrian troops.
On 7 May 2013, residents of Tehran reported hearing three blasts in an area where Iran maintains its missile research and depots. Later, an Iranian website said the blasts occurred at a privately owned chemical factory.
Several incidents have taken place on the Israeli -- Syrian ceasefire line during the Syrian Civil War, straining the Iran - Israel relations. The incidents are considered a spillover of the Quneitra Governorate clashes since 2012 and later incidents between Iran - supported Syrian Arab Army and the rebels, ongoing on the Syrian - controlled side of the Golan and the Golan Neutral Zone and the Hezbollah.
Since the onset of the Syrian War, the Israeli military is reportedly preparing itself for potential threats should there be a power vacuum in Syria. "After Assad and after establishing or strengthening their foothold in Syria they are going to move and deflect their effort and attack Israel, '' an Israeli official told The Associated Press in January 2014. Some experts say that while the encroaching militant forces on Israel 's border will heighten security measures, the advancements are not likely to create significant changes to Israel 's policy disengagement in the Syria crisis. IAF has been suspected of a number of airstrikes on Syrian soil, allegedly targeting Iranian and Hezbollah targets.
A court in Jerusalem has sentenced an Israeli man, Yitzhak Bergel to four - and - a-half years in prison for offering to spy for Iran. Bergel belongs to the anti-Zionist Neturei Karta, an ultra-Orthodox Jewish sect which is vehemently opposed to the State of Israel 's existence.
On 5 March 2014, the Israeli navy intercepted the Klos - C cargo ship. Israel stated Iran was using the vessel to smuggle dozens of long - range rockets to Gaza, including Syrian - manufactured M - 302 rockets. The operation, named Full Disclosure and carried out by Shayetet 13 special forces, took place in the Red Sea, 1,500 kilometers away from Israel and some 160 kilometers from Port Sudan.
On 6 May 2014, it was reported that a blast shook the Iranian city of Qazvin. Los Angeles Times reported that the city might be home to a secret nuclear facility.
Iranian state media reported that on 24 August 2014, IRGC had shot down an Israeli drone near Natanz fuel enrichment plant. Israeli military did not comment on the reports.
Two workers were killed in an explosion that took place at a military explosives factory southeast of Tehran, near the suspected nuclear reactor in Parchin. In what was claimed by a Kuwaiti newspaper to be a response ordered by Iran, Hezbollah set off an explosive device on the border between Lebanon and the Israeli - controlled side of the Shebaa farms, wounding two Israeli soldiers. Israel responded with artillery fire toward two Hezbollah positions in southern Lebanon.
Former President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, in office from August 2005 to August 2013, at the October 2005 "World Without Zionism '' conference in Tehran adopted a sharp anti-Zionist stance. On 8 December 2005, during a summit of Muslim nations in Islam 's holy city of Mecca, Ahmadinejad told Iran 's Arabic channel Al - Alam a complicated story on the Holocaust and the establishment of Israel. Since then, the Iranian president has made statements pertaining to these topics.
In April 2006, CNN correspondent Wolf Blitzer interviewed Ambassador Ali Asghar Soltanieh, Iran 's Permanent Representative to the IAEA, who said, in regards to whether there should be a state of Israel, "I think I 've already answered to you. If Israel is a synonym and will give the indication of Zionism mentality, no. But if you are going to conclude that we have said the people there have to be removed or we (said) they have to be massacred or so, this is fabricated, unfortunate selective approach to what the mentality and policy of Islamic Republic of Iran is. ''
In a speech at a tourism convention in Tehran in July 2008, Esfandiar Rahim Mashaei, Vice President and Head of Cultural Heritage Organization of Iran, proclaimed, "No nation in the world is our enemy, Iran is a friend of the nation in the United States and in Israel, and this is an honor. We view the American nation as one with the greatest nations of the world. '' He also added that Iran "wants no war with any country, '' insisting that Iran 's actions during the Iran -- Iraq War were purely defensive.
Hard - liners close to the government harshly attacked Mashaei 's remarks. President Ahmadinejad, however, defended Mashaei and spoke in his favor. At a news conference, he said, "The Iranian nation never recognized Israel and will never ever recognize it. But we feel pity for those who have been deceived or smuggled into Israel to be oppressed citizens in Israel. ''
The issue prompted Iran 's Supreme Leader Khamenei to "spell an end to the debates '' on Israel. During a Friday sermon in Tehran, he stated, "It is incorrect, irrational, pointless and nonsensical to say that we are friends with the Israeli people... we are on a collision course with the occupiers of Palestine and the occupiers are the Zionist regime. This is the position of our regime, our revolution and our people. ''
In August 2012, a senior cleric and Tehran 's provisional Friday Prayers Leader Ayatollah Ahmad Khatami, speaking about Qods Day, called for the annihilation of the "Zionist regime, '' emphasizing that the spread of the "Islamic Awakening '' in the Middle East "heralds annihilation of the Zionist regime. ''
In August 2012, Brigadier General Gholam Reza Jalali, who heads Iran 's Passive Defense Organization, said ahead of Al - Quds Day that Israel must be destroyed, saying, "(Al - Quds Day) is a reflection of the fact that no other way exists apart from resolve and strength to completely eliminate the aggressive nature and to destroy Israel. '' Jalali added that the Muslim world is required to support the "oppressed people of Palestine '' against "the Zionist usurpers '' and that the Islamic Revolution was a "beacon of light. '' Jalali also said that the "Islamic front in Syria '' had strengthened.
In response to these remarks, an Israeli government official said that these remarks were a "reaffirmation of what we continually hear from the Iranian leadership '' and that Israel was taking the Iranian threat seriously. The official said that the continual announcement of these remarks show how Iran 's leaders believes in them, and that Iran 's leadership must end these comments to reduce international pressure.
On 22 September 2012, General Mohammad Ali Jafari, the commander of the Iranian Revolutionary Guards, said that eventually a war with Israel would soon break out, during which Iran would eradicate Israel, which he referred to as a "cancerous tumour ''.
After the overthrow of the Shah in 1979, most oil companies left Iran and Iranian government had major difficulties selling oil in the international markets. In the meantime, Marc Rich, an Israeli - Swiss businessman with international ties, entered Iran through his Glencore company headquartered in Switzerland. Rich ignored US and international sanctions on Iran and became the major trader of Iranian oil for 15 years. He claimed that the oil he bought from Iran was shipped to Israel and both countries were aware of this transaction. Rich provided the Iranian government with weapons and missiles through the Iran -- Iraq War. For his actions, United States government found him guilty of more than 65 counts of criminal offenses including money laundering and violating Iran sanctions. Rich was on FBI most wanted fugitives for many years, until President Bill Clinton pardoned him on the last day of his office in 2001. This pardon was very controversial and Clinton later regretted this act in his memoirs. There have been reports that former Mossad heads, Avner Azulay and Shabtai Shavit both personally wrote to Clinton arguing for Rich 's pardon. Furthermore, Rich 's first wife, Denise Rich (née Eisenberg) personally donated more than 1 million dollars to Clinton charities.
In 1998, the Seattle Times reported that pistachio makers in California were unhappy about the fact that Israel imported most of its pistachio from Iran. The head of Iran - China economic room, Asadollah Asgaroladi said in the article that such transactions are easily possible. Based on the article Israel imports only a quarter of pistachios from US and about half of its pistachios from Britain and Germany, whereas these two countries are not producers of pistachio at all and the source is very likely to be from Iran. Furthermore, in 1998 Israeli government punished the Hamama Brothers Co. for illegally importing 105 tonnes of pistachio from Iran. Israeli newspaper Ynet reported in 2007 that US government once again asked Israeli government to stop importing pistachios from Iran. In 2008 US ambassador to Israel, Richard H. Jones wrote a letter to Israel 's finance minister Ronnie Bar - on demanding Israel to stop importing Iranian pistachios from Turkey. Similar reports have been published by Haaretz.
In 1998, Israeli businessman Nahum Manbar was sentenced to 16 years in prison in Israel for doing business with Tehran, and in the course of the investigation, "hundreds of companies '' were found to have illegal business dealings with Iran. The fall - out reached the United States as some transactions were alleged to have been part of the Iran -- Contra affair. A controversy over Israeli - Iranian business links erupted in mid-2011. Israeli company Ofer Brothers Group was subject to U.S. sanctions after it was revealed that it sold ships to Iran via a third party, and that its ships also docked at Iranian ports. However US government cleared Ofer Brothers Group from the list three months later. In 2006 Israeli newspaper Haaretz reported the Israeli refinery Paz reportedly purchases crude oil coming from Iran. The article reported that the oil from Iran arrives to Israel through a port in Rotterdam. Another article in Haaretz in the same year reported that the Israeli energy minister Benjamin Ben Eliezer said: "Every attempted contact with an enemy state that serves Israeli business and economic interests, strengthens the stability of the region. '' And the Israeli foreign ministry said that it was not their business to look into the sources of oil.
Ynet reported that Israeli -- Iranian trade, conducted covertly and illegally by dozens of Israeli companies, totals tens of millions of dollars a year. Much of this trade is conducted through a third country. Israel supplies Iran with fertilizer, irrigation pipes, hormones for milk production, seeds, and fruit; Iran, meanwhile, provides Israel with marble, cashews, and pistachios. Based on the same report in November 2000, the Iranian government asked an Israeli company, which built Tehran 's sewage pipes 30 years earlier, to visit the country for renovations. Shortly afterwards, the assistant director - general of Iran 's Ministry of Agriculture visited Israel secretly and stayed at the Tel Aviv Hilton Hotel. He expressed an interest in purchasing irrigation pipes, pesticides and fertilizers.
In April 2009 a large batch of oranges carrying stickers of an Israeli company were distributed in the Iranian market. Based on the investigations the oranges were imported from Dubai. In December 2011 Bloomberg reported that most of the filtering equipment currently in use in Iran were bought from an Israeli company called Allot Communications. The system called NetEnforcer allows the government to monitor any device that is connected to the internet. The devices were shipped to Denmark, where the original packaging was removed and replaced with fake labels. Al - Monitor reported in 2013 that the Iranian government asked the Israeli experts to visit the earthquake stricken areas in the province of Sistan in 2006. Based on the report the Israeli experts spent the passover of 2006 in Iran.
Israel was involved in the arming of Iran during the Pahlavi dynasty:
The Observer estimated that Israel 's arms sales to Iran during the Iran -- Iraq War totaled US $500 million annually, and Time reported that throughout 1981 and 1982, "the Israelis reportedly set up Swiss bank accounts to handle the financial end of the deals. ''
According to the report of the U.S. Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran -- Contra affair issued in November 1987, "the sale of U.S. arms to Iran through Israel began in the summer of 1985, after receiving the approval of President Reagan. '' These sales included "2,008 TOW missiles and 235 parts kits for Hawk missiles had been sent to Iran via Israel. '' Further shipments of up to US $2 billion of American weapons from Israel to Iran consisting of 18 F - 4 fighter - bombers, 46 Skyhawk fighter - bombers, and nearly 4,000 missiles were foiled by the U.S. Department of Justice, and "unverified reports alleged that Israel agreed to sell Iran Sidewinder air - to - air missiles, radar equipment, mortar and machinegun ammunition, field telephones, M - 60 tank engines and artillery shells, and spare parts for C - 130 transport planes. '' Israeli arms deals to Iran continued after the Iran -- Iraq War, although sporadically and unofficially.
Iran supplies political support and weapons to Hamas, an organization committed to the destruction of Israel by Jihad According to Mahmoud Abbas, President of the Palestinian National Authority, "Hamas is funded by Iran. It claims it is financed by donations, but the donations are nothing like what it receives from Iran. ''
Iran has also supplied another enemy of Israel, the militant organization Hezbollah with substantial amounts of financial, training, weapons, explosives, political, diplomatic, and organizational aid while persuading Hezbollah to take an action against Israel. Hezbollah 's 1985 manifesto listed its four main goals as "Israel 's final departure from Lebanon as a prelude to its final obliteration '' According to reports released in February 2010, Hezbollah received $400 million from Iran.
The nuclear program of Iran with its potential to develop nuclear weapons, together with the anti-Israel rhetoric of the President, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, and his desire for "the regime occupying Jerusalem '' to "vanish from the pages of time, '' has led many Israelis to fear an eventual attack from Iran.
In a May 2012 speech to a defense gathering in Tehran, Iran 's Military Chief of Staff declared: "The Iranian nation is standing for its cause and that is the full annihilation of Israel. ''
In August 2012, Brigadier General Gholam Reza Jalali, who heads Iran 's Passive Defense Organization, said ahead of Al - Quds Day that Israel must be destroyed, saying, "(Al - Quds Day) is a reflection of the fact that no other way exists apart from resolve and strength to completely eliminate the aggressive nature and to destroy Israel. ''
In August 2012, a senior cleric and Tehran 's provisional Friday Prayers Leader Ayatollah Ahmad Khatami, speaking about Qods Day, called for the annihilation of the "Zionist regime, '' emphasizing that the spread of the "Islamic Awakening '' in the Middle East "heralds annihilation of the Zionist regime. ''
Iran 's repeated threats against Israel, particularly in 2012, led Canada, a close ally of Israel, to close its embassy in Iran on September 7, 2012, giving Iranian diplomats 5 days to leave Canada.
On 21 September, at a military parade in Iran to mark the beginning of the Iran -- Iraq War, and in which a new air defense system was unveiled, Amir Ali Hajizadeh, the Iranian air force chief, said that should a conflict between Iran and Israel break out, Israel would "manage the beginning of the war, but the response and end would be in our hands, in which case the Zionist entity would cease to exist. The number of missiles launched would be more than the Zionists could imagine. ''
On 22 September, General Mohammad Ali Jafari, the commander of the Iranian Revolutionary Guards, said that eventually a war with Israel would break out, during which Iran would eradicate Israel, which he referred to as a "cancerous tumor. ''
On 23 September, Hajizadeh threatened to attack Israel and trigger World War III, saying that "it is possible that we will make a pre-emptive attack '' which would "turn into World War III. '' In the same statement, Hajizadeh threatened to attack American bases in the Middle East as well. Hajizadeh said that as a result of this attack, Israel would "sustain heavy damage and that will be a prelude to its obliteration. '' On the same day, Deputy Commander of the Iranian Revolutionary Guards Brigadier General Hossein Salami said that while Iran is n't concerned by Israeli "threats '' to strike Iranian nuclear facilities, such an attack would be "a historic opportunity for the Islamic Revolution to wipe them off the world 's geographic history. ''
On 2 October 2012, Hojjat al - Eslam Ali Shirazi, the representative of Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei to the Iranian Qods Force, alleged that Iran required only "24 hours and an excuse '' in order to eradicate Israel. Shirazi alleged that Israel was "close to annihilation, '' and allegedly sought to attack Iran out of desperation.
Iran 's actions, nuclear program, and threats have been viewed by Dr. Gregory Stanton, the founder and director of Genocide Watch, as having taken 6 out of 8 steps on the "path to genocide. '' Stanton urged the international community to take action against Iran and to isolate it, in order to "curb its genocidal intent. '' He said that "one of the best predictors of genocide is incitement to genocide... and I believe that is exactly what Iran is doing today. '' Incitement to genocide is a crime under international law. He stressed that it is important not to dismiss "the early signs '' as "diabolical rhetoric or as a tactic meant to advance a different goal, '' and doing so would "enable the perpetrators. '' Stanton also said that Iran has classified and symbolized Israel via hate speech and an ideology of exclusion, and has dehumanized Israel by portraying potential victim as "cancer '' that should be wiped out. In addition, Stanton said that Iran has organized "fanatical militas, '' such as the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, while stifling dissent in Iranian society. He added that by denying a previous genocide, the Holocaust, by working on weapons of mass destruction, and through global terrorism, Iran has prepared for genocide.
In January 2013, Iran warned that any Israeli attack on Syria would be treated the same as an attack on Iran. After Israel attacked Syria, Iran simply stated that Israel would "regret this recent aggression ''.
In March 2015, the commander of the Basij militia of Iran 's Revolutionary Guards said that "erasing Israel off the map is not negotiable. ''
In November 2003 a Scottish newspaper claimed that Israel "warned that it is prepared to take unilateral military action against Iran if the international community fails to stop any development of nuclear weapons at the country 's atomic energy facilities. '' It cited then Israeli defence minister Shaul Mofaz stating, "under no circumstances would Israel be able to tolerate nuclear weapons in Iranian possession. '' In December 2005, a British newspaper claimed that the Israeli military had been ordered by then Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon to plan for possible strikes on uranium enrichment sites in Iran in March 2006, based on Israeli intelligence estimates that Iran would be able to build nuclear weapons in two to four years. It was claimed that the special forces command was in the highest stage of readiness for an attack (state G) in December of the following year. Ariel Sharon reportedly said, "Israel - and not only Israel - can not accept a nuclear Iran. We have the ability to deal with this and we 're making all the necessary preparations to be ready for such a situation. '' Israeli military Chief of Staff, Dan Halutz, was quoted as responding to the question of how far Israel was ready to go to stop Iran 's nuclear energy program with the statement "Two thousand kilometers. '' Seymour Hersh says U.S. Department of Defense civilians led by Douglas Feith have been working with Israeli planners and consultants to develop and refine potential nuclear, chemical - weapons, and missile targets inside Iran.
On 8 May 2006, then Israeli Vice Premier Shimon Peres said in an interview with Reuters that "the president of Iran should remember that Iran can also be wiped off the map, '' Army Radio reported. Peres, a Nobel Peace Prize laureate, drew unusually stiff criticism from an analyst on Israel 's state television, Yoav Limor, for talking of destroying another country. In May 2006, IDF Chief of Staff Dan Halutz stated that Iran 's nuclear facilities can be destroyed, hinting at a possible plan to do just that. In September 2007, Israel repeated its policy concerning the development of nuclear capacity by its potential enemies. Shabtai Shavit, a former chief of the Mossad, said Iranian atomic facilities could be destroyed within a year, but has not ruled out going that direction. Isaac Ben - Israel, a former general of the Israeli Air Force, said an attack could be carried out at any time but only as a last resort. Iran 's Shahab - 3 missile exercises were conducted in early July demonstrating that Israel was within reach.
According to the New York Times, Israel sought help from the United States for a military attack against Iran. Israel reportedly asked for bunker - busting bombs for an attack on Iran 's main nuclear complex and for permission to fly over Iraq to reach Iran 's major nuclear complex at Natanz. The Bush administration rejected the requests. According to the article, White House officials never conclusively determined whether Israel had decided to go ahead with the strike before the United States protested, or whether Prime Minister Ehud Olmert of Israel was trying to goad the White House into more decisive action before President Bush left office.
On 27 July 2009, Israel 's Defence Minister Ehud Barak during a press conference with Robert Gates, the US Defense Secretary, in Jerusalem, warned Iran that a military strike on its nuclear facilities was still an option: "We clearly believe that no option should be removed from the table. This is our policy; we mean it. We recommend to others to take the same position, but we can not dictate it to anyone. '' The same day, Israel 's Ambassador to US, Gabriela Shalev, during a special UN Security Council session held to discuss the situation in the Middle East, called Iran the "biggest supporter of terrorism. '' The Islamic Republic 's nuclear program and its support of terrorism pose a threat to the entire Middle East. ''
In 2010, Gabi Ashkenazi and Meir Dagan balked at Benjamin Netanyahu 's preparations for a strike on Iran.
On 5 November 2012, Israel 's Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu reiterated his willingness to mount a unilateral attack on Iran 's nuclear facilities even without US support. This conflicts with experts ' assessments that US support is needed in the form of the newer GBU - 31 bunker busting bombs, which are required to penetrate some of Iran 's reinforced nuclear facilities such as the Fordo site. Israel currently only has the GBU - 28 bunker busting munitions, which are said to be insufficient. However, with the announcement by Netanyahu being made on the eve of the 2012 Presidential elections, tensions between the two allies are likely to rise.
In 2013, retiring defense minister Ehud Barak said that though it would be very difficult for Israel to operate alone, that Obama had ordered the Pentagon to prepare detailed plans for an American strike on Iran.
Netanyahu said in September 2013 that President Hassan Rouhani is trying to acquire a nuclear weapon, and that his perception as a moderate makes him a "wolf in sheep 's clothing. ''
In January 2014, during a plenary session at the 9th World Economic Forum in Davos Switzerland, the President of Israel Shimon Peres said in response to a question about the threat of Iran 's nuclear program that "Iran is not an enemy '', and there are no historical hostilities between the two countries. In that regard he added: "I do n't see a reason to spend so much money in the name of hatred ''.
In May 2018, it was revealed that Prime Minister Netanyahu had ordered the Mossad and military in 2011 to prepare for an attack on Iran within 15 days of receiving the order. According to Mossad chief Tamir Pardo, Netanyahu backed off after he and Chief of Staff Benny Gantz questioned Netanyahu 's legal right to give such an order without Cabinet approval.
On 26 May 2006, then Russian Defense Minister Sergei Ivanov reiterated Moscow 's commitment to supply Iran with sophisticated anti-aircraft missiles. However Lockheed Martin Executive Vice President of F - 35 Program Integration Tom Burbage indicated that once Israel has the F - 35 it need not fear the S - 300.
In June 2008, Israel conducted a major military exercise that American officials speculated might be training for a bombing attack on Iran. A senior Pentagon official said one of the goals of the exercise was to send a clear message to the United States and other countries that Israel was prepared to act militarily: "They wanted us to know, they wanted the Europeans to know, and they wanted the Iranians to know, '' the Pentagon official said. "There 's a lot of signaling going on at different levels. ''
The Bush administration did agree to sell a thousand GBU - 39 standoff bunker penetrating bombs to Israel, but a strike against Natanz would require hundreds of these bombs.
In a 2009 interview, American diplomat John Bolton argued that the Iran -- Israel relationship had deteriorated to the point that it might be "wise '' for Israel to preemptively attack Iran 's nuclear research facilities. To destroy the facilities, while not a permanent solution to ending Iran 's nuclear ambitions, he argued, might delay the progress of Iranian nuclear research for long enough that regime change could occur before the development of a nuclear weapon took place. He cited as an example the case of the apartheid government of South Africa, which renounced their efforts to pursue nuclear weapons after the Mandela government came to power.
In April 2009, Army General David Petraeus said "the Israeli government may ultimately see itself so threatened by the prospect of an Iranian nuclear weapon that it would take preemptive military action to derail or delay it. On 17 September 2009, Ze'ev Elkin said that the delivery by Russia of S - 300 missiles may prompt Israel to strike Iran. However, in June 2010 Russia voted for UN sanctions to prevent the S - 300 missile sale.
The global price of oil is likely to increase suddenly and dramatically should Israel strike Iran 's nuclear facilities. It is just as likely, although not to the same degree, that the price of oil will increase if Iran successfully develops nuclear weapons.
Iran consistently claimed that its nuclear program is purely for civilian purposes, and that it has no intention of ever utilizing its peaceful nuclear program to develop nuclear weapons. During the course of Iran 's recent history, specifically during the Iran - Iraq war, Iran has experienced significant outages of its commercial electricity grid. Iran has also continuously claimed that it intends to ultimately export part of the electricity produced by its nuclear reactors to its regional neighbors, as a way of diversifying its mainly oil - based economy to more diversified revenue streams.
German Defense Minister Thomas de Maiziere said in 2012 that an Israeli attack would be unlikely to succeed.
Iran 's former foreign minister, Manouchehr Mottaki declared that Israel was not capable of an attack and still recovering from the 2006 war in Lebanon. The Iranian Chief of the Revolutionary Guards, Mohammad Ali Jafari said Israel was within the reach of Iranian missiles and Iran would close the Strait of Hormuz, cutting off two - fifths of the global oil supply. Iran has the capability to close the Strait of Hormuz or impede traffic for a month or more, and any U.S. attempts to reopen it could escalate the conflict.
According to Mohammad Ali Jafari "If Israel military aggresses against sovereignty and independence of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the country will use its right, established under international law which unequivocally establishes the right to defend its sovereignty by all lawful means available to it. Moreover, if such aggression is penetrated, the United Nations will be obliged to repulse such an aggression towards its sovereign member ''.
On 7 February 2010, Iran 's supreme leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei said the destruction of Israel was assured. According to the Tehran Times, Khamenei told Palestinian Islamic Jihad leader Ramadan Abdullah Shallah, "Israel is going downhill toward decline and fall and God willing its obliteration is certain ''. Khamenei went on to call Israel "a symbol of atrocity, viciousness, and ugliness, '' and said the West 's "support for the Zionist regime is ineffective. '' Former Iranian President Ahmadinejad 's chief of staff, Esfandiar Rahim Mashaei, said that if Israel attacked Iran it would be destroyed within a week.
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who took control of india in 1750 bce | History of India - Wikipedia
The history of India includes the prehistoric settlements and societies in the Indian subcontinent; the advancement of civilisation from the Indus Valley Civilisation to the eventual blending of the Indo - Aryan culture to form the Vedic Civilisation; the rise of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism; the onset of a succession of powerful dynasties and empires for more than three millennia throughout various geographic areas of the subcontinent, including the growth of Muslim dominions during the Medieval period intertwined with Hindu powers; the advent of European traders and privateers, resulting in the establishment of British India; and the subsequent independence movement that led to the Partition of India and the creation of the Republic of India.
Considered a cradle of civilisation, the Indus Valley Civilisation, which spread and flourished in the north - western part of the Indian subcontinent from 3300 to 1300 BCE, was the first major civilisation in South Asia. A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in the Mature Harappan period, from 2600 to 1900 BCE. This civilisation collapsed at the start of the second millennium BCE and was later followed by the Iron Age Vedic Civilisation. The era saw the composition of the Vedas, the seminal texts of Hinduism, coalesce into Janapadas (monarchical, state - level polities), and social stratification based on caste. The Later Vedic Civilisation extended over the Indo - Gangetic plain and much of the subcontinent, as well as witnessed the rise of major polities known as the Mahajanapadas. In one of these kingdoms, Magadha, Gautama Buddha and Mahavira propagated their Shramanic philosophies during the fifth and sixth century BCE.
Most of the Indian subcontinent was conquered by the Maurya Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. From the 3rd century BCE onwards Prakrit and Pali literature in the north and the Tamil Sangam literature in southern India started to flourish. Wootz steel originated in south India in the 3rd century BCE and was exported to foreign countries. During the Classical period, various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties for the next 1,500 years, among which the Gupta Empire stands out. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or "Golden Age of India ''. During this period, aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion (Hinduism and Buddhism) spread to much of Asia, while kingdoms in southern India had maritime business links with the Middle East and the Mediterranean. Indian cultural influence spread over many parts of Southeast Asia which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in Southeast Asia (Greater India).
The most significant event between the 7th and 11th century was the Tripartite struggle centred on Kannauj that lasted for more than two centuries between the Pala Empire, Rashtrakuta Empire, and Gurjara Pratihara Empire. Southern India saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century, most notable being the Chalukya, Chola, Pallava, Chera, Pandyan, and Western Chalukya Empires. The Chola dynasty conquered southern India and successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, Maldives and Bengal in the 11th century. The early medieval period Indian mathematics influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world and the Hindu numerals were introduced.
Muslim rule started in parts of north India in the 13th century when the Delhi Sultanate was founded in 1206 CE by Central Asian Turks; though earlier Muslim conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Pakistan as early as the 8th century. The Delhi Sultanate ruled the major part of northern India in the early 14th century, but declined in the late 14th century. This period also saw the emergence of several powerful Hindu states, notably Vijayanagara, Gajapati, Ahom, as well as Rajput states, such as Mewar. The 15th century saw the advent of Sikhism. The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the Mughals conquered most of the Indian subcontinent. The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided opportunities for the Marathas, Sikhs and Mysoreans to exercise control over large areas of the subcontinent.
From the late 18th century to the mid-19th century, large areas of India were annexed by the British East India Company of the British Empire. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, after which the British provinces of India were directly administered by the British Crown and witnessed a period of rapid development of infrastructure, economic decline and major famines. During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched with the leading party involved being the Indian National Congress which was later joined by other organisations. The subcontinent gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, after the British provinces were partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan and the princely states all acceded to one of the new states.
Notes Different periods are designated as "classical Hinduism '':
References
Sources
James Mill (1773 -- 1836), in his The History of British India (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations. This periodisation has been influential, but has also been criticised for the misconceptions it gave rise to. Another influential periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods '', although this periodisation has also been criticised.
Romila Thapar notes that the division into Hindu - Muslim - British periods of Indian history gives too much weight to "ruling dynasties and foreign invasions '', neglecting the social - economic history which often showed a strong continuity. The division into Ancient - Medieval - Modern periods overlooks the fact that the Muslim conquests occurred gradually during which time many things came and went off, while the south was never completely conquered. According to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on "significant social and economic changes '', which are not strictly related to a change of ruling powers.
Archaeological evidence of anatomically modern humans in the Indian subcontinent is claimed to be as old as 78,000 -- 74,000 years. Earlier hominids include Homo erectus from about 500,000 years ago. Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley in central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the Middle Pleistocene era, somewhere between 500,000 and 200,000 years ago. Tools crafted by proto - humans that have been dated back two million years have been discovered in the northwestern part of the subcontinent. The ancient history of the region includes some of South Asia 's oldest settlements and some of its major civilisations.
The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the Palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley. Soanian sites are found in the Sivalik region across what are now India, Pakistan, and Nepal. The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent was followed by the Neolithic period, when more extensive settlement of the subcontinent occurred after the end of the last Ice Age approximately 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed semi-permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Bhimbetka rock shelters in modern Madhya Pradesh, India. The Edakkal Caves are pictorial writings believed to date to at least 6,000 BCE, from the Neolithic man, indicating the presence of a prehistoric civilisation or settlement in Kerala. The Stone Age carvings of Edakkal are rare and are the only known examples from South India.
Traces of a Neolithic culture have been alleged to be submerged in the Gulf of Khambat in India, radiocarbon dated to 7500 BCE. Neolithic agricultural cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region around 5000 BCE, in the lower Gangetic valley around 3000 BCE, represented by the Bhirrana findings (7570 -- 6200 BCE) in Haryana, India, Lahuradewa findings (7000 BCE) in Uttar Pradesh, India, and Mehrgarh findings (7000 -- 5000 BCE) in Balochistan, Pakistan; and later in Southern India, spreading southwards and also northwards into Malwa around 1800 BCE. The first urban civilisation of the region began with the Indus Valley Civilisation.
"Priest King '' of Indus Valley Civilisation; the statue is carved from steatite.
Indus valley seals with Bull, Elephant, and Rhinoceros, 2500 -- 1900 BCE.
The Pashupati seal, showing a seated and possibly tricephalic figure, surrounded by animals.
Dholavira, one of the largest cities of Indus Valley Civilisation.
The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE with the early Indus Valley Civilisation. It was centred on the Indus River and its tributaries which extended into the Ghaggar - Hakra River valley, the Ganges - Yamuna Doab, Gujarat, and south - eastern Afghanistan. The Indus civilisation is one of three in the ' Ancient East ' that, along with Mesopotamia and Pharonic Egypt, was a cradle of civilisation in the Old World. It is also the most expansive in area and population.
The civilisation was primarily located in modern - day India (Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir provinces) and Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan provinces). Historically part of Ancient India, it is one of the world 's earliest urban civilisations, along with Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.
The Mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilisation on the subcontinent. The civilisation included urban centres such as Dholavira, Kalibangan, Ropar, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal in modern - day India, as well as Harappa, Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo - daro in modern - day Pakistan. The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and multi-storeyed houses and is thought to have had some kind of municipal organisation. Total of 1,022 cities and settlements had been found, mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar - Hakra Rivers, and their tributaries; of which 406 sites are in Pakistan and 616 sites in India, of these 96 have been excavated.
During the late period of this civilisation, signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. However, the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly, and some elements of the Indus Civilisation may have survived, especially in the smaller villages and isolated farms. According to historian Upinder Singh, "the general picture presented by the late Harappan phase is one of a breakdown of urban networks and an expansion of rural ones. '' The Indian Copper Hoard Culture is attributed to this time, associated in the Doab region with the Ochre Coloured Pottery.
Linguists hypothesized that Dravidian - speaking people were spread throughout the Indian subcontinent before a series of Indo - Aryan migrations. In this view, the early Indus Valley civilisation is often identified as having been Dravidian. Cultural and linguistic similarities have been cited by researchers Henry Heras, Kamil Zvelebil, Asko Parpola and Iravatham Mahadevan as being strong evidence for a proto - Dravidian origin of the ancient Indus Valley civilisation. Linguist Asko Parpola writes that the Indus script and Harappan language "most likely to have belonged to the Dravidian family ''. Parpola led a Finnish team in investigating the inscriptions using computer analysis. Based on a proto - Dravidian assumption, they proposed readings of many signs, some agreeing with the suggested readings of Heras and Knorozov (such as equating the "fish '' sign with the Dravidian word for fish "min '') but disagreeing on several other readings. A comprehensive description of Parpola 's work until 1994 is given in his book Deciphering the Indus Script. The discovery in Tamil Nadu of a late Neolithic (early 2nd millennium BCE, i.e. post-dating Harappan decline) stone celt allegedly marked with Indus signs has been considered by some to be significant for the Dravidian identification. While, Yuri Knorozov surmised that the symbols represent a logosyllabic script and suggested, based on computer analysis, an underlying agglutinative Dravidian language as the most likely candidate for the underlying language. Knorozov 's suggestion was preceded by the work of Henry Heras, who suggested several readings of signs based on a proto - Dravidian assumption. While some scholars like J. Bloch and M. Witzel believe that the Indo - Aryans moved into an already Dravidian speaking area after the oldest parts of the Rig Veda were already composed. The Brahui population of Balochistan has been taken by some as the linguistic equivalent of a relict population, perhaps indicating that Dravidian languages were formerly much more widespread and were supplanted by the incoming Indo - Aryan languages.
The Vedic period is named after the Indo - Aryan culture of north - west India, although other parts of India had a distinct cultural identity during this period. The Vedic culture is described in the texts of Vedas, still sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India. The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to 500 BCE, contributed the foundations of several cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent. In terms of culture, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age in this period.
Ceramic goblet from Navdatoli, Malwa, 1300 BCE.
A steel engraving from the 1850s, which depicts the creative activities of Prajapati, a Vedic deity who presides over procreation and protection of life.
Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain. Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo - Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the north - west. The peepal tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharva Veda. Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later, like dharma, trace their roots to Vedic antecedents.
Early Vedic society is described in the Rigveda, the oldest Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during 2nd millennium BCE, in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. At this time, Aryan society consisted of largely tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation which had been abandoned. The early Indo - Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture in archaeological contexts.
At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society began to expand from the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, into the western Ganges plain. It became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hierarchy of the four varnas, or social classes. This social structure was characterised both by syncretising with the native cultures of northern India, but also eventually by the excluding of some indigenous peoples by labeling their occupations impure. During this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into Janapadas (monarchical, state - level polities).
In the 14th century BCE, the Battle of the Ten Kings, between the Puru Vedic Aryan tribal kingdoms of the Bharatas, allied with other tribes of the Northwest India, guided by the royal sage Vishvamitra, and the Trtsu - Bharata (Puru) king Sudas, who defeats other Vedic tribes -- leading to the emergence of the Kuru Kingdom, first state level society during the Vedic period.
Since Vedic times, "people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms '', a process sometimes called Sanskritisation. It is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts.
The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent from about 1200 BCE to the 6th century BCE is defined by the rise of Janapadas, which are realms, republics and kingdoms -- notably the Iron Age Kingdoms of Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Videha.
The Kuru kingdom was the first state - level society of the Vedic period, corresponding to the beginning of the Iron Age in northwestern India, around 1200 -- 800 BCE, as well as with the composition of the Atharvaveda (the first Indian text to mention iron, as śyāma ayas, literally "black metal ''). The Kuru state organised the Vedic hymns into collections, and developed the orthodox srauta ritual to uphold the social order. Two key figures of the Kuru state were king Parikshit and his successor Janamejaya, transforming this realm into the dominant political and cultural power of northern Iron Age India. When the Kuru kingdom declined, the centre of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern neighbours, the Panchala kingdom. The archaeological Painted Grey Ware culture, which flourished in the Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh regions of northern India from about 1100 to 600 BCE, is believed to correspond to the Kuru and Panchala kingdoms.
During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of Videha emerged as a new centre of Vedic culture, situated even farther to the East (in what is today Nepal and Bihar state in India); reaching its prominence under the king Janaka, whose court provided patronage for Brahmin sages and philosophers such as Yajnavalkya, Aruni, and Gargi Vachaknavi. The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, called mahajanapadas, all across Northern India.
In addition to the Vedas, the principal texts of Hinduism, the core themes of the Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are said to have their ultimate origins during this period. The Mahabharata remains, today, the longest single poem in the world. Historians formerly postulated an "epic age '' as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now recognise that the texts (which are both familiar with each other) went through multiple stages of development over centuries. For instance, the Mahabharata may have been based on a small - scale conflict (possibly about 1000 BCE) which was eventually "transformed into a gigantic epic war by bards and poets ''. There is no conclusive proof from archaeology as to whether the specific events of the Mahabharata have any historical basis. The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age, between c. 400 BCE and 400 CE. Some even attempted to date the events using methods of archaeo - astronomy which have produced, depending on which passages are chosen and how they are interpreted, estimated dates ranging up to mid 2nd millennium BCE.
During the time between 800 and 200 BCE the Śramaṇa movement formed, from which originated Jainism and Buddhism. In the same period the first Upanishads were written. After 500 BCE, the so - called "Second urbanisation '' started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain, especially the Central Ganges plain. The foundations for the Second Urbanisation were laid prior to 600 BCE, in the Painted Grey Ware culture of the Ghaggar - Hakra and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites were small farming villages, "several dozen '' PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterized as towns, the largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades, albeit smaller and simpler than the elaborately fortified large cities which grew after 600 BCE in the Northern Black Polished Ware culture. The Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha gained prominence, forming the base of the Mauryan Empire, was a distinct cultural area, with new states arising after 500 BCE during the so - called "Second urbanisation ''. It was influenced by the Vedic culture, but differed markedly from the Kuru - Panchala region. It "was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced Neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar ''. In this region the Shramanic movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.
From c. 600 BCE to c. 300 BCE, withnessed the rise of Mahajanapadas, which were sixteen powerful and vast kingdoms and oligarchic republics. These Mahajanapadas evolved and flourished in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the northwest to Bengal in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent and included parts of the trans - Vindhyan region. Ancient Buddhist texts, like the Anguttara Nikaya, make frequent reference to these sixteen great kingdoms and republics -- Anga, Assaka, Avanti, Chedi, Gandhara, Kashi, Kamboja, Kosala, Kuru, Magadha, Malla, Matsya (or Machcha), Panchala, Surasena, Vriji, and Vatsa -- this period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after the Indus Valley Civilisation.
Many smaller clans mentioned within early literature seem to have been present across the rest of the subcontinent. Some of these kings were hereditary; other states elected their rulers. Early "republics '' or Gaṇa sangha, such as the Vajji (or Vriji) confederation, centered in the city of Vaishali, existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE. The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanapada were the Licchavis.
This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture. Especially focused in the Central Ganges plain but also spreading across vast areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, this culture is characterized by the emergence of large cities with massive fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, wide - ranging trade networks, construction of public architecture and water channels, specialized craft industries (e.g., ivory and carnelian carving), a system of weights, punch - marked coins, and the introduction of writing in the form of Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts. The language of the gentry at that time was Sanskrit, while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as Prakrits.
Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced into four major ones by 500 / 400 BCE, by the time of Gautama Buddha. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha. The life of Gautama Buddha was mainly associated with these four kingdoms.
A page of Isha Upanishad manuscript.
The Buddha 's cremation stupa, Kushinagar (Kushinara).
Around 800 BCE to 400 BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads. Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas). The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.
Increasing urbanisation of India in 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or shramana movements which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals. Mahavira (c. 549 -- 477 BCE), proponent of Jainism, and Gautama Buddha (c. 563 -- 483 BCE), founder of Buddhism were the most prominent icons of this movement. Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara, and the concept of liberation. Buddha found a Middle Way that ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the Sramana religions.
Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism. However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars believe Parshvanatha (c. 872 -- c. 772 BCE), accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. Rishabhanatha was the 1st Tirthankara. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the shramana movement.
The Magadha state c. 600 BCE, before it expanded from its capital Rajagriha -- under the Haryanka dynasty and the successor Shishunaga dynasty.
Coins during the Shishunaga dynasty of Magadha.
Magadha formed one of the sixteen Mahā - Janapadas (Sanskrit: "Great Countries '') or kingdoms in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges; its first capital was Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) then Pataliputra (modern Patna). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of Licchavi and Anga respectively, followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas. The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharva - Veda where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis, and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism, and two of India 's greatest empires, the Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire, originated from Magadha. These empires saw advancements in ancient India 's science, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy and were considered the Indian "Golden Age ''. The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.
The Hindu epic Mahabharata calls Brihadratha the first ruler of Magadha. Early sources, from the Buddhist Pāli Canon, the Jain Agamas and the Hindu Puranas, mentions Magadha being ruled by the Haryanka dynasty for some 200 years, c. 600 BCE -- 413 BCE. King Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now eastern Bihar and West Bengal. King Bimbisara was overthrown and killed by his son, Prince Ajatashatru, who continued the expansionist policy of Magadha. During this period, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, lived much of his life in Magadha kingdom. He attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath and the first Buddhist council was held in Rajgriha. The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shishunaga dynasty. The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka, was assassinated by Mahapadma Nanda in 345 BCE, the first of the so - called Nine Nandas, Mahapadma and his eight sons. The Nanda Empire extended across much of northern India.
In 530 BCE Cyrus the Great, King of the Persian Achaemenid Empire crossed the Hindu - Kush mountains to seek tribute from the tribes of Kamboja, Gandhara and the trans - India region (modern Afghanistan and Pakistan). By 520 BCE, during the reign of Darius I of Persia, much of the north - western subcontinent (present - day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, as part of the far easternmost territories. The area remained under Persian control for two centuries. During this time India supplied mercenaries to the Persian army then fighting in Greece. Under Persian rule the famous city of Takshashila became a centre where both Vedic and Iranian learning were mingled. Persian ascendency in North - western South Asia ended with Alexander the Great 's conquest of Persia in 327 BCE.
By 326 BCE, Alexander the Great had conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire and had reached the northwest frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. There he defeated King Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes (near modern - day Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab. Alexander 's march east put him in confrontation with the Nanda Empire of Magadha and the Gangaridai of Bengal. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas River) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, and after learning about the might of the Nanda Empire, was convinced that it was better to return.
The Persian and Greek invasions had repercussions in the north - western regions of the Indian subcontinent. The region of Gandhara, or present - day eastern Afghanistan and north - west Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian, and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, Greco - Buddhism, which lasted until the 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development of Mahayana Buddhism.
The Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great.
Ashokan pillar at Vaishali, 3rd century BCE.
The Maurya Empire (322 -- 185 BCE) was the first empire to unify India into one state, and was the largest on the Indian subcontinent. At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of the Himalayas and to the east into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the Hindu Kush mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya assisted by Chanakya (Kautilya) in Magadha (in modern Bihar) when he overthrew the Nanda Dynasty. Chandragupta 's son Bindusara succeeded to the throne around 297 BCE. By the time he died in c. 272 BCE, a large part of the subcontinent was under Mauryan suzerainty. However, the region of Kalinga (around modern day Odisha) remained outside Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with their trade with the south.
Bindusara was succeeded by Ashoka, whose reign lasted for around 37 years until his death in about 232 BCE. His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260 BCE, though successful, lead to immense loss of life and misery. This filled Ashoka with remorse and lead him to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace Buddhism. The empire began to decline after his death and the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga to establish the Shunga Empire.
The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society. However, the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government. Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, usury was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a prevalence thereof. During this period, a high quality steel called Wootz steel was developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia.
During the Sangam period Tamil literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE. During this period, three Tamil Dynasties, collectively known as the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam: Chera dynasty, Chola dynasty and the Pandyan dynasty ruled parts of southern India.
The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars and culture of the Tamil people of this period. The scholars of the Sangam period rose from among the common people who sought the patronage of the Tamil Kings, but who mainly wrote about the common people and their concerns. Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins. They belonged to different faiths and professions like farmers, artisans, merchants, monks, priests and even princes and quite few of them were even women.
The time between the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE and the end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE is referred to as the "Classical '' period of India. It can be divided in various sub-periods, depending on the chosen periodisation. Classical period begins after the decline of the Maurya Empire, and the corresponding rise of the Satavahana dynasty, beginning with Simuka, from 230 BCE. The Gupta Empire (4th -- 6th century) is regarded as the "Golden Age '' of Hinduism, although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries. Also, the Sangam literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE in southern India. During this period, India 's economy is estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one - third and one - quarter of the world 's wealth, from 1 CE to 1000 CE.
The Shungas originated from Magadha, and controlled areas of the central and eastern Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Shunga, who overthrew the last Maurya emperor. Its capital was Pataliputra, but later emperors, such as Bhagabhadra, also held court at Vidisha, modern Besnagar in Eastern Malwa.
Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. There were ten Shunga rulers. However, after the death of Agnimitra, the empire rapidly disintegrated; inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms and city - states that were independent of any Shunga hegemony. The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought battles with the Mahameghavahana dynasty of Kalinga, Satavahana dynasty of Deccan, the Indo - Greeks, and possibly the Panchalas and Mitras of Mathura.
Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including small terracotta images, larger stone sculptures, and architectural monuments such as the Stupa at Bharhut, and the renowned Great Stupa at Sanchi. The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant of Brahmi and was used to write the Sanskrit language. The Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronising Indian culture at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place. This helped the empire flourish and gain power.
The Heliodorus pillar, commissioned by Indo - Greek ambassador Heliodorus, is the first known inscription related to Vaishnavism in India.
The Mathura lion capital, 1st century CE. The capital describes, among other donations, the gift of a stupa with a relic of the Buddha, by Queen Ayasia, the "chief queen of the Indo - Scythian ruler of Mathura, satrap Rajuvula ''.
The Northwestern kingdoms and hybrid cultures of the Indian subcontinent included the Indo - Greeks, the Indo - Scythians, the Indo - Parthians, and the Indo - Sassinids.
Silk Road and Spice trade, ancient trade routes that linked India with the Old World; carried goods and ideas between the ancient civilisations of the Old World and India. The land routes are red, and the water routes are blue.
The Pompeii Lakshmi ivory statuette was found in the ruin of Pompeii. It is thought to have come from Bhokardan in the Satavahana realm in the first half of the 1st century CE. It testifies to Indo - Roman trade relations beginning around the 1st century BCE.
Satavahana gateway at Sanchi, 1st century CE (UNESCO World Heritage Site).
Indian ship on lead coin of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi, testimony to the naval, seafaring and trading capabilities of the Sātavāhanas during the 1st -- 2nd century CE.
The Śātavāhana Empire was based from Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh as well as Junnar (Pune) and Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra. The territory of the empire covered large parts of India from the 1st century BCE onward. The Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to the Mauryan dynasty, but declared independence with its decline.
The Sātavāhanas are known for their patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism, which resulted in Buddhist monuments from Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) to Amaravati. They were one of the first Indian states to issue coins struck with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo - Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India.
They had to compete with the Shunga Empire and then the Kanva dynasty of Magadha to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect large part of India against foreign invaders like the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas. In particular, their struggles with the Western Kshatrapas went on for a long time. The notable rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty Gautamiputra Satakarni and Sri Yajna Sātakarni were able to defeat the foreign invaders like the Western Kshatrapas and to stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE the empire was split into smaller states.
Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under Kanishka (dotted line), according to the Rabatak inscription.
Depiction of the Buddha in Kanishka 's coinage, Mathura art, 2nd century CE.
The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises, about the middle of the 1st century CE. The Kushans were possibly of Tocharian speaking tribe; one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation. By the time of his grandson, Kanishka the Great, the empire spread to encompass much of Afghanistan, and then the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent at least as far as Saketa and Sarnath near Varanasi (Banaras).
Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new Hindu majority. They played an important role in the establishment of Buddhism in India and its spread to Central Asia and China.
Historian Vincent Smith said about Kanishka:
He played the part of a second Ashoka in the history of Buddhism.
The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the Silk Road through the Indus valley, encouraging long - distance trade, particularly between China and Rome. The Kushans brought new trends to the budding and blossoming Gandhara art and Mathura art, which reached its peak during Kushan rule.
H.G. Rowlinson commented:
The Kushan period is a fitting prelude to the Age of the Guptas.
By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was Vasudeva I.
Gupta Empire expansion from 320 CE to 550 CE.
The current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple dates to the Gupta era, 5th century CE. Marking the location where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.
Classical India refers to the period when much of the Indian subcontinent was united under the Gupta Empire (c. 320 -- 550 CE). This period has been called the Golden Age of India; and was marked by extensive achievements in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy that crystallised the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture. The Hindu - Arabic numerals, a positional numeral system, originated in India and was later transmitted to the West through the Arabs. Early Hindu numerals had only nine symbols, until 600 to 800 CE, when a symbol for zero was developed for the numeral system. The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavours in India.
The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculpture, and painting. The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule, but they also patronised Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers -- Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II -- brought much of India under their leadership. Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, Maritime Southeast Asia, and Indochina.
The latter Guptas successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the Alchon Huns, who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with their capital at Bamiyan. However, much of the Deccan and southern India were largely unaffected by these events in the north.
The Vākāṭaka Empire originated from the Deccan in the mid-third century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the north to the Tungabhadra River in the south as well as from the Arabian Sea in the western to the edges of Chhattisgarh in the east. They were the most important successors of the Satavahanas in the Deccan and contemporaneous with the Guptas in northern India.
The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature. They led public works and their monuments are a visible legacy. The rock - cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of Ajanta Caves (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) were built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor, Harishena.
Samudragupta 's 4th - century Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Kamarupa (Western Assam) and Davaka (Central Assam) as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire. Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to near present Sadiya and covered the entire Brahmaputra valley, North Bengal, parts of Bangladesh and, at times Purnea and parts of West Bengal.
Ruled by three dynasties Varmanas (c. 350 -- 650 CE), Mlechchha dynasty (c. 655 -- 900 CE) and Kamarupa - Palas (c. 900 -- 1100 CE), from their capitals in present - day Guwahati (Pragjyotishpura), Tezpur (Haruppeswara) and North Gauhati (Durjaya) respectively. All three dynasties claimed their descent from Narakasura, an immigrant from Aryavarta. In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskar Varman (c. 600 -- 650 CE), the Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the region and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa - Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was somewhat extended till c. 1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120 -- 1185 CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155 -- 1255 CE) dynasties. The Kamarupa kingdom came to an end in the middle of the 13th century when the Khen dynasty under Sandhya of Kamarupanagara (North Guwahati), moved his capital to Kamatapur (North Bengal) after the invasion of Muslim Turks, and established the Kamata kingdom.
The Pallavas, during the 4th to 9th centuries were, alongside the Guptas of the North, great patronisers of Sanskrit development in the South of the Indian subcontinent. The Pallava reign saw the first Sankrit inscriptions in a script called Grantha. Early Pallavas had different connexions to Southeast Asian countries. The Pallavas used Dravidian architecture to build some very important Hindu temples and academies in Mamallapuram, Kanchipuram and other places; their rule saw the rise of great poets. The practice of dedicating temples to different deities came into vogue followed by fine artistic temple architecture and sculpture style of Vastu Shastra.
Pallavas reached the height of power during the reign of Mahendravarman I (571 -- 630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630 -- 668 CE) and dominated the Telugu and northern parts of the Tamil region for about six hundred years until the end of the 9th century.
Kadambas originated from Karnataka, was founded by Mayurasharma in 345 CE which at later times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions, an indication to which is provided by the titles and epithets assumed by its rulers. King Mayurasharma defeated the armies of Pallavas of Kanchi possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule of Kakusthavarma, a notable ruler with whom even the kings of Gupta Dynasty of northern India cultivated marital alliances. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the Western Ganga Dynasty and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires, for over five hundred years during which time they branched into minor dynasties known as the Kadambas of Goa, Kadambas of Halasi and Kadambas of Hangal.
The defeat of the Alchon Huns under Mihirakula by King Yashodharman at Sondani in 528 CE.
Vishnu nicolo seal representing Vishnu with a worshipper (probably Mihirakula), 4th -- 6th century CE. The inscription in cursive Bactrian reads: "Mihira, Vishnu and Shiva ''. British Museum.
The Indo - Hephthalites (or Alchon Huns) were a nomadic confederation in Central Asia during the late antiquity period. The Alchon Huns established themselves in modern - day Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century. Led by the Hun military leader Toramana, they overran Northern regions of the Indian subcontinent. Toramana 's son Mihirakula, a Saivite Hindu, moved up to near Pataliputra to the east and Gwalior to central India. Hiuen Tsiang narrates Mihirakula 's merciless persecution of Buddhists and destruction of monasteries, though the description is disputed as far as the authenticity is concerned. The Huns were defeated by alliance of Indian rulers, Maharaja (Great King) Yasodharman of Malwa and Gupta Emperor Narasimhagupta in the 6th century. Some of them were driven out of India and others were assimilated in the Indian society.
Harsha ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son of Prabhakarvardhana and the younger brother of Rajyavardhana, who were members of the Pushyabhuti dynasty and ruled Thanesar, in present - day Haryana.
After the downfall of the prior Gupta Empire in the middle of the 6th century, North India reverted to smaller republics and monarchical states. The power vacuum resulted in the rise of the Vardhanas of Thanesar, who began uniting the republics and monarchies from the Punjab to central India. After the death of Harsha 's father and brother, representatives of the empire crowned Harsha emperor at an assembly in April 606 CE, giving him the title of Maharaja when he was merely 16 years old. At the height of his power, his Empire covered much of North and Northwestern India, extended East till Kamarupa, and South until Narmada River; and eventually made Kannauj (in present Uttar Pradesh state) his capital, and ruled till 647 CE.
The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors from far and wide. During this time, Harsha converted to Buddhism from Surya worship. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the court of Harsha and wrote a very favourable account of him, praising his justice and generosity. His biography Harshacharita ("Deeds of Harsha '') written by Sanskrit poet Banabhatta, describes his association with Thanesar, besides mentioning the defence wall, a moat and the palace with a two - storied Dhavalagriha (White Mansion).
Early medieval India began after the end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE. This period also covers the "Late Classical Age '' of Hinduism, which began after the end of the Gupta Empire, and the collapse of the Empire of Harsha in the 7th century CE; the beginning of Imperial Kannauj, leading to the Tripartite struggle; and ended in the 13th century with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate in Northern India and the end of the Later Cholas with the death of Rajendra Chola III in 1279 in Southern India; however some aspects of the Classical period continued until the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in the south around the 17th century.
From the fifth century to the thirteenth, Śrauta sacrifices declined, and initiatory traditions of Buddhism, Jainism or more commonly Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism expanded in royal courts. This period produced some of India 's finest art, considered the epitome of classical development, and the development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.
North - Western Indian Buddhism weakened in the 6th century after the Alchon Huns invasion, who followed their own religions at the beginning such as Tengri, but later Indian religions. Muhammad bin Qasim 's invasion of Sindh (modern Pakistan) in 711 CE witnessed further decline of Buddhism. The Chach Nama records many instances of conversion of stupas to mosques such as at Nerun.
In the 7th century CE, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa formulated his school of Mimamsa philosophy and defended the position on Vedic rituals against Buddhist attacks. Scholars note Bhaṭṭa 's contribution to the decline of Buddhism in India. His dialectical success against the Buddhists is confirmed by Buddhist historian Tathagata, who reports that Kumārila defeated disciples of Buddhapalkita, Bhavya, Dharmadasa, Dignaga and others.
In the 8th century, Adi Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate and spread the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta, which he consolidated; and is credited with unifying the main characteristics of the current thoughts in Hinduism. He was a critic of both Buddhism and Minamsa school of Hinduism; and founded mathas (monasteries), in the four corners of the Indian subcontinent for the spread and development of Advaita Vedanta.
Ronald Inden writes that by the 8th century CE symbols of Hindu gods "replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo - political system, the image or symbol of the Hindu god comes to be housed in a monumental temple and given increasingly elaborate imperial - style puja worship ''. Although Buddhism did not disappear from India for several centuries after the eighth, royal proclivities for the cults of Vishnu and Shiva weakened Buddhism 's position within the sociopolitical context and helped make possible its decline.
Emperor Harsha of Kannauj succeeded in reuniting northern India during his reign in the 7th century, after the collapse of the Gupta dynasty. His empire collapsed after his death. From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala Empire, and the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into various states, notably the Paramaras of Malwa, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand, the Kalachuris of Mahakoshal, the Tomaras of Haryana, and the Chauhans of Rajputana. These were some of the earliest Rajput kingdoms. One Gurjar Rajput of the Chauhan clan, Prithvi Raj Chauhan, was known for bloody conflicts against the advancing Turkic sultanates. While Chandela Rajput dynasty is credited for the Khajuraho Temple Complex, famous for their nagara - style architectural symbolism and their erotic sculptures.
The Chola empire emerged as a major power during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I who successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka in the 11th century. Lalitaditya Muktapida (r. 724 CE -- 760 CE) was an emperor of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty, which exercised influence in northwestern India from 625 CE until 1003, and was followed by Lohara dynasty. Kalhana in his Rajatarangini credits king Lalitaditya with leading an aggressive military campaign in Northern India and Central Asia.
The Hindu Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century. While in Odisha, the Eastern Ganga Empire rose to power; noted for the advancement of Hindu architecture, most notable being Jagannath Temple and Konark Sun Temple, as well as being patrons of art and literature.
The Chalukya Empire ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas '', ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India - based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture ''. The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again from Kalyani between 970 and 1190.
The Chaulukya dynasty of Gujarat were a branch of the Chalukyas. Their capital at Anhilwara (modern Patan, Gujarat) was one of the largest cities in Classical India, with the population estimated at 100,000 in 1000 CE.
Founded by Dantidurga around 753, the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from its capital at Manyakheta for almost two centuries. At its peak, the Rashtrakutas ruled from the Ganges River and Yamuna River doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time of political expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary contributions.
The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later rulers were strongly influenced by Jainism. Govinda III and Amoghavarsha were the most famous of the long line of able administrators produced by the dynasty. Amoghavarsha, who ruled for 64 years, was also an author and wrote Kavirajamarga, the earliest known Kannada work on poetics. Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important contributions are the sculptures of Elephanta Caves in modern Maharashtra as well as the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka, all of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
The Arab traveller Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one of the four great Empires of the world. The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden age of southern Indian mathematics. The great south Indian mathematician Mahāvīra lived in the Rashtrakuta Empire and his text had a huge impact on the medieval south Indian mathematicians who lived after him. The Rashtrakuta rulers also patronised men of letters, who wrote in a variety of languages from Sanskrit to the Apabhraṃśas.
The Pala Empire was founded by Gopala I. It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal in the eastern region of the Indian subcontinent. The Palas reunified Bengal after the fall of Shashanka 's Gauda Kingdom.
The Palas were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism, they also patronised Shaivism and Vaishnavism. The morpheme Pala, meaning "protector '', was used as an ending for the names of all the Pala monarchs. The empire reached its peak under Dharmapala and Devapala. Dharmapala is believed to have conquered Kanauj and extended his sway up to the farthest limits of India in the northwest.
The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal in many ways. Dharmapala founded the Vikramashila and revived Nalanda, considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. Nalanda reached its height under the patronage of the Pala Empire. The Palas also built many viharas. They maintained close cultural and commercial ties with countries of Southeast Asia and Tibet. Sea trade added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala Empire. The Arab merchant Suleiman notes the enormity of the Pala army in his memoirs.
Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola c. 1030 CE.
Brihadeeswara Temple entrance Gopurams, Thanjavur.
Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century C.E. and established the greatest empire South India had seen. They successfully united the South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya. Under Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South - East Asia. Rajendra Chola I 's navies went even further, occupying the sea coasts from Burma to Vietnam, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Lakshadweep (Laccadive) islands, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula in Southeast Asia and the Pegu islands. The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of cities of the maritime empire of Srivijaya in Southeast Asia, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.
They dominated the political affairs of Sri Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs in the west and with the Chinese empire in the east. Rajaraja Chola I and his equally distinguished son Rajendra Chola I gave political unity to the whole of Southern India and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power. Under the Cholas, the South India reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. Vast areas between the Narmada River in the north and Kaveri River in the south came under Chalukya control. During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuris, were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the later half of the 12th century. The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali and the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi. This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language of Kannada, and Sanskrit like the philosopher and statesman Basava and the great mathematician Bhāskara II.
The early Islamic literature indicates that the conquest of the Indian subcontinent was one of the very early ambitions of the Muslims, though it was recognised as a particularly difficult one. After conquering Persia, the Arab Umayyad Caliphate incorporated parts of what are now Afghanistan and Pakistan around 720.
The book Chach Nama chronicles the Brahmin dynasty 's period, following the demise of the Rai Dynasty and the ascent of Chach of Alor to the throne, down to the Arab conquest by Muhammad bin Qasim in the early 8th century CE, by defeating the last Hindu monarch of Sindh, Raja Dahir.
In 712, Arab Muslim general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region in modern - day Pakistan for the Umayyad Empire, incorporating it as the "As - Sindh '' province with its capital at Al - Mansurah, 72 km (45 mi) north of modern Hyderabad in Sindh, Pakistan. After several incursions, the Hindu kings east of Indus defeated the Arabs during the Caliphate campaigns in India, halting their expansion and containing them at Sindh in Pakistan. The south Indian Chalukya empire under Vikramaditya II, Nagabhata I of the Pratihara dynasty and Bappa Rawal of the Guhilot dynasty repulsed the Arab invaders in the early 8th century.
Several Islamic kingdoms (sultanates) under both foreign and, newly converted, Rajput rulers were established across the Northwestern subcontinent (Afghanistan and Pakistan) over a period of a few centuries. From the 10th century, Sindh was ruled by the Rajput Soomra dynasty, and later, in the mid-13th century by the Rajput Samma dynasty. Additionally, Muslim trading communities flourished throughout coastal south India, particularly on the western coast where Muslim traders arrived in small numbers, mainly from the Arabian peninsula. This marked the introduction of a third Abrahamic Middle Eastern religion, following Judaism and Christianity, often in puritanical form. Mahmud of Ghazni in the early 11th century raided mainly the north - western parts of the Indian sub-continent 17 times, but he did not seek to establish "permanent dominion '' in those areas. While Suhaldev of Shravasti, who is said to have defeated and killed the Ghaznavid general Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud in the early 11th century.
The Kabul Shahis ruled the Kabul Valley and Gandhara (modern - day Pakistan and Afghanistan) from the decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century to the early 9th century CE. The Shahis are generally split up into two eras: the Buddhist Shahis and the Hindu Shahis, with the change - over thought to have occurred sometime around 870 CE. The kingdom was known as the Kabul Shahan or Ratbelshahan from 565 CE to 670 CE, when the capitals were located in Kapisa and Kabul, and later Udabhandapura, also known as Hund, for its new capital.
The Hindu Shahis under Jayapala, is known for his struggles in defending his kingdom against the Ghaznavids in the modern - day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan region. Jayapala saw a danger in the consolidation of the Ghaznavids and invaded their capital city of Ghazni both in the reign of Sebuktigin and in that of his son Mahmud, which initiated the Muslim Ghaznavid and Hindu Shahi struggles. Sebuk Tigin, however, defeated him, and he was forced to pay an indemnity. Jayapala defaulted on the payment and took to the battlefield once more. Jayapala, however, lost control of the entire region between the Kabul Valley and Indus River.
Before Jayapala 's struggle began, he had raised a large army of Punjabi Hindus. When Jayapala went to the Punjab region, his army was raised to 100,000 horsemen and an innumerable host of foot soldiers. According to Ferishta:
The two armies having met on the confines of Lumghan, Subooktugeen ascended a hill to view the forces of Jayapala, which appeared in extent like the boundless ocean, and in number like the ants or the locusts of the wilderness. But Subooktugeen considered himself as a wolf about to attack a flock of sheep: calling, therefore, his chiefs together, he encouraged them to glory, and issued to each his commands. His soldiers, though few in number, were divided into squadrons of five hundred men each, which were directed to attack successively, one particular point of the Hindoo line, so that it might continually have to encounter fresh troops.
However, the army was hopeless in battle against the western forces, particularly against the young Mahmud of Ghazni. In the year 1001, soon after Sultan Mahmud came to power and was occupied with the Qarakhanids north of the Hindu Kush, Jayapala attacked Ghazni once more and upon suffering yet another defeat by the powerful Ghaznavid forces, near present - day Peshawar. After the Battle of Peshawar, he committed suicide because his subjects thought he had brought disaster and disgrace to the Shahis.
Jayapala was succeeded by his son Anandapala, who along with other succeeding generations of the Shahis took part in various unsuccessful campaigns against the advancing Ghaznvids but were unsuccessful. The Hindu rulers eventually exiled themselves to the Kashmir Siwalik Hills.
The late medieval period is defined by the disruption to native Indian elites by Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans; leading to the Rajput resistance to Muslim conquests. The growth of Hindu and Muslim dynasties and empires, built upon new military technology and techniques. The rise of theistic devotional trend of the Bhakti movement and the advent of Sikhism.
Like other settled, agrarian societies in history, those in the Indian subcontinent have been attacked by nomadic tribes throughout its long history. In evaluating the impact of Islam on the sub-continent, one must note that the northwestern subcontinent was a frequent target of tribes raiding from Central Asia. In that sense, the Muslim intrusions and later Muslim invasions were not dissimilar to those of the earlier invasions during the 1st millennium. What does however, make the Muslim intrusions and later Muslim invasions different is that unlike the preceding invaders who assimilated into the prevalent social system, the successful Muslim conquerors retained their Islamic identity and created new legal and administrative systems that challenged and usually in many cases superseded the existing systems of social conduct and ethics, even influencing the non-Muslim rivals and common masses to a large extent, though the non-Muslim population was left to their own laws and customs. They also introduced new cultural codes that in some ways were very different from the existing cultural codes. This led to the rise of a new Indian culture which was mixed in nature, though different from both the ancient Indian culture and later westernised modern Indian culture. At the same time it must be noted that overwhelming majority of Muslims in India are Indian natives converted to Islam. This factor also played an important role in the synthesis of cultures.
The growth of Muslim dominion resulted in the destruction and desecration of politically important temples of enemy states, cases of forced conversions to Islam, payment of jizya tax, and loss of life for the non-Muslim population.
Before the Muslim expeditions into the Indian subcontinent, much of North and West India was ruled by Rajput dynasties. The Rajputs and the south Indian Chalukya dynasty were successful in containing Arab Muslim expansion during the Caliphate campaigns in India; but later, Central Asian Muslim Turks were able to break through the Rajput defence into the Northern Indian heartland. However, the Rajputs held out against the Muslim Turkic empires for several centuries. They earned a reputation of fighting battles obeying a code of chivalrous conduct rooted in a strong adherence to tradition and Chi.
The Rajput Chauhan dynasty established its control over Delhi and Ajmer in the 10th century. The most famous ruler of this dynasty was Prithviraj Chauhan. His reign marked one of the most significant moments in Indian history; his battles with Muslim Sultan, Muhammad Ghori. In the First Battle of Tarain, Ghori was defeated with heavy losses. However, the Second Battle of Tarain saw the Rajput army eventually defeated, laying the foundation of Muslim rule in mainland India.
The Mewar dynasty under Maharana Hammir defeated and captured Muhammad Tughlaq with the Bargujars as his main allies. Tughlaq had to pay a huge ransom and relinquish all of Mewar 's lands. After this event, the Delhi Sultanate did not attack Chittorgarh for a few hundred years. The Rajputs re-established their independence, and Rajput states were established as far east as Bengal and north into the Punjab. The Tomaras established themselves at Gwalior, and Man Singh Tomar built the fortress which still stands there. During this period, Mewar emerged as the leading Rajput state; and Rana Kumbha expanded his kingdom at the expense of the Sultanates of Malwa and Gujarat. The next great Rajput ruler, Rana Sanga of Mewar, became the principal player in Northern India. His objectives grew in scope -- he planned to conquer the much sought after prize of the Muslim rulers of the time, Delhi. But, his defeat in the Battle of Khanwa consolidated the new Mughal dynasty in India. However, Maharana Pratap of Mewar, a 16th - century Rajput ruler, firmly resisted the Mughals. Akbar sent many missions against him. He survived to ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding the Chittor Fort.
The Chittorgarh Fort is the largest in India; it is a symbol for Rajput resistance. Chittorgarh Fort was sacked three times during the 15th and 16th centuries by Muslim armies. In 1303 Alauddin Khalji defeated Rana Ratan Singh; in 1535 Bahadur Shah, the Sultanate of Gujarat defeated Bikramjeet Singh; and in 1567 Akbar defeated Maharana Udai Singh II, who left the fort and founded Udaipur. Each time the men fought bravely rushing out of the fort walls charging the enemy, but lost. Following these defeats, Jauhar was committed thrice by many of the wives and children of the Rajput soldiers who died in battles at Chittorgarh Fort. The first time, this was led by Rani Padmini wife of Rana Rattan Singh who was killed in the battle in 1303, and later by Rani Karnavati in 1537.
Delhi Sultanate reached its zenith under the Turko - Indian Tughlaq dynasty.
Qutub Minar is the world 's tallest brick minaret, commenced by Qutb - ud - din Aybak of the Slave dynasty.
The historian Dr. R.P. Tripathi noted:
The history of Muslim sovereignty in India begins properly speaking with Iltutmish.
The Delhi Sultanate was a Muslim sultanate based in Delhi, ruled by several dynasties of Turkic, Turko - Indian and Pathan origins. It ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th century to the early 16th century. The context behind the rise of the Delhi Sultanate in India was part of a wider trend affecting much of the Asian continent, including the whole of southern and western Asia: the influx of nomadic Turkic peoples from the Central Asian steppes. This can be traced back to the 9th century, when the Islamic Caliphate began fragmenting in the Middle East, where Muslim rulers in rival states began enslaving non-Muslim nomadic Turks from the Central Asian steppes, and raising many of them to become loyal military slaves called Mamluks. Soon, Turks were migrating to Muslim lands and becoming Islamicized. Many of the Turkic Mamluk slaves eventually rose up to become rulers, and conquered large parts of the Muslim world, establishing Mamluk Sultanates from Egypt to Afghanistan, before turning their attention to the Indian subcontinent.
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Central Asian Turks invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Hindu holdings. The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, while the Khalji dynasty conquered most of central India while forcing the principal Hindu kingdoms of South India to become vassal states. However, they were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo - Muslim '' fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde '' or "camp '' in various Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the intermingling of the local speakers of Sanskritic Prakrits with immigrants speaking Persian, Turkic, and Arabic under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo - Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultana (1236 -- 1240). However, the Delhi Sultanate also caused large - scale destruction and desecration of temples in the Indian subcontinent.
During the Delhi Sultanate, there was a synthesis between Indian civilization and Islamic civilization. The latter was a cosmopolitan civilization, with a multicultural and pluralistic society, and wide - ranging international networks, including social and economic networks, spanning large parts of Afro - Eurasia, leading to escalating circulation of goods, peoples, technologies and ideas. While initially disruptive due to the passing of power from native Indian elites to Turkic Muslim elites, the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for integrating the Indian subcontinent into a growing world system, drawing India into a wider international network, which had a significant impact on Indian culture and society.
In the 13th century, the Mongol Empire had invaded and conquered most of Asia and Eastern Europe. However, the Mongol invasions of India were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate. A major factor in their success was their Turkic Mamluk slave army, who were highly skilled in the same style of nomadic cavalry warfare as the Mongols, as a result of having similar nomadic Central Asian roots. It is possible that the Mongol Empire may have expanded into India were it not for the Delhi Sultanate 's role in repelling them.
A Turco - Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir - u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi. The Sultan 's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timur 's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the sayyids, scholars, and the "other Muslims '' (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day. The Sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking of Delhi revived briefly under the Lodi Dynasty, but it was a shadow of the former.
The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in medieval Hinduism and later revolutionised in Sikhism. It originated in the seventh - century south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards. It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.
The Vijayanagar Empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama Dynasty. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India.
The empire 's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan and later in the Dravidian idioms using the local granite. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician Madhava of Sangamagrama founded the famous Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva in medieval south India. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation. The empire 's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.
The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor. The empire reached its peak during the rule of Sri Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south. Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishna Deva Raya. Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the Battle of Talikota (1565).
"Sala fighting the Lion, '' the emblem of Hoysala Empire. Hoysala administration and architecture would influence Vijayanagara Empire, their political heir.
Rang Ghar, built by Pramatta Singha in Ahom Kingdom 's capital Rongpur, is one of the earliest pavilion of outdoor stadia in the Indian subcontinent.
For two and a half centuries from the mid 13th century, politics in Northern India was dominated by the Delhi Sultanate, and in Southern India by the Vijayanagar Empire, which originated as a political heir of the Hoysala Empire, Kakatiya Empire, and the Pandyan Empire. However, there were other regional powers present as well. The Reddy dynasty successfully defeated the Delhi Sultanate; and extended their rule from Cuttack in the north to Kanchi in the south, eventually being absorbed into the expanding Vijayanagara Empire. In the north, the Rajput kingdoms remained the dominant force in Western and Central India. Their power reached its zenith under Rana Sanga, during whose time Rajput armies were constantly victorious against the Sultanate armies. In the south, the Bahmani Sultanate was the chief rival of the Vijayanagara, and frequently created difficulties for the Vijayanagara. In the early 16th century Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagar Empire defeated the last remnant of Bahmani Sultanate power, after which the Bahmani Sultanate collapsed. It was established either by a Brahman convert or patronised by a Brahman and from that source it was given the name Bahmani. In the early 16th century, it collapsed and split into five small Deccan sultanates.
In the East, the Gajapati Kingdom remained a strong regional power to reckon with, associated with a high point in the growth of regional culture and architecture. Under Kapilendradeva, Gajapatis became an empire stretching from the lower Ganga in the north to the Kaveri in the south. In Northeast India, the Ahom Kingdom was a major power for six centuries; led by Lachit Borphukan, the Ahoms decisively defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Saraighat during the Ahom - Mughal conflicts. Further east in Northeastern India was the Kingdom of Manipur, which ruled from their seat of power at Kangla Fort and developed a sophisticated Hindu Gaudiya Vaishnavite culture.
The early modern period of Indian history is dated from 1526 -- 1858 CE, corresponding to the rise and fall of the Mughal dynasty. This period witnessed the cultural synthesis of Hindu and Muslim elements reflected in Indo - Islamic architecture; the growth of Maratha and Sikh imperial powers over vast regions of the Indian subcontinent with the decline of the Mughals; and came to an end when the British Raj was founded.
The Mughal Empire at its greatest extent, in the early 18th century.
Taj Mahal is a mausoleum built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan to house the tomb of his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal.
In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan from Fergana Valley (modern day Uzbekistan), swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, which at its zenith covered modern day Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh. However, his son Humayun was defeated by the Afghan warrior Sher Shah Suri in the year 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to Kabul. After Sher Shah 's death, his son Islam Shah Suri and his Hindu general Hemu Vikramaditya had established secular rule in North India from Delhi till 1556. After winning Battle of Delhi, Akbar 's forces defeated Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556.
The famous emperor Akbar the Great, who was the grandson of Babar, tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus. Akbar declared "Amari '' or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the jizya tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local maharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko - Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating a unique Indo - Persian culture and Indo - Saracenic architecture. Akbar married a Rajput princess, Mariam - uz - Zamani, and they had a son, Jahangir, who was part - Mughal and part - Rajput, as were future Mughal emperors. Jahangir more or less followed his father 's policy. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600. The reign of Shah Jahan was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several large monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Delhi, and the Lahore Fort.
The Mughal era is considered to be "India 's last golden age ''. It was the second largest empire to have existed in the Indian subcontinent, and surpassed China to be become the world 's largest economic power, controlling 24.4 % of the world economy, and the world leader in manufacturing, producing 25 % of global industrial output. The economic and demographic upsurge was stimulated by Mughal agrarian reforms that intensified agricultural production, a proto - industrializing economy that began moving towards industrial manufacturing, and a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time.
The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of Aurangzeb and also started its terminal decline in his reign due to Maratha military resurgence under Shivaji. Historian Sir. J.N. Sarkar wrote, "All seemed to have been gained by Aurangzeb now, but in reality all was lost. '' The same was echoed by Vincent Smith: "The Deccan proved to be the graveyard not only of Aurangzeb 's body but also of his empire ''. Aurangazeb is considered India 's most controversial king. He was less tolerant than his predecessors, reintroducing the jizya tax and destroying several historical temples, while at the same time building more Hindu temples than he destroyed, employing significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors, and opposing Sunni Muslim bigotry against Hindus and Shia Muslims. However, he is often blamed for the erosion of the tolerant syncretic tradition of his predecessors, as well as increasing brutality and centralisation, which may have played a large part in the dynasty 's downfall after Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively less pluralistic policies on the general population, which may have inflamed the majority Hindu population.
The empire went into decline thereafter. The Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions from Marathas, Jats and Afghans. During the decline of the Mughal Empire, several smaller states rose to fill the power vacuum and themselves were contributing factors to the decline. In 1737, the Maratha general Bajirao of the Maratha Empire invaded and plundered Delhi. Under the general Amir Khan Umrao Al Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent 8,000 troops to drive away the 5,000 Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao, however, easily routed the novice Mughal general and the rest of the imperial Mughal army fled. In 1737, in the final defeat of Mughal Empire, the commander - in - chief of the Mughal Army, Nizam - ul - mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the Maratha army. This essentially brought an end to the Mughal Empire. While Bharatpur State under Jat ruler Suraj Mal, overran the Mughal garrison at Agra and plundered the city taking with them the two great silver doors of the entrance of the famous Taj Mahal; which were then melted down by Suraj Mal in 1763. In 1739, Nader Shah, emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Karnal. After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne. Mughal rule were further weakened by constant native Indian resistance; Banda Singh Bahadur led the Sikh Khalsa against Mughal religious oppression; Hindu Rajas of Bengal, Pratapaditya and Raja Sitaram Ray revolted; and Maharaja Chhatrasal, of Bundela Rajputs, fought the Mughals and established the Panna State. The Mughal dynasty was reduced to puppet rulers by 1757. The remnants of the Mughal dynasty were finally defeated during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also called the 1857 War of Independence, and the remains of the empire were formally taken over by the British while the Government of India Act 1858 let the British Crown assume direct control of India in the form of the new British Raj.
Territory under Maratha control in 1760 (yellow), the last Hindu empire of India.
Shaniwarwada palace fort in Pune, seat of the Peshwa rulers of the Maratha Empire until 1818.
In the early 18th century the Maratha Empire extended suzerainty over the Indian subcontinent. Under the Peshwas, the Marathas consolidated and ruled over much of South Asia. The Marathas are credited to a large extent for ending Mughal rule in India.
The Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated by Chatrapati Shivaji, a Maratha aristocrat of the Bhonsle clan who was determined to establish Hindavi Swarajya. Sir J.N. Sarkar described Shivaji as "the last great constructive genius and nation builder that the Hindu race has produced ''. However, the credit for making the Marathas formidable power nationally goes to Peshwa Bajirao I. Historian K.K. Datta wrote that Bajirao I "may very well be regarded as the second founder of the Maratha Empire. ''
By the early 18th century, the Maratha Kingdom had transformed itself into the Maratha Empire under the rule of the Peshwas (prime ministers). In 1737, the Marathas defeated a Mughal army in their capital, in the Battle of Delhi. The Marathas continued their military campaigns against the Mughals, Nizam, Nawab of Bengal and the Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries. By 1760, the domain of the Marathas stretched across practically the entire subcontinent. The empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south, to Peshawar (modern - day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan) in the north, and Bengal in the east. The Northwestern expansion of the Marathas was stopped after the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). However, the Maratha authority in the north was re-established within a decade under Peshwa Madhavrao I.
Under Madhavrao I, semi-autonomy was given to the strongest of the knights, which created a confederacy of Maratha states. They became known as the Gaekwads of Baroda, the Holkars of Indore and Malwa, the Scindias of Gwalior and Ujjain, the Bhonsales of Nagpur and the Puars of Dhar and Dewas. In 1775, the East India Company intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in Pune, which led to the First Anglo - Maratha War, resulting in a Maratha victory. The Marathas remained the pre-eminent power in India until their defeat in the Second and Third Anglo - Maratha Wars (1805 - 1818), which left the East India Company in control of most of India. As noted by Charles Metcalfe, one of the ablest of the British Officials in India and later acting Governor - General, wrote in 1806:
India contains no more than two great powers, British and Mahratta, and every other state acknowledges the influence of one or the other. Every inch that we recede will be occupied by them.
The Marathas also developed a potent navy circa the 1660s, which at its peak dominated the territorial waters of the western coast of India from Mumbai to Savantwadi. For a brief period, the Maratha Navy also established its base at the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal. It would engage in attacking the British, Portuguese, Dutch, and Siddi Naval ships and kept a check on their naval ambitions. The Maratha Navy dominated till around the 1730s, was in a state of decline by the 1770s, and ceased to exist by 1818.
The Sikh Empire, ruled by members of the Sikh religion, was a political entity that governed the Northwestern regions of the Indian Subcontinent. The empire, based around the Punjab region, existed from 1799 to 1849. It was forged, on the foundations of the Khalsa, under the leadership of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780 -- 1839) from an array of autonomous Punjabi Misls.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh consolidated many parts of northern India into an empire. He primarily used his highly disciplined Sikh Khalsa Army that he trained and equipped with modern military technologies and technique. Ranjit Singh proved himself to be a master strategist and selected well qualified generals for his army. He continuously defeated the Afghan armies and successfully ended the Afghan - Sikh Wars. In stages, he added the central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and Kashmir, the Peshawar Valley, and the Derajat to his empire.
At its peak, in the 19th century, the empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the north, to Sindh in the south, running along Sutlej river to Himachal in the east. After the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire weakened, leading to conflict with the British East India Company. The hard - fought first Anglo - Sikh war and second Anglo - Sikh war marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire, making it among the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British.
There were several other kingdoms that ruled over parts of India in the later medieval period prior to the British occupation. However, most of them were bound to pay regular tribute to the Marathas. The rule of the Wodeyar dynasty, which established the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India in around 1400 CE, was interrupted by Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan in the later half of the 18th century. Under their rule, Mysore fought a series of wars sometimes against the combined forces of the British and Marathas, but mostly against the British, with Mysore receiving some aid or promise of aid from the French.
The Nawabs of Bengal had become the de facto rulers of Bengal following the decline of Mughal Empire. However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried out six expeditions in Bengal from 1741 to 1748, as a result of which Bengal became a tributary state of Marathas.
Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared himself Nizam - al - Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724. It was ruled by a hereditary Nizam from 1724 until 1948. Both the Kingdom of Mysore and the Hyderabad State became princely states in British India in 1799 and 1798 respectively.
In the 18th century the whole of Rajputana was virtually subdued by the Marathas. The Second Anglo - Maratha War distracted the Marathas from 1807 to 1809, but afterwards Maratha domination of Rajputana resumed. In 1817, the British went to war with the Pindaris, raiders who were based in Maratha territory, which quickly became the Third Anglo - Maratha War, and the British government offered its protection to the Rajput rulers from the Pindaris and the Marathas. By the end of 1818 similar treaties had been executed between the other Rajput states and Britain. The Maratha Sindhia ruler of Gwalior gave up the district of Ajmer - Merwara to the British, and Maratha influence in Rajasthan came to an end. Most of the Rajput princes remained loyal to Britain in the Revolt of 1857, and few political changes were made in Rajputana until Indian independence in 1947. The Rajputana Agency contained more than 20 princely states, most notable being Udaipur State, Jaipur State, Bikaner State and Jodhpur State.
After the First Anglo - Sikh War in 1846, under the terms of the Treaty of Amritsar, the British government sold Kashmir to Maharaja Gulab Singh and the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, the second largest princely state in British India, was created by the Dogra dynasty.
After the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire, Palaiyakkarar states emerged in Southern India; and managed to weather invasions and flourished till the advent of the British. Around the 18th century, the Kingdom of Nepal was formed by Rajput rulers.
In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under Vasco da Gama successfully discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo - European commerce. The Portuguese soon set up trading posts in Goa, Daman, Diu and Bombay. Goa became the main Portuguese base until it was annexed by India in 1961.
The next to arrive were the Dutch, with their main base in Ceylon. They established ports in Malabar. However, their expansion into India was halted, after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel by the Kingdom of Travancore, during the Travancore - Dutch War. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.
In the words of the noted historian, Professor A. Sreedhara Menon:
A disaster of the first magnitude for the Dutch, the battle of Colachel shattered for all time their dream of the conquest of Kerala.
The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Following the Dutch, the British -- who set up in the west coast port of Surat in 1619 -- and the French both established trading outposts in India. Although these continental European powers controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they eventually lost all their territories in India to the British, with the exception of the French outposts of Pondichéry and Chandernagore, and the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman and Diu.
In 1617 the British East India Company was given permission by Mughal Emperor Jahangir to trade in India. Gradually their increasing influence led the de jure Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar to grant them dastaks or permits for duty - free trade in Bengal in 1717.
The Nawab of Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah, the de facto ruler of the Bengal province, opposed British attempts to use these permits. This led to the Battle of Plassey on 23 June 1757, in which the Bengal Army of the British East India Company, led by Robert Clive, defeated the French - supported Nawab 's forces. This was the first real political foothold with territorial implications that the British acquired in India. Clive was appointed by the company as its first ' Governor of Bengal ' in 1757. This was combined with British victories over the French at Madras, Wandiwash and Pondichéry that, along with wider British successes during the Seven Years ' War, reduced French influence in India. The British East India Company extended its control over the whole of Bengal. After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the company acquired the rights of administration in Bengal from de jure Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II; this marked the beginning of its formal rule, which within the next century engulfed most of India. The British East India Company monopolised the trade of Bengal. They introduced a land taxation system called the Permanent Settlement which introduced a feudal - like structure in Bengal, often with taluqdars and zamindars set in place.
As a result of the three Carnatic Wars, the British East India Company gained exclusive control over the entire Carnatic region of India. The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras; the Anglo - Mysore Wars (1766 -- 1799) and later the Anglo - Maratha Wars (1772 -- 1818) led to control of vast regions of India. Ahom Kingdom of North - east India first fell to Burmese invasion and then to the British after the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826. Punjab, the North - West Frontier Province, and Kashmir were annexed after the Second Anglo - Sikh War in 1849; however, Kashmir was immediately sold under the Treaty of Amritsar to the Dogra Dynasty of Jammu and thereby became a princely state. The border dispute between Nepal and British India, which sharpened after 1801, had caused the Anglo - Nepalese War of 1814 -- 16 and brought the defeated Gurkhas under British influence. In 1854, Berar was annexed, and the state of Oudh was added two years later.
At the turn of the 19th century, Governor - General Richard Wellesley began what became two decades of accelerated expansion of Company territories. This was achieved either by subsidiary alliances between the Company and local rulers or by direct military annexation. The subsidiary alliances created the princely states or native states of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs.
By the 1850s, the British East India Company controlled most of the Indian subcontinent. Their policy was sometimes summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the enmity festering between various princely states and social and religious groups.
The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of indenture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5 million Indians were transported to various colonies of European powers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of large Indian diaspora, which spread from the Indian Ocean (i.e. Réunion and Mauritius) to Pacific Ocean (i.e. Fiji), as well as the growth of Indo - Caribbean and Indo - African population.
The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large - scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the British East India Company in northern and central India against the Company 's rule. The spark that led to the mutiny was the issue of new gunpowder cartridges for the Enfield rifle, which was insensitive to local religious prohibition; key mutineer being Mangal Pandey. In addition, the underlying grievances over British taxation, the ethnic gulf between the British officers and their Indian troops, and land annexations played a significant role in the rebellion. Within weeks after Pandey 's mutiny, dozens of units of the Indian army joined peasant armies in widespread rebellion. The rebel soldiers were later joined by Indian nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains under the Doctrine of Lapse, and felt that the Company had interfered with a traditional system of inheritance. Rebel leaders such as Nana Sahib and the Rani of Jhansi belonged to this group.
After the outbreak of the mutiny in Meerut, the rebels very quickly reached Delhi. The rebels had also captured large tracts of the North - Western Provinces and Awadh (Oudh). Most notably in Awadh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against British presence. However, the British East India Company mobilised rapidly, with the assistance of friendly Princely states. But, it took the British remainder of 1857 and the better part of 1858 to suppress the rebellion. Due to the rebels being poorly equipped and no outside support or funding, they were brutally subdued by the British.
In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the British East India Company to the British Crown, which began to administer most of India as a number of provinces. The Crown controlled the Company 's lands directly and had considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the Princely states ruled by local royal families. There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only 21 had actual state governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad, and Kashmir). They were absorbed into the independent nation in 1947 -- 48.
The British Indian Empire at its greatest extent (in a map of 1909). The princely states under British suzerainty are in yellow.
Victoria Memorial was dedicated to the memory of the Empress of India Victoria in Calcutta, which served as the capital of British - held territories in India until 1911.
After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via the court system, legal procedures, and statutes. The Indian Penal Code came into being. In education, Thomas Babington Macaulay had made schooling a priority for the Raj in his famous minute of February 1835 and succeeded in implementing the use of English as the medium of instruction. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated. The Indian economy grew at about 1 % per year from 1880 to 1920, and the population also grew at 1 %. However, from 1910s Indian private industry began to grow significantly. India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century which was the fourth largest in the world. The British Raj invested heavily in infrastructure, including canals and irrigation systems in addition to railways, telegraphy, roads and ports. However, historians have been bitterly divided on issues of economic history, with the Nationalist school arguing that India was poorer at the end of British rule than at the beginning and that impoverishment occurred because of the British.
In 1905, Lord Curzon split the large province of Bengal into a largely Hindu western half and "Eastern Bengal and Assam '', a largely Muslim eastern half. The British goal was said to be for efficient administration but the people of Bengal were outraged at the apparent "divide and rule '' strategy. It also marked the beginning of the organised anti-colonial movement. When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in 1906, he was removed. Bengal was reunified in 1911. The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the new Secretary of State for India John Morley consulted with Congress leaders on political reforms. The Morley - Minto reforms of 1909 provided for Indian membership of the provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy 's executive council. The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate communal representation for Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards representative and responsible government. Several socio - religious organisations came into being at that time. Muslims set up the All India Muslim League in 1906. It was not a mass party but was designed to protect the interests of the aristocratic Muslims. It was internally divided by conflicting loyalties to Islam, the British, and India, and by distrust of Hindus. The Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) sought to represent Hindu interests though the latter always claimed it to be a "cultural '' organisation. Sikhs founded the Shiromani Akali Dal in 1920. However, the largest and oldest political party Indian National Congress, founded in 1885, attempted to keep a distance from the socio - religious movements and identity politics.
Rabindranath Tagore is Asia 's first Nobel laureate and composer of India 's national anthem.
Swami Vivekananda was a key figure in introducing Vedanta and Yoga in the Western world, raising interfaith awareness and making Hinduism a world religion.
The Hindu Renaissance refers to a social reform movement during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in the Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent during the period of British rule dominated by Bengali Hindus. The Bengal Renaissance can be said to have started with Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772 -- 1833) and ended with Rabindranath Tagore (1861 -- 1941), although many stalwarts thereafter continued to embody particular aspects of the unique intellectual and creative output of the region. Nineteenth century Bengal was a unique blend of religious and social reformers, scholars, literary giants, journalists, patriotic orators, and scientists, all merging to form the image of a renaissance, and marked the transition from the ' medieval ' to the ' modern '.
During this period, Bengal witnessed an intellectual awakening that is in some way similar to the Renaissance. This movement questioned existing orthodoxies, particularly with respect to women, marriage, the dowry system, the caste system, and religion. One of the earliest social movements that emerged during this time was the Young Bengal movement, which espoused rationalism and atheism as the common denominators of civil conduct among upper caste educated Hindus. It played an important role in reawakening Indian minds and intellect across the Indian subcontinent.
During Company rule in India and the British Raj, famines in India, often attributed to El Niño and failed policies of British colonial government, were some of the worst ever recorded, including the Great Famine of 1876 -- 78 in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died, the Great Bengal famine of 1770 where up to 10 million people died, the Indian famine of 1899 -- 1900 in which 1.25 to 10 million people died, and the Bengal famine of 1943 where up to 3.8 million people died. The Third Plague Pandemic in the mid-19th century killed 10 million people in India. Despite persistent diseases and famines, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at up to 200 million in 1750, had reached 389 million by 1941.
The numbers of British in India were small, yet they were able to rule 52 % of the subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over the princely states that accounted for 48 % of the area.
One of the most important events of the 19th century was the rise of Indian nationalism, leading Indians to seek first "self - rule '' and later "complete independence ''. However, historians are divided over the causes of its rise. Probable reasons include a "clash of interests of the Indian people with British interests '', "racial discriminations '', and "the revelation of India 's past ''.
The first step toward Indian self - rule was the appointment of councillors to advise the British viceroy in 1861 and the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set up. The councillors ' participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a large British Indian Army, with the senior officers all British and many of the troops from small minority groups such as Gurkhas from Nepal and Sikhs. The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels, with the British holding the more senior positions.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak, an Indian nationalist leader, declared Swaraj as the destiny of the nation. His popular sentence "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it '' became the source of inspiration for Indians. Tilak was backed by rising public leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, who held the same point of view, notably they advocated the Swadeshi movement involving the boycott of all imported items and the use of Indian - made goods; the triumvirate were popularly known as Lal Bal Pal. Under them, India 's three big provinces -- Maharashtra, Bengal and Punjab shaped the demand of the people and India 's nationalism. In 1907, the Congress was split into two factions: The radicals, led by Tilak, advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all things British. The moderates, led by leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale, on the other hand wanted reform within the framework of British rule.
The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick '' approach in recognition of India 's support during the First World War and in response to renewed nationalist demands. The means of achieving the proposed measure were later enshrined in the Government of India Act 1919, which introduced the principle of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which elected Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power.
From 1920 leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. The Gandhi - led independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like non-co - operation, civil disobedience and economic resistance. However, revolutionary activities against the British rule took place throughout the Indian subcontinent and some others adopted a militant approach like the Indian National Army that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle. The Government of India Act 1935 was a major success in this regard.
During the Second World War (1939 -- 1945), India was controlled by the United Kingdom, with the British holding territories in India including over five hundred autonomous Princely States; British India officially declared war on Nazi Germany in September 1939. The British Raj, as part of the Allied Nations, sent over two and a half million volunteer soldiers to fight under British command against the Axis powers. Additionally, several Indian Princely States provided large donations to support the Allied campaign during the War. India also provided the base for American operations in support of China in the China Burma India Theatre.
Indians fought with distinction throughout the world, including in the European theatre against Germany, in North Africa against Germany and Italy, against the Italians in East Africa, in the Middle East against the Vichy French, in the South Asian region defending India against the Japanese and fighting the Japanese in Burma. Indians also aided in liberating British colonies such as Singapore and Hong Kong after the Japanese surrender in August 1945. Over 87,000 Indian soldiers (including those from modern day Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh) died in World War II.
The Indian National Congress, led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and Maulana Azad, denounced Nazi Germany but would not fight it or anyone else until India was independent. Congress launched the Quit India Movement in August 1942, refusing to co-operate in any way with the government until independence was granted. The government was ready for this move. It immediately arrested over 60,000 national and local Congress leaders, and then moved to suppress the violent reaction of Congress supporters. Key leaders were kept in prison until June 1945, although Gandhi was released in May 1944 because of his health. Congress, with its leaders incommunicado, played little role on the home front. The Muslim League rejected the Quit India movement and worked closely with the Raj authorities.
Subhas Chandra Bose (also called Netaji) broke with Congress and tried to form a military alliance with Germany or Japan to gain independence. The Germans assisted Bose in the formation of the Indian Legion; however, it was Japan that helped him set up the Indian National Army (INA) which fought under Japanese direction, mostly in Burma. Bose also headed the Provisional Government of Free India (or Azad Hind), a government - in - exile based in Singapore. The government of Azad Hind had its own currency, court, and civil code; and in the eyes of some Indians its existence gave a greater legitimacy to the independence struggle against the British.
By 1942, neighbouring Burma was invaded by Japan, which by then had already captured the Indian territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Japan gave nominal control of the islands to the Provisional Government of Free India on 21 October 1943, and in the following March, the Indian National Army with the help of Japan crossed into India and advanced as far as Kohima in Nagaland. This advance on the mainland of the Indian subcontinent reached its farthest point on Indian territory, retreating from the Battle of Kohima in June and from that of Imphal on 3 July 1944.
The region of Bengal in India suffered a devastating famine during 1940 -- 43.
In January 1946, a number of mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation to Britain. The mutinies came to a head with mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy in Bombay in February 1946, followed by others in Calcutta, Madras, and Karachi. The mutinies were rapidly suppressed. Also in early 1946, new elections were called in India and in eight of the eleven provinces Congress candidates won.
Late in 1946, the Labour government decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948 and participating in the formation of an interim government.
Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years. The Muslims had always been a minority within the subcontinent, and the prospect of an exclusively Hindu government made them wary of independence; they were as inclined to mistrust Hindu rule as they were to resist the foreign Raj, although Gandhi called for unity between the two groups in an astonishing display of leadership.
Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946 as Direct Action Day, with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India, which resulted in the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would be later called the "Great Calcutta Killing of August 1946 ''. The communal violence spread to Bihar (where Muslims were attacked by Hindus), to Noakhali in Bengal (where Hindus were targeted by Muslims), in Garhmukteshwar in the United Provinces (where Muslims were attacked by Hindus), and on to Rawalpindi in March 1947 in which Hindus were attacked or driven out by Muslims.
The British Indian territories gained independence in 1947, after being partitioned into the Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan. Following the controversial division of pre-partition Punjab and Bengal, rioting broke out between Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in these provinces and spread to several other parts of India, leaving some 500,000 dead. Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations ever recorded in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively). In 1971, Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan and East Bengal, seceded from Pakistan.
Historiography is the study of the history and methodology of the discipline of history. The term historiography also denotes a body of historical work on a specialised topic. In recent decades there have been four main schools of historiography regarding India: Cambridge, Nationalist, Marxist, and subaltern. The once common "Orientalist '' approach, with its image of a sensuous, inscrutable, and wholly spiritual India, has died out in serious scholarship.
The "Cambridge School '', led by Anil Seal, Gordon Johnson, Richard Gordon, and David A. Washbrook, downplays ideology. However, this school of historiography is criticised for western bias or Eurocentrism.
The Nationalist school has focused on Congress, Gandhi, Nehru and high level politics. It highlighted the Mutiny of 1857 as a war of liberation, and Gandhi 's ' Quit India ' begun in 1942, as defining historical events. This school of historiography has received criticism for Elitism.
The Marxists have focused on studies of economic development, landownership, and class conflict in precolonial India and of deindustrialisation during the colonial period. The Marxists portrayed Gandhi 's movement as a device of the bourgeois elite to harness popular, potentially revolutionary forces for its own ends. Again, the Marxists are accused of being "too much '' ideologically influenced.
The "subaltern school '', was begun in the 1980s by Ranajit Guha and Gyan Prakash. It focuses attention away from the elites and politicians to "history from below '', looking at the peasants using folklore, poetry, riddles, proverbs, songs, oral history and methods inspired by anthropology. It focuses on the colonial era before 1947 and typically emphasises caste and downplays class, to the annoyance of the Marxist school.
More recently, Hindu nationalists have created a version of history to support their demands for "Hindutva '' ("Hinduness '') in Indian society. This school of thought is still in the process of development. In March 2012, Diana L. Eck, professor of Comparative Religion and Indian Studies at Harvard University, authored in her book "India: A Sacred Geography '', that idea of India dates to a much earlier time than the British or the Mughals and it was n't just a cluster of regional identities and it was n't ethnic or racial.
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when is the sequal to avengers infinity war coming out | Untitled Avengers film - wikipedia
The untitled Avengers film, colloquially referred to as Avengers 4, is an upcoming American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics superhero team the Avengers, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is intended to be the direct sequel to 2018 's Avengers: Infinity War, as well as the sequel to 2012 's Marvel 's The Avengers and 2015 's Avengers: Age of Ultron and the twenty - second film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film is directed by Anthony and Joe Russo, with a screenplay by the writing team of Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely, and features an ensemble cast with many actors from previous MCU films.
The film was announced in October 2014 as Avengers: Infinity War -- Part 2. The Russo brothers came on board to direct in April 2015 and by May, Markus and McFeely signed on to script the film. In July 2016, Marvel removed the film 's title, referring to it simply as Untitled Avengers film. Filming began in August 2017 at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia, shooting back - to - back with Avengers: Infinity War, and ended in January 2018. Additional filming took place in the Downtown and Metro Atlanta areas.
The untitled Avengers film is scheduled to be released in the United States on May 3, 2019, in IMAX and 3D.
Additionally, Letitia Wright reprises her role as Shuri, and Hiroyuki Sanada has been cast in an undisclosed role. Avengers co-creator Stan Lee has a cameo in the film.
In October 2014, Marvel announced a two - part sequel to Age of Ultron, titled Avengers: Infinity War. Part 1 was scheduled to be released on May 4, 2018, with Part 2 scheduled for May 3, 2019. In April 2015, Marvel announced that Anthony and Joe Russo would direct both parts of Avengers: Infinity War, with back - to - back filming expected to begin in 2016. Also in the month, Kevin Feige said the films would be two, distinct films "because they (have) such shared elements, it felt appropriate... to (subtitle the films) like that. But I would n't call it one story that 's cut in half. I would say it 's going to be two distinct movies. '' By May 2015, Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely signed on to write the screenplays for both parts of the film. The following May, the Russos revealed that they would be retitling the two films, to further remove the misconception that the films were one large film split in two, with Joe stating, "The intention is we will change (the titles), we just have n't come up with (them) yet. '' In July 2016, Marvel removed the film 's title, simply referring to it as Untitled Avengers film. Anthony Russo stated that the new title for the film would not be revealed "for quite some time '', with Feige and the Russo brothers indicating the title was being withheld as it would give away plot details for this film and Infinity War.
Principal photography began on August 10, 2017, under the working title Mary Lou 2, at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia, with Trent Opaloch serving as director of photography. Also in the month, filming occurred in The Gulch area of Downtown Atlanta, near the Five Points MARTA station, and Piedmont Park. Feige stated that the films were originally scheduled to be filmed simultaneously but instead decided to shoot them back - to - back explaining, "We 're doing them one right after another. It became too complicated to cross-board them like that, and we found ourselves -- again, something would always pay the price. We wanted to be able to focus and shoot one movie and then focus and shoot another movie. '' Anthony Russo originally felt it made more sense to shoot the films simultaneously due to financial and logistical reasons considering the large number of cast members, even though each part is its own distinct film, and suggested that "some days we 'll be shooting the first movie and some days we 'll be shooting the second movie. Just jumping back and forth. '' Production wrapped on January 11, 2018, although additional filming is scheduled to take place in Edinburgh and Glasgow, Scotland in July 2018, with reshoots scheduled for late 2018.
In June 2016, Alan Silvestri, who composed the score for The Avengers, was revealed to be returning to score both Infinity War and the untitled sequel.
The untitled Avengers film is scheduled to be released in the United Kingdom on April 26, 2019, and United States on May 3, 2019, in IMAX and 3D.
Germain Lussier of io9 spoke to the approach Marvel might have to take in marketing the film, given the end of Infinity War, which sees many established characters die. He questioned if those characters would appear on posters and in toy campaigns, and if the actors portraying them would participate in press events leading up to the film 's release. Lussier felt Disney and Marvel could focus on the original Avengers team members, who make up the majority of the living characters, but noted it would be more beneficial to show the return of the dead characters, which would "build a mystery and curiosity about how they come back. It could create a whole new level of interest about the film while having all the stars front and center, as they should be ''.
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how much horsepower does a rally car have | World Rally car - wikipedia
World Rally Car is a racing automobile built to the specification set by the FIA, the international motorsports governing body and compete in the outright class of the World Rally Championship (WRC). The WRC specifications were introduced by the FIA in 1997.
Between 1997 and 2010, the regulations mandated that World Rally Cars must have been built upon a production car with a minimum production run of 2500 units. A number of modifications could be made including increasing the engine displacement up to 2.0 L, forced induction (including an anti-lag system), addition of four wheel drive, fitment of a sequential gearbox, modified suspension layout and attachment points, aerodynamic body modifications, weight reduction to a minimum of 1230 kg and chassis strengthening for greater rigidity.
Unlike the requirements for the preceding Group A cars, manufacturers were no longer required to build "homologation specials '' in order to meet approval. The base model did not need to have all the characteristics of the WRC car, as evidenced from cars such the Peugeot 206, 307, Citroën Xsara and Škoda Fabia, which during this period had no road car variant with a turbocharged petrol engine or four wheel drive. One of the requirements was a minimum length of 4000 mm; the standard Peugeot 206 had an overall length of 3835 mm and Peugeot had to produce at least 2500 units featuring extended bumpers to comply with the required dimensions.
To limit power, all forced induction cars were fitted with a 34 mm diameter air restrictor before the turbocharger inlet, limiting the air flow to about 10 cubic meters per minute. The restriction was intended to limit power output to 300 hp although some WRC engines were believed to produce around 330 -- 340 hp. Engine development did not focus on peak power output but towards producing a very wide powerband (or power curve). Typically, power output in excess of 300 hp was available from 3000 rpm to the 7500 rpm maximum, with a peak of 330 -- 340 hp at around 5500 rpm. At 2000 rpm (the engine idle speed in "stage '' mode) power output was slightly above 200 hp.
By 2004, the best cars had ABS, clutch control, paddle shift, traction control, three active differentials, ride height control with GPS, electronic dampers and active suspension.
In an attempt to cut costs, since 2006 new regulations required mechanical front and rear differentials, while the central differential remained active. Active suspension and water injections were also prohibited. Cars entered by a manufacturer had to be equipped with the same engine for two rallies; further limitations were imposed on the changing of some parts, including suspension, steering, turbochargers and gearboxes.
Starting in 2011, rules for WRC cars changed to be more restrictive. Now regulations were derived from Super 2000 cars with a different aerodynamic kit. The cars were smaller models (there was no longer a minimum 4m length), with a 1600 cm direct injection turbo - charged engine with a 33 mm diameter air restrictor and a maximum pressure of 2.5 bar absolute (this will limit torque to about 400 N.m or less).
Exotic materials (titanium, magnesium, ceramics and composite) were forbidden except when present in the base model. Carbon fibre and aramid fibre were very restricted ("only one layer of fabric is used and is affixed to the visible face of the part ''), except for bodywork 's side protections where multiple layers of aramid fibre are allowed.
The gear changes must be made with a mechanical system, so the paddle shifters were not allowed. However the system was re-allowed in 2015. There was no center differential (earlier it used to be 3 differentials, with a center / 3rd differential included), but the new regulation allows only front and rear axle differential (eliminating the center differential to reduce cost), and they must be mechanical, without electronic control or hydraulic or viscous systems (from 2006 to 2010 the center differential and previously all three could be active). Minimum weight is 1200 kg empty and 1350 kg with driver and co-driver (in both cases with only one spare wheel).
The 1.6 L turbo - charged engine was retained in the 2017 World Rally Car regulations, but the turbo restrictor diameter was increased from 33 mm to 36 mm, increasing the engine 's power output from 310 bhp (223.7 kW) to 380 bhp (283.4 kW). Minimum vehicle weight was decreased by 25 kg.
Manufacturers are also given more freedom to maximise aerodynamic performance, large brake cooling ducts in fairings forming enlarged wheel arches, and are allowed to use electronically - controlled active centre differentials, while the front and rear differentials remain mechanical.
While 2011 specification World Rally Cars will be allowed to compete in 2017, the new World Rally Cars are allowed for use by manufacturers ' teams only.
Citroën Xsara WRC
Citroën C4 WRC
Citroën DS3 WRC
Citroën C3 WRC
Ford Escort WRC
Ford Focus RS WRC
Ford Fiesta RS WRC
Ford Fiesta WRC
Hyundai Accent WRC
Hyundai i20 WRC
Hyundai i20 Coupe WRC
Mini John Cooper Works WRC
Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution WRC
Mitsubishi Lancer WRC
Peugeot 206 WRC
Peugeot 307 WRC
SEAT Córdoba WRC
Škoda Octavia WRC
Škoda Fabia WRC
Subaru Impreza WRC
Suzuki SX4 WRC
Toyota Corolla WRC
Toyota Yaris WRC
Volkswagen Polo R WRC
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how old do you have to be for a tattoo in ohio | Legal status of Tattooing in the United states - wikipedia
In the United States, there is no federal law regulating the practice of tattooing. However, all 50 states and the District of Columbia have statutory laws requiring a person receiving a tattoo be 18 years or older. This is partially based on the legal principle that a minor can not enter into a legal contract or otherwise render informed consent for a procedure. Most states permit a person under the age of 18 to receive a tattoo with permission of a parent or guardian, but some states outright prohibit tattooing under a certain age regardless of permission, with the exception of medical necessity (such as markings placed for radiation therapy).
In all jurisdictions, individual tattooists may also choose to place additional restrictions based on their own moral feelings, such as refusing any clients under a specific age even with parental consent despite it being legal, or limiting the type and / or location of where they are willing to tattoo (such as refusing any work around intimate parts of the body). They may additionally refuse to perform specific artwork, including if they merely find it inappropriate or offensive, or refuse to work on a client that they suspect may be intoxicated. Artists sometimes claim their personal business restrictions are a matter of law even when it is not true, so as to avoid arguments with clients.
Individual tattoo artists, piercers, etc. require a permit.
State Board of Health rules on Body Art Practices and Facilities.
Cal. Penal Code 653
Tattooing may only be performed by physicians, or by registered nurses & technicians working under the supervision of a physician.
Conn. Gen. Stat. § 19a - 92g
Del. Code Ann. Title 16, Ch 2 § 122 (3) (w)
Fla. Stat. § 381.0775 et seq. Fla. Stat. § 381.075
Minors may be body pierced with written parental consent
Physicians and Osteopaths or technicians working under their direct supervision can give minors tattoos or produce scars for "medical or cosmetic purposes. ''
No one can be tattooed within an inch of their eye socket.
Ga. Code § 16 - 12 - 5
Ga. Code § 16 - 5 - 71.1
Hawaii Rev. Stat. § 321 - 379
Piercing for medical procedures exempt.
Minors can have their ears pierced without parent / guardian consent.
Ill. Stat. 410 § 54 / 1 t0 54 / 999
Ind. Code Ann. § 16 - 19 - 3 - 4.1
Iowa Code § 135.37
Kan. Stat. Ann. § 65 - 1940 to 65 - 1954
Ky. Rev. Stat. § 194A. 050; 211.760
La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 40: 2831 et seq.
Other violations of Montana body art laws are a misdemeanor, with punishments ranging from a fine of $50 -- 100 for a first offense to $300 and / or 90 days in county jail for third and subsequent offense.
Mont. Code Ann. § 50 - 48 - 101 to 110
Mont. Code Ann. § 50 - 48 - 201 to 209
N.J.A.C. 8: 27 - 1 et seq.
N.J. Stat. Ann. § 26 - 1A - 7
N.Y. Public Health Law § 460 - 466
N.Y. Penal Law § 260.21
N.C. Gen. Stat. § 14 - 400
N.D. Code § 12.1 - 31 - 13
Scleral tattooing is illegal.
Scarification and dermal implants are prohibited
Persons with sunburns or skin diseases or disorders can not be tattooed or pierced.
Minors can not be pierced on the genitals or nipples, even with parent / guardian consent.
Piercing on testes, deep shaft (corpus cavernosa), uvula, eyelids and sub-clavicle are all prohibited.
Violations of Health Licensing Office rules are fined (various amounts).
Or. Rev. Stat. § 690.401 to 410
Or. Rev. Stat. § 679.500
Health Licensing Office Rules, especially Divisions 900, 905, 915 & 920
RI Gen L § 11 - 9 - 15
S.C. Code § 44 - 34 - 10 to 44 - 34 - 110
S.D. Laws § 9 - 34 - 17
For piercings: Parent / Guardian must give written consent, be present during the procedure.
Tattooing a minor is a class a misdemeanor, breach of body piercing law is a class b misdemeanor.
Minors may, with parent / guardian consent, be tattooed to cover up an existing tattoo that has offensive, gang - related, or drug - related content, or "other words, symbols, or markings that the person 's parent or guardian considers would be in the best interest of the person to cover ''
Tongue splitting prohibited.
Violations of Texas tattooing & body piercing statute are a Class A misdemeanor, with each day of violation counting as a separate offense.
Health Commissioner can impose a fine of up to $5000 on artists & shops for each violation
Civic / local governments are empowered to regulate tattoo and body piercing establishments.
Va. Code § 15.2 - 912
Va. Code § 18.2 - 371.3.
Wash. Code § 18.300
Wash. Code § 246 - 145 - 001 to 060
Wash. Code § 70.54
W. Va. Code § 16 - 38
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when's the last time dallas won a playoff game | List of Dallas Cowboys seasons - wikipedia
This article is a list of seasons completed by the Dallas Cowboys American football franchise of the National Football League (NFL). The list documents the season - by - season records of the Cowboys ' franchise from 1960 to present, including postseason records, and league awards for individual players or head coaches. The Cowboys franchise was founded in 1960 as an expansion team. The team has earned the most postseason appearances (31, which includes another league record of 62 postseason games, winning 37 of them), the longest consecutive streak of winning seasons with 20, tied for the most appearances in the NFC Championship Game (14), and the most Super Bowl appearances 8 (with Denver, Pittsburgh, and New England). The Cowboys have played for 10 NFL Championships and have won 5, all five being Super Bowls.
The Cowboys won Super Bowl VI, XII, XXVII, XXVIII and XXX. They also played in and lost Super Bowl V, X, and XIII.
The franchise has experienced two major periods of continued success in their history. The first period of success came from 1966 -- 1985 when the Cowboys played in the postseason 18 times. During this period, they played in two NFL Championships and five Super Bowls, winning two of them, winning a total of 20 playoff games. The second period of success was between 1991 -- 1996 when the Cowboys captured five straight NFC East Division titles and won three Super Bowls going 11 -- 2 in the postseason.
The Cowboys have also experienced failure in their history. The most notable period of failure was from their 1960 inaugural season to 1965, during which the Cowboys did not have a single postseason appearance. They did not win a single game during their first season, compiling an 0 -- 11 -- 1 record that is still the worst in franchise history. Also, they did not have a single winning record in this period. Between 1986 and 1990 the Cowboys had losing records in each season as veteran coach Landry retired and the team was radically overhauled, with the low point being the NFL 's second 15 - loss season after the 1980 Saints in 1989. After losing a Divisional playoff Game in 1996, the Cowboys between 1997 and 2008 lost five consecutive playoff games, one after a franchise - record 13 -- 3 season in 2007, during which most predicted the Cowboys would break this streak. This streak finally came to an end when the Cowboys finally beat their bitter rival, the Philadelphia Eagles 34 -- 14 after an 11 -- 5 season in 2009.
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wavelength of x rays lies in the range | Electromagnetic spectrum - wikipedia
The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies (the spectrum) of electromagnetic radiation and their respective wavelengths and photon energies.
The electromagnetic spectrum covers electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging from below one hertz to above 10 hertz, corresponding to wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atomic nucleus. This frequency range is divided into separate bands, and the electromagnetic waves within each frequency band are called by different names; beginning at the low frequency (long wavelength) end of the spectrum these are: radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays at the high - frequency (short wavelength) end. The electromagnetic waves in each of these bands have different characteristics, such as how they are produced, how they interact with matter, and their practical applications. The limit for long wavelengths is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length. Gamma rays, X-rays, and high ultraviolet are classified as ionizing radiation as their photons have enough energy to ionize atoms, causing chemical reactions. Exposure to these rays can be a health hazard, causing radiation sickness, DNA damage and cancer. Radiation of visible light wavelengths and lower are called nonionizing radiation as they can not cause these effects.
In most of the frequency bands above, a technique called spectroscopy can be used to physically separate waves of different frequencies, producing a spectrum showing the constituent frequencies. Spectroscopy is used to study the interactions of electromagnetic waves with matter. Other technological uses are described under electromagnetic radiation.
For most of history, visible light was the only known part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The ancient Greeks recognized that light traveled in straight lines and studied some of its properties, including reflection and refraction. The study of light continued, and during the 16th and 17th centuries conflicting theories regarded light as either a wave or a particle.
The first discovery of electromagnetic radiation other than visible light came in 1800, when William Herschel discovered infrared radiation. He was studying the temperature of different colors by moving a thermometer through light split by a prism. He noticed that the highest temperature was beyond red. He theorized that this temperature change was due to "calorific rays '' that were a type of light ray that could not be seen.
The next year, Johann Ritter, working at the other end of the spectrum, noticed what he called "chemical rays '' (invisible light rays that induced certain chemical reactions). These behaved similarly to visible violet light rays, but were beyond them in the spectrum. They were later renamed ultraviolet radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation was first linked to electromagnetism in 1845, when Michael Faraday noticed that the polarization of light traveling through a transparent material responded to a magnetic field (see Faraday effect). During the 1860s James Maxwell developed four partial differential equations for the electromagnetic field. Two of these equations predicted the possibility and behavior of waves in the field. Analyzing the speed of these theoretical waves, Maxwell realized that they must travel at a speed that was about the known speed of light. This startling coincidence in value led Maxwell to make the inference that light itself is a type of electromagnetic wave.
Maxwell 's equations predicted an infinite number of frequencies of electromagnetic waves, all traveling at the speed of light. This was the first indication of the existence of the entire electromagnetic spectrum.
Maxwell 's predicted waves included waves at very low frequencies compared to infrared, which in theory might be created by oscillating charges in an ordinary electrical circuit of a certain type. Attempting to prove Maxwell 's equations and detect such low frequency electromagnetic radiation, in 1886 the physicist Heinrich Hertz built an apparatus to generate and detect what are now called radio waves. Hertz found the waves and was able to infer (by measuring their wavelength and multiplying it by their frequency) that they traveled at the speed of light. Hertz also demonstrated that the new radiation could be both reflected and refracted by various dielectric media, in the same manner as light. For example, Hertz was able to focus the waves using a lens made of tree resin. In a later experiment, Hertz similarly produced and measured the properties of microwaves. These new types of waves paved the way for inventions such as the wireless telegraph and the radio.
In 1895 Wilhelm Röntgen noticed a new type of radiation emitted during an experiment with an evacuated tube subjected to a high voltage. He called these radiations x-rays and found that they were able to travel through parts of the human body but were reflected or stopped by denser matter such as bones. Before long, many uses were found for them in the field of medicine.
The last portion of the electromagnetic spectrum was filled in with the discovery of gamma rays. In 1900 Paul Villard was studying the radioactive emissions of radium when he identified a new type of radiation that he first thought consisted of particles similar to known alpha and beta particles, but with the power of being far more penetrating than either. However, in 1910, British physicist William Henry Bragg demonstrated that gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation, not particles, and in 1914, Ernest Rutherford (who had named them gamma rays in 1903 when he realized that they were fundamentally different from charged alpha and beta particles) and Edward Andrade measured their wavelengths, and found that gamma rays were similar to X-rays, but with shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies.
Electromagnetic waves are typically described by any of the following three physical properties: the frequency f, wavelength λ, or photon energy E. Frequencies observed in astronomy range from 7023239999999999999 ♠ 2.4 × 10 Hz (1 GeV gamma rays) down to the local plasma frequency of the ionized interstellar medium (~ 1 kHz). Wavelength is inversely proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma rays have very short wavelengths that are fractions of the size of atoms, whereas wavelengths on the opposite end of the spectrum can be as long as the universe. Photon energy is directly proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma ray photons have the highest energy (around a billion electron volts), while radio wave photons have very low energy (around a femtoelectronvolt). These relations are illustrated by the following equations:
where:
Whenever electromagnetic waves exist in a medium with matter, their wavelength is decreased. Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, no matter what medium they are traveling through, are usually quoted in terms of the vacuum wavelength, although this is not always explicitly stated.
Generally, electromagnetic radiation is classified by wavelength into radio wave, microwave, terahertz (or sub-millimeter) radiation, infrared, the visible region that is perceived as light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays. The behavior of EM radiation depends on its wavelength. When EM radiation interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior also depends on the amount of energy per quantum (photon) it carries.
Spectroscopy can detect a much wider region of the EM spectrum than the visible range of 400 nm to 700 nm. A common laboratory spectroscope can detect wavelengths from 2 nm to 2500 nm. Detailed information about the physical properties of objects, gases, or even stars can be obtained from this type of device. Spectroscopes are widely used in astrophysics. For example, many hydrogen atoms emit a radio wave photon that has a wavelength of 21.12 cm. Also, frequencies of 30 Hz and below can be produced by and are important in the study of certain stellar nebulae and frequencies as high as 7027290000000000000 ♠ 2.9 × 10 Hz have been detected from astrophysical sources.
Electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter in different ways across the spectrum. These types of interaction are so different that historically different names have been applied to different parts of the spectrum, as though these were different types of radiation. Thus, although these "different kinds '' of electromagnetic radiation form a quantitatively continuous spectrum of frequencies and wavelengths, the spectrum remains divided for practical reasons related to these qualitative interaction differences.
A discussion of the regions (or bands or types) of the electromagnetic spectrum is given below. Note that there are no precisely defined boundaries between the bands of the electromagnetic spectrum; rather they fade into each other like the bands in a rainbow (which is the sub-spectrum of visible light). Radiation of each frequency and wavelength (or in each band) has a mix of properties of the two regions of the spectrum that bound it. For example, red light resembles infrared radiation in that it can excite and add energy to some chemical bonds and indeed must do so to power the chemical mechanisms responsible for photosynthesis and the working of the visual system.
The types of electromagnetic radiation are broadly classified into the following classes:
This classification goes in the increasing order of wavelength, which is characteristic of the type of radiation. While, in general, the classification scheme is accurate, in reality there is often some overlap between neighboring types of electromagnetic energy. For example, SLF radio waves at 60 Hz may be received and studied by astronomers, or may be ducted along wires as electric power, although the latter is, in the strict sense, not electromagnetic radiation at all (see near and far field).
The distinction between X-rays and gamma rays is partly based on sources: the photons generated from nuclear decay or other nuclear and subnuclear / particle process, are always termed gamma rays, whereas X-rays are generated by electronic transitions involving highly energetic inner atomic electrons. In general, nuclear transitions are much more energetic than electronic transitions, so gamma - rays are more energetic than X-rays, but exceptions exist. By analogy to electronic transitions, muonic atom transitions are also said to produce X-rays, even though their energy may exceed 6 megaelectronvolts (0.96 pJ), whereas there are many (77 known to be less than 10 keV (1.6 fJ)) low - energy nuclear transitions (e.g., the 7.6 eV (1.22 aJ) nuclear transition of thorium - 229), and, despite being one million-fold less energetic than some muonic X-rays, the emitted photons are still called gamma rays due to their nuclear origin.
The convention that EM radiation that is known to come from the nucleus, is always called "gamma ray '' radiation is the only convention that is universally respected, however. Many astronomical gamma ray sources (such as gamma ray bursts) are known to be too energetic (in both intensity and wavelength) to be of nuclear origin. Quite often, in high energy physics and in medical radiotherapy, very high energy EMR (in the > 10 MeV region) -- which is of higher energy than any nuclear gamma ray -- is not called X-ray or gamma - ray, but instead by the generic term of "high energy photons. ''
The region of the spectrum where a particular observed electromagnetic radiation falls, is reference frame - dependent (due to the Doppler shift for light), so EM radiation that one observer would say is in one region of the spectrum could appear to an observer moving at a substantial fraction of the speed of light with respect to the first to be in another part of the spectrum. For example, consider the cosmic microwave background. It was produced, when matter and radiation decoupled, by the de-excitation of hydrogen atoms to the ground state. These photons were from Lyman series transitions, putting them in the ultraviolet (UV) part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Now this radiation has undergone enough cosmological red shift to put it into the microwave region of the spectrum for observers moving slowly (compared to the speed of light) with respect to the cosmos.
Radio waves are emitted and received by antennas, which consist of conductors such as metal rod resonators. In artificial generation of radio waves, an electronic device called a transmitter generates an AC electric current which is applied to an antenna. The oscillating electrons in the antenna generate oscillating electric and magnetic fields that radiate away from the antenna as radio waves. In reception of radio waves, the oscillating electric and magnetic fields of a radio wave couple to the electrons in an antenna, pushing them back and forth, creating oscillating currents which are applied to a radio receiver. Earth 's atmosphere is mainly transparent to radio waves, except for layers of charged particles in the ionosphere which can reflect certain frequencies.
Radio waves are extremely widely used to transmit information across distances in radio communication systems such as radio broadcasting, television, two way radios, mobile phones, communication satellites, and wireless networking. In a radio communication system, a radio frequency current is modulated with an information - bearing signal in a transmitter by varying either the amplitude, frequency or phase, and applied to an antenna. The radio waves carry the information across space to a receiver, where they are received by an antenna and the information extracted by demodulation in the receiver. Radio waves are also used for navigation in systems like Global Positioning System (GPS) and navigational beacons, and locating distant objects in radiolocation and radar. They are also used for remote control, and for industrial heating.
The use of the radio spectrum is strictly regulated by governments, coordinated by a body called the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) which allocates frequencies to different users for different uses.
Microwaves are radio waves of short wavelength, from about 10 centimeters to one millimeter, in the SHF and EHF frequency bands. Microwave energy is produced with klystron and magnetron tubes, and with solid state devices such as Gunn and IMPATT diodes. Although they are emitted and absorbed by short antennas, they are also absorbed by polar molecules, coupling to vibrational and rotational modes, resulting in bulk heating. Unlike higher frequency waves such as infrared and light which are absorbed mainly at surfaces, microwaves can penetrate into materials and deposit their energy below the surface. This effect is used to heat food in microwave ovens, and for industrial heating and medical diathermy. Microwaves are the main wavelengths used in radar, and are used for satellite communication, and wireless networking technologies such as Wifi, although this is at intensity levels unable to cause thermal heating. The copper cables (transmission lines) which are used to carry lower frequency radio waves to antennas have excessive power losses at microwave frequencies, and metal pipes called waveguides are used to carry them. Although at the low end of the band the atmosphere is mainly transparent, at the upper end of the band absorption of microwaves by atmospheric gasses limits practical propagation distances to a few kilometers.
Terahertz radiation is a region of the spectrum between far infrared and microwaves. Until recently, the range was rarely studied and few sources existed for microwave energy at the high end of the band (sub-millimeter waves or so - called terahertz waves), but applications such as imaging and communications are now appearing. Scientists are also looking to apply terahertz technology in the armed forces, where high - frequency waves might be directed at enemy troops to incapacitate their electronic equipment. Terahertz radiation is strongly absorbed by atmospheric gases, making this frequency range useless for long distance communication.
The infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum covers the range from roughly 300 GHz to 400 THz (1 mm - 750 nm). It can be divided into three parts:
Above infrared in frequency comes visible light. The Sun emits its peak power in the visible region, although integrating the entire emission power spectrum through all wavelengths shows that the Sun emits slightly more infrared than visible light. By definition, visible light is the part of the EM spectrum the human eye is the most sensitive to. Visible light (and near - infrared light) is typically absorbed and emitted by electrons in molecules and atoms that move from one energy level to another. This action allows the chemical mechanisms that underlie human vision and plant photosynthesis. The light that excites the human visual system is a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. A rainbow shows the optical (visible) part of the electromagnetic spectrum; infrared (if it could be seen) would be located just beyond the red side of the rainbow with ultraviolet appearing just beyond the violet end.
Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 380 nm and 760 nm (400 -- 790 terahertz) is detected by the human eye and perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths, especially near infrared (longer than 760 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 380 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light, especially when the visibility to humans is not relevant. White light is a combination of lights of different wavelengths in the visible spectrum. Passing white light through a prism splits it up into the several colors of light observed in the visible spectrum between 400 nm and 780 nm.
If radiation having a frequency in the visible region of the EM spectrum reflects off an object, say, a bowl of fruit, and then strikes the eyes, this results in visual perception of the scene. The brain 's visual system processes the multitude of reflected frequencies into different shades and hues, and through this insufficiently - understood psychophysical phenomenon, most people perceive a bowl of fruit.
At most wavelengths, however, the information carried by electromagnetic radiation is not directly detected by human senses. Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum, and technology can also manipulate a broad range of wavelengths. Optical fiber transmits light that, although not necessarily in the visible part of the spectrum (it is usually infrared), can carry information. The modulation is similar to that used with radio waves.
Next in frequency comes ultraviolet (UV). The wavelength of UV rays is shorter than the violet end of the visible spectrum but longer than the X-ray.
UV is the longest wavelength radiation whose photons are energetic enough to ionize atoms, separating electrons from them, and thus causing chemical reactions. Short wavelength UV and the shorter wavelength radiation above it (X-rays and gamma rays) are called ionizing radiation, and exposure to them can damage living tissue, making them a health hazard. UV can also cause many substances to glow with visible light; this is called fluorescence.
At the middle range of UV, UV rays can not ionize but can break chemical bonds, making molecules unusually reactive. Sunburn, for example, is caused by the disruptive effects of middle range UV radiation on skin cells, which is the main cause of skin cancer. UV rays in the middle range can irreparably damage the complex DNA molecules in the cells producing thymine dimers making it a very potent mutagen.
The Sun emits significant UV radiation (about 10 % of its total power), including extremely short wavelength UV that could potentially destroy most life on land (ocean water would provide some protection for life there). However, most of the Sun 's damaging UV wavelengths are absorbed by the atmosphere before they reach the surface. The higher energy (shortest wavelength) ranges of UV (called "vacuum UV '') are absorbed by nitrogen and, at longer wavelengths, by simple diatomic oxygen in the air. Most of the UV in the mid-range of energy is blocked by the ozone layer, which absorbs strongly in the important 200 -- 315 nm range, the lower energy part of which is too long for ordinary dioxygen in air to absorb. This leaves less than 3 % of sunlight at sea level in UV, with all of this remainder at the lower energies. The remainder is UV - A, along with some UV - B. The very lowest energy range of UV between 315 nm and visible light (called UV - A) is not blocked well by the atmosphere, but does not cause sunburn and does less biological damage. However, it is not harmless and does create oxygen radicals, mutations and skin damage. See ultraviolet for more information.
After UV come X-rays, which, like the upper ranges of UV are also ionizing. However, due to their higher energies, X-rays can also interact with matter by means of the Compton effect. Hard X-rays have shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays and as they can pass through many substances with little absorption, they can be used to ' see through ' objects with ' thicknesses ' less than that equivalent to a few meters of water. One notable use is diagnostic X-ray imaging in medicine (a process known as radiography). X-rays are useful as probes in high - energy physics. In astronomy, the accretion disks around neutron stars and black holes emit X-rays, enabling studies of these phenomena. X-rays are also emitted by the coronas of stars and are strongly emitted by some types of nebulae. However, X-ray telescopes must be placed outside the Earth 's atmosphere to see astronomical X-rays, since the great depth of the atmosphere of Earth is opaque to X-rays (with areal density of 1000 grams per cm), equivalent to 10 meters thickness of water. This is an amount sufficient to block almost all astronomical X-rays (and also astronomical gamma rays -- see below).
After hard X-rays come gamma rays, which were discovered by Paul Ulrich Villard in 1900. These are the most energetic photons, having no defined lower limit to their wavelength. In astronomy they are valuable for studying high - energy objects or regions, however as with X-rays this can only be done with telescopes outside the Earth 's atmosphere. Gamma rays are used experimentally by physicists for their penetrating ability and are produced by a number of radioisotopes. They are used for irradiation of foods and seeds for sterilization, and in medicine they are occasionally used in radiation cancer therapy. More commonly, gamma rays are used for diagnostic imaging in nuclear medicine, an example being PET scans. The wavelength of gamma rays can be measured with high accuracy through the effects of Compton scattering.
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who sang i'm going back to cali | Going Back to Cali (LL Cool J song) - wikipedia
"Going Back to Cali '' is a 1988 single by LL Cool J from the Less Than Zero soundtrack as well as his third album, Walking with a Panther. The song was co-written and produced by Rick Rubin. It peaked at # 31 on the Billboard Hot 100 and # 12 on the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs, and was eventually certified gold by the RIAA on May 28, 1991.
The song features LL Cool J vacillating about moving to California, rapping in the chorus, "I 'm going back to Cali '', followed by "I do n't think so ''. In the verses, he describes a trip to Los Angeles in which he meets several women but is scared off because they are too sexually aggressive. The basic concept for the song was Rubin 's, based on his own ambivalence about possibly moving from New York City to Los Angeles.
The music video for "Going Back to Cali '' was directed by Ric Menello. It was shot in black and white and was filmed mostly at two Los Angeles landmarks, the Venice neighborhood and the Griffith Observatory, as an homage to two of Menello 's favorite films, Touch of Evil (1958) and Rebel Without a Cause (1955), respectively.
Rock band Sevendust covered the song on the 2000 album Take a Bite Outta Rhyme: A Rock Tribute to Rap.
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who plays nick carraway in the great gatsby 2013 | The Great Gatsby (2013 film) - wikipedia
The Great Gatsby is a 2013 period drama film based on F. Scott Fitzgerald 's 1925 novel of the same name. The film was co-written and directed by Baz Luhrmann and stars Leonardo DiCaprio as the eponymous Jay Gatsby, with Tobey Maguire, Carey Mulligan, Joel Edgerton and Elizabeth Debicki also starring. Production began in 2011 and took place in Australia, with $190 million budget. The film follows the life and times of millionaire Jay Gatsby and his neighbor Nick (Maguire), who recounts his encounter with Gatsby at the height of the Roaring Twenties in New York state.
The film polarized critics, receiving both praise and criticism for its acting performances, soundtrack, visual style, and direction. Audiences responded much more positively, and F. Scott Fitzgerald 's granddaughter praised the film, stating "Scott would have been proud. '' As of 2016, it is Baz Luhrmann 's highest - grossing film, having earned over $350 million worldwide. At the 86th Academy Awards, the film won in both of its nominated categories: Best Production Design and Best Costume Design.
In 1929, Nick Carraway, a World War I veteran, is receiving treatment for alcoholism at a psychiatric hospital. He talks about Jay Gatsby, the most hopeful man he had ever met. Nick 's doctor suggests that he writes his thoughts down, since writing is Nick 's passion.
In the summer of 1922, Nick moves from the Midwest to New York after abandoning writing. He rents a small house in the North Shore village of West Egg, next to the mansion of Gatsby, a mysterious business magnate who often holds extravagant parties. One day, while Nick has dinner with his cousin, Daisy Buchanan, and her husband, Tom, he is introduced to Jordan Baker by Daisy, who hopes to make a match between them. When Nick returns home, he sees Gatsby standing on the dock, reaching towards the green light coming from the Buchanan dock.
Jordan tells Nick that Tom has a mistress who lives in the "valley of ashes '', an industrial dumping site between West Egg and New York City. Nick and Tom visit the valley and stop at a garage owned by George Wilson and his wife, Myrtle, Tom 's mistress. Later, Nick receives an invitation to one of Gatsby 's parties. Upon arrival, Nick learns he is the only one to receive an invitation and none of the guests have ever met Gatsby. Nick encounters Jordan, and both meet Gatsby. Gatsby offers Nick a ride to town for lunch. On the way, Gatsby tells Nick he is an Oxford graduate and war hero from a wealthy Midwestern family. They go to a speakeasy, where Gatsby introduces Nick to his business partner, Meyer Wolfsheim.
Jordan tells Nick that Gatsby had a relationship with Daisy years ago and is still in love with her, and that Gatsby threw parties in the hopes that Daisy would attend. Gatsby asks Nick to invite Daisy to tea. After an awkward reunion, Gatsby and Daisy begin an affair. Gatsby is dismayed when Daisy wants to run away with him and wants her to get a divorce. He asks Nick and Jordan to accompany him to the Buchanan home, where he and Daisy plan to tell Tom that Daisy is leaving him. During the luncheon, Tom becomes suspicious of Gatsby and Daisy, but Daisy stops Gatsby from revealing anything to Tom and suggests they all go to the Plaza Hotel. Tom drives Nick and Jordan in Gatsby 's car, while Gatsby drives Daisy in Tom 's car. Tom stops for gas at George 's garage, where George tells him that he and Myrtle are moving and that he suspects Myrtle is unfaithful.
At the Plaza, Gatsby tells Tom of his affair with Daisy. Tom accuses Gatsby of having never attended Oxford and having made his fortune through bootlegging with mobsters. Daisy says she loves Gatsby but can not bring herself to say she never loved Tom. Eventually, both Gatsby and Daisy leave. After a fight with George over her infidelity, Myrtle runs into the street and is fatally struck by Gatsby 's car after mistaking it for Tom 's. After learning about Myrtle 's death, Tom tells George that the car belongs to Gatsby and that he suspects Gatsby was Myrtle 's lover. Nick deduces Daisy was the driver, though Gatsby intends to take the blame. Nick overhears Daisy accepting Tom 's promise to take care of everything, but he does not tell Gatsby. Gatsby admits to Nick that he was born penniless; his real name is James Gatz, and he had asked Daisy to wait for him until he had made something of himself.
The next day, Gatsby hears the phone ringing and thinks it is Daisy. Before he can answer it, he is shot and killed by George, who then kills himself. Nick is the only person other than reporters to attend Gatsby 's funeral, as Daisy and Tom are leaving New York. The media paints Gatsby as Myrtle 's lover and killer. Disgusted with both the city and its inhabitants, Nick leaves after taking a final walk through Gatsby 's deserted mansion and reflecting on Gatsby 's ability to hope. In the sanatorium, Nick finishes typing his memoir, titling it The Great Gatsby.
Prior to this version, there had already been an opera and numerous other dramatic adaptations of F. Scott Fitzgerald 's acclaimed 1925 novel of the same name. In December 2008, Variety reported that this film adaptation was to be made with Baz Luhrmann as director.
Luhrmann stated that he planned it to be more up - to - date due to its theme of criticizing the often irresponsible lifestyles of wealthy people. In order to commit to the project, in September 2010 Luhrmann moved with his family from Australia to Chelsea in Lower Manhattan, where he had intended to film The Great Gatsby. While Luhrmann was at the Consumer Electronics Show in January 2011, he told The Hollywood Reporter that he had been workshopping The Great Gatsby in 3D, though he had not yet decided whether to shoot in the format. In late January 2011, Luhrmann showed doubt about staying on board with the project, before deciding to stay.
In 2010, it was reported that the film was being set up by Sony Pictures Entertainment but by 2011, Warner Bros. was close to acquiring a deal to finance and take worldwide distribution of The Great Gatsby.
Luhrmann said the results from the movie 's workshop process of auditioning actors for roles in The Great Gatsby had been "very encouraging '' to him. Leonardo DiCaprio was cast first, in the title role of Jay Gatsby. It is the second time Luhrmann and DiCaprio worked together; DiCaprio costarred in Luhrmann 's Romeo + Juliet (1996). Tobey Maguire was cast to play Nick Carraway. Reports linked Amanda Seyfried to the lead role of Daisy Buchanan, in October 2010. The next month Deadline Hollywood reported that Luhrmann had been auditioning numerous actresses, including Keira Knightley, Rebecca Hall, Amanda Seyfried, Blake Lively, Abbie Cornish, Michelle Williams, and Scarlett Johansson, as well as considering Natalie Portman, for Daisy. Soon afterward, with her commitment to Cameron Crowe 's We Bought a Zoo (2011), Johansson pulled out.
On November 15, Luhrmann announced that Carey Mulligan had been cast to play Daisy after reading for the part on 2 November in New York. She got the role shortly after Luhrmann showed her audition footage to Sony Pictures Entertainment executives Amy Pascal and Doug Belgrad, who were impressed by the actress ' command of the character. Mulligan burst into tears after learning of her casting via a phone call from Luhrmann, who informed her of his decision while she was on the red carpet at an event in New York. Luhrmann said: "I was privileged to explore the character with some of the world 's most talented actresses, each one bringing their own particular interpretation, all of which were legitimate and exciting. However, specific to this particular production of The Great Gatsby, I was thrilled to pick up the phone an hour ago to the young Oscar - nominated British actress Carey Mulligan and say to her: ' Hello, Daisy Buchanan. ' ''
In April, Ben Affleck was in talks about playing the role of Tom Buchanan but had to pass due to a scheduling conflict with Argo (2012). Several weeks later, Affleck was replaced by Joel Edgerton. Bradley Cooper had previously lobbied for the part, and Luke Evans was a major contender. Isla Fisher was cast to play Myrtle Wilson. Australian newcomer Elizabeth Debicki won the part of Jordan Baker, right after graduating from Victorian College of the Arts.
While casting for the supporting role of Jordan, the filmmaker said the character must be "as thoroughly examined as Daisy, for this production, for this time '', adding, "It 's like Olivier 's Hamlet was the right Hamlet for his time. Who would Hamlet be today? Same with a Jordan or a Daisy ''. In June 2011, Jason Clarke was cast as George B. Wilson. Indian actor Amitabh Bachchan makes a cameo appearance as Meyer Wolfshiem; this was his first Hollywood role.
The Great Gatsby was planned to be filmed in the New York City area where the novel is set, starting in June 2011. The director instead opted to shoot principal photography in Sydney. Filming began on September 5, 2011, at Fox Studios Australia and finished on December 22, 2011, with additional shots filmed in January 2012. The film was shot with Red Epic digital cameras and Zeiss Ultra Prime lenses. Originally scheduled for a December 25, 2012 release, on August 6, 2012, it was reported that the film was being moved to a summer 2013 release date. In September 2012, this date was confirmed to be May 10, 2013. The film opened the 66th Cannes Film Festival on May 15, 2013, shortly following its wide release in RealD 3D and 2D formats.
In creating the background scenery for the world depicted in the film, designer Catherine Martin stated that the team styled the interior sets of Jay Gatsby 's mansion with gilded opulence, in a style that blended establishment taste with Art Deco. The long - destroyed Beacon Towers, thought by scholars to have partially inspired Fitzgerald 's Jay Gatsby estate, was used as a main inspiration for Gatsby 's home in the film. The filming for the exterior of Jay Gatsby 's mansion was the college building of the International College of Management, Sydney, Some inspiration was also drawn from other Gold Coast, Long Island, mansions, including Oheka Castle and La Selva Mansion. Features evoking the Long Island mansions were added in post-production.
The inspiration for the film version of the Buchanan estate came from Old Westbury Gardens. The mansion exterior was built on a soundstage, with digital enhancements added. The interior sets for the Buchanan mansion were inspired by the style of Hollywood Regency.
The home of Nick Carraway was conceived as an intimate cottage, in contrast with the grandeur of the neighboring Gatsby mansion. Objects chosen adhered to a central theme of what the designers saw as classic Long Island. The architecture conjures American Arts and Crafts, with Gustav Stickley - type furnishings inside and an Adirondack - style swing out.
The opening scene was filmed from Rivendell Child, Adolescent and Family Unit in Concord, Sydney, only a few kilometres from Sydney 2000 Olympic Stadium.
Many apparel designers were approached in collaboration of the film 's costumes. The Great Gatsby achieved the iconic 1920s look by altering pieces from the Prada and Miu Miu fashion archives. Martin also collaborated with Brooks Brothers for the costumes worn by the male cast members and extras. Tiffany & Co. provided the jewelry for the film. Catherine Martin and Miuccia Prada were behind the wardrobe and worked closely together to create pieces with "the European flair that was emerging amongst the aristocratic East Coast crowds in the 1920s ''
Costume historians of the period, however, said that the costumes were not authentic, but instead modernized the 1920s - era fashions to look more like modern fashions. Most prominently, the women were clothed to emphasize their breasts, such as Daisy 's push - up bra, in contrast to the flat - chested fashions of the era. While the book was set in 1922, the movie included fashions from the entire decade of the 1920s and even the 1930s. Many of the fashions from archives were concepts from runways and fashion magazines that were never worn by women in real life. Martin says that she took the styles of the 1920s and made them sexier, and was trying to interpret 1920s styles for a modern audience. Alice Jurow, of the Art Deco Society of California, said that she loved the movie, but most of their members prefer more period - perfect films. The men 's costumes were more authentic, except that the pants were too tight.
The first trailer for The Great Gatsby was released on May 22, 2012, almost a year before the film 's release. Songs featured in various trailers include: "No Church in the Wild '' by Jay - Z and Kanye West; a cover of U2 's "Love Is Blindness '' performed by Jack White; a cover of The Turtles ' "Happy Together '' by the band Filter; a cover of Amy Winehouse 's "Back to Black '' performed by André 3000 and Beyoncé; "Young and Beautiful '' performed by Lana Del Rey; and two songs, "Bedroom Hymns '' and "Over the Love '', performed by Florence and the Machine.
On April 15, 2013, Brooks Brothers premiered "The Gatsby Collection '', a line of men 's clothing, shoes and accessories "inspired by the costumes designed by Catherine Martin for Baz Luhrmann 's The Great Gatsby ''. According to Fashion Weekly, "The looks were n't simply based on 1920s style: the new duds were designed based on the brand 's actual archives (...) Brooks Brothers was one of the initial arbiters of Gatsby - era look. The actual costumes, designed by Catherine Martin, will be on display in select Brooks Brothers boutiques. ''
On April 17, 2013, Tiffany & Co. unveiled windows at its Fifth Avenue flagship store "inspired by '' Luhrmann 's film and created in collaboration with Luhrmann and costumer Catherine Martin. The jewelry store also premiered "The Great Gatsby Collection '' line of jewelry designed in anticipation of the film. The collection comprises 7 pieces: a brooch, a headpiece (both reportedly based on archival Tiffany designs), a necklace, and four different rings, including one in platinum with a 5.25 - carat diamond, priced at US $875,000.
Released on May 7, the film 's soundtrack is also available in a deluxe edition; a Target exclusive release also features three extra tracks. The film score was executive - produced by Jay - Z and The Bullitts.
Penned by Lana Del Rey and the film 's director, Baz Luhrmann, the song "Young and Beautiful '' was released to contemporary hit radio as a single, and was used as the film 's buzz single. A snippet of the track appeared in the official trailer for the film and played during the scene where the characters portrayed by Leonardo DiCaprio and Carey Mulligan express their romantic feelings for one another. Hip hop magazine Rap - Up called the single "haunting '', while MTV called it "somber - sounding ''. The track performed by Florence and the Machine, "Over the Love '', references the "green light '' symbol from the novel in its lyrics. Chris Payne of Billboard praised Beyoncé and André 3000 's cover of "Back to Black '', made unique with a downtempo EDM wobble. The xx recorded "Together '' for the film, with Jamie Smith telling MTV that the band 's contribution to the soundtrack sounds like "despair '', and revealing that it utilizes a 60 - piece orchestra.
Speaking of his goals for the movie 's musical backdrop, Baz Luhrmann expressed his desire to blend the music of the Jazz Age, associated with the 1922 setting of the story, with a modern spin. Much like his modern twists applied in Moulin Rouge! and Romeo + Juliet, Baz uses the movie 's music not as a background, but instead prominently in the foreground, which takes on a character of its own.
The Great Gatsby earned US $144.8 million in North America, and US $206.2 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of US $351 million. Calculating in all expenses, Deadline.com estimated that the film made a profit of $58.6 million.
In North America, The Great Gatsby earned US $19.4 million on its opening Friday, including US $3.25 million from Thursday night and midnight shows. It went on to finish in second place, behind Iron Man 3, during its opening weekend, with US $51.1 million. This was the sixth - largest opening weekend for a film that did not debut in first place, the second largest opening weekend for a film starring Leonardo DiCaprio behind Inception, and Luhrmann 's highest - grossing movie.
On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 48 % based on 264 reviews, with an average rating of 5.8 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "While certainly ambitious -- and every bit as visually dazzling as one might expect -- Baz Luhrmann 's The Great Gatsby emphasizes visual splendor at the expense of its source material 's vibrant heart. '' Metacritic gives the film a score of 55 out of 100, based on 45 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by the market research firm CinemaScore gave an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale.
Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal felt the elaborate production designs were a misfire and likened the film to the Roaring Twenties themselves as Fitzgerald envisioned and criticized them, stating that what is "intractably wrong with the film is that there 's no reality to heighten; it 's a spectacle in search of a soul. '' The Chicago Reader review felt "Luhrmann is exactly the wrong person to adapt such a delicately rendered story, and his 3D feature plays like a ghastly Roaring 20s blowout at a sorority house. '' In The Atlantic, Christopher Orr observed that "The problem is that when the movie is entertaining it 's not Gatsby, and when it 's Gatsby it 's not entertaining. ''
The positive reviews included A.O. Scott of The New York Times, who felt the adaptation was "a lot of fun '' and "less a conventional movie adaptation than a splashy, trashy opera, a wayward, lavishly theatrical celebration of the emotional and material extravagance that Fitzgerald surveyed with fascinated ambivalence ''; Scott advised "the best way to enjoy the film is to put aside whatever literary agenda you are tempted to bring with you. '' Ty Burr of The Boston Globe reserved special praise for DiCaprio 's performance, saying "magnificent is the only word to describe this performance -- the best movie Gatsby by far, superhuman in his charm and connections, the host of revels beyond imagining, and at his heart an insecure fraud whose hopes are pinned to a woman. ''
The Scene Magazine gave the movie a "B - '' rating, and praised the actors ' performances, in particular saying that "the stand - out actor is Joel Edgerton as Tom Buchanan doing an excellent job of showing the character 's gruffness, despite the one - dimensionality given to him ''. A granddaughter of Fitzgerald praised the style and music of the film.
Tobey Maguire 's role as Nick was given mixed to negative reviews from critics, with Philip French of The Guardian calling him "miscast or misdirected; '' Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post saying "Tobey Maguire is his usual recessive presence, barely registering as either a dynamic part of the events he describes or their watchful witness; '' and Elizabeth Weitzman of The New York Daily News saying despite "the wry - observational skills needed for Nick 's Midwestern decency '', the character is "directed toward a wide - eyed, one - note performance ''. Rick Groen of The Toronto Star was more positive of Maguire 's character, saying "our narrator, (is) prone to his occasionally purple rhetoric. But that imposed conceit, the image of a talented depressive writing from inside the bauble of his imagination, seems to validate his inflated prose and, better yet, lets us re-appreciate its inherent poetry. ''
Other film adaptations of The Great Gatsby include:
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explain three causes of internal migration shifts in the united states during modern times | Internal migration - wikipedia
Internal migration is human migration within one geopolitical entity, usually a nation - state. Internal migration tends to be travel for education and for economic improvement or because of a natural disaster or civil disturbance. Cross-border migration often occurs for political or economic reasons. A general trend of movement from rural to urban areas, in a process described as urbanization, has also produced a form of internal migration.
Many countries have experienced massive internal migration.
A subtype of internal migration is the migration of immigrant groups -- often called secondary or onward migration. Secondary migration is also used to refer to the migration of immigrants within the European Union.
In the United States, the Office of Refugee Resettlement, a program of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 's Administration for Children and Families, is tasked with managing the secondary migration of resettled refugees. However, there is little information on secondary migration and associated programmatic structural changes. Secondary migration has been hypothesized as one of the driving forces behind the distribution of resettled refugees in the United States.
Somalis, a refugee group that was initially widely dispersed in the United States, has formed significant communities in Minnesota, Ohio and Washington. Secondary migration to Minneapolis, Minnesota and Columbus, Ohio, has made those two areas first and second, respectively, in Somali American population. Geographer Tamara Mott states that being near family, friends, and other Somalis was the main reason Somalis migrated to Columbus, OH.
Lewiston, Maine, became a secondary migration destination for Somalis after social service agencies relocated a few families there in February 2001. Between 1982 and 2000, resettlement agencies placed refugees, including 315 Somalis, in the Portland, Maine area. High rates of rental housing occupancy in Portland led to the first relocations to Lewiston. Somalis have a history of nomadism and maintain contact, often via cell phone, with a large network of extended family, clan members, and friends. More Somalis learned about Lewiston and were attracted by the quality of life there, the low housing costs, good schools, safety and greater social control of their children in the smaller town. Between February 2001 and August 2002 over 1,000 Somalis moved to Lewiston. Most of these early secondary migrants came from Clarkston, Georgia, a suburb just outside Atlanta. By 2007, Somalis were 6.5 % of the population of Lewiston and had come to the city from all over the United States and at least three other countries.
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how many goals have liverpool scored in the league this season | 2017 -- 18 Liverpool FC Season - wikipedia
The 2017 -- 18 season was Liverpool 's 126th season in existence, and their 56th consecutive season in the top flight of English football. It is also the club 's 26th consecutive season in the Premier League. Along with the Premier League, the club will also compete in the FA Cup, the EFL Cup and the UEFA Champions League. The season covered the period from 1 July 2017 to 30 June 2018.
Liverpool began their preseason in the same manner as last year, a visit to Tranmere Rovers on 12 July. Liverpool won 0 -- 4 with goals from James Milner (from the penalty spot), Marko Grujić, Pedro Chirivella, and Ben Woodburn (from the penalty spot as well.) The Reds next trip was to Wigan Athletic on 14 July where they drew 1 -- 1 going 1 -- 0 down early, but the equalizing goal coming in first half stoppage time from new signing Mohamed Salah. On 19 July, Liverpool played their first match of the 2017 Premier League Asia Trophy friendly tournament in Hong Kong against Crystal Palace. The Reds won 2 -- 0 thanks to goals from another new signing, Dominic Solanke, and Divock Origi. The Reds advanced to the final, played on 22 July, the day after announcing new signing Andrew Robertson on a deal from Hull City, against Leicester City. Liverpool won the tournament defeating Leicester in the final 2 -- 1, despite conceding first, due to goals from Salah and Philippe Coutinho.
Liverpool returned to Europe to play their next pre-season match on 29 July against Hertha BSC, a match that celebrated the two clubs respective 125th anniversaries of existence. Liverpool got the better of the German side winning 0 -- 3 in Berlin with goals scored by Solanke, Gini Wijnaldum, and Salah. Liverpool 's next two matches were as a part of another pre-season tournament as the club partook in the 2017 Audi Cup, defeating Bayern Munich at Bayern 's home stadium 0 -- 3 in their first match of the tournament on 1 August, the goals coming from Sadio Mané, yet another from Salah, and Daniel Sturridge. In the final on the next day, Liverpool lost to Atlético Madrid, 1 -- 1 (4 -- 5 in penalties) with a Roberto Firmino spot kick pushing the game to penalties before ultimately losing. In the days before their final pre-season match, Liverpool were dealt a blow as it was revealed that Adam Lallana was injured in the final and, according to manager Jürgen Klopp, would be out for "a couple of months. '' In the final friendly on 5 August in Dublin against Athletic Bilbao, Liverpool finished strong winning the match 3 -- 1 thanks to Firmino 's spot kick, Woodburn 's equalizer in the second half, and Solanke 's headed finish.
Liverpool began their Premier League campaign on 12 August with a trip to Vicarage Road to take on Watford. Watford opened the scoring in the eighth minute with a Stefano Okaka header off a corner kick, however Mane levelled in the 29th minute, only for Abdoulaye Doucouré to give Watford a 2 -- 1 in the 32nd where it stood at the half. In the second half, Liverpool took the lead after goals from Firmino from the spot and Salah in the 55th and 57th minutes, respectively. However, in the 93rd Miguel Britos once again levelled the game with a controversial equalizer off another corner kick to set the score at 3 -- 3 where the game finished. Following the match, manager Klopp expressed disappointment in the equalizer counting making the claim that Britos was offside when scoring. Liverpool had no time to despair over lost points as they set off to Germany to square off with Hoffenheim in the first leg of their Champions League qualifier on 15 August. The match was Liverpool 's first Champions League match since December 2014. In the tenth minute, Simon Mignolet made a penalty save to keep the game level at 0 -- 0 where it stood until Trent Alexander - Arnold 's 35th minute free kick goal, the first in a Liverpool uniform for him. A James Milner attempted cross deflected off Håvard Nordtveit and that went down as an own goal to make it 0 -- 2 in the 74th. Hoffenheim responded with a Mark Uth 87th - minute goal but, despite the nervy finish, Liverpool saw off the final minutes of the 1 -- 2 victory in the away leg. Liverpool returned home for the first time in the season where on 19 August they played Crystal Palace. The Reds were victorious defeating Palace 1 -- 0 thanks to a Mane goal in the 73rd. This marked the first victory at home against Palace for Liverpool since 2013. On 23 August, Liverpool played the home leg of their Champions League qualifier against Hoffenheim. Liverpool got off to a fantastic early start with a 3 -- 0 scoreline after 21 minutes thanks to two goals from Emre Can and one from Salah. Uth pulled one back in the 28th to make it 3 -- 1, however, Firmino tacked one more on in the 63rd making it 4 -- 1. Sandro Wagner made it 4 -- 2 in the 79th, but it was only a consolation goal as Liverpool won 4 -- 2 (6 -- 3 on aggregate) and advanced on to the Champions League group stage. Liverpool 's final game of the month, and before the international break, was at home against Arsenal on 27 August. In what was called a "dazzling attacking display, '' Liverpool won 4 -- 0 thanks to goals before the half from Firmino and Mane in the 17th and 40th minutes, respectively, and goals after the half from Salah in the 57th minute and Sturridge in the 77th minute. On 29 August Liverpool made a transfer move for the 2018 - 19 season as the club announced Naby Keïta from RB Leipzig would join the club effective 1 July 2018.
Liverpool 's September began with a visit to the Etihad Stadium to take on Manchester City on 9 September. Manchester City opened the scoring through Sergio Agüero in the 25th minute, and a Mane high boot drew a hotly - debated red card putting the Reds down to ten men. From there City scored four more goals, two from Gabriel Jesus and two from Leroy Sané to mark a 5 -- 0 victory. Liverpool manager Klopp felt that the challenge was not a red card worthy incident and noted the event was a "game - changing incident. '' Liverpool next began UEFA Champions League group stage play at home against Sevilla on 13 September. The Reds went down in the 5th minute after a costly Dejan Lovren mistake allowed Wissam Ben Yedder to tap Sevilla ahead. Liverpool roared back in response with a Firmino goal in the 21st and a Salah goal in the 37th to put them back on top before the half. In the 41st minute, however, with the chance to put Liverpool ahead by two goals, Firmino missed a chance from the penalty spot. Joaquín Correa drew Sevilla level in the 72nd and the game finished at 2 -- 2. Liverpool faced a Premier League fixture next as they squared off with Burnley on 16 September. The match was notable for being Philippe Coutinho 's return to the Liverpool starting eleven following a busy transfer window in which Barcelona had widely reported interest in the player to the point where the club released a statement explicitly stating Coutinho would remain a Liverpool player at the close of the summer window. Scott Arfield put the visitors up 0 -- 1 in the 27th, however Salah responded with an equalizer just three minutes later to put the scoreline at 1 -- 1 where it stood till the final whistle. The Reds faced another midweek test on 19 September where they faced off with Leicester City at King Power Stadium in the Carabao Cup. Leicester scored twice in the second half through Shinji Okazaki and Islam Slimani in the 65th and 78th minutes to knock the Reds out of the Cup tournament with a 2 -- 0 defeat. That weekend, on 23 September, Liverpool played a second game at King Power Stadium against Leicester, this time in the league. Salah kicked off scoring in the 15th while Coutinho scored his first goal of the season with a stunning free kick in the 23rd to put Liverpool up 0 -- 2. Right before the halftime whistle, Okazaki got Leicester a goal back on a scrambled effort off a corner kick. Captain Jordan Henderson put the Reds up 1 -- 3 in the 68th with a counter-attacking goal, however Jamie Vardy got the goal back just a minute later. In the 73rd, goalie Simon Mignolet gave up a penalty kick, which, taken by Vardy, was saved by the keeper to keep the scoreline at 2 -- 3, the final score. The final game of the month was another Champions League group stage bout, this time in Moscow against Spartak Moscow on 26 September. Spartak opened the scoring off a 23rd minute Fernando free kick, however Liverpool responded in the 31st through a Coutinho goal. The game finished level at one and Liverpool earned another point in group stage play.
Liverpool opened their October on the first of the month at St James ' Park against Newcastle. Coutinho, through an out of the box effort, put Liverpool ahead in the 29th minute, however Newcastle leveled just seven minutes later through a Joselu goal that resulted after an attempted Joël Matip tackle deflected off Joselu and into the net. The scoreline remained at 1 -- 1 for the rest of the game resulting in a draw. Following the international break, the Reds returned to action on 14 October at Anfield to square off with Manchester United in a match that ended 0 -- 0. The Reds then returned to midweek action heading to Slovenia to take on Maribor on 17 October. In a record breaking performance, Liverpool thrashed Maribor 0 -- 7 breaking the record for biggest away win not just in Liverpool history but by any English side in the European competition. Goals came from Firmino, Coutinho, Salah, another from Firmino, a second from Salah, the first of Alex Oxlade - Chamberlain 's Liverpool career, and a capper from Trent Alexander - Arnold. On 22 October, Liverpool visited Wembley Stadium to take on Tottenham. The Reds fell behind 2 -- 0 quickly following defensive mistakes in which Lovren drew heavy criticism for. Lovren was later subbed off for Chamberlain at the 30th minute. Salah drew Liverpool back one in the 24th, but Dele Alli chipped a goal in before the stroke of halftime. Harry Kane put in his second of the game in the 56th and the Reds were given a 4 -- 1 defeat. The final fixture of the month took place on 28 October back at Anfield against newly promoted Huddersfield Town, managed by Klopp 's longtime friend David Wagner. Following a 0 -- 0 first half, including a saved Salah penalty in the 43rd, the Reds put three past Huddersfield in the second half. The first came from Sturridge in the 50th, the second from Firmino just eight minutes later, and the final coming from Wijnaldum in the 75th to cap off a 3 -- 0 victory.
November opened up for Liverpool on the first of the month at Anfield in their home fixture against Maribor in the Champions League group stage. Following a goalless first half, the Reds scored three in the second to get a 3 -- 0 victory over their Slovenian counterparts. The goals came from Salah in the 49th, Emre Can in the 64th, and Sturridge in the 90th. The Reds were also given a penalty kick in the 54th, but Milner could not take advantage. This victory put the Reds one point clear at the top of their group. Following that mid-week bout, the Reds then traveled to London to take on West Ham on 4 November. Salah and Matip put the Reds ahead 0 -- 2 at the half as they scored within three minutes of each other, but West Ham countered in the 55th through Manuel Lanzini. Just a minute later, however, the Reds got their goal back through Oxlade - Chamberlain 's first league goal as a Liverpool player. Salah added his second of the game in the 75th and Liverpool went on to a 1 -- 4 victory in what was ultimately Slaven Bilić 's final match in charge of the Hammers. Following international break, the Reds were back in action on 18 November at home against Southampton, marking Virgil van Dijk 's first visit to Anfield following links with Liverpool in which the club had to make a public statement renouncing interest in the Dutchman. The Reds enjoyed two first - half goals in ten minutes from Salah and a third in the 68th minute from Coutinho en route to a 3 -- 0 victory. Up next was the second meeting in the group against Sevilla, this time in Spain on 21 November. The Reds roared at the start with goals from Firmino in the 2nd, Mane in the 22th, and Firmino again in the 30th to go up 0 -- 3 at the half. Unfortunately, the good times stopped there as Ben Yedder scored first in the 51st off an Éver Banega free kick, then again in the 60th off a penalty kick, both of which the fouls conceded were given up by Alberto Moreno, who received substantial criticism for these two missteps in spite of his otherwise solid "reboot '' to his Liverpool career. Liverpool held on until the 93rd minute in which Guido Pizarro leveled the game at 3 -- 3 and completed the Sevilla comeback. The Reds took a point, however, and remained at the top of the group through five games. The Reds then had to look to recover in time for their weekend bout back at Anfield against defending champions Chelsea on 25 November. Salah scored against his former club putting Liverpool up 1 -- 0 in the 65th, but off the bench Willian equalized at 1 -- 1 in the 85th on a shot that appeared to be an attempt to cross the ball. The score stayed this way till the end and twice in a week Liverpool let in a late equalizer. The final fixture of the month occurred at the Bet365 Stadium as Liverpool traveled to take on Stoke City in a mid-week Premier League bout on 29 November. Mane put the Reds out front in the 17th and gave them the halftime lead, then Salah, off the bench, scored two in six minutes to give Liverpool the 0 -- 3 victory capping off a month of four games of where the Reds won by three goals.
Liverpool opened a busy December with a game at the Amex against Brighton & Hove Albion on 2 December. Two goals within a minute of each other, first from Can then Firmino, gave Liverpool a 0 -- 2 lead and they finished the game winning 1 -- 5 thanks to additional goals from Firmino, Coutinho, and a Dunk own goal. Brighton 's only goal came from Glenn Murray who scored from the penalty spot. The next game was the final game of the Champions League group stage, a home bout against Spartak Moscow on 6 December. The Reds dispatched Spartak 7 -- 0, with goals coming from Firmino, Salah, a double from Mane and a hat trick for Coutinho and finished the group at the top. The next fixture was the first league installment of the season of the Merseyside derby against crosstown rivals Everton on 10 December at Anfield. Liverpool maintained control throughout the first half and Salah 's curling effort in the 42nd minute gave Liverpool the lead. Liverpool continued to dominate but a dubious penalty decision against Lovren saw Wayne Rooney converted a penalty in the 77th to tie the game at 1 -- 1 where it finished. Klopp said following the game about the controversial penalty incident, "In my understanding, it 's not a penalty. '' The next game was yet another held at Anfield where Liverpool hosted West Brom on 13 December. The game was a 0 -- 0 stalemate against West Brom at Anfield, with the most notable event being an 82nd minute Solanke goal was disallowed for a handball drawing conversation on whether or not the correct call was made. On 17 December at the Vitality Stadium, Liverpool took on Bournemouth. The Reds bounced back in the next game winning 0 -- 4 with goals from Coutinho, Lovren, and Salah before the half, and Firmino after. The next game was against Arsenal at the Emirates on 22 December. In an exciting affair, Liverpool went 0 -- 2 up through Coutinho in the 26th and Salah in the 52nd minute, but Arsenal took the lead with three goals in five minutes through goals from Alexis Sánchez, Granit Xhaka (on a long shot in which goalie Mignolet was heavily criticized for not doing better) and Mesut Özil. The Reds evened the score at 3 -- 3 with a 71st - minute goal from Firmino giving the team their 8th league draw in 19 games, at the time the second most in the league. Liverpool then returned to Anfield for their Boxing Day fixture against bottom - place Swansea City. Coutinho gave the Liverpool early in the first half and the game stood at 1 -- 0 at half, but with a goal from Firmino in the 52nd, one from Alexander - Arnold in the 65th, another from Firmino in the 66th, and a capper from Oxlade - Chamberlain in the 82nd gave the Reds a 5 -- 0 victory. On 27 December, ahead of the New Year, Liverpool also welcomed the news of long - term target Virgil van Dijk, signed for a generally reported fee going up to £ 75 million. With their new signing in attendance, Liverpool played their final match of the calendar year on 30 December against Leicester at Anfield. Vardy gave the Foxes a 0 -- 1 lead in the 3rd where it stood until the 52nd with a Salah equalizer. Salah scored again in the 76th giving Liverpool a 2 -- 1 victory and ensuring the Reds would end 2017 in the top four.
The Reds opened their 2018 on the first day of the year by traveling to Turf Moor to take on Burnley. Mane broke the deadlock in the 61st with a goal but Jóhann Berg Guðmundsson leveled the score in the 87th minute. The Reds, however, were able to get all three points off a Ragnar Klavan header in the 94th minute with a 1 -- 2 final. Following the triumph in the league, the Reds hosted Everton for the second time in under 30 days, this time in the third round of the 2017 -- 18 FA Cup on 5 January. While Everton received the hotly contested penalty in the first meeting, Liverpool was the one to benefit from a controversial penalty call as Mason Holgate brought Lallana down inside the box and Milner converted the penalty in the 35th minute. The derby match also featured Holgate and Firmino getting into a verbal altercation shortly before the end of the first half following a push from Holgate to Firmino that sent the latter over the advertising boards. In the 67th minute, Gylfi Sigurðsson scored on a counterattack to equalize the game at one. In the 84th minute, however, van Dijk in his Liverpool debut scored off a corner kick making it 2 -- 1 and marking a second game in a row with a late headed goal from a defender to win the game. The day after, on 6 January, the club made the official announcement that (subject to a medical and personal terms) Coutinho would be leaving for Barcelona on a deal that Paul Joyce of The Times reported could reach up to £ 142 million. Coutinho was subsequently announced by Barcelona that day. On 14 January, Liverpool took on the undefeated Manchester City at Anfield in hopes of deal City their first loss in the league as well as a measure of revenge for the 0 -- 5 loss the Reds were dealt in the reverse fixture. Liverpool started off strong with an Oxlade - Chamberlain goal in the ninth minute, but City scored an equalizer through in the 40th through a Leroy Sane effort. From the 59th to the 68th, Liverpool extended the lead to 4 -- 1 through goals from Firmino, Mane, and Salah in a thrilling ten minutes of action. City got one back in the 84th from Bernardo Silva and another from İlkay Gündoğan in the 91st put it at 4 -- 3, but the Reds held on and doled City their first loss of the league season. The next game for the Reds was a 22 January meeting in South Wales against Swansea and recently placed manager Carlos Carvalhal. Alfie Mawson scored the lone goal of the match in the 40th minute and the bottom place Swans took all three from the Reds with a 1 -- 0 defeat given to the visitors. In the fourth round proper of the FA Cup, on 27 January, Liverpool took on West Brom. Firmino 's chip in the fifth gave the early lead, but a four - minute double to Jay Rodriguez put West Brom up 1 -- 2 in the 11th. Video assistant referee replay played a crucial first half role as it denied Craig Dawson a goal to make the game 1 -- 3, then awarded a penalty to Liverpool, which was subsequently missed by Firmino. West Brom added a third with an own goal from Matip late in first half added time. Salah put the Reds within one in the 78th, but the 2 -- 3 scoreline stood and the Reds were stunned at home by the second from bottom Baggies in the cup. The final fixture of the month was on 30 January where the Reds visited John Smith 's Stadium and Huddersfield Town. Emre Can 's long range effort in the 26th put the Reds up 0 -- 1 early, and Firmino added a second right before the break. Salah 's 78th minute spot kick made it 0 -- 3 and Liverpool finished January with a comfortable victory.
February 's first fixture occurred on the 4th when the Reds welcomed Tottenham to Anfield. Liverpool were off to a flying start following Salah 's goal in the third minute giving Liverpool an early 1 -- 0 lead. The score stayed this way until a screamer from Victor Wanyama in the 80th set off a frenetic close to the game. The 85th minute saw goalie Loris Karius come out and attempt to slide tackle the ball away from Harry Kane, however referee Jon Moss awarded a controversial penalty to Spurs for an infraction where some fans and pundits claimed Kane "dove '' in hopes to win a call. Kane took, and subsequently missed, the kick in the 87th and in the 91st minute, Salah gave an outstanding solo effort to find a seeming winner for the Reds, but yet again a controversial penalty was given when van Dijk attempted to clear the ball from the box but missed and hit Érik Lamela. Kane took this penalty as well and converted in the 95th leaving the game level at 2 -- 2. A frustrated Klopp stated following the game, "I do n't understand either of the penalty situations. The first one was offside and the second, I know already what the ref and his assistant will say. There was a touch, a little touch. But Lamela has jumped into him and wanted the touch and to go down. '' Spurs manager Mauricio Pochettino saw the incidents differently saying, "Both were a penalty and it is not controversial. Sometimes people complain about the referee, but when they are right it is good to tell everyone. '' The Reds had a week off until their trip to St Mary 's Stadium in Southampton on 11 February. In winter signing van Dijk 's first match back in Southampton, the Reds won the match 0 -- 2 with goals from Firmino in the sixth and Salah in the 42nd. The next fixture for Liverpool was on Valentine 's Day in Portugal where the Reds played in the round of 16 of the Champions League for the first time since 2009. Against Porto, the Reds opened scoring in the 25th through a Mane goal that was also mishandled by Porto keeper José Sá. Salah added another goal in the 29th to take the lead to 0 -- 2, where it stood at the halftime whistle. In the second half, the goals continued as Mane added a second in the 53rd, Firmino scored his first of the game in the 69th, and Mane got his hat - trick goal in the 85th to give the Reds a 0 -- 5 first leg victory. Following a four - day mini camp in Marbella the Reds returned home for their final fixture of the month on 24 February against West Ham. Can opened the scoring with a header off a corner in the 29th, and Salah in the 51st and Firmino in the 57th added on to the lead. Michail Antonio added one for the Hammers in the 59th to put the score at 3 -- 1, but a Mane goal in the 77th to make it 4 -- 1 put the game away and, for the day, the Reds moved into second place.
Liverpool 's first match of the month was a home bout on 3 March against Newcastle, as the Reds welcomed back manager Rafa Benítez, who won the 2005 Champions League with the club. Salah opened the scoring in the 40th minute and Mane put in another in the 55th to give the Reds a comfortable 2 -- 0 victory over the Magpies. The Reds then played mid-week at home on 6 March against Porto in the return fixture of the Champions League round of 16. It was a quiet affair, Mane had a chance that hit the post and Danny Ings had a strong effort saved, but the game ended 0 -- 0 and Liverpool moved on to the quarterfinals. Following these matches, on 10 March Liverpool traveled to Old Trafford in another iteration of the Northwest Derby against Manchester United. Marcus Rashford scored twice in ten minutes to give United a 2 -- 0 lead within 25 minutes, were the score stood till the half. An Eric Bailly own goal put Liverpool back in business in the 66th, but it was not enough and a 2 -- 1 scoreline was final. The loss put the Reds five points back of second place. On 16 March, the Reds learned that their Champions League quarterfinal opponent would be the only other English team remaining, Manchester City. The fixtures were set for 4 April at Anfield and 10 April at the Etihad. The following day, Liverpool returned to Anfield to square off with Watford and, in stylish fashion, dispatched the Hornets 5 -- 0. Salah had his first English hat trick as he scored in the 4th, 43rd, and 77th, and then added one more for good measure in the 85th. Firmino added in one of his own in the 49th. The final fixture of the month occurred on 31 March at Selhurst Park against Crystal Palace. Palace opened the scoring in the 13th with a Luka Milivojević spot kick and the 1 -- 0 scoreline held into halftime. Just four minutes into the second half, however, Liverpool struck back with a Mane goal off a Milner cross. The 1 -- 1 deadlock was broken as Salah slotted home another in the 84th and the Reds took a 1 -- 2 victory out of London.
Liverpool opened up the month of April of the fourth as they took on Manchester City at Anfield in the first leg of the Champions League quarter - finals. The Reds got off to a flying start with goals from Salah in the 12th, Oxlade - Chamberlain off a brilliant effort from outside the box in the 21st, and finally Mane in the 31st. The Reds finished with a comfortable 3 -- 0 victory and for the second time this season defeated City at home. In between the first and second legs, Liverpool traveled across the river to take on Merseyside rivals Everton at Goodison Park on 7 April. The affair ended 0 -- 0 with the best effort coming from Yannick Bolasie, who tried a curling effort only for it to be saved well by Karius. The Reds could not find a goal and their opportunity to go second in the table was missed. Up next was the second leg of the quarter - finals at the Etihad against Manchester City on 10 April. City needed at least three goals, and they found one almost immediately from Gabriel Jesus in just the second minute. The Reds seemed slightly wobbled, and chances from Bernardo Silva and a goal ruled offside from Leroy Sane highlighted that. Following the half, however, with City manager Pep Guardiola sent to the stands during the break, Liverpool found their away goal in the 56th from Salah, and another in the 77th from Firmino. The Reds would win 1 -- 2 and advance 5 -- 1 on aggregate to the semi-finals. Liverpool returned home to Anfield to take on Bournemouth on 14 April, and they celebrated their advancement with a strong 3 -- 0 showing. The goals came from Mane in the 7th, Salah in the 69th, and Firmino with a 90th minute addition to the scoreline. Next came a match with bottom - place West Brom on 21 April. The Baggies, coming off a victory at Manchester United to clinch the title in favor of Manchester City, had already forced Liverpool to drop points at Anfield and defeated them in the FA Cup. Liverpool found another early goal through Danny Ings, his first since the final match of Brendan Rodgers ' tenure as Liverpool manager. Salah added another in the 72nd, and the Reds seemed on their way to all three points. However, a 79th minute goal from Jake Livermore and an 88th minute leveler from Salomón Rondón to make it 2 -- 2 meant the points would be shared. Liverpool could not dwell on this result as the final European night at Anfield was on deck on 24 April in the Champions League semi-finals against A.S. Roma. The first key action of the game was not a goal, but rather an injury as Oxlade - Chamberlain went down with what was eventually ruled as a knee ligament injury. The Reds could not find a breakthrough until a sparkling 36th minute effort from Salah against his former team put the Reds ahead. Salah added another in the first minute of added time of the first half and the Reds carried a 2 -- 0 lead into the second half. The Reds would not stop as Mane added a third in the 56th and Firmino had an eight - minute double to make the lead 5 -- 0. Roma, however, got two key away goals back through Edin Džeko in the 81st and Diego Perotti from the penalty spot after a James Milner handball in the 85th. Regardless, the Reds walked away with a 5 -- 2 and the driver 's seat of the second leg. The next day, the club would announce that Oxlade - Chamberlain was set to miss the remainder of the season as well as the 2018 World Cup for England. The final fixture of the month was at Anfield against 19th place Stoke City on 28 April. Liverpool had the best of the chances: a Salah miss on a one - on - one with the keeper in the fifth, an Ings effort ruled out for offside in the 40th, and a controversial potential handball on Erik Pieters in the 87th, but neither team could find the net and the final score was 0 -- 0.
Liverpool 's May began with the second leg of the Champions League semi-finals against Roma on 2 May. Liverpool quickly got an away goal from Mane in the ninth minute, striking first in the match. Just six minutes later, however, in the 15th minute, Roma would see one back after an attempted Lovren clearance struck Milner directly in the face and back into the Liverpool net. The Reds then saw a second goal in the 25th minute off a Wijnaldum header on a corner kick, marking his first away goal for Liverpool. The match entered the half 1 -- 2 and with Liverpool in strong position to advance, however Roma continue to attack. Dzeko scored in the 52nd to level the match score, then Radja Nainggolan hit an exceptional long shot in the 86th. Finally, Klavan was penalized for Liverpool and Nainggolan achieved a brace off a spot kick in the 94th, but with Roma needed one more for extra time it was too little, too late. The final whistle sounded and Liverpool, while losing 4 -- 2, advanced on an aggregate score of 6 -- 7 and would see Real Madrid in the Champions League Final. That weekend, Liverpool would take on Chelsea on 6 May at Stamford Bridge, with a win sealing top four and Champions League for the next season. Alas, in the 32nd minute, it was Chelsea striker Olivier Giroud who found the lone goal of the game and Chelsea won 1 -- 0, giving them an opportunity to be level with Liverpool on points on the last match - day. This, however, was not the case for Chelsea as they stumbled to Huddersfield 1 -- 1 on 9 May, meaning Liverpool would need, barring a massive goal differential swing, just a draw regardless of Chelsea 's final day result to clinch fourth place. Liverpool 's final Premier League match of the season took place at Anfield against Brighton and Hove Albion on 13 May. The Reds wasted little time in finding the breakthrough as Salah scored in the 26th minute and sealed the record for most goals in a 38 - game Premier League season, with 32. Just five minutes before halftime, Lovren doubled the Reds lead with a massive header. Liverpool continued forward as Solanke and Andy Robertson scored their first Liverpool goals in the 53rd and 85th minutes as Liverpool cruised to a 4 -- 0 victory and, as a result, fourth place in the Premier League.
Kiev 's Olimpiyskiy National Sports Complex hosted the Champions League final on 26 May against the two - time defending champions in Madrid. Liverpool suffered an early blow as Salah sustained what Klopp later specified as a serious injury to "either the collarbone or the shoulder '' after just 30 minutes of play. Regardless, the score was 0 -- 0 at the half but in the 51st minute, Karim Benzema pounced on a Karius roll - out of the ball and ultimately get a foot to direct the ball net - bound and give Madrid the 1 -- 0 lead. Liverpool equalized in the 55th through Mane off a corner kick, but nine minutes after that Gareth Bale came off the bench and deliver a stunning bicycle kick to break the deadlock again. Bale found his second of the game and Madrid 's third in the 83rd off a long shot that Karius mishandled into his own net. Madrid went on to win the Champions League 3 -- 1 and Karius found harsh criticism for mistakes described as part of a "horror show '' of a night for the Liverpool keeper. Despite the season - ending heartbreak, this was Liverpool 's best Champions League performance since 2007 and widely considered another step in the right direction for Liverpool as a whole.
Spending
Summer: £ 79,900,000
Winter: £ 70,000,000
Total: £ 149,900,000
Income
Summer: £ 42,000,000
Winter: £ 106,750,000
Total: £ 148,750,000
Net Expenditure
Summer: £ 37,900,000
Winter: £ 36,750,000
Total: £ 1,150,000
As of 15 June 2017, Liverpool have announced four pre-season friendlies against Hertha BSC, Athletic Bilbao Tranmere Rovers and Wigan Athletic.
Liverpool faced Crystal Palace in their opening game at the 2017 Premier League Asia Trophy.
Details for the 2017 Audi Cup were announced on 15 June 2017.
Last updated: 26 May 2018 Source: Competitions
Last updated: 26 May 2018 Source: Competitions
Last updated: 13 May 2018. Source: Premier League
Ground: A = Away; H = Home. Result: D = Draw; L = Loss; W = Win; P = Postponed.
On 14 June 2017, the fixtures for the forthcoming season were announced.
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In the FA Cup, Liverpool entered in the third round and were drawn at home to Everton.
Liverpool joined the competition in the third round and were drawn away Leicester City.
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On 4 August 2017, Liverpool were drawn against Bundesliga side 1899 Hoffenheim in a two - legged tie for a place in the main competition.
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After beating 1899 Hoffenheim in the last round, Liverpool qualified for the group stage and were drawn in Group E against Spartak Moscow, Sevilla and Maribor.
The draw for the round of 16 was held on 11 December 2017, 12: 00 CET, at the UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland.
The draw for the quarter - finals was held on 16 March 2018, 12: 00 CET, at the UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland.
The draw for the semi-finals was held on 13 April 2018, 12: 00 CET, at the UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland.
Includes all competitive matches.
Includes all competitive matches.
2018 Liverpool FC Players ' Awards, held at Anfield on 10 May 2018.
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what are three other names for makar sankranti | Makar Sankranti - wikipedia
Makar Sankranti, also known as Makara Sankrānti (Sanskrit: मकर सङ्क्रान्ति) or Maghi, is a festival day in the Hindu calendar, in reference to deity Surya (sun). It is observed each year in January. It marks the first day of sun 's transit into the Makara (Capricorn), marking the end of the month with the winter solstice and the start of longer days.
Makar Sankranti is one of the few ancient Indian festivals that has been observed according to solar cycles, while most festivals are set by the lunar cycle of the lunisolar Hindu calendar. Being a festival that celebrates the solar cycle, it almost always falls on the same Gregorian date every year (January 14), except in some years when the date shifts by a day for that year. The festivities associated with Makar Sankranti are known by various names such as Maghi (preceded by Lohri) by north Indian Hindus and Sikhs, Makara Sankranti (Pedda Pandaga) in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, Sukarat in central India, Magh Bihu by Assamese, and Pongal by Tamils.
Makar Sankranti is observed with social festivities such as colorful decorations, rural children going house to house, singing and asking for treats in some areas (or pocket money), melas (fairs), dances, kite flying, bonfires and feasts. The Magha Mela, according to Diana L. Eck (professor at Harvard University specializing in Indology), is mentioned in the Hindu epic (the Mahabharata), thus placing this festival to be around 5,000 years old. Many go to sacred rivers or lakes and bathe with thanksgiving to the sun. Every twelve years, the Hindus observe Makar Sankranti with one of the world 's largest mass pilgrimage, with an estimated 40 to 100 million people attending the event. At this event, they say a prayer to the sun and bathe at the Prayaga confluence of the River Ganga and River Yamuna at the Kumbha Mela, a tradition attributed to Adi Shankaracharya.
Makara Sankranti is set by the solar cycle of the Hindu lunisolar calendar, and is observed on a day which usually falls on 14 January of Gregorian calendar, but sometimes 15 January. It signifies the arrival of longer days. Makar Sankranti falls in the Hindu calendar solar month of Makara, and lunar month of Magha (the festival is also called Magha Sankranti or Magha festival in parts of India). It marks the end of the month with winter solstice for India and the longest night of the year, a month that is called Pausha in lunar calendar and Dhanu in the solar calendar in the Vikrami system. The festival celebrates the first month with consistently longer days.
There are two different systems to calculate the Makara Sankranti date: nirayana (without adjusting for precession of equinoxes, sidereal) and sayana (with adjustment, tropical). The January 14 date is based on the nirayana system, while the sayana system typically computes to about December 23, per most Siddhanta texts for Hindu calendars.
The festival is dedicated to the Hindu sun god, Surya. This significance of Surya is traceable to the Vedic texts, particularly the Gayatri Mantra, a sacred hymn of Hinduism found in its scripture named the Rigveda. The festival also marks the beginning of a six months auspicious period for Hindus known as Uttarayana period.
Makar Sankranti is regarded as important for spiritual practices and accordingly, people take a holy dip in rivers, especially Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri. The bathing is believed to result in merit or absolution of past sins. They also pray to the sun and thank for their successes and prosperity. A shared cultural practices found amongst Hindus of various parts of India is making sticky, bound sweets particularly from sesame (til) and a sugar base such as jaggery (gud, gur). This type of sweet is a symbolism for being together in peace and joyfulness, despite the uniqueness and differences between individuals. For most parts of India, this period is a part of early stages of the Rabi crop and agricultural cycle, where crops have been sown and the hard work in the fields is mostly over. The time thus signifies a period of socializing and families enjoying each other 's company, taking care of the cattle, and celebrating around bonfires, in Maharashtra the festival is celebrated by flying kites.
Makar Sankranti is an important pan-Indian solar festival, known by different names though observed on the same date, sometimes for multiple dates around the Makar Sankranti. It is known as Makara Sankranti in Karnataka, Pongal in Tamil Nadu, Pedda Panduga in Andhra Pradesh, Magh Bihu in Assam, Magha Mela in parts of central and north India, as Makar Sankranti in the west, and by other names.
Makara or Makar Sankranti is celebrated in many parts of Indian subcontinent with some regional variations. It is known by different names and celebrated with different customs in different parts of the region:
In other countries too the day is celebrated by Hindus, but under different names and in different ways.
It is celebrated differently across the Indian subcontinent. Many people take a dip in places like Ganga Sagar Prayag and pray to the Sun God (Surya). It is celebrated with pomp in southern parts of India as Sankranti in Karnataka (Pongal in Tamil Nadu), and in Punjab as Maghi.
Many melas or fairs are held on Makar Sankranti the most famous being the Kumbha Mela, held every 12 years at one of four holy locations, namely Haridwar, Prayag (Allahabad), Ujjain and Nashik. The Magha Mela (or mini-Kumbh Mela held annually at Prayag) and the Gangasagar Mela (held at the head of the Ganges River, where it flows into the Bay of Bengal). Makar Mela in Odisha. Tusu Mela also called as Tusu Porab is celebrated in many parts of Jharkhand and West Bengal. Poush Mela is an annual fair and festival that takes place in Santiniketan, in Birbhum District of West Bengal.
The festival, Sankranti (మకర సంక్రాంతి), is celebrated for four days in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana:
The day preceding Makara Sankranti is called Bhoghi (భోగి). This is when people discard old and derelict things and concentrate on new things causing change or transformation. At dawn, people light a bonfire with logs of wood, other solid fuels and wooden furniture that are no longer useful.
The second day is Makara Sankranti. People wear new clothes, pray to God, and make offerings of traditional food to ancestors who have died. They also make beautiful and ornate drawings and patterns on the ground with chalk or flour, called "Rangoli '' or "muggu '' in Telugu, in front of their homes. These drawings are decorated with flowers, colours and small, hand - pressed piles of cow dung, called "gobbemma '' (గొబ్బెమ్మ).
For this festival all families prepare Chakinalu, Nuvvula Appalu, Gare Appalu or Katte Appalu or karam appalu, Madugulu (Jantikalu), Bellam Appalu, kudumulu, Ariselu, Appalu (a sweet made of jaggery and rice flour) dappalam (a dish made with pumpkin and other vegetables) and make an offering to God.
On the third day, Kanuma (కనుమ) is celebrated. Kanuma is very intimate to the hearts of farmers because it is the day for praying and showcasing their cattle with honor. Cattle are the symbolic indication of prosperity. On the day after Makara Sankranti, the animal kingdom is remembered and, in particular, cows. Girls feed the animals, birds and fish as a symbol of sharing.
The fourth day is called Mukkanuma (ముక్కనుమ) which is popular among the non-vegetarians of the society. On this day, farmers offer prayers to the elements (like soil, rain, fire for helping the harvest) and the (village) goddesses with their gifts which sometimes (and these days mainly) include animals. People in Telangana and Coastal Andhra do not eat any meat (or fish) during the first three days of the festival and do so only on the day of Mukkanuma. Kanuma, Mukkanuma and the day following Mukkanuma call for celebrations with union of families, friends, relatives. People play with kites and the sky is filled with beautiful kites.
Another notable feature of the festival in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh is the Haridasu who goes early in the morning around with a colourfully dressed cow, singing songs of Lord Vishnu (Hari) hence the name Haridasu (servant of Hari). It is a custom that he should not talk to anyone and only sing songs of Lord Vishnu when he goes to everyone 's house.
Magh Bihu (মাঘ বিহু) (also called Bhogali Bihu (ভোগালী বিহু) (Bihu of eating foods and enjoyment) or Maghar Domahi (মাঘৰ দোমাহী) is a harvest festival celebrated in Assam, India, which marks the end of harvesting season in the month of Maagha (January -- February). It is the Assam celebration of Makar Sankranti, with feasting lasting for a week.
The festival is marked by feasts and bonfires. Young people erect makeshift huts, known as Meji and Bhelaghar, from bamboo, leaves and thatch, and in Bhelaghar they eat the food prepared for the feast, and then burn the huts the next morning. The celebrations also feature traditional Assamese games such as tekeli bhonga (pot - breaking) and buffalo fighting. Magh Bihu celebrations start on the last day of the previous month, the month of "Pooh '', usually the 29th of Pooh and usually the 14th of January, and is the only day of Magh Bihu in modern times (earlier, the festival would last for the whole month of Magh, and so the name Magh Bihu). The night before is "Uruka '' (28th of Pooh), when people gather around a bonfire, cook dinner, and make merry.
During Magh Bihu people of Assam make cakes of rice with various names such as Shunga Pitha, Til Pitha etc. and some other sweets of coconut called Laru or Laskara.
In Bihar and Jharkhand, the festival is celebrated on 14 -- 15 January.
On 14 January, it is celebrated as Makar Sankranti or Sakraat or Khichdi (in local dialects). As in other parts of country, people take baths in rivers and ponds and feast upon seasonal delicacies as a celebration of good harvest. The delicacies include chura, gur (jaggery), sweets made of til (sesame seeds) such as tilgul, tilwa, maska, etc., curd, milk and seasonal vegetables. Kite flying festivals are organised, albeit on a small scale.
On 15 January, it is celebrated as Makraat (in some parts of the state) when people relish special khichdi (dal - rice replete with cauliflower, peas and potatoes).
The festival is one of the most important. People start their day by worshiping and putting til (sesame seeds) into fire followed by eating "dahi - chuda '', a dish made of beaten rice (chuda or poha, in Hindi, or avalakki, in Kannada) served with a larger serving of dahi (curd), with cooked kohada (red pumpkin) that is prepared specially with sugar and salt but no water. The meal is generally accompanied by tilkut and lai (laddu made of til, chuda and rice). The festive meal is traditionally made by women in groups. Since the meal is heavy, lunch is generally skipped on the day and the time is, instead, spent on socializing and participating in kite flying festivals.
At night a special khichdi is made and served with its four traditional companions, "char yaar '' (four friends) -- chokha (roasted vegetable), papad, ghee and achaar. Since such a rich khichdi is generally made on this festival, the festival is often colloquially referred to as "Khichdi ''.
Kayastha community which have been building blocks of Delhi today and Other neighbouring rural communities like Yadavs, Jats which mainly belong to Haryana and Punjab consider Sakraat or Sankranti to be a main festival of the year. Churma of ghee, halwa and kheer are cooked specially in Jats and Yadavs homes on this day. One brother of every married woman visits her home with a gift of some warm clothing for her and her husband 's family. It is called "Sidha ''. Women used to give a gift to their in - laws, and this rituals called "Manana ''. The recipient will sit in a haweli (main palace where men sit together and share hookka). Women go to haweli to sing folk songs and give gifts.
Known as Sankrant in Goa and like in the rest of the country, people distribute sweets in the form of granules of sugar - coated till pulses among family members and friends, with the words, Till gull gheiat, godd uloiat, meaning Eat seasame and jaggery and sweeten your talk.
12 - day Haldi Kumkum festival begins on Makar Sankranti, married women celebrate the festival till Ratha Saptami. Married women visit each other 's homes where the women apply Halad (turmeric) and Kumkum (vermilion) to the foreheads of other women and put flowers in their hair, and offer them household gifts. Newly married women offer five sunghat or small clay pots with black beaded threads tied around them, to the deity. These pots are filled with newly harvested food grains and are offered with betel leaves and areca nut. Its observance takes place on a rather subdued note, unlike major festivals of the region like Ganesh chaturthi.
Uttarayan, as Makar Sankranti is called in Gujarati, is a major festival in the state of Gujarat which lasts for two days.
Gujarati people keenly await this festival to fly kites, called ' patang '. Kites for Uttarayan are made of special light - weight paper and bamboo and are mostly rhombus shaped with central spine and a single bow. The string often contains abrasives to cut down other people 's kites.
In Gujarat, from December through to Makar Sankranti, people start enjoying Uttarayan. Undhiyu (spicy, baked mix of winter vegetables) and chikkis (made from til (sesame seeds), peanuts and jaggery) are the special festival recipes savoured on this day. The Hindu Sindhi community in western regions of India, that is also found in southeastern parts of Pakistan, celebrate Makar Sankranti as Tirmoori. On this day, parents sending sweet dishes to their daughters.
In the major cities of Ahmedabad, Surat, Vadodara, Rajkot, and Jamnagar the skies appear filled with thousands upon thousands of kites as people enjoy two full days of Uttarayan on their terraces.
When people cut any kites they yell words like "kaypo chhe '', "e lapet '', "jaay jaay '', "phirki vet phirki '' and "lapet lapet '' in Gujarati.
In Shimla District of Himachal Pradesh, Makar Sankranti is known as Magha Saaji. Saaji is the Pahari word for Sakranti, start of the new month. Hence this day marks the start of the month of Magha.
According to Hindu religious texts, on the day of Uttarayani the sun enters the zodiac sign of Makara (Capricorn), i.e., from this day onwards the sun becomes ' Uttarayan ' or it starts moving to the north. It is said that from this day, which signals a change of season, the migratory birds start returning to the hills. On Magha Saaja people wake up early in the morning and take ceremonial dips and shower in the springs or baolis. In the daytime people visit their neighbours and together enjoy khichdi with ghee and chaas and give it in charity at temples. Festival culminates with singing and Naati (folk dance).
This is the Suggi (ಸುಗ್ಗಿ) or harvest festival for farmers of Karnataka. On this auspicious day, girls wear new clothes to visit near and dear ones with a Sankranti offering in a plate and exchange the same with other families. This ritual is called "Ellu Birodhu. '' Here the plate would normally contain "Ellu '' (white sesame seeds) mixed with fried groundnuts, neatly cut dry coconut and fine cut bella (jaggery). The mixture is called "Ellu - Bella '' (ಎಳ್ಳು ಬೆಲ್ಲ). The plate contains shaped sugar candy moulds (Sakkare Acchu, ಸಕ್ಕರೆ ಅಚ್ಚು) with a piece of sugarcane. There is a saying in Kannada "ellu bella thindu olle maathadi '' that translates to ' eat the mixture of sesame seeds and jaggery and speak only good. ' This festival signifies the harvest of the season, since sugarcane is predominant in these parts. Ellu Bella, Ellu Unde, bananas, sugarcane, red berries, haldi and kumkum and small gift items useful in everyday lives are often exchanged among women in Karnataka.
In some parts of Karnataka, a newly married woman is required to give away bananas for five years to married women (muthaidhe / sumangali) from the first year of her marriage and increase the number of bananas in multiples of five. There is also a tradition of some households giving away red berries "Yalchi Kai '' with the above. In north Karnataka, kite flying with community members is a tradition. Drawing rangoli in groups is another popular event among women during Sankranti.
An important ritual is display of cows and bulls in colourful costumes in an open field. Cows are decorated for the occasion and taken on a procession. They are also made to cross a fire. This ritual is common in rural Karnataka and is called "Kichchu Haayisuvudu. ''
Makar Sankranti is celebrated in Kerala at Sabarimala where the Makara Jyothi is visible followed by the Makaravilakku celebrations.
In the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand, Makar Sankranti is celebrated with great gusto. The Uttarayani fair is held in the month of January every year in Bageshwar The religious ritual of the fair consists in bathing before daybreak at the confluence of Saryu and Gomati. After Bathing, an offering of water to Lord Shiva inside the Bagnath Temple is essential. Those who are more religiously disposed, continue this practice for three days in succession, which is known as "Trimaghi ''.
According to Indian religious texts, on the day of Uttarayani also called Ghughuti (घुघुति) in Kumaon, the sun enters the Zodiacal sign of ' Makara ' (Capricon), i.e. from this day onwards the sun becomes ' Uttarayan ' or it starts moving to the north. It is said that from this day, which signals a change of season, the migratory birds start returning to the hills. On Makar Sankranti people give Khichadi (a mixture of pulses and rice) in charity, take ceremonial dips in holy rivers, participate in the Uttarayani fairs and celebrate the festival of Ghughutia or Kale Kauva. During the festival of Kale Kauva (literal translation ' black crow ') people make sweetmeats out of sweetened flour (flour and gur) deep fried in ghee, shape them in shapes such as drums, pomegranates, knives, and swords. These are fed to crows and other birds.
In Maharashtra on Makar Sankranti (मकर संक्रान्ति) day people exchange multicoloured halwa (sugar granules coated in sugar syrup) and til - gul laadoo (sweetmeats made from sesame seeds and jaggery). Gulachi poli / puran poli (गुळाची पोळी / पुरण पोळी) (flat bread stuffed with soft / shredded jaggery mixed with toasted, ground til (white sesame seeds)) and some gram flour, which has been toasted to golden in pure ghee, are offered for lunch. While exchanging til - gul as tokens of goodwill people greet each other with the words "तिळगुळ घ्या, आणि गोड - गोड बोला / til - gul ghyaa, aani goad - goad bolaa '' meaning ' Accept this til - gul (sweet) and utter sweet words '. The underlying thought in the exchange of til - gul is to forget the past ill - feelings and hostilities and resolve to speak sweetly and remain friends.
The festival is known as Makar Sankranti in Odisha where people prepare makar chaula (Odia: ମକର ଚାଉଳ): uncooked newly harvested rice, banana, coconut, jaggery, sesame, rasagola, Khai / Liaa and chhena puddings for naivedya to gods and goddesses. The withdrawing winter entails a change in food habits and intake of nourishing and rich food. Therefore, this festival holds traditional cultural significance. It is astronomically important for devotees who worship the sun god at the great Konark temple with fervour and enthusiasm as the sun starts its annual swing northwards. According to various Indian calendars, the Sun 's movement changes and the days from this day onwards become lengthier and warmer and so the Sun - God is worshiped on this day as a great benefactor. Many individuals at the start of the day perform a ritual bath while fasting. Makar Mela (Fun fair) is observed at Dhabaleswar in Cuttack, Hatakeshwar at Atri in Khordha, Makara Muni temple in Balasore and near deities in each district of Odisha. In Puri special rituals are carried out at the temple of Lord Jagannath. In Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Kalahandi, Koraput and Sundargarh where the tribal population is greater, the festival is celebrated with great joy. They celebrate this festival with great enthusiasm, singing, dancing and generally having an enjoyable time. This Makara Sankranti celebration is next to the Odia traditional new year Maha Vishuva Sankranti which falls in mid April. Tribal groups celebrate with traditional dancing, eating their particular dishes sitting together, and by lighting bonfires.
It is the only Indian festival celebrated on a fixed day of the Gregorian calendar. Besides the usual rituals, people of Orissa, especially Western Orissa, reaffirm the strength of the bond of friendship with their best friends during this occasion. The practice is called ' Makar Basma '. After a man binds himself with one of his friends in the shackles of friendship during Makar Sankranti, afterwards he addresses the other as ' Maharshad ' or ' Marsad '; if two women tie the friendship lace on each other 's wrist, they call each other ' Makara '. They do n't utter each other 's name. This goes on for one full year till the next Makar Sankranti. In Eastern Orissa, on many occasions, two friends feed each other ' Mahaprasad ', the offering made in the famous Jagannath temple of Puri, and continue the friendship for at least one year. Orissa Post talks to some women about their experiences when they tied the friendship knot on Makar Sankranti.
In Punjab, Makar Sankranti is celebrated as Maghi which is a religious and cultural festival. Bathing in a river in the early hours on Maghi is important. Hindus light lamps with sesame oil as this is supposed to give prosperity and drive away all sins. A major mela is held at Sri Muktsar Sahib on Maghi which commemorates a historical event in Sikh history.
Culturally, people dance their famous "bhangra ''. They then sit down and eat the sumptuous food that is specially prepared for the occasion. It is traditional to eat "kheer '', rice cooked in milk and sugarcane juice. It is also traditional to consume khichdi and jaggery. December and January are the coldest months of the year in the Punjab. Maghi represents the change of the season to warmer temperatures and increase in daylight. Maghi fairs are held in many places.
"Makar Sankrati '' or "Sankrat '' in the Rajasthani language is one of the major festivals in the state of Rajasthan. The day is celebrated with special Rajasthani delicacies and sweets such as pheeni (either with sweet milk or sugar syrup dipped), til - paati, gajak, kheer, ghevar, pakodi, puwa, and til - laddoo.
Specially, the women of this region observe a ritual in which they give any type of object (related to household, make - up or food) to 13 married women. The first Sankranti experienced by a married woman is of significance as she is invited by her parents and brothers to their houses with her husband for a big feast. People invite friends and relatives (specially their sisters and daughters) to their home for special festival meals (called as "Sankrant Bhoj ''). People give out many kind of small gifts such as til - gud (jaggery), fruits, dry khichadi, etc. to Brahmins or the needy ones.
Kite flying is traditionally observed as a part of this festival. On this occasion the sky in Jaipur and Hadoti regions is filled with kites, and youngsters engage in contests trying to cut each other 's strings.
It is a four - day festival in Tamil Nadu:
The festival is celebrated four days from the last day of the Tamil month Maargazhi to the third day of the Tamil month Thai.
The first day of festival is Bhogi (போகி). It is celebrated on the last day of Margazshi by throwing away and destroying old clothes and materials, by setting them on fire, marking the end of the old and the emergence of the new. In villages there will be a simple ceremony of "Kappu Kattu '' (kappu means secure) will be done. The ' neem ' leaves are kept along the walls and roof of the houses. This is to eliminate evil forces.
The second day of festival is Thai Pongal or simply Pongal. It is the main day of the festival, falling on the first day of the Tamil month Thai which starts with the solar cycle when sun starts moving through the summer solstice. It is celebrated by boiling rice with fresh milk and jaggery in new pots, which are later topped with brown sugar, cashew nuts and raisins early in the morning and allowing it to boil over the vessel. This tradition gives Pongal its name. The moment the rice boils over and bubbles out of the vessel, the tradition is to shout "பொங்கலோ பொங்கல் (Ponggalo Ponggal)! '' and blow the sangu (a conch), a custom practised to announce it was going to be a year blessed with good tidings. Then new boiled rice is offered to the Sun god during sunrise, as a prayer which symbolises thanks to the sun for providing prosperity. It is later served to the people in the house for the ceremony. People prepare savouries and sweets such as vadai, murukku, payasam and visit each other and exchange greetings.
The third day of festival is Maattu Pongal (மாட்டுப் பொங்கல்). It is for offering thanks to cattle, as they help farmers in agriculture. On this day the cattle are decorated with paint, flowers and bells. They are allowed to roam free and fed sweet rice and sugar cane. Some people decorate the horns with gold or other metallic covers. In some places, Jallikattu, or taming the wild bull contest, is the main event of this day and this is mostly seen in the villages.
The fourth day of the festival is Kaanum Pongal (காணும் பொங்கல்: the word kaanum means "to view ''). During this day people visit their relatives, friends to enjoy the festive season. It is a day to thank relatives and friends for their support in the harvest. It started as a farmers festival, called as Uzhavar Thirunaal in Tamil. Kolam (கோலம்) decorations are made in front of the house during Thai Pongal festival.
The festival is known as Kicheri in Uttar Pradesh and involves ritual bathing. Over two million people gather at their respective sacred places for this holy bathing such as Allahabad and Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh and Haridwar in Uttarakhand. If they can not go in river then they bathe at home. There is a compulsion to bathe in the morning while fasting; first they bathe then they eat sweets such as til ladoo and gud laddo (known as tillava in Bhojpuri). At some places new clothes are worn on this day.
Kite flying is an inevitable part of the festival in Uttar Pradesh, as with many states of India such as Gujarat and Maharashtra. Like other places in India, the references to sweets, til (sesame seeds) and gud (jaggery) are found in the songs sung on this day:
Meethe Gur me mil gaya Til, Udi Patang aur khil gaye Dil, Jeevan me bani rahe Sukh aur Shanti, Mubarak ho aapko Makar - Sankranti.
In West Bengal, Sankranti, also known as Poush Sankranti named after the Bengali month in which it falls (last date of that month), is celebrated as a harvest festival Poush Parbon (Bengali: পৌষ পার্বণ). (It falls on 14 January on the Western calendar.) The freshly harvested paddy and the date palm syrup in the form of Khejurer Gur (Bengali: খেজুরের গুড়) and Patali (Bengali: পাটালি) is used in the preparation of a variety of traditional Bengali sweets made with rice flour, coconut, milk and ' khejurer gur ' (date palm jaggery) and known as ' Pitha ' (Bengali: পিঠে). All sections of society participate in a three - day festival that begins on the day before Sankranti and ends on the day after. The Goddess Lakshmi is usually worshipped on the day of Sankranti.
In the Himalayan regions of Darjeeling, the festival is as known as Magey Sakrati. It is distinctly associated with the worship of Lord Shiva. Traditionally, people bathe at sunrise and then commence their pooja. Elsewhere, many people take a dip in places like Ganga Sagar (the point where the river Ganges meets the Bay of Bengal). Ganga Sagar falls in West Bengal.
In the day of Makar Sankranti Hindu God Dharma is worshiped. And khichurhi or rice is offered to the God as Bhog (ভোগ). The day after Makar Sankranti the first day in the month Magh from Bengali calendar The Goddess Laxmi devi is worshiped. It is called Baharlaxmi Puja as the idol is worshiped in an open place.
Shakrain is an annual celebration of winter in Bangladesh, observed with the flying of kites.
Maghe Sankranti (Nepali and Maithili: माघे सङ्क्रान्ति, Nepal Bhasa: घ्यःचाकु संल्हु) is a Nepalese festival observed on the first of Magh in the Bikram Samwat Hindu Solar Nepali calendar (about 14 January), bringing an end to the ill - omened month of Poush when all religious ceremonies are forbidden. On this day, the sun is believed to leave its southernmost position and begin its northward journey.
Maghe Sankranti is observed by Nepalis Hindu by bathing at the confluence of rivers and praying to the sun. The popular bathing sites include Sankhamul on the Bagmati river near Patan; in the Gandaki / Narayani river basin at Triveni near the Indian border; Devghat near Chitwan Valley and Ridi on the Kaligandaki; and in the Koshi River basin at Dolalghat on the Sun Koshi. On Maghe Sankranti Cha puja and on Bhadra Purnima, some Nepalis worship perform Nara puja for the community 's protection from evil. Festive foods like laddoo, ghee and sweet potatoes are distributed to relatives and friends. The mother of each household wishes good health to all family members.
On this festive day, Sindhi parents send ladoos and chiki (Laaee) made of sesame seeds to their married daughters. The Sindhi community in India too celebrate Makar Sankranti as Tirmoori which involves parents sending sweet dishes to their daughters.
On this day, the Sri Lanka Tamil farmers honor the Sun God Suriyapakaran. This happens when the sun enters the zodiac sign of Capricorn (Makara). The Thai Pongal festival is celebrated in mid-January, or the Tamil month of Thai, to coincide with the rice harvest.
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where was in the heart of the sea filmed | In the Heart of the Sea (film) - Wikipedia
In the Heart of the Sea is a 2015 adventure - drama film based on Nathaniel Philbrick 's non-fiction book of the same name, about the sinking of the American whaling ship Essex in 1820, an event that inspired the novel Moby - Dick. An international co-production between the United States and Spain, it was directed and produced by Ron Howard and written by Charles Leavitt. The film stars Chris Hemsworth, Benjamin Walker, Cillian Murphy, Tom Holland, Ben Whishaw and Brendan Gleeson.
It premiered in New York City on December 7, 2015 and was released in cinemas in the United States on December 11, 2015 by Warner Bros. Pictures. In the Heart of the Sea received mixed reviews from critics, and grossed $93 million against a $100 million budget.
In 1850, author Herman Melville visits innkeeper Thomas Nickerson, the last survivor of the sinking of the whaleship Essex, offering money in return for his story. Nickerson initially refuses, but finally agrees when his wife intervenes.
The story turns to 1820: a whaling company in Nantucket has refitted the Essex to participate in the lucrative whale oil trade, and 14 - year - old Nickerson signs on as a cabin boy. The owners hire veteran whaler Owen Chase as first mate, though he is disappointed not to receive a captain 's commission. The captain is George Pollard, an inexperienced mariner from an established whaling family who envies Chase 's skill and popularity. Chase and Pollard clash, leading Pollard to sail into a storm against Chase 's advice. The two agree to put their differences aside, rather than risking their reputations by returning to port without profit, and soon, the crew kills their first bull sperm whale.
Three months pass with no further successes, and Pollard realizes that the Atlantic Ocean holds no sighting of whales. The Essex sails past Cape Horn to the Pacific, hoping for better luck in catching one. In Atacames, Ecuador, the officers meet a Spanish captain who tells them his crew found the bountiful "Offshore Grounds '' 2,000 miles to the west, but claims that a vengeful "white whale '' destroyed his ship, killing six of his men. Denying the story as a myth, Pollard and Chase lead the expedition west. They find the undisturbed grounds, but when they launch the whaling boats, the white whale, a massive albino bull sperm whale attacks, damaging the boats and turning on the ship.
Chase harpoons it from the Essex 's deck, but the whale staves the ship in half, killing two men. The crew abandons the sinking Essex in the three intact whaling boats, and must sail hundreds of miles to shore with very limited supplies. The whale follows and attacks again, but they escape to the tiny Henderson Island. While gathering food, Chase discovers the corpses of earlier castaways, and concludes that the crew will soon die on the island before another ship passes by. Four men decide to stay, while the rest set sail again on the boats with hopes to find land. Soon after, one of the men dies, and the remaining crew reluctantly decide to cannibalize him.
The older Nickerson is overcome by emotion and stops his story; however, when his wife comforts him, he feels encouraged enough to finish. Back in the 1820s, the three boats separate and one is lost. The other two further resort to cannibalism to survive, with Pollard 's cousin Henry Coffin sacrificing himself.
The whale returns, and Chase gets into position for a final attack. The whale breaches for a moment, allowing Chase to observe a portion of his previously thrown harpoon still embedded in the whale 's skull. Chase hesitates, and stares into the whale 's left eye. He decides not to attack. Following this encounter, the whale swims away peacefully, and is never seen again.
A passing ship rescues Pollard 's boat, but Chase 's boat continues to drift with no food or water. Finally, with the survivors on the verge of death, they reach land. The survivors return to Nantucket and finally reunite with their distraught families. The ship 's owners ask Pollard and Chase to cover up the story to protect the industry, but after Chase refuses to go along, Pollard reveals the truth in the inquiry.
Nickerson relates that Chase continued sailing the seas and became a merchant captain, while Pollard led another expedition to kill the whale, but the ship wrecked and he was forced to retire. Melville departs, to compose his novel, Moby - Dick, beginning by writing its first line: "Call me Ishmael ''.
Chris Hemsworth was cast to play the lead, Owen Chase, in June 2012. Tom Holland won the role of young Nickerson in April 2013. Cillian Murphy signed on as Matthew Joy in June. Before Benjamin Walker was set to play the Captain, other actors that were considered included Benedict Cumberbatch, Tom Hiddleston, and Henry Cavill. The film was in development back in 2000, with Barry Levinson set to direct for Miramax Films.
Principal photography began in September 2013 in London and at Leavesden Studios in Hertfordshire, England. It was also shot on location on the island of La Gomera (plus some scenes on Lanzarote) in the Canary Islands, Spain. For the storm scenes, the production team built a water tank at Leavesden Studios, where a deck was built on top of a gimbal to mimic the pitch of a storm. To get the right effect, 500 gallons of icy water were poured from cannons.
During one point of filming, the cast and crew were forced to retreat to their hotel by a storm off the Canary Islands, which turned into a rare flash flood. The production shut down for a day and a half, expanding the shoot to 73 days, exactly as filmmakers expected.
In an interview with Jimmy Kimmel, Hemsworth stated that to prepare for the role of starving sailors, the cast were on a diet of 500 -- 600 calories a day to lose weight. Hemsworth also had to drop his weight from 215 to 175 pounds to play Owen, saying that In the Heart of the Sea is "physically and emotionally the hardest movie that I 've been a part of... Losing the weight to this length, I just never want to do it again, but it had such an emotional effect on us... in some small way, we felt like we were doing what these men went through justice. ''
Roque Baños composed the film score.
For its release in the United States and Canada, the film was originally scheduled for March 13, 2015, but was later pushed back to December 11, in order to convert the film into 3D, as well as giving it higher chances of being an awards season contender. Internationally, Warner Bros. decided to open the film early overseas -- a week before its United States December 11 opening -- to avoid competition with Star Wars: The Force Awakens, which began its theatrical overseas from December 16. The film was released in the Dolby Vision format in Dolby Cinema in North America.
In the Heart of the Sea was released on DVD, Blu - ray & Blu - ray 3D on March 8, 2016. It was released on 4K Ultra HD Blu - ray on May 17, 2016.
In the Heart of the Sea was one of two flops released by Warner Bros in 2015, the other being Pan. It grossed $25 million in North America and $68.9 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $93.9 million, against a production budget of $100 million.
In the United States and Canada, the film opened on December 11, 2015 in 3,103 theaters, including a number of 3D and IMAX theaters. Box Office Mojo projected an opening weekend gross of $18 million, noting that the film 's only competition was with the holdover of The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 2 (in its fourth weekend of play). The film earned $3.8 million on its opening day, including $575,000 from its early Thursday night showings. In its opening weekend, it earned $11.1 million, finishing below expectations and narrowly losing to Mockingjay -- Part 2, which earned $11.4 million. Many box office analysts said the low opening was because audiences ' enthusiasm was focused on the arrival of Star Wars: The Force Awakens the following week. Regarding the film 's disappointing opening, Jeff Goldstein, Warner Bros. distribution executive vice president said, "We stand behind Ron and his vision for the story, we believe in him. He 's a terrific filmmaker. But some movies work and unfortunately some movies do n't. '' In its third weekend the film was pulled from 72.3 % of theaters (3,103 to 685), the 4th biggest drop in history at the time.
In the Heart of the Sea was released internationally a week prior to its United States opening in 38 markets and grossed a total of $18.5 million with 3.3 million admissions on over 9,500 screens. 50 % of the plays were in 3D with 156 IMAX theaters which accounted for 7 % of the total opening. It went No. 1 in Russia and the CIS ($2 million), Italy ($1.7 million) and several other Asian markets such as Thailand and Taiwan and No. 2 in South Korea with $2.6 million, behind local hit Inside Men, Mexico with $1.9 million, behind The Good Dinosaur and Brazil with $1.3 million, behind The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 2.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 42 % based on 214 reviews, with an average rating of 5.5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "The admirably old - fashioned In the Heart of the Sea boasts thoughtful storytelling to match its visual panache, even if it ca n't claim the depth or epic sweep to which it so clearly aspires. '' Another review aggregator, Metacritic gives it an average score of 47 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. CinemaScore reports that mainstream audiences gave the film an average grade of "B + '', on an A+ to F scale.
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where is red dog mine located in alaska | Red Dog mine, Alaska - wikipedia
Red Dog Mine is a census - designated place (CDP) in the Northwest Arctic Borough of the U.S. state of Alaska. The population was 309 at the 2010 census.
The Red Dog mine is the only economic activity and the mine is the only inhabited site within the Red Dog Mine CDP.
The Red Dog Mine CDP derives its name from the Red Dog mine, the world 's largest source for zinc and a significant source of lead. Construction of the Red Dog mine began in 1987, after exploration revealed that the area was rich in metals.
The Red Dog ore body is one of the world 's most significant zinc deposits, containing a number of ore bodies. The mine is located in Alaska 's Northwest Arctic Borough, in the DeLong Mountains of the western Brooks Range, 90 miles north of Kotzebue and 55 miles from the Chukchi Sea.
At the end of 2007, the site 's proven and probable reserves plus indicated resources amounted to 77.5 million tons, containing 17.5 percent zinc and 4.8 percent lead, as well as 2.8 ounces per ton of silver. In addition, Red Dog also contains 36.6 million tons of inferred resources. The entire deposit lies inside a relatively small area (one mile by one - half mile). The deposit is essentially flat - lying at the surface, making open pit mining the extraction method of choice. (1)
Red Dog Mine is located at 68 ° 04 ′ 19 '' N 162 ° 52 ′ 34 '' W / 68.071989 ° N 162.876044 ° W / 68.071989; - 162.876044. It is in the DeLong Mountains in the remote western Brooks Range about 90 miles (140 km) north of Kotzebue and 55 miles (89 km) from the Chukchi Sea.
Red Dog Mine is very isolated. It is located within the Northwest Arctic Borough, an area approximately the size of Indiana with only 11 communities, none connected by roads, with a total population of only 7,208 people at the 2000 census. The nearest of those communities are Noatak, population 428, roughly 50 miles (80 km) south and Kivalina, population 377, roughly 60 miles (100 km) west at the 2000 census.
Although native populations have historically used the nearby area for seasonal food - gathering, there are no permanent residents at the mine or the port site. The mine 's workforce consists of about 460 employees and contractors, of which somewhat more than half will be on - site at any given time. At the mine, everyone stays in the single large housing unit, tucked in among the process buildings near the edge of the open pit, while a small portion of the work force stays at the port site.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 66.9 square miles (173 km), all land.
As of the census of 2000, there were 32 people, 0 households, and 0 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 0.5 people per square mile (0.2 / km2). There were 0 housing units. The racial makeup of the CDP was 31.25 % White, 65.62 % Native American, and 3.12 % from two or more races.
In the CDP, the age distribution of the population shows 18.8 % from 18 to 24, 62.5 % from 25 to 44, and 18.8 % from 45 to 64. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 700.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 700.0 males.
The median income for both males and females in the CDP was $0. The per capita income for the CDP was $34,438. 37.9 % of the population were living below the poverty line.
A 52 - mile (84 km) long haul road connects the mine to the mine 's port site on the Chukchi Sea. The region is accessible only by air, served by the Red Dog Airport, except during the 100 - day shipping season. Mine workers from remote villages in the region are ferried to the mine on small aircraft. Alaska Airlines is contracted by the mine to fly other mine workers out of Anchorage.
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the weeknd earned it fifty shades of grey | Earned It - Wikipedia
"Earned It '', alternatively titled "Earned It (Fifty Shades of Grey) '', is a song by Canadian singer The Weeknd. The song was released as the lead single from the soundtrack to the 2015 film Fifty Shades of Grey and was included on The Weeknd 's second studio album Beauty Behind the Madness.
"Earned It '' peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming The Weeknd 's first top five single. The song 's popularity made Fifty Shades of Grey the latest soundtrack to generate concurrent top - ten singles with Ellie Goulding 's "Love Me like You Do '', which also peaked at number three. Its music video was directed by the film 's director Sam Taylor - Johnson, features the film 's lead actress Dakota Johnson, and it features clips of the film and the same BDSM theme. The song was nominated for Best Original Song at the 88th Academy Awards and won the Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance at the 58th Annual Grammy Awards.
The Weeknd was involved in the project very early. Tom Mackay, a manager at Republic Records, explained: "He worked on a number of songs for a number of scenes. Some were working and some were n't, but he just kept at it, and kept at it, and kept at it. In the end, he wrote ' Earned It ' and it 's the biggest song of his career to date. It 's the only song that 's in the movie twice. '' Director Sam Taylor - Johnson said The Weeknd 's voice is instantly seductive, which fit the film perfectly. The singer agreed saying the film and his music is like "a match made in heaven. '' An alternate version of the single, with a new slightly long intro, was later included in The Weeknd 's album Beauty Behind the Madness (2015).
"Earned It '' is a chamber pop and R&B song. It is written in the key of D minor with a slow tempo of 40 beats per minute (Largo) in 6 8 time. There is an alternation between the chords Gm7 and Dm7, and Tesfaye 's vocals span two octaves from D to D.
Rolling Stone ranked "Earned It '' at number 39 on its year - end list to find the 50 best songs of 2015; The Weeknd appears an additional two times on this list with his following singles, "The Hills '' and "Ca n't Feel My Face ''.
The song won the Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance at the 58th Annual Grammy Awards, while also being nominated for Best R&B Song, and Best Song Written for Visual Media. The song also received a nomination for Best Original Song at the 88th Academy Awards.
In The Weeknd 's native Canada, "Earned It '' peaked at number eight on the Canadian Hot 100. "Earned It '' peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100, the second single from the Fifty Shades of Grey soundtrack to enter the top 10, after Ellie Goulding 's "Love Me like You Do '', which also peaked at number three. It became The Weeknd 's second top 10 hit, after his collaboration with Ariana Grande on the number seven peaking hit, "Love Me Harder '' and his highest - selling song on the chart. The song has also been a commercial success overseas, reaching the top ten in 10 other countries, including the United Kingdom and New Zealand, while attaining a top twenty position in countries that include Australia, Germany, and Ireland.
The music video, directed by the film 's director Sam Taylor - Johnson, was shot at the Palace Theater in Los Angeles. It was released on Vevo and YouTube on 21 January 2015, and features the film 's leading star Dakota Johnson. It includes the BDSM theme as seen in the film.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Since May 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on - demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads.
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aretha franklin what you see is what you sweat | What You See Is What You Sweat - wikipedia
What You See Is What You Sweat is the thirty - third studio album by American singer Aretha Franklin, released on June 25, 1991, by Arista Records. It peaked at # 153 on Billboard 's album chart, dropping off after seven weeks. This was Aretha 's first new release in the Nielsen SoundScan era. According to them, this out - of - print disc sold a total of 180,139 copies in the USA.
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what type of warfare was going on in the battle of britain | Battle of Britain - wikipedia
1,542 aircrew killed 422 aircrew wounded 1,744 aircraft destroyed
41,480 civilians killed (including 16,775 women and 5,184 children) Total: 90,000 civilian casualties
Pacific War
Mediterranean and Middle East
Other campaigns
Contemporaneous wars
1939
1940
1942 -- 1943
1944 -- 1945
Strategic campaigns
The Battle of Britain (German: Luftschlacht um England, literally "The Air Battle for England '') was a military campaign of the Second World War, in which the Royal Air Force (RAF) defended the United Kingdom (UK) against large - scale attacks by Nazi Germany 's air force, the Luftwaffe. It has been described as the first major military campaign fought entirely by air forces. The British officially recognise the battle 's duration as being from 10 July until 31 October 1940, which overlaps the period of large - scale night attacks known as the Blitz, that lasted from 7 September 1940 to 11 May 1941. German historians do not accept this subdivision and regard the battle as a single campaign lasting from July 1940 to June 1941, including the Blitz.
The primary objective of the German forces was to compel Britain to agree to a negotiated peace settlement. In July 1940 the air and sea blockade began, with the Luftwaffe mainly targeting coastal - shipping convoys, ports and shipping centres, such as Portsmouth. On 1 August, the Luftwaffe was directed to achieve air superiority over the RAF with the aim of incapacitating RAF Fighter Command; 12 days later, it shifted the attacks to RAF airfields and infrastructure. As the battle progressed, the Luftwaffe also targeted factories involved in aircraft production and strategic infrastructure. Eventually it employed terror bombing on areas of political significance and on civilians.
The Germans had rapidly overwhelmed France and the Low Countries, leaving Britain to face the threat of invasion by sea. The German high command knew the difficulties of a seaborne attack and its impracticality while the Royal Navy controlled the English Channel and the North Sea. On 16 July, Adolf Hitler ordered the preparation of Operation Sea Lion as a potential amphibious and airborne assault on Britain, to follow once the Luftwaffe had air superiority over the UK. In September, RAF Bomber Command night raids disrupted the German preparation of converted barges, and the Luftwaffe 's failure to overwhelm the RAF forced Hitler to postpone and eventually cancel Operation Sea Lion. Germany proved unable to sustain daylight raids, but their continued night - bombing operations on Britain became known as the Blitz.
Historian Stephen Bungay cited Germany 's failure to destroy Britain 's air defences to force an armistice (or even outright surrender) as the first major German defeat in World War II and a crucial turning point in the conflict. The Battle of Britain takes its name from a speech by Winston Churchill to the House of Commons on 18 June: "What General Weygand has called The Battle of France is over. The Battle of Britain is about to begin. ''
Strategic bombing during World War I introduced air attacks intended to panic civilian targets and led in 1918 to the amalgamation of British army and navy air services into the Royal Air Force (RAF). Its first Chief of the Air Staff Hugh Trenchard was among the military strategists in the 1920s like Giulio Douhet who saw air warfare as a new way to overcome the stalemate of trench warfare. Interception was nearly impossible with fighter planes no faster than bombers. Their view (expressed vividly in 1932) was that the bomber will always get through, and the only defence was a deterrent bomber force capable of matching retaliation. Predictions were made that a bomber offensive would quickly cause thousands of deaths and civilian hysteria leading to capitulation, but widespread pacifism contributed to a reluctance to provide resources.
Germany was forbidden to have a military air force by the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, but developed air crew training in civilian and sport flying. Following a 1923 memorandum, the Deutsche Luft Hansa airline developed designs for aircraft which could carry passengers and freight, and also be readily adapted into bombers, including the Junkers Ju 52. In 1926 the secret Lipetsk fighter - pilot school began operating. Erhard Milch organised rapid expansion, and following the 1933 Nazi seizure of power his subordinate Robert Knauss formulated a deterrence theory incorporating Douhet 's ideas and Tirpitz 's "risk theory '', which proposed a fleet of heavy bombers to deter a preventive attack by France and Poland before Germany could fully rearm. A 1933 -- 34 war game indicated a need for fighters and anti-aircraft protection as well as bombers. On 1 March 1935 the Luftwaffe was formally announced, with Walther Wever as Chief of Staff. The 1935 Luftwaffe doctrine for "Conduct of the Air War '' (Die Luftkriegführung) set air power within the overall military strategy, with critical tasks of attaining (local and temporary) air superiority and providing battlefield support for army and naval forces. Strategic bombing of industries and transport could be decisive longer term options, dependent on opportunity or preparations by the army and navy, to overcome a stalemate or used when only destruction of the enemy 's economy would be conclusive. The list excluded bombing civilians to destroy homes or undermine morale, as that was considered a waste of strategic effort, but the doctrine allowed revenge attacks if German civilians were bombed. A revised edition was issued in 1940, and the continuing central principle of Luftwaffe doctrine was that destruction of enemy armed forces was of primary importance.
The RAF responded to Luftwaffe developments with its 1934 Expansion Plan A rearmament scheme, and in 1936 it was restructured into Bomber Command, Coastal Command, Training Command and Fighter Command. The latter was under Hugh Dowding, who opposed the doctrine that bombers were unstoppable: the invention of radar at that time could allow early detection, and prototype monoplane fighters were significantly faster. Priorities were disputed, but in December 1937 the Minister in charge of defence coordination Sir Thomas Inskip decided in Dowding 's favour, that "The role of our air force is not an early knock - out blow '' but rather was "to prevent the Germans from knocking us out '' and fighter squadrons were just as necessary as bomber squadrons.
In the Spanish Civil War, the Luftwaffe in the Condor Legion tried out air fighting tactics and their new aeroplanes. Wolfram von Richthofen became an exponent of air power providing ground support to other services. The difficulty of accurately hitting targets prompted Ernst Udet to require that all new bombers had to be dive bombers, and led to the development of the Knickebein system for night time navigation. Priority was given to producing large numbers of smaller aeroplanes, and plans for a long range four engined strategic bomber were delayed.
The early stages of World War II saw successful German invasions on the continent aided decisively by the air power of the Luftwaffe, which was able to establish tactical air superiority with great efficiency. The speed with which German forces defeated most of the defending armies in Norway in early 1940 created a significant political crisis in Britain. In early May 1940, the Norway Debate questioned the fitness for office of the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain. On 10 May, the same day Winston Churchill became British Prime Minister, the Germans initiated the Battle of France with an aggressive invasion of French territory. RAF Fighter Command was desperately short of trained pilots and aircraft, but despite the objections of its commander Hugh Dowding that the diversion of his forces would leave home defences under - strength, Churchill sent fighter squadrons, the Air Component of the British Expeditionary Force, to support operations in France, where the RAF suffered heavy losses.
After the evacuation of British and French soldiers from Dunkirk and the French surrender on 22 June 1940, Hitler mainly focused his energies on the possibility of invading the Soviet Union in the belief that the British, defeated on the continent and without European allies, would quickly come to terms. The Germans were so convinced of an imminent armistice that they began constructing street decorations for the homecoming parades of victorious troops. Although the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Halifax, and certain elements of the British public favoured a negotiated peace with an ascendant Germany, Churchill and a majority of his Cabinet refused to consider an armistice. Instead, Churchill used his skilful rhetoric to harden public opinion against capitulation and to prepare the British for a long war.
The Battle of Britain has the unusual distinction that it gained its name before being fought. The name is derived from the This was their finest hour speech delivered by Winston Churchill in the House of Commons on 18 June, more than three weeks prior to the generally accepted date for the start of the battle:
... What General Weygand has called The Battle of France is over. The battle of Britain is about to begin. Upon this battle depends the survival of Christian civilisation. Upon it depends our own British life and the long continuity of our institutions and our Empire. The whole fury and might of the enemy must very soon be turned on us. Hitler knows that he will have to break us in this island or lose the war. If we can stand up to him, all Europe may be free and the life of the world may move forward into broad, sunlit uplands. But if we fail, then the whole world, including the United States, including all that we have known and cared for, will sink into the abyss of a new Dark Age made more sinister, and perhaps more protracted, by the lights of a perverted science. Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties, and so bear ourselves that, if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say, "This was their finest hour ''.
From the outset of his rise to power, Hitler expressed admiration for Britain, and throughout the Battle period he sought neutrality or a peace treaty with Britain. In a secret conference on 23 May 1939, Hitler set out his rather contradictory strategy that an attack on Poland was essential and "will only be successful if the Western Powers keep out of it. If this is impossible, then it will be better to attack in the West and to settle Poland at the same time '' with a surprise attack. "If Holland and Belgium are successfully occupied and held, and if France is also defeated, the fundamental conditions for a successful war against England will have been secured. England can then be blockaded from Western France at close quarters by the Air Force, while the Navy with its submarines extend the range of the blockade. ''
When war commenced, Hitler and the OKW (Oberkommando der Wehrmacht or "High Command of the Armed Forces '') issued a series of Directives ordering planning and stating strategic objectives. "Directive No. 1 for the Conduct of the War '' dated 31 August 1939 instructed the invasion of Poland on 1 September as planned. Potentially, Luftwaffe "operations against England '' were to "dislocate English imports, the armaments industry, and the transport of troops to France. Any favourable opportunity of an effective attack on concentrated units of the English Navy, particularly on battleships or aircraft carriers, will be exploited. The decision regarding attacks on London is reserved to me. Attacks on the English homeland are to be prepared, bearing in mind that inconclusive results with insufficient forces are to be avoided in all circumstances. '' Both France and the UK declared war on Germany; on 9 October Hitler 's "Directive No. 6 '' planned the offensive to defeat these allies and "win as much territory as possible in the Netherlands, Belgium, and northern France to serve as a base for the successful prosecution of the air and sea war against England ''. On 29 November OKW "Directive No. 9 -- Instructions For Warfare Against The Economy Of The Enemy '' stated that once this coastline had been secured, the Luftwaffe together with the Kriegsmarine (German Navy) was to blockade UK ports with sea mines, attack shipping and warships, and make air attacks on shore installations and industrial production. This directive remained in force in the first phase of the Battle of Britain. It was reinforced on 24 May during the Battle of France by "Directive No. 13 '' which authorised the Luftwaffe "to attack the English homeland in the fullest manner, as soon as sufficient forces are available. This attack will be opened by an annihilating reprisal for English attacks on the Ruhr Basin. ''
By the end of June 1940, Germany had defeated Britain 's allies on the continent, and on 30 June the OKW Chief of Staff Alfred Jodl issued his review of options to increase pressure on Britain to agree to a negotiated peace. The first priority was to eliminate the RAF and gain air supremacy. Intensified air attacks against shipping and the economy could affect food supplies and civilian morale in the long term. Reprisal attacks of terror bombing had the potential to cause quicker capitulation, but the effect on morale was uncertain. Once the Luftwaffe had control of the air, and the UK economy had been weakened, an invasion would be a last resort or a final strike ("Todesstoss '') after Britain had already been conquered, but could have a quick result. On the same day, the Luftwaffe Commander - in - Chief Hermann Göring issued his operational directive; to destroy the RAF, thus protecting German industry, and also to block overseas supplies to Britain. The German Supreme Command argued over the practicality of these options.
In "Directive No. 16 -- On preparations for a landing operation against England '' on 16 July, Hitler required readiness by mid-August for the possibility of an invasion he called Operation Sea Lion, unless the British agreed to negotiations. The Luftwaffe reported that it would be ready to launch its major attack early in August. The Kriegsmarine Commander - in - Chief, Grand Admiral Erich Raeder, continued to highlight the impracticality of these plans, and said sea invasion could not take place before early 1941. Hitler now argued that Britain was holding out in hope of assistance from Russia, and the Soviet Union was to be invaded by mid 1941. Göring met his air fleet commanders, and on 24 July issued "Tasks and Goals '' of firstly gaining air supremacy, secondly protecting invasion forces and attacking the Royal Navy 's ships. Thirdly, they were to blockade imports, bombing harbours and stores of supplies.
Hitler 's "Directive No. 17 -- For the conduct of air and sea warfare against England '' issued on 1 August attempted to keep all the options open. The Luftwaffe 's Adlertag campaign was to start around 5 August, subject to weather, with the aim of gaining air superiority over southern England as a necessary precondition of invasion, to give credibility to the threat and give Hitler the option of ordering the invasion. The intention was to incapacitate the RAF so much that the UK would feel open to air attack, and would begin peace negotiations. It was also to isolate the UK and damage war production, beginning an effective blockade. Following severe Luftwaffe losses, Hitler agreed at a 14 September OKW conference that the air campaign was to intensify regardless of invasion plans. On 16 September, Göring gave the order for this change in strategy, to the first independent strategic bombing campaign.
Adolf Hitler 's Mein Kampf of 1923 mostly set out his hatreds: he only admired ordinary German World War I soldiers and Britain, which he saw as an ally against communism. In 1935 Hermann Göring welcomed news that Britain as a potential ally was rearming. In 1936 he promised assistance to defend the British Empire, asking only a free hand in Eastern Europe, and repeated this to Lord Halifax in 1937. That year, von Ribbentrop met Churchill with a similar proposal; when rebuffed, he told Churchill that interference with German domination would mean war. To Hitler 's great annoyance, all his diplomacy failed to stop Britain from declaring war when he invaded Poland. During the fall of France, he repeatedly discussed peace efforts with his generals.
When Churchill came to power, there was still wide support for Halifax, who as Foreign Secretary openly argued for peace negotiations in the tradition of British diplomacy, to secure British independence without war. On 20 May, Halifax secretly requested a Swedish businessman to make contact with Göring to open negotiations. Shortly afterwards, in the May 1940 War Cabinet Crisis, Halifax argued for negotiations involving the Italians, but this was rejected by Churchill with majority support. An approach made through the Swedish ambassador on 22 June was reported to Hitler, making peace negotiations seem feasible. Throughout July, as the battle started, the Germans made wider attempts to find a diplomatic solution. On 2 July, the day the armed forces were asked to start preliminary planning for an invasion, Hitler got von Ribbentrop to draft a speech offering peace negotiations. On 19 July Hitler made this speech to the German Parliament in Berlin, appealing "to reason and common sense '', and said he could "see no reason why this war should go on ''. His sombre conclusion was received in silence, but he did not suggest negotiations and this was effectively an ultimatum which was rejected by the British government. Halifax kept trying to arrange peace until he was sent to Washington in December as ambassador, and in January 1941 Hitler expressed continued interest in negotiating peace with Britain.
A May 1939 planning exercise by Luftflotte 3 found that the Luftwaffe lacked the means to do much damage to Britain 's war economy beyond laying naval mines. The Head of Luftwaffe intelligence Joseph "Beppo '' Schmid presented a report on 22 November 1939, stating that "Of all Germany 's possible enemies, Britain is the most dangerous. '' This "Proposal for the Conduct of Air Warfare '' argued for a counter to the British blockade and said "Key is to paralyse the British trade ''. Instead of the Wehrmacht attacking the French, the Luftwaffe with naval assistance was to block imports to Britain and attack seaports. "Should the enemy resort to terror measures -- for example, to attack our towns in western Germany '' they could retaliate by bombing industrial centres and London. Parts of this appeared on 29 November in "Directive No. 9 '' as future actions once the coast had been conquered. On 24 May 1940 "Directive No. 13 '' authorised attacks on the blockade targets, as well as retaliation for RAF bombing of industrial targets in the Ruhr.
After the defeat of France the OKW felt they had won the war, and some more pressure would persuade Britain. On 30 June the OKW Chief of Staff Alfred Jodl issued his paper setting out options: the first was to increase attacks on shipping, economic targets and the RAF: air attacks and food shortages were expected to break morale and lead to capitulation. Destruction of the RAF was the first priority, and invasion would be a last resort. Göring 's operational directive issued the same day ordered destruction of the RAF to clear the way for attacks cutting off seaborne supplies to Britain. It made no mention of invasion.
In November 1939, the OKW reviewed the potential for an air - and seaborne invasion of Britain: the Kriegsmarine (German Navy) was faced with the threat the Royal Navy 's larger Home Fleet posed to a crossing of the English Channel, and together with the German Army viewed control of airspace as a necessary precondition. The German navy thought air superiority alone was insufficient; the German naval staff had already produced a study (in 1939) on the possibility of an invasion of Britain and concluded that it also required naval superiority. The Luftwaffe said invasion could only be "the final act in an already victorious war. ''
Hitler first discussed the idea of an invasion at a 21 May 1940 meeting with Grand Admiral Erich Raeder, who stressed the difficulties and his own preference for a blockade. OKW Chief of Staff Jodl 's 30 June report described invasion as a last resort once the British economy had been damaged and the Luftwaffe had full air superiority. On 2 July, OKW requested preliminary plans. In Britain, Churchill described "the great invasion scare '' as "serving a very useful purpose '' by "keeping every man and woman tuned to a high pitch of readiness ''. On 10 July, he advised the War Cabinet that invasion could be ignored, as it "would be a most hazardous and suicidal operation ''.
On 11 July, Hitler agreed with Raeder that invasion would be a last resort, and the Luftwaffe advised that gaining air superiority would take 14 to 28 days. Hitler met his army chiefs, von Brauchitsch and Halder, who presented detailed plans on the assumption that the navy would provide safe transport. Hitler showed no interest in the details, but on 16 July he issued Directive No. 16 ordering preparations for Operation Sea Lion.
The navy insisted on a narrow beachhead and an extended period for landing troops; the army rejected these plans: the Luftwaffe could begin an air attack in August. Hitler held a meeting of his army and navy chiefs on 31 July. The navy said 22 September was the earliest possible date, and proposed postponement until the following year, but Hitler preferred September. He then told von Brauchitsch and Halder that he would decide on the landing operation eight to fourteen days after the air attack began. On 1 August he issued Directive No. 17 for intensified air and sea warfare, to begin with Adlertag on or after 5 August subject to weather, keeping options open for negotiated peace or blockade and siege.
Under the continuing influence of the 1935 "Conduct of the Air War '' doctrine, the main focus of the Luftwaffe command (including Göring) was in concentrating attacks to destroy enemy armed forces on the battlefield, and "blitzkrieg '' close air support of the army succeeded brilliantly. They reserved strategic bombing for a stalemate situation or revenge attacks, but doubted if this could be decisive on its own and regarded bombing civilians to destroy homes or undermine morale as a waste of strategic effort.
The defeat of France in June 1940 introduced the prospect for the first time of independent air action against Britain. A July Fliegercorps I paper asserted that Germany was by definition an air power: "Its chief weapon against England is the Air Force, then the Navy, followed by the landing forces and the Army. '' In 1940, the Luftwaffe would undertake a "strategic offensive... on its own and independent of the other services '', according to an April 1944 German account of their military mission. Göring was convinced that strategic bombing could win objectives which were beyond the army and navy, and gain political advantages in the Third Reich for the Luftwaffe and himself. He expected air warfare to decisively force Britain to negotiate, as all in the OKW hoped, and the Luftwaffe took little interest to planning to support an invasion.
The Luftwaffe faced a more capable opponent than any it had previously met: a sizeable, highly coordinated, well - supplied, modern air force.
The Luftwaffe 's Messerschmitt Bf 109E and Bf 110C fought against the RAF 's workhorse Hurricane Mk I and the less numerous Spitfire Mk I; Hurricanes outnumbered Spitfires in RAF Fighter Command by about 2: 1 when war broke out. The Bf 109E had a better climb rate and was up to 40 mph faster in level flight than the Rotol (constant speed propeller) equipped Hurricane Mk I, depending on altitude. The speed and climb disparity with the original non-Rotol Hurricane was even greater. By mid-1940, all RAF Spitfire and Hurricane fighter squadrons converted to 100 octane aviation fuel, which allowed their Merlin engines to generate significantly more power and an approximately 30 mph increase in speed at low altitudes through the use of an Emergency Boost Override. In September 1940, the more powerful Mk IIa series 1 Hurricanes started entering service in small numbers. This version was capable of a maximum speed of 342 mph (550 km / h), some 20 mph more than the original (non-Rotol) Mk I, though it was still 15 to 20 mph slower than a Bf 109 (depending on altitude).
The performance of the Spitfire over Dunkirk came as a surprise to the Jagdwaffe, although the German pilots retained a strong belief that the 109 was the superior fighter. The British fighters were equipped with eight Browning. 303 (7.7 mm) machine guns, while most Bf 109Es had two 7.92 mm machine guns supplemented by two 20mm cannons. The latter was much more effective than the. 303; during the Battle it was not unknown for damaged German bombers to limp home with up to two hundred. 303 hits. At some altitudes, the Bf 109 could outclimb the British fighter. It could also engage in vertical - plane negative - g manoeuvres without the engine cutting out because its DB 601 engine used fuel injection; this allowed the 109 to dive away from attackers more readily than the carburettor - equipped Merlin. On the other hand, the Bf 109E had a much larger turning circle than its two foes. In general, though, as Alfred Price noted in The Spitfire Story:
... the differences between the Spitfire and the Me 109 in performance and handling were only marginal, and in a combat they were almost always surmounted by tactical considerations of which side had seen the other first, which had the advantage of sun, altitude, numbers, pilot ability, tactical situation, tactical co-ordination, amount of fuel remaining, etc.
The Bf 109E was also used as a Jabo (jagdbomber, fighter - bomber) -- the E-4 / B and E-7 models could carry a 250 kg bomb underneath the fuselage, the later model arriving during the battle. The Bf 109, unlike the Stuka, could fight on equal terms with RAF fighters after releasing its ordnance.
At the start of the battle, the twin - engined Messerschmitt Bf 110C long range Zerstörer ("Destroyer '') was also expected to engage in air - to - air combat while escorting the Luftwaffe bomber fleet. Although the 110 was faster than the Hurricane and almost as fast as the Spitfire, its lack of manoeuvrability and acceleration meant that it was a failure as a long - range escort fighter. On 13 and 15 August, thirteen and thirty aircraft were lost, the equivalent of an entire Gruppe, and the type 's worst losses during the campaign. This trend continued with a further eight and fifteen lost on 16 and 17 August.
The most successful role of the Bf 110 during the battle was as a Schnellbomber (fast bomber). The Bf 110 usually used a shallow dive to bomb the target and escape at high speed. One unit, Erprobungsgruppe 210 -- initially formed as the service test unit (Erprobungskommando) for the emerging successor to the 110, the Me 210 -- proved that the Bf 110 could still be used to good effect in attacking small or "pinpoint '' targets.
The RAF 's Boulton Paul Defiant had some initial success over Dunkirk because of its resemblance to the Hurricane; Luftwaffe fighters attacking from the rear were surprised by its unusual gun turret. During the Battle of Britain, it proved hopelessly outclassed. For various reasons, the Defiant lacked any form of forward - firing armament, and the heavy turret and second crewman meant it could not outrun or outmanoeuvre either the Bf 109 or Bf 110. By the end of August, after disastrous losses, the aircraft was withdrawn from daylight service.
The Luftwaffe 's primary bombers were the Heinkel He 111, Dornier Do 17, and Junkers Ju 88 for level bombing at medium to high altitudes, and the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka for dive bombing tactics. The He 111 was used in greater numbers than the others during the conflict, and was better known, partly due to its distinctive wing shape. Each level bomber also had a few reconnaissance versions accompanying them that were used during the battle.
Although it had been successful in previous Luftwaffe engagements, the Stuka suffered heavy losses in the Battle of Britain, particularly on 18 August, due to its slow speed and vulnerability to fighter interception after dive bombing a target. As the losses went up along with their limited payload and range, Stuka units were largely removed from operations over England and diverted to concentrate on shipping instead until they were eventually re-deployed to the Eastern Front in 1941. For some raids, they were called back, such as on 13 September to attack Tangmere airfield.
The remaining three bomber types differed in their capabilities; the Heinkel 111 was the slowest; the Ju 88 was the fastest once its mainly external bomb load was dropped; and the Do 17 had the smallest bomb load. All three bomber types suffered heavy losses from the home - based British fighters, but the Ju 88 disproportionately so. The German bombers required constant protection by the Luftwaffe 's fighter force. German escorts were not sufficiently numerous. Bf 109Es were ordered to support more than 300 -- 400 bombers on any given day. Later in the conflict, when night bombing became more frequent, all three were used. Due to its smaller bomb load, the lighter Do 17 was used less than the He 111 and Ju 88 for this purpose.
On the British side, three bomber types were mostly used on night operations against targets such as factories, invasion ports and railway centres; the Armstrong Whitworth Whitley, the Handley - Page Hampden and the Vickers Wellington were classified as heavy bombers by the RAF, although the Hampden was a medium bomber comparable to the He 111. The twin - engined Bristol Blenheim and the obsolescent single - engined Fairey Battle were both light bombers; the Blenheim was the most numerous of the aircraft equipping RAF Bomber Command and was used in attacks against shipping, ports, airfields and factories on the continent by day and by night. The Fairey Battle squadrons, which had suffered heavy losses in daylight attacks during the Battle of France, were brought up to strength with reserve aircraft and continued to operate at night in attacks against the invasion ports, until the Battle was withdrawn from UK front line service in October 1940.
Before the war, the RAF 's processes for selecting potential candidates were opened to men of all social classes through the creation in 1936 of the RAF Volunteer Reserve, which "... was designed to appeal, to... young men... without any class distinctions... '' The older squadrons of the Royal Auxiliary Air Force did retain some of their upper - class exclusiveness, but their numbers were soon swamped by the newcomers of the RAFVR; by 1 September 1939, 6,646 pilots had been trained through the RAFVR.
By mid-1940, there were about 9,000 pilots in the RAF to man about 5,000 aircraft, most of which were bombers. Fighter Command was never short of pilots, but the problem of finding sufficient numbers of fully trained fighter pilots became acute by mid-August 1940. With aircraft production running at 300 planes each week, only 200 pilots were trained in the same period. In addition, more pilots were allocated to squadrons than there were aircraft, as this allowed squadrons to maintain operational strength despite casualties and still provide for pilot leave. Another factor was that only about 30 % of the 9,000 pilots were assigned to operational squadrons; 20 % of the pilots were involved in conducting pilot training, and a further 20 % were undergoing further instruction, like those offered in Canada and in Southern Rhodesia to the Commonwealth trainees, although already qualified. The rest were assigned to staff positions, since RAF policy dictated that only pilots could make many staff and operational command decisions, even in engineering matters. At the height of fighting, and despite Churchill 's insistence, only 30 pilots were released to the front line from administrative duties.
For these reasons, and the permanent loss of 435 pilots during the Battle of France alone along with many more wounded, and others lost in Norway, the RAF had fewer experienced pilots at the start of the initial defence of their home. It was the lack of trained pilots in the fighting squadrons, rather than the lack of aircraft, that became the greatest concern for Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding, Commander of Fighter Command. Drawing from regular RAF forces, the Auxiliary Air Force and the Volunteer Reserve, the British were able to muster some 1,103 fighter pilots on 1 July. Replacement pilots, with little flight training and often no gunnery training, suffered high casualty rates, thus exacerbating the problem.
The Luftwaffe, on the other hand, were able to muster a larger number (1,450) of more experienced fighter pilots. Drawing from a cadre of Spanish Civil War veterans, these pilots already had comprehensive courses in aerial gunnery and instructions in tactics suited for fighter - versus - fighter combat. Training manuals discouraged heroism, stressing the importance of attacking only when the odds were in the pilot 's favour. Despite the high levels of experience, German fighter formations did not provide a sufficient reserve of pilots to allow for losses and leave, and the Luftwaffe was unable to produce enough pilots to prevent a decline in operational strength as the battle progressed.
About 20 % of pilots who took part in the battle were from non British countries. The Royal Air Force roll of honour for the Battle of Britain recognises 595 non-British pilots (out of 2,936) as flying at least one authorised operational sortie with an eligible unit of the RAF or Fleet Air Arm between 10 July and 31 October 1940. These included 145 Poles, 127 New Zealanders, 112 Canadians, 88 Czechoslovaks, 10 Irish, 32 Australians, 28 Belgians, 25 South Africans, 13 French, 9 Americans, 3 Southern Rhodesians and one each from Jamaica and Mandatory Palestine. "Altogether in the fighter battles, the bombing raids, and the various patrols flown between 10 July and 31 October 1940 by the Royal Air Force, 1495 aircrew were killed, of whom 449 were fighter pilots, 718 aircrew from Bomber Command, and 280 from Coastal Command. Among those killed were 47 airmen from Canada, 24 from Australia, 17 from South Africa, 35 from Poland, 20 from Czechoslovakia and six from Belgium. Forty - seven New Zealanders lost their lives, including 15 fighter pilots, 24 bomber and eight coastal aircrew. The names of these Allied and Commonwealth airmen are inscribed in a memorial book which rests in the Battle of Britain Chapel in Westminster Abbey. In the chapel is a stained glass window which contains the badges of the fighter squadrons which operated during the battle and the flags of the nations to which the pilots and aircrew belonged. ''
These pilots, some of whom had to flee their home countries because of the Nazi war - machine, fought with great distinction. The No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron for example was not just the highest scoring of the Hurricane squadrons during the Battle of Britain, but also had the highest ratio of enemy aircraft destroyed to their own losses.
An element of the Italian Royal Air Force (Regia Aeronautica) called the Italian Air Corps (Corpo Aereo Italiano or CAI) first saw action in late October 1940. It took part in the latter stages of the battle, but achieved limited success. The unit was redeployed in early 1941.
The high command 's indecision over which aim to pursue was reflected in shifts in Luftwaffe strategy. Their Air War doctrine of concentrated close air support of the army at the battlefront succeeded in the blitzkrieg offensives against Poland, Denmark and Norway, the Low Countries and France, but incurred significant losses. The Luftwaffe now had to establish or restore bases in the conquered territories, and rebuild their strength. In June 1940 they began regular armed reconnaissance flights and sporadic Störangriffe, nuisance raids of one or a few bombers, both day and night. These gave crews practice in navigation and avoiding air defences, and set off air raid alarms which disturbed civilian morale. Similar nuisance raids continued throughout the battle, into late 1940. Scattered naval mine -- laying sorties began at the outset, and increased gradually over the battle period.
Göring 's operational directive of 30 June ordered destruction of the RAF as a whole, including the aircraft industry, with the aims of ending RAF bombing raids on Germany and facilitating attacks on ports and storage in the Luftwaffe blockade of Britain. Attacks on Channel shipping in the Kanalkampf began on 4 July, and were formalised on 11 July in an order by Hans Jeschonnek which added the arms industry as a target.
On 16 July Directive No. 16 ordered preparations for Operation Sea Lion, and on the next day the luftwaffe was ordered to stand by in full readiness. Göring met his air fleet commanders, and on 24 July issued "Tasks and Goals '' of gaining air supremacy, protecting the army and navy if invasion went ahead, and attacking the Royal Navy 's ships as well as continuing the blockade. Once the RAF had been defeated, Luftwaffe bombers were to move forward beyond London without the need for fighter escort, destroying military and economic targets.
At a meeting on 1 August the command reviewed plans produced by each Fliegerkorps with differing proposals for targets including whether to bomb airfields, but failed to focus priorities. Intelligence reports gave Göring the impression that the RAF was almost defeated: the intent was that raids would attract British fighters for the Luftwaffe to shoot down. On 6 August he finalised plans for this "Operation Eagle Attack '' with Kesselring, Sperle and Stumpff: destruction of RAF Fighter Command across the south of England was to take four days, with lightly escorted small bomber raids leaving the main fighter force free to attack RAF fighters. Bombing of military and economic targets was then to systematically extend up to the Midlands until daylight attacks could proceed unhindered over the whole of Britain.
Bombing of London was to be held back while these night time "destroyer '' attacks proceeded over other urban areas, then in culmination of the campaign a major attack on the capital was intended to cause a crisis when refugees fled London just as the Operation Sea Lion invasion was to begin. With hopes fading for the possibility of invasion, on 4 September Hitler authorised a main focus on day and night attacks on tactical targets with London as the main target, in what the British called the Blitz. With increasing difficulty in defending bombers in day raids, the Luftwaffe shifted to a strategic bombing campaign of night raids aiming to overcome British resistance by damaging infrastructure and food stocks, though intentional terror bombing of civilians was not sanctioned.
The Luftwaffe was forced to regroup after the Battle of France into three Luftflotten (Air Fleets) on Britain 's southern and northern flanks. Luftflotte 2, commanded by Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring, was responsible for the bombing of southeast England and the London area. Luftflotte 3, under Generalfeldmarschall Hugo Sperrle, targeted the West Country, Wales, the Midlands, and northwest England. Luftflotte 5, led by Generaloberst Hans - Jürgen Stumpff from his headquarters in Norway, targeted the north of England and Scotland. As the battle progressed, command responsibility shifted, with Luftflotte 3 taking more responsibility for the night - time Blitz attacks while the main daylight operations fell upon Luftflotte 2 's shoulders.
Initial Luftwaffe estimates were that it would take four days to defeat the RAF Fighter Command in southern England. This would be followed by a four - week offensive during which the bombers and long - range fighters would destroy all military installations throughout the country and wreck the British aircraft industry. The campaign was planned to begin with attacks on airfields near the coast, gradually moving inland to attack the ring of sector airfields defending London. Later reassessments gave the Luftwaffe five weeks, from 8 August to 15 September, to establish temporary air superiority over England. To achieve this goal, Fighter Command had to be destroyed, either on the ground or in the air, yet the Luftwaffe had to be able to preserve its own strength to be able to support the invasion; this meant that the Luftwaffe had to maintain a high "kill ratio '' over the RAF fighters. The only alternative to the goal of air superiority was a terror bombing campaign aimed at the civilian population, but this was considered a last resort and it was (at this stage of the battle) expressly forbidden by Hitler.
The Luftwaffe kept broadly to this scheme, but its commanders had differences of opinion on strategy. Sperrle wanted to eradicate the air defence infrastructure by bombing it. His counterpart, Kesselring, championed attacking London directly -- either to bombard the British government into submission, or to draw RAF fighters into a decisive battle. Göring did nothing to resolve this disagreement between his commanders, and only vague directives were set down during the initial stages of the battle, with Göring seemingly unable to decide upon which strategy to pursue. He seemed at times obsessed with maintaining his own power base in the Luftwaffe and indulging his outdated beliefs on air fighting, which would later lead to tactical and strategic errors.
Luftwaffe formations employed a loose section of two (nicknamed the Rotte (pack)), based on a leader (Rottenführer) followed at a distance of about 200 metres by his wingman (nicknamed the Rottenhund (pack dog) or Katschmarek), who also flew slightly higher and was trained always to stay with his leader. With more room between them, both pilots could spend less time maintaining formation and more time looking around and covering each other 's blind spots. Attacking aircraft could be sandwiched between the two 109s. The Rotte allowed the Rottenführer to concentrate on getting kills, but few wingmen had the chance, leading to some resentment in the lower ranks where it was felt that the high scores came at their expense. Two sections were usually teamed up into a Schwarm, where all the pilots could watch what was happening around them. Each Schwarm in a Staffel flew at staggered heights and with about 200 metres of room between them, making the formation difficult to spot at longer ranges and allowing for a great deal of flexibility. By using a tight "cross-over '' turn, a Schwarm could quickly change direction.
The Bf 110s adopted the same Schwarm formation as the 109s, but were seldom able to use this to the same advantage. The Bf 110 's most successful method of attack was the "bounce '' from above. When attacked, Zerstörergruppen increasingly resorted to forming large "defensive circles '', where each Bf 110 guarded the tail of the aircraft ahead of it. Göring ordered that they be renamed "offensive circles '' in a vain bid to improve rapidly declining morale. These conspicuous formations were often successful in attracting RAF fighters that were sometimes "bounced '' by high - flying Bf 109s. This led to the often repeated misconception that the Bf 110s were escorted by Bf 109s.
Luftwaffe tactics were influenced by their fighters. The Bf 110 proved too vulnerable to the nimble single - engined RAF fighters. This meant the bulk of fighter escort duties fell on the Bf 109. Fighter tactics were then complicated by bomber crews who demanded closer protection. After the hard - fought battles of 15 and 18 August, Göring met with his unit leaders. During this conference, the need for the fighters to meet up on time with the bombers was stressed. It was also decided that one bomber Gruppe could only be properly protected by several Gruppen of 109s. In addition, Göring stipulated that as many fighters as possible were to be left free for Freie Jagd ("Free Hunts '': a free - roving fighter sweep preceded a raid to try to sweep defenders out of the raid 's path). The Ju 87 units, which had suffered heavy casualties, were only to be used under favourable circumstances. In early September, due to increasing complaints from the bomber crews about RAF fighters seemingly able to get through the escort screen, Göring ordered an increase in close escort duties. This decision shackled many of the Bf 109s to the bombers and, although they were more successful at protecting the bomber forces, casualties amongst the fighters mounted primarily because they were forced to fly and manoeuvre at reduced speeds.
The Luftwaffe consistently varied its tactics in its attempts to break through the RAF defences. It launched many Freie Jagd to draw up RAF fighters. RAF fighter controllers were often able to detect these and position squadrons to avoid them, keeping to Dowding 's plan to preserve fighter strength for the bomber formations. The Luftwaffe also tried using small formations of bombers as bait, covering them with large numbers of escorts. This was more successful, but escort duty tied the fighters to the bombers ' slow speed and made them more vulnerable.
By September, standard tactics for raids had become an amalgam of techniques. A Freie Jagd would precede the main attack formations. The bombers would fly in at altitudes between 16,000 feet (4,900 m) and 20,000 feet (6,100 m), closely escorted by fighters. Escorts were divided into two parts (usually Gruppen), some operating in close contact with the bombers, and others a few hundred yards away and a little above. If the formation was attacked from the starboard, the starboard section engaged the attackers, the top section moving to starboard and the port section to the top position. If the attack came from the port side the system was reversed. British fighters coming from the rear were engaged by the rear section and the two outside sections similarly moving to the rear. If the threat came from above, the top section went into action while the side sections gained height to be able to follow RAF fighters down as they broke away. If attacked, all sections flew in defensive circles. These tactics were skilfully evolved and carried out, and were difficult to counter.
Adolf Galland noted:
We had the impression that, whatever we did, we were bound to be wrong. Fighter protection for bombers created many problems which had to be solved in action. Bomber pilots preferred close screening in which their formation was surrounded by pairs of fighters pursuing a zigzag course. Obviously, the visible presence of the protective fighters gave the bomber pilots a greater sense of security. However, this was a faulty conclusion, because a fighter can only carry out this purely defensive task by taking the initiative in the offensive. He must never wait until attacked because he then loses the chance of acting.
We fighter pilots certainly preferred the free chase during the approach and over the target area. This gives the greatest relief and the best protection for the bomber force.
The biggest disadvantage faced by Bf 109 pilots was that without the benefit of long - range drop tanks (which were introduced in limited numbers in the late stages of the battle), usually of 300 litres (66 imp gal; 79 US gal) capacity, the 109s had an endurance of just over an hour and, for the 109E, a 600 km (370 mi) range. Once over Britain, a 109 pilot had to keep an eye on a red "low fuel '' light on the instrument panel: once this was illuminated, he was forced to turn back and head for France. With the prospect of two long flights over water, and knowing their range was substantially reduced when escorting bombers or during combat, the Jagdflieger coined the term Kanalkrankheit or "Channel sickness ''.
The Luftwaffe was ill - served by its lack of military intelligence about the British defences. The German intelligence services were fractured and plagued by rivalries; their performance was "amateurish ''. By 1940, there were few German agents operating in Great Britain and a handful of bungled attempts to insert spies into the country were foiled.
As a result of intercepted radio transmissions, the Germans began to realise that the RAF fighters were being controlled from ground facilities; in July and August 1939, for example, the airship Graf Zeppelin, which was packed with equipment for listening in on RAF radio and RDF transmissions, flew around the coasts of Britain. Although the Luftwaffe correctly interpreted these new ground control procedures, they were incorrectly assessed as being rigid and ineffectual. A British radar system was well known to the Luftwaffe from intelligence gathered before the war, but the highly developed "Dowding system '' linked with fighter control had been a well - kept secret. Even when good information existed, such as a November 1939 Abwehr assessment of Fighter Command strengths and capabilities by Abteilung V, it was ignored if it did not match conventional preconceptions.
On 16 July 1940, Abteilung V, commanded by Oberstleutnant "Beppo '' Schmid, produced a report on the RAF and on Britain 's defensive capabilities which was adopted by the frontline commanders as a basis for their operational plans. One of the most conspicuous failures of the report was the lack of information on the RAF 's RDF network and control systems capabilities; it was assumed that the system was rigid and inflexible, with the RAF fighters being "tied '' to their home bases. An optimistic and, as it turned out, erroneous conclusion reached was:
D. Supply Situation... At present the British aircraft industry produces about 180 to 300 first line fighters and 140 first line bombers a month. In view of the present conditions relating to production (the appearance of raw material difficulties, the disruption or breakdown of production at factories owing to air attacks, the increased vulnerability to air attack owing to the fundamental reorganisation of the aircraft industry now in progress), it is believed that for the time being output will decrease rather than increase.
In the event of an intensification of air warfare it is expected that the present strength of the RAF will fall, and this decline will be aggravated by the continued decrease in production.
Because of this statement, reinforced by another more detailed report, issued on 10 August, there was a mindset in the ranks of the Luftwaffe that the RAF would run out of frontline fighters. The Luftwaffe believed it was weakening Fighter Command at three times the actual attrition rate. Many times, the leadership believed Fighter Command 's strength had collapsed, only to discover that the RAF were able to send up defensive formations at will.
Throughout the battle, the Luftwaffe had to use numerous reconnaissance sorties to make up for the poor intelligence. Reconnaissance aircraft (initially mostly Dornier Do 17s, but increasingly Bf 110s) proved easy prey for British fighters, as it was seldom possible for them to be escorted by Bf 109s. Thus, the Luftwaffe operated "blind '' for much of the battle, unsure of its enemy 's true strengths, capabilities, and deployments. Many of the Fighter Command airfields were never attacked, while raids against supposed fighter airfields fell instead on bomber or coastal defence stations. The results of bombing and air fighting were consistently exaggerated, due to inaccurate claims, over-enthusiastic reports and the difficulty of confirmation over enemy territory. In the euphoric atmosphere of perceived victory, the Luftwaffe leadership became increasingly disconnected from reality. This lack of leadership and solid intelligence meant the Germans did not adopt consistent strategy, even when the RAF had its back to the wall. Moreover, there was never a systematic focus on one type of target (such as airbases, radar stations, or aircraft factories); consequently, the already haphazard effort was further diluted.
While the British were using radar for air defence more effectively than the Germans realised, the Luftwaffe attempted to press its own offensive with advanced radio navigation systems of which the British were initially not aware. One of these was Knickebein ("bent leg ''); this system was used at night and for raids where precision was required. It was rarely used during the Battle of Britain.
The Luftwaffe was much better prepared for the task of air - sea rescue than the RAF, specifically tasking the Seenotdienst unit, equipped with about 30 Heinkel He 59 floatplanes, with picking up downed aircrew from the North Sea, English Channel and the Dover Straits. In addition, Luftwaffe aircraft were equipped with life rafts and the aircrew were provided with sachets of a chemical called fluorescein which, on reacting with water, created a large, easy - to - see, bright green patch. In accordance with the Geneva Convention, the He 59s were unarmed and painted white with civilian registration markings and red crosses. Nevertheless, RAF aircraft attacked these aircraft, as some were escorted by Bf 109s.
After single He 59s were forced to land on the sea by RAF fighters, on 1 and 9 July respectively, a controversial order was issued to the RAF on 13 July; this stated that from 20 July, Seenotdienst aircraft were to be shot down. One of the reasons given by Churchill was:
We did not recognise this means of rescuing enemy pilots so they could come and bomb our civil population again... all German air ambulances were forced down or shot down by our fighters on definite orders approved by the War Cabinet.
The British also believed that their crews would report on convoys, the Air Ministry issuing a communiqué to the German government on 14 July that Britain was
unable, however, to grant immunity to such aircraft flying over areas in which operations are in progress on land or at sea, or approaching British or Allied territory, or territory in British occupation, or British or Allied ships. Ambulance aircraft which do not comply with the above will do so at their own risk and peril
The white He 59s were soon repainted in camouflage colours and armed with defensive machine guns. Although another four He 59s were shot down by RAF aircraft, the Seenotdienst continued to pick up downed Luftwaffe and Allied aircrew throughout the battle, earning praise from Adolf Galland for their bravery.
Commander - in - Chief, Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding
10 Group Commander, Sir Quintin Brand
11 Group Commander, Keith Park
12 Group Commander, Trafford Leigh - Mallory
13 Group Commander, Richard Saul
During early tests of the Chain Home system, the slow flow of information from the CH radars and observers to the aircraft often caused them to miss their "bandits ''. The solution, today known as the "Dowding system '', was to create a set of reporting chains to move information from the various observation points to the pilots in their fighters. It was named after its chief architect, "Stuffy '' Dowding.
Reports from CH radars and the Observer Corps were sent directly to Fighter Command Headquarters (FCHQ) at Bentley Priory where they were "filtered '' to combine multiple reports of the same formations into single tracks. Telephone operators would then forward only the information of interest to the Group headquarters, where the map would be re-created. This process was repeated to produce another version of the map at the Sector level, covering a much smaller area. Looking over their maps, Group level commanders could select squadrons to attack particular targets. From that point the Sector operators would give commands to the fighters to arrange an interception, as well as return them to base. Sector stations also controlled the anti-aircraft batteries in their area; an army officer sat beside each fighter controller and directed the gun crews when to open and cease fire.
The Dowding system dramatically improved the speed and accuracy of the information that flowed to the pilots. During the early war period it was expected that an average interception mission might have a 30 % chance of ever seeing their target. During the battle, the Dowding system maintained an average rate over 75 %, with several examples of 100 % rates -- every fighter dispatched found and intercepted its target. In contrast, Luftwaffe fighters attempting to intercept raids had to randomly seek their targets and often returned home having never seen enemy aircraft. The result is what is now known as an example of "force multiplication ''; RAF fighters were as effective as two or more Luftwaffe fighters, greatly offsetting, or overturning, the disparity in actual numbers.
While Luftwaffe intelligence reports underestimated British fighter forces and aircraft production, the British intelligence estimates went the other way: they overestimated German aircraft production, numbers and range of aircraft available, and numbers of Luftwaffe pilots. In action, the Luftwaffe believed from their pilot claims and the impression given by aerial reconnaissance that the RAF was close to defeat, and the British made strenuous efforts to overcome the perceived advantages held by their opponents.
It is unclear how much the British intercepts of the Enigma cipher, used for high - security German radio communications, affected the battle. Ultra, the information obtained from Enigma intercepts, gave the highest echelons of the British command a view of German intentions. According to F.W. Winterbotham, who was the senior Air Staff representative in the Secret Intelligence Service, Ultra helped establish the strength and composition of the Luftwaffe 's formations, the aims of the commanders and provided early warning of some raids. In early August it was decided that a small unit would be set up at FCHQ, which would process the flow of information from Bletchley and provide Dowding only with the most essential Ultra material; thus the Air Ministry did not have to send a continual flow of information to FCHQ, preserving secrecy, and Dowding was not inundated with non-essential information. Keith Park and his controllers were also told about Ultra. In a further attempt to camouflage the existence of Ultra, Dowding created a unit named No. 421 (Reconnaissance) Flight RAF. This unit (which later became No. 91 Squadron RAF), was equipped with Hurricanes and Spitfires and sent out aircraft to search for and report Luftwaffe formations approaching England. In addition the radio listening service (known as Y Service), monitoring the patterns of Luftwaffe radio traffic contributed considerably to the early warning of raids.
One of the biggest oversights of the entire system was the lack of adequate air - sea rescue organisation. The RAF had started organising a system in 1940 with High Speed Launches (HSLs) based on flying boat bases and at some overseas locations, but it was still believed that the amount of cross-Channel traffic meant that there was no need for a rescue service to cover these areas. Downed pilots and aircrew, it was hoped, would be picked up by any boats or ships which happened to be passing by. Otherwise the local life boat would be alerted, assuming someone had seen the pilot going into the water.
RAF aircrew were issued with a life jacket, nicknamed the "Mae West, '' but in 1940 it still required manual inflation, which was almost impossible for someone who was injured or in shock. The waters of the English Channel and Dover Straits are cold, even in the middle of summer, and clothing issued to RAF aircrew did little to insulate them against these freezing conditions. The RAF also imitated the German practice of issuing fluorescein. A conference in 1939 had placed air - sea rescue under Coastal Command. Because pilots had been lost at sea during the "Channel Battle '', on 22 August, control of RAF rescue launches was passed to the local naval authorities and 12 Lysanders were given to Fighter Command to help look for pilots at sea. In all some 200 pilots and aircrew were lost at sea during the battle. No proper air - sea rescue service was formed until 1941.
In the late 1930s, Fighter Command expected to face only bombers over Britain, not single - engined fighters. A series of "Fighting Area Tactics '' were formulated and rigidly adhered to, involving a series of manoeuvres designed to concentrate a squadron 's firepower to bring down bombers. RAF fighters flew in tight, v - shaped sections ("vics '') of three aircraft, with four such "sections '' in tight formation. Only the squadron leader at the front was free to watch for the enemy; the other pilots had to concentrate on keeping station. Training also emphasised by - the - book attacks by sections breaking away in sequence. Fighter Command recognised the weaknesses of this structure early in the battle, but it was felt too risky to change tactics during the battle, because replacement pilots -- often with only minimal flying time -- could not be readily retrained, and inexperienced pilots needed firm leadership in the air only rigid formations could provide. German pilots dubbed the RAF formations Idiotenreihen ("rows of idiots '') because they left squadrons vulnerable to attack.
Front line RAF pilots were acutely aware of the inherent deficiencies of their own tactics. A compromise was adopted whereby squadron formations used much looser formations with one or two "weavers '' flying independently above and behind to provide increased observation and rear protection; these tended to be the least experienced men and were often the first to be shot down without the other pilots even noticing that they were under attack. During the battle, 74 Squadron under Squadron Leader Adolph "Sailor '' Malan adopted a variation of the German formation called the "fours in line astern '', which was a vast improvement on the old three aircraft "vic ''. Malan 's formation was later generally used by Fighter Command.
The weight of the battle fell upon 11 Group. Keith Park 's tactics were to dispatch individual squadrons to intercept raids. The intention was to subject incoming bombers to continual attacks by relatively small numbers of fighters and try to break up the tight German formations. Once formations had fallen apart, stragglers could be picked off one by one. Where multiple squadrons reached a raid the procedure was for the slower Hurricanes to tackle the bombers while the more agile Spitfires held up the fighter escort. This ideal was not always achieved, resulting in occasions when Spitfires and Hurricanes reversed roles. Park also issued instructions to his units to engage in frontal attacks against the bombers, which were more vulnerable to such attacks. Again, in the environment of fast moving, three - dimensional air battles, few RAF fighter units were able to attack the bombers from head - on.
During the battle, some commanders, notably Leigh - Mallory, proposed squadrons be formed into "Big Wings, '' consisting of at least three squadrons, to attack the enemy en masse, a method pioneered by Douglas Bader.
Proponents of this tactic claimed interceptions in large numbers caused greater enemy losses while reducing their own casualties. Opponents pointed out the big wings would take too long to form up, and the strategy ran a greater risk of fighters being caught on the ground refuelling. The big wing idea also caused pilots to overclaim their kills, due to the confusion of a more intense battle zone. This led to the belief big wings were far more effective than they actually were.
The issue caused intense friction between Park and Leigh - Mallory, as 12 Group was tasked with protecting 11 Group 's airfields whilst Park 's squadrons intercepted incoming raids. The delay in forming up Big Wings meant the formations often did not arrive at all or until after German bombers had hit 11 Group 's airfields. Dowding, to highlight the problem of the Big Wing 's performance, submitted a report compiled by Park to the Air Ministry on 15 November. In the report, he highlighted that during the period of 11 September -- 31 October, the extensive use of the Big Wing had resulted in just 10 interceptions and one German aircraft destroyed, but his report was ignored. Post-war analysis agrees Dowding and Park 's approach was best for 11 Group.
Dowding 's removal from his post in November 1940 has been blamed on this struggle between Park and Leigh - Mallory 's daylight strategy. The intensive raids and destruction wrought during the Blitz damaged both Dowding and Park in particular, for the failure to produce an effective night - fighter defence system, something for which the influential Leigh - Mallory had long criticised them.
Bomber Command and Coastal Command aircraft flew offensive sorties against targets in Germany and France during the battle.
An hour after the declaration of war, Bomber Command launched raids on warships and naval ports by day, and in night raids dropped leaflets as it was considered illegal to bomb targets which could affect civilians. After the initial disasters of the war, with Vickers Wellington bombers shot down in large numbers attacking Wilhelmshaven and the slaughter of the Fairey Battle squadrons sent to France, it became clear that they would have to operate mainly at night to avoid incurring very high losses. Churchill came to power on 10 May 1940, and night raids on German towns began with the bombing of Mönchen - Gladbach on the night of 11 May. The War Cabinet on 12 May agreed that German actions justified "unrestricted warfare '', and on 14 May they authorised an attack on the night of 14 / 15 May against oil and rail targets in Germany. At the urging of Clement Attlee, the Cabinet on 15 May authorised a full bombing strategy against "suitable military objectives '', even where there could be civilian casualties. That evening, a night time bomber campaign began against the German oil industry, communications, and forests / crops, mainly in the Ruhr area. The RAF lacked accurate night navigation, and carried small bomb loads. As the threat mounted, Bomber Command changed targeting priority on 3 June 1940 to attack the German aircraft industry. On 4 July, the Air Ministry gave Bomber Command orders to attack ports and shipping. By September, the build - up of invasion barges in the Channel ports had become a top priority target.
On 7 September, the government issued a warning that the invasion could be expected within the next few days and, that night, Bomber Command attacked the Channel ports and supply dumps. On 13 September, they carried out another large raid on the Channel ports, sinking 80 large barges in the port of Ostend. 84 barges were sunk in Dunkirk after another raid on 17 September and by 19 September, almost 200 barges had been sunk. The loss of these barges may have contributed to Hitler 's decision to postpone Operation Sea Lion indefinitely. The success of these raids was in part because the Germans had few Freya radar stations set up in France, so that air defences of the French harbours were not nearly as good as the air defences over Germany; Bomber Command had directed some 60 % of its strength against the Channel ports.
The Bristol Blenheim units also raided German - occupied airfields throughout July to December 1940, both during daylight hours and at night. Although most of these raids were unproductive, there were some successes; on 1 August, five out of twelve Blenheims sent to attack Haamstede and Evere (Brussels) were able to destroy or heavily damage three Bf 109s of II. / JG 27 and apparently kill a Staffelkapitän identified as a Hauptmann Albrecht von Ankum - Frank. Two other 109s were claimed by Blenheim gunners. Another successful raid on Haamstede was made by a single Blenheim on 7 August which destroyed one 109 of 4. / JG 54, heavily damaged another and caused lighter damage to four more.
There were some missions which produced an almost 100 % casualty rate amongst the Blenheims; one such operation was mounted on 13 August 1940 against a Luftwaffe airfield near Aalborg in north - eastern Denmark by 12 aircraft of 82 Squadron. One Blenheim returned early (the pilot was later charged and due to appear before a court martial, but was killed on another operation); the other eleven, which reached Denmark, were shot down, five by flak and six by Bf 109s. Of the 33 crewmen who took part in the attack, 20 were killed and 13 captured.
As well as the bombing operations, Blenheim - equipped units had been formed to carry out long - range strategic reconnaissance missions over Germany and German - occupied territories. In this role, the Blenheims again proved to be too slow and vulnerable against Luftwaffe fighters, and they took constant casualties.
Coastal Command directed its attention towards the protection of British shipping, and the destruction of enemy shipping. As invasion became more likely, it participated in the strikes on French harbours and airfields, laying mines, and mounting numerous reconnaissance missions over the enemy - held coast. In all, some 9,180 sorties were flown by bombers from July to October 1940. Although this was much less than the 80,000 sorties flown by fighters, bomber crews suffered about half the total casualties borne by their fighter colleagues. The bomber contribution was, therefore, much more dangerous on a loss - per - sortie comparison.
Bomber, reconnaissance, and antisubmarine patrol operations continued throughout these months with little respite and none of the publicity accorded to Fighter Command. In his famous 20 August speech about "The Few '', praising Fighter Command, Churchill also made a point of mentioning Bomber Command 's contribution, adding that bombers were even then striking back at Germany; this part of the speech is often overlooked, even today. The Battle of Britain Chapel in Westminster Abbey lists in a roll of honour, 718 Bomber Command crew members, and 280 from Coastal Command who were killed between 10 July and 31 October.
Bomber and Coastal Command attacks against invasion barge concentrations in Channel ports were widely reported by the British media during September and October 1940. In what became known as ' the Battle of the Barges ' RAF attacks were claimed in British propaganda to have sunk large numbers of barges, and to have created widespread chaos and disruption to German invasion preparations. Given the volume of British propaganda interest in these bomber attacks during September and earlier October, it is striking how quickly this was overlooked once the Battle of Britain had been concluded. Even by mid-war the bomber pilots ' efforts had been largely eclipsed by a continuing focus on the Few, this a result of the Air Ministry 's continuing valorisation of the '' fighter boys '', beginning with the March 1941 Battle of Britain propaganda pamphlet.
The battle covered a shifting geographical area, and there have been differing opinions on significant dates: when the Air Ministry proposed 8 August as the start, Dowding responded that operations "merged into one another almost insensibly '', and proposed 10 July as the onset of increased attacks. With the caution that phases drifted into each other and dates are not firm, the Royal Air Force Museum states that five main phases can be identified:
The RAF night bombing campaign against military objectives in German towns began on 11 May. The small forces available were given ambitious objectives, but lacked night navigation capability and their isolated inaccurate attacks were thought by the Germans to be intended to terrorise civilians. From 4 July the RAF achieved some successes with raids on Channel ports, anticipating the build up for an invasion.
Following Germany 's rapid territorial gains in the Battle of France, the Luftwaffe had to reorganise its forces, set up bases along the coast, and rebuild after heavy losses. It began small scale bombing raids on Britain on the night of 5 / 6 June, and continued sporadic attacks throughout June and July. The first large - scale attack was at night, on 18 / 19 June, when small raids scattered between Yorkshire and Kent involved in total 100 bombers. These Störangriffe ("nuisance raids '') which involved only a few aeroplanes, sometimes just one, were used to train bomber crews in both day and night attacks, to test defences and try out methods, with most flights at night. They found that, rather than carrying small numbers of large high explosive bombs, it was more effective to use more small bombs, similarly incendiaries had to cover a large area to set effective fires. These training flights continued through August and into the first week of September. Against this, the raids also gave the British time to assess the German tactics, and invaluable time for the RAF fighters and anti-aircraft defences to prepare and gain practice.
The attacks were widespread: over the night of 30 June alarms were set off in 20 counties by just 20 bombers, then next day the first daylight raids occurred during 1 July, on both Hull in Yorkshire and Wick, Caithness. On 3 July most flights were reconnaissance sorties, but 15 civilians were killed when bombs hit Guildford in Surrey. Numerous small Störangriffe raids, both day and night, were made daily through August, September and into the winter, with aims including bringing RAF fighters up to battle, destruction of specific military and economic targets, and setting off air - raid warnings to affect civilian morale: four major air - raids in August involved hundreds of bombers, in the same month 1,062 small raids were made, spread across the whole of Britain.
The Kanalkampf comprised a series of running fights over convoys in the English Channel. It was launched partly because Kesselring and Sperrle were not sure about what else to do, and partly because it gave German aircrews some training and a chance to probe the British defences. Dowding could provide only minimal shipping protection, and these battles off the coast tended to favour the Germans, whose bomber escorts had the advantage of altitude and outnumbered the RAF fighters. From 9 July reconnaissance probing by Dornier Do 17 bombers put a severe strain on RAF pilots and machines, with high RAF losses to Bf 109s. When nine 141 Squadron Defiants went into action on 19 July six were lost to Bf 109s before a squadron of Hurricanes intervened. On 25 July a coal convoy and escorting destroyers suffered such heavy losses to attacks by Stuka dive bombers that the Admiralty decided convoys should travel at night: the RAF shot down 16 raiders but lost 7 aircraft. By 8 August 18 coal ships and 4 destroyers had been sunk, but the Navy was determined to send a convoy of 20 ships through rather than move the coal by railway. After repeated Stuka attacks that day, six ships were badly damaged, four were sunk and only four reached their destination. The RAF lost 19 fighters and shot down 31 German aircraft. The Navy now cancelled all further convoys through the Channel and sent the cargo by rail. Even so, these early combat encounters provided both sides with experience.
The main attack upon the RAF 's defences was code - named Adlerangriff ("Eagle Attack ''). Intelligence reports gave Göring the impression that the RAF was almost defeated, and raids would attract British fighters for the Luftwaffe to shoot down. The strategy agreed on 6 August was to destroy RAF Fighter Command across the south of England in four days, then bombing of military and economic targets was to systematically extend up to the Midlands until daylight attacks could proceed unhindered over the whole of Britain, culminating in a major bombing attack on London.
Poor weather delayed Adlertag ("Eagle Day '') until 13 August 1940. On 12 August, the first attempt was made to blind the Dowding system, when aircraft from the specialist fighter - bomber unit Erprobungsgruppe 210 attacked four radar stations. Three were briefly taken off the air but were back working within six hours. The raids appeared to show that British radars were difficult to knock out. The failure to mount follow - up attacks allowed the RAF to get the stations back on the air, and the Luftwaffe neglected strikes on the supporting infrastructure, such as phone lines and power stations, which could have rendered the radars useless, even if the towers themselves (which were very difficult to destroy) remained intact.
Adlertag opened with a series of attacks, led again by Erpro 210, on coastal airfields used as forward landing grounds for the RAF fighters, as well as ' satellite airfields ' (including Manston and Hawkinge). As the week drew on, the airfield attacks moved further inland, and repeated raids were made on the radar chain. 15 August was "The Greatest Day '' when the Luftwaffe mounted the largest number of sorties of the campaign. Luftflotte 5 attacked the north of England. Believing Fighter Command strength to be concentrated in the south, raiding forces from Denmark and Norway ran into unexpectedly strong resistance. Inadequately escorted by Bf 110s, bombers were shot down in large numbers. North East England was attacked by 65 Heinkel 111s escorted by 34 Messerschmitt 110s, and RAF Great Driffield was attacked by 50 unescorted Junkers 88s. Out of 115 bombers and 35 fighters sent, 75 planes were destroyed and many others damaged beyond repair. Furthermore, due to early engagement by RAF fighters many of the bombers dropped their payloads ineffectively early. As a result of these casualties, Luftflotte 5 did not appear in strength again in the campaign.
18 August, which had the greatest number of casualties to both sides, has been dubbed "The Hardest Day ''. Following this grinding battle, exhaustion and the weather reduced operations for most of a week, allowing the Luftwaffe to review their performance. "The Hardest Day '' had sounded the end for the Ju 87 in the campaign. This veteran of Blitzkrieg was too vulnerable to fighters to operate over Britain. So as to preserve the Stuka force, Göring withdrew them from the fighting. This removed the main Luftwaffe precision - bombing weapon and shifted the burden of pinpoint attacks on the already - stretched Erpro 210. The Bf 110 proved too clumsy for dogfighting with single - engined fighters, and its participation was scaled back. It would be used only when range required it or when sufficient single - engined escort could not be provided for the bombers.
Göring made yet another important decision: to order more bomber escorts at the expense of free - hunting sweeps. To achieve this, the weight of the attack now fell on Luftflotte 2, and the bulk of the Bf 109s in Luftflotte 3 were transferred to Kesselring 's command, reinforcing the fighter bases in the Pas - de-Calais. Stripped of its fighters, Luftflotte 3 would concentrate on the night bombing campaign. Göring, expressing disappointment with the fighter performance thus far in the campaign, also made sweeping changes in the command structure of the fighter units, replacing many Geschwaderkommodore with younger, more aggressive pilots like Adolf Galland and Werner Mölders.
Finally, Göring stopped the attacks on the radar chain. These were seen as unsuccessful, and neither the Reichsmarschall nor his subordinates realised how vital the Chain Home stations were to the defence systems. It was known that radar provided some early warning of raids, but the belief among German fighter pilots was that anything bringing up the "Tommies '' to fight was to be encouraged.
On the afternoon of 15 August, Hauptmann Walter Rubensdörffer leading Erprobungsgruppe 210 mistakenly bombed Croydon airfield (on the outskirts of London) instead of the intended target, RAF Kenley.
German intelligence reports made the Luftwaffe optimistic that the RAF, thought to be dependent on local air control, was struggling with supply problems and pilot losses. After a major raid attacking Biggin Hill on 18 August, Luftwaffe aircrew said they had been unopposed, the airfield was "completely destroyed '', and asked "Is England already finished? '' In accordance with the strategy agreed on 6 August, defeat of the RAF was to be followed by bombing military and economic targets, systematically extending up to the Midlands.
Göring ordered attacks on aircraft factories on 19 August 1940. Sixty raids on the night of 19 / 20 August targeted the aircraft industry and harbours, and bombs fell on suburban areas around London: Croydon, Wimbledon and the Maldens. Night raids were made on 21 / 22 August on Aberdeen, Bristol and South Wales. That morning, bombs were dropped on Harrow and Wealdstone, on the outskirts of London. Overnight on 22 / 23 August, the output of an aircraft factory at Filton near Bristol was drastically affected by a raid in which Ju88 bombers released over 16 tons of high explosive bombs. On the night of 23 / 24 August over 200 bombers attacked the Fort Dunlop tyre factory in Birmingham, with a significant effect on production. A sustained bombing campaign began on 24 August with the largest raid so far, killing 100 in Portsmouth, and that night, several areas of London were bombed; the East End was set ablaze and bombs landed on central London. Some historians believe that these bombs were dropped accidentally by a group of Heinkel He 111s which had failed to find their target; this account has been contested.
More night raids were made around London on 24 / 25 August, when bombs fell on Croydon, Banstead, Lewisham, Uxbridge, Harrow and Hayes. London was on red alert over the night of 28 / 29 August, with bombs reported in Finchley, St Pancras, Wembley, Wood Green, Southgate, Old Kent Road, Mill Hill, Ilford, Chigwell and Hendon.
Göring 's directive issued on 23 August 1940 ordered ceaseless attacks on the aircraft industry and on RAF ground organisation to force the RAF to use its fighters, continuing the tactic of luring them up to be destroyed, and added that focussed attacks were to be made on RAF airfields.
From 24 August onwards, the battle was a fight between Kesselring 's Luftflotte 2 and Park 's 11 Group. The Luftwaffe concentrated all their strength on knocking out Fighter Command and made repeated attacks on the airfields. Of the 33 heavy attacks in the following two weeks, 24 were against airfields. The key sector stations were hit repeatedly: Biggin Hill and Hornchurch four times each; Debden and North Weald twice each. Croydon, Gravesend, Rochford, Hawkinge and Manston were also attacked in strength. Coastal Command 's Eastchurch was bombed at least seven times because it was believed to be a Fighter Command aerodrome. At times these raids caused some damage to the sector stations, threatening the integrity of the Dowding system.
To offset some losses, some 58 Fleet Air Arm fighter pilot volunteers were seconded to RAF squadrons, and a similar number of former Fairey Battle pilots were used. Most replacements from Operational Training Units (OTUs) had as little as nine hours flying time and no gunnery or air - to - air combat training. At this point, the multinational nature of Fighter Command came to the fore. Many squadrons and personnel from the air forces of the Dominions were already attached to the RAF, including top level commanders -- Australians, Canadians, New Zealanders, Rhodesians and South Africans. In addition, there were other nationalities represented, including Free French, Belgian and a Jewish pilot from the British mandate of Palestine.
They were bolstered by the arrival of fresh Czechoslovak and Polish squadrons. These had been held back by Dowding, who mistakenly thought non-English speaking aircrew would have trouble working within his control system: Polish and Czech fliers proved to be especially effective. The pre-war Polish Air Force had lengthy and extensive training, and high standards; with Poland conquered and under brutal German occupation, the pilots of No. 303 (Polish) Squadron, the highest - scoring Allied unit, were strongly motivated. Josef František, a Czech regular airman who had flown from the occupation of his own country to join the Polish and then French air forces before arriving in Britain, flew as a guest of 303 Squadron and was ultimately credited with the highest "RAF score '' in the Battle of Britain.
The RAF had the advantage of fighting over home territory. Pilots who bailed out of their downed aircraft could be back at their airfields within hours, while if low on fuel and / or ammunition they could be immediately rearmed. One RAF pilot interviewed in late 1940 had been shot down five times during the Battle of Britain, but was able to crash land in Britain or bail out each time. For Luftwaffe aircrews, a bailout over England meant capture -- in the critical August period, almost exactly as many Luftwaffe pilots were taken prisoner as were killed -- while parachuting into the English Channel often meant drowning or death from exposure. Morale began to suffer, and (Kanalkrankheit) ("Channel sickness '') -- a form of combat fatigue -- began to appear among the German pilots. Their replacement problem became even worse than the British.
The effect of the German attacks on airfields is unclear. According to Stephen Bungay, Dowding, in a letter to Hugh Trenchard accompanying Park 's report on the period 8 August -- 10 September 1940, states that the Luftwaffe "achieved very little '' in the last week of August and the first week of September. The only Sector Station to be shut down operationally was Biggin Hill, and it was non-operational for just two hours. Dowding admitted 11 Group 's efficiency was impaired but, despite serious damage to some airfields, only two out of 13 heavily attacked airfields were down for more than a few hours. The German refocus on London was not critical.
Retired air marshal Peter Dye, head of the RAF Museum, discussed the logistics of the battle in 2000 and 2010, dealing specifically with the single - seat fighters. Dye contends that not only was British aircraft production replacing aircraft, but replacement pilots were keeping pace with losses. The number of pilots in RAF Fighter Command increased during July, August and September. The figures indicate the number of pilots available never decreased: from July, 1,200 were available, and from 1 August, 1,400 were available. Just over that number were in the field by September. In October the figure was nearly 1,600. By 1 November 1,800 were available. Throughout the battle, the RAF had more fighter pilots available than the Luftwaffe. Although the RAF 's reserves of single seat fighters fell during July, the wastage was made up for by an efficient Civilian Repair Organisation (CRO), which by December had repaired and put back into service some 4,955 aircraft, and by aircraft held at Air Servicing Unit (ASU) airfields.
Richard Overy agrees with Dye and Bungay. Overy asserts only one airfield was temporarily put out of action and "only '' 103 pilots were lost. British fighter production produced 496 new aircraft in July and 467 in August, and another 467 in September (not counting repaired aircraft), covering the losses of August and September. Overy indicates the number of serviceable and total strength returns reveal an increase in fighters from 3 August to 7 September, 1,061 on strength and 708 serviceable to 1,161 on strength and 746 serviceable. Moreover, Overy points out that the number of RAF fighter pilots grew by one - third between June and August 1940. Personnel records show a constant supply of around 1,400 pilots in the crucial weeks of the battle. In the second half of September it reached 1,500. The shortfall of pilots was never above 10 %. The Germans never had more than between 1,100 and 1,200 pilots, a deficiency of up to one - third. "If Fighter Command were ' the few ', the German fighter pilots were fewer ''.
Other scholars assert that this period was the most dangerous of all. In The Narrow Margin, published in 1961, historians Derek Wood and Derek Dempster believed that the two weeks from 24 August to 6 September represented a real danger. According to them, from 24 August to 6 September 295 fighters had been totally destroyed and 171 badly damaged, against a total output of 269 new and repaired Spitfires and Hurricanes. They assert that 103 pilots were killed or missing and 128 were wounded, which represented a total wastage of 120 pilots per week out of a fighting strength of just fewer than 1,000. They conclude that during August no more than 260 fighter pilots were turned out by OTUs and casualties in the same month were just over 300. A full squadron establishment was 26 pilots whereas the average in August was 16. In their assessment, the RAF was losing the battle. Denis Richards, in his 1953 contribution to the official British account History of the Second World War, agreed that lack of pilots, especially experienced ones, was the RAF 's greatest problem. He states that between 8 and 18 August 154 RAF pilots were killed, severely wounded, or missing, while only 63 new pilots were trained. Availability of aircraft was also a serious issue. While its reserves during the Battle of Britain never declined to a half dozen planes as some later claimed, Richards describes 24 August to 6 September as the critical period because during these two weeks Germany destroyed far more aircraft through its attacks on 11 Group 's southeast bases than Britain was producing. Three more weeks of such a pace would indeed have exhausted aircraft reserves. Germany had seen heavy losses of pilots and aircraft as well, thus its shift to night - time attacks in September. On 7 September RAF aircraft losses fell below British production and remained so until the end of the war.
Hitler 's "Directive No. 17 -- For the conduct of air and sea warfare against England '' issued on 1 August 1940, reserved to himself the right to decide on terror attacks as measures of reprisal. Hitler issued a directive that London was not to be bombed save on his sole instruction. In preparation, detailed target plans under the code name Operation Loge for raids on communications, power stations, armaments works and docks in the Port of London were distributed to the Fliegerkorps in July. The port areas were crowded next to residential housing and civilian casualties would be expected, but this would combine military and economic targets with indirect effects on morale. The strategy agreed on 6 August was for raids on military and economic targets in towns and cities to culminate in a major attack on London. In mid August raids were made on targets on the outskirts of London.
Luftwaffe doctrine included the possibility of retaliatory attacks on cities, and since 11 May small scale night raids by RAF Bomber Command had frequently bombed residential areas. The Germans assumed this was deliberate, and as the raids increased in frequency and scale the population grew impatient for measures of revenge. On 25 August 1940, 81 bombers of Bomber Command were sent out to raid industrial and commercial targets in Berlin. Clouds prevented accurate identification and the bombs fell across the city, causing some casualties among the civilian population as well as damage to residential areas. Continuing RAF raids on Berlin led to Hitler withdrawing his directive on 30 August, and giving the go - ahead to the planned bombing offensive. On 3 September Göring planned to bomb London daily, with General Albert Kesselring 's enthusiastic support, having received reports the average strength of RAF squadrons was down to five or seven fighters out of twelve and their airfields in the area were out of action. Hitler issued a directive on 5 September to attack cities including London. In his widely publicised speech delivered on 4 September 1940, Hitler condemned the bombing of Berlin and presented the planned attacks on London as reprisals. The first daylight raid was titled Vergeltungsangriff (revenge attack).
On 7 September, a massive series of raids involving nearly four hundred bombers and more than six hundred fighters targeted docks in the East End of London, day and night. The RAF anticipated attacks on airfields and 11 Group rose to meet them, in greater numbers than the Luftwaffe expected. The first official deployment of 12 Group 's Leigh - Mallory 's Big Wing took twenty minutes to form up, missing its intended target, but encountering another formation of bombers while still climbing. They returned, apologetic about their limited success, and blamed the delay on being scrambled too late.
The German press jubilantly announced that "one great cloud of smoke stretches tonight from the middle of London to the mouth of the Thames. '' Reports reflected the briefings given to crews before the raids -- "Everyone knew about the last cowardly attacks on German cities, and thought about wives, mothers and children. And then came that word ' Vengeance! ' '' Pilots reported seeing ruined airfields as they flew towards London, appearances which gave intelligence reports the impression of devastated defences. Göring maintained that the RAF was close to defeat, making invasion feasible.
Fighter Command had been at its lowest ebb, short of men and machines, and the break from airfield attacks allowed them to recover. 11 Group had considerable success in breaking up daytime raids. 12 Group repeatedly disobeyed orders and failed to meet requests to protect 11 Group airfields, but their experiments with increasingly large Big Wings had some success. The Luftwaffe began to abandon their morning raids, with attacks on London starting late in the afternoon for fifty - seven consecutive nights.
The most damaging aspect to the Luftwaffe of targeting London was the increase in range. The Bf 109E escorts had a limited fuel capacity resulting in only a 660 km (410 mile) maximum range solely on internal fuel, and when they arrived had only 10 minutes of flying time before turning for home, leaving the bombers undefended by fighter escorts. Its eventual stablemate, the Focke - Wulf Fw 190 A, was flying only in prototype form in mid-1940; the first 28 Fw 190s were not delivered until November 1940. The Fw 190A - 1 had a maximum range of 940 km (584 miles) on internal fuel, 40 % greater than the Bf 109E. The Messerschmitt Bf 109 E-7 corrected this deficiency by adding a ventral centre - line ordnance rack to take either an SC 250 bomb or a standard 300 litre Luftwaffe drop tank to double the range to 1,325 km (820 mi). The ordnance rack was not retrofitted to earlier Bf 109Es until October 1940.
On 14 September, Hitler chaired a meeting with the OKW staff. Göring was in France directing the decisive battle, so Erhard Milch deputised for him. Hitler asked "Should we call it off altogether? '' General Hans Jeschonnek, Luftwaffe Chief of Staff, begged for a last chance to defeat the RAF and for permission to launch attacks on civilian residential areas to cause mass panic. Hitler refused the latter, perhaps unaware of how much damage had already been done to civilian targets. He reserved for himself the power to unleash the terror weapon. Instead political will was to be broken by destroying the material infrastructure, the weapons industry, and stocks of fuel and food.
On 15 September, two massive waves of German attacks were decisively repulsed by the RAF by deploying every aircraft in 11 Group. Sixty German and twenty - six RAF aircraft were shot down. The action was the climax of the Battle of Britain.
Two days after the German defeat Hitler postponed preparations for the invasion of Britain. Henceforth, in the face of mounting losses in men, aircraft and the lack of adequate replacements, the Luftwaffe completed their gradual shift from daylight bomber raids and continued with nighttime bombing. 15 September is commemorated as Battle of Britain Day.
At the 14 September OKW conference, Hitler acknowledged that the Luftwaffe had still not gained the air superiority needed for the Operation Sealion invasion. In agreement with Raeder 's written recommendation, Hitler said the campaign was to intensify regardless of invasion plans: "The decisive thing is the ceaseless continuation of air attacks. '' Jeschonnek proposed attacking residential areas to cause "mass panic '', but Hitler turned this down: he reserved to himself the option of terror bombing. British morale was to be broken by destroying infrastructure, armaments manufacturing, fuel and food stocks. On 16 September, Göring gave the order for this change in strategy. This new phase was to be the first independent strategic bombing campaign, in hopes of a political success forcing the British to give up. Hitler hoped it might result in "eight million going mad '' (referring to the population of London in 1940), which would "cause a catastrophe '' for the British. In those circumstances, Hitler said, "even a small invasion might go a long way ''. Hitler was against cancelling the invasion as "the cancellation would reach the ears of the enemy and strengthen his resolve ''. On 19 September, Hitler ordered a reduction in work on Sealion. He doubted if strategic bombing could achieve its aims, but ending the air war would be an open admission of defeat. He had to maintain the appearance of concentration on defeating Britain, to conceal from Joseph Stalin his covert aim to invade the Soviet Union.
Throughout the battle, most Luftwaffe bombing raids had been at night. They increasingly suffered unsustainable losses in daylight raids, and the last massive daytime attacks were on 15 September. A raid of 70 bombers on 18 September also suffered badly, and day raids were gradually phased out leaving the main attacks at night. Fighter command still lacked any successful way of intercepting night - time raiders, the night fighter force was mostly Blenheims and Beaufighters, and lacked airborne radar so had no way of finding the bombers. Anti-aircraft guns were diverted to London 's defences, but had a much reduced success rate against night attacks.
From mid September, Luftwaffe daylight bombing was gradually taken over by a Bf 109 fighters, adapted to take one 250 kg bomb. Small groups of fighter - bombers would carry out Störangriffe raids escorted by large escort formations of about 200 to 300 combat fighters. They flew at altitudes over 20,000 feet (6,100 m) where the Bf109 had an advantage over RAF fighters, except the Spitfire. The raids disturbed civilians, and continued the war of attrition against Fighter Command. The raids were intended to carry out precision bombing on military or economic targets, but it was hard to achieve sufficient accuracy with the single bomb. Sometimes, when attacked, the fighter - bombers had to jettison the bomb to function as fighters. The RAF was at a disadvantage, and changed defensive tactics by introducing standing patrols of Spitfires at high altitude to monitor incoming raids. On a sighting, other patrols at lower altitude would fly up to join the battle.
A Junkers Ju 88 returning from a raid on London was shot down in Kent on 27 September resulting in the Battle of Graveney Marsh, the last action between British and foreign military forces on British mainland soil.
German bombing of Britain reached its peak in October and November 1940. In post war interrogation, Wilhelm Keitel described the aims as economic blockade, in conjunction with submarine warfare, and attrition of Britain 's military and economic resources. The Luftwaffe wanted to achieve victory on its own, and was reluctant to cooperate with the navy. Their strategy for blockade was to destroy ports and storage facilities in towns and cities. Priorities were based on the pattern of trade and distribution, so for these months London was the main target. In November their attention turned to other ports and industrial targets around Britain.
Hitler postponed the Sealion invasion on 13 October "until the spring of 1941 ''. It was not until Hitler 's Directive 21 was issued, on 18 December 1940, that the threat to Britain of invasion finally ended.
During the battle, and for the rest of the war, an important factor in keeping public morale high was the continued presence in London of King George VI and his wife Queen Elizabeth. When war broke out in 1939, the King and Queen decided to stay in London and not flee to Canada, as had been suggested. George VI and Elizabeth officially stayed in Buckingham Palace throughout the war, although they often spent weekends at Windsor Castle to visit their daughters, Elizabeth (the future queen) and Margaret. Buckingham Palace was damaged by bombs which landed in the grounds on 10 September and, on 13 September, more serious damage was caused by two bombs which destroyed the Royal Chapel. The royal couple were in a small sitting room about 80 yards from where the bombs exploded. On 24 September, in recognition of the bravery of civilians, King George VI inaugurated the award of the George Cross.
Overall, by 2 November, the RAF fielded 1,796 pilots, an increase of over 40 % from July 1940 's count of 1,259 pilots. Based on German sources (from a Luftwaffe intelligence officer Otto Bechtle attached to KG 2 in February 1944) translated by the Air Historical Branch, Stephen Bungay asserts German fighter and bomber "strength '' declined without recovery, and that from August -- December 1940, the German fighter and bomber strength declined by 30 and 25 percent. In contrast, Williamson Murray, argues (using translations by the Air Historical Branch) that 1,380 German bombers were on strength on 29 June 1940, 1,420 bombers on 28 September, 1,423 level bombers on 2 November and 1,393 bombers on 30 November 1940. In July -- September the number of Luftwaffe pilots available fell by 136, but the number of operational pilots had shrunk by 171 by September. The training organisation of the Luftwaffe was failing to replace losses. German fighter pilots, in contrast to popular perception, were not afforded training or rest rotations unlike their British counterparts. The first week of September accounted for 25 % of Fighter Command 's and 24 % of the Luftwaffe 's overall losses. Between the dates 26 August -- 6 September, on only one day (1 September) did the Germans destroy more aircraft than they lost. Losses were 325 German and 248 British.
Luftwaffe losses for August numbered 774 aircraft to all causes, representing 18.5 % of all combat aircraft at the beginning of the month. Fighter Command 's losses in August were 426 fighters destroyed, amounting to 40 per cent of 1,061 fighters available on 3 August. In addition, 99 German bombers and 27 other types were destroyed between 1 and 29 August.
From July to September, the Luftwaffe 's loss records indicate the loss of 1,636 aircraft, 1,184 to enemy action. This represented 47 % of the initial strength of single - engined fighters, 66 % of twin - engined fighters, and 45 % of bombers. This indicates the Germans were running out of aircrew as well as aircraft.
Throughout the battle, the Germans greatly underestimated the size of the RAF and the scale of British aircraft production. Across the Channel, the Air Intelligence division of the Air Ministry consistently overestimated the size of the German air enemy and the productive capacity of the German aviation industry. As the battle was fought, both sides exaggerated the losses inflicted on the other by an equally large margin. The intelligence picture formed before the battle encouraged the Luftwaffe to believe that such losses pushed Fighter Command to the very edge of defeat, while the exaggerated picture of German air strength persuaded the RAF that the threat it faced was larger and more dangerous than was the case. This led the British to the conclusion that another fortnight of attacks on airfields might force Fighter Command to withdraw their squadrons from the south of England. The German misconception, on the other hand, encouraged first complacency, then strategic misjudgement. The shift of targets from air bases to industry and communications was taken because it was assumed that Fighter Command was virtually eliminated.
Between 24 August and 4 September, German serviceability rates, which were acceptable at Stuka units, were running at 75 % with Bf 109s, 70 % with bombers and 65 % with Bf 110s, indicating a shortage of spare parts. All units were well below established strength. The attrition was beginning to affect the fighters in particular. '' By 14 September, the Luftwaffe 's Bf 109 Geschwader possessed only 67 % of their operational crews against authorised aircraft. For Bf 110 units it was 46 per cent; and for bombers it was 59 per cent. A week later the figures had dropped to 64 per cent, 52 % and 52 per cent. Serviceability rates in Fighter Command 's fighter squadrons, between 24 August and 7 September, were listed as: 64.8 % on 24 August; 64.7 % on 31 August and 64.25 % on 7 September 1940.
Due to the failure of the Luftwaffe to establish air supremacy, a conference assembled on 14 September at Hitler 's headquarters. Hitler concluded that air superiority had not yet been established and "promised to review the situation on 17 September for possible landings on 27 September or 8 October. Three days later, when the evidence was clear that the German Air Force had greatly exaggerated the extent of their successes against the RAF, Hitler postponed Sea Lion indefinitely. ''
Propaganda was an important element of the air war which began to develop over Britain from 18 June 1940 onwards, when the Luftwaffe began small, probing daylight raids to test RAF defences. One of many examples of these small - scale raids was the destruction of a school at Polruan in Cornwall, by a single raider. Into early July, the British media 's focus on the air battles increased steadily, the press, magazines, BBC radio and newsreels daily conveying the contents of Air Ministry communiques. The German OKW communiques matched Britain 's efforts in claiming for the upper hand.
Central to the propaganda war on both sides of the Channel were aircraft claims, this discussed under ' Attrition statistics '. These daily claims were important both for sustaining British home front morale and persuading America to support Britain, and were produced by the Air Ministry 's Air Intelligence branch. Under pressure from American journalists and broadcasters to prove that the RAF 's claims were genuine, RAF intelligence compared pilots ' claims with actual aircraft wrecks and those seen to crash into the sea. It was soon realised that there was a discrepancy between the two, but the Air Ministry decided not to reveal this. In fact, it was not until May 1947 that the actual figures were released to the public, by which time it was of far less importance. Many though refused to believe the revised figures, including Douglas Bader.
The place of the Battle of Britain in British popular memory is due in no small part to the successful propaganda campaign waged by the Air Ministry, between July -- October 1940, but also in valorising the Few from March 1941 onwards. The publication of the immensely successful 3d pamphlet, The Battle of Britain, saw huge international sales, leading even Goebbels to admire its propaganda value. Focusing only upon the Few, with no mention of RAF bomber attacks against invasion barges, the Battle of Britain was soon established as a major victory for Fighter Command. This in turn inspired a wide range of feature films, books, magazines, works of art, poetry, radio plays and MOI short films.
It is notable that this most impressive of British victories had, in essence, been proclaimed within only five months of the cessation of large - scale daylight air battles, and without reference to Hitler and the OKW 's reasoning for not proceeding with Operation Sea Lion. The continuing post-war popularity of the Battle of Britain is in fact directly attributable to the Air Ministry 's latter - 1940 air communiques, the media in turn broadcasting or publishing RAF aircraft claims. Noted above, this in turn led to the March 1941 pamphlet, which inspired a wide range of cultural responses to the Few, and the Battle of Britain. The Air Ministry built upon this with the development of the Battle of Britain Sunday commemoration, also supported the Battle of Britain clasp for issue to the Few in 1945, and from 1945 Battle of Britain Week. The Battle of Britain window in Westminster Abbey was also encouraged by the Air Ministry, Lords Trenchard and Dowding on its committee. By July 1947 when the window was unveiled, the Battle of Britain had already attained central prominence as Fighter Command 's most notable victory, the Few alone credited with preventing invasion in 1940. Although given widespread media coverage in September and October 1940, RAF Bomber and Coastal Command raids against invasion barge concentrations had already been forgotten by war 's end.
The Battle of Britain marked the first major defeat of Germany 's military forces, with air superiority seen as the key to victory. Pre-war theories had led to exaggerated fears of strategic bombing, and UK public opinion was buoyed by coming through the ordeal. For the RAF, Fighter Command had achieved a great victory in successfully carrying out Sir Thomas Inskip 's 1937 air policy of preventing the Germans from knocking Britain out of the war.
The battle also significantly shifted American opinion. During the battle, many Americans accepted the view promoted by Joseph Kennedy, the American ambassador in London, who believed that the United Kingdom could not survive. Roosevelt wanted a second opinion, and sent "Wild Bill '' Donovan on a brief visit to the UK; he became convinced the UK would survive and should be supported in every possible way. Before the end of the year American journalist Ralph Ingersoll, after returning from Britain, published a book concluding that "Adolf Hitler met his first defeat in eight years '' in what might "go down in history as a battle as important as Waterloo or Gettysburg ''. The turning point was when the Germans reduced the intensity of the Blitz after 15 September. According to Ingersoll, "(a) majority of responsible British officers who fought through this battle believe that if Hitler and Göring had had the courage and the resources to lose 200 planes a day for the next five days, nothing could have saved London ''; instead, "(the Luftwaffe 's) morale in combat is definitely broken, and the RAF has been gaining in strength each week. ''
Both sides in the battle made exaggerated claims of numbers of enemy aircraft shot down. In general, claims were two to three times the actual numbers, because of the confusion of fighting in dynamic three - dimensional air battles. Postwar analysis of records has shown that between July and September, the RAF claimed 2,698 kills, while the Luftwaffe fighters claimed 3,198 RAF aircraft downed. Total losses, and start and end dates for recorded losses, vary for both sides. Luftwaffe losses from 10 July to 30 October 1940 total 1,977 aircraft, including 243 twin - and 569 single - engined fighters, 822 bombers and 343 non combat types. In the same period, RAF Fighter Command aircraft losses number 1,087, including 53 twin - engined fighters. To the RAF figure should be added 376 Bomber Command and 148 Coastal Command aircraft lost conducting bombing, mining, and reconnaissance operations in defence of the country.
There is a consensus among historians that the Luftwaffe were unable to crush the RAF. Stephen Bungay described Dowding and Park 's strategy of choosing when to engage the enemy whilst maintaining a coherent force as vindicated; their leadership, and the subsequent debates about strategy and tactics, had created enmity among RAF senior commanders and both were sacked from their posts in the immediate aftermath of the battle. All things considered, the RAF proved to be a robust and capable organisation which was to use all the modern resources available to it to the maximum advantage. Richard Evans wrote:
Irrespective of whether Hitler was really set on this course, he simply lacked the resources to establish the air superiority that was the sine qua non-of a successful crossing of the English Channel. A third of the initial strength of the German air force, the Luftwaffe, had been lost in the western campaign in the spring. The Germans lacked the trained pilots, the effective fighter aircraft, and the heavy bombers that would have been needed.
The Germans launched some spectacular attacks against important British industries, but they could not destroy the British industrial potential, and made little systematic effort to do so. Hindsight does not disguise the fact the threat to Fighter Command was very real, and for the participants it seemed as if there was a narrow margin between victory and defeat. Nevertheless, even if the German attacks on the 11 Group airfields which guarded southeast England and the approaches to London had continued, the RAF could have withdrawn to the Midlands out of German fighter range and continued the battle from there. The victory was as much psychological as physical. Writes Alfred Price:
The truth of the matter, borne out by the events of 18 August is more prosaic: neither by attacking the airfields, nor by attacking London, was the Luftwaffe likely to destroy Fighter Command. Given the size of the British fighter force and the general high quality of its equipment, training and morale, the Luftwaffe could have achieved no more than a Pyrrhic victory. During the action on 18 August it had cost the Luftwaffe five trained aircrew killed, wounded or taken prisoner, for each British fighter pilot killed or wounded; the ratio was similar on other days in the battle. And this ratio of 5: 1 was very close to that between the number of German aircrew involved in the battle and those in Fighter Command. In other words the two sides were suffering almost the same losses in trained aircrew, in proportion to their overall strengths. In the Battle of Britain, for the first time during the Second World War, the German war machine had set itself a major task which it patently failed to achieve, and so demonstrated that it was not invincible. In stiffening the resolve of those determined to resist Hitler the battle was an important turning point in the conflict.
The British victory in the Battle of Britain was achieved at a heavy cost. Total British civilian losses from July to December 1940 were 23,002 dead and 32,138 wounded, with one of the largest single raids on 19 December 1940, in which almost 3,000 civilians died. With the culmination of the concentrated daylight raids, Britain was able to rebuild its military forces and establish itself as an Allied stronghold, later serving as a base from which the Liberation of Western Europe was launched.
Winston Churchill summed up the effect of the battle and the contribution of RAF Fighter Command, RAF Bomber Command, RAF Coastal Command and the Fleet Air Arm with the words, "Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few ''. Pilots who fought in the battle have been known as The Few ever since; at times being specially commemorated on 15 September, "Battle of Britain Day ''. On this day in 1940, the Luftwaffe embarked on their largest bombing attack yet, forcing the engagement of the entirety of the RAF in defence of London and the South East, which resulted in a decisive British victory that proved to mark a turning point in Britain 's favour.
Within the Commonwealth, Battle of Britain Day has been observed more usually on the third Sunday in September, and even on the 2nd Thursday in September in some areas in the British Channel Islands.
The day has been observed by many artists over the years, often with works that show the battle itself. Many mixed media artists have also created pieces in honour of the Battle of Britain.
Plans for the Battle of Britain window in Westminster Abbey were begun during wartime, the committee chaired by Lords Trenchard and Dowding. Public donations paid for the window itself, this officially opened by King George VI on 10 July 1947. Although not actually an ' official ' memorial to the Battle of Britain in the sense that government paid for it, the window and chapel have since been viewed as such. During the late 1950s and 1960, various proposals were advanced for a national monument to the Battle of Britain, this also the focus of several letters in The Times. In 1960 the Conservative government decided against a further monument, taking the view that the credit should be shared more broadly than Fighter Command alone, and there was little public appetite for one. All subsequent memorials are the result of private subscription and initiative, as discussed below.
There are numerous memorials to the battle. The most important ones are the Battle of Britain Monument in London and the Battle of Britain Memorial at Capel - le - Ferne in Kent. Westminster Abbey and St James 's Church, Paddington both have memorial windows to the battle, replacing windows that were destroyed during the campaign. There is also a memorial at the former Croydon Airport, one of the RAF bases during the battle, and a memorial to the pilots at Armadale Castle on the Isle of Skye in Scotland, which is topped by a raven sculpture.
There are also two museums to the battle: one at Hawkinge in Kent and one at Stanmore in London, at the former RAF Bentley Priory.
In 2015 the RAF created an online ' Battle of Britain 75th Anniversary Commemorative Mosaic ' composed of pictures of "the few '' -- the pilots and aircrew who fought in the battle -- and "the many '' -- ' the often unsung others whose contribution during the Battle of Britain was also vital to the RAF 's victory in the skies above Britain ', submitted by participants and their families.
Victoria Embankment, London
Capel - le - Ferne, Kent
Armadale Castle
Westminster Abbey
St James 's Church, Paddington
Croydon Airport
Monument of Polish Pilots, Northolt
The battle was the subject of the 1969 film Battle of Britain. The cast included Laurence Olivier as Hugh Dowding and Trevor Howard as Keith Park. It also starred Michael Caine, Christopher Plummer and Robert Shaw as Squadron Leaders. Former participants of the battle served as technical advisors including Douglas Bader, Adolf Galland and Hugh Dowding. An Italian film around the same time entitled Eagles Over London (1969) also featured the Battle of Britain. The 1988 ITV mini-series Piece of Cake, an aerial drama about a fictional Second World War RAF fighter squadron in 1940, features the battle. The Czech film Dark Blue World (2001) also featured the battle, focusing on the Czech pilots who fought in the battle. A fictional version of the battle is shown in the 2001 movie, Pearl Harbor, in which the battle is depicted as still going on into 1941.
It has also been the subject of many documentaries, including the 1941 Allied propaganda film Churchill 's Island, winner of the first Academy Award for Documentary Short Subject. There was also the 1943 The Battle of Britain in Frank Capra 's Why We Fight series. It was included in an episode of 2004 BBC television documentary series Battlefield Britain. In 2010, actor Julian Glover played a 101 - year - old Polish veteran RAF pilot in the short film Battle for Britain.
The Few, a novel by Alex Kershaw, tells the stories of the men who flew in the Battle of Britain. As of 2003, a Hollywood film similarly named The Few was in preparation for release in 2008, based on the story of real - life US pilot Billy Fiske, who ignored his country 's neutrality rules and volunteered for the RAF. A Variety magazine outline of the film 's historical content was said in The Independent to have been described by Bill Bond, who conceived the Battle of Britain Monument in London, as "Totally wrong. The whole bloody lot. '' The project was later cancelled.
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where is the red navigation light located on a boat | Navigation light - wikipedia
A navigation light, also known as a running light, is a colored source of illumination on a waterborne vessel, aircraft and some spacecraft, used to signal a craft 's position, heading, and status. Commonly, their placement is mandated by international conventions or civil authorities. Contrary to the name, these lights are not used for navigating. They indicate the craft 's relative position and are thus often called position lights.
Navigation lighting systems include:
In 1838 the United States passed an act requiring steamboats running between sunset and sunrise to carry one or more signal lights; color, visibility and location were not specified. In 1848 the United Kingdom passed regulations that required steam vessels to display red and green sidelights as well as a white masthead light. In 1849 the U.S. Congress extended the light requirements to sailing vessels. In 1889 the United States convened the first International Maritime Conference to consider regulations for preventing collisions. The resulting Washington Conference Rules were adopted by the U.S in 1890 and became effective internationally in 1897. Within these rules was the requirement for steamships to carry a second mast head light. The international 1948 Safety of Life at Sea Conference recommended a mandatory second masthead light solely for power driven vessels over 150 feet in length and a fixed sternlight for almost all vessels. The regulations have changed little since then.
The International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea established in 1972 stipulates the requirements for the navigation lights required on a vessel.
To avoid collisions, vessels mount navigation lights that permit other vessels to determine the type and relative angle of a vessel, and thus decide if there is a danger of collision. In general sailing vessels are required to carry a green light that shines from dead ahead to 2 points (22 ⁄ °) abaft the beam on the starboard side (the right side from the perspective of someone on board facing forward), a red light from dead ahead to two points abaft the beam on the port side (left side) and a white light that shines from astern to two points abaft the beam on both sides. Power driven vessels, in addition to these lights, must carry either one or two (depending on length) white masthead lights that shine from ahead to two points abaft the beam on both sides. If two masthead lights are carried then the aft one must be higher than the forward one. Hovercraft at all times and some boats operating in crowded areas may also carry a yellow flashing beacon for added visibility during day or night.
In addition to red, white and green running lights, a combination of red, white and green Mast Lights placed on a mast higher than all the running lights, and viewable from all directions, may be used to indicate the type of craft or the service it is performing. See "Quick Guide '' in external links.
Aircraft navigation lights are placed in a way similar to that of marine vessels, with a aviation red navigation light located on the left wingtip leading edge and a aviation blue light (from a distance looks green) on the right wingtip leading edge. A white navigation light is as far aft as possible on the tail or each wing tip. High - intensity strobe lights are located on the aircraft to aid in collision avoidance.
In civil aviation, pilots must keep navigation lights on from sunset to sunrise. High - intensity white strobe lights are part of the anti-collision light system, as well as the red rotating beacon.
All aircraft built after 11 March 1996 must have an anti-collision light system (strobe lights or rotating beacon) turned on for all flight activities in poor visibility. The anti-collision system is recommended in good visibility, where only strobes and beacon are required. For example, just before pushback, the pilot must keep the beacon lights on to notify ground crews that the engines are about to start. These beacon lights stay on for the duration of the flight. While taxiing, the taxi lights are on. When coming onto the runway, the taxi lights go off and the landing lights and strobes go on. When passing 10,000 feet, the landing lights are no longer required, and the pilot can elect to turn them off. The same cycle in reverse order applies when landing.
Civilian commercial airliners also have other non-navigational lights. These include logo lights, which illuminate the company logo on the tail fin. These lights are optional to turn on, though most pilots switch them on at night to increase visibility from other aircraft. Modern airliners also have a wing light. These are positioned on the outer side just in front of the engine cowlings on the fuselage. These are not required to be on, but in some cases pilots turn these lights on for engine checks and also while passengers board the aircraft for better visibility of the ground near the aircraft.
In 2011, ORBITEC developed the first Light - emitting diode (LED) lighting system for use around spacecraft. Currently, Cygnus spacecraft, which are unmanned transport vessels designed for cargo transport to the International Space Station, utilize a navigational lighting system consisting of five flashing high power LED lights. The Cygnus displays a flashing red light on the port side of the vessel, a flashing green on the starboard side of the vessel, two flashing white lights on the top and one flashing yellow on the bottom side of the fuselage.
The Dragon cargo spacecraft from SpaceX also features a flashing strobe along with red and green lights.
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who wrote new york new york frank sinatra | Theme from New York, New York - Wikipedia
"Theme from New York, New York '' (or "New York, New York '') is the theme song from the Martin Scorsese film New York, New York (1977), composed by John Kander, with lyrics by Fred Ebb. It was written for and performed in the film by Liza Minnelli. It remains one of the best - known songs about New York City. In 2004 it finished # 31 on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs survey of top tunes in American Cinema.
In 1979, "Theme from New York, New York '' was re-recorded by Frank Sinatra for his album Trilogy: Past Present Future (1980), and has since become closely associated with him. He occasionally performed it live with Minnelli as a duet. Sinatra recorded it a second time for his 1993 album Duets, with Tony Bennett.
The first line of the song is:
Start spreadin ' the news, I 'm leaving today I want to be a part of it: New York, New York.
Within are two similar lines:
The song concludes with the line:
If I can make it there, I 'm gon na make it anywhere, It 's up to you, New York, New York.
Minnelli 's original recording of the song (also used in the Tony Bennett version in Duets) uses the following closing line:
If I can make it there, I 'll make it anywhere, Come on come through, New York, New York.
It should not be confused with the song "New York, New York '', from Leonard Bernstein / Adolph Green / Betty Comden 's musical On the Town (1944), which features the lyric "New York, New York, it 's a helluva town / The Bronx is up and the Battery 's down... ''
Composers Kander and Ebb stated on the A&E Biography episode about Liza Minnelli, that they attribute the song 's success to actor Robert De Niro, who rejected their original theme for the film because he thought it was "too weak ''.
The song did not become a popular hit until it was picked up in concert by Frank Sinatra during his performances at Radio City Music Hall in October 1978. (It was not even nominated for the Academy Award for ' Best Song '). Subsequently, Sinatra recorded it in 1979 for his 1980 Trilogy set (Reprise Records), and it became one of his signature songs. The single peaked at # 32 in June 1980, becoming his final Top Forty charting hit. It was also an Adult Contemporary hit, reaching # 10 in the US and # 2 in Canada. The song made a minor showing in the UK (# 59), however, recharted several years later and reached # 4 in 1986. Sinatra made two more studio recordings of the song in 1981 (for his NBC TV special The Man and His Music) and 1993 (for Capitol Records). From the latter, an electronic duet with Tony Bennett was produced for Sinatra 's Duets album.
The lyrics of the Sinatra versions differ slightly from Ebb 's original lyrics. Notably, the phrase "A-number - one '', which does not appear at all in the original lyrics, is sung twice at the song 's rallentando climax. (Ebb has said he "did n't even like '' Sinatra 's use of "A-number - one ''). The phrase is both the first and fourth on a list of three superlative titles the singer strives to achieve -- "A-number - one, top of the list, king of the hill, A-number - one '' -- where Ebb 's original lyrics (performed by Minnelli) were "king of the hill, head of the list, cream of the crop, at the top of the heap. ''
Despite Sinatra 's version becoming more familiar, original singer Minnelli had two of the tune 's most memorable live performances -- during the July 4, 1986 ceremony marking the rededication of the Statue of Liberty after extensive renovations, and in the middle of the seventh inning of a New York Mets game, that was the first pro sports event in the metro area after the September 11, 2001 attacks. She also sang it in the Olympic stadium during the 1984 Summer Olympics, accompanied by 24 pianos and strobe lights.
shipments figures based on certification alone
The song has been embraced as a celebration of New York City, and is often heard at New York - area social events, such as weddings and bar mitzvahs. Many sports teams in the New York area have played this song in their arenas / stadiums, but the New York Yankees are the most prominent example. It has been played over the loudspeakers at both the original and current Yankee Stadiums at the end of every Yankee home game since July 1980. Originally, Sinatra 's version was played after a Yankees win, and the Minnelli version after a loss. However, due to a complaint from Minnelli, the Sinatra version is now heard regardless of the game 's outcome. As of the 2005 season, at the Richmond County Bank Ballpark following Staten Island Yankees games, the Sinatra version is heard regardless of the game 's outcome, and was formerly done at Shea Stadium at the end of New York Mets games after the September 11, 2001 attack. Previously, Mets fans felt it was a "Yankee song '', and began booing it when it was played. It actually first had snippets of the song played after World Series home runs by Ray Knight and Darryl Strawberry during Game 7 of the 1986 World Series. The song is also sometimes played at New York Knicks games. The Sinatra version is played at the end of every New York Rangers game at Madison Square Garden. It was played at the opening faceoff of Game 7 of the 1994 Stanley Cup Finals at the Garden. The song has also been the post parade song for the Belmont Stakes from 1997 to 2009, and again from 2011 to the present. Sinatra 's version of the song has been played at the end of all four Super Bowls that the New York Giants have won to date, as well as before kickoff of Super Bowl XLVIII, while Minnelli 's version was heard after the Giants ' Super Bowl XXXV loss.
The song was the musical basis for Jimmy Picker 's 1983 three - minute animated short, Sundae in New York, which won the Academy Award for Best Short Film (Animated) that year, with a likeness of then - mayor Ed Koch somewhat stumbling through the song, with clay caricatures of New York - based celebrities (including Alfred E. Neuman) and finishing the song with "Basically I think New York is very therapeutic. Hey, an apple a day is... uh... great for one 's constitution! '' and burying his face in a big banana split with "THE END '' written on his bald head. (Koch used the same rallentando climax Sinatra used, albeit with one big difference: "A-number one, top of the list, king of the hill... '' followed by his impression of Groucho Marx completing, "... and incidentally a heckuva nice guy! '')
An instrumental version of the song is used as the main theme music for NBC 's broadcasts of the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade. It is also played during the annual Times Square New Year 's Day celebrations, immediately after "Auld Lang Syne '' and the ball drop.
Mexico 's top singer José José recorded the song in Spanish.
Queen covered the song for the 1986 fantasy film Highlander. Unlike the other songs recorded for the film, it has never appeared on a Queen album.
The song is performed by Brain Gremlin in the 1990 sequel Gremlins 2: The New Batch.
In Arrested Development episode 8 of season 2, which aired in January 2005, Tobias, played by David Cross, starts singing the song in his newly bought club. Lucille 2, played by Liza Minnelli, who 's in the audience comments "Everyone thinks they 're Frank Sinatra. ''
In DreamWorks ' Madagascar (2005), the song is introduced in Central Park Zoo, and Marty later sings the song in the midst of Alex the Lion 's delirium.
In 2013, the song was played at the funeral of former New York City Mayor Ed Koch.
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what does the song photograph by ed sheeran mean | Photograph (Ed Sheeran song) - wikipedia
"Photograph '' is a song recorded by the English singer - songwriter, Ed Sheeran, for his second studio album, × (2014). Sheeran wrote the song with Snow Patrol member, Johnny McDaid, who had a piano loop from which the composition developed. After recording several versions with other producers, Sheeran eventually solicited help from Jeff Bhasker; the collaboration generated a version that Bhasker further enhanced for months. The ballad derives its music primarily from an acoustic guitar, piano and programmed drums. With visually descriptive lyrics, it discusses a long - distance relationship inspired by Sheeran 's own experience of being away from his then - girlfriend while he was on tour.
The song received generally positive commentary from critics, who noted the lyrics and Sheeran 's use of imagery. "Photograph '' served as the fifth and final single from the album. It reached the top five on the main singles charts in more than five countries. In the US, where it peaked at No. 10, "Photograph '' became the third single from the album to have reached within the top ten. In the UK, it reached No. 15 and has since been certified platinum for sales of 600,000 units. The single has also been certified double platinum in Australia and Canada, and platinum in New Zealand and Italy.
The single 's release on 11 May 2015 followed the premiere of the music video on 9 May 2015. The video is a montage of real home footage of Sheeran 's infancy, childhood and adolescence, providing insight on his private early life such as his inclination to playing music instruments and fondness of Lego. The video was nominated for Best Video at the 2016 Brit Awards. Sheeran performed the song on television shows and on his x Tour, which ran from 2014 to 2015.
On 9 June 2016, it was revealed that Sheeran was being sued by songwriters Martin Harrington and Thomas Leonard, writers of Matt Cardle 's 2011 single "Amazing '', for $20 million for copyright infringement for note - for - note plagiarism. The lawsuit was privately settled in April 2017, with no admission of guilt.
Ed Sheeran wrote "Photograph '' in May 2012 with Johnny McDaid, instrumentalist and background vocalist of the British band Snow Patrol. Sheeran toured with the band, for whom he provided opening performances in select North American dates. McDaid had a three - note piano loop that became the basis of "Photograph ''. The song 's development began when Sheeran, while in a hotel room in Kansas City, was humming "loving can hurt, loving can hurt '' to the loop that was playing on McDaid 's laptop. Sheeran recalled: "I started humming, and then (McDaid) put a beat behind it. ''
They developed ideas for the song while Sheeran was building a Lego and McDaid was working on his laptop. After four hours, Sheeran picked up a guitar and they began properly structuring the composition. According to Sheeran, they ended up composing the song "within about half an hour ''. Both realized what had transpired only after listening back to the song the following day; they then decided on recording it. Sheeran completed writing the song while in Denver, Colorado.
Sheeran credited "Photograph '' as the first record "properly '' completed for his second studio album. According to him, he had "probably '' recorded 60 to 70 versions of the song; these varied from live to that with piano accompaniment. Aside from the earlier versions he made with McDaid, Sheeran had recordings with songwriter - producer, Jake Gosling, who produced much of Sheeran 's debut album, and producer, Rick Rubin, who was involved in other tracks from the follow - up album. However, Sheeran thought these versions "never fit '' and he eventually solicited help from producer, Jeff Bhasker. This particular collaboration generated a version that Bhasker continued to enhance for several months. Emile Haynie was credited on the album 's liner notes for his additional production. On 24 January 2015, Sheeran recalled the backstory of "Photograph '' for the VH1 Storytellers.
An acoustic pop ballad, "Photograph '' derives its music from an acoustic guitar, piano, strings, organ, electric and bass guitar, and programmed drums. The melody builds up with the guitar strums and piano keys; the drums, strings, organ etc. then follow. It has a tempo of 108 beats per minute and the originally published key is in E major. "Photograph '' features a chord progression that is common in popular music.
The lyrics to the song chronicle a long - distance relationship. It contains detailed imagery such as the protagonist remembering his girlfriend kissing him "under the lamppost, back on 6th street '', and keeping a picture of him "in the pocket of (her) ripped jeans ''. These lyrics were inspired by Sheeran 's own experience on a long - distance relationship. He dated Nina Nesbitt, a Scottish singer / songwriter, for more than a year. While on this relationship, Sheeran spent five months away from Nesbitt: three months while on a concert tour with Snow Patrol and further two months on his own tour. At his concert in Kansas City on 29 June 2017, Sheeran noted that he wrote the song Photograph at Kansas City 's Intercontinental Hotel during a previous tour.
In February 2013, Sheeran played a demo version of "Photograph '' to a German radio station. This performance was not recorded in film or audio, and was the only play Sheeran made prior to the song 's release as part of an album. Sheeran favoured the song as one of the best in the album and claimed: "I think ('' Photograph ") will be the one that will change my, kind of, career path. '' He also asserted that "Photograph '' would serve as the "collateral '' song that could "sell (the album) '' even if the rest of the tracks would not prove appealing.
The song was released as an "instant grat '' digital download to the iTunes Store on 20 June 2014; it served as the final of seven promotional singles from his second studio album, × (2014). On 22 April 2015, through his Twitter account, Sheeran announced that "Photograph '' would be the next single off ×. It was released on 11 May 2015 to hot adult contemporary format, and the following day to contemporary hit radio in the US. On 12 June 2015, "Photograph '' was released to the German market in CD format with the B - side, "I Will Take You Home ''. The latter track was featured in the American television sitcom, Cougar Town.
"Photograph '' served as the fifth and last single released from the album. Of the five singles, preceded by two upbeat songs such as the lead single, "Sing '', "Photograph '' was the second mellow track released from ×. The first was "Thinking Out Loud '', the third single, which is a blue - eyed soul record produced by Gosling. According to Sheeran, no one from his label wanted "Thinking Out Loud '' as a single release; they favoured "Photograph '' as the "big song ''. "Photograph '' was supposed to be the main single, but when "Thinking Out Loud '' spent several weeks within the top 20 on the UK Singles Chart albeit not in radio rotation, the latter song was kept as the third single.
Upon the album 's release, critical response to "Photograph '' was generally positive. In his track - by - track review of x for Billboard magazine, Jason Lipshutz suggested that the line "Loving can hurt sometimes / But it 's the only thing that I know '' in "Photograph '' was the "lynchpin line of the whole album ''. Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe had the same sentiment; she called the song "haunting '' and felt it "(crept) up on you with (its) tunefulness ''. Jamieson Cox of Time described Sheeran 's use of "detail and powerful imagery '' in the lyrics as "smart ''; Cox opined that it "(brought the song) to life ''.
Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph deemed the track "soulful balladry '' and felt it showcased that Sheeran "can slip smoothly through the gears '' on the album. Lipshutz described his singing as being "restrained '' over "hesitant '' acoustic guitar strum before the "arena drums kick in ''. Paul Cantor of Vibe picked "Photograph '' as one of the standouts from the album, and noted that the song 's "brooding arrangement is an emotional roller coaster ''. Kitty Empire of The Observer called "Photograph '' a "swelling ballad '', and suggested that Sheeran 's writing was "particularly calculated ''. In his review for MusicOMH, John Murphy also felt that "Photograph '' was "calculated and a bit cynical, almost as if it 's been written specifically as a soundtrack to a particularly emotional scene in a US television series ''.
On her analysis of the lyrical content of the album, Annie Zaleski of The A.V. Club expressed that Sheeran 's "self - awareness extends to the rest '' of the album by tackling homesickness in "Photograph '', for instance. Meanwhile, Carolyn Menyes of the Music Times wrote in her review of the song that "in the grander scheme of x, ' Photograph ' does n't quite seem to line up lyrically '', and noted that most of the album 's songs explored "the feelings of a lover scorned, cheating exes and a little bit of the excess life ''. She also said: "Simply put: ' Photograph ' is one of Sheeran 's more simplistically beautiful songs. ''
McDaid 's involvement in the song was noted by a few critics. Kevin Harly of The Independent wrote: "If you did n't know Snow Patrol 's Johnny McDaid produced the ballad ' Photograph ', its stolid plod through clichés about how lovin ' ' can hurt ' and ' heal ' should tell you ''. Meanwhile, Dave Hanratty of Drowned in Sound remarked: "... the cloying ' Photograph '... is co-written and produced by a member of Snow Patrol should surprise nobody, given that it follows their heartstring - tugging script so resolutely. At least it moves. '' The Herald 's Alan Morrison felt that "Photograph '' was "identikit Snow Patrol ''.
"Photograph '' and the rest of the album 's tracks entered the UK Singles Chart due to high streaming rates. The single debuted at number 44 on the chart week ending 5 July 2014, ten months prior to the single 's release. It peaked at number 15, and has spent 50 weeks on the chart as of the week ending 5 November 2015. On 17 March 2017, the British Phonographic Industry certified the single double platinum for combined sales of 1.2 million units. As of September 2017, the song has accumulated 386,000 copies in actual sales, and with 96 million streams, it has a combined total of 1,347,000 units.
In the US, the single reached number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 and marked the third top 10 from the album. With "Photograph '', Sheeran also became the ninth male solo artist since 2010 to spawn four top 20 hits from a single album, excluding deluxe editions. In specific formats such as the Mainstream Top 40, the single reached the top 10 on the week ending 29 August 2015; it gave the album four that have achieved the threshold. The single was first certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on 21 July 2015, double platinum on 29 February 2016 and triple platinum on 16 August 2017. As of June 2016, the song has sold 1,551,000 copies in the US. Elsewhere, the single reached top five in Austria, Canada, Germany, Ireland, Slovakia, and South Africa.
In April 2015, commercial streaming company Spotify released a report of the most streamed tracks worldwide under the category sleep. "Photograph '' placed at number 18; it joined Sheeran 's other six songs ranked in the top 20. Sleep is one of the company 's most popular categories that, according to Spotify, "people also use for general relaxation and to help themselves unwind ''. The Guardian columnist Tim Dowling suggested that the report was an indication of "very popular, slightly mellow songs that keep cropping up on sleep playlists '' but not a list of a "carefully curated journey to unconsciousness ''.
On 9 June 2016, it was reported that Sheeran was being sued by songwriters Martin Harrington and Thomas Leonard, writers of Matt Cardle 's 2011 single "Amazing '', for $20 million for copyright infringement. The lawsuit says: "Given the striking similarity between the chorus of Amazing and Photograph, (the) defendants knew when writing, publishing, recording, releasing, and distributing Photograph that they were infringing on a pre-existing musical composition. '' The lawsuit was privately settled in April 2017, with no admission of guilt.
An accompanying music video for "Photograph '' was released on 9 May 2015. The video is a montage of real home footage. Sheeran sourced the clips from his father, who was then compiling it into DVDs for their family Christmas present. He initially intended the clips for inclusion in a documentary that was being produced around that time; but looking through the collection, he thought it might work for a music video. Sheeran also admitted he could not attend to an actual video shoot, hence he opted for the montage. Emil Nava, who had previously worked with Sheeran on his other promotional music videos, directed "Photograph ''. Editor Ellie Johnson worked with Sheeran 's father while in central London. According to Johnson, they spent a weekend gathering the clips used in the montage.
The montage chronicles Sheeran 's infancy, childhood and adolescence (1990s and 2000s). It features Sheeran playing various music instruments (including piano, cello, bass guitar, acoustic and drums), suggesting that he was musically inclined at a young age. He is also shown displaying his skill in Bodhrán, an Irish frame drum. Other footage depicts a teen Sheeran busking in Galway, Ireland. In another clip before the final, Sheeran is shown performing to a crowd at a festival. Daniel Kreps of Rolling Stone noted that the clips also revealed Sheeran 's "lifelong obsession with Legos '', an object the latter referenced on his 2011 single "Lego House ''.
According to Ryan Book of the Music Times, the media form utilized in the montage contradicted the song 's title. Kreps stated that the video was reminiscent of Kurt Cobain: Montage of Heck, a documentary film about Nirvana front man and 1990s rock icon Kurt Cobain. According to Kreps, the private life of both artists in their youth were revealed through real home videos.
"Photograph '' was performed on television prior to its commercial release. On 13 December 2014, Sheeran appeared on The X Factor UK, where he gave his first televised performance of the song. This performance contributed to the song 's first ascent inside the top 40 on the UK Singles Chart. Sheeran also performed the song for various US television shows such as on Good Morning America, The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, and Undateable, at Canada 's Much Music Video Awards, and at the 2015 Global Citizen Festival. The song was part of the setlist in Sheeran 's x Tour; the concert tour ran from 2014 to 2015.
In other usages, English singer Foxes covered the song for the BBC Radio 1 Live Lounge. The song was used, free of charge, in a video campaign that was launched on 2 March 2015. According to Same Dimmer of the Coventry Telegraph, the video "(highlighted) the issue of child sexual exploitation '' in Warwickshire, a non-metropolitan county in England. The song is also used in the trailer and soundtrack for the movie Me Before You. CBS Sports used the song as a backing track for a photo montage of its NFL production crew following its Thanksgiving Day presentation in 2016.
The song was recorded by Jordan Feliz, for his debut studio album, Beloved, released by Centricity Music. A critic says the acoustic rendition shows, "his falsetto shining '', while another writes it is an "incredible '' cover song, on a track meant to convey the temporal nature with which worldly mortal relationships have compared to one with God 's son Jesus Christ. Jessica Mauboy covered the song on her 2016 album, The Secret Daughter: Songs from the Original TV Series.
Credits adapted from the album liner notes.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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edge of the earth 30 seconds to mars | Edge of the Earth - wikipedia
"Edge of the Earth '' is a song by American rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars. The song was released through Immortal and Virgin on March 3, 2003, as the second single from the band 's self - titled debut album. The song was written by Jared Leto and was produced by Bob Ezrin, Brian Virtue and 30 Seconds to Mars.
30 Seconds to Mars released "Edge of the Earth '' to American radio on January 28, 2003. The song was first performed on television on January 17, 2003, during The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. "Edge of the Earth '' was also performed on The Late Late Show with Craig Kilborn on February 3, 2003. It was the first performance of 30 Seconds to Mars with the guitarist Tomo Miličević, who replaced Solon Bixler few days earlier. The music video for the song was directed by Kevin McCullough and premiered on March 27, 2003, on the band 's official website. The video contains concert footage, meetings with fans and behind the scenes of shows.
"Edge of the Earth '' was featured in the trailer for Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit which played at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010. The song has also been included on the soundtrack of the game. The Vitamin String Quartet recorded a cover version of "Edge of the Earth '', which was released on the tribute album Vitamin String Quartet Tribute to 30 Seconds to Mars (2008). The group used violins, viola, cello and double bass to express their interpretation of the music of 30 Seconds to Mars.
Credits adapted from 30 Seconds to Mars booklet.
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laws passed by congress are the supreme law of the land | Supremacy Clause - wikipedia
The Supremacy Clause of the United States Constitution (Article VI, Clause 2) establishes that the Constitution, federal laws made pursuant to it, and treaties made under its authority, constitute the supreme law of the land. It provides that state courts are bound by the supreme law; in case of conflict between federal and state law, the federal law must be applied. Even state constitutions are subordinate to federal law. In essence, it is a conflict - of - laws rule specifying that certain federal acts take priority over any state acts that conflict with federal law. In this respect, the Supremacy Clause follows the lead of Article XIII of the Articles of Confederation, which provided that "Every State shall abide by the determination of the United States in Congress Assembled, on all questions which by this confederation are submitted to them. '' A constitutional provision announcing the supremacy of federal law, the Supremacy Clause assumes the underlying priority of federal authority, at least when that authority is expressed in the Constitution itself. No matter what the federal government or the states might wish to do, they have to stay within the boundaries of the Constitution. This makes the Supremacy Clause the cornerstone of the whole American political structure.
This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding.
In Federalist No. 44, James Madison defends the Supremacy Clause as vital to the functioning of the nation. He noted that state legislatures were invested with all powers not specifically defined in the Constitution, but also said that having the federal government subservient to various state constitutions would be an inversion of the principles of government, concluding that if supremacy were not established "it would have seen the authority of the whole society everywhere subordinate to the authority of the parts; it would have seen a monster, in which the head was under the direction of the members ''.
The constitutional principle derived from the Supremacy Clause is federal preemption. Preemption applies regardless of whether the conflicting laws come from legislatures, courts, administrative agencies, or constitutions. For example, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, an act of Congress, preempts state constitutions, and Food and Drug Administration regulations may preempt state court judgments in cases involving prescription drugs.
Congress has preempted state regulation in many areas. In some cases, such as the 1976 Medical Device Regulation Act, Congress preempted all state regulation. In others, such as labels on prescription drugs, Congress allowed federal regulatory agencies to set federal minimum standards, but did not preempt state regulations imposing more stringent standards than those imposed by federal regulators. Where rules or regulations do not clearly state whether or not preemption should apply, the Supreme Court tries to follow lawmakers ' intent, and prefers interpretations that avoid preempting state laws.
In Ware v. Hylton, 3 U.S. (3 Dall.) 199 (1796), the United States Supreme Court for the first time applied the Supremacy Clause to strike down a state statute. Virginia had passed a statute during the Revolutionary War allowing the state to confiscate debt payments by Virginia citizens to British creditors. The Supreme Court found that this Virginia statute was inconsistent with the Treaty of Paris with Britain, which protected the rights of British creditors. Relying on the Supremacy Clause, the Supreme Court held that the treaty superseded Virginia 's statute, and that it was the duty of the courts to declare Virginia 's statute "null and void ''.
In Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. 137 (1803), the Supreme Court held that Congress can not pass laws that are contrary to the Constitution, and it is the role of the Judicial system to interpret what the Constitution permits. Citing the Supremacy Clause, the Court found Section 13 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 to be unconstitutional to the extent it purported to enlarge the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court beyond that permitted by the Constitution.
In Martin v. Hunter 's Lessee, 14 U.S. 304 (1816), and Cohens v. Virginia, 19 U.S. 264 (1821), the Supreme Court held that the Supremacy Clause and the judicial power granted in Article III give the Supreme Court the ultimate power to review state court decisions involving issues arising under the Constitution and laws of the United States. Therefore, the Supreme Court has the final say in matters involving federal law, including constitutional interpretation, and can overrule decisions by state courts.
In McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 316 (1819), the Supreme Court reviewed a tax levied by Maryland on the federally incorporated Bank of the United States. The Court found that if a state had the power to tax a federally incorporated institution, then the state effectively had the power to destroy the federal institution, thereby thwarting the intent and purpose of Congress. This would make the states superior to the federal government. The Court found that this would be inconsistent with the Supremacy Clause, which makes federal law superior to state law. The Court therefore held that Maryland 's tax on the bank was unconstitutional because the tax violated the Supremacy Clause.
In Ableman v. Booth, 62 U.S. 506 (1859), the Supreme Court held that state courts can not issue rulings that contradict the decisions of federal courts, citing the Supremacy Clause, and overturning a decision by the Supreme Court of Wisconsin. Specifically, the court found it was illegal for state officials to interfere with the work of U.S. Marshals enforcing the Fugitive Slave Act or to order the release of federal prisoners held for violation of that Act. The Supreme Court reasoned that because the Supremacy Clause established federal law as the law of the land, the Wisconsin courts could not nullify the judgments of a federal court. The Supreme Court held that under Article III of the Constitution, the federal courts have the final jurisdiction in all cases involving the Constitution and laws of the United States, and that the states therefore can not interfere with federal court judgments.
In Pennsylvania v. Nelson, 350 U.S. 497 (1956) the Supreme Court struck down the Pennsylvania Sedition Act, which made advocating the forceful overthrow of the federal government a crime under Pennsylvania state law. The Supreme Court held that when federal interest in an area of law is sufficiently dominant, federal law must be assumed to preclude enforcement of state laws on the same subject; and a state law is not to be declared a help when state law goes farther than Congress has seen fit to go.
In Reid v. Covert, 354 U.S. 1 (1957), the Supreme Court held that international treaties and laws made pursuant to them must comply with the Constitution.
In Cooper v. Aaron, 358 U.S. 1 (1958), the Supreme Court rejected attempts by Arkansas to nullify the Court 's school desegregation decision, Brown v. Board of Education. The state of Arkansas, acting on a theory of states ' rights, had adopted several statutes designed to nullify the desegregation ruling. The Supreme Court relied on the Supremacy Clause to hold that the federal law controlled and could not be nullified by state statutes or officials.
In Edgar v. MITE Corp., 457 U.S. 624 (1982), the Supreme Court ruled: "A state statute is void to the extent that it actually conflicts with a valid Federal statute ''. In effect, this means that a State law will be found to violate the Supremacy Clause when either of the following two conditions (or both) exist:
In 1920, the Supreme Court applied the Supremacy Clause to international treaties, holding in the case of Missouri v. Holland, 252 U.S. 416, that the Federal government 's ability to make treaties is supreme over any state concerns that such treaties might abrogate states ' rights arising under the Tenth Amendment.
The Supreme Court has also held that only specific, "unmistakable '' acts of Congress may be held to trigger the Supremacy Clause. Montana had imposed a 30 percent tax on most sub-bituminous coal mined there. The Commonwealth Edison Company and other utility companies argued, in part, that the Montana tax "frustrated '' the broad goals of the federal energy policy. However, in the case of Commonwealth Edison Co. v. Montana, 453 U.S. 609 (1981), the Supreme Court disagreed. Any appeal to claims about "national policy '', the Court said, were insufficient to overturn a state law under the Supremacy Clause unless "the nature of the regulated subject matter permits no other conclusion, or that the Congress has unmistakably so ordained ''.
However, in the case of California v. ARC America Corp., 490 U.S. 93 (1989), the Supreme Court held that if Congress expressedly intended to act in an area, this would trigger the enforcement of the Supremacy Clause, and hence nullify the state action. The Supreme Court further found in Crosby v. National Foreign Trade Council, 530 U.S. 363 (2000), that even when a state law is not in direct conflict with a federal law, the state law could still be found unconstitutional under the Supremacy Clause if the "state law is an obstacle to the accomplishment and execution of Congress 's full purposes and objectives ''. Congress need not expressly assert any preemption over state laws either, because Congress may implicitly assume this preemption under the Constitution.
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where is finding dory supposed to take place | Finding Dory - Wikipedia
Finding Dory is a 2016 American 3D computer - animated comedy adventure film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures. Directed by Andrew Stanton with co-direction by Angus MacLane, the screenplay was written by Stanton and Victoria Strouse. The film is a sequel / spinoff to 2003 's Finding Nemo and features the returning voices of Ellen DeGeneres and Albert Brooks, with Hayden Rolence (replacing Alexander Gould), Ed O'Neill, Kaitlin Olson, Ty Burrell, Diane Keaton and Eugene Levy joining the cast. The film focuses on the amnesiac fish Dory, who journeys to be reunited with her parents.
The film premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles on June 8, 2016, and was released in the United States on June 17, 2016. Upon release, the film was a critical and commercial success, grossing over $1 billion worldwide, becoming the second Pixar film to cross this mark after 2010 's Toy Story 3 and making it the third - highest - grossing film of 2016 and the 25th - highest - grossing of all - time. The film set numerous records, including the highest - grossing animated film opening of all time in North America.
Dory, a regal blue tang, gets separated from her parents as a child. As she grows up, Dory attempts to search for them, but gradually forgets them due to her short - term memory loss. In the flashback of the previous film, Finding Nemo, she joins Marlin -- a clownfish looking for his missing son Nemo -- after accidentally swimming into him.
One year later, Dory is living with Marlin and Nemo on their reef. One day, Dory has a flashback and remembers that she has parents. She decides to look for them, but her memory problem is an obstacle. She eventually remembers that they lived at the Jewel of Morro Bay across the ocean in California, thanks to Nemo mentioning its name.
Marlin and Nemo accompany Dory. With the help of Crush, a sea turtle friend, they ride a water current to California. Upon arrival, they explore a shipwreck full of destroyed cargo, where Dory accidentally awakens a squid, who immediately pursues them and almost devours Nemo. Marlin berates Dory for endangering them. Her feelings hurt, Dory travels to the surface to seek help and is captured by staff members from the nearby Marine Life Institute after getting entangled in six pack rings.
Dory is placed in the quarantine section and tagged. There she meets a grouchy but well - meaning octopus named Hank. Dory 's tag shows that she will be sent to an aquarium in Cleveland. Due to a traumatic ocean life, Hank wants to live in the aquarium instead of being released back into the ocean, so he agrees to help Dory find her parents in exchange for her tag. In one exhibit, Dory encounters her childhood friend Destiny, a nearsighted whale shark who used to communicate with Dory through pipes, and Bailey, a beluga whale who mistakenly believes he has lost his ability to echolocate. Dory subsequently has flashbacks of life with her parents and struggles to recall details. She finally remembers how she was separated from her parents: she overheard her mother crying one night, left to retrieve a shell to cheer her up, and was pulled away by an undertow current.
Marlin and Nemo attempt to rescue Dory. With the help of two sea lions named Fluke and Rudder and a disfigured common loon named Becky, they manage to get into the institute and find her in the pipe system. Other blue tangs tell them that Dory 's parents escaped from the institute a long time ago to search for her and never came back, leaving Dory believing that they have died. Hank retrieves Dory from the tank, accidentally leaving Marlin and Nemo behind. He is then apprehended by one of the employees and unintentionally drops Dory into the drain, flushing her out to the ocean. While wandering aimlessly, she comes across a trail of shells; remembering that when she was young, her parents had set out a similar trail to help her find her way back home, she follows it. At the end of the trail, Dory finds an empty home with multiple shell trails leading to it. As she turns to leave, she sees her parents Jenny and Charlie in the distance. They tell her they spent years laying down the trails for her to follow in the hopes that she would eventually find them.
Marlin, Nemo, and Hank end up in the truck taking various aquatic creatures to Cleveland. Destiny and Bailey escape from their exhibit to help Dory rescue them. Once on board the truck, Dory persuades Hank to return to the sea with her, and together, they hijack the truck and drive it over busy highways, creating havoc, before crashing it into the sea, freeing all the fish. Dory, along with her parents and new friends, return to the reef with Marlin and Nemo.
In a post-credits scene, the Tank Gang from Finding Nemo, still trapped inside their (now algae - covered) plastic bags, reach California one year after floating across the Pacific Ocean, where they are eventually picked up by the same staff members from the Marine Life Institute.
Prior to work on Finding Dory, Disney had planned to make a Finding Nemo sequel without Pixar 's involvement, through Circle 7 Animation, a studio Disney announced in 2005 with the intention to make sequels to Pixar properties. However, due to the 2006 acquisition of Pixar by Disney, Circle 7 was shut down by Disney without ever having produced a film.
In July 2012, it was reported that Andrew Stanton was developing a sequel to Finding Nemo, with Victoria Strouse writing the script and a release date scheduled for 2016. However, the same day the news of a potential sequel broke, Stanton posted a message on his personal Twitter calling into question the accuracy of these reports. The message said, "Did n't you all learn from Chicken Little? Everyone calm down. Do n't believe everything you read. Nothing to see here now. # skyisnotfalling. '' According to a report by The Hollywood Reporter published in August 2012, Ellen DeGeneres was in negotiations to reprise her role of Dory. In September 2012, it was confirmed by Stanton, saying: "What was immediately on the list was writing a second Carter movie. When that went away, everything slid up. I know I 'll be accused by more sarcastic people that it 's a reaction to Carter not doing well, but only in its timing, but not in its conceit. '' In February 2013, it was confirmed by the press that Albert Brooks would reprise the role of Marlin in the sequel.
In April 2013, Disney announced the sequel, Finding Dory, for November 25, 2015, confirming that DeGeneres and Brooks would be reprising their roles as Dory and Marlin, respectively. Following a long campaign for a sequel on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, DeGeneres stated:
I have waited for this day for a long, long, long, long, long, long time. I 'm not mad it took this long. I know the people at Pixar were busy creating Toy Story 16. But the time they took was worth it. The script is fantastic. And it has everything I loved about the first one: It 's got a lot of heart, it 's really funny, and the best part is -- it 's got a lot more Dory.
In a July 2013 interview with Los Angeles Times, Stanton spoke of the sequel 's origin: "There was polite inquiry from Disney (about a Finding Nemo sequel). I was always ' No sequels, no sequels. ' But I had to get on board from a VP standpoint. (Sequels) are part of the necessity of our staying afloat, but we do n't want to have to go there for those reasons. We want to go there creatively, so we said (to Disney), ' Can you give us the timeline about when we release them? Because we 'd like to release something we actually want to make, and we might not come up with it the year you want it. ' ''
In a 2016 interview Stanton stated how the film 's story came to be; "I do n't watch my films that often after they 're done because I have to watch them so many times before they come out. So about 2010 when we were getting Finding Nemo ready for the 10 - year re-release in 3D, it was interesting to watch again after all that time. Something kind of got lodged in the back of my brain and started to sort of stew. I started to think about how easily Dory could get lost and not find Marlin and Nemo again. She basically was in the same state that she was when Marlin found her. I did n't know where she was from. I knew that she had spent most of her youth wandering the ocean alone, and I wanted to know that she could find her new family, if she ever got lost again. It 's almost like the parental side of me was worried. '' Stanton additionally stated: "I knew if I ever said Finding Dory or mentioned a sequel to Finding Nemo out loud, I 'd be done, (T) here would be no way I 'd be able to put that horse back in the barn. So I kept it very quiet until I knew I had a story that I thought would hold, and that was in early 2012. So I pitched it to John Lasseter and he was all into it. Then I got a writer, and once we had a treatment that we kind of liked, I felt comfortable calling Ellen. ''
Stanton selected Victoria Strouse to write the screenplay. She later said, "It was always collaborative with Andrew, but really the screenwriting was me. Of course, Andrew would do passes, and he and I would brainstorm a lot together and then we would bring it to the group of story artists. People would weigh in and share ideas. '' She pointed to Dory 's forgetfulness as a challenge when writing the script, adding, "You do n't realize until you sit down to write a character who ca n't remember things how integral memory is to absolutely everything we do, and that 's what creates a narrative that people can follow. When a main character ca n't self - reflect and ca n't tell a story, that character is very difficult to design because she ca n't really lead. To get her to be able to lead and to get an audience to be able to trust her was the hardest thing to do. ''
The fictional Marine Life Institute depicted extensively in the film is based on the production team 's research trips to the Monterey Bay Aquarium, the Marine Mammal Center and the Vancouver Aquarium.
The film 's ending was revised after Pixar executives viewed Blackfish, a 2013 documentary film which focuses on the dangers of keeping orca whales in captivity. Initially, some of the characters were to end up in a SeaWorld - like marine park, but the revision gave them an option to leave. On September 18, 2013, it was announced that the film would be pushed back to a June 17, 2016, release. Pixar 's The Good Dinosaur was moved to the November 25, 2015, release window to allow more time for production of the film.
Angus MacLane was one of the first people to whom Stanton revealed his idea for the sequel. Together, with Bob Peterson, they discussed about different ideas for places Dory would visit during her journey -- one of those ideas was the touch pool sequence. Later, during the Brave (2012) wrap party, Stanton invited Angus to join him in his first co-directing duty. Stanton described Angus ' role as a "jack of all trades, '' particularly utilising his experience in animation and story, as well as in production, having created a few short films himself.
In August 2015, at Disney 's D23 Expo, it was announced that Hayden Rolence would voice Nemo, replacing Alexander Gould from the first film, whose voice has deepened since reaching adulthood (Gould voiced a minor character in the sequel instead). In addition to Rolence, Ed O'Neill was revealed to be the voice of Hank.
To make the light more realistic, RenderMan was completely re-engineered, its biggest change in 25 years.
The film 's soundtrack entitled Finding Dory was composed by Thomas Newman and released on June 17, 2016. Louis Armstrong 's version of "What a Wonderful World '' is played during the scene in which fish are released into the ocean as the truck Dory and Hank are driving crashes into the water. On May 20, 2016, Sia performed a cover of Nat King Cole 's "Unforgettable '' on The Ellen DeGeneres Show following an announcement that it would be featured in the film.
Finding Dory premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles on June 8, 2016, and was theatrically released in the United States on June 17, 2016, in 2D, Disney Digital 3 - D and RealD 3D. It was also released to select IMAX 3D theaters. In April 2016, it was announced that a new Pixar short, Piper, directed by Alan Barillaro and with music by Adrian Belew, would be shown in front of the film. It had its UK premiere at the Edinburgh International Film Festival on June 18, 2016.
The film was re-released for Labor Day weekend in 2016.
Finding Dory was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu - ray (2D and 3D) and DVD in the United States on November 15, 2016, with a digital release on October 25. In addition to Piper, the bonus features also included a short film, titled Marine Life Interviews, featuring interviews with the inhabitants of the Marine Life Institute about their encounters with Dory.
Finding Dory grossed $486.3 million in the U.S. and Canada and $542.3 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $1.029 billion, against a budget of $200 million. It had a worldwide opening of $185.7 million, which is the second - biggest of all time for an animated film behind Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs ($218.4 million), and an IMAX global opening of $6.4 million. On August 16, it became the fourth film of 2016 to earn $900 million in ticket sales, and on October 9 -- its seventeenth weekend -- it passed the $1 billion threshold, becoming the third film of 2016 after Captain America: Civil War and Zootopia to reach that mark, the second Pixar film (after Toy Story 3), the fifth animated film (after Toy Story 3, Frozen, Minions, and Zootopia), the twelfth Disney film (fourth Disney animated film), and the twenty - seventh film overall in cinematic history.
Worldwide, it is the third - highest - grossing film of 2016 (behind Civil War and Rogue One), the highest - grossing animated film of 2016, the second - highest - grossing Pixar film ever (behind Toy Story 3), the fourth - highest - grossing animated film of all time, and the 25th - highest - grossing film of all time. Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $296.6 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film, making it the fourth-most profitable release of 2016.
In the United States and Canada, Finding Dory opened on June 17, 2016, alongside Central Intelligence, with projections having the film grossing $110 -- 120 million in its opening weekend, with some estimates going as high as $130 million. It received the widest release for a Pixar film (4,305 theaters, breaking Brave 's record), of which 3,200 venues were in 3D, along with 425 premium large format locales, approximately 100 IMAX theaters and a handful of Dolby Cinema sites. It was Fandango 's top pre-selling animated film of all time, outselling the previous record - holder, Minions. The film grossed $9.2 million from Thursday night previews, a record for both Pixar and any animated film, and $54.7 million on its opening day, marking both the biggest opening day and single - day for an animated film. This also marks the first time that an animated film has grossed over $50 million in a single day. It went on to gross $135.1 million in its opening weekend, finishing first at the box office and setting the record for the highest opening weekend for both Pixar (breaking Toy Story 3 's record) and any animated film (breaking Shrek the Third 's record), and became the third - biggest adjusted for inflation. It is also the third - highest opening (excluding Marvel and Star Wars films) for Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures behind Beauty and the Beast ($174.8 million) and Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man 's Chest ($135.6 million), and is the studio 's ninth - biggest debut overall. It also became the fifth animated film and the fifth film of 2016 to open above $100 million. Morever, its opening also marked the second - biggest for the month of June, behind only Jurassic World. Its opening was 93.8 % above Finding Nemo 's $70.3 million debut. It further broke the record for the biggest PLF and Cinemark XD opening for an animated film with $10.4 million and $2.6 million, respectively. In IMAX, it made $5 million from 211 theaters, the third - best animated IMAX opening behind Zootopia ($5.2 million) and Toy Story 3 ($8.4 million).
Following its record - breaking openings, it scored the biggest Monday for Pixar by grossing $19.6 million (breaking Toy Story 3 's $15.6 million) and the best Monday in June for an animated film. However, among all animated films, it is ranked second -- behind 2004 's Shrek 2, which made $23.4 million on its first Monday, and it is also the biggest Tuesday for an animated film with $23.2 million, besting Minions ' $16.8 million. It jumped 18.5 % over its Monday gross, a rare achievement for a film. It crossed the $200 million mark in its first seven days, becoming the first (and fastest) animated film to pass the said milestone in just a week. It fell only 46 % in its second weekend earning $73 million to record the biggest second weekend for an animated film (breaking Shrek 2 's $72.2 million previous record), the biggest for Disney and 2016 (surpassing Captain America: Civil War 's $72.6 million), and the eighth - biggest second weekend gross of all time overall. This was despite facing stiff competition from newcomer Independence Day: Resurgence. It crossed $300 million in 12 days -- a new record for an animated film, surpassing the previous record held by Shrek 2 and Toy Story 3 (both of which took 18 days), and became the second animated film of 2016 (after Zootopia), the fourth Disney film of 2016, and the sixth overall film of the year to cross the milestone. It continued to dominate the box office for the third straight weekend, despite competitions from three new wide releases -- The Legend of Tarzan, The Purge: Election Year, and fellow Disney release The BFG -- after witnessing a 42 % decline to $41.8 million in three days and $51.4 million in four days, respectively, during the Independence Day holiday frame. This made it the second time in two years and just the third time since 1992, the July 4 holiday box office was topped by a film in its third weekend of release. It broke another record as it passed the $400 million mark in 21 days, which is the fastest for an animated film, the fastest of 2016, the fastest for the studio, and the fifth - fastest of all time overall. Morever, it became the second film of 2016 (after Captain America: Civil War), the fifth animated film, the ninth film for the studio, and the twenty - fourth film overall to pass the milestone. On the following day (July 8), it surpassed Civil War to become the biggest film of the year up until Rogue One took that title in January 2017. It dropped out of the top ten in its eighth week.
Although the film was finally overtaken by The Secret Life of Pets (and The Legend of Tarzan in second place) in its fourth weekend, it nevertheless passed The Lion King to become the highest - grossing Disney animated film of all time in the same weekend, surpassing the latter which held the record for 15 non-consecutive years. In just 30 days, it overtook Shrek 2 ($441.2 million) to become the highest - grossing animated film of all time, breaking the latter 's record of 12 years. Four days later, on July 20, it became the first - ever animated film in cinematic history to cross the $450 million mark. As with its predecessor Finding Nemo, the studio expanded the theater count for the film during the Labor Day weekend from 345 theaters to 2,075 theaters, an addition of 1,730 theaters. In 2003, Nemo was expanded from 838 sites to 1,053 locations.
It became the second - highest - grossing film of 2016 (behind Rogue One), the highest - grossing Pixar film, the second - highest - grossing Walt Disney Pictures release (behind Beauty and the Beast), the highest - grossing Disney animated film, the highest - grossing animated film overall, and the ninth - highest - grossing film of all time.
Internationally, Finding Dory received a staggered release in a span of four months from June to September, with Germany being the last country. This was done in order take advantage of key holidays and competitive dates around the world. It was released across 29 countries -- which is 32 % of its entire international release territories -- the same weekend as its U.S. premiere. It made an estimated $50.7 million to take the No. 1 spot at the international box office. In its second weekend, it added $38.7 million from 37 markets, falling in third place behind Independence Day: Resurgence and Now You See Me 2. In the same weekend along with its $73 million take in North America, the film helped Pixar cross the $10 billion mark worldwide since Toy Story (1995). By its fourth weekend, the animated film helped Disney push past the $3 billion mark internationally and $5 billion globally.
It had the biggest opening for an animated film in Brazil ($7.1 million) and the Netherlands ($2.1 million), and the biggest of all time for a Disney animated or Pixar film in Australia ($7.7 million), the Philippines ($2.1 million), Singapore ($1.3 million), India ($1 million), Indonesia, Peru and Central America, and in Russia it opened with $3.2 million, and the second - biggest in the United Kingdom and Ireland ($10.7 million), Mexico ($9.4 million) and Argentina ($3.5 million), and that 's despite amidst the latter country 's Copa America soccer match, and Colombia ($2.1 million), behind Monsters University. In the UK and Ireland, the film recorded the second - biggest animated opening of the year with £ 8.1 million ($10.7 million) from 580 theaters, behind only The Secret Life of Pets. However, if previews are excluded, Finding Dory is ahead. Moreover, it also posted the second - biggest Disney / Pixar opening, behind only Toy Story 3 (fourth - biggest if previews are included), and the seventh - biggest animated opening of all time overall based on pure Friday - to - Sunday gross alone. It added an additional 43 theaters in its second weekend, after which it added another £ 3.98 million ($5.1 million) at the weekend, thereby passing the £ 20 million mark in just 10 days (among Pixar films, only Toy Story 3 reached £ 20 million faster). It made an impressive £ 8.15 million during weekdays, from Monday to Thursday resulting in a £ 2.03 million daily - average gross. According to The Guardian, this was because of the school holidays that prevailed on the weekdays. Otherwise, family films earn the vast majority of their takings on Saturday and Sunday, and showtimes typically reduce on weekdays. It returned to the top of the box office in its fourth weekend and went on to become the highest - grossing film of the summer that year. In Brazil, in addition to recording the biggest Disney / Pixar opening ever, almost twice the previous record held by The Good Dinosaur, it also set a new record for an all - time animated opening, on par with Minions in local currency. In South Korea, it had the biggest opening for a Pixar film with $7.1 million, which is also the second - biggest for a Disney animated film, behind Frozen. In Japan, the film had a two - day weekend opening of $7 million on Saturday and Sunday from 511 screens on 571,000 admissions. For the entire three - day holiday weekend, including Marine Day on Monday July 18, the film earned $11 million on 922,000 admissions. This made it the top western release of the weekend and the biggest foreign opening - weekend in the country of that year. It had further number - one openings in Spain ($4.9 million), France ($4.7 million), Hong Kong ($1.9 million; $2.8 million including previews), Taiwan ($1.9 million), Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. It topped the box office in the Netherlands for three and in Spain and Australia for four consecutive weekends. In Italy, it scored the biggest animated opening of the year with $5.8 million.
In China, where Pixar films have been struggling to find broad audiences and accrue lucrative revenues, the film was projected to make around $30 million in its opening weekend. The film ended up grossing $17.7 million -- the highest Pixar opening in the country 's history -- debuting in second place behind Warcraft. It surpassed Monsters University in just seven days to become the biggest Pixar film there with $38.1 million. It opened in Germany -- its last market -- on September 29, where the film delivered a robust opening of $8.4 million, the biggest for any film of 2016 in the country. The film continued to benefit from German Unity Day on October 3. It went on to top the box office there for three straight weekends, tying with Inferno in its third weekend.
It is now the highest - grossing Disney animated or Pixar film in Australia (where it is also the second - highest - grossing animated film of all time behind Shrek 2), Bolivia, Brazil, Central America, Colombia, India, Indonesia, New Zealand, Peru, the Philippines, and Trinidad. It also became the second - highest - grossing Pixar release of all time in South Korea behind Inside Out. Elsewhere, the biggest markets in terms of total earnings were Japan ($66 million), followed by the UK ($56.3 million), China ($38.1 million), Australia ($36.3 million), and Brazil ($34.5 million).
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, Finding Dory has an approval rating of 94 % based on 287 reviews and an average rating of 7.6 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Funny, poignant, and thought - provoking, Finding Dory delivers a beautifully animated adventure that adds another entertaining chapter to its predecessor 's classic story. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 77 out of 100, based on 48 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Mike Ryan of Uproxx gave the film a positive review, saying: "I never thought I wanted a sequel to Finding Nemo, but here we are and I 'm pretty happy it exists. And, for me, it was a more emotional experience than the first film. Finding Dory got me -- it made me cry. '' A.O. Scott of The New York Times said that while the film lacks "dazzling originality, '' he overall wrote, "it more than makes up for in warmth, charm and good humor. '' In his review for Variety, Owen Gleiberman wrote, "It 's a film that spills over with laughs (most of them good, a few of them shticky) and tears (all of them earned), supporting characters who are meant to slay us (and mostly do) with their irascible sharp tongues, and dizzyingly extended flights of physical comedy. '' Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal said that "Finding Dory can be touching, sweet and tender, but it 's compulsively, preposterously and steadfastly funny. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film three - and - a-half stars out of four and said that the film "brims with humor, heart and animation miracles, '' despite lacking "the fresh surprise of its predecessor. ''
Conservationists warned that, very much like Finding Nemo, the film could lead to uninformed customers buying blue tangs for home aquariums. Blue tangs can not be bred in captivity and have to be caught in the wild. They are related to surgeonfish and exhibit razor - sharp spines on both sides of the tail that can inflict formidable wounds.
While promoting the film, actress Ellen DeGeneres reminded audiences that Nemo and Dory 's real - life home, the Great Barrier Reef, is under enormous threat, mostly due to coral bleaching, a process induced by climate change, which has killed coral reefs on an enormous scale.
In June 2016, director Andrew Stanton talked about the possibility of a sequel, saying that he would never exclude it because of the introduction of new characters, citing the Toy Story films as guides for how to expand a world through sequels.
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does each us state have its own constitution | State Constitution (United States) - wikipedia
In the United States, each state has its own constitution.
Usually, they are much longer than the United States Constitution, which only contains 4,543 words. State constitutions are usually longer than 8,500 - words because they are more detailed regarding the day - to - day relationships between government and the people. The shortest is the Constitution of Vermont, adopted in 1793 and currently 8,295 words long. The longest is Alabama 's sixth and current constitution, ratified in 1901, about 345,000 words long. Both the federal and state constitutions are organic texts: they are the fundamental blueprints for the legal and political organizations of the United States and the states, respectively.
The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, part of the Bill of Rights, provides that "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. '' The Guarantee Clause of Article 4 of the Constitution states that "The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government. '' These two provisions indicate states did not surrender their wide latitude to adopt a constitution, the fundamental documents of state law, when the U.S. Constitution was adopted.
Typically state constitutions address a wide array of issues deemed by the states to be of sufficient importance to be included in the constitution rather than in an ordinary statute. Often modeled after the federal Constitution, they outline the structure of the state government and typically establish a bill of rights, an executive branch headed by a governor (and often one or more other officials, such as a lieutenant governor and state attorney general), a state legislature, and state courts, including a state supreme court (a few states have two high courts, one for civil cases, the other for criminal cases). They also provide general governmental framework for what each branch is supposed to do and how it should go about doing it. Additionally, many other provisions may be included. Many state constitutions, unlike the federal constitution, also begin with an invocation of God.
Some states allow amendments to the constitution by initiative.
Many states have had several constitutions over the course of their history.
The territories of the United States are "organized '' and, thus, self - governing if the United States Congress has passed an Organic Act. Only two of the 14 territories -- Guam and the United States Virgin Islands -- are organized. One unorganized territory, American Samoa, has its own constitution. The remaining 13 unorganized territories have no permanent populations and are either under direct control of the U.S. Government or operate as military bases.
The commonwealths of Puerto Rico and the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) do not have organic acts but operate under local constitutions. Pursuant to the acquisition of Puerto Rico under the Treaty of Paris, 1898, the relationship between Puerto Rico and the United States is controlled by Article IV of the United States Constitution. Constitutional law in the CNMI is based upon a series of constitutional documents, the most important of which are the 1976 Covenant to Establish a Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands in political union with the United States of America, which controls the relationship between the CNMI and the United States; and the local commonwealth constitution, drafted in 1976, ratified by the people of the CNMI in March 1977, accepted by the United States Government in October 1977, and effective from 9 January 1978.
The following is a list of the current constitutions of the United States of America and its constituent political divisions. Each entry shows the original number of the current constitution, the official name of the current constitution, and the date on which the current constitution took effect.
Note that constitutions of states that were independent countries prior to admission, and constitutions used by rebelling states participating in the American Civil War are not counted.
The District of Columbia (Washington City in the District of Columbia) has a charter similar to charters of major cities, instead of having a constitution like the states and territories. The District of Columbia Home Rule Act establishes the Council of the District of Columbia, which governs the entire district and has certain devolved powers similar to those of major cities. Congress has full authority over the district and may amend the charter and any legislation enacted by the Council. Attempts at statehood for the District of Columbia have included the drafting of two constitutions in 1982 and 1987, both referring to the district as the "State of New Columbia ''.
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what happened to thanos in guardians of the galaxy | Thanos - wikipedia
Thanos (UK: / ˈθænɒs /, US: / ˈθænoʊs /) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer Mike Friedrich and writer - artist Jim Starlin, the character first appeared in Iron Man # 55 (cover dated Feb. 1973).
The character appears in various Marvel Cinematic Universe films, including The Avengers (2012), portrayed by Damion Poitier, and Guardians of the Galaxy (2014), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), Avengers: Infinity War (2018), and its untitled sequel (2019), portrayed by Josh Brolin. The character has appeared in other Marvel - endorsed products, including animated television series, arcade, and video games.
Writer - artist Jim Starlin originally conceived of Thanos of Titan during college psychology classes. As Starlin described:
I went to college between doing U.S. military service and getting work in comics, and there was a psych class and I came up with Thanos... and Drax the Destroyer, but I 'm not sure how he fit into it, just anger management probably. So I came up to Marvel and (editor) Roy (Thomas) asked if I wanted to do an issue of Iron Man. I felt that this may be my only chance ever to do a character, not having the confidence that my career was going to last anything longer than a few weeks. So they got jammed into it. Thanos was a much thinner character and Roy suggested beefing him up, so he 's beefed up quite a bit from his original sketches... and later on I liked beefing him up so much that he continued to grow in size.
Starlin has admitted the character is influenced by Jack Kirby 's Darkseid:
Kirby had done the New Gods, which I thought was terrific. He was over at DC at the time. I came up with some things that were inspired by that. You 'd think that Thanos was inspired by Darkseid, but that was not the case when I showed up. In my first Thanos drawings, if he looked like anybody, it was Metron. I had all these different gods and things I wanted to do, which became Thanos and the Titans. Roy took one look at the guy in the Metron - like chair and said: "Beef him up! If you 're going to steal one of the New Gods, at least rip off Darkseid, the really good one! ''
Thanos ' first appearance was in Iron Man # 55 (Feb. 1973), featuring a story by Jim Starlin that was scripted by Mike Friedrich. The storyline from that issue continued through Captain Marvel # 25 -- 33 (bi-monthly: March 1973 -- Jan. 1974), Marvel Feature # 12 (Nov. 1973), Daredevil # 107 (Jan. 1974), and Avengers # 125 (July 1974). He returned in an extended storyline that spanned Strange Tales # 178 - 181 (Feb. -- Aug. 1975), Warlock # 9 - 11 (Oct. 1975 -- Jan. 1976), Marvel Team Up # 55 (March 1977), and the 1977 Annuals for Avengers and Marvel Two - in - One (Thanos does not actually appear until the end of Warlock # 9). He was also featured in a short backup story in Logan 's Run # 6 (June 1977) and had a small role in the Death of Captain Marvel graphic novel (April 1982).
The character was revived in Silver Surfer vol. 3, # 34 (Feb. 1990) and guest - starred until issue # 59 (November 1991), while simultaneously appearing in The Thanos Quest # 1 -- 2 (Sept. -- Oct. 1990) and Infinity Gauntlet # 1 - 6 (July -- Dec. 1991). After an appearance in Spider - Man # 17 (Dec. 1991), Thanos had a recurring role in Warlock and the Infinity Watch # 1 - 42 (Feb. 1992 -- Aug. 1995). This was followed by crossover appearances in Infinity War # 1 - 6 (June -- Nov. 1992), Infinity Crusade # 1 -- 6 (June -- Nov. 1993), Silver Surfer vol. 3, # 86 - 88 (Nov. 1993 -- Jan. 1994), Warlock Chronicles # 6 - 8, Thor # 468 -- 471 (Nov. 1993 -- Feb. 1994), Namor The Sub-Mariner # 44 (Nov. 1993), Secret Defenders # 11 - 14 (Jan. -- April 1994), Cosmic Powers # 1 -- 6 (March -- July 1994), and Cosmic Powers Unlimited # 1 (May 1995).
Thanos appeared in a connected storyline in Ka - Zar vol. 2, # 4 -- 11 (Aug. 1997 -- March 1998), Ka - Zar Annual (1997), and the X-Man and Hulk Annual (1998), before featuring in Thor vol. 2, # 21 -- 25 (March -- July 2000) and the 2000 Annual. The character was next used in Captain Marvel vol. 4, # 17 -- 19 (June -- Aug. 2001), Avengers: Celestial Quest # 1 - 8 (Nov. 2001 -- June 2002), Infinity Abyss # 1 - 6 (Aug. -- Oct. 2002) and Marvel: The End # 1 - 6 (May - Aug 2003).
In 2004 Thanos received an eponymous title that ran for 12 issues. In 2006, the character played an important role in Annihilation: Silver Surfer # 1 - 4 (June -- Sept. 2006) and Annihilation # 1 - 6 (Oct. 2006 -- March 2007). The character was re-introduced in Guardians of the Galaxy vol. 2, # 24 - 25 (April -- May 2010) and played a major role in The Thanos Imperative: Ignition (June 2010) and The Thanos Imperative # 1 - 6 (July -- Dec. 2010).
The character returned in Avengers Assemble # 1 (March 2012). A mini-series titled Thanos: Son of Titan by Joe Keatinge was planned for publication in August 2012, but was cancelled.
The character 's origin was expanded in the five - issue Thanos Rising miniseries by Jason Aaron and Simone Bianchi which was published monthly beginning in April 2013. Later that same year, Thanos played a central role in the Infinity miniseries written by Jonathan Hickman and drawn by Jim Cheung, Jerome Opeña, and Dustin Weaver.
In May 2014, Jim Starlin and Ron Lim worked together on the one - shot Thanos Annual, which is a prelude to a new trilogy of original graphic novels. The first, Thanos: The Infinity Revelation, was released the following August. Beginning in February 2015, Starlin also penned a four - issue miniseries titled Thanos vs. Hulk, which was set prior to the graphic novels. The second installment in the trilogy, Thanos: The Infinity Relativity, was released in June, 2015. The third graphic novel, Thanos: The Infinity Finale, as well as the connected mini-series The Infinity Entity were published in 2016.
At the same time Starlin was writing these graphic novels and tie - ins, the character also appeared in New Avengers # 23 - 24 (Oct - Nov 2014), Guardians of the Galaxy vol. 3, # 18 - 20 (Oct - Dec 2014), Legendary Star - Lord # 4 (Dec 2014), a six - issue miniseries titled Thanos: A God Up There Listening (Dec 2014), Avengers vol. 5, # 40 - 41 (Mar - Apr 2015), and Deadpool vol. 3, # 45 ("# 250 '') (Jun 2015). Thanos also played a major role in the five - issue miniseries The Infinity Gauntlet vol. 2, (July 2015 -- Jan 2016), a tie - in of the cross-over Secret Wars (2015).
Thanos was born on Saturn 's moon Titan, and is the child of Eternals Mentor and Sui - San. Thanos carries the Deviants gene, and as such shares the physical appearance of the Eternals ' cousin race. At birth, his mother was shocked by his appearance and attempted to kill him. During his school years, Thanos was a pacifist and would only play with his brother Eros (Starfox) and pets. By adolescence, Thanos had become fascinated with nihilism and death, worshipping and eventually falling in love with the physical embodiment of death, Mistress Death. As an adult, Thanos augmented his physical strength and powers mystically and artificially. He also attempted to create a new life for himself by starting a family. He is visited again by Mistress Death, for whom he murders his family.
Wishing to impress Mistress Death, Thanos gathers an army of villainous aliens and begins a nuclear bombardment of Titan that kills millions of his race. Seeking universal power in the form of the Cosmic Cube, Thanos travels to Earth. Prior to landing, his vessel destroys a nearby car as a family witnesses his arrival. Unbeknownst to Thanos, two of the family members in the vehicle survive: the father 's spirit is preserved by the Titanian cosmic entity Kronos and is given a new form as Drax the Destroyer while the daughter is found by Thanos ' father, Mentor, and is raised to become the heroine Moondragon. Thanos eventually locates the Cube, and also attracts the attention of Mistress Death. Willing the Cube to make him omnipotent, Thanos then discards the Cube. He imprisons Kronos and taunts Kree hero Captain Marvel, who with the aid of superhero team the Avengers and ISAAC (a super-computer based on Titan), is eventually able to defeat Thanos by destroying the Cube.
Thanos later comes to the aid of Adam Warlock in a war against the Magus and his religious empire. During this alliance Thanos cultivates a plan to reunite with Mistress Death, and secretly siphons off the energies of Warlock 's Soul Gem, and combines these with the power of the other Infinity Gems to create a weapon capable of destroying a star. Warlock summons the Avengers and Captain Marvel to stop Thanos, although the plan is foiled when Thanos kills Warlock. The Titan regroups and captures the heroes, who are freed by Spider - Man and the Thing. Thanos is finally stopped by Warlock, whose spirit emerges from the Soul Gem and turns the Titan to stone. Thanos 's spirit eventually reappears to accompany a dying Captain Marvel 's soul into the realm of Death.
Thanos is eventually resurrected, and collects the Infinity Gems once again. He uses the gems to create the Infinity Gauntlet, making himself omnipotent, and erases half the living things in the universe to prove his love to Death. This act and several other acts are soon undone by Adam Warlock. Warlock reveals that Thanos has always allowed himself to be defeated because the Titan secretly knows he is not worthy of ultimate power. Thanos joins Warlock as part of the Infinity Watch and helps him to defeat first his evil and then good personas, and cure Thor of "warrior Madness ''.
The events above have been dubbed the "Infinity saga. ''
Thanos later recruits a team of Earth - bound super-villains and puts them under the field leadership of Geatar in a mission to capture an ancient robot containing the obscure knowledge of a universal library and extract its data. Thanos uses information from the robot to plot against and battle Tyrant, the first creation of Galactus turned destroyer. When trapped in an alternate dimension, Thanos employs the aid of the brother of Ka - Zar, Parnival Plunder and later the Hulk to escape, although both attempts are unsuccessful. Thanos is eventually freed and comes into conflict with Thor, aligning himself with Mangog in a scheme to obtain powerful mystical and cosmic talismans which will allow him to destroy all life in the universe, and during their battles Thanos decimates the planet Rigel - 3.
Thanos then uses the heroes Thor and Genis - Vell (Captain Marvel 's son) against the death god Walker, who attempts to woo Mistress Death and then destroy the entity after being rejected. Thanos then devises a plan to become the All - Father of a new pantheon of gods created by himself. Thanos, however, finds himself opposed by the Avengers ' former member Mantis and her son Quoi, who apparently is destined to be the Celestial Messiah. Thanos abandons this plan after having to unite with Mistress Death to destroy the "Rot '', a cosmic aberration in deep space caused by Thanos 's incessant love for Death. Thanos also once conducted extensive research on genetics, and after studying many of the universe 's heroes and villains cloned them and gene - spliced his own DNA into the subjects. Although he later abandons the project, five clones survive, being versions of Professor X, Iron Man, Gladiator, Doctor Strange, and Galactus respectively. A sixth and unnamed version of Thanos also appears, and it is revealed the incarnations of Thanos encountered in the past by Thor and Ka - Zar were actually clones. The true Thanos -- with the aid of Adam Warlock, Gamora, Pip the Troll, Spider - Man, Captain Marvel, and Dr. Strange -- destroys the remaining clones.
When the ancient Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten uses a source of cosmic power, the Heart of the Universe, to seize power in present - day Earth (killing most of Earth 's heroes in the process), Thanos uses a time - travel stratagem to defeat him. Thanos then uses the Heart of the Universe to reverse Akhenaten 's actions and was also compelled to correct a flaw in the universe. Changed by the experience, Thanos advises confidant Adam Warlock he will no longer seek universal conquest. However, Marvel 's Executive Editor Tom Brevoort has stated on his Tumblr blog that this story is not in any way a part of official Marvel continuity.
Thanos decides to atone for the destruction of Rigel - 3, and agrees to aid a colony of Rigellians in evacuating their planet before Galactus can consume it. During the course of this mission Thanos learns Galactus is collecting the Infinity Gems in an effort to end his unyielding hunger. Thanos later learns Galactus is being manipulated into releasing a multiversal threat called Hunger, which feeds on entire universes. Despite opposition from Thanos, Galactus unwittingly frees the entity, and when its intentions are revealed, the pair team up and attempt to destroy it.
En route to the Kyln, an intergalactic prison, Thanos meets Death, who for the first time speaks to the Titan. Death claims to be worth wooing, but says Thanos must offer something other than death. At the Kyln Thanos encounters Peter Quill, also known as Star - Lord, and the Shi'ar warrior Gladiator, who are both prisoners, and the Beyonder, who has been rendered amnesiac by its choice to assume a humanoid female form. Thanos battles the Beyonder, causing its mind to shut down and leaving its power trapped within a comatose physical form. Thanos then instructs the Kyln officers to keep the Beyonder on life support indefinitely in order to prevent the entity from being reborn. Thanos departs the Kyln in the company of Skreet, a chaos - mite freed from the prison. Thanos then meets the Fallen, revealed to be the true first Herald of Galactus. Thanos defeats the former Herald and places him under complete mental control. He later appears in Wisconsin attempting to charge a weapon called the Pyramatrix with the life force of everyone on Earth until he is defeated by Squirrel Girl. After the battle, Uatu the Watcher appears and confirms to Squirrel Girl that she defeated the real Thanos, not a clone or copy.
During the Annihilation War Thanos allies himself with the genocidal villain Annihilus. When the Annihilation Wave destroys the Kyln, Thanos sends the Fallen to check on the status of the Beyonder, whose mortal form he finds has perished. Before the Fallen can report back to Thanos it encounters Tenebrous and Aegis: two of Galactus 's ancient foes. Thanos convinces Tenebrous and Aegis to join the Annihilation Wave in order to get revenge on Galactus, and they subsequently defeat the World Devourer and the Silver Surfer. Annihilus desires the secret of the Power Cosmic and asks Thanos to study Galactus. Once Thanos learns Annihilus 's true goal is to use the Power Cosmic to destroy all life and remain the sole survivor, he decides to free Galactus. Drax the Destroyer kills Thanos before he can do so but discovers that Thanos had placed a failsafe device to allow Silver Surfer to free Galactus in the event that Annihilus betrayed him. During a climactic battle with Annihilus, Nova is near death and sees Thanos standing with Mistress Death.
A cocoon protected by the Universal Church of Truth is revealed to be hiding Thanos, who has been chosen by Oblivion to be the new Avatar of Death. Resurrected before his mind could be fully formed, Thanos goes on a mindless rampage before being captured by the Guardians of the Galaxy. Thanos pretends to aid the Guardians against the invading Cancerverse, and after discovering its origin kills an alternate version of Mar - Vell, the self - proclaimed Avatar of Life. This causes the collapse of the Cancerverse, and Nova sacrifices himself in an attempt to contain Thanos inside the imploding reality. Thanos escapes and returns to Earth seeking an artificial cosmic cube. He forms an incarnation of the criminal group Zodiac to retrieve it, but he is defeated by the Avengers and the Guardians of the Galaxy and remanded to the custody of the Elders of the Universe.
Thanos soon invades Earth again after being informed that most of the Avengers have temporarily left the planet. He launches an assault on Attilan, which he offers to spare in exchange for the deaths of all Inhumans between the ages of 16 and 22. Black Bolt later informs the Illuminati that the true purpose of the invasion is to find and kill Thane, an Eternal / Inhuman hybrid that Thanos had secretly fathered years earlier. Thanos is trapped in a pocket limbo of stasis by his son. Thanos is freed by Namor and was among the villains that joined his Cabal to destroy other worlds. Thanos later meets his end on Battleworld, where he is easily killed by God Emperor Doom during an attempted insurrection.
Thanos is unintentionally brought back to life by Galactus. When Thanos prepares to raid a Project Pegasus facility to steal a Cosmic Cube, he is ambushed and defeated by a team of Avengers. During their battle, he mortally wounds War Machine and critically injures She - Hulk. After his defeat, he is imprisoned in the Triskelion, and manipulates Anti-Man into facilitating his escape. Thanos goes on a killing spree, but Black Panther, Blue Marvel and Monica Rambeau are able to stop him by devising a device that blocks the electrical synapses in his brain.
Thanos somehow later recovers and escapes captivity, and reclaims his Black Order forces from Corvus Glaive. After retaking command of his Black Quadrant outpost, Thanos discovers that he is dying. Thanos tries to force Mentor to find a cure for his malady, but kills him when he is unable to. Around this time, Thanos is approached by a mysterious hooded woman, who proposes an alliance. He tasks her with bringing him the hammer of the deceased Ultimate Thor. The woman fails, but removes her disguise to reveal herself as Hela, the Norse goddess of death. She tells Thanos that she needs his help to reclaim Hel, and in exchange, offers to give him the one thing he has been searching for his entire life: death. After this, the two kiss.
Thanos is a mutant member of the race of superhumans known as the Titanian Eternals. The character possesses abilities common to the Eternals, but amplified to a higher degree through a combination of his mutant -- Eternal heritage, bionic amplification, mysticism, and power bestowed by the abstract entity, Death. Demonstrating enormous superhuman strength, stamina, and durability, Thanos can absorb and project vast quantities of cosmic energy and is capable of telekinesis, telepathy, and matter manipulation. Thanos is an accomplished hand - to - hand combatant, having been trained in the art of war on Titan.
Thanos has proven himself capable of briefly holding his own in battle against Odin, and of blasting Galactus off his feet.
Thanos is a supergenius in virtually all known fields of advanced science and has created technology far exceeding contemporary Earth science. He often employs a transportation chair capable of space flight, force field projection, teleportation, time travel, and movement through alternate universes. Thanos is also a master strategist and uses several space vessels, at least three under the name "Sanctuary '', as a base of operations.
During the 1996 Amalgam Comics crossover between DC Comics and Marvel, Thanos merged with Darkseid to become "Thanoseid ''.
In the alternate universe limited series Earth X, Thanos dwelled in the Realm of the Dead with the entity Death. It is revealed his mother was a Skrull and Death used her secret to make him believe that Death was his mother. When the deception is revealed, he uses the Ultimate Nullifier on Death.
The Ultimate Marvel imprint title Ultimate Fantastic Four features an alternate universe version of Thanos who is the ruler of Acheron (and has a son called Ronan the Accuser, who is in possession of a Cosmic Cube), a vast empire consisting of thousands of worlds that exist in another plane of existence.
Thanos features in the limited series Marvel Zombies 2, set in the alternate universe of Earth - 2149. Having been "zombified '', the character is killed by the cosmic - powered Hulk after an altercation over food.
A number of the stories featuring Thanos have been republished into trade paperbacks and other collected editions:
Thanos was ranked number 47 on IGN 's top 100 comic book villains of all time, 22nd on Wizard 's Top 100 Greatest Villains list, and number 21 on Complex 's 25 Greatest Comic Book Villains List.
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who won best boy band i heart radio | 2018 iHeartRadio Music Awards - wikipedia
The 2018 iHeartRadio Music Awards were held on March 11, 2018 at The Forum in Inglewood, California. The list of nominations was announced on January 10, 2018. DJ Khaled and Hailey Baldwin hosted the ceremony. TBS, TNT, and truTV broadcast the ceremony in the United States, while the red carpet was broadcast live on the network 's social media pages. Taylor Swift 's music video for her single "Delicate '' premiered at the show.
The following performed at the show:
iHeartRadio presented the winners of seven categories in the seven days leading up to the Sunday telecast. Winners are highlighted in boldface.
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when will the hush hush movie be released | Hush, Hush - Wikipedia
Hush, Hush is a 2009 New York Times bestselling young adult fantasy novel by Becca Fitzpatrick and the first book in her Hush, Hush series. The novel received rave reviews and focuses on Nora Grey, a teenager whose life is at risk after beginning a romance with new student Patch, a fallen angel with a dark connection to Nora.
Book rights to Hush, Hush have been sold to over 13 countries, with LD Entertainment purchasing film rights.
Nora Grey is an average sophomore student living in Coldwater, Maine. Her life is largely uneventful until she is seated next to a mysterious senior named Patch Cipriano in biology class, who had failed the subject several times before. The two are initially at odds, but Nora finds herself inexplicably drawn to him, his behavior both attractive and repelling. Despite the strong pull she feels towards him, Nora continues to tell her best friend Vee that she 's not interested in Patch.
Vee later invites Nora to a local amusement park, Delphic, in an attempt to set her up with Elliot, a boy who has expressed an attraction to Nora. The trip turns awkward when the group runs into Patch, who makes Elliot jealous. Nora confronts Patch and he persuades Nora to meet him in front of the newly reformed roller coaster, the Archangel. Nora later makes an excuse to find something to eat and sets off to find Patch.
After she finds Patch, he manages to persuade her to ride the Archangel. The ride turns into a disaster after Nora falls from the roller coaster, only to realize it was her imagination. The incident leaves her shaken up. When Nora is unable to locate Vee and the others at the amusement park, she is left with no option but to allow Patch to drive her home. Once home, Patch offers to make tacos. Nora becomes suspicious and worried as the knife he uses changes sizes. The two nearly kiss but are interrupted by her mom calling in an attempt to check on Nora.
Nora becomes increasingly more connected with Patch and begins to change her opinion of him, especially after meeting his closest and only friend Rixon. Meanwhile, she also begins to grow more curious and suspicious of Elliot after discovering his involvement in a murder case in his last school.
Nora becomes extremely afraid after a bag lady is murdered in front of her. She 'd given the woman her coat and hat in exchange for directions. She calls Patch for a ride home due to the rain and her fear, but his Jeep breaks down partway through and the pair are forced to take shelter in a shabby motel. While in the room, Nora finds that Patch has an upside down V on his back, which she earlier thought was her imagination during a play fight between Rixon and Patch at Bo 's Arcade. Fascinated by it, she manages to touch the scar and is pulled into his memories of his past. This prompts Patch to demand to know what she had seen, and Nora to demand answers about what she has seen. This leads to the revelation that Patch is actually a fallen angel from Heaven who was trying to kill her, and in doing so, gain a human body. Her death would kill his Nephilim vassal Chauncey Langeais and make Patch completely human. She also discovers that Patch has an ex-girlfriend named Dabria, who is also Nora 's new counselor at school, an angel of death who wants Patch to save Nora 's life so he can become a guardian angel and so he can get back together with her. Patch had initially discarded Dabria 's idea out of a desire to become human, but the plan failed because he had fallen in love with Nora.
It is soon revealed that her friend Jules is actually Chauncey, who wants revenge on Patch for tricking him into swearing an oath that will allow Patch to take over his body during the Hebrew month of Cheshvan. After leaving the motel and going home, Dabria breaks into Nora 's room and says that she wants to kill Nora in order to prevent Patch from doing so and becoming human. Nora is narrowly saved by Patch, who goes after Dabria and strips her of her wings in vengeance, already knowing the archangels would have done the same for trying to kill Nora.
Nora is later invited to a game of hide - and - seek with Vee, Jules, and Elliot, with Elliot hinting that Vee will not survive the game if Nora does n't participate. Despite Patch attempting to get her to remain behind in the car, Nora goes after them. She soon discovers Jules unmoving body, presuming Elliot killed him, only to be cornered by Jules, who confesses that he was behind various attacks on her life as a way of getting revenge on Patch. The game continues as they are held at gunpoint by Jules.
Nora struggles with Jules while Patch tries to distract him, but this fails and Patch is forced to possess Nora 's body to fight him. The process leaves Patch unconscious after he 's separated from her body because it is not the month of Cheshvan. In an attempt to escape, Nora climbs to the rafters of the school gym, but Jules uses mind tricks to make her believe that the ladders are breaking and that she is going to fall to her death. Patch manages to break through the tricks by making her focus on his voice in her mind. Jules begins to climb the ladder after her, but Nora confronts him with the knowledge that if she were to sacrifice her life, Patch would become human and Jules would die. With this in mind, Nora throws herself from the rafters, which effectively kills Jules.
To her surprise, Nora wakes up alive and well. Patch explains that he did not take her sacrifice because there was no point in having a human body without her. In doing so, Patch has saved Nora 's life and is now her guardian angel. The two share a romantic moment, ending the book.
Nora Grey
Patch Cipriano
Vee Sky
Elliot Saunders
Jules / Chauncey Langeais
Marcie Millar
Dabria / Miss Greene
Hush, Hush was followed by three books, Crescendo, Silence, and Finale. The novels were released consecutively each year, with Finale being announced as the final book in the series. The series was initially promoted as being a trilogy, but it was later announced that the series would comprise four books, thus being a tetralogy.
On December 4, 2012 Entertainment Weekly revealed that the entire Hush, Hush series had been optioned by LD Entertainment as producer and distributor Paramount Pictures. LD Entertainment announced that they would be turning the books into a film series, with Greek creator Patrick Sean Smith set to write the screenplay for the first installment.
On July 8th 2014, Becca announced on her website that she has decided that now is not the right time to move forward with the Hush, Hush movie and did not renew the movie option with LD Entertainment.
On July 20th 2018, Becca posted an update stating that a Hush Hush movie would be headed to production ' very soon '. BCDF Pictures, along with Kalahari Film & Media, announced that Kellie Cyrus would be directing the film - who is best known for directing The Vampire Diaries and The Originals, as well as an episode of the upcoming drama You from Greg Berlanti and Sera Gamble.
In 2011 Sea Lion Books published the first volume in a proposed three - volume adaptation of Hush, Hush, the first book in the series. Artist Jennyson Rosero was stated to be drawing the series, with Fitzpatrick and Rosero using Fitzpatrick 's blog to receive reader advice and criticism from preliminary sketches.
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which language is spoken in which state of india | Languages of India - Wikipedia
Languages spoken in India belong to several language families, the major ones being the Indo - Aryan languages spoken by 75 % of Indians and the Dravidian languages spoken by 20 % of Indians. Other languages belong to the Austroasiatic, Sino - Tibetan, Tai - Kadai, and a few other minor language families and isolates. India (780) has the world 's second highest number of languages, after Papua New Guinea (839).
Article 343 of the Indian constitution states that the official language of the Union government shall become Hindi in Devanagari script instead of the extant English, but is superseded by English subsequently too as mentioned in section 3 of the same constitutional article that is put to effect by The Official Languages Act, 1963. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union were supposed to become international form of Indian numerals consequently apart from numerals in English language. Despite the misconceptions, Hindi is not the national language of India. The Constitution of India does not give any language the status of national language.
English was legislated to be reduced to the status of a "subsidiary official language '' after fifteen years. But this provision of the constitution was negated by a provision in Section 3, of the same Article 343 that gave primacy to The Official Languages Act, 1963. The Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution lists 22 languages, which have been referred to as scheduled languages and given recognition, status and official encouragement. In addition, the Government of India has awarded the distinction of classical language to Tamil, Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam and Odia.
According to Census of India of 2001, India has 122 major languages and 1599 other languages. However, figures from other sources vary, primarily due to differences in definition of the terms "language '' and "dialect ''. The 2001 Census recorded 30 languages which were spoken by more than a million native speakers and 122 which were spoken by more than 10,000 people. Two contact languages have played an important role in the history of India: Persian and English. Persian was the court language during the Mughal period in India. It reigned as an administrative language for several centuries until the era of British colonisation. English continues to be an important language in India. It is used in higher education and in some areas of the Indian government. Hindi, the most widely spoken language in India today, serves as the lingua franca across much of North and Central India. However, there have been anti-Hindi agitations in South India, most notably in the state of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. There is also opposition in non-Hindi belt states towards any perceived imposition of Hindi in these areas.
The southern Indian languages are from the Dravidian family. The Dravidian languages are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. Proto - Dravidian languages were spoken in India in the 4th millennium BCE and started disintegrating into various branches around 3rd millennium BCE. The Dravidian languages are classified in four groups: North, Central (Kolami -- Parji), South - Central (Telugu -- Kui) and South Dravidian (Tamil - Kannada).
The northern Indian languages from the Indo - Aryan branch of the Indo - European family evolved from Old Indic by way of the Middle Indic Prakrit languages and Apabhraṃśa of the Middle Ages. The Indo - Aryan languages developed and emerged in three stages -- Old Indo - Aryan (1500 BCE to 600 BCE), Middle Indo - Aryan stage (600 BCE and 1000 CE) and New Indo - Aryan (between 1000 CE and 1300 CE). The modern north Indian Indo - Aryan languages all evolved into distinct, recognisable languages in the New Indo - Aryan Age.
Persian or Parsi was brought into India by the Ghaznavi and other Turko - Afghan dynasties as the court language. Culturally Persianized, they, in combination with the later Mughal dynasty (of Turco - Mongol origin), influenced the art, history and literature of the region for more than 500 years, resulting in the Persianisation of many Indian tongues, mainly lexically. In 1837, the British replaced Persian with English for administrative purposes, and the Hindi movement of the 19th Century replaced the Persianised vocabulary for one derived from Sanskrit also replacing the use of the Perso - Arabic script for Hindi / Hindustani with Devanagari.
Each of the northern Indian languages had different influences. For example, Hindustani was strongly influenced by Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic, leading to the emergence of Modern Standard Hindi and Modern Standard Urdu as registers of the Hindustani language. Modern Standard Hindi is recognised as the official language of India while Urdu is a scheduled language.
The first official survey of language diversity in the Indian subcontinent was carried out by Sir George Abraham Grierson from 1898 to 1928. Titled the Linguistic Survey of India, it reported a total of 179 languages and 544 dialects. However, the results were skewed due to ambiguities in distinguishing between "dialect '' and "language '', use of untrained personnel and under - reporting of data from South India, as the former provinces of Burma and Madras, as well as the princely states of Cochin, Hyderabad, Mysore and Travancore were not included in the survey.
Different sources give widely differing figures, primarily based on how the terms "language '' and "dialect '' are defined and grouped. Ethnologue, produced by the Christian evangelist organisation SIL International, lists 461 tongues for India (out of 6,912 worldwide), 447 of which are living, while 14 are extinct. The 447 living languages are further subclassified in Ethnologue as follows: -
The People 's Linguistic Survey of India, a privately owned research institution in India, has recorded over 66 different scripts and more than 780 languages in India during its nationwide survey, which the organisation claims to be the biggest linguistic survey in India.
The People of India (POI) project of Anthropological Survey of India reported 325 languages which are used for in - group communication by 5,633 Indian communities.
The Census of India records and publishes data with respect to the number of speakers for languages and dialects, but uses its own unique terminology, distinguishing between language and mother tongue. The mother tongues are grouped within each language. Many of the mother tongues so defined could be considered a language rather than a dialect by linguistic standards. This is especially so for many mother tongues with tens of millions of speakers that are officially grouped under the language Hindi.
Separate figures for Hindi, Urdu, and Punjabi were not issued, due to the fact the returns were intentionally recorded incorrect in states such as East Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, PEPSU, and Bilaspur.
The 1961 census recognised 1,652 mother tongues spoken by 438,936,918 people, counting all declarations made by any individual at the time when the census was conducted. However, the declaring individuals often mixed names of languages with those of dialects, subdialects and dialect clusters or even castes, professions, religions, localities, regions, countries and nationalities. The list therefore includes languages with barely a few individual speakers as well as 530 unclassified mother tongues and more than 100 idioms that are non-native to India, including linguistically unspecific demonyms such as "African '', "Canadian '' or "Belgian ''.
The 1991 census recognises 1,576 classified mother tongues. According to the 1991 census, 22 languages had more than a million native speakers, 50 had more than 100,000 and 114 had more than 10,000 native speakers. The remaining accounted for a total of 566,000 native speakers (out of a total of 838 million Indians in 1991).
According to the most recent census of 2001, there are 1635 rationalised mother tongues, 234 identifiable mother tongues and 22 major languages. Of these, 29 languages have more than a million native speakers, 60 have more than 100,000 and 122 have more than 10,000 native speakers. There are a few languages like Kodava that do not have a script but have a group of native speakers in Coorg (Kodagu).
The language - related data results of the 2011 Census have not yet been released by the Government of India.
of total population
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Ethnolinguistically, the languages of South Asia, echoing the complex history and geography of the region, form a complex patchwork of language families, language phyla and isolates. The languages of India belong to several language families, the most important of which are:
The largest of the language families represented in India, in terms of speakers, is the Indo - Aryan language family, a branch of the Indo - Iranian family, itself the easternmost, extant subfamily of the Indo - European language family. This language family predominates, accounting for some 790 million speakers, or over 75 % of the population, as per data collated during the Census of 2001. The most widely spoken languages of this group are Hindi (or more correctly, Hindustani, which includes Hindi and Urdu), Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Assamese (Asamiya), and Odia. Aside from the Indo - Aryan languages, other Indo - European languages are also spoken in India, the most prominent of which is English, as a lingua franca.
The second largest language family is the Dravidian language family, accounting for some 215 million speakers, or approximately 20 %, as per data collected during the Census of 2001. The Dravidian languages are spoken mainly in southern India and parts of eastern and central India as well as in parts of northeastern Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh. The Dravidian languages with the most speakers are Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam. Besides the mainstream population, Dravidian languages are also spoken by small scheduled tribe communities, such as the Oraon and Gond tribes. Only two Dravidian languages are exclusively spoken outside India, Brahui in Pakistan and Dhangar, a dialect of Kurukh, in Nepal.
Families with smaller numbers of speakers are Austroasiatic and numerous small Sino - Tibetan languages, with some 10 and 6 million speakers, respectively, together 5 % of the population.
The Austroasiatic language family (austro meaning South) is the autochthonous language in South Asia and Southeast Asia, other language families having arrived by migration. Austroasiatic languages of mainland India are the Khasi and Munda languages, including Santhali. The languages of the Nicobar islands also form part of this language family. With the exceptions of Khasi and Santhali, all Austroasiatic languages on Indian territory are endangered.
The Sino - Tibetan language family are well represented in India. However, their interrelationships are not discernible, and the family has been described as "a patch of leaves on the forest floor '' rather than with the conventional metaphor of a "family tree ''.
Sino - Tibetan languages are spoken across the Himalayas in the regions of Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Arunachal Pradesh, and also in the Indian states of West Bengal, Assam, (hills and autonomous councils - BTC) Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura and Mizoram. Sino - Tibetan languages spoken in India include the scheduled languages Meitei and Bodo, the non-scheduled languages of Karbi, Lepcha, and many varieties of several related Tibetic, West Himalayish, Tani, Brahmaputran, Angami -- Pochuri, Tangkhul, Zeme, Kukish language groups, amongst many others.
Ahom language belonging to Southwestern Tai language had been once the dominant language of Ahom Kingdom in modern - day Assam but had been replaced later by Kamarupi language, the ancient form of Assamese language. Nowadays, small Tai communities and their languages remain in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh together with Sino - Tibetans, e.g. Tai Phake, Tai Aiton and Tai Khamti language, which are similar to Shan language of Shan state of Myanmar, Dai language in Yunnan of China, Lao language of Laos, Thai language of Thailand and Zhuang language in Guangxi of China.
The extinct and endangered languages of the Andaman Islands form a fifth family - the Great Andamanese language family, comprising two families, namely:
In addition, Sentinelese, an unattested language of the Andaman Islands, is generally considered to be related and part of the language family.
The only language found in the Indian mainland that is considered a language isolate is Nahali. The status of Nahali is ambiguous, having been considered as a distinct Austro - Asiatic language, as a dialect of Munda language and also as being a "thieves ' argot '' rather than a legitimate language.
The other language isolates found in the rest of South Asia include Burushaski, a language spoken in Gilgit -- Baltistan (administered by Pakistan), Kusunda (in western Nepal) and Vedda (in Sri Lanka). The validity of the Great Andamanese language group as a language family has been questioned and it has been considered a language isolate by some authorities.
In addition, a Bantu language, Sidi, was spoken until the mid-20th century in Gujarat.
The language families in India are not necessarily related to the various ethnic groups in India, specifically the Indo - Aryan and Dravidian people. The languages within each family have been influenced to a large extent by both families.
Urdu has also had a significant influence on many of today 's Indian languages. Many North Indian languages have lost much of their Sanskritised base (50 % current vocabulary) to a more Urdu - based form. In terms of the written script, most Indian languages, except the Tamil script nearly perfectly accommodate the Sanskrit language. South Indian languages have adopted new letters to write various Indo - Aryan based words as well, and have added new letters to their native alphabets as the languages began to mix and influence each other.
Though various Indo - Aryan and Dravidian languages may seem mutually exclusive when first heard, there is a much deeper underlying influence that both language families have had on each other down to a linguistic science. There is proof of the intermixing of Dravidian and Indo - Aryan languages through the pockets of Dravidian - based languages on remote areas of Pakistan, and interspersed areas of North India. In addition, there is a whole science regarding the tonal and cultural expression within the languages that are quite standard across India. Languages may have different vocabulary, but various hand and tonal gestures within two unrelated languages can still be common due to cultural amalgamations between invading people and the natives over time; in this case, the Indo - Aryan peoples and the native Dravidian people.
Prior to Independence, in British India, English was the sole language used for administrative purposes as well as for higher education purposes.
In 1946, the issue of national language was a bitterly contested subject in the proceedings of the Constituent Assembly of India, specifically what should be the language in which the Constitution of India is written and the language spoken during the proceedings of Parliament and thus deserving of the epithet "national ''. Members belonging to the northern parts of India insisted that the Constitution be drafted in Hindi with the unofficial translation in English. This was not agreed to by the drafting Committee on the grounds that English was much better to craft the nuanced prose on constitutional subjects. The efforts to make Hindi the pre-eminent language were bitterly resisted by the members from those parts of India where Hindi was not spoken natively. Eventually, a compromise was reached with Hindi in Devanagari script to be the official language of the union but for "fifteen years from the commencement of the Constitution, the English Language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement ''.
Article 343 (1) of the Constitution of India states "The Official Language of the Union government shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. '' Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of English for official purposes was to cease 15 years after the constitution came into effect, i.e. on 26 January 1965.
As the date for changeover approached, however, there was much alarm in the non Hindi - speaking areas of India, especially in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, West Bengal, Karnataka, Puducherry and Andhra Pradesh. Accordingly, Jawaharlal Nehru ensured the enactment of the Official Languages Act, 1963, which provided that English "may '' still be used with Hindi for official purposes, even after 1965. The wording of the text proved unfortunate in that while Nehru understood that "may '' meant shall, politicians championing the cause of Hindi thought it implied exactly the opposite.
In the event, as 1965 approached, India 's new Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri prepared to make Hindi paramount with effect from 26 January 1965. This led to widespread agitation, riots, self - immolations and suicides in Tamil Nadu. The split of Congress politicians from the South from their party stance, the resignation of two Union ministers from the South and the increasing threat to the country 's unity forced Shastri to concede.
As a result, the proposal was dropped, and the Act itself was amended in 1967 to provide that the use of English would not be ended until a resolution to that effect was passed by the legislature of every state that had not adopted Hindi as its official language, and by each house of the Indian Parliament.
The Constitution of India does not give any language the status of national language.
Hindi, written in Devanagari script, is the most prominent language spoken in the country. In the 2001 census, 422 million (422,048,642) people in India reported Hindi to be their native language. This figure not only included Hindi speakers of Hindustani, but also people who identify as native speakers of related languages who consider their speech to be a dialect of Hindi, the Hindi belt. Hindi (or Hindustani) is the native language of most people living in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, and Rajasthan.
"Modern Standard Hindi '', a standardised language is the official language of the Union of India. In addition, it is one of only two languages used for business in Parliament.
Hindustani, evolved from khari boli, a prominent tongue of Mughal times, which itself evolved from Apabhraṃśa, an intermediary transition stage from Prakrit, from which the major North Indian Indo - Aryan languages have evolved.
Varieties of Hindi spoken in India include Rajasthani, Braj Bhasha, Haryanvi, Bundeli, Kannauji, Hindustani, Awadhi, Bagheli, Bhojpuri, Magahi and Chhattisgarhi. By virtue of its being a lingua franca, Hindi has also developed regional dialects such as Bambaiya Hindi in Mumbai, Dakhini (also called Hyderabadi Urdu) in parts of Telangana, and Bangalori Urdu in Bengaluru, Karnataka. In addition, a trade language, Andaman Creole Hindi has also developed in the Andaman Islands.
In addition, by use in popular culture such as songs and films, Hindi also serves as a lingua franca across both North and Central India
Hindi is widely taught both as a primary language and language of instruction, and as a second tongue.
British colonial legacy has resulted in English being a language for government, business and education. English, along with Hindi, is one of the two languages permitted in the Constitution of India for business in Parliament. Despite the fact that Hindi has official Government patronage and serves as a lingua franca over large parts of India, there was considerable opposition to the use of Hindi in the southern states of India, and English has emerged as a de facto lingua franca over much of India.
Until the Twenty - first Amendment of the Constitution of India in 1967, the country recognised 14 official regional languages. The Eighth Schedule and the Seventy - First Amendment provided for the inclusion of Sindhi, Konkani, Meitei and Nepali, thereby increasing the number of official regional languages of India to 18. The Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, as of 1 December 2007, lists 22 languages, which are given in the table below together with the speaking population and the regions where they are used.
The individual states, the borders of most of which are or were drawn on socio - linguistic lines, can legislate their own official languages, depending on their linguistic demographics. The official languages chosen reflect the predominant as well as politically significant languages spoken in that state. Certain states having a linguistically defined territory may have only the predominant language in that state as its official language, examples being Karnataka and Gujarat, which have Kannada and Gujarati as their sole official language respectively. Telangana, with a sizeable Urdu - speaking Muslim population, has two languages, Telugu and Urdu, as its official languages.
Some states buck the trend by using minority languages as official languages. Jammu and Kashmir uses Urdu, which is spoken by fewer than 1 % of the population. Meghalaya uses English spoken by 0.01 % of the population. This phenomenon has turned majority languages into "minority languages '' in a functional sense.
In addition to states and union territories, India has autonomous administrative regions which may be permitted to select their own official language -- a case in point being the Bodoland Territorial Council in Assam which has declared the Bodo language as official for the region, in addition to Assamese and English already in use. and Bengali in the Barak Valley, as its official languages.
Besides Hindi, the following languages (arranged in descending order as regards numbers of speakers) are each spoken by more than 25 million Indians - Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Odia and Punjabi.
Native to the Bengal region, comprising the nation of Bangladesh and the states of West Bengal, Tripura, Assam, and Jharkhand and the union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Bengali is the fifth most spoken language in the world. After partition of India (1947), refugees from East Pakistan were settled in Delhi, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Madhya Pradesh. There is also a large number of Bengali - speaking people in Maharashtra and Gujarat where they work as artisans in jewellery industries. Bengali developed from Abahatta, a derivative of Apabhramsha, itself derived from Magadhi Prakrit. The modern Bengali vocabulary contains the vocabulary base from Magadhi Prakrit and Pali, also borrowings & reborrowings from Sanskrit and other major borrowings from Persian, Arabic, Austroasiatic languages and other languages in contact with. Like most Indian languages, Bengali has a number of dialects. Interestingly it exhibits diglossia, with the literary and standard form differing greatly from the colloquial speech of the regions that identify with the language. Bengali language has developed a rich cultural base spanning art, music, literature and religion. There have been many movements in defense of this language and in 1999 UNESCO declared 21 Feb as the International Mother Language Day in commemoration of the Bengali Language Movement in 1952.
Telugu is the most widely spoken Dravidian language in India. Telugu is an official language in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and the union territory of Puducherry, making it one of the few languages (along with Hindi, Bengali, and Urdu) with official status in more than one state. It is also spoken by significant minorities in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, and by the Sri Lankan Gypsy people. It is one of six languages with classical status in India. Telugu ranks third by the number of native speakers in India (74 million in the 2001 Census), fifteenth in the Ethnologue list of most - spoken languages worldwide and is the most widely spoken Dravidian language.
Marathi is an Indo - Aryan language.It is the official language and co-official language in Maharashtra and Goa states of Western India respectively, and is one of the official languages of India. There were 71 million speakers in 2001 and 73 million speakers in 2007, ranking 19th in the list of most spoken languages. Marathi has the fourth largest number of native speakers in India. Marathi has some of the oldest literature of all modern Indo - Aryan languages, dating from about 1200 AD (Mukundraj 's Vivek Sindhu from the close of the 12th century). The major dialects of Marathi are Standard Marathi and the Varhadi dialect. There are other related languages such as Khandeshi, Dangi, Vadvali and Samavedi. Malvani Konkani has been heavily influenced by Marathi varieties. Marathi is one of several languages that descend from Maharashtri Prakrit. Further change led to the Apabhraṃśa languages like Old Marathi.
Marathi is the official language of Maharashtra and co-official language in the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. In Goa, Konkani is the sole official language; however, Marathi may also be used for all official purposes.
Over a period of many centuries the Marathi language and people came into contact with many other languages and dialects. The primary influence of Prakrit, Maharashtri, Dravidian languages, Apabhraṃśa and Sanskrit is understandable. At least 50 % of the words in Marathi are either taken or derived from Sanskrit. Many scholars claim that Sanskrit has derived many words from Marathi. Marathi has also shared directions, vocabulary and grammar with languages such as Indian Dravidian languages, and foreign languages such as Persian, Arabic, English and a little from Portuguese.
Tamil (also spelt as Thamizh: தமிழ்) is a Dravidian language predominantly spoken in Tamil Nadu, Puduchery and many parts of Sri Lanka. It is also spoken by large minorities in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Malaysia, Singapore, Mauritius and throughout the world. Tamil ranks fourth by the number of native speakers in India (72 million in the 2001 Census) and ranks 20th in the list of most spoken languages. It is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and was the first Indian language to be declared a classical language by the Government of India in 2004. Tamil is one of the longest surviving classical languages in the world. It has been described as "the only language of contemporary India which is recognisably continuous with a classical past. '' The two earliest manuscripts from India, acknowledged and registered by UNESCO Memory of the World register in 1997 and 2005, are in Tamil. Tamil is an official language of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Sri Lanka and Singapore. It is also recognized as minority language in Malaysia, Mauritius and South Africa.
After independence, Modern Standard Urdu, the Persianised register of Hindustani became the national language of Pakistan. During British colonial times, a knowledge of Hindustani or Urdu was must for officials. Hindustani was made the second language of British Indian Empire after English and considered as the language of administration. The British introduced the use of Roman script for Hindustani as well as other languages. Urdu had 70 million speakers in India (as per the Census of 2001), and, along with Hindi, is one of the 22 officially recognised regional languages of India and also an official language in the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Telangana that have significant Muslim populations. Some dialects of Hindi, especially those that arose in Muslim - dominated areas.
Gujarati is an Indo - Aryan language. It is native to the west Indian region of Gujarat. Gujarati is part of the greater Indo - European language family. Gujarati is descended from Old Gujarati (c. 1100 -- 1500 CE), the same source as that of Rajasthani. Gujarati is the chief language in the Indian state of Gujarat. It is also an official language in the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. According to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 4.5 % of population of India (1.21 billion according to 2011 census) speaks Gujarati. This amounts to 54.6 million speakers in India.
Kannada language is a Dravidian language which branched off from Kannada - Tamil sub group around 500 B.C.E according to the Dravidian scholar Zvelebil. According to the Dravidian scholars Steever and Krishnamurthy, the study of Kannada language is usually divided into three linguistic phases: Old (450 -- 1200 CE), Middle (1200 -- 1700 CE) and Modern (1700 -- present). The earliest written records are from the 5th century, and the earliest available literature in rich manuscript (Kavirajamarga) is from c. 850. Kannada language has the second oldest written tradition of all vernacular languages of India. Current estimates of the total number of epigraph present in Karnataka range from 25,000 by the scholar Sheldon Pollock to over 30,000 by the Sahitya Akademi, making Karnataka state "one of the most densely inscribed pieces of real estate in the world ''. According to Garg and Shipely, more than a thousand notable writers have contributed to the wealth of the language.
Malayalam (/ mæləˈjɑːləm /; മലയാളം, Malayāḷam (maləjaːɭəm)) has official language status in the state of Kerala and in the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry. It belongs to the Dravidian family of languages and is spoken by some 38 million people. Malayalam is also spoken in the neighboring states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka; with some speakers in the Nilgiris, Kanyakumari and Coimbatore districts of Tamil Nadu, and the Dakshina Kannada and the Kodagu district of Karnataka. Malayalam originated from Middle Tamil (Sen - Tamil) in the 7th century. As Malayalam began to freely borrow words as well as the rules of grammar from Sanskrit, the Grantha alphabet was adopted for writing and came to be known as Arya Eluttu. This developed into the modern Malayalam script.
Odia (formerly spelled Oriya) is the only Indian classical language from Indo - Aryan group. Odia is primarily spoken in the Indian state of Odisha and has over 40 million speakers. It was declared as a classical language of India in 2014. Native speakers comprise 80 % of the population in Odisha. Odia is thought to have originated from Magadhi Prakrit similar to Ardha Magadhi, a language spoken in eastern India over 1,500 years ago. The history of Odia language can be divided to Old Odia (7th century -- 1200), Early Middle Odia (1200 -- 1400), Middle Odia (1400 -- 1700), Late Middle Odia (1700 -- 1850) and Modern Odia (1850 till present day). The National Manuscripts Mission of India have found around 213,000 unearthed and preserved manuscripts written in Odia.
Punjabi, written in the Gurmukhi script in India, is one of the prominent languages of India with about 32 million speakers. In Pakistan it is spoken by over 80 million people and is written in the Shahmukhi alphabet. It is mainly spoken in Punjab but also in neighboring areas.
Asamiya or Assamese language is most popular in the state of Assam and Brahmaputra Valley. It 's an Eastern Indo - Aryan language having more than 10M speakers as per world estimates by Encarta.
Maithili (/ ˈmaɪtɪli /; Maithilī) is an Indo - Aryan language spoken in the Mithila region which is today mainly situated in northern Bihar of India and a few districts of the Nepal Terai. It is one of the largest languages in India and the second largest language in Nepal. Less commonly, it was written with a Maithili variant of Kaithi, a script used to transcribe other neighboring languages such as Bhojpuri, Magahi, and Awadhi.
In 2002, Maithili was included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, which allows it to be used in education, government, and other official contexts. It is recognized as one of the largest languages in India and is the second most widely used language in Nepal.
In 2004, the Government of India declared that languages that met certain requirements could be accorded the status of a "Classical Language in India ''. Languages thus far declared to be Classical are Tamil (in 2004), Sanskrit (in 2005), Kannada (in 2008), Telugu (in 2008), Malayalam (in 2013), and Odia (in 2014). In a 2006 press release, Minister of Tourism & Culture Ambika Soni told the Rajya Sabha the following criteria were laid down to determine the eligibility of languages to be considered for classification as a "Classical Language '',
High antiquity of its early texts / recorded history over a period of 1500 -- 2000 years; a body of ancient literature / texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers; the literary tradition be original and not borrowed from another speech community; the classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.
The Government has been criticised for not including Pali as a classical language, as experts have argued it fits all the above criteria.
As per Government of India 's Resolution No. 2 - 16 / 2004 - US (Akademies) dated 1 November 2004, the benefits that will accrue to a language declared as "Classical Language '' are
The 2001 census identified the following native languages having more than one million speakers. Most of them are dialects / variants grouped under Hindi.
India has several languages in use; choosing any single language as an official language presents problems to all those whose "mother tongue '' is different. However, all the boards of education across India recognise the need for training people to one common language. There are complaints that in North India, non-Hindi speakers have language trouble. Similarly, there are complaints that North Indians have to undergo difficulties on account of language when travelling to South India. It is common to hear of incidents that result due to friction between those who strongly believe in the chosen official language, and those who follow the thought that the chosen language (s) do not take into account everyone 's preferences. Local official language commissions have been established and various steps are being taken in a direction to reduce tensions and friction.
There are conflicts over linguistic rights in India. The first major linguistic conflict, known as the Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu, took place in Tamil Nadu against the implementation of Hindi as the official language of India. Political analysts consider this as a major factor in bringing DMK to power and leading to the ousting and nearly total elimination of the Congress party in Tamil Nadu. Strong cultural pride based on language is also found in other Indian states such as Bengal and Maharashtra. To express disapproval of the imposition of Hindi on its states ' people as a result of the central government, the government of Maharashtra made the state languages mandatory in educational institutions.
The Government of India attempts to assuage these conflicts with various campaigns, coordinated by the Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore, a branch of the Department of Higher Education, Language Bureau, and the Ministry of Human Resource Development.
Most languages in India are written in Brahmi - derived scripts, such as Devanagari, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Odia, Eastern Nagari - Assamese / Bengali, etc., though Urdu is written in a script derived from Arabic, and a few minor languages such as Santali use independent scripts.
Various Indian languages have their own scripts. Hindi, Marathi and Angika are languages written using the Devanagari script. Most major languages are written using a script specific to them, such as Assamese (Asamiya) with Asamiya, Bengali with Bengali, Punjabi with Gurmukhi, Odia with Odia script, Gujarati with Gujarati, etc. Urdu and sometimes Kashmiri, Saraiki and Sindhi are written in modified versions of the Perso - Arabic script. With this one exception, the scripts of Indian languages are native to India. Languages like Kodava that did n't have a script whereas Tulu which had a script adopted Kannada due to its readily available printing settings; these languages have taken up the scripts of the local official languages as their own and are written in the Kannada script.
Tamil - Brahmi inscription in Jambaimalai.
Silver coin issued during the reign of ৰুদ্ৰ সিংহ Rudro Singho with Assamese inscriptions.
North Indian Brahmi found in Ashok pillar.
The Halmidi inscription, the oldest known inscription in the Kannada script and language. The inscription is dated to the 450 CE - 500 CE period.
An early Telugu inscription found in the Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh.
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list of african countries from largest to smallest | List of african countries by area - wikipedia
Below is a list of all countries in Africa, in order of geographical area. Sudan was, with an area of 2,505,813 km2, formerly the largest country in Africa, until South Sudan formally split from it in 2011.
* * -- Excluding all disputed lands (Western Sahara and Spanish territories)
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where was the movie the other side of the door filmed | The Other Side of the Door (2016 film) - wikipedia
The Other Side of the Door is a 2016 supernatural horror film directed by Johannes Roberts and co-written by Roberts and Ernest Riera. Starring Sarah Wayne Callies, Jeremy Sisto, Javier Botet, and Sofia Rosinsky, the film was released in the United Kingdom and the United States on 4 March 2016. The film grossed $14,332,467 worldwide from a $5 million budget making it one of Fox International 's most commercially successful movies.
After losing her son Oliver in a car accident in India, Maria has not recovered from the tragedy. During the accident, Maria chose to save her youngest daughter, Lucy instead of Oliver and the guilt devastated her. One night, her husband Michael finds Maria unconscious after a failed suicide attempt. In the hospital, Maria is comforted by her housekeeper Piki. Piki asks Maria if she wants one final chance to say goodbye to Oliver. She explains that in her village, there is an abandoned temple where the line between the living and the dead is very thin. Maria must scatter her son 's ashes at the temple steps and lock herself in. Oliver will speak to her once night falls. However, no matter what Oliver says, Maria must not open the temple door for him. Maria agrees and the pair have Oliver 's body exhumed and burned. Maria notices some strange men covered in ash. Piki explains that they are shamans who consume the flesh of the dead and coat themselves in ash to strengthen their bonds between the worlds of the living and the dead.
The next day Maria arrives at the temple and follows Piki 's instructions. Inside, she uncovers a mummified corpse of a woman. Night falls and Oliver begins talking to Maria, who apologies to Oliver for leaving him. Oliver starts pleading with Maria to open the door and explains that someone is taking him. Maria panics and opens the door, but sees no one. She returns home the next day; now having closure, she focuses her attention on Michael and Lucy, but does n't tell Piki that she opened the door. Strange things start happening; their piano plays itself and Lucy tells Maria that Oliver has come back and that he is hiding from someone. In Oliver 's room, a chair moves toward her, along with The Jungle Book, which Maria was reading to Oliver when he died, but never finished. Realising Oliver wants her to finish the book, she does so. Piki notices that the nearby plants have started dying and begins to realise that Maria had disobeyed her instructions at the temple.
Later, the decomposed body of Oliver appears near Lucy. Maria discovers a bite mark on her shoulder. She enters Oliver 's room and tells him that he ca n't hurt Lucy. Oliver pulls out the chair and book again and Maria starts reading to him as long as he does n't hurt Lucy. A shaman appears at the house and points behind Maria; she sees the mummified body from the temple behind her, which chases her. The next day, an outraged Piki confronts Maria and explains to her that due to her actions, Oliver 's soul can not be properly reincarnated and has become evil. She reveals to Maria that the strange figure she has been seeing is Myrtu, the gatekeeper of the underworld, who reclaims the soul of the dead. Piki urges Maria to burn all of Oliver 's possessions to break his hold on the living world.
While Piki attempts to discard and burn all of Oliver 's remaining possessions, Oliver uses the guise of Piki 's dead daughter to lure her to a pond and drown her. After Piki 's funeral, Michael comes home and discovers Maria has finished burning Oliver 's possessions. Distraught and angry, Michael does not believe Maria as she attempts to explain her actions. Reinforcing his mistrust, Lucy suddenly denies any knowledge of Oliver returning. Maria after realises that Oliver has possessed Lucy. Michael believes that Maria is becoming mentally unhinged and locks her in a room.
The shamans begin to crowd the house; the possessed Lucy kills the family dog with a knife and stabs a horrified Michael. Maria breaks out and heads up to Oliver 's room where she sees shamans chanting over Lucy 's body. Since they can not remove the spirit from Lucy, they plan to sacrifice her. However, Michael stops them and Maria tells Oliver that he needs to leave. Oliver says he is scared, but Maria says she will go with him. Oliver 's spirit leaves Lucy 's body and enters Maria 's. She charges the shaman with the knife telling him to take her instead. He obliges, fatally stabbing her. She falls and awakens in the room alone. Myrtu appears and takes Maria to the afterlife.
Maria then wakes up and briefly believes that she is alive. She hears Michael 's voice call out for her. She sees the temple steps and realises Michael is attempting the same ritual to bring back Maria as she did with Oliver. Maria screams for him not to open the door, and the terror repeats itself again.
The film was originally scheduled to be released on 26 February 2016. However, the release date was pushed back to 11 March 2016 and then later moved up to 4 March 2016. It opened on March 4, 2016 in limited release at only 546 locations where it got $1.2 million opening at # 16. It grossed $3,000,342 in the United States. The film was a success internationally debuting top five across the world for a total of $14,332,467. In France the film opened at # 4 and grossed $1,851,016.
Critical reception for the film has been mixed to negative. Film review website Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 39 %, based on 33 reviews, with a weighted average rating of 4.8 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Laden with flimsy jump scares and cheap stereotypes, The Other Side of the Door wastes solid work from Sarah Wayne Callies on thoroughly middling horror fare. '' Christian Holub from Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B -, writing, "like all the best horror, The Other Side of the Door is concerned not just with what freaks us out on a gut level, but the deeply - repressed anxieties that truly terrify us. '' Critic Tim Janson, at the SciFi Movie Page gave the film two stars out of five stating the film "is a predictable, by - the - numbers affair which marks no new territory. ''
Tom Huddleston of Time Out noted how the film, "packed with scowling beggars, scuttling cockroaches, dutiful housemaids and shady shamans '', panders to a seamier representation of India -- and by doing so, is ultimately "so tasteless and knee - jerk in its depiction that it makes Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom look like a triumph of racial awareness. '' Geoff Berkshire of Variety agreed with that assessment, adding "with a bare minimum of anthropological curiosity... there 's no interest in mining the setting for anything other than exploitation. ''
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where is broward county located in the state of florida | Broward County, Florida - wikipedia
Broward County is a county in the southeastern part of the U.S. state of Florida. As of 2017, the population was 1,935,878, making it the second-most populous county in Florida and the 17th-most populous in the United States. Its county seat is Fort Lauderdale.
Broward County is one of the three counties in South Florida that make up the Miami metropolitan area, which was home to an estimated 6,012,331 people at the 2010 census.
Although the area has been settled since about 1400 B.C., Broward County was founded on April 30, 1915. It was intended to be named Everglades County, but then - Speaker of the Florida House of Representatives Ion Farris amended the bill that established the county to be named in honor of Napoleon Bonaparte Broward, Governor of Florida from 1905 to 1909. Throughout his term as Governor, Broward championed Everglades drainage and was remembered for his campaign to turn the Everglades into "useful land ''. This opened up much of today 's urban Broward County for development, first as agricultural land and later as residential. A year before Broward became Governor, Dania became the first incorporated community of what is now Broward County, followed by Pompano during his term in 1908, and Fort Lauderdale in 1911 shortly after his term ended.
In 1915, Palm Beach County and Dade County contributed nearly equal portions of land to create Broward County. Broward County began a huge development boom after its incorporation, with the first "tourist hotel '', in Fort Lauderdale, opening in 1919. A year later, developers began dredging wetlands in the county to create island communities. By 1925, the boom was considered to have reached its peak, but a 1926 hurricane caused economic depression in the county. The county saw another population and development boom post-World War II where the transformation from agricultural to urbanized residential area began, and another boom between the 1950s and the late 1960s. The effects of a national recession hit the county in 1974 and the population growth finally slowed. The structure of county government was signed into law in 1975 with the passage of the Broward County charter. In 1977 a Land Use Plan was passed and was a major step in limiting urban sprawl.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,323 square miles (3,430 km), of which 1,210 square miles (3,100 km) is land and 113 square miles (290 km) (8.5 %) is water.
Broward County has an average elevation of six feet (1.8 m) above sea level. It is rather new geologically and at the eastern edge of the Florida Platform, a carbonate plateau created millions of years ago. Broward County is composed of Oolite limestone while western Broward is composed mostly of Bryozoa. Broward is among the last areas of Florida to be created and populated with fauna and flora, mostly in the Pleistocene.
Of developable land in Broward County, approximately 471 square miles (1,219.9 km), the majority is built upon, as the urban area is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east and the Everglades Wildlife Management Area to the west. Within developable land, Broward County has a population density of 3,740 per square mile (1,444 per square kilometer).
Broward approved the construction of Osborne Reef, an artificial reef made of tires off the Fort Lauderdale beach, but it has proven an environmental disaster.
As of the 2015 5 - year ACS, Broward County had 1,843,152 people, 670,284 households, and 425,680 families. Of the 670,284 households in Broward County, 26.2 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43 % were married couples living together, 15.6 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.5 % were non-families. 29.6 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11.6 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.73 and the average family size was 3.43.
In the county, the population was spread out with 21.7 % under the age of 18, 8.5 % from 18 to 24, 26.9 % from 25 to 44, 27.7 % from 45 to 64, and 15.0 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.7 males.
The racial makeup of the county was 62.3 % White, 17.1 % Hispanic, 12.2 % Black or African American, 5.07 % Asian, 2.20 % from two or more races, 0.66 % Native American, 0.16 % Pacific Islander, and 0.20 % from some other race. The racial makeup of the total Hispanic population in Broward County was: 65.8 % White, 5.90 % Native American, 2.06 % Black or African American, 0.33 % Asian, 0.86 % Pacific Islander, 26.23 % were some other race and 4.57 % were from two or more races. In 2015, with relation to ancestry (excluding the various Hispanic and Latino ancestries), 7.38 % were Italian, 7.70 % American, 6.44 % German, 6.54 % Irish, and 0.68 % English ancestry. Also, among West Indians, 6.33 % were Haitian and 5.96 % were Jamaican. In 2015, 32.2 % of the county 's population was foreign born, with 18.14 % being naturalized American citizens. Of foreign born residents, 78.9 % were born in Latin America, 7.88 % were born in Europe, 8.52 % born in Asia, 3.11 % in North America, 1.34 % born in Africa and 0.15 were born in Oceania.
As of the 2015 5 - year ACS, the median income for a household in the county was $51,968, and the median income for a family was $61,809. Of full - time workers, males had a median income of $46,372 versus $39,690 for females. The per capita income for the county was $28,381. About 11.2 % of families and 14.5 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.9 % of those under the age 18 and 12.6 % of those aged 65 or over.
U.S. Census Bureau 2010 Ethnic / Race Demographics:
In 2010, 4.7 % of the population considered themselves to be of only "American '' ancestry (regardless of race or ethnicity.)
As of 2010, Haitians made up the largest population of immigrants, with Jamaicans coming in second, Colombians in third, followed by Cuban exiled refugees in fourth place, then Peruvians, Venezuelans, Brazilians, Dominicans, Canadians, and Mexicans being the tenth highest group of expatriates. The county also houses many British, French, German, and Spanish expatriates.
There were 810,388 households out of which 28.61 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.80 % were married couples living together, 15.28 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.67 % were non-families. 28.79 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11.07 % (3.31 % male and 7.76 % female) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.14.
The age distribution is 22.4 % under the age of 18, 8.4 % from 18 to 24, 27.2 % from 25 to 44, 27.7 % from 45 to 64, and 14.3 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39.7 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.0 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $51,694, and the median income for a family was $62,619. Males had a median income of $44,935 versus $36,813 for females. The per capita income for the county was $28,631. About 9.1 % of families and 12.3 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.2 % of those under age 18 and 12.2 % of those aged 65 or over.
In 2010, 30.9 % of the county 's population was foreign born, with 49.2 % being naturalized American citizens. Of foreign born residents, 77.4 % were born in Latin America, 9.0 % were born in Europe, 8.4 % born in Asia, 3.5 % in North America, 1.6 % born in Africa, and 0.1 % were born in Oceania.
According to the 2010 U.S. Census, Broward County is the 9th largest county with same sex households. As of the 2010 Census, there were 9,125 same sex households out of a total of 686,047 households (1.33 %).
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,623,018 people, 654,445 households, and 411,645 families residing in the county. The population density was 1,346 people per square mile (520 / km2). There were 741,043 housing units at an average density of 615 per square mile (237 / km2). The racial makeup of the county was 70.57 % White (58 % were Non-Hispanic), 20.54 % Black or African American, 0.24 % Native American, 2.25 % Asian, 0.06 % Pacific Islander, 3.00 % from other races, and 3.35 % from two or more races. 16.74 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
In 2000, with relation to ancestry (excluding the various Hispanic and Latino ancestries), 9.4 % were Italian, 7.4 % American, 6.8 % German, 6.7 % Irish, and 4 % English ancestry. Also, among West Indians, 5.99 % were Haitian and were 5.91 % Jamaican. Broward was the only county in the nation outside the Northeast in which Italian - Americans formed the largest ethnic group in 2000. They are concentrated mainly in the Pompano Beach area.
There were 654,445 households out of which 29.30 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.1 % were married couples living together, 12.5 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.1 % were non-families. 29.6 % of all households were made up of individuals and % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 3.07.
In the county, the population was spread out with 23.6 % under the age of 18, 7.2 % from 18 to 24, 31.4 % from 25 to 44, 21.7 % from 45 to 64, and 16.1 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.8 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $41,691, and the median income for a family was $50,531. Males had a median income of $36,741 versus $28,529 for females. The per capita income for the county was $23,170. About 8.7 % of families and 11.5 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.3 % of those under age 18 and 10.0 % of those age 65 or over.
As of 2005, Broward County led the nation 's metropolitan areas in new AIDS diagnoses, with a reported rate 58.4 new AIDS diagnoses per 100,000 people. County officials think the numbers may stem from a new and successful HIV testing campaign that has resulted in many people being diagnosed with AIDS at the same time they 've been diagnosed with HIV. Without the implementation of the new testing campaign, the reported numbers of new diagnoses would have probably been lower.
As of 2010, 63.44 % of all residents spoke English as their first language, while 22.22 % spoke Spanish, 5.42 % French Creole (mostly Haitian Creole,) 1.48 % Portuguese, 1.41 % French, and 0.59 % of the population spoke Italian as their mother language. In total, 36.56 % of the population spoke languages other than English as their primary language. Since many immigrants are coming from the Anglophone Caribbean, where English is spoken, the change is not as fast as the rate of immigration would suggest.
Silver Airways has its headquarters on the property of Fort Lauderdale - Hollywood International Airport in an unincorporated area. Other companies with headquarters in unincorporated areas include Locair.
When Chalk 's International Airlines existed, its headquarters was on the grounds of the airport in an unincorporated area. When Bimini Island Air existed, its headquarters were in an unincorporated area.
Municipality populations are based on the 2015 5 - year American Community Survey.
The Broward County Charter provides for a separation between the legislative and administrative functions of government. The Board of County Commissioners is the legislative branch of Broward County Government. The County Commission is composed of nine members elected by district. Each Commissioner must be a resident of the district for which he or she seeks election. Each year the Commission elects a Mayor and Vice Mayor. The Mayor 's functions include serving as presiding officer, and as the County 's official representative. The Commission appoints the County Administrator, County Attorney and County Auditor. The Commission also appoints numerous advisory and regulatory boards.
The County Commission meets in formal session the first four Tuesdays of each month at 10: 00 a.m. in Room 422 of the Broward County Governmental Center. Over 507,000 cable subscribers in Broward County have access to Government - access television (GATV) coverage of Commission meetings, which are broadcast live beginning at 10: 00 a.m. each Tuesday, and rebroadcast at 5: 30 p.m. the following Friday. Meetings can also be viewed via webcasting at www.broward.org.
According to the Secretary of State 's office, Democrats maintain a majority among registered voters in Broward County. The county is also one of the few counties in the state where Independents outnumber Republicans among registrants.
Over the past 50 years, Broward County has gone from solidly Republican to solidly Democratic. In the 1964 presidential election for example, the county supported Barry Goldwater by a 56 - 44 margin, even as he lost in a landslide nationwide, and in the 1972 presidential election, Broward County voters strongly backed Richard Nixon over George McGovern. From the 1976 presidential election onward, however, voters of Broward County have supported the Democratic presidential nominee over the Republican nominee by increasing majorities, except in the three Republican landslide elections of the 80s. Broward County is now the most reliably Democratic county in the state, with the exception of the much less populous and majority African American Gadsden County in North Florida. This change in voting tendencies can be attributed to the large migrations of middle and upper - class snowbirds and transplants from more liberal states, a growing LGBT community, liberal positions on social issues such as abortion and gun control, and naturalized U.S. citizens born in places such as Latin America, the Caribbean, Canada, Europe, and Asia.
Broward County Schools has the sixth largest school district in the country and the second largest in the state after Dade.
The Broward County Library is one of the largest public library systems in the country, comprising 41 branch locations. There are also five municipal public libraries in the county that are not part of the Broward County Library: Ethel M. Gordon Oakland Park Library, Lighthouse Point Library, Helen B. Hoffman Plantation Library, and Parkland Public Library.
Fort Lauderdale -- Hollywood International Airport serves as the primary airport of the Broward County area. The airport is bounded by the cities Fort Lauderdale, Hollywood and Dania Beach, three miles (5 km) southwest of downtown Fort Lauderdale and 21 miles (34 km) north of Miami. The airport is near cruise line terminals at Port Everglades and is popular among tourists bound for the Caribbean. Since the late 1990s, FLL has become an intercontinental gateway, although Miami International Airport still handles most long - haul flights. FLL is ranked as the 19th busiest airport (in terms of passenger traffic) in the United States, as well as the nation 's 14th busiest international air gateway and one of the world 's 50 busiest airports. FLL is classified by the US Federal Aviation Administration as a "major hub '' facility serving commercial air traffic. In 2017 the airport processed 32,511,053 passengers (11.3 % more than 2016) including 7,183,275 international passengers (18.6 % more than 2016).
A street grid stretches throughout Broward County. Most of this grid is loosely based on three primary eastern municipalities, (from South to North) Hollywood, Fort Lauderdale, and Pompano Beach. Deerfield Beach -- another primary eastern municipality -- has its own street grid, as do two smaller municipalities -- Dania and Hallandale.
Construction is underway on a network of recreational trails to connect cities and points of interest in the county.
Additionally, with 23 miles of beach, Broward County is a popular destination for scuba diving, snorkeling, and droves of young Spring break tourists from around the world.
Coordinates: 26 ° 07 ′ 28 '' N 80 ° 14 ′ 58 '' W / 26.124354 ° N 80.249503 ° W / 26.124354; - 80.249503
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who plays the pets in secret life of pets | The Secret Life of Pets - wikipedia
The Secret Life of Pets is a 2016 American computer - animated comedy film produced by Illumination Entertainment. It is directed by Chris Renaud, co-directed by Yarrow Cheney and written by Brian Lynch, Cinco Paul and Ken Daurio. The film stars Louis C.K., Eric Stonestreet, Kevin Hart, Steve Coogan, Ellie Kemper, Bobby Moynihan, Lake Bell, Dana Carvey, Hannibal Buress, Jenny Slate and Albert Brooks.
The Secret Life of Pets premiered at the Annecy International Animated Film Festival on June 16, 2016, and was released in theaters in the United States on July 8, 2016, by Universal Pictures. The film received generally positive reviews and grossed $875 million worldwide, becoming the highest - grossing original animated film not produced by Disney or Pixar, as well as the sixth highest - grossing film of 2016, and was the year 's most profitable release. A sequel is set for release on June 7, 2019.
A Jack Russell Terrier named Max lives with his owner Katie in a Manhattan apartment. While she is at work during the day, he hangs out with other pets in the building: tabby cat Chloe, pug Mel, dachshund Buddy, and budgerigar Sweet Pea. One day, Katie adopts Duke, a large mongrel from the pound, leaving Max jealous because of her divided focus on Duke. Enraged by Max 's attitude towards him, Duke tries to abandon Max in an alley, but they are both attacked by cats led by Sphynx cat Ozone who removed both dogs ' collars and leave them to be caught by Animal Control. Duke fears that he will be put down if he goes back to the pound. When Gidget, a white Pomeranian discovers that Max is missing, she must find him.
Meanwhile, he and Duke are rescued by a white rabbit named Snowball, the leader of "The Flushed Pets '' -- a gang of sewer - dwelling animals who hate humans because their owners mistreated them. After Max and Duke pretend to despise humans as much as they do by saying they killed their owners, the Flushed Pets invite them to join. Before they can prove their loyalty by allowing a one - fanged viper to bite them, Snowball learns from the cats that Max and Duke are domesticated. The two dogs escape the sewers and board a ferry to Brooklyn, inadvertently killing the viper in the process. Snowball vows to kill them and leads the Flushed Pets after them.
Meanwhile, Gidget recruits a red - tailed hawk named Tiberius to find him, but he mistakenly returns carrying Ozone, whom Gidget coerces into telling what he knows about the dogs. They then enlist Mel, Buddy, Chloe, guinea pig Norman and Sweet Pea. On the way, they meet Pops, an old Basset Hound, who helps Gidget and the pets find Max. Meanwhile, Max and Duke raid a sausage factory for food. Then, Gidget and her team encounter Snowball, who vows to kill them as well, and Norman is captured as the rest of Gidget 's team flees.
Meanwhile, Duke tells Max about his previous owner, Fred, an elderly man who adopted him as a puppy and loved spending time with him. One day, Duke got lost while chasing a butterfly and was caught by Animal Control, but Fred never came to claim him. Max convinces him to visit Fred 's house in a nearby neighborhood, confident Fred will still love him and take him back. When they arrive at Fred 's house, they learn from the resident cat Reginald that Fred has died. Heartbroken, Duke accuses Max of attempting to get rid of him and barks at the new homeowners who had just returned to the house and called Animal Control. The handlers catch Max, but Duke interferes long enough for Max to escape and ends up being captured instead.
While trying to rescue Duke as he follows the Animal Control van, Max is attacked by Snowball who tries to kill him. However, when his gang is captured, Snowball realizes that he and Max must work together to rescue them. They drive a city bus into the van on the Brooklyn Bridge, stopping traffic. The Flushed Pets encircle Max, unaware of his partnership with Snowball, but Gidget and her team save him. When Gidget is using her kung - fu fighting skills, Max starts to fall in love with her. The van gets stuck in scaffolding and the Flushed Pets escape. Once Max got the keys to Duke 's cage, the van plummets into the East River with him inside. Max is unable to free Duke, so Snowball jumps into the river to retrieve the keys, allowing them to escape the sinking van. Once out of the river, Snowball realizes how good being heroic feels.
The entire group returns to the apartment block by pig - driven taxi. Max expresses his love for Gidget, who returns his affection. Snowball and the Flushed Pets then come up with a new plan to annihilate all humans, but a little girl named Molly arrives to adopt Snowball and the remaining Flushed Pets return to the sewers. At first, Snowball resists, but gives in and lets himself become a domesticated pet. The domesticated pets return to their homes and embrace their owners, and Max and Duke finally reunite with Katie, sparking a true friendship.
In a mid-credits scene, Buddy and Mel show up in costume at a party in poodle Leonard 's apartment. Leonard 's owner returns and Tattoo crashes to the floor on the chandelier.
In January 2014, it was announced that Louis C.K., Eric Stonestreet, and Kevin Hart had joined the cast of the film, with Chris Renaud set to direct from a screenplay written by Brian Lynch, Cinco Paul and Ken Daurio, while Illumination Entertainment would produce, and Universal Pictures would distribute the film and was originally titled Max. In June 2014, Albert Brooks, Hannibal Buress, Bobby Moynihan, Lake Bell and Ellie Kemper joined the cast. The animation was created entirely in France by Illumination MacGuff.
The original score for the film was composed by Alexandre Desplat. The soundtrack was released on July 1, 2016 by Back Lot Music.
All music composed by Alexandre Desplat, except "We Go Together '' by The Sausage Factory Singers.
The film was originally scheduled to be released on February 12, 2016, but was pushed back to July 8, 2016. It was released in 2D, 3D, and IMAX 3D using DMR. The Secret Life of Pets premiered at the 2016 Annecy International Animated Film Festival on June 16, 2016, and was screened at VidCon. The film is accompanied by a Despicable Me short film entitled Mower Minions.
The Secret Life of Pets was released on Digital HD on November 22, 2016, and on Blu - ray, Blu - ray 3D, Ultra HD Blu - ray, and DVD on December 6, 2016. In addition to the short film Mower Minions, which was released theatrically with the feature film, the releases also include two short films: Norman Television and Weenie.
The Secret Life of Pets grossed $368.4 million in Canada and the U.S., and $507.1 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $875.5 million, against a production budget of $75 million. Its international takings helped push Universal Pictures (International) past $1 billion for the tenth consecutive year, and aided Illumination Entertainment to pass the $4 billion mark for the first time since 2010.
Worldwide, it is the fifth highest - grossing original film of all time (behind Avatar, Zootopia, The Lion King, and Finding Nemo), the sixth highest - grossing film of 2016, the 12th highest - grossing animated film of all time, and the 50th highest - grossing film of all time. Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $374.6 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film, making it the most profitable release of 2016.
In Canada and the United States, the film was projected to gross around $70 million in its opening weekend, with some predictions going as high as $100 million. It received the widest release for an animated film as well as for a PG - rated film (breaking Shrek Forever After 's record) and the seventh widest of all time overall, across 4,370 theaters, the widest release since The Dark Knight Rises. It made $5.3 million from Thursday night previews in 3,009 theaters, which is the second biggest of all time for Illumination, behind only Minions ($6.2 million), and the third biggest of all time for an animated film, behind Finding Dory ($9.2 million) and Minions. This was followed by a record - breaking $38.5 million opening day gross (including previews), the biggest for an original film. In its opening weekend, it exceeded expectations and grossed $104.4 million, finishing first at the box office. Its debut is the sixth biggest for an animated film, the sixth highest weekend debut in July, and the fourth biggest opening weekend for Universal Pictures. It also set the record for largest opening for an original film, eclipsing the $90.4 million debut of Inside Out.
In its second weekend, the film made $50.8 million (- 51.3 %) while maintaining the top spot, despite facing stiff competition with newcomer Ghostbusters. Although it slipped into second place when overtaken by Star Trek Beyond in its third weekend, it was still able to fend off the two other new releases -- Lights Out and Ice Age: Collision Course -- by earning another $29.6 million. It passed $300 million on its twenty - sixth day -- the same day it crossed $400 million worldwide -- becoming the seventh film of 2016, the seventh Universal Pictures film (the first for the year), and the twelfth animated film overall to reach the benchmark.
Internationally, The Secret Life of Pets received a scattered release from June to September in a total of 69 markets, and faced competition from other animated films such as Finding Dory and Ice Age: Collision Course in the course of its release. In total, it had number - one openings in 45 markets and recorded the biggest opening for an original animated film in 17 territories, and the No. 1 animated film of 2016 to date in 13 markets. It topped the international box office in its ninth weekend after earning $43.8 million in 53 markets (dethroning Suicide Squad). However, this was n't the film 's biggest single weekend gross. Its biggest weekend gross was actually in its seventh weekend when it grossed $69.3 million. It opened at No. 3 behind Suicide Squad ($133.3 million) and the Chinese film Time Raiders ($64.6 million) that weekend.
It was released in the United Kingdom and Norway two weeks ahead of its U.S. release, where it grossed a combined total of $14.1 million in the two markets. Prior to its official debut in the UK and Ireland on June 24, the film had two days worth of previews on June 18 and 19, from which it made £ 3.63 million ($5.2 million) in two days. This figure was later counted in the film 's official opening weekend. It went on to score the fourth biggest original animation opening weekend ever there, with £ 9.58 million ($13.4 million) from 592 theaters, trailing behind Inside Out, Monsters, Inc., and Up. Excluding previews, its total three - day opening was $8.1 million. This was amidst Brexit and despite facing competition from Independence Day: Resurgence. The film held off extremely well in its second and third weekend falling just 20 % and 24 %, earning £ 4.47 million ($6.1 million) and £ 3.62 million ($4.8 million) respectively despite facing some competitions. It has topped the box office for three consecutive weekends and has grossed total of $41 million there. In Norway, it took the number one spot as well, with $778,000. It scored the biggest animation opening of 2016 and the second biggest of all time overall in both Taiwan ($2 million) -- behind Madagascar, and Hong Kong ($1.9 million) -- behind Inside Out.
In Argentina, the film had a record - breaking number - one debut with $4 million from 195 screens -- the biggest opening weekend ever for an animated film and the second biggest opening ever for any film (behind Furious 7). Similarly, Chile also recorded the second biggest animated opening ever with $1.7 million (behind Minions). Colombia also opened at No. 1 with a huge $1.5 million. In Mexico, other than opening at No. 1, it posted the biggest original animated opening of all time with $7.6 million, surpassing the studio 's own previous record holder Inside Out. Also in Russia, it scored the biggest original animated opening and the second biggest ever for an animated film, behind Minions with $16.3 million, although this included $6.4 million five days worth of previews. It went on to become the highest - grossing film of the summer that year. In Japan, the film opened on August 11 -- the date of Japan 's first Mountain Day national holiday -- with Toho - Towa distributing, and earned $4.6 million on 370,000 admissions for its two - day opening weekend dethroning Shin Godzilla off the top spot. The cumulative total for the four - day holiday (August 11 -- 14) was $9.7 million. Similarly, it had number - one debuts in Germany ($7.1 million) and France ($5.9 million), Australia ($5.6 million), Italy ($5.1 million), Brazil ($4.4 million), Spain ($4.5 million), Poland ($1.7 million), Singapore ($1.3 million), Belgium ($1.2 million) and Denmark ($1.2 million), Indonesia ($1.1 million), the Philippines ($1 million), and South Africa ($463,000). In Germany, it scored the best animation opening since Minions. It topped the box office in Israel for five straight weekends and in Australia, Russia and Spain for three weekends. In Japan, the film was the highest - grossing foreign release of the weekend, holding the top spot for four consecutive weekends.
In China -- the world 's second biggest film market -- the film opened on a Tuesday, earning a modest $5.2 million on its opening day. To Sunday, it achieved a six - day opening of $29.3 million and $15.5 million for the weekend alone (Friday to Sunday), with per screen averages over $500 per screen per day. In both instances, it was behind the local film Time Raiders. In South Korea, despite debuting in fifth place, it had an opening of $6.9 million. Elsewhere, it grossed $2.7 million in the Netherlands, $1.2 million in Sweden and in Hungary it scored the biggest opening of the year with $738,000, and also in Portugal ($965,000), Latvia ($224,000), and South Africa.
In terms of total earnings, its biggest markets are China ($58 million), United Kingdom and Ireland ($47.2 million), Japan ($41.6 million) and Russia ($34.2 million). It became the third highest - grossing film of all time in Russia (behind Avatar and Zootopia) and the highest - grossing film of 2016 in Spain.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 74 % based on 200 reviews with an average rating of 6.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Fast - paced, funny, and blessed with a talented voice cast, The Secret Life of Pets offers a beautifully animated, cheerfully undemanding family - friendly diversion. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 61 out of 100 based on 39 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film three out of four stars and called it "an animated fluffball - a sort of Toy Story with pets does everything to drive you crazy and ends up being totally irresistible. '' Scott Tobias, writing for NPR, characterized the film 's concept as "Toy Story but with house pets, '' highlighting the film 's "thinly distinguished characters '' and "gloppy sentimentality. '' Steven Rea of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film three out of four stars and said "In much the same way that the smash Zootopia demonstrated that creatures of different culture and class and species are better off when they come together, The Secret Life of Pets is a testament to teamwork and friendship and fixing the rifts that divide us. Let the fur -- and the warm, fuzzy feelings -- fly. ''
However, some critics disliked the film 's unexpected similarities with Pixar 's Toy Story. Matthew Parkinson of The Escapist compared the plots of both films and wrote that "The Secret Life of Pets feels like one of those hour - long ripoffs you 'd see on a children 's television network. '' Ethan Anderton of the website / Film criticised the film 's characterisation, and noted that the relationship between Max and Duke was akin to "Woody and Buzz Lightyear all over again. ''
In August 2016 it was announced that there would be a sequel, with director Chris Renaud, producers Chris Meledandri and Janet Healy, and writer Brian Lynch, with a release date of July 13, 2018. On January 25, 2017, its release date was pushed back to July 3, 2019. On August 15, 2017, its release date was moved forward to June 7, 2019.
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when did spain give the us full control of philippines | History of the Philippines (1898 -- 1946) - wikipedia
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The history of the Philippines from 1898 to 1946 covers the period of American rule in the Philippines and began with the outbreak of the Spanish -- American War in April 1898, when the Philippines was still part of the Spanish East Indies, and concluded when the United States formally recognised the independence of the Republic of the Philippines on July 4, 1946.
With the signing of the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States. The interim U.S. military government of the Philippine Islands experienced a period of great political turbulence, characterised by the Philippine -- American War. Beginning in 1901, the military government was replaced by a civilian government -- the Insular Government of the Philippine Islands -- with William Howard Taft serving as its first Governor - General. From 1901 to 1906 there also existed a series of revolutionary governments that lacked significant international diplomatic recognition.
Following the passage of the Philippine Independence Act in 1934, a Philippine presidential election was held in 1935. Manuel L. Quezon was elected and inaugurated second President of the Philippines on November 15, 1935. The Insular Government was dissolved and the Commonwealth of the Philippines was brought into existence. The Commonwealth of the Philippines was intended to be a transitional government in preparation for the country 's full achievement of independence in 1946.
After the Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation of the Philippines during World War II, the United States and Philippine Commonwealth military recaptured the Philippines in 1945. According to the terms of the Philippine Independence Act, the United States formally recognised the independence of the Republic of the Philippines on July 4, 1946.
The Philippine Revolution began in August 1896 and ended with the Pact of Biak - na - Bato, a ceasefire between the Spanish colonial Governor - General Fernando Primo de Rivera and the revolutionary leader Emilio Aguinaldo which was signed on December 15, 1897. The terms of the pact called for Aguinaldo and his militia to surrender. Other revolutionary leaders were given amnesty and a monetary indemnity by the Spanish government in return for which the rebel government agreed to go into exile in Hong Kong.
The failure of Spain to engage in active social reforms in Cuba as demanded by the United States government was the basic cause for the Spanish -- American War. American attention was focused on the issue after the mysterious explosion that sank the American battleship Maine on February 15, 1898 in Havana Harbor. As public political pressure from the Democratic Party and certain industrialists built up for war, the U.S. Congress forced the reluctant Republican President William McKinley to issue an ultimatum to Spain on April 19, 1898. Spain found it had no diplomatic support in Europe, but nevertheless declared war; the U.S. followed on April 25 with its own declaration of war.
Theodore Roosevelt, who was at that time Assistant Secretary of the Navy, ordered Commodore George Dewey, commanding the Asiatic Squadron of the United States Navy: "Order the squadron... to Hong Kong. Keep full of coal. In the event of declaration of war Spain, your duty will be to see that the Spanish squadron does not leave the Asiatic coast, and then offensive operations in Philippine Islands. '' Dewey 's squadron departed on April 27 for the Philippines, reaching Manila Bay on the evening of April 30.
The first battle of the Spanish -- American War took place in the Philippines on May 1, 1898. In a matter of hours, Commodore Dewey 's Asiatic Squadron defeated the Spanish squadron under Admiral Patricio Montojo. The U.S. squadron took control of the arsenal and navy yard at Cavite. Dewey cabled Washington, stating that although he controlled Manila Bay, he needed 5,000 additional men to seize Manila itself.
The unexpected rapidity and completeness of Dewey 's victory in the first engagement of the war prompted the McKinley administration to make the decision to capture Manila from the Spanish. The United States Army began to assemble the Eighth Army Corps -- a military unit which would consist of 10,844 soldiers under the command of Major General Wesley Merritt -- in preparation for deployment to the Philippines.
While awaiting the arrival of troops from the Eighth Corps, Dewey dispatched the cutter USRC McCulloch to Hong Kong to transport Aguinaldo back to the Philippines. Aguinaldo arrived on May 19 and, after a brief meeting with Dewey, resumed revolutionary activities against the Spanish. On May 24, Aguinaldo issued a proclamation in which he assumed command of all Philippine forces and announced his intention to establish a dictatorial government with himself as dictator, saying that he would resign in favor of a duly elected president.
Public jubilation marked Aguinaldo 's return. Many Filipino enlisted men deserted local Spanish army units to join Aguinaldo 's command and the Philippine Revolution against Spain resumed. Soon, many cities such as Imus, Bacoor, Parañaque, Las Piñas, Morong, Macabebe and San Fernando, as well as some entire provinces such as Laguna, Batangas, Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Bataan, Tayabas (now Quezon), and the Camarines provinces, were liberated by the Filipinos and the port of Dalahican in Cavite was secured.
The first contingent of American troops arrived on 30 June under the command of Brigadier General Thomas McArthur Anderson, commander of Eighth Corps ' 2d Division (U.S. brigade and division numbers of the era were not unique throughout the army). General Anderson wrote to Aguinaldo, requesting his cooperation in military operations against the Spanish forces. Aguinaldo responded, thanking General Anderson for his amicable sentiments, but saying nothing about military cooperation. General Anderson did not renew the request.
The 2d Brigade, 2d Division, Eighth Corps arrived on July 17, under the command of Brigadier General Francis V. Greene. Major General Merritt (the Commander in Chief of the Philippine Expedition) and his staff arrived at Cavite on July 25. The 1st Brigade of the corps ' 2d Division arrived on July 30, under the command of Brigadier General Arthur MacArthur.
On 12 June 1898, Aguinaldo proclaimed the independence of the Philippines at his house in Cavite El Viejo. Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista wrote the Philippine Declaration of Independence, and read this document in Spanish that day at Aguinaldo 's house. On 18 June, Aguinaldo issued a decree formally establishing his dictatorial government. On June 23, Aguinaldo issued another decree, this time replacing the dictatorial government with a revolutionary government (and naming himself as President).
Writing retrospectively in 1899, Aguinaldo claimed that an American naval officer had urged him to return to the Philippines to fight the Spanish and said "The United States is a great and rich nation and needs no colonies. '' Aguinaldo also wrote that after checking with Dewey by telegraph, U.S. Consul E. Spencer Pratt had assured him in Singapore: "That the United States would at least recognize the independence of the Philippines under the protection of the United States Navy. The consul added that there was no necessity for entering into a formal written agreement because the word of the Admiral and of the United States Consul were in fact equivalent to the most solemn pledge that their verbal promises and assurance would be fulfilled to the letter and were not to be classed with Spanish promises or Spanish ideas of a man 's word of honour. '' Aguinaldo received nothing in writing.
On April 28 Pratt wrote to United States Secretary of State William R. Day, explaining the details of his meeting with Aguinaldo:
There was no mention in the cablegrams between Pratt and Dewey of independence or indeed of any conditions on which Aguinaldo was to cooperate, these details being left for future arrangement with Dewey. Pratt had intended to facilitate the occupation and administration of the Philippines, and also to prevent a possible conflict of action. In a communication written on July 28, Pratt made the following statement:
On June 16, Secretary Day cabled Consul Pratt: "Avoid unauthorized negotiations with the Philippine insurgents, '' and later on the same day:
If, in the course of your conferences with General Aguinaldo, you acted upon the assumption that this Government would co-operate with him for the furtherance of any plan of his own, or that, in accepting his co-operation, it would consider itself pledged to recognize any political claims which he may put forward, your action was unauthorized and can not be approved.
Filipino scholar Maximo Kalaw wrote in 1927: "A few of the principal facts, however, seem quite clear. Aguinaldo was not made to understand that, in consideration of Filipino cooperation, the United States would extend its sovereignty over the Islands, and thus in place of the old Spanish master a new one would step in. The truth was that nobody at the time ever thought that the end of the war would result in the retention of the Philippines by the United States. ''
On July 9 General Anderson informed Major General Henry Clark Corbin, the Adjutant General of the U.S. Army, that Aguinaldo "has declared himself Dictator and President, and is trying to take Manila without our assistance '', opining that that would not be probable but, if done, would allow him to antagonize any U.S. attempt to establish a provisional government. On July 15, Aguinaldo issued three organic decrees assuming civil authority of the Philippines.
On July 18, General Anderson wrote that he suspected Aguinaldo to be secretly negotiating with the Spanish authorities. In a 21 July letter to the Adjutant General, General Anderson wrote that Aguinaldo had "put in operation an elaborate system of military government, under his assumed authority as Dictator, and has prohibited any supplies being given us, except by his order, '' and that Anderson had written to Aguinaldo that the requisitions on the country for necessary items must be filled, and that he must aid in having them filled.
On July 24, Aguinaldo wrote a letter to General Anderson in effect warning him not to disembark American troops in places conquered by the Filipinos from the Spaniards without first communicating in writing the places to be occupied and the object of the occupation. Murat Halstead, official historian of the Philippine Expedition, writes that General Merritt remarked shortly after his arrival on 25 June, "As General Aguinaldo did not visit me on my arrival, nor offer his services as a subordinate military leader, and as my instructions from the President fully contemplated the occupation of the islands by the American land forces, and stated that ' the powers of the military occupant are absolute and supreme and immediately operate upon the political condition of the inhabitants, ' I did not consider it wise to hold any direct communication with the insurgent leader until I should be in possession of the city of Manila, especially as I would not until then be in a position to issue a proclamation and enforce my authority, in the event that his pretensions should clash with my designs. ''
U.S. commanders suspected that Aguinaldo and his forces were informing the Spanish of American movements. U.S. Army Major John R.M. Taylor later wrote, after translating and analyzing insurgent documents, "The officers of the United States Army who believed that the insurgents were informing the Spaniards of the American movements were right. Sastrón has printed a letter from Pío del Pilar, dated July 30, to the Spanish officer commanding at Santa Ana, in which Pilar said that Aguinaldo had told him that the Americans would attack the Spanish lines on August 2 and advised that the Spaniards should not give way, but hold their positions. Pilar added, however, that if the Spaniards should fall back on the walled city and surrender Santa Ana to himself, he would hold it with his own men. Aguinaldo 's information was correct, and on August 2 eight American soldiers were killed or wounded by the Spanish fire. ''
On the evening of August 12, on orders of General Merritt, General Anderson notified Aguinaldo to forbid the insurgents under his command from entering Manila. On 13 August, unaware of the peace protocol signing, U.S. forces assaulted and captured the Spanish positions in Manila. Insurgents made an independent attack of their own, as planned, which promptly led to trouble with the Americans. At 0800 that morning, Aguinaldo received a telegram from General Anderson, sternly warning him not to let his troops enter Manila without the consent of the American commander, who was situated on the south side of the Pasig River. General Anderson 's request was ignored, and Aguinaldo 's forces crowded forward alongside the American forces until they directly confronted the Spanish troops. Although the Spanish were waving a flag of truce, the insurgents fired on the Spanish forces, provoking return fire. 19 American soldiers were killed, and 103 more were wounded in this action.
General Anderson sent Aguinaldo a telegram, later that day, which read:
Aguinaldo however demanded joint occupation of Manila. On August 13 Admiral Dewey and General Merritt informed their superiors of this and asked how far they might proceed in enforcing obedience in the matter.
General Merritt received news of the August 12 peace protocol on August 16, three days after the surrender of Manila. Admiral Dewey and General Merritt were informed by a telegram dated August 17 that the President of the United States had directed:
Insurgent forces were looting the portions of the city which they occupied, and were not confining their attacks to Spaniards, but were assaulting their own people and raiding the property of foreigners as well. U.S. commanders pressed Aguinaldo to withdraw his forces from Manila. Negotiations proceeded slowly and, on August 31, General Elwell Otis (General Merritt being unavailable) wrote, in a long letter to Aguinaldo: "... I am compelled by my instructions to direct that your armed forces evacuate the entire city of Manila, including its suburbs and defences, and that I shall be obliged to take action with that end in view within a very short space of time should you decline to comply with my Government 's demands; and I hereby serve notice on you that unless your troops are withdrawn beyond the line of the city 's defences before Thursday, the 15th instant, I shall be obliged to resort to forcible action, and that my Government will hold you responsible for any unfortunate consequences which may ensue. '' After further negotiation and exchanges of letters, Aguinaldo wrote on September 16: "On the evening of the 15th the armed insurgent organizations withdrew from the city and all of its suburbs,... ''
On August 12, 1898, The New York Times reported that a peace protocol had been signed in Washington that afternoon between the U.S. and Spain, suspending hostilities between the two nations. The full text of the protocol was not made public until November 5, but Article III read: "The United States will occupy and hold the City, Bay, and Harbor of Manila, pending the conclusion of a treaty of peace, which shall determine the control, disposition, and government of the Philippines. '' After conclusion of this agreement, U.S. President McKinley proclaimed a suspension of hostilities with Spain.
By June, U.S. and Filipino forces had taken control of most of the islands, except for the walled city of Intramuros. Admiral Dewey and General Merritt were able to work out a bloodless solution with acting Governor - General Fermín Jáudenes. The negotiating parties made a secret agreement to stage a mock battle in which the Spanish forces would be defeated by the American forces, but the Filipino forces would not be allowed to enter the city. This plan minimized the risk of unnecessary casualties on all sides, while the Spanish would also avoid the shame of possibly having to surrender Intramuros to the Filipino forces. On the eve of the mock battle, General Anderson telegraphed Aguinaldo, "Do not let your troops enter Manila without the permission of the American commander. On this side of the Pasig River you will be under fire ''.
On August 13, with American commanders unaware that a ceasefire had already been signed between Spain and the U.S. on the previous day, American forces captured the city of Manila from the Spanish in the Battle of Manila. The battle started when Dewey 's ships bombarded Fort San Antonio Abad, a decrepit structure on the southern outskirts of Manila, and the virtually impregnable walls of Intramuros. In accordance with the plan, the Spanish forces withdrew while U.S. forces advanced. Once a sufficient show of battle had been made, Dewey hoisted the signal "D.W.H.B. '' (meaning "Do you surrender?), whereupon the Spanish hoisted a white flag and Manila was formally surrendered to U.S. forces.
This battle marked the end of Filipino - American collaboration, as the American action of preventing Filipino forces from entering the captured city of Manila was deeply resented by the Filipinos. This later led to the Philippine -- American War, which would prove to be more deadly and costly than the Spanish -- American War.
On August 14, 1898, two days after the capture of Manila, the U.S. established a military government in the Philippines, with General Merritt acting as military governor. During military rule (1898 -- 1902), the U.S. military commander governed the Philippines under the authority of the U.S. president as Commander - in - Chief of the United States Armed Forces. After the appointment of a civil Governor - General, the procedure developed that as parts of the country were pacified and placed firmly under American control, responsibility for the area would be passed to the civilian.
General Merritt was succeeded by General Otis as military governor, who in turn was succeeded by General MacArthur. Major General Adna Chaffee was the final military governor. The position of military governor was abolished in July 1902, after which the civil Governor - General became the sole executive authority in the Philippines.
Under the military government, an American - style school system was introduced, initially with soldiers as teachers; civil and criminal courts were reestablished, including a supreme court; and local governments were established in towns and provinces. The first local election was conducted by General Harold W. Lawton on May 7, 1899, in Baliuag, Bulacan.
In a clash at Cavite between United States soldiers and insurgents on August 25, 1898, George Hudson of the Utah regiment was killed, Corporal William Anderson was mortally wounded, and four troopers of the Fourth Cavalry were slightly wounded. This provoked General Anderson to send Aguinaldo a letter saying, "In order to avoid the very serious misfortune of an encounter between our troops, I demand your immediate withdrawal with your guard from Cavite. One of my men has been killed and three wounded by your people. This is positive and does not admit of explanation or delay. '' Internal insurgent communications reported that the Americans were drunk at the time. Halstead writes that Aguinaldo expressed his regret and promised to punish the offenders. In internal insurgent communications, Apolinario Mabini initially proposed to investigate and punish any offenders identified. Aguinaldo modified this, ordering, "... say that he was not killed by your soldiers, but by them themselves (the Americans) since they were drunk according to your telegram ''. An insurgent officer in Cavite at the time reported on his record of services that he: "took part in the movement against the Americans on the afternoon of the 24th of August, under the orders of the commander of the troops and the adjutant of the post. ''
Elections were held by the Revolutionary Government between June and September 10, resulting in Emilio Aguinaldo being seated as President in the seating of a legislature known as the Malolos Congress. In a session between September 15 and November 13, 1898, the Malolos Constitution was adopted. It was promulgated on January 21, 1899, creating the First Philippine Republic.
Article V of the peace protocol signed on August 12 had mandated negotiations to conclude a treaty of peace to begin in Paris not later than October 1, 1898. President McKinley sent a five - man commission, initially instructed to demand no more than Luzon, Guam, and Puerto Rico; which would have provided a limited U.S. empire of pinpoint colonies to support a global fleet and provide communication links. In Paris, the commission was besieged with advice, particularly from American generals and European diplomats, to demand the entire Philippine archipelago. The unanimous recommendation was that "it would certainly be cheaper and more humane to take the entire Philippines than to keep only part of it. '' On October 28, 1898, McKinley wired the commission that "cessation of Luzon alone, leaving the rest of the islands subject to Spanish rule, or to be the subject of future contention, can not be justified on political, commercial, or humanitarian grounds. The cessation must be the whole archipeligo or none. The latter is wholly inadmissible, and the former must therefore be required. '' The Spanish negotiators were furious over the "immodist demands of a conqueror '', but their wounded pride was assuaged by an offer of twenty million dollars for "Spanish improvements '' to the islands. The Spaniards capitulated, and on December 10, 1898, the U.S. and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris, formally ending the Spanish -- American War. In Article III, Spain ceded the Philippine archipelago to the United States, as follows: "Spain cedes to the United States the archipelago known as the Philippine Islands, and comprehending the islands lying within the following line: (... geographic description elided...). The United States will pay to Spain the sum of twenty million dollars ($20,000,000) within three months after the exchange of the ratifications of the present treaty. ''
In the U.S., there was a movement for Philippine independence; some said that the U.S. had no right to a land where many of the people wanted self - government. In 1898 Andrew Carnegie, an industrialist and steel magnate, offered to pay the U.S. government $20 million to give the Philippines its independence.
On November 7, 1900, Spain and the U.S. signed the Treaty of Washington, clarifying that the territories relinquished by Spain to the United States included any and all islands belonging to the Philippine Archipelago, but lying outside the lines described in the Treaty of Paris. That treaty explicitly named the islands of Cagayan Sulu and Sibutu and their dependencies as among the relinquished territories.
U.S. President McKinley 's December 21, 1898 proclamation of Benevolent Assimilation was announced in the Philippines on January 4, 1899. Referring to the Treaty of Paris, it said that as a result of the victories of American arms, the future control, disposition, and government of the Philippine Islands are ceded to the United States. It enjoined the military commander (General Otis) to make known to the inhabitants of the Philippine Islands that in succeeding to the sovereignty of Spain, the authority of the United States is to be exerted for the securing of the persons and property of the people of the islands and for the confirmation of all their private rights and relations. It specified that it will be the duty of the commander of the forces of occupation to announce and proclaim in the most public manner that we come, not as invaders or conquerors, but as friends, to protect the natives in their homes, in their employments, and in their personal and religious rights. On January 6, 1899, General Otis was quoted in The New York Times as expressing himself as convinced that the U.S. government intends to seek the establishment of a liberal government, in which the people will be as fully represented as the maintenance of law and order will permit, susceptible of development, on lines of increased representation, and the bestowal of increased powers, into a government as free and independent as is enjoyed by the most favored provinces in the world.
The Spanish had yielded Iloilo to the insurgents in 1898 for the purpose of troubling the Americans. On January 1, 1899, news had come to Washington from Manila that American forces which had been sent to Iloilo under the command of General Marcus Miller had been confronted by 6,000 armed Filipinos, who refused them permission to land. A Filipino official styling himself Presidente Lopez of the Federal Government of the Visayas informed Miller that "foreign troops '' would not be landed "without express orders from the central government of Luzon '' On December 21, 1898, President McKinley issued a Proclamation of Benevolent Assimilation. General Otis delayed its publication until January 4, 1899, then publishing an amended version edited so as not to convey the meanings of the terms "sovereignty '', "protection '', and "right of cessation '' which were present in the unabridged version. Unknown to Otis, the War Department had also sent an enciphered copy of the Benevolent Assimilation proclamation to General Marcus Miller in Iloilo for informational purposes. Miller assumed that it was for distribution and, unaware that a politically bowdlerized version had been sent to Aguinaldo, published it in both Spanish and Tagalog translations which eventually made their way to Aguinaldo. Even before Aguinaldo received the unaltered version and observed the changes in the copy he had received from Otis, he was upset that Otis had altered his own title to "Military Governor of the Philippines '' from "... in the Philippines. '' Aguinaldo did not miss the significance of the alteration, which Otis had made without authorization from Washington.
On January 5, Aguinaldo issued a counter-proclamation summarizing what he saw as American violations of the ethics of friendship, particularly as regards the events in Iloilo. The proclamation concluded as follows:
My government can not remain indifferent in view of such a violent and aggressive seizure of a portion of its territory by a nation which arrogated to itself the title champion of oppressed nations. Thus it is that my government is disposed to open hostilities if the American troops attempt to take forcible possession of the Visayan Islands. I denounce these acts before the world, in order that the conscience of mankind may pronounce its infallable verdict as to who are the true oppressors of nations and the tormentors of human kind.
After some copies of that proclamation had been distributed, Aguinaldo ordered the recall of undistributed copies and issued another proclamation, which was published the same day in El Heraldo de la Revolucion, the official newspaper of the Philippine Republic. There, he said partly,
I equally protest in the name of the Filipino people against the said intrusion, because as they have granted their vote of confidence appointing me president of the nation, although I do n't consider that I deserve such, therefore I consider it my duty to defend to death its liberty and independence.
Otis, taking these two proclamations as a call to arms, strengthened American observation posts and alerted his troops. In the tense atmosphere, some 40,000 Filipinos fled Manila within a period of 15 days.
Meanwhile, Felipe Agoncillo, who had been commissioned by the Philippine Revolutionary Government as Minister Plenipotentiary to negotiate treaties with foreign governments, and who had unsuccessfully sought to be seated at the negotiations between the U.S. and Spain in Paris, was now in Washington. On January 6, he filed a request for an interview with the President to discuss affairs in the Philippines. The next day the government officials were surprised to learn that messages to General Otis to deal mildly with the rebels and not to force a conflict had become known to Agoncillo, and cabled by him to Aguinaldo. At the same time came Aguinaldo 's protest against General Otis signing himself "Military Governor of the Philippines. ''
On January 8, Agoncillo gave out this statement:
The Filipino committees in London, Paris and Madrid about this time telegraphed to President McKinley as follows:
On January 8, Aguinaldo received the following message from Teodoro Sandiko:
The New York Times reported on January 8, that two Americans who had been guarding a waterboat in Iloilo had been attacked, one fatally, and that insurgents were threatening to destroy the business section of the city by fire; and on January 10 that a peaceful solution to the Iloilo issues may result but that Aguinaldo had issued a proclamation threatening to drive the Americans from the islands.
By January 10, insurgents were ready to assume the offensive, but desired, if possible, to provoke the Americans into firing the first shot. They made no secret of their desire for conflict, but increased their hostile demonstrations and pushed their lines forward into forbidden territory. Their attitude is well illustrated by the following extract from a telegram sent by Colonel Cailles to Aguinaldo on January 10, 1899:
Aguinaldo approved the hostile attitude of Cailles, for there is a reply in his handwriting which reads:
On 31 January 1899, The Minister of Interior of the revolutionary First Philippine Republic, Teodoro Sandiko, signed a decree saying that President Aguinaldo had directed that all idle lands be planted to provide food for the people, in view of impending war with the Americans.
Worcester writes that General Otis ' account of the opening of active hostilities was as follows:
"The insurgents had thus succeeded in drawing the fire of a small outpost, which they had evidently labored with all their ingenuity to accomplish, in order to justify in some way their premeditated attack. It is not believed that the chief insurgent leaders wished to open hostilities at this time, as they were not completely prepared to assume the initiative. They desired two or three days more to perfect their arrangements, but the zeal of their army brought on the crisis which anticipated their premeditated action. They could not have delayed long, however, for it was their object to force an issue before American troops, then en route, could arrive in Manila. ''
Thus began the Insurgent attack, so long and so carefully planned for. We learn from the Insurgent records that the shot of the American sentry missed its mark. There was no reason why it should have provoked a hot return fire, but it did.
The result of the ensuing combat was not at all what the Insurgents had anticipated. The Americans did not drive very well. It was but a short time before they themselves were routed and driven from their positions.
Aguinaldo of course promptly advanced the claim that his troops had been wantonly attacked. The plain fact is that the Insurgent patrol in question deliberately drew the fire of the American sentry, and this was just as much an act of war as was the firing of the shot. Whether the patrol was acting under proper orders from higher authority is not definitely known.
Other sources name the two specific U.S. soldiers involved in the first exchange of fire as Privates William Grayson and Orville Miller of the Nebraska Volunteers.
Subsequent to the conclusion of the war, after analyzing captured insurgent papers, Major Major J.R.M. Taylor wrote, in part,
On February 4, Aguinaldo declared "That peace and friendly relations with the Americans be broken and that the latter be treated as enemies, within the limits prescribed by the laws of war. '' On June 2, 1899, the Malolos Congress enacted and ratified a declaration of war on the United States, which was publicly proclaimed on that same day by Pedro Paterno, President of the Assembly.
As before when fighting the Spanish, the Filipino rebels did not do well in the field. Aguinaldo and his provisional government escaped after the capture of Malolos on March 31, 1899 and were driven into northern Luzon. Peace feelers from members of Aguinaldo 's cabinet failed in May when the American commander, General Ewell Otis, demanded an unconditional surrender. In 1901, Aguinaldo was captured and swore allegiance to the United States, marking one end to the war.
President McKinley had appointed a five - person group headed by Dr. Jacob Schurman, president of Cornell University, on January 20, 1899, to investigate conditions in the islands and
make recommendations. The three civilian members of the Philippine Commission arrived in Manila on March 4, 1899, a month after the Battle of Manila which had begun armed conflict between U.S. and revolutionary Filipino forces. The commission published a proclamation containing assurances that the U.S. "... is anxious to establish in the Philippine Islands an enlightened system of government under which the Philippine people may enjoy the largest measure of home rule and the amplest liberty. ''
After meetings in April with revolutionary representatives, the commission requested authorization from McKinley to offer a specific plan. McKinley authorized an offer of a government consisting of "a Governor - General appointed by the President; cabinet appointed by the Governor - General; (and) a general advisory council elected by the people. '' The Revolutionary Congress voted unanimously to cease fighting and accept peace and, on May 8, the revolutionary cabinet headed by Apolinario Mabini was replaced by a new "peace '' cabinet headed by Pedro Paterno. At this point, General Antonio Luna arrested Paterno and most of his cabinet, returning Mabini and his cabinet to power. After this, the commission concluded that "... The Filipinos are wholly unprepared for independence... there being no Philippine nation, but only a collection of different peoples. ''
In the report that they issued to the president the following year, the commissioners acknowledged Filipino aspirations for independence; they declared, however, that the Philippines was not ready for it.
Should our power by any fatality be withdrawn, the commission believe that the government of the Philippines would speedily lapse into anarchy, which would excuse, if it did not necessitate, the intervention of other powers and the eventual division of the islands among them. Only through American occupation, therefore, is the idea of a free, self - governing, and united Philippine commonwealth at all conceivable. And the indispensable need from the Filipino point of view of maintaining American sovereignty over the archipelago is recognized by all intelligent Filipinos and even by those insurgents who desire an American protectorate. The latter, it is true, would take the revenues and leave us the responsibilities. Nevertheless, they recognize the indubitable fact that the Filipinos can not stand alone. Thus the welfare of the Filipinos coincides with the dictates of national honour in forbidding our abandonment of the archipelago. We can not from any point of view escape the responsibilities of government which our sovereignty entails; and the commission is strongly persuaded that the performance of our national duty will prove the greatest blessing to the peoples of the Philippine Islands.
Specific recommendations included the establishment of civilian government as rapidly as possible (the American chief executive in the islands at that time was the military governor), including establishment of a bicameral legislature, autonomous governments on the provincial and municipal levels, and a system of free public elementary schools.
The Second Philippine Commission (the Taft Commission), appointed by McKinley on March 16, 1900, and headed by William Howard Taft, was granted legislative as well as limited executive powers. On September 1, the Taft Commission began to exercise legislative functions. Between September 1900 and August 1902, it issued 499 laws, established a judicial system, including a supreme court, drew up a legal code, and organized a civil service. The 1901 municipal code provided for popularly elected presidents, vice presidents, and councilors to serve on municipal boards. The municipal board members were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining municipal properties, and undertaking necessary construction projects; they also elected provincial governors.
On March 3, 1901 the U.S. Congress passed the Army Appropriation Act containing (along with the Platt Amendment on Cuba) the Spooner Amendment which provided the President with legislative authority to establish of a civil government in the Philippines. Up until this time, the President been administering the Philippines by virtue of his war powers. On July 1, 1901, civil government was inaugurated with William H. Taft as the Civil Governor. Later, on February 3, 1903, the U.S. Congress would change the title of Civil Governor to Governor - General.
A highly centralized public school system was installed in 1901, using English as the medium of instruction. This created a heavy shortage of teachers, and the Philippine Commission authorized the Secretary of Public Instruction to bring to the Philippines 600 teachers from the U.S.A. -- the so - called Thomasites. Free primary instruction that trained the people for the duties of citizenship and avocation was enforced by the Taft Commission per instructions of President McKinley. Also, the Catholic Church was disestablished, and a considerable amount of church land was purchased and redistributed.
The Philippine Organic Act of July 1902 approved, ratified, and confirmed McKinley 's Executive Order establishing the Philippine Commission, and also stipulated that the bicameral Philippine Legislature would be established composed of an elected lower house, the Philippine Assembly and the appointed Philippine Commission as the upper house. The act also provided for extending the United States Bill of Rights to the Philippines.
On July 2, 1902 the Secretary of War telegraphed that the insurrection against the sovereign authority of the U.S. having come to an end, and provincial civil governments having been established, the office of Military Governor was terminated. On July 4, Theodore Roosevelt, who had succeeded to the U.S. Presidency after the assassination of President McKinley on September 5, 1901 proclaimed a full and complete pardon and amnesty to all persons in the Philippine archipelago who had participated in the conflict.
On April 9, 2002, Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo proclaimed that the Philippine -- American War had ended on April 16, 1902 with the surrender of General Miguel Malvar, and declared the centennial anniversary of that date as a national working holiday and as a special non-working holiday in the Province of Batangas and in the Cities of Batangas, Lipa and Tanaun.
Some sources have suggested that the war unofficially continued for nearly a decade, since bands of guerrillas, quasi-religious armed groups and other resistance groups continued to roam the countryside, still clashing with American Army or Philippine Constabulary patrols. American troops and the Philippine Constabulary continued hostilities against such resistance groups until 1913. Some historians consider these unofficial extensions to be part of the war.
The 1902 Philippine Organic Act was a constitution for the Insular Government, as the U.S. civil administration was known. This was a form of territorial government that reported to the Bureau of Insular Affairs. The act provided for a Governor - General appointed by the U.S. president and an elected lower house, the Philippine Assembly. It also disestablished the Catholic Church as the state religion. The United States government, in an effort to resolve the status of the friars, negotiated with the Vatican. The church agreed to sell the friars ' estates and promised gradual substitution of Filipino and other non-Spanish priests for the friars. It refused, however, to withdraw the religious orders from the islands immediately, partly to avoid offending Spain. In 1904 the administration bought for $7.2 million the major part of the friars ' holdings, amounting to some 166,000 hectares (410,000 acres), of which one - half was in the vicinity of Manila. The land was eventually resold to Filipinos, some of them tenants but the majority of them estate owners.
In socio - economic terms, the Philippines made solid progress in this period. Foreign trade had amounted to 62 million pesos in 1895, 13 % of which was with the United States. By 1920, it had increased to 601 million pesos, 66 % of which was with the United States. A health care system was established which, by 1930, reduced the mortality rate from all causes, including various tropical diseases, to a level similar to that of the United States itself. The practices of slavery, piracy and headhunting were suppressed but not entirely extinguished.
Two years after completion and publication of a census, a general election was conducted for the choice of delegates to a popular assembly. An elected Philippine Assembly was convened in 1907 as the lower house of a bicameral legislature, with the Philippine Commission as the upper house.
Every year from 1907 the Philippine Assembly and later the Philippine Legislature passed resolutions expressing the Filipino desire for independence.
Philippine nationalists led by Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña enthusiastically endorsed the draft Jones Bill of 1912, which provided for Philippine independence after eight years, but later changed their views, opting for a bill which focused less on time than on the conditions of independence. The nationalists demanded complete and absolute independence to be guaranteed by the United States, since they feared that too - rapid independence from American rule without such guarantees might cause the Philippines to fall into Japanese hands. The Jones Bill was rewritten and passed Congress in 1916 with a later date of independence.
The law, officially the Philippine Autonomy Act but popularly known as the Jones Law, served as the new organic act (or constitution) for the Philippines. Its preamble stated that the eventual independence of the Philippines would be American policy, subject to the establishment of a stable government. The law maintained the Governor - General of the Philippines, appointed by the President of the United States, but established a bicameral Philippine Legislature to replace the elected Philippine Assembly (lower house); it replaced the appointive Philippine Commission (upper house) with an elected senate.
The Filipinos suspended their independence campaign during the First World War and supported the United States against Germany. After the war they resumed their independence drive with great vigor. On March 17, 1919, the Philippine Legislature passed a "Declaration of Purposes '', which stated the inflexible desire of the Filipino people to be free and sovereign. A Commission of Independence was created to study ways and means of attaining liberation ideal. This commission recommended the sending of an independence mission to the United States. The "Declaration of Purposes '' referred to the Jones Law as a veritable pact, or covenant, between the American and Filipino peoples whereby the United States promised to recognize the independence of the Philippines as soon as a stable government should be established. U.S. Governor - General of the Philippines Francis Burton Harrison had concurred in the report of the Philippine legislature as to a stable government.
The Philippine legislature funded an independence mission to the U.S. in 1919. The mission departed Manila on February 28 and met in the U.S. with and presented their case to Secretary of War Newton D. Baker. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, in his 1921 farewell message to Congress, certified that the Filipino people had performed the condition imposed on them as a prerequisite to independence, declaring that, this having been done, the duty of the U.S. is to grant Philippine independence. The Republican Party then controlled Congress and the recommendation of the outgoing Democratic president was not heeded.
After the first independence mission, public funding of such missions was ruled illegal. Subsequent independence missions in 1922, 1923, 1930, 1931 1932, and two missions in 1933 were funded by voluntary contributions. Numerous independence bills were submitted to the U.S. Congress, which passed the Hare - Hawes - Cutting Bill on December 30, 1932. U.S. President Herbert Hoover vetoed the bill on January 13, 1933. Congress overrode the veto on January 17, and the Hare -- Hawes -- Cutting Act became U.S. law. The law promised Philippine independence after 10 years, but reserved several military and naval bases for the United States, as well as imposing tariffs and quotas on Philippine exports. The law also required the Philippine Senate to ratify the law. Manuel L. Quezon urged the Philippine Senate to reject the bill, which it did. Quezon himself led the twelfth independence mission to Washington to secure a better independence act. The result was the Tydings -- McDuffie Act of 1934 which was very similar to the Hare - Hawes - Cutting Act except in minor details. The Tydings - McDuffie Act was ratified by the Philippine Senate. The law provided for the granting of Philippine independence by 1946.
The Tydings -- McDuffie Act provided for the drafting and guidelines of a Constitution, for a 10 - year "transitional period '' as the Commonwealth of the Philippines before the granting of Philippine independence. On May 5, 1934, the Philippines legislature passed an act setting the election of convention delegates. Governor - General Frank Murphy designated July 10 as the election date, and the convention held its inaugural session on July 30. The completed draft constitution was approved by the convention on February 8, 1935, approved by U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt on March 23, and ratified by popular vote on May 14. The first election under the constitution was held on September 17, and on November 15, 1935, the Commonwealth was put into place.
It was planned that the period 1935 -- 1946 would be devoted to the final adjustments required for a peaceful transition to full independence, a great latitude in autonomy being granted in the meantime. Instead there was war with Japan.
On May 14, 1935, an election to fill the newly created office of President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines was won by Manuel L. Quezon (Nacionalista Party) and a Filipino government was formed on the basis of principles superficially similar to the U.S. Constitution. The Commonwealth as established in 1935 featured a very strong executive, a unicameral national assembly, and a supreme court composed entirely of Filipinos for the first time since 1901. The new government embarked on an ambitious agenda of establishing the basis for national defense, greater control over the economy, reforms in education, improvement of transport, the colonization of the island of Mindanao, and the promotion of local capital and industrialization. The Commonwealth however, was also faced with agrarian unrest, an uncertain diplomatic and military situation in South East Asia, and uncertainty about the level of United States commitment to the future Republic of the Philippines.
In 1939 -- 40, the Philippine Constitution was amended to restore a bicameral Congress, and permit the reelection of President Quezon, previously restricted to a single, six - year term.
During the Commonwealth years, Philippines sent one elected Resident Commissioner to the United States House of Representatives, as Puerto Rico currently does today.
A few hours after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the Japanese launched air raids in several cities and US military installations in the Philippines on December 8, and on December 10, the first Japanese troops landed in Northern Luzon. Filipino pilot Captain Jesús A. Villamor, leading a flight of three P - 26 "Peashooter '' fighters of the 6th Pursuit Squadron, distinguished himself by attacking two enemy formations of 27 planes each and downing a much - superior Japanese Zero, for which he was awarded the U.S. Distinguished Service Cross. The two other planes in that flight, flown by Lieutenants César Basa and Geronimo Aclan, were shot down.
General Douglas MacArthur, commander of the United States Armed Forces in the Far East (USAFFE), was forced to retreat to Bataan. Manila was occupied by the Japanese on January 2, 1942. The fall of Bataan was on April 9, 1942 with Corregidor Island, at the mouth of Manila Bay, surrendering on May 6.
The Commonwealth government by then had exiled itself to Washington, DC, upon the invitation of President Roosevelt; however many politicians stayed behind and collaborated with the occupying Japanese. The Philippine Commonwealth Army continued to fight the Japanese in a guerrilla war and were considered auxiliary units of the United States Army. Several Philippine Commonwealth military awards, such as the Philippine Defense Medal, Independence Medal, and Liberation Medal, were awarded to both the United States and Philippine Armed Forces.
As the Japanese forces advanced, Manila was declared an open city to prevent it from destruction, meanwhile, the government was moved to Corregidor. In March 1942, General MacArthur and President Quezon fled the country. Guerrilla units harassed the Japanese when they could, and on Luzon native resistance was strong enough that the Japanese never did get control of a large part of the island. The Hukbalahap, a communist guerilla movement formed by peasant farmers in Central Luzon, did most of the fighting. The Hukbalahap, also known as Huks, resisted invaders and punished the people who collaborated with the Japanese, but did not have a well - disciplined organization, and were later seen as a threat to the Manila government. Before MacArthur came back, the effectiveness of the guerilla movement had decimated Japanese control, limiting it to only 12 out of the 48 provinces.
In October 1944, MacArthur had gathered enough additional troops and supplies to begin the retaking of the Philippines, landing with Sergio Osmeña who had assumed the Presidency after Quezon 's death. The Philippine Constabulary went on active service under the Philippine Commonwealth Army on October 28, 1944 during liberation under the Commonwealth regime. The battles entailed long fierce fighting; some of the Japanese continued to fight until the official surrender of the Empire of Japan on September 2, 1945.
After their landing, Filipino and American forces also undertook measures to suppress the Huk movement, which was founded to fight the Japanese Occupation. The Filipino and American forces removed local Huk governments and imprisoned many high - ranking members of the Philippine Communist Party. While these incidents happened, there was still fighting against the Japanese forces and, despite the American and Philippine measures against the Huk, they still supported American and Filipino soldiers in the fight against the Japanese.
Over a million Filipinos (including regular and constable soldiers, recognized guerrillas and non-combatant civilians) had been killed in the war. The 1947 final report of the High Commissioner to the Philippines documents massive damage to most coconut mills and sugar mills; inter-island shipping had all been destroyed or removed; concrete highways had been broken up for use on military airports; railways were inoperative; Manila was 80 percent destroyed, Cebu 90 percent, and Zamboanga 95 percent.
Philippine independence came on July 4, 1946, with the signing of the Treaty of Manila between the governments of the United States and the Philippines. The treaty provided for the recognition of the independence of the Republic of the Philippines and the relinquishment of American sovereignty over the Philippine Islands. From 1946 to 1961, Independence Day was observed on July 4. On 12 May 1962, President Macapagal issued Presidential Proclamation No. 28, proclaiming Tuesday, June 12, 1962 as a special public holiday throughout the Philippines. In 1964, Republic Act No. 4166 changed the date of Independence Day from July 4 to June 12 and renamed the July 4 holiday as Philippine Republic Day.
During World War II, over 200,000 Filipinos fought in defense of the United States against the Japanese in the Pacific theater of military operations, where more than half died. As a commonwealth of the United States before and during the war, Filipinos were legally American nationals. With American nationality, Filipinos were promised all the benefits afforded to those serving in the armed forces of the United States. In 1946, Congress passed the Rescission Act (38 U.S.C. § 107) which stripped Filipinos of the benefits they were promised.
Since the passage of the Rescission Act, many Filipino veterans have traveled to the United States to lobby Congress for the benefits promised to them for their service and sacrifice. Over 30,000 of such veterans live in the United States today, with most being United States citizens. Sociologists introduced the phrase "Second Class Veterans '' to describe the plight of these Filipino Americans. Beginning in 1993, numerous bills titled Filipino Veterans Fairness Act were introduced in Congress to return the benefits taken away from these veterans, only to die in committee. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, signed into law on February 17, 2009, included provisions to pay benefits to the 15,000 remaining veterans.
On January 6, 2011 Jackie Speier (D - CA), U.S. Representative for California 's 12th congressional district, serving since 2008, introduced a bill seeking to make Filipino WW - II veterans eligible for the same benefits available to U.S. veterans. In a news conference to outline the bill, Speier estimated that approximately 50,000 Filipino veterans survive.
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does krillin come back to life in dragon ball | Krillin - wikipedia
Krillin (Japanese: クリリン, Hepburn: Kuririn), known as Kuririn in Funimation 's English subtitles and Viz Media 's release of the manga, Klilyn in Japanese merchandise English translations, is a fictional character in the Dragon Ball manga series created by Akira Toriyama. He is introduced in chapter # 25 A Rival? Arrival!! (ライバル? 参上!!, Raibaru? Sanjō!!), first published in Weekly Shōnen Jump magazine on May 21, 1985, as Goku 's fellow martial arts student under Kame - Sen'nin. As the series progresses, Krillin becomes Goku 's closest ally and best friend as he fights every villain along with Goku or before him and is often depicted as the comic relief.
Toriyama originally created Krillin along with the Tenka'ichi Budōkai as a method to help add depth to the story, as his editor Kazuhiko Torishima had stated that the series ' protagonist, Goku, was too plain. Torishima explained that in order to develop Goku 's characterization, they needed someone petty and mischievous to provide contrast. Leading to the introduction of Krillin. Yūsuke Watanabe, who wrote the screenplay for the film Dragon Ball Z: Battle of Gods, had originally written the film to take place at Krillin and Android # 18 's wedding, but Toriyama wrote it to take place at Bulma 's birthday party. Watanabe thought Toriyama made the change because he wanted fans to imagine the wedding for themselves. Toriyama cited Krillin and Bulma 's older ages at the end of the manga as a reason he chose for Battle of Gods to take place after the Boo arc since they were in their "strongest condition at that time. ''
Krillin 's appearance stays relatively the same for the majority of the series. He is first introduced at age 13, with a shaved head and still dressed in the yellow - and - orange clothing worn at the monastery at which he had been training. He does not possess a visible nose, and has six spots of moxibustion burns on his forehead, a reference to the practice of Shaolin monks. Toriyama once stated, seemingly humorously, that Krillin 's lack of a nose is because he has a "physical idiosyncrasy '' that allows him to breathe through the pores of his skin. Later, he wears the orange gi uniform that is presented to both himself and Goku by Kame - Sen'nin in honor of their first martial arts competition. Occasionally he is seen in casual clothes, but for the most part continues to dress for training or fighting at all times. During the Freeza arc, he wears Saiyan armor provided by Vegeta, but during the Cell arc he returns to wearing the orange gi, accompanied by a blue short - sleeved undershirt and boots. After the defeat of Cell, Krillin stops shaving his head, and grows his black hair out, before later shaving it again during Frieza 's resurrection. When he settles down with his family, Krillin is shown wearing a workout outfit consisting of a red T - shirt and brown drawstring pants.
Krillin first appears arriving at Kame - Sen'nin's island to become his apprentice, meeting Son Goku, and the two become rivals. However, after doing the hardships that Kame - Sen'nin assigns, the two become friends. After finishing their training, Kame - Sen'nin has Krillin and Goku compete in the 21st Tenka'ichi Budōkai. Krillin beats the odored fighter Bacterian, who uses his stench as a weapon, and makes it to the semi-finals. However, he is defeated by Jackie Chun, who is really Kame - Sen'nin in disguise preventing his students from becoming arrogant with too many victories. Krillin continues to train with Kame - Sen'nin and helps Goku to collect the Dragon Balls by fighting against General Blue and participating in Baba Uranai 's tournament. However, he is quickly defeated by Dracula Man, who bites down on his head, causing blood to pour out. Three years later, Krillin enters the 22nd Tenka'ichi Budōkai. Again, he makes it to the semi-finals by defeating Chaozu, but loses to Goku. Soon after, Krillin is killed by a henchman of Piccolo Daimao, who wanted to steal Goku 's Dragon Ball. After Goku defeats Piccolo, Krillin is revived by the Dragon Balls. Another 3 years later, Krillin enters the 23rd Tenka'ichi Budōkai. This time however, he only makes it to the quarter - finals, losing to Piccolo Junior. Krillin then tries to intervene in the fight between Piccolo and Goku when Piccolo gains the upper hand, until realizing he is outclassed.
Several years later, in the span of a day, Krillin is attacked by Raditz while attending a reunion, and is unable to save Gohan from Piccolo, who takes him for training. A year afterward, Krillin confronts the Saiyan invaders Vegeta and Nappa along with his friends, following months of training in preparation for their arrival. After Yamcha 's death, he avenges his friend by killing most of the Saibermen. In the battle against Nappa, Krillin tries to get involved in his fight with Tenshinhan after Nappa severs the latter 's arm, though is stopped by Nappa. Krillin double teams Nappa with Piccolo, creating multiple copies of themselves with the Tri-Form and failing thanks to the clones cutting their power. Krillin later goes toe - to - toe with Nappa alone, launching a Kienzan at him that Nappa almost catches before Vegeta warns him, and is saved from an attack from Nappa by Piccolo. After Nappa is defeated, and Goku arrives, Krillin requests that he fight Vegeta elsewhere to prevent their friends ' corpses from being destroyed. He and Gohan leave the battlefield but return after Gohan worries for Goku, who is being crushed by Vegeta in his Oozaru form. Krillin unsuccessfully attempts cutting Vegeta 's tail in a sneak attack, and later is given the Genki Dama to launch at Vegeta by Goku, which misses initially but is bounded back by Gohan. After Vegeta yields from further conflict given his extensive injuries, Krillin takes Yajirobe 's sword and moves in to kill him, but agrees to spare his life per Goku 's request. He then travels with Gohan and Bulma to planet Namek to use the Namekian Dragon Balls to revive their dead friends, since the Earth 's Dragon Balls vanished due to Piccolo 's death. Once there, they save a young Namekian called Dende from death at the hands of Freeza 's henchmen. Krillin receives an increase in power from Guru, the grand elder of the Namekians, when he unlocks his hidden potential. After a few close encounters with Vegeta, Krillin and Gohan are forced to team up with him in order to fight Freeza 's strongest warriors, the Ginyu Force. They are overpowered by them until Goku arrives and defeats the Force. After Krillin and Gohan collect the seven Dragon Balls and wish back Piccolo, they begin a battle against Freeza, during which Krillin is stabbed in the chest, removes Freeza 's tail following being healed by Dende, thereby distracting Freeza from continuing to crush Gohan to death, and injures Vegeta in an attempt to capitalize on his Saiyan ability to grow stronger when in a near - death state at Vegeta 's request. After a long fight between Goku and Freeza, Goku decides to use the Genki - dama, Krillin giving his energy to Piccolo so he can stall Freeza and attacking Freeza himself with his last bit of strength. When the group recovers from the Genki - dama, and Freeza emerges unscathed, the latter detonates Krillin from the inside, killing him instantly, which triggers Goku 's first ever transformation into a Super Saiyan. After Freeza 's defeat, Krillin is revived by the Namekian Dragon Balls.
Krillin trains for three years to confront Dr. Gero who tries to use his androids to kill Goku. Krillin is momentarily forced to leave his friends with the androids to take Yamcha away from the battlefield in the aftermath of his deadly encounter with Gero, who Krillin finds the base of and signals the others to his location after having a fight with Gero. When the Androids, # 16, # 17 and # 18 are released, Krillin is the only hero present that does not engage # 17 and # 18 due to his fear. After the duo defeat his friends, Krillin unsuccessfully pleads for the androids to spare Goku 's life, and becomes infatuated with the female # 18 after she kisses him on the cheek, and he then heals his defeated friends. After Krillin encounters the artificial life form Cell, Krillin and Trunks travel to Dr. Gero 's laboratory basement, where Krillin kills the present timeline version of Cell and the two discover the weakness to the androids is a deactivating controller, which Bulma constructs and gives to Krillin. Krillin soon after encounters # 18 with the module and after a period of deliberation, destroys it. Because of this, regardless of his efforts, Cell absorbs her and achieves his perfect form. Enraged over her loss, Krillin engages Cell in combat, the latter standing in place while Krillin 's attacks have no effect and striking Krillin only once, placing Krillin in a near - death state. After Krillin is revived by Trunks, he warns Trunks of Cell 's strength, having been able to sense his true power right before being attacked. He moves Vegeta away from the impending fight between Trunks and Cell, healing Vegeta during the battle between the two. He later participates in the Cell Games, a martial arts tournament created by Cell for entertainment, and fights one of the Cell Juniors who attack him and his friends, but is saved by Gohan. After Gohan punches Cell in the stomach, he regurgitates Android # 18 and Krillin cares for her comatose body while Gohan destroys Cell. After Cell 's death, Krillin then travels to the lookout, where he uses the second wish from the Dragon Balls to remove the bombs from # 17 and # 18.
Seven years later, Krillin has quit fighting, settled down with # 18, with whom he has a daughter named Marron (マーロン, Māron). This left Goku confused, until Krillin explained that Android 18 is a cyborg (meaning she is human still), and she was able to have a baby with him. However, after learning of Goku 's return from the afterlife to compete in the 25th Tenka'ichi Budōkai, he decides to also participate, also being encouraged to do so for the money by # 18. During Goten and Trunks ' match, Krillin worries that Trunks ' energy attack will hit the crowd. Krillin wins his sole match, against Pintar, during the competition with ease. After the Kaiō - shin enlists several of Krillin 's friends to help him defeat the wizard Bobbidi, Krillin joins them, in doing so forfeiting his entry in the tournament, but is stopped from assisting any further thanks to Dabura turning him into stone with his spit. Upon Dabura 's death however, Krillin is freed and he saves Goten and Trunks from the impact of Vegeta 's self - explosion. Krillin later evacuates Earth after Majin Boo 's awakening. When Boo has transformed, he finds Krillin 's groups and kills them. During Goku and Vegeta 's fight against Boo, Krillin is brought back to life by the Namekian Dragon Balls and gives his energy to Goku 's Genki - Dama attack, which is used to destroy Boo.
Krillin appears in two of the three Dragon Ball films; in the second, Krillin is used as leverage by Lucifer to convince Goku to give the Sleeping Princess to him; and in the third, Krillin trains for the World Martial Arts Tournament, held in Mifan. Krillin appears in fourteen out of the fifteen Dragon Ball Z films; in the first movie, he assists during the battle against Garlic Junior after he kidnaps Gohan; in the second, Krillin battles Dr. Willow, firing a Kamehameha wave in an unsuccessful attempt to defeat him; in the third, Krillin unintentionally brings Turles to Earth by using the Dragon Balls to restore the forest after a fire and fights the Saiyan 's henchmen; in the fourth, Krillin tries to prevent the Earth from being destroyed by a meteorite containing Lord Slug and his henchmen; in the fifth, Krillin shelters Goku after he is injured by Cooler and is defeated in a fight with Salza; in the sixth, Krillin travels to New Namek and combats Cooler 's forces; in the seventh, Krillin avoids fighting Android 13 though is injured during the battle; in the eighth, Krillin tours New Planet Vegeta; in the ninth, Krillin participates in a tournament and fights Zangya; in the tenth, Krillin comes to the aid of Trunks and Goten in combating Broly; in the eleventh, Krillin, Android 18, Goten and Trunks combat the bio-engineered Broly in a factory; in the thirteenth, Krillin appears before Hirudegarn is released; in the fourteenth, Krillin backs down from engaging Beerus due to not knowing his power; and lastly, in the fifteenth, Krillin works as a police officer and after having his head shaven by Android 18, joins in the fight against the resurrected Freeza afterward. After the events of the last two films, Krillin assists in acquiring two more members for his universe 's team in a tournament, namely Piccolo and Majin Boo, after learning about it from Android # 18 and reunites with Trunks, who he tries to stop from attacking Android # 18 when she greets him, revealing her as his wife. # 18 tries to get Krillin a gift with the Dragon Balls until being convinced by Bulma her presence alone is good enough for him, and Krillin later participates in a baseball game between Universes 6 and 7. Krillin tries stopping a pair of wrongdoers when he is knocked out by an arriving Gohan in his Saiyaman guise. Krillin agrees to train with Goku after some reluctance and the two travel to get Paradise Grass from an island, encountering large, physical versions of past enemies that Krillin becomes fearful of. The two are revealed to be in the "Forest of Fear '', Krillin saving Goku from a phantom of Super Shenron that the two destroy together. Krillin is requested by Goku and Gohan for participation in the Tournament of Power; he accepts. Krillin eliminates Universe 4 's Shosa and Majora before being eliminated himself by Frost. Krillin 's shouts of encouragement for Android 18 contribute to her victory over Universe 2 's Ribrianne, and he feeds Vegeta a Senzu Bean after his elimination by Universe 11 's Jiren.
Krillin is voiced by Mayumi Tanaka in the original Japanese anime and in all related media. Toriyama chose Tanaka after hearing her portrayal of the protagonist Giovanni in the film Night on the Galactic Railroad. When Krillin and Yajirobe, another character voiced by Tanaka, appeared in the same frame she gave the latter a Nagoya dialect in order to distinguish them.
When Dragon Ball received a short - lived English dub by Saban Entertainment, Funimation, and Ocean Productions in the mid 1990s, Krillin would be voiced by Terry Klassen. He would reprise his role in the Ocean dub of the latter half of the series produced by AB Groupe for European and Canadian markets. Another short - lived English dub produced by Harmony Gold in the late - 1980s featured Wanda Nowicki as the voice of Krillin (here named Bongo). In the Blue Water 2003 re-dub of Dragon Ball, he is voiced by Mike Thiessen. Dan Gascon voiced him in the Blue Water dub of Dragon Ball GT. When the series ' full production was taken over by Funimation in the US, Krillin would be voiced by Laurie Steele as a child in Dragon Ball and Sonny Strait as an adult in all media released to the US. Strait gained the role following auditioning in Texas and moved to Los Angeles to keep it. He found the character 's constant deaths amusing and thought him comical: "Krillin is the party. If you do n't wish back the party, you 're going to be bored. '' In the rare English dub distributed exclusively in Europe by AB Groupe he was voiced by Sharon Mann (here named Clearin). Apollo Abraham voiced Krillin (here named Kurin) in an English dub distributed in the Philippines by Creative Products Corporation. Krillin is voiced by Brian Beacock in the Toonami Asia broadcast of Dragon Ball Super.
Krillin has many abilities including, super-strength, super-speed, and the ability to fly using his ki energy, known as Bukū - jutsu (舞 空 術, lit. "Air Dance Technique ''). His main techniques include the Kamehameha (かめ はめ 波, lit. "Turtle Destruction Wave ''), an attack he learned from Master Roshi, which enables him to emit a powerful ki energy blast from his hands. Kakusandan (拡散 弾, lit. "Scattershots ''), another chi attack, involves firing two blasts, one from each hand, and merging them before directing the blast above an opponent where it will break up and rain down on them, he was only seen using this twice -- the first time was very successful as he managed to wipe out three Saibamen with it. From Tenshinhan, he obtained the Taiyōken (太陽 拳, lit. "Solar Fist '', renamed "Solar Flare '' in the English anime dub), an attack Krillin is capable of using to blind his opponents, sometimes used to make a quick escape. One of his signature techniques is the Kienzan (気 円 斬, lit. "Energy Disc Razor '', renamed "Destructo Disc '' in the English anime dub), where he puts a hand in the air to create an electric floating disc, using it to slice through his enemies. Lacking the other protagonists ' advantage of getting stronger every time he is injured, Krillin is however the strongest Earthling and was recognized as having great technique by Vegeta.
In a filler episode of Dragon Ball, Krillin trains with Kame - Sen'nin and after the 23rd Tenka'ichi Budōkai, Krillin can be seen on a plane with his friends.
In filler episodes of Dragon Ball Z, during the Saiyan arc, Krillin fails to tell Chi - Chi of Goku 's passing after being tasked with informing her, though does inform Yamcha when coming to one of his baseball games followed by recruiting him for training with Kami, and trains for the Saiyans by facing members of their race from the past using the Pendulum Room. Before the Namek arc, Krillin encounters a group of children who help him find Namek and spends some time on a fake version of the planet searching for Dragon Balls during a distraction and preventing his ship from being stolen. After the Namek arc, Krillin is one of a few not affected by the Black Water Mist set by Garlic Jr., Krillin having to fight his friends before journeying to Kami 's Lookout, where he appears to fall under the effects of the Black Water Mist, only to be revealed as faking as part of a plan by Piccolo. Krillin 's near - death state by the hands of the Spice Boys, Spice and Vinegar, triggers Gohan 's power boost and subsequent killing of the pair. During this time, he breaks up with Maron once he becomes convinced she deserves better than himself, learning afterward that she would have married him. During the Cell arc, he stops Cell from murdering a girl and her younger brother and while waiting for the Cell Games, celebrates Gohan 's birthday. In the Boo arc, Krillin charges Boo after Boo escapes the Room of Spirit and Time, being easily defeated and attacks Boo again in the afterlife. After Boo 's defeat, Krillin attends a gathering with his family.
In Dragon Ball GT, Krillin is killed by Android # 17 after succeeding in snapping Android # 18 from his brainwashing and trying to persuade him against his developing villainy. His death prompts # 18 to seek vengeance and assist Goku in defeating Super 17. Krillin is revived by Shenlong after the defeat of Omega Shenron and has a match with Goku, who decided to leave Earth. He is shown in GT sporting a mustache, wearing grey pants, shirt and tie with a cardigan in his few appearances.
Krillin appears in multiple Dragon Ball - related video games, sometimes as a playable character. He also appears in the crossover game Jump Superstars. In the 1992 Videkko game Dragon Ball: Get Together! Goku World, Krillin along with Goku, Trunks, Bulma, and Gohan travels back in time to examine event in the past. In the 2002 game Dragon Ball Z: Budokai, Cell has a nightmare where he accidentally absorbs Krillin and becomes Cellin (セルリン, Serurin), the form making him weaker. In the 2015 video game Dragon Ball: Xenoverse, Krillin serves as a mentor to the player character, teaching his Kienzan. He also appears during Android 18 's mentorship of the player, fighting them alongside her. In the Freeza arc, Krillin and Vegeta being defeated by Freeza, leaving Gohan alone to fight the tyrant, causes Goku to exit the healing chamber still wounded. In the final fight against Demigra, Krillin gives energy to the player. In the 2016 game Dragon Ball Xenoverse 2, during the Freeza arc, the player assists Krillin in battling Zarbon, and Krillin later leaves the player to fight Lord Slug and Turles alone per the player 's request. In the 2018 game Dragon Ball FighterZ, after clones of various heroes and villains from the series appear, Krillin investigates the origin of them before being knocked out by his own clone. Following Goku rescuing him, the two rescue various allies from clones until encountering Cell, who Krillin becomes aggressive toward for his defeat of Android 18.
In June 1988, Krillin along with other Dragon Ball characters were featured in two public safety announcement shorts. The first was entitled The Goku Traffic Safety (悟空 の 交通 安全, Gokū no Kōtsū Anzen), and the second called The Goku Fire Fighting Regiment (悟空 の 消防 隊, Gokū no Shōbō - tai) where he along with Kame - Sen'nin, Yamcha, and later Goku become volunteer fire fighters.
Krillin also appears in the Dragon Ball and One Piece crossover manga Cross Epoch where he and Tony Tony Chopper run the Kuri - Chopa Marine Train Coster. In 2003, He would appear in the interactive feature entitled Kyutai Panic Adventure! (球体 パニック アドベンチャー!, Kyūtai Panikku Adobenchā!, Orb Panic Adventure!). Where he and Gohan attempt to save visitors of at Fuji Television 's orb section from drowning, while Goku battles Freeza. In the 2004 followup Kyūtai Panic Adventure Returns! (球体 パニック アドベンチャー リターンズ!, Kyūtai Panikku Adobenchā Ritānzu!, Orb Panic Adventure Returns!), Krillin is one of the seven Dragon Ball characters who delivers the Dragon Balls to restore the aqua city of Odaiba after Goku and Monkey D. Luffy 's battle with Eneru.
Krillin has performed many songs throughout the years. These songs feature his voice actor Mayumi Tanaka in character singing cheerfully about certain thing pertaining to Krillin. First with the song "Asa - Hiru - Yoru - Kimi - Boku '' from the album Dragon Ball Z Hit Song Collection IV: Character Special released in 1990. Then with "Ichido wa Kekkon Shitai Manbo '' from Dragon Ball Z Hit Song Collection 8: Character Special 2 released in 1991. Where he happily sings about the desire to get married. And the title track from Dragon Ball Z Hit Song Collection 17: Hippy Hoppy Shake!! released in 1995.
Before and after Dragon Ball Z debuting in the U.S. in 1996, Krillin became a part of the country 's pop culture. In 1994, the character was featured on the cover of Voodoo Glow Skulls ' first full - length album Who Is, This Is?, though his face was removed in the 2012 digital re-release. The song "Blessing '' by Chance the Rapper mentions Krillin referencing Android 18 to the lyricist 's delight. Krillin appears in an episode of Mad watching the other Dragon Ball characters after they are drafted for the Oakland A 's by Billy Beane in a parody of the film Moneyball.
Krillin is a popular character in the series; in 2004 Japanese fans voted him the seventh most popular character. In January 2007, Oricon held a poll in which they asked Japanese fans of manga and anime which characters from any series they would most like to see in spin - off series. Krillin ranked third in the men 's poll and sixth in the overall poll. In 2016, Krillin was ranked No. 3 on the saikoplus.com list 10 Most Popular Characters in Dragon Ball Z. When younger fans would belittle the character as weak, Krillin 's voice actress Mayumi Tanaka said she would explain to them that Krillin and Yamcha are the strongest earthlings, the other characters are all aliens. She also said it was more fun to play Krillin when he was a dirty - minded bad kid, that she was not fond of him growing his hair out and was shocked when he died for the first time.
Various publications for manga, anime and other media have commented on Krillin 's character, adding praise and criticism to his development and traits in the series. Anime News Network writer Carl Kimlinger liked Krillin and Goku 's childhood, noting it to be the warmth that the later Dragon Ball Z anime does not have. Also believing the first anime to have more development than the sequel, Tim Jones from Them Anime Reviews cited how Krillin was not a friend to Goku when first introduced. David F. Smith of IGN comments that Krillin and # 18 's relationship really help make the storyline more interesting. Additionally, he liked Krillin 's appearances in the fight against Cell as he has more screen time than the main character, Goku. Although Chris Beveridge from Mania Entertainment thought that Krillin had a drastic change in Dragon Ball GT, he mentioned that fans from the previous series would like some of its episodes due to the appearance of Krillin and other older characters.
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the fault in our stars type of movies | The Fault in Our Stars (film) - wikipedia
The Fault in Our Stars is a 2014 American romantic drama film directed by Josh Boone, based on the novel of the same name by John Green. The film stars Shailene Woodley, Ansel Elgort, and Nat Wolff, with Laura Dern, Sam Trammell, and Willem Dafoe playing supporting roles. Woodley plays Hazel Grace Lancaster, a sixteen - year - old cancer patient who is forced by her parents to attend a support group, where she meets and subsequently falls in love with Augustus Waters, another cancer patient, played by Elgort.
Development of The Fault in Our Stars began in January 2012 when Fox 2000, a division of 20th Century Fox, optioned the rights to adapt the novel into a feature film. Principal photography began on August 26, 2013, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, with a few additional days in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, before concluding on October 16, 2013. Pittsburgh doubled for all of the scenes set in Indianapolis, Indiana, the novel 's setting, as well as for some interior scenes set in Amsterdam.
The Fault in Our Stars was released in the United States on June 6, 2014, to positive critical reception, with praise for Woodley 's performance as well as the script. The film was also a blockbuster, becoming number one at the box office during its opening weekend, and grossing over $307 million worldwide against a budget of $12 million. It was released on Blu - ray and DVD on September 16, 2014, and grossed over $42 million in total domestic video sales.
Hazel Grace Lancaster is a teenager living in Indianapolis, who has terminal thyroid cancer that has spread to her lungs. Believing she is depressed, her mother Frannie urges her to attend a weekly cancer patient support group to help her make friends with individuals who are going through the same thing. There Hazel meets Augustus Waters, a charming teenager who lost a leg from bone cancer but has since apparently been cancer - free. He invites Hazel to his house where they bond over their hobbies and agree to read each other 's favorite book. Hazel recommends An Imperial Affliction, a novel about a cancer - stricken girl named Anna that parallels her experience, and Augustus gives Hazel Counter Insurgence. They keep in touch via text over the weeks that follow and grow closer. After Augustus finishes the book, he expresses frustration with its abrupt ending (it ends in the middle of a sentence). Hazel explains that the novel 's mysterious author, Peter Van Houten (Willem Dafoe), retreated to Amsterdam following the novel 's publication and has not been heard from since.
Weeks later, Augustus tells Hazel he has traced Van Houten 's assistant, Lidewij, and has corresponded with Van Houten by email. She writes to him to find out more about the novel 's ambiguous ending. Van Houten replies that he is only willing to answer her questions in person. Hazel asks her mother if she can travel to Amsterdam to visit him, but Frannie refuses because of financial and medical constraints. Augustus suggests that she use the "cancer wish '' she received from Make - A-Wish Foundation but Hazel explains that she has already used hers to visit Disney World. Augustus and Hazel go on a picnic date and begin to fall in love. Augustus surprises Hazel with tickets to Amsterdam. After a medical setback, Hazel 's doctors eventually agree to allow the trip, since they expect that she will soon become incapable of doing anything at all.
Hazel and Augustus arrive in Amsterdam and are presented with reservations at an expensive restaurant, pre-paid by Van Houten. During the meal, Augustus confesses his love for Hazel. The following afternoon, they go to Van Houten 's house, but are shocked to find he is a mean - spirited alcoholic. Lidewij arranged the meeting and their dinner without Van Houten knowing anything about it. Angered by his assistant 's actions, he taunts Hazel for seeking serious answers to a piece of fiction and belittles her medical condition. She leaves, utterly distraught. Lidewij invites them to go sightseeing to make up for their ruined experience. The three visit the Anne Frank House, where Hazel struggles to climb the house 's many stairs. They spend that night together in their hotel and have sex for the first time. The next day Augustus tells Hazel that his cancer has returned and spread throughout his body and is terminal. Hazel is heartbroken, expressing how unfair life can be.
After their return to Indianapolis, Augustus ' health worsens. He is taken to the ICU and realizes he is close to death. Augustus invites his blind best friend Isaac and Hazel to his pre-funeral, where they deliver eulogies that they have both prepared. Hazel tells him she would not trade their short time together for anything, since he "gave me a forever within the numbered days. '' Augustus dies eight days later and Hazel is astonished to find Van Houten at the funeral. He tells her that Augustus had demanded he attend his funeral to make up for the spoiled trip. Van Houten tells her that the novel is based on the experiences of his daughter Anna, who died from leukemia at a young age. He gives Hazel a piece of paper which she crumples up asking him to leave. Later, talking with Isaac, Hazel learns that Augustus had asked Van Houten to help him write a eulogy for her. She retrieves the crumpled paper and reads his words accepting his death and about his love for her. She lies on her back on her lawn looking up at the stars, smiling as she remembers Augustus and says: "Okay. ''
The book An Imperial Affliction, which features within both the original novel and the film, is fictitious, as is its author Peter Van Houten; both are used to enhance the themes and story.
According to Lindsey Weber of Vulture.com, the differences between the book and the film include Hazel mentioning the band the Hectic Glow many times in the book, but not in the film. Gus is 17 in the book but 18 in the film. In the book, Gus has an ex-girlfriend, Caroline, who died from cancer which is not mentioned in the film. Hazel 's former best friend Kaitlyn does not appear in the film. In the book, Hazel and Gus meet when she turns around to find him staring at her, while in the film they meet on the way to their support group. Gus dies more quickly in the film than in the book. In the book, Hazel searches for the letter, while in the film, Van Houten gives it to her. In the book, Hazel shows forgiveness towards van Houten after Gus 's funeral, while in the film she demands that he leave. In the book, Hazel is a vegetarian but this is not referenced in the film. A scene in the film in which Gus comes in a limousine to pick up Hazel and her mother when they are leaving for Amsterdam, does not appear in the book. However, in the book, Gus is late when Hazel and her mother arrive at his house in a taxi because he appears to be fighting with his parents over his cancer relapse and the trip. The book Augustus gives Hazel the first time they hang out is "The Price of Dawn '' in the book, while it is "Counterinsurgence '' in the movie. Augustus has blue eyes in the book, though brown eyes in the movie. Issac 's hair is blond in the book, yet black in the movie.
On January 31, 2012, it was announced that Fox 2000, a division of 20th Century Fox, had optioned the rights to adapt John Green 's novel The Fault in Our Stars for a feature film. Wyck Godfrey and Marty Bowen were due to produce the film with their production company, Temple Hill Entertainment. Stephen Chbosky, who directed The Perks of Being a Wallflower (also filmed in Pittsburgh), was in talks to direct the film but turned it down because of its similarity to Perks. On February 19, 2013, Josh Boone was hired as director; Scott Neustadter and Michael H. Weber were hired to adapt the novel into a screenplay -- their second adaptation for Fox, following Rosaline.
On March 19, 2013, Entertainment Weekly announced that Shailene Woodley (who had recently been cast in, and was filming, Divergent) would play Hazel Grace Lancaster. Director Josh Boone said: "We read close to 150 actresses for the role, and I saw about 50 of those. Within ten or fifteen seconds of Shailene 's audition, I knew she was Hazel. She held up her script pages and just her eyes were peeking over them. '' On May 10, 2013, Ansel Elgort was cast as Hazel 's love interest, Augustus Waters. On July 23, Laura Dern joined the cast as Hazel 's mother Frannie Lancaster, and Nat Wolff as Issac, Augustus ' best friend. Wolff told HuffPost Live: "It 's exciting, I feel really lucky. The fact that I get to work with these super talented people -- I mean, that 's part of the reason why, I 'm good in the movie, that 's the reason. '' On August 14, Sam Trammell was cast as Hazel 's father Michael Lancaster, and on August 28, author John Green announced that Mike Birbiglia would be playing Patrick. On September 6, he tweeted that Willem Dafoe would play Peter van Houten.
Prior to these announcements, author John Green had tweeted that he would be happy if Mae Whitman played Hazel, and in February 2013, there had been speculation that Shailene Woodley and Hailee Steinfeld were among those being considered for the lead role.
John Green filmed a cameo appearance; his scene was cut from the film but is included in the deleted scenes section of the film 's DVD and Blu - ray releases. In the cut scene, Green plays the father of a young girl who asks about Hazel 's cannula while at the airport. Green said: "They cut (the scene) because it was totally unnecessary to the movie - slash - I was terrible. ''
Principal photography began on August 26, 2013, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Film locations included Oakmont, Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh Children 's Hospital, and the historic The Mansions on Fifth hotel. The church scenes were filmed at St. Paul 's Episcopal Church in the Pittsburgh suburb of Mt. Lebanon. Filming in Pennsylvania continued until October 10, then the production moved to Amsterdam, where filming began on October 14. Filming was officially completed on October 16, 2013.
In Amsterdam, three days of filming took place. Woodley and Elgort were filmed on a canal - side public bench. On July 2, 2014, The Guardian reported that the bench had gone missing, and city officials said they did not know where it was. Amsterdam city spokesman, Stephan van der Hoek said: "It 's a bit embarrassing, because we do keep good track of them, but it 's gone all right ''. He promised to install a new bench within weeks. Just a week later, Entertainment Weekly said the Amsterdam film office had tweeted a photograph taken during the re-installation of the stolen bench; Amsterdam film commissioner Simon Brester said it was the same bench, not a replacement.
Filming in Pittsburgh included the interior scenes at the Anne Frank House, which was recreated on a soundstage at Pittsburgh Studios located in Churchill Borough, Pennsylvania in the east suburbs of Pittsburgh. Production designer Molly Hughes and art director Greg Weimerskirch built three different studio sets in Pittsburgh, one for each floor. Also, the Funky Bones art monument in Indianapolis was recreated in Pittsburgh with the help of the sculpture 's creator, Dutch artist Joep Van Lieshout.
Author John Green, though an Indianapolis native, was pleased with the selection of Pittsburgh for filming. He commented that
Pittsburgh has an amazing community of really talented film professionals that 's been built up over the last 20 years. I 've been blown away by their professionalism, their confidence, their dedication. There are n't a lot of cities like that. You kind of have to find the city that can be Indianapolis. And Pittsburgh, even though it has a lot of hills, it can be Indianapolis. We just have to find a couple of flat streets.
Mike Mogis and Nate Walcott of Bright Eyes scored the film. The full album track list was released on April 13, 2014, featuring songs from artists including: M83, Grouplove, Kodaline, Jake Bugg, Tom Odell, Birdy, Ed Sheeran and Charli XCX, who performed "Boom Clap '', one of the main songs from the movie, which became an international success, due in part to its exposure in the film. The soundtrack was released by Atlantic Records on May 19 in the U.S., and on June 23 in the UK.
The Fault in Our Stars premiered to 300 guests at the Ziegfeld Theater in New York City on June 2, 2014. At the premiere, Green said: "I did n't want to sell it, because Hollywood sucks at making unsentimental movies about illness. '' The film was released on June 6, 2014. After the New York premiere, Evangeline Earl, a student, announced that Green 's book, from which the film was adapted, had been inspired by her sister Esther Earl, who had also been an author. Esther suffered from thyroid cancer and died in 2010. Evangeline said Esther had met Green at LeakyCon, a Harry Potter convention held in Boston in 2009. Green said, "I could never have written The Fault in Our Stars without knowing Esther. Every word on that book depends on her. '' Green said he used the word "okay '' in the book and the film because Hazel and Augustus used it to express their love for each other; it becomes a special word between them. The original novel was inspired by the late author Esther Earl, who used the word "okay '' with her sister Abigail.
The first trailer was released on January 29, 2014. The trailer had over 3 million views in less than 24 hours, and more than 15 million views in its first seven days. A video clip was shown before the show at the 2014 MTV Movie Awards on April 13. An extended trailer was released on April 28, and Fox released more clips via YouTube as part of the film 's pre-release promotion. On April 2, the studio announced the launch of a promotional tour program named Demand Our Stars. Green, Woodley, Elgort, and Wolff would visit the states that got most votes from fans re-blogging their states ' map outlines. Four states won: the tour program started in Miami, Florida, on May 6; went to Cleveland, Ohio, on May 7; then went to Nashville, Tennessee, on May 8; and ended in Dallas, Texas, on May 9.
The Fault in Our Stars was released on DVD and Blu - ray on September 16, 2014. The Fault in Our Stars: Little Infinities Blu - ray edition features the theatrical 126 - minute and extended 133 - minute versions of the film, a number of deleted scenes including the John Green cameo, and featurettes. The home video release grossed over $42.6 million in total domestic video sales.
The Fault in Our Stars received generally positive reviews, with Woodley 's and Elgort 's performances and Neustadter and Weber 's screenplay receiving praise. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 81 % based on 199 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Wise, funny, and heartbreaking without resorting to exploitation, The Fault in Our Stars does right by its bestselling source material. '' Metacritic gave the film a score of 69 out of 100, based on 45 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews. '' At CinemaScore opening day audiences gave the film an "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Steven Rea of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film a score of 3 out of 4; he said: "Woodley... balances grace with gravity, wit with heart. '' A.O. Scott writing for The New York Times said: "The film sets out to make you weep -- not just sniffle or choke up a little, but sob until your nose runs and your face turns blotchy. It succeeds. '' The Boston Globe 's Ty Burr gave the film a rating of 2.5 out 4 and said: "If Elgort 's Gus is glibly charming and ultimately affecting, The Fault in Our Stars belongs to Woodley, a performer who always seems to be backing warily into her own movies. ''
Quickflix 's Simon Miraudo rated the film 3 / 5, and said: "The Fault in Our Stars undeniably sets us up to knock us down. '' Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 4 stars. He said Woodley 's performance as Hazel was "transcendent, pure and authentic '', stating that, "she 's that memorable. '' Scott Mendelson of Forbes magazine said the film is "exceptionally high - quality mainstream entertainment '' and called it "a genuine work of art. '' Anna Smith of Empire said it was a, "touching romance and Shailene Woodley 's best performance yet. '' Emma Dibdin of Digital Spy wrote "The Fault in Our Stars is a sharp and emotionally - sophisticated weepie that imbues its teenage characters with rare intelligence, and tackles its bleak subject matter with acerbic wit and tenderness. '' Andy Lea of the Daily Star said: "as teen romances go, this is powerful stuff. '' Wilson Morales at BlackFilm.com praised Woodley and Elgort 's performances, saying they: "are so captivating and genuine in their performances, they manage to make this intensely poignant film very moving, romantic and highly entertaining. ''
Time magazine 's Richard Corliss wrote: "Hazel and Augustus will live in film lore because of the young actors who play them. '' Chris Vongar of Dallas Morning News gave the film a B+ as "the movie is witty and alive and only very occasionally maudlin. '' USA Today 's Claudia Puig called the film "well - written, well - acted, acerbic, funny and wisely observed '', giving it 3.5 out of 4. Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly called the film a "funny, sweet, three - hankie tearjerker '' and gave the B grade. Geoff Pevere of The Globe and Mail said, "While it may not conform to one 's real - life expectations it certainly hews tightly to teen - flick conventions. '' Connie Ogle of The Miami Herald called it a, "sweet, romantic film full of sudden warmth and humor. '' A.A. Dowd of The A.V. Club gave the film a "B '' saying that it is, "blessed with sparks of wit and buoyed by the talents of a charismatic cast. ''
Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave the film a negative review, likening it to "being mugged by a professional whose skills in mixed martial arts you ca n't help but notice and appreciate, even as you are savagely beaten, then dragged upright, bruised and bleeding, and forced to watch as your assailant gives fully 45 % of your money to charity. '' Christy Lemire writing for Roger Ebert 's website gave it two stars out of four and criticized the film for being "emotionally inert, despite its many moments that are meant to put a lump in our throats. '' Lemire criticized Elgort 's performance and praised Woodley 's "abiding, disarming naturalism. '' Robbie Collin writing for The Daily Telegraph said: "Gus is something of a manic pixie dreamboat: the lesser - spotted male version of the kooky, adoring girlfriend - type sometimes played by Kirsten Dunst, Natalie Portman, and Zooey Deschanel. '' David Edelstein of NPR said:
I know people who cried at the trailer of the romantic teen cancer movie The Fault in Our Stars -- at the movie they 'll need a life preserver to keep from drowning in a flood of tears. Me, I did n't cry, though at times my tear ducts tingled; I was on the verge. The film is a little slick for my taste, too engineered. But it 's gently directed by Josh Boone and beautifully acted. Whatever the faults, it 's not in the stars.
Shalini Langer of The Indian Express gave the film two and a half stars and said: "The film is faithful to a fault from the dialogues to the clothes, the setting and the food, even while skipping over some of the unpleasant details. '' Dana Stevens writing for Slate Magazine said: "What in the name of God is wrong with me that I did n't cry once -- I, who just the day before wept through the entirety of my child 's thoroughly upbeat school play. '' Two Christian reviewers and some theologians have mentioned the presence of Christian themes in the film. Writing for Catholic News Agency, Robert Barron said:
I do n't think it is the least bit accidental that Waters (Gus 's last name) and Grace (Hazel 's middle name) met in the sacred heart of Christ and thereby, despite their shared suffering, managed to give life to one another... (and so) Hazel effectively repudiates her nihilism and materialism as she responds across the barrier of death to Gus 's ' okay '. '' He also noted: "(Is) this film a satisfying presentation of Christianity? Hardly. But for those who are struggling to find their way to meaning and faith, it 's not an entirely bad place to start. ''
The film 's studio, 20th Century Fox, mounted an unsuccessful campaign to have Shailene Woodley nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress, as well as the film 's adapted screenplay.
The Fault in Our Stars earned $124.9 million in North America and $182.3 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $307.2 million, against a production budget of $12 million.
In North America, the film 's income received a boost from "The Night Before Our Stars, '' a premium - priced event for which tickets sold for up to $25. The event included a screening of the film and a simulcast question - and - answer session with cast and crew, including Woodley, Elgort, Wolff, and Green. The film earned $8.2 million from Thursday - night showings and $26.1 million on its opening day. During its opening weekend, the film earned $48,002,573 from 3,173 theaters at an average of $15,128 per theater, making it number one in North America.
At locations outside North America, The Fault in Our Stars earned $16.59 million from 2,892 screens in 17 markets in its opening weekend, placing at number four behind Edge of Tomorrow ($81 million), Maleficent ($61.7 million), and X-Men: Days of Future Past ($41.1 million). Brazil, Mexico, and Australia generated the highest income with $5.8 million, $3.8 million, and $3.7 million respectively. The following week the film earned $16.1 million from 40 markets, remaining at number 4 again.
On August 6, 2014, India 's Fox Star Studios announced its intention to produce a remake of The Fault in Our Stars in Hindi. The studio 's CEO, Vijay Singh, said the English version of the film, which was released in India in July 2014, had earned over $1 million there. On September 19, it was announced that Homi Adajania, the director of Finding Fanny (2014), and producer Dinesh Vijan would be working with Fox Star Studios to develop the film, which will be co-produced by Vijan 's company Maddock Films. Actor Sushant Singh Rajput has been roped in to feature in the official Hindi adaptation of the film. The film also marks the directorial debut of casting director Mukesh Chhabra.
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what's inside sleeping beauty's castle in disneyland | Sleeping Beauty castle - wikipedia
Sleeping Beauty Castle is a fairy tale castle at the center of Disneyland and formerly at Hong Kong Disneyland. It is based on the late - 19th century Neuschwanstein Castle in Bavaria, Germany. It was featured in Walt Disney Pictures logo before the film, and along with Cinderella Castle, this castle is iconic symbol of The Walt Disney Company. It is also the only Disney castle that was overseen by Walt Disney.
Opened July 17, 1955, the castle is the oldest of all Disney castles. Its primary inspiration was the Neuschwanstein Castle in Germany. Though it reaches a height of 77 feet (23 m), it was designed by Roland E. Hill to appear taller through a process known as forced perspective; design elements are larger at the foundation and smaller at the turrets. The castle initially featured an empty upper level that was never intended to house an attraction, but Walt Disney was not satisfied with what he viewed as wasted space, and challenged his Imagineers to find some use for the space.
Beginning April 29, 1957, visitors were able to walk through the castle and view several dioramas depicting the story of Sleeping Beauty. The voice of Jiminy Cricket from Walt Disney 's Pinocchio (1940) singing "When You Wish Upon a Star '' is piped into the castle. The original dioramas were designed in the style of Eyvind Earle, production designer for Disney 's 1959 film Sleeping Beauty, and were then redone in 1977 to resemble the window displays on Main Street, U.S.A.. The walkthrough was closed for unspecified reasons on October 7, 2001; popular belief claims the September 11th attacks and the potential danger that ensued played a major factor in the closing.
On July 17, 2008, Disney announced that the Sleeping Beauty Castle walkthrough would reopen in the style of the original Earle dioramas, enhanced with new technology not available in 1957. The walkthrough reopened on November 27, 2008 at 5: 00 p.m., drawing long lines going as far back as the Hub at the center of the park. Unlike previous incarnations, visitors who are unable to climb stairs or navigate the passageways of the Castle can still experience the walkthrough "virtually '' in a special room on the Castle 's ground floor. This room is lavishly themed, and presents the closed - captioned CGI walkthrough recreation on a high - definition TV. This same virtual recreation is included on the Sleeping Beauty 50th Anniversary Platinum Edition DVD.
The Disney family coat of arms hangs above the archway to the castle. It is composed of three lions passant in pale. It is known that the coat of arms was not originally on the castle, but was placed there sometime between June 1965 and July 1965.
At the rear of the castle, shaded by the archways and driven into the ground is a gold spike that is widely, but wrongly, believed to mark the geographical center of Disneyland as of the addition of Mickey 's Toontown in 1993. In reality, the spike is a surveyor 's mark that was used to ensure that the castle bridge and entrance lined up with Main Street USA when the park was first constructed. The original geographical center of the Magic Kingdom was in the middle of the round park, where the "Partners '' statue of Walt Disney and Mickey Mouse stands. The addition of Toontown moved the actual center of the park a few yards northward, but still on the hub side of the castle drawbridge.
In celebration of Disneyland 's 50th anniversary, the castle was repainted and five turrets were decorated with stylized crowns, each representing a decade in the park 's history:
For Disneyland 's 60th Anniversary, World of Color changed to the World of Color: Celebrate! The Wonderful World of Walt Disney. Disneyland Park introduced Paint The Night and a new fireworks show, "Disneyland Forever ''. A 24 - hour kickoff event occurred May 22, 2015.
As part of the celebration, the castle was covered with diamonds and glitter, with a large 60th logo in the center. Carthay Circle Restaurant at Disney California Adventure was also decorated for the Diamond Celebration. Although some of the decorations on the castle for the celebration have been removed, the decorative faux roofs remain. (As of June 2017)
Hong Kong 's Sleeping Beauty Castle is a nearly identical copy of the original in California. However, the two castles can be differentiated through very subtle details. Hong Kong Disneyland uses a different color scheme compared to that of Disneyland, with more natural white and pink colours for the accents and cornice. It also has fewer trees surrounding its castle, allowing a more open view to accompany the nightly fireworks show.
The park 's current castle will be completely redesigned and reconstructed in 2020, as part of its 15th anniversary celebration. The castle will be redesigned to pay tribute to all Disney princesses. The castle closed on January 1, 2018.
In celebration of Hong Kong Disneyland 's fifth anniversary, Celebration in the Air, the castle was transformed into Tinker Bell 's Pixie Dusted Castle. The castle was decorated with golden pixie dust, which sparkled and shimmered in the sun and was illuminated by night.
Although no significant decorations were added to Hong Kong Disneyland 's Sleeping Beauty Castle for the park 's 10th anniversary, the nightly "Disney In The Stars '' fireworks show was added with elaborate projection mapping with visuals to compliment the display. This, however, resulted in the elimination of a few pyrotechnic elements launched from the front of the castle during the show.
As Sleeping Beauty Castle is a Disney icon, it and Magic Kingdom 's Cinderella Castle have become the basis for the logo of Walt Disney Pictures, Walt Disney Television, Disney Music Group and Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It was also heavily featured in advertisements for the Wonderful World of Disney, formerly shown on the Disney Channel.
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what is the difference between ibid and op cit | Op. Cit. - Wikipedia
Op. cit. is an abbreviation of the Latin phrase opus citatum, meaning "the work cited ''.
The abbreviation is used in an endnote or footnote to refer the reader to a previously cited work, standing in for repetition of the full title of the work. Op. cit. thus refers the reader to the bibliography, where the full citation of the work can be found, or to a full citation given in a previous footnote. Op. cit. should never therefore be used on its own, which would be meaningless, but most often with the author 's surname, or another brief clue as to which work is referred to. For example, given a work called The World of Salamanders (1999) by Jane Q. Smith, the style would typically be "Smith op. cit. '', usually followed by a page number, to refer the reader to a previous full citation of this work (or with further clarification such as "Smith 1999, op. cit. '' or "Smith, World of Salamanders, op. cit. '', if two sources by that author are cited). Given names or initials are not needed unless the work cites two authors with the same surname, as the whole purpose of using op. cit. is economy of text. For works without an individually named author, the title can be used, e.g. "CIA World Fact Book, op. cit. '' As usual with foreign words and phrases, op. cit. is typically given in italics. The variant Loc. cit., an abbreviation of the Latin phrase loco citato meaning "in the place cited '', has been used for the same purpose but also indicating the same page not simply the same work; it is now rarely used or recognized.
The Chicago Manual of Style, 16th edition, claims that op. cit. and loc. cit. are "rightly falling into disuse '', and "instead uses the short - title form '', e.g. the form World of Salamanders, to use the example above. Various different styles call for other alternatives, such as a reference to the author 's surname and publication year, e.g. "Smith 1999 ''.
Op. cit is contrasted with ibid., an abbreviation of the Latin adverb ibidem, meaning "in the same place; in that very place '' which refers the reader to the title of the work in the preceding footnote. The easily confused idem (sometimes abbreviated id.), the Latin definitive pronoun meaning "the same '' is also used on occasion (especially in legal writing) within footnotes, and is a stand - in for the last - cited author, rather than title. The Latin adverb supra, meaning "above '' means simply "see above '' and can therefore be somewhat imprecise.
Footnotes 9 to 15:
Reference number 13 refers to the last cited work by the author R. Millan, and hence, it is the same as in number 9 (R. Millan, Art of Latin Grammar), although the page referred to is different. Reference number 14 refers to reference number 10, Language and Its Uses (because the work was published in 2000), page 66. Reference number 15 refers to reference number 12: there are two works by Wiki published in 2003 so you must use the title.
For the short - title form:
This is exactly the same as the long form above.
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how are unique mac addresses assigned to network cards from different manufacturers | MAC address - wikipedia
A media access control address (MAC address) of a device is a unique identifier assigned to network interface controllers for communications at the data link layer of a network segment. MAC addresses are used as a network address for most IEEE 802 network technologies, including Ethernet and Wi - Fi. In this context, MAC addresses are used in the medium access control protocol sublayer.
MAC addresses are most often assigned by the manufacturer of a network interface controller (NIC) and are stored in its hardware, such as the card 's read - only memory or some other firmware mechanism. If assigned by the manufacturer, a MAC address usually encodes the manufacturer 's registered identification number and may be referred to as the burned - in address (BIA). It may also be known as an Ethernet hardware address (EHA), hardware address or physical address (not to be confused with a memory physical address). This can be contrasted to a programmed address, where the host device issues commands to the NIC to use an arbitrary address. In brief, MAC address is like a social security number which remains unchanged for a person 's life time (here, the device), while an IP address is like a postal code which can be changed.
A network node may have multiple NICs and each NIC must have a unique MAC address. Sophisticated network equipment such as a multilayer switch or router may require one or more permanently assigned MAC addresses.
MAC addresses are formed according to the rules of one of three numbering name spaces managed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): MAC - 48, EUI - 48, and EUI - 64. The IEEE claims trademarks on the names EUI - 48 and EUI - 64, in which EUI is an abbreviation for Extended Unique Identifier.
The original IEEE 802 MAC address comes from the original Xerox Ethernet addressing scheme. This 48 - bit address space contains potentially 2 or 281,474,976,710,656 possible MAC addresses.
The distinction between EUI - 48 and MAC - 48 identifiers is purely nominal: MAC - 48 is used for network hardware; EUI - 48 is used to identify other devices and software. (Thus, by definition, an EUI - 48 is not in fact a "MAC address '', although it is syntactically indistinguishable from one and assigned from the same numbering space.)
The IEEE now considers the label MAC - 48 to be an obsolete term, previously used to refer to a specific type of EUI - 48 identifier used to address hardware interfaces within existing 802 - based networking applications, and thus not to be used in the future. Instead, the proprietary term EUI - 48 should be used for this purpose.
In addition, the EUI - 64 numbering system encompasses both MAC - 48 and EUI - 48 identifiers by a simple translation mechanism. To convert a MAC - 48 into an EUI - 64, copy the OUI, append the two octets FF - FF and then copy the organization - specified extension identifier. To convert an EUI - 48 into an EUI - 64, the same process is used, but the sequence inserted is FF - FE. In both cases, the process can be trivially reversed when necessary. Organizations issuing EUI - 64s are cautioned against issuing identifiers that could be confused with these forms. The IEEE has a target lifetime of 100 years for applications using MAC - 48 space, but encourages adoption of EUI - 64s instead.
IPv6 -- one of the most prominent standards that uses a Modified EUI - 64 -- treats MAC - 48 as EUI - 48 instead (as it is chosen from the same address pool) and toggles the U / L bit (as this makes it easier to type locally assigned IPv6 addresses based on the Modified EUI - 64). This results in extending MAC addresses (such as IEEE 802 MAC address) to Modified EUI - 64 using only FF - FE (and never FF - FF) and with the U / L bit inverted.
An Individual Address Block (IAB) was a 24 - bit OUI managed by the IEEE Registration Authority, followed by 12 IEEE - provided bits (identifying the organization), and 12 bits for the owner to assign to individual devices. An IAB is ideal for organizations requiring not more than 4096 unique 48 - bit numbers (EUI - 48). IABs have been replaced with 12 - bit "MA - S '' address blocks.
Addresses can either be universally administered addresses (UAA) or locally administered addresses (LAA). A universally administered address is uniquely assigned to a device by its manufacturer. The first three octets (in transmission order) identify the organization that issued the identifier and are known as the organizationally unique identifier (OUI). The remainder of the address (three octets for MAC - 48 and EUI - 48 or five for EUI - 64) are assigned by that organization in nearly any manner they please, subject to the constraint of uniqueness. A locally administered address is assigned to a device by a network administrator, overriding the burned - in address.
Universally administered and locally administered addresses are distinguished by setting the second - least - significant bit of the first octet of the address. This bit is also referred to as the U / L bit, short for Universal / Local, which identifies how the address is administered. If the bit is 0, the address is universally administered. If it is 1, the address is locally administered. In the example address 06 - 00 - 00 - 00 - 00 - 00 the first octet is 06 (hex), the binary form of which is 00000110, where the second - least - significant bit is 1. Therefore, it is a locally administered address. Another example that uses locally administered addresses is the DECnet protocol. The MAC address of the Ethernet interface is changed by the DECnet software to be AA - 00 - 04 - 00 - XX - YY where XX - YY reflects the DECnet network address xx. yy of the host. This eliminates the need for an address resolution protocol since the MAC address for any DECnet host can be simply determined.
If the least significant bit of the first octet of an address is set to 0 (zero), the frame is meant to reach only one receiving NIC. This type of transmission is called unicast. A unicast frame is transmitted to all nodes within the collision domain. In a modern wired setting the collision domain usually is the length of the Ethernet cable between two network cards. In a wireless setting, the collision domain is as far as the radio transmitter can reach. A switch will forward a unicast frame through all of its ports (except for the port that originated the frame), an action known as unicast flood, if the switch has no knowledge of which port leads to that MAC address. Only the node with the matching hardware MAC address will accept the frame; network frames with non-matching MAC - addresses are ignored, unless the device is in promiscuous mode.
If the least significant bit of the first octet is set to 1, the frame will still be sent only once; however, NICs will choose to accept it based on criteria other than the matching of a MAC address: for example, based on a configurable list of accepted multicast MAC addresses. This is called multicast addressing.
The IEEE has built in several special address types to allow more than one network interface card to be addressed at one time:
These are all examples of group addresses, as opposed to individual addresses; the least significant bit of the first octet of a MAC address distinguishes individual addresses from group addresses. That bit is set to 0 in individual addresses and set to 1 in group addresses. Group addresses, like individual addresses, can be universally administered or locally administered.
The following network technologies use the MAC - 48 identifier format:
Every device that connects to an IEEE 802 network (such as Ethernet and WiFi) has a MAC - 48 address. Common networked consumer devices such as PCs, smartphones and tablet computers use MAC - 48 addresses.
EUI - 64 identifiers are used in:
On broadcast networks, such as Ethernet, the MAC address is expected to uniquely identify each node on that segment and allows frames to be marked for specific hosts. It thus forms the basis of most of the link layer (OSI Layer 2) networking upon which upper layer protocols rely to produce complex, functioning networks.
Although intended to be a permanent and globally unique identification, it is possible to change the MAC address on most modern hardware. Changing MAC addresses is necessary in network virtualization. It can also be used in the process of exploiting security vulnerabilities. This is called MAC spoofing.
In IP networks, the MAC address of an interface can be queried given the IP address using the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) for Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) or the Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP) for IPv6. In this way, ARP or NDP is used to relate IP addresses (OSI layer 3) to Ethernet MAC addresses (OSI layer 2).
According to Edward Snowden, the US National Security Agency has a system that tracks the movements of everyone in a city by monitoring the MAC addresses of their electronic devices. As a result of users being trackable by their devices ' MAC addresses, Apple has started using random MAC addresses in their iOS line of devices while scanning for networks. If random MAC addresses are not used, researchers have confirmed that it is possible to link a real identity to a particular wireless MAC address.
Many network interfaces (including wireless ones) support changing their MAC address. The configuration is specific to the operating system. On most Unix - like systems, the ifconfig command may be used to add and remove "link '' (Ethernet MAC family) address aliases. For instance, the "active '' ifconfig directive may then be used on NetBSD to specify which of the attached addresses to activate. Hence, various configuration scripts and utilities allow to randomize the MAC address at boot or network connection time.
Using wireless access points in SSID - hidden mode (see network cloaking), a mobile wireless device may not only disclose its own MAC address when traveling, but even the MAC addresses associated to SSIDs the device has already connected to, if they are configured to send these as part of probe request packets. Alternative modes to prevent this include configuring access points to be either in beacon - broadcasting mode, or probe - response with SSID mode. In these modes, probe requests may be unnecessary, or sent in broadcast mode without disclosing the identity of previously - known networks.
The standard (IEEE 802) format for printing MAC - 48 addresses in human - friendly form is six groups of two hexadecimal digits, separated by hyphens (-) in transmission order (e.g. 01 - 23 - 45 - 67 - 89 - AB). This form is also commonly used for EUI - 64 (e.g. 01 - 23 - 45 - 67 - 89 - AB - CD - EF). Other conventions include six groups of two hexadecimal digits separated by colons (:) (e.g. 01: 23: 45: 67: 89: AB), and three groups of four hexadecimal digits separated by dots (.) (e.g. 0123.4567. 89AB); again in transmission order.
The standard notation, also called canonical format, for MAC addresses is written in transmission bit order with the least significant bit transmitted first, as seen in the output of the ifconfig, iproute2, and ipconfig commands, for example.
However, since IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) and IEEE 802.4 (Token Bus) send the bytes (octets) over the wire, left - to - right, with least significant bit in each byte first, while IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring) and IEEE 802.6 send the bytes over the wire with the most significant bit first, confusion may arise when an address in the latter scenario is represented with bits reversed from the canonical representation. For example, an address in canonical form 12 - 34 - 56 - 78 - 9A - BC would be transmitted over the wire as bits 01001000 00101100 01101010 00011110 01011001 00111101 in the standard transmission order (least significant bit first). But for Token Ring networks, it would be transmitted as bits 00010010 00110100 01010110 01111000 10011010 10111100 in most - significant - bit first order. The latter might be incorrectly displayed as 48 - 2C - 6A - 1E - 59 - 3D. This is referred to as bit - reversed order, non-canonical form, MSB format, IBM format, or Token Ring format, as explained in RFC 2469.
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who played the hulk in the tv series | The Incredible Hulk (1978 TV series) - Wikipedia
The Incredible Hulk is an American television series based on the Marvel Comics character The Hulk. The series aired on the CBS television network and starred Bill Bixby as David Banner, Lou Ferrigno as the Hulk, and Jack Colvin as Jack McGee.
In the TV series, Dr. David Banner, a widowed physician and scientist, who is presumed dead, travels across America under assumed names (his false surnames always begin with the letter "B '', but he keeps his first name), and finds himself in positions where he helps others in need despite his terrible secret: in times of extreme anger or stress, he transforms into a huge, incredibly strong green creature, who has been named "The Hulk ''. In his travels, Banner earns money by working temporary jobs while searching for a way to either control or cure his condition. All the while, he is obsessively pursued by a tabloid newspaper reporter, Jack McGee, who is convinced that the Hulk is a deadly menace whose exposure would enhance his career.
The series ' two - hour pilot movie, which established the Hulk 's origins, aired on November 4, 1977. The series ' 82 episodes was originally broadcast by CBS over five seasons from 1978 to 1982. It was developed and produced by Kenneth Johnson, who also wrote or directed some episodes. The series ends with David Banner continuing to search for a cure.
In 1988, the filming rights were purchased from CBS by rival NBC. They produced three television films: The Incredible Hulk Returns (directed by Nicholas J. Corea), The Trial of the Incredible Hulk, and The Death of the Incredible Hulk (both directed by Bill Bixby). Since its debut, The Incredible Hulk series has garnered a worldwide fan base.
David Bruce Banner, M.D., Ph. D., is a physician and scientist employed at the Culver Institute who is traumatized by the car accident that killed his beloved wife, Laura (played by Lara Parker). Haunted by his inability to save her, Dr. Banner, in partnership with Dr. Elaina Harding Marks (Susan Sullivan), who also works at the institute, conducts a study on people who, while in danger, summoned superhuman strength in order to save their loved ones. After months of work, the only two significant common factors they can find between the subjects are extreme emotional commitments and an abnormally high percentage of the adenine / thymine combination in their DNA -- an insufficient explanation, since Dr. Banner has even higher levels of adenine / thymine than any of the subjects, yet was unable to summon the strength he needed to save Laura. Working late one night, Banner hypothesizes that high levels of gamma radiation from sunspots contribute to the subjects ' increase in strength. Studying a chart of gamma activity, he confirms that all the subjects performed their feats during periods of high gamma activity, while his wife 's death occurred during a period of low gamma activity. Impatient to test his theory, Dr. Banner conducts an unsupervised experiment in the lab, bombarding his own body with gamma radiation. Unknown to Dr. Banner, the equipment has been upgraded, causing him to administer an accidental overdose of gamma radiation (nearly 2 million units instead of 300,000 units) to himself. Despite this, he exhibits no immediate increase in strength, and leaves the lab in frustration.
Driving home in a heavy rainstorm, Dr. Banner 's frustration peaks when his car has a flat tire and he injures himself with a tire iron trying to change it. This triggers his transformation into the Incredible Hulk, a 7 - foot - tall (2.1 m), 330 - pound (150 kg), green - skinned savage creature, with a sub-human mind and superhuman strength. The Hulk destroys Banner 's car and wanders off into the nearby woods. As the sun rises, the Hulk stumbles upon a girl and her father camping. In the ensuing confusion, the Hulk is shot by the girl 's father, and responds by breaking his rifle and throwing him into the pond. Leaving the area, the Hulk eventually transforms back into Dr. Banner, with no memory of his time as the Hulk and little memory of the events immediately before or after. Wounded and confused, he visits Dr. Marks. Her amazement at Dr. Banner 's healing powers (his gunshot wound is nearly healed) is replaced by shock and horror when Dr. Banner tells her that he bombarded himself with gamma radiation.
Drs. Banner and Marks relocate to a laboratory isolated from the rest of the Culver Institute but still on its grounds. Marks locks him in an experimental pressure chamber designed for deep underwater usage in an attempt to simulate the conditions which preceded the hole in his memory. When this fails to induce a transformation, Dr. Banner lies down to sleep. He has his recurring nightmare of his wife 's death, which causes him to transform. The Hulk breaks out of the chamber. Terrified but compelled by scientific fascination, Dr. Marks takes a blood sample from the Hulk 's wounded hands and guides him to a couch, where he calms down and reverts to Banner. They conclude that the Hulk has a very high metabolism and healing rate and that the transformation is caused by such extreme negative emotions as anger. The horrified Banner realizes and points out, "That means it 's uncontrollable ''. If his anger can mount up even in his unconscious, even when he sleeps, then he has no control over the process and will never even remember anything the Hulk does or experiences.
While Drs. Banner and Marks try to reverse the process, reporter Jack McGee of a tabloid named the National Register, who had been probing Banner 's research into the limits of human strength, investigates the campers ' sighting of the Hulk and intrudes on the lab. While the scientists plead ignorance, McGee suspects they know something and sneaks into the lab, hiding in a chemical storage room. Dr. Banner catches McGee hiding, and the startled reporter knocks a chemical off of a storage shelf. As Dr. Banner takes McGee outside, the spilled chemicals set off a fire. Dr. Banner rushes back into the lab to save Dr. Marks. Seeing Dr. Marks injured and in grave danger triggers another transformation into the Hulk. The Hulk carries Dr. Marks away from the inferno into nearby woods, but she dies from injuries sustained in the explosion. McGee witnesses the Hulk carrying her away, and surmises that the Hulk killed both Banner and Marks. Although the authorities are skeptical of the existence of the creature McGee tells them about, he publishes a front - page headline in the National Register that proclaims, "Incredible ' Hulk ' Kills 2 ''. Dr. Banner, now presumed dead, goes into hiding while trying to find a cure for his condition.
In a manner vaguely similar to the popular series The Fugitive, this forms the basis of the TV series: Dr. Banner endlessly drifts from place to place, assuming different identities and odd jobs to support himself and sometimes to enable his research. Along the way, Dr. Banner finds himself feeling obliged to help the people he meets out of whatever troubles have befallen them. Often Dr. Banner 's inner struggle is paralleled by the dilemmas of the people he encounters, who find in Dr. Banner a sympathetic helper. Kenneth Johnson stated, "What we were constantly doing was looking for thematic ways to touch (- on) the various ways that the Hulk sort of manifested itself in everyone. In Dr. David Banner, it happened to be anger. In someone else, it might be obsession, or it might be fear, or it might be jealousy or alcoholism! The Hulk comes in many shapes and sizes. That 's what we tried to delve into in the individual episodes ''. Despite his attempts to stay calm no matter how badly he is treated, Dr. Banner inevitably finds himself in situations that trigger his transformations into the Hulk, yet the creature 's rampages often assist in putting some other wrong right in the lives of the people Banner encounters.
Meanwhile, McGee continues to pursue the mysterious monster, whom he believes got away with a double murder. Towards the end of each episode, Dr. Banner almost always flees the town, scared that publicity over the Hulk 's rampages will eventually bring unwanted scrutiny of him from the local authorities or McGee; Banner explains in Death in the Family, the second made - for - television film, "The creature is wanted for murder -- a murder which I can never prove he or I did n't commit, and you would be harboring a criminal. ''
Main
Recurring
In early 1977, Frank Price, head of Universal Television (known today as NBCUniversal Television), offered producer and writer Kenneth Johnson a deal to develop a TV show based on any of several characters they had licensed from the Marvel Comics library. Johnson turned down the offer at first, but then, while reading the Victor Hugo novel Les Misérables he became inspired and began working to develop the Hulk comic into a TV show.
Johnson made several changes from the comic book, in part to translate it into a live - action show that was more believable and acceptable to a wide audience, and in part because he disliked comics and thus felt it best that the show was as different from the source material as possible. In the character 's origin story, rather than being exposed to gamma rays during a botched atomic testing explosion, Banner is gamma - irradiated in a more low - key laboratory mishap during a test on himself. Another change was Banner 's occupation, from physicist to medical researcher / physician. Although the comic book Hulk 's degree of speaking ability has varied over the years, the television Hulk did not speak at all -- he merely growled and roared. Hulk co-creator Stan Lee later recounted, "When we started the television show, Ken said to me, ' You know, Stan, I do n't think the Hulk should talk. ' The minute he said it, I knew he was right. (In the comics,) I had the Hulk talking like this: ' Hulk crush! Hulk get him! ' I could get away with it in a comic, but that would have sounded so silly if he spoke that way in a television show. ''
The Hulk 's strength is far more limited than in the comic book, which Johnson felt was necessary for the show to be taken seriously by viewers. The Hulk still retained a healing factor, however. For instance, in "The Harder They Fall '', Banner is in a serious accident that severs his spinal cord, leaving him paraplegic, but after his next transformation into the Hulk he is able to walk within minutes while in that form, and Banner 's spine is completely restored by the end of the episode. In the majority of episodes, the only science fiction element was the Hulk himself. Johnson also omitted the comic book 's supporting characters, instead using original character Jack McGee.
Johnson changed the name of the Hulk 's comic book alter ego, Dr. Bruce Banner, to Dr. David Banner for the TV series. This change was made, according to Johnson, because he did not want the series to be perceived as a comic book series, so he wanted to change what he felt was a staple of comic books, and Stan Lee 's comics in particular, that major characters frequently had alliterative names. According to both Stan Lee and Lou Ferrigno, it was also changed because CBS thought the name Bruce sounded "too gay - ish '', a rationale that Ferrigno thought was "the most absurd, ridiculous thing (he had) ever heard ''. On the DVD commentary of the pilot, Johnson says that it was a way to honor his son David. "Bruce '' ultimately became the TV Banner 's middle name, as it had been in the comics. It is visible on Banner 's tombstone at the end of the pilot movie, and that footage is shown at the beginning of every episode of the series.
In an interview with Kenneth Johnson on the Season 2 DVD, he explains that he had also wanted the Hulk to be colored red rather than green. His reasons given for this were because red, not green, is perceived as the color of rage, and also because red is a "human color '' whereas green is not. However, Stan Lee, an executive at Marvel Comics at the time, said that the Hulk 's color was not something that could be changed, because of its iconic image.
Stan Lee told Kenneth Plume on a June 26, 2000 interview, "The Hulk was done intelligently. It was done by Ken Johnson, who 's a brilliant writer / producer / director, and he made it an intelligent, adult show that kids could enjoy. He took a comic book character and made him somewhat plausible. Women liked it and men liked it and teenagers liked it... It was beautifully done. He changed it quite a bit from the comic book, but every change he made, made sense. ''
For the role of Dr. David Banner, Kenneth Johnson cast Bill Bixby -- his first choice for the role. Jack Colvin was cast as "Jack McGee '', the cynical tabloid newspaper reporter -- modeled after the character of Javert in Les Misérables -- who pursues the Hulk. Arnold Schwarzenegger auditioned for the role of the Hulk but was rejected due to his inadequate height, according to Johnson in his commentary on The Incredible Hulk -- Original Television Premiere DVD release. Actor Richard Kiel was hired for the role. During filming, however, Kenneth Johnson 's own son pointed out that Kiel 's tall - but - underdeveloped physique did not resemble the Hulk 's at all. Soon, Kiel was replaced with professional bodybuilder Lou Ferrigno, although a very brief shot of Kiel (as the Hulk) remains in the pilot. According to an interview with Kiel, who saw properly out of only one eye, he reacted badly to the contact lenses used for the role, and also found the green makeup difficult to remove, so he did not mind losing the part.
Initially the Hulk 's facial make - up was quite monstrous, but after both pilots, the first two weekly episodes and New York location shooting for the fourth, the design was toned down. The makeup process used to transform Ferrigno into the Hulk took three hours. The hard contact lenses Ferrigno wore to simulate the Hulk 's electric - green eyes had to be removed every 15 minutes because he found wearing them physically painful, and the green fright wig he wore as the Hulk was made of dyed yak hair.
The opening narration was provided by actor Ted Cassidy, who also provided the Hulk 's voice - overs (mainly growls and roars) during the first two seasons. Cassidy died during production of season two in January 1979. The Hulk 's vocalizations for the remainder of the series were provided by actor Charles Napier, who also made two guest - starring appearances in the series.
One constant of the series was the opening narration, which goes as follows:
Dr. David Banner -- physician, scientist... searching for a way to tap into the hidden strengths that all humans have. Then an accidental overdose of gamma radiation alters his body chemistry. And now, when David Banner grows angry or outraged, a startling metamorphosis occurs. The creature is driven by rage and pursued by an investigative reporter. (Banner:) "Mr. McGee, do n't make me angry. You would n't like me when I 'm angry. '' The creature is wanted for a murder he did n't commit. David Banner is believed to be dead. And he must let the world think that he is dead, until he can find a way to control the raging spirit that dwells within him.
Prior to the beginning of the series, a different version was used for the second pilot movie, The Return of the Incredible Hulk (later re-titled "Death in the Family ''):
Dr. David Banner -- physician, scientist... searching for a way to tap into the hidden strengths that all humans have. Then an accidental overdose of gamma radiation interacts with his unique body chemistry. And now, when David Banner grows angry or outraged, a startling metamorphosis occurs. The creature is driven by rage and pursued by an investigative reporter. (Banner:) "Mr. McGee, do n't make me angry. You would n't like me when I 'm angry. '' An accidental explosion took the life of a fellow scientist -- and supposedly David Banner as well. The reporter thinks the creature was responsible. (McGee:) "I gave a description to all the law enforcement agencies; they got a warrant for murder out on it! '' A murder which David Banner can never prove he or the creature did n't commit. So he must let the world go on thinking that he, too, is dead, until he can find a way to control the raging spirit that dwells within him.
Joe Harnell, one of Kenneth Johnson 's favorite composers, composed the music for The Incredible Hulk. He was brought into the production due to his involvement with the series The Bionic Woman, which Johnson had also created and produced. Some of the series ' music was collected into an album titled The Incredible Hulk: Original Soundtrack Recording. The show 's main theme, "The Lonely Man '' -- a sad, solo piano tune -- is always heard during the closing credits -- which usually shows Banner hitch - hiking. The well - known melody can also be heard in the 2008 film The Incredible Hulk and the 2017 film Thor: Ragnarok.
A retrospective on the TV series reported that the episodes fans of the show most often cite as the best of the series are "The Incredible Hulk '', "Married '', "Mystery Man '', "Homecoming '', "The Snare '', "Prometheus '', "The First '' and "Bring Me the Head of the Hulk ''.
The season two premiere, "Married '', originally aired as a two - hour movie in September 1978. David approaches Dr. Carolyn Fields (Mariette Hartley) about a new form of hypnotic therapy. He learns that Carolyn has devised the therapy because she is terminally ill with a syndrome "similar '' to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, or "Lou Gehrig 's Disease ''), and has been given no more than eight weeks to live. David reveals his true identity to her, and both agree to help each other, using a tissue sample from the creature to possibly cure Carolyn of her illness. They fall in love and eventually marry. After Carolyn obtains the sample while David has metamorphosed into the Hulk, she prepares the sample for her own use. The day the procedure to cure Carolyn is to take place, a hurricane hits the island. While the pair are driving to the hospital, Carolyn suffers from another painful episode, this time leading her to flee their moving car. David stops the car and rushes after her, morphing into the Hulk once more. He catches her in his arms, and as she attempts to fight him in her pain - induced hysteria, she turns around and sees the Hulk, and stops struggling. Knowing her time has come, Carolyn embraces the Hulk, telling him (as David) she will miss him as she dies in his arms. Mariette Hartley won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for this moving performance.
In season two 's "Mystery Man '', McGee finally comes face - to - face with an amnesia - ridden David Banner, although he does not recognize him as Banner 's face is covered by a gauze mask following a severe injury in an auto accident. Banner has been admitted into a hospital as "John Doe '' as his true identity is unknown. Investigating an apparent link between this man and the Hulk, McGee hires a small plane for himself and Banner to see a doctor who will be able to cure Banner 's amnesia. Lightning strikes the plane and an injured McGee and Banner are trapped in a forest, where they must help one another escape to safety. During the ordeal, McGee sees the mystery man transform into the Hulk and realizes this is how the Hulk manages to get from one place to another without being seen in between. He is eventually separated from the Hulk, but vows to track down the mysterious "John Doe '' fellow and find out his true identity.
Season three 's "Homecoming '' has Banner returning to his hometown and reuniting with his family. This episode marked the first appearances of Banner 's father and sister. "The Snare '' is an homage to the short story "The Most Dangerous Game '', and guest - starred Bradford Dillman as the hunter.
In the season four two - part "Prometheus '', David rescues and befriends Katie Maxwell (Laurie Prange), a young woman recently blinded by an accident. While helping her through the woods near her home, a meteor lands near them. Banner investigates, and is sickened by the radiation emanating from the meteorite fragment. An attacking swarm of bees triggers his transformation into the Hulk, and in the process of fighting off the bees, the Hulk touches the meteorite. He retreats back to Katie 's cabin, but in metamorphosing back into David, the process stops midway, with David retaining some of the Hulk 's muscular build and irradiated features, but with the ability to speak. Additionally, David has also retained most of the Hulk 's childlike intellect. Horrified at realizing that his transformation has gone wrong, David enlists Katie 's help. The military, however, arrives and after attempting to evade them, David transforms back into the Hulk. The Hulk and Katie are captured and taken to a military installation, where a group of scientists working for the Prometheus Project mistakenly believe that the Hulk is an alien. After seeing a tape of David 's transformation, however, they realize that the Hulk is actually a man who transforms into the creature. McGee, meanwhile, finagles his way onto the base and finds Katie, attempting to get her to give him more information on "John Doe ''. The Hulk escapes from his confinement and finds Katie. After the Hulk 's transformation back into David again stops midway, Katie theorizes that the radiation from the meteorite is affecting David 's unique body chemistry and that they need to escape from the base and get away from the meteorite. McGee, meanwhile, convinces the brass to let him talk to "John '' and convince him to surrender. McGee finds them, but due to David 's altered appearance, does not realize that he is, in fact, talking to David Banner. It is a double - cross, however, as soldiers move in on David and Katie. David transforms into the Hulk once again and breaks out of the installation with Katie. Far from the meteorite fragment, the Hulk transforms back completely into David Banner with no ill effects.
Another season four two - part episode, "The First '', has Banner discovering that another man transformed into a Hulk - like creature 30 years ago. In this case, a doctor used gamma radiation in an attempt to heal a man in poor health named Dell Frye (Harry Townes), who was embittered by bullying from the local townspeople, causing him to become vengeful and cruel. However, the radiation turned him instead into a savage green creature (Dick Durock). Because of Frye 's difference in personality, his creature had killed people. Dr. Jeffrey Clive, long dead, had discovered the cure, but Frye, now old and arthritic, and still bullied, wants to have the power again. David discovers Dr. Clive 's laboratory, which contains a machine that can harness the sun 's gamma radiation. Looking through Clive 's journals, he realizes that he needs to take the antidote developed by Clive and then bombard himself with gamma rays for the cure to work. Before he can do so, however, Frye knocks him out and straps himself into the machine. As David awakens and attempts to stop him, Frye is bombarded with gamma radiation, which turns him into a Hulk - like creature. After metamorphosing back, Frye discovers that after one transformation, his arthritis has vanished. Seeking revenge for the years of taunts he has endured, Frye goes into town and provokes some bullies into attacking him. He once again transforms into the creature, and proceeds to kill one of the bullies. Realizing that the Frye Hulk is extremely dangerous because of Frye 's murderous nature, David manages to subdue Frye and strap him into the machine to reverse the process. Unfortunately, Frye comes to and transforms into the creature, and in the process destroys the last vial of the cure that Dr. Clive had developed. As he literally sees the cure dripping from his fingers, a distraught David transforms into the Hulk. The two creatures fight, with the much more powerful Banner Hulk getting the better of the Frye Hulk, who is eventually shot dead by the sheriff. "The First '' is the only episode of the TV series to feature any other super-humanly powerful characters. "The First '' remains a fan favorite and is often cited as an example of Bixby 's finest acting work in the series. Guest star Townes ' performance as Frye is generally regarded as the best and most memorable guest shot in the show 's history.
The series concludes with a standard 44 - minute episode ("A Minor Problem ''). The Jack McGee character does not appear in this last episode, nor does he appear in a few other episodes in the short final season, and the series ends on an open note, with Banner still searching for a cure and McGee still unaware of the true identity of his John Doe.
CBS
The series first went into syndication in September 1982. It has aired as reruns on the Sci - Fi Channel and was one of the series that the channel showed at its inception in September 1992. It has also aired on Retro Television Network, and on Esquire Network from 2014 to 2015. Series reruns are to begin airing on most MeTV affiliates in February 2016. The series began airing on most H&I affiliates in May 2017. El Rey Network has aired the series in portrait - form since January 2017.
Two episodes of the series appeared first as stand - alone movies, but were later re-edited into one - hour length (two - parters) for syndication. They were produced as pilots before the series officially began in 1978:
After the cancellation of the television series in 1982, three television movies were produced with Bixby and Ferrigno reprising their roles. All of these aired on NBC:
Despite the apparent death of the Hulk in the 1990 film, another Hulk television movie was planned, Revenge of the Incredible Hulk. It was rumored that in this film the Hulk would be able to talk after being revived with Banner 's mind, and that it was abandoned due to Bill Bixby 's death of cancer in November 1993, but Gerald Di Pego (writer / executive producer of The Trial of the Incredible Hulk, The Death of the Incredible Hulk, and Revenge of the Incredible Hulk) revealed that the film was cancelled before Bixby 's health began to decline, due to disappointing ratings for Death of, and that Banner was to have been revived without the ability to change into the Hulk at all, only reverting to (still non-speaking) Hulk form in the film 's final act.
During the series ' five - season run, many actors familiar to viewers, or who later became famous for their subsequent works, made appearances on the series. Some of the most notable are: Future Falcon Crest and Castle co-star Susan Sullivan was in the original pilot; Brett Cullen, also of Falcon Crest; Kim Cattrall, of Sex and the City fame; Ray Walston, co-star of Bixby 's first series, My Favorite Martian; Brandon Cruz, co-star of The Courtship of Eddie 's Father; Lou Ferrigno, who along with starring as the Hulk, appeared in one episode ("King of the Beach '') as a different character, Bixby 's ex-wife Brenda Benet; and in an uncredited role, the bodybuilder and professional wrestler Ric Drasin played the half - transformed Hulk in "Prometheus '' (parts 1 and 2).
Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, the writer and artist team who created the Hulk for Marvel Comics, both made cameo appearances in the series. Kirby 's cameo was in the season two episode "No Escape '', while Lee appeared as a juror in Trial of the Incredible Hulk (the 1989 post-series TV movie).
All three of the NBC TV movies (The Incredible Hulk Returns, The Trial of the Incredible Hulk and The Death of the Incredible Hulk) have been available on DVD since 2003; the first two were released by Anchor Bay Entertainment, while The Death of the Incredible Hulk was released by 20th Century Fox Video. A double - sided DVD entitled The Incredible Hulk -- Original Television Premiere, which contained the original pilot and the "Married '' episodes, was released by Universal Studios DVD in 2003 to promote Ang Lee 's Hulk motion picture. A 6 - disc set entitled The Incredible Hulk -- The Television Series Ultimate Collection was released by Universal DVD later in 2003.
On July 18, 2006, Universal released The Incredible Hulk -- Season One on DVD. This set contains the original pilot movies, the entire first season, and a "preview '' episode ("Stop the Presses '') from season two.
On July 17, 2007, Universal released The Incredible Hulk -- Season Two on DVD as a 5 - disc set. The set includes the entire second season, and preview episode ("Homecoming '') from season three.
On June 3, 2008, Universal released The Incredible Hulk -- Seasons Three and Four on DVD in time to promote Louis Leterrier 's film The Incredible Hulk.
On October 21, 2008, Universal released The Incredible Hulk -- Season Five on DVD as a 2 - disc set. The set contains all seven season five episodes and interviews by Ken Johnson and various members of the production and writing teams, as well as a gag reel. Additionally, a complete series DVD Set was released as well. The Complete Series was released in the UK on DVD on September 30, 2008. The Complete Collection (not including the three post-series TV movies) was released on Blu - ray by Fabulous Films on December 12, 2016 in the UK (Region B).
The TV series led to a syndicated newspaper strip that ran from 1978 to 1982. It used the same background and origin story as the TV series but narrated stories outside the TV series.
In 1979, a Hulk "video novel '' in paperback form was released, with pictures and dialog from the pilot.
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who sings ive got the key ive got the secret | Urban Cookie Collective - wikipedia
Urban Cookie Collective are a British Eurodance band, best known for their 1993 hit single "The Key, The Secret ''.
The band was founded by Rohan Heath (born 19 July 1964), the son of Guyanese writer Roy Heath. He learned to play classical piano as a child before switching to the electric piano. He had previous experience with groups such as Yargo and Manchester DJ A Guy Called Gerald. Heath decided on a music career after abandoning a PhD at Vermont University. After a tour of Japan supporting the Happy Mondays, he left the band A Guy Called Gerald to work with the rave band Together. Heath went on to work with Jamaican reggae artist Eek - A-Mouse before concentrating on his new project, Urban Cookie Collective. He was the keyboardist, writer, and producer of their music.
Heath wrote and produced their first hits, "The Key The Secret '' and "Feels Like Heaven ''. He brought in vocalist Diane Charlemagne for many of the group 's early tracks. She eventually co-wrote some of the songs and became a major part of the band. The other main members were Simon Bentall (born 17 October 1967), Peter Samson (born 15 May 1968), Johnny Jay, Mark Hadfield and Neil Claxton (later of Mint Royale). Guest rappers occasionally took part in the studio.
The band caused some controversy in 1996 by recording a cover version of the Oasis song "Champagne Supernova ''. Noel Gallagher, one of the founding members of Oasis, claimed that he had not given permission and legal action stopped the track from being given a full release. The band still remains active, and currently tours fronted by singer Danielle Barnett.
In 2014, Charlemagne was diagnosed with kidney cancer. She died of the disease on 28 October 2015, aged 51.
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who sings better than i in joseph king of dreams | You Know Better Than I - wikipedia
"You Know Better Than I '' (aka "Better Than I '') is a song from the 2000 direct - to - video film Joseph: King of Dreams. It is performed by Joseph (David Campbell).
The song is performed when Joseph is at his lowest point, almost giving up on his faith. He decides to trust fully in God and acknowledge that he is the master of the universe who has an ultimate plan, even if things seem bad at present and he does n't fully understand why.
PluggedIn explains the song 's meaning: "Persevering through dark times can yield great rewards. God 's role in Joseph 's comeback is clear, reinforced by ' You Know Better Than I ', a song addressing His loving omniscience. ''
DecentFilms wrote "In one small way, Joseph: King of Dreams even outshines the earlier film The Prince of Egypt: The spirituality of its signature song, ' You Know Better Than I ', is much more profound than anything in the more mainstream ' There Can Be Miracles '... There 's a message my kids can listen to as many times as they want ''. DVD Verdict Review said "The best of (the film 's songs) is entitled Better Than I and deals with Joseph 's acceptance that his destiny and the answers to life 's questions must come from a higher source than his own understanding ''. DailyReview wrote "Better Than I evokes the best of ' 90s power ballads ''. Variety said "the best of the songs by John Bucchino, ' Better Than I ' and ' What Road Lies at Your Feet ', are unabashedly soaring anthems that accept and celebrate the divine. Both tunes have potential to become standards for both mainstream entertainers and Christian music performing artists. ''. Stephen Schwartz wrote "(John Bucchino) can write a soaring ballad with the best of them, as in ' Grateful ' or ' Better than I ' or ' If I Ever Say I 'm Over you ', and yet never feel sentimental or generic ''.
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animal viruses that have an envelope enter cells by | Viral envelope - wikipedia
Some viruses (e.g. influenza and many animal viruses) have viral envelopes covering their protective protein capsids. The envelopes are typically derived from portions of the host cell membranes (phospholipids and proteins), but include some viral glycoproteins. They may help viruses avoid the host immune system. Glycoproteins on the surface of the envelope serve to identify and bind to receptor sites on the host 's membrane. The viral envelope then fuses with the host 's membrane, allowing the capsid and viral genome to enter and infect the host.
The cell from which the virus itself buds will often die or be weakened and shed more viral particles for an extended period. The lipid bilayer envelope of these viruses is relatively sensitive to desiccation, heat, and detergents, therefore these viruses are easier to sterilize than non-enveloped viruses, have limited survival outside host environments, and typically must transfer directly from host to host. Enveloped viruses possess great adaptability and can change in a short time in order to evade the immune system. Enveloped viruses can cause persistent infections.
Classes of enveloped viruses that contain human pathogens:
Classes of nonenveloped viruses that contain human pathogens:
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who was the crazy guy in police academy | Bobcat Goldthwait - wikipedia
Robert Francis "Bobcat '' Goldthwait (born May 26, 1962) is an American comedian, filmmaker, actor and voice artist, known for his acerbic black comedy, delivered through an energetic stage persona with an unusual gruff and high - pitched voice. He came to prominence with his stand - up specials An Evening with Bobcat Goldthwait -- Share the Warmth and Bob Goldthwait -- Is He Like That All the Time? and his acting roles, including Zed in the Police Academy franchise.
Goldthwait has written and directed a number of films and television series, most notably the black comedies Shakes the Clown (1991), which he also starred in, Sleeping Dogs Lie (2006), World 's Greatest Dad (2009), God Bless America (2011), and the horror film Willow Creek (2013); episodes of Chappelle 's Show (2003), Jimmy Kimmel Live! (2004 -- 07), and Maron (2013 -- 15); and several stand - up specials, including Patton Oswalt: Tragedy Plus Comedy Equals Time (2014).
He has also worked extensively as a voice actor, with voice roles in Capitol Critters (1992 -- 95), Hercules (1997), and Hercules: The Animated Series (1998 -- 99).
Robert Francis Goldthwait was born on May 26, 1962 in Syracuse, New York, the son of Kathleen Ann (Welch), a department store employee, and Thomas Lincoln Goldthwait, a sheet metal worker. He was raised in a Catholic working - class family.
At an early age, Goldthwait decided on a career as a comedian and was performing professionally while still in high school at age 15. He attended St. Matthew 's grammar school in East Syracuse, New York, where he met Tom Kenny in first grade. In 1980, they graduated together from Bishop Grimes Junior / Senior High School in East Syracuse, New York. They formed a comedy troupe called The Generic Comics. In their mid-teens, they saw an ad for an open - mic night at Skaneateles that featured comedian Barry Crimmins with the moniker "Bear Cat ''. He and Kenny went to the event, and performed under the monikers Bobcat and Tomcat, respectively, as a tribute to Crimmins. Early in his career, Goldthwait also co-wrote with Martin Olson, who is listed as writer on his first two comedy specials Share the Warmth and Do n't Watch This Show.
Goldthwait became recognized as a solo stand - up comedian and had a record "Meat Bob '' and two televised concert specials in the 1980s: An Evening with Bobcat Goldthwait -- Share the Warmth and Bob Goldthwait -- Is He Like That All the Time? He became known for his unique brand of comedy, which combines elements of political satire and often bizarre or somewhat unsettling black comedy.
Goldthwait filmed a half - hour HBO special in 1995, and another comedy album in 2003 "I Do n't Mean to Insult You, But You Look Like Bobcat Goldthwait '' and in 2004 his stand - up was featured in Comedy Central 's animated series Shorties Watchin ' Shorties. Goldthwait announced his retirement from stand - up in 2005 and performed a "final '' run in Vegas in September 2005; he briefly resumed touring in early 2008 (from January through April); he performed again in 2009, doing stand - up in Winnipeg on April 3 and 4, and again in Omaha on August 28 and 29; he returned to Winnipeg for 4 shows on April 9 and 10, 2010. He released a one - hour stand - up special in 2011 "You Do n't Look the Same Either ''.
During the fall of 1993, Goldthwait performed stand - up material as an opening act for Nirvana on what would be their final North American tour, angering audiences in Chicago after making a joke about Michael Jordan 's recently murdered father. He also appeared in a promo video for the band 's album In Utero and once fooled an interviewer during a phone interview, impersonating Dave Grohl. At midnight on new years eve 1993, Goldthwait rappelled nude from a catwalk of the stage at the Oakland Coliseum as Kurt Cobain lead a countdown. Goldthwait later explained that Cobain had referred to him as Pauly Shore due to Goldthwait having earlier, jokingly, told Cobain that he was done being his source of entertainment and if he wanted someone to perform stunts as such to go call Pauly Shore.
Goldthwait and Robin Williams appeared on the same bill together, but not as a comedy team, using the names "Jack Cheese '' and "Marty Fromage. '' Goldthwait used the name Jack Cheese when he appeared in Tapeheads; when Williams made a cameo as Mime Jerry in Goldthwait 's Shakes the Clown, he was billed as Marty Fromage.
Goldthwait has appeared in several films. His first major role was Zed in the Police Academy franchise. He starred in One Crazy Summer, Burglar, Scrooged and Hot to Trot. In 1992, Goldthwait directed, wrote, and starred in Shakes the Clown. He also made a cameo appearance as an insane writer in Radioland Murders.
In 1985, Goldthwait appeared in Twisted Sister 's official video to "Leader of the Pack '' and "Be Chrool to Your Scuel '' from Come Out and Play.
In 1992, Goldthwait appeared as a guest - co-host of the second episode of The Ben Stiller Show. He also appeared as a relative of Peggy Bundy on the Married... with Children show where he and his wife dropped one of their numerous offspring on the Bundys.
He began directing Jimmy Kimmel Live! in 2004. While there, ratings for the show increased to over 2 million viewers per night, and jumped 50 % with teens; however, in May 2006 Goldthwait left to pursue his film career. Goldthwait maintains contact with Kimmel and still directs for television and film. He returned to directing segments for Jimmy Kimmel Live! in the summer of 2007.
Goldthwait appeared on Late Night with Conan O'Brien in 1993, where he tossed furniture and ran around the set, then into the audience. He has also made several guest appearances on talk shows as well as comedy programs.
As a guest on one of the last episodes of The Arsenio Hall Show in April 1994, Goldthwait became demonstrably upset that the program was being cancelled. At the time it was widely believed that Paramount Studios had refused to renew Hall 's contract because Late Night with David Letterman was now moving to CBS, and Goldthwait took his anger out on Paramount. He stood on the set 's couch, spray - painted "Paramount Sucks '' on a glass wall, and threw video equipment around the studio. Hall was forced to try to restrain Goldthwait and security was called to the set.
On May 9, 1994, Goldthwait appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, where he briefly lit the guest chair on fire. As a result, he was fined $2,700 plus the cost of the chair ($698); he was also required to tape several public service announcements about fire safety. (Despite banishment rumors Jay Leno invited Goldthwait to appear seven days later for a bit with Goldthwait buried up to his neck in dirt.)
These incidents were later the basis of the plot for his subsequent appearance on The Larry Sanders Show in August 1994, where the fictional talk show hires him in the hope of improving their ratings if he does another stunt. They also inspired a pseudo-fire safety PSA on MadTV.
He was also in 4 episodes of Space Ghost Coast to Coast: "Bobcat '', "Surprise '', "Anniversary '' and an uncredited appearance in the episode "Kentucky Nightmare ''.
One of the most recognizable features of Goldthwait 's performances is his voice. He has voiced characters on the television series Capitol Critters (1992), The Moxy Show (1995), Unhappily Ever After (1995 -- 1999), The Tick (1995), Hercules, Hercules: The Animated Series (1998 -- 1999), Lilo & Stitch: The Series (2003 -- 2006), and Buzz Lightyear of Star Command (2000). Goldthwait has also appeared as himself hosting the comedy quiz show Bobcat 's Big Ass Show (1998). Goldthwait was also a semi-regular guest in the later seasons of the Tom Bergeron - version of Hollywood Squares in 1998.
Goldthwait was a featured guest on the August 20, 2009, episode of Adam Carolla 's podcast. And on August 26, 2009 he returned to guest on Jimmy Kimmel Live! with old friend Robin Williams during which he revealed a tattoo on his buttocks of an anthropomorphized cymbal with a mustache and slanted eyes (a pun on the Chinese symbol tattoo).
Goldthwait appeared in September 2010 on an episode of LA Ink, where shop owner Kat Von D gave him a tattoo of a potato, impaled on a fork, on his upper right arm. Goldthwait chose the design to remind himself of where he came from and to tell close friends and family that he has n't lost his sense of humor. He also displayed his older tattoo of a cymbal with a moustache on his buttocks.
Goldthwait appeared on the May 4, 2012 episode of Real Time with Bill Maher. Goldthwait was a voice guest in Season 4 of Adventure Time. He voices Ed in the episode "Web Weirdos ''. Goldthwait appeared on NPR 's Wait Wait... Do n't Tell Me! on May 12, 2012 to talk about his movie God Bless America and play the game "Not My Job '' (he won). He then made his debut as one of the show 's panelists on the July 14, 2012.
In 2012, he voiced a character known as Pop Fizz, an overexcited gremlin chemist with the ability to drink his potion and become a rampaging monster, for the hit video game series Skylanders, starting with Skylanders: Giants. He later reprised the role of Pop Fizz in the 2016 Netflix series Skylanders Academy.
Goldthwait 's third feature film Sleeping Dogs Lie (originally titled Stay) starring Melinda Page Hamilton was in the 2006 Sundance Film Festival and was part of the "Independent Dramatic Features '' competition. Sleeping Dogs Lie is about a youthful, impulsive instance of oral sex performed on a dog which opens the door to a black comedy about the complexities of honesty. It was also nominated for the Grand Jury Prize in the "Dramatic Features '' category. The film was bought by Roadside Attractions & Samuel Goldwyn Films at the 2006 Sundance Film Festival for the North American rights to the film, and was released on October 20, 2006. Gaumont bought the international rights to the film. It was released on February 21, 2007 by Gaumont in France, and on March 16, 2007 in the UK. On May 4, 2007, it was presented as John Waters ' annual selection of a favorite film within Maryland Film Festival.
Goldthwait 's fourth feature film, World 's Greatest Dad, was released on July 24, 2009 on video - on - demand providers before its limited theatrical release on August 21. It starred Robin Williams, Daryl Sabara, and Alexie Gilmore. The web site for the 2009 Sundance Film Festival described it as a "lusciously perverse, and refreshingly original comedy that tackles love, loss, and our curious quest for infamy ''. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave World 's Greatest Dad 3 out of 4 stars, but commented that the material could have been even darker in its satire, and he questioned whether it was the director 's intention.
God Bless America premiered at the 2011 Toronto International Film Festival and screened within Maryland Film Festival 2012.
Willow Creek premiered at the 2013 Independent Film Festival of Boston and screened within such festivals as Maryland Film Festival. The film made its debut on the West Coast at the Arcata Theater Lounge in Arcata, California, on May 31, 2013, near its filming location of Willow Creek, California. Many of the cast and crew were on hand with Goldthwait for a question and answer session after the showing. On July 20, 2013 Willow Creek had its international premier at the Fantasia Festival in Montreal. After the movie Goldthwait stayed for a question and answer session. On October 22, 2013, Bobcat was in attendance at the Portland, Oregon Premier of Willow Creek. The Historic Hollywood theater hosted the packed house event. Bobcat, along with Cliff Barackman, cast member of Animal Planet 's Finding Bigfoot, answered questions after the showing. Barackman was originally in Willow Creek but due to editing, his scenes were cut from the film.
In 2015, Goldthwait premiered Call Me Lucky, his documentary on the life and work of comedian / activist Barry Crimmins, at the Sundance Film Festival.
In 2017, Goldthwait 's anthology television series Bobcat Goldthwait 's Misfits & Monsters debuted on truTV.
Goldthwait has been married twice. His marriage to his first wife Ann Luly lasted from 1986 to 1998. They have a daughter, Tasha.
In 1997, he was engaged to Nikki Cox, but their relationship ended in 2005.
Goldthwait was married to Sarah de Sa Rego and was best friends with Robin Williams, whose co-star on The Crazy Ones, Sarah Michelle Gellar, got the part through her friendship with de Sa Rego.
Goldthwait was an atheist, but later converted to Lutheranism.
Goldthwait 's film Windy City Heat won a Comedian Award for Best Comedy Film at Montreal 's Just for Laughs Film Festival in 2009.
In June 2015, Bobcat Goldthwait was named "Filmmaker on the Edge '' at the 17th Annual Provincetown International Film Festival. John Waters presented the prize.
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who is the chairman of isolo local government | Oshodi - Isolo - Wikipedia
Oshodi - Isolo is a Local Government Area (LGA) within Lagos State. It was formed by the second republic Governor of Lagos State, Alhaji Lateef Kayode Jakande, also known as ' Baba Kekere ' and the first Executive Chairman of the Local Government was late Sir Isaac Ademolu Banjoko. The LGA is part of the Ikeja Division of Lagos State, Nigeria. At the 2006 Census it had a population of 621,509 people, and an area of 45 square kilometers. Hon. Idris Bolaji Muse Ariyoh, has been re-elected for a second term into office July 25th 2017, as the Executive Chairman.
Two State House of Assembly, Hon. Shokunle Hakeem Oshodi / Isolo I APC And Hon. Emeka Odimogu Oshodi / Isolo II APC
Hon. Moruf Akinderu Fatai also known as ' MAF ' by his constituents and supporters, of the Action Congress (AC) represented Oshodi - Isolo I, and Hon. Joseph Ajatta (AC) represented Oshodi - Isolo II. From 1999 - 2007, Mudasiru Oyetunde Hussein of the Alliance for Democracy party represented Oshodi - Isolo.
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while the u.s. economy has expanded since the late 1960s income inequality has | Income inequality in the United States - Wikipedia
Income inequality in the United States has increased significantly since the 1970s after several decades of stability, meaning the share of the nation 's income received by higher income households has increased. This trend is evident with income measured both before taxes (market income) as well as after taxes and transfer payments. Income inequality has fluctuated considerably since measurements began around 1915, moving in an arc between peaks in the 1920s and 2000s, with a 30 - year period of relatively lower inequality between 1950 -- 1980.
Measured for all households, U.S. income inequality is comparable to other developed countries before taxes and transfers, but is among the highest after taxes and transfers, meaning the U.S. shifts relatively less income from higher income households to lower income households. Measured for working - age households, market income inequality is comparatively high (rather than moderate) and the level of redistribution is moderate (not low). These comparisons indicate Americans shift from reliance on market income to reliance on income transfers later in life and less than households in other developed countries do.
The U.S. ranks around the 30th percentile in income inequality globally, meaning 70 % of countries have a more equal income distribution. U.S. federal tax and transfer policies are progressive and therefore reduce income inequality measured after taxes and transfers. Tax and transfer policies together reduced income inequality slightly more in 2011 than in 1979.
While there is strong evidence that it has increased since the 1970s, there is active debate in the United States regarding the appropriate measurement, causes, effects and solutions to income inequality. The two major political parties have different approaches to the issue, with Democrats historically emphasizing that economic growth should result in shared prosperity (i.e., a pro-labor argument advocating income redistribution), while Republicans tend to avoid government involvement in income and wealth generation (i.e., a pro-capital argument against redistribution).
U.S. income inequality has grown significantly since the early 1970s, after several decades of stability, and has been the subject of study of many scholars and institutions. The U.S. consistently exhibits higher rates of income inequality than most developed nations due to the nation 's enhanced support of free market capitalism and less progressive spending on social services.
The top 1 % of households received approximately 20 % of the pre-tax income in 2013, versus approximately 10 % from 1950 to 1980. The top 1 % is not homogeneous, with the very top income households pulling away from others in the top 1 %. For example, the top 0.1 % of households received approximately 10 % of the pre-tax income in 2013, versus approximately 3 -- 4 % between 1951 -- 1981. According to IRS data, adjusted gross income (AGI) of approximately $430,000 was required to be in the top 1 % in 2013.
Most of the growth in income inequality has been between the middle class and top earners, with the disparity widening the further one goes up in the income distribution. The bottom 50 % earned 20 % of the nation 's pre-tax income in 1979; this fell steadily to 14 % by 2007 and 13 % by 2014. Income for the middle 40 % group, a proxy for the middle class, fell from 45 % in 1979 to 41 % in both 2007 and 2014.
To put this change into perspective, if the US had the same income distribution it had in 1979, each family in the bottom 80 % of the income distribution would have had $11,000 more per year in income on average in 2012, or $916 per month. This figure would be $7,100 per year for the bottom 99 % of families comparing 1979 and 2012, or about $600 / month. Half of the U.S. population lives in poverty or is low - income, according to U.S. Census data.
The trend of rising income inequality is also apparent after taxes and transfers. A 2011 study by the CBO found that the top earning 1 percent of households increased their income by about 275 % after federal taxes and income transfers over a period between 1979 and 2007, compared to a gain of just under 40 % for the 60 percent in the middle of America 's income distribution. U.S. federal tax and transfer policies are progressive and therefore substantially reduce income inequality measured after taxes and transfers. They became moderately less progressive between 1979 and 2007 but slightly more progressive measured between 1979 and 2011. Income transfers had a greater impact on reducing inequality than taxes from 1979 to 2011.
Americans are not generally aware of the extent of inequality or recent trends. There is a direct relationship between actual income inequality and the public 's views about the need to address the issue in most developed countries, but not in the U.S., where income inequality is larger but the concern is lower. The U.S. was ranked the 6th from the last among 173 countries (4th percentile) on income equality measured by the Gini index.
There is significant and ongoing debate as to the causes, economic effects, and solutions regarding income inequality. While before - tax income inequality is subject to market factors (e.g., globalization, trade policy, labor policy, and international competition), after - tax income inequality can be directly affected by tax and transfer policy. U.S. income inequality is comparable to other developed nations before taxes and transfers, but is among the worst after taxes and transfers. Income inequality may contribute to slower economic growth, reduced income mobility, higher levels of household debt, and greater risk of financial crises and deflation.
Labor (workers) and capital (owners) have always battled over the share of the economic pie each obtains. The influence of the labor movement has waned in the U.S. since the 1960s along with union participation and more pro-capital laws. The share of total worker compensation has declined from 58 % of national income (GDP) in 1970 to nearly 53 % in 2013, contributing to income inequality. This has led to concerns that the economy has shifted too far in favor of capital, via a form of corporatism, corpocracy or neoliberalism.
Although some have spoken out in favor of moderate inequality as a form of incentive, others have warned against the current high levels of inequality, including Yale Nobel prize for economics winner Robert J. Shiller, (who called rising economic inequality "the most important problem that we are facing now today ''), former Federal Reserve Board chairman Alan Greenspan, ("This is not the type of thing which a democratic society -- a capitalist democratic society -- can really accept without addressing ''), and President Barack Obama (who referred to the widening income gap as the "defining challenge of our time '').
The level of concentration of income in the United States has fluctuated throughout its history. The first era of inequality lasted roughly from the post-civil war era or "the Gilded Age '' to sometime around 1937. In 1915, an era in which the Rockefellers and Carnegies dominated American industry, the richest 1 % of Americans earned roughly 18 % of all income. By 2007, the top 1 percent accounted for 24 % of all income and in between, their share fell below 10 % for three decades.
From about 1937 to 1947, a period dubbed as the "Great Compression '' -- income inequality in the United States fell dramatically. Highly progressive New Deal taxation, the strengthening of unions, and regulation of the National War Labor Board during World War II raised the income of the poor and working class and lowered that of top earners. From the early 20th century, when income statistics started to become available, there has been a "great economic arc '' from high inequality "to relative equality and back again '', according to Nobel laureate economist Paul Krugman.
For about three decades ending in the early 1970s, this "middle class society '' with a relatively low level of inequality remained fairly steady, the product of relatively high wages for the US working class and political support for income leveling government policies. Wages remained relatively high because American manufacturing lacked foreign competition, and because of strong trade unions. By 1947 more than a third of non-farm workers were union members, and unions both raised average wages for their membership, and indirectly, and to a lesser extent, raised wages for workers in similar occupations not represented by unions. According to Krugman political support for equalizing government policies was provided by high voter turnout from union voting drives, the support of the otherwise conservative South for the New Deal, and prestige that the massive mobilization and victory of World War II had given the government.
On the other hand, a Marxist writing in the 1950s and 1960s believed "While the American worker enjoys the highest standard of living of any worker in the world, he is also the most heavily exploited. This tremendously productive working class gets back for its own consumption a smaller part of its output and hands over in the form of profit to the capitalist owners of the instruments of production a greater part of its output than does either the English or the French working class. ''
The return to high inequality, or to what Krugman and journalist Timothy Noah have referred as the "Great Divergence '', began in the 1970s. Studies have found income grew more unequal almost continuously except during the economic recessions in 1990 -- 91, 2001 (Dot - com bubble), and 2007 sub-prime bust.
The Great Divergence differs in some ways from the pre-Depression era inequality. Before 1937, a larger share of top earners income came from capital (interest, dividends, income from rent, capital gains). After 1970, income of high - income taxpayers comes predominantly from labor: employment compensation.
Until 2011, the Great Divergence had not been a major political issue in America, but stagnation of middle - class income was. In 2009 the Barack Obama administration White House Middle Class Working Families Task Force convened to focus on economic issues specifically affecting middle - income Americans. In 2011, the Occupy movement drew considerable attention to income inequality in the country.
CBO reported that for the 1979 - 2007 period, after - tax income of households in the top 1 percent of earners grew by 275 %, compared to 65 % for the next 19 %, just under 40 % for the next 60 %, 18 % for the bottom fifth of households. "As a result of that uneven income growth, '' the report noted, "the share of total after - tax income received by the 1 percent of the population in households with the highest income more than doubled between 1979 and 2007, whereas the share received by low - and middle - income households declined... The share of income received by the top 1 percent grew from about 8 % in 1979 to over 17 % in 2007. The share received by the other 19 percent of households in the highest income quintile (one fifth of the population as divided by income) was fairly flat over the same period, edging up from 35 % to 36 %. ''
According to the CBO, the major reason for observed rise in unequal distribution of after - tax income was an increase in market income, that is household income before taxes and transfers. Market income for a household is a combination of labor income (such as cash wages, employer - paid benefits, and employer - paid payroll taxes), business income (such as income from businesses and farms operated solely by their owners), capital gains (profits realized from the sale of assets and stock options), capital income (such as interest from deposits, dividends, and rental income), and other income. Of them, capital gains accounted for 80 % of the increase in market income for the households in top 20 %, in the 2000 -- 2007 period. Even over the 1991 -- 2000 period, according to the CBO, capital gains accounted for 45 % of the market income for the top 20 % households.
In a July 2015 op - ed article, Martin Feldstein, Professor of Economics at Harvard University, stated that the CBO found that from 1980 to 2010 real median household income rose by 15 %. However, when the definition of income was expanded to include benefits and subtracted taxes, the CBO found that the median household 's real income rose by 45 %. Adjusting for household size, the gain increased to 53 %.
Just as higher - income groups are more likely to enjoy financial gains when economic times are good, they are also likely to suffer more significant income losses during economic downturns and recessions when they are compared to lower income groups. Higher - income groups tend to derive relatively more of their income from more volatile sources related to capital income (business income, capital gains, and dividends), as opposed to labor income (wages and salaries). For example, in 2011 the top 1 % of income earners derived 37 % of their income from labor income, versus 62 % for the middle quintile. On the other hand, the top 1 % derived 58 % of their income from capital as opposed to 4 % for the middle quintile. Government transfers represented only 1 % of the income of the top 1 % but 25 % for the middle quintile; the dollar amounts of these transfers tend to rise in recessions.
This effect occurred during the Great Recession of 2007 -- 2009, when total income going to the bottom 99 percent of Americans declined by 11.6 %, but fell by 36.3 % for the top 1 %. Declines were especially steep for capital gains, which fell by 75 % in real (inflation - adjusted) terms between 2007 and 2009. Other sources of capital income also fell: interest income by 40 % and dividend income by 33 %. Wages, the largest source of income, fell by a more modest 6 %.
The share of pretax income received by the top 1 % fell from 18.7 % in 2007 to 16.0 % in 2008 and 13.4 % in 2009, while the bottom four quintiles all had their share of pretax income increase from 2007 to 2009. The share of aftertax income received by the top 1 % income group fell from 16.7 %, in 2007, to 11.5 %, in 2009.
The distribution of household incomes has become more unequal during the post-2008 economic recovery as the effects of the recession reversed. CBO reported in November 2014 that the share of pre-tax income received by the top 1 % had risen from 13.3 % in 2009 to 14.6 % in 2011. During 2012 alone, incomes of the wealthiest 1 percent rose nearly 20 %, whereas the income of the remaining 99 percent rose 1 % in comparison.
by 2012, the share of pre-tax income received by the top 1 % had returned to its pre-crisis peak, at around 23 % of the pre-tax income according to an article in The New Yorker. This is based on widely cited data from economist Emmanuel Saez, which uses "market income '' and relies primarily on IRS data. The CBO uses both IRS data and census data in its computations and reports a lower pre-tax figure for the top 1 %. The two series were approximately 5 percentage points apart in 2011 (Saez at about 19.7 % versus CBO at 14.6 %), which would imply a CBO figure of about 18 % in 2012 if that relationship holds, a significant increase versus the 14.6 % CBO reported for 2011. The share of after - tax income received by the top 1 % rose from 11.5 % in 2009 to 12.6 % in 2011.
Between 2010 and 2013, inflation - adjusted pre-tax income for the bottom 90 % of American families fell, with the middle income groups dropping the most, about 6 % for the 40th - 60th percentiles and 7 % for the 20th - 40th percentiles. Incomes in the top decile rose 2 %.
During the 2009 - 2012 recovery period, the top 1 % captured 91 % of the real income growth per family with their pre-tax incomes growing 34.7 % adjusted for inflation while the pre-tax incomes of the bottom 99 % grew 0.8 %. Measured from 2009 -- 2015, the top 1 % captured 52 % of the total real income growth per family, indicating the recovery was becoming less "lopsided '' in favor of higher income families. By 2015, the top 10 % (top decile) had a 50.5 % share of the pre-tax income, close its highest all - time level.
In 2013, tax increases on higher income earners were implemented with the Affordable Care Act and American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012. CBO estimated that "average federal tax rates under 2013 law would be higher -- relative to tax rates in 2011 -- across the income spectrum. The estimated rates under 2013 law would still be well below the average rates from 1979 through 2011 for the bottom four income quintiles, slightly below the average rate over that period for households in the 81st through 99th percentiles, and well above the average rate over that period for households in the top 1 percent of the income distribution. '' In 2016, the economists Peter H. Lindert and Jeffrey G. Williamson contended that inequality is the highest it has been since the nation 's founding.
French economist Thomas Piketty attributed the victory of Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election, which he characterizes as an "electoral upset, '' to "the explosion in economic and geographic inequality in the United States over several decades and the inability of successive governments to deal with this. ''
In May 2017, new data sets from the economists Piketty, Saez, and Gabriel Zucman of University of California, Berkeley demonstrate that inequality runs much deeper than previous data indicated. The share of incomes for those in the bottom half of the U.S. population stagnated and declined during the years 1980 to 2014 from 20 % in 1980 to 12 % in 2014. By contrast, the top 1 % share of income grew from 12 % in 1980 to 20 % in 2014. The top 1 % now makes on average 81 times more than the bottom 50 % of adults, where as in 1981 they made 27 times more. Pretax incomes for the top 0.001 % surged 636 % during the years 1980 to 2014. The economists also note that the growth of inequality during the 1970s to the 1990s can be attributed to wage growth among top earners, but the ever - widening gap has been "a capital - driven phenomenon since the late 1990s. '' They posit that "the working rich are either turning into or being replaced by rentiers. ''
A 2017 report by Philip Alston, the United Nations special rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, asserted that Donald Trump and the Republican Congress are pushing policies that would make the United States the "world champion of extreme inequality ''.
According to the CBO and others, "the precise reasons for the (recent) rapid growth in income at the top are not well understood '', but "in all likelihood, '' an "interaction of multiple factors '' was involved. "Researchers have offered several potential rationales. '' Some of these rationales conflict, some overlap. They include:
Paul Krugman put several of these factors into context in January 2015: "Competition from emerging - economy exports has surely been a factor depressing wages in wealthier nations, although probably not the dominant force. More important, soaring incomes at the top were achieved, in large part, by squeezing those below: by cutting wages, slashing benefits, crushing unions, and diverting a rising share of national resources to financial wheeling and dealing... Perhaps more important still, the wealthy exert a vastly disproportionate effect on policy. And elite priorities -- obsessive concern with budget deficits, with the supposed need to slash social programs -- have done a lot to deepen (wage stagnation and income inequality). ''
There is an ongoing debate as to the economic effects of income inequality. For example, Alan B. Krueger, President Obama 's Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisors, summarized the conclusions of several research studies in a 2012 speech. In general, as income inequality worsens:
Among economists and related experts, many believe that America 's growing income inequality is "deeply worrying '', unjust, a danger to democracy / social stability, or a sign of national decline. Yale professor Robert Shiller, who was among three Americans who won the Nobel prize for economics in 2013, said after receiving the award, "The most important problem that we are facing now today, I think, is rising inequality in the United States and elsewhere in the world. '' Economist Thomas Piketty, who has spent nearly 20 years studying inequality primarily in the US, warns that "The egalitarian pioneer ideal has faded into oblivion, and the New World may be on the verge of becoming the Old Europe of the twenty - first century 's globalized economy. ''
On the other side of the issue are those who have claimed that the increase is not significant, that it does n't matter because America 's economic growth and / or equality of opportunity are what 's important, that it is a global phenomenon which would be foolish to try to change through US domestic policy, that it "has many economic benefits and is the result of... a well - functioning economy '', and has or may become an excuse for "class - warfare rhetoric '', and may lead to policies that "reduce the well - being of wealthier individuals ''.
Economist Alan B. Krueger wrote in 2012: "The rise in inequality in the United States over the last three decades has reached the point that inequality in incomes is causing an unhealthy division in opportunities, and is a threat to our economic growth. Restoring a greater degree of fairness to the U.S. job market would be good for businesses, good for the economy, and good for the country. '' Krueger wrote that the significant shift in the share of income accruing to the top 1 % over the 1979 to 2007 period represented nearly $1.1 trillion in annual income. Since the wealthy tend to save nearly 50 % of their marginal income while the remainder of the population saves roughly 10 %, other things equal this would reduce annual consumption (the largest component of GDP) by as much as 5 %. Krueger wrote that borrowing likely helped many households make up for this shift, which became more difficult in the wake of the 2007 -- 2009 recession.
Inequality in land and income ownership is negatively correlated with subsequent economic growth. A strong demand for redistribution will occur in societies where a large section of the population does not have access to the productive resources of the economy. Rational voters must internalize such issues. High unemployment rates have a significant negative effect when interacting with increases in inequality. Increasing inequality harms growth in countries with high levels of urbanization. High and persistent unemployment also has a negative effect on subsequent long - run economic growth. Unemployment may seriously harm growth because it is a waste of resources, because it generates redistributive pressures and distortions, because it depreciates existing human capital and deters its accumulation, because it drives people to poverty, because it results in liquidity constraints that limit labor mobility, and because it erodes individual self - esteem and promotes social dislocation, unrest and conflict. Policies to control unemployment and reduce its inequality - associated effects can strengthen long - run growth.
Concern extends even to such supporters (or former supporters) of laissez - faire economics and private sector financiers. Former Federal Reserve Board chairman Alan Greenspan, has stated reference to growing inequality: "This is not the type of thing which a democratic society -- a capitalist democratic society -- can really accept without addressing. '' Some economists (David Moss, Paul Krugman, Raghuram Rajan) believe the "Great Divergence '' may be connected to the financial crisis of 2008. Money manager William H. Gross, former managing director of PIMCO, criticized the shift in distribution of income from labor to capital that underlies some of the growth in inequality as unsustainable, saying:
Even conservatives must acknowledge that return on capital investment, and the liquid stocks and bonds that mimic it, are ultimately dependent on returns to labor in the form of jobs and real wage gains. If Main Street is unemployed and undercompensated, capital can only travel so far down Prosperity Road.
He concluded: "Investors / policymakers of the world wake up -- you 're killing the proletariat goose that lays your golden eggs. ''
Among economists and reports that find inequality harming economic growth are a December 2013 Associated Press survey of three dozen economists ', a 2014 report by Standard and Poor 's, economists Gar Alperovitz, Robert Reich, Joseph Stiglitz, and Branko Milanovic.
A December 2013 Associated Press survey of three dozen economists found that the majority believe that widening income disparity is harming the US economy. They argue that wealthy Americans are receiving higher pay, but they spend less per dollar earned than middle class consumers, the majority of the population, whose incomes have largely stagnated.
A 2014 report by Standard and Poor 's concluded that diverging income inequality has slowed the economic recovery and could contribute to boom - and - bust cycles in the future as more and more Americans take on debt in order to consume. Higher levels of income inequality increase political pressures, discouraging trade, investment, hiring, and social mobility according to the report.
Economists Gar Alperovitz and Robert Reich argue that too much concentration of wealth prevents there being sufficient purchasing power to make the rest of the economy function effectively.
Joseph Stiglitz argues that concentration of wealth and income leads the politically powerful economic elite seek to protect themselves from redistributive policies by weakening the state, and this leads to less public investments by the state -- roads, technology, education, etc. -- that are essential for economic growth.
According to economist Branko Milanovic, while traditionally economists thought inequality was good for growth, "The view that income inequality harms growth -- or that improved equality can help sustain growth -- has become more widely held in recent years. The main reason for this shift is the increasing importance of human capital in development. When physical capital mattered most, savings and investments were key. Then it was important to have a large contingent of rich people who could save a greater proportion of their income than the poor and invest it in physical capital. But now that human capital is scarcer than machines, widespread education has become the secret to growth. '' He continued that "Broadly accessible education '' is both difficult to achieve when income distribution is uneven and tends to reduce "income gaps between skilled and unskilled labor. ''
Robert Gordon wrote that such issues as ' rising inequality; factor price equalization stemming from the interplay between globalization and the Internet; the twin educational problems of cost inflation in higher education and poor secondary student performance; the consequences of environmental regulations and taxes... '' make economic growth harder to achieve than in the past.
In response to the Occupy movement Richard A. Epstein defended inequality in a free market society, maintaining that "taxing the top one percent even more means less wealth and fewer jobs for the rest of us. '' According to Epstein, "the inequalities in wealth... pay for themselves by the vast increases in wealth '', while "forced transfers of wealth through taxation... will destroy the pools of wealth that are needed to generate new ventures. One report has found a connection between lowering high marginal tax rates on high income earners (high marginal tax rates on high income being a common measure to fight inequality), and higher rates of employment growth.
Economic sociologist Lane Kenworthy has found no correlation between levels of inequality and economic growth among developed countries, among states of the US, or in the US over the years from 1947 to 2005. Jared Bernstein found a nuanced relation he summed up as follows: "In sum, I 'd consider the question of the extent to which higher inequality lowers growth to be an open one, worthy of much deeper research ''. Tim Worstall commented that capitalism would not seem to contribute to an inherited - wealth stagnation and consolidation, but instead appears to promote the opposite, a vigorous, ongoing turnover and creation of new wealth.
Income inequality was cited as one of the causes of the Great Depression by Supreme Court Justice Louis D. Brandeis in 1933. In his dissent in the Louis K. Liggett Co. v. Lee (288 U.S. 517) case, he wrote: "Other writers have shown that, coincident with the growth of these giant corporations, there has occurred a marked concentration of individual wealth; and that the resulting disparity in incomes is a major cause of the existing depression. ''
Central Banking economist Raghuram Rajan argues that "systematic economic inequalities, within the United States and around the world, have created deep financial ' fault lines ' that have made (financial) crises more likely to happen than in the past '' -- the Financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 being the most recent example. To compensate for stagnating and declining purchasing power, political pressure has developed to extend easier credit to the lower and middle income earners -- particularly to buy homes -- and easier credit in general to keep unemployment rates low. This has given the American economy a tendency to go "from bubble to bubble '' fueled by unsustainable monetary stimulation.
Greater income inequality can lead to monopolization of the labor force, resulting in fewer employers requiring fewer workers. Remaining employers can consolidate and take advantage of the relative lack of competition, leading to declining customer service, less consumer choice, market abuses, and relatively higher prices.
Income inequality lowers aggregate demand, leading to increasingly large segments of formerly middle class consumers unable to afford as many luxury and essential goods and services. This pushes production and overall employment down.
Deep debt may lead to bankruptcy and researchers Elizabeth Warren and Amelia Warren Tyagi found a fivefold increase in the number of families filing for bankruptcy between 1980 and 2005. The bankruptcies came not from increased spending "on luxuries '', but from an "increased spending on housing, largely driven by competition to get into good school districts. '' Intensifying inequality may mean a dwindling number of ever more expensive school districts that compel middle class -- or would - be middle class -- to "buy houses they ca n't really afford, taking on more mortgage debt than they can safely handle ''.
The ability to move from one income group into another (income mobility) is a means of measuring economic opportunity. A higher probability of upward income mobility theoretically would help mitigate higher income inequality, as each generation has a better chance of achieving higher income groups. Conservatives and libertarians such as economist Thomas Sowell, and Congressman Paul Ryan (R., Wisc.) argue that more important than the level of equality of results is America 's equality of opportunity, especially relative to other developed countries such as western Europe.
Nonetheless, results from various studies reflect the fact that endogenous regulations and other different rules yield distinct effects on income inequality. A study examines the effects of institutional change on age - based labor market inequalities in Europe. There is a focus on wage - setting institutions on the adult male population and the rate of their unequal income distribution. According to the study, there is evidence that unemployment protection and temporary work regulation affect the dynamics of age - based inequality with positive employment effects of all individuals by the strength of unions. Even though the European Union is within a favorable economic context with perspectives of growth and development, it is also very fragile.
However, several studies have indicated that higher income inequality corresponds with lower income mobility. In other words, income brackets tend to be increasingly "sticky '' as income inequality increases. This is described by a concept called the Great Gatsby curve. In the words of journalist Timothy Noah, "you ca n't really experience ever - growing income inequality without experiencing a decline in Horatio Alger - style upward mobility because (to use a frequently - employed metaphor) it 's harder to climb a ladder when the rungs are farther apart. ''
The centrist Brookings Institution said in March 2013 that income inequality was increasing and becoming permanent, sharply reducing social mobility in the US. A 2007 study (by Kopczuk, Saez and Song in 2007) found the top population in the United States "very stable '' and that income mobility had "not mitigated the dramatic increase in annual earnings concentration since the 1970s. ''
Economist Paul Krugman, attacks conservatives for resorting to "extraordinary series of attempts at statistical distortion ''. He argues that while in any given year, some of the people with low incomes will be "workers on temporary layoff, small businessmen taking writeoffs, farmers hit by bad weather '' -- the rise in their income in succeeding years is not the same ' mobility ' as poor people rising to middle class or middle income rising to wealth. It 's the mobility of "the guy who works in the college bookstore and has a real job by his early thirties. ''
Studies by the Urban Institute and the US Treasury have both found that about half of the families who start in either the top or the bottom quintile of the income distribution are still there after a decade, and that only 3 to 6 % rise from bottom to top or fall from top to bottom.
On the issue of whether most Americans do not stay put in any one income bracket, Krugman quotes from 2011 CBO distribution of income study
Household income measured over a multi-year period is more equally distributed than income measured over one year, although only modestly so. Given the fairly substantial movement of households across income groups over time, it might seem that income measured over a number of years should be significantly more equally distributed than income measured over one year. However, much of the movement of households involves changes in income that are large enough to push households into different income groups but not large enough to greatly affect the overall distribution of income. Multi-year income measures also show the same pattern of increasing inequality over time as is observed in annual measures.
In other words, "many people who have incomes greater than $1 million one year fall out of the category the next year -- but that 's typically because their income fell from, say, $1.05 million to 0.95 million, not because they went back to being middle class. ''
Several studies have found the ability of children from poor or middle - class families to rise to upper income -- known as "upward relative intergenerational mobility '' -- is lower in the US than in other developed countries -- and at least two economists have found lower mobility linked to income inequality.
In their Great Gatsby curve, White House Council of Economic Advisers Chairman Alan B. Krueger and labor economist Miles Corak show a negative correlation between inequality and social mobility. The curve plotted "intergenerational income elasticity '' -- i.e. the likelihood that someone will inherit their parents ' relative position of income level -- and inequality for a number of countries.
Aside from the proverbial distant rungs, the connection between income inequality and low mobility can be explained by the lack of access for un-affluent children to better (more expensive) schools and preparation for schools crucial to finding high - paying jobs; the lack of health care that may lead to obesity and diabetes and limit education and employment.
Krueger estimates that "the persistence in the advantages and disadvantages of income passed from parents to the children '' will "rise by about a quarter for the next generation as a result of the rise in inequality that the U.S. has seen in the last 25 years. ''
Greater income inequality can increase the poverty rate, as more income shifts away from lower income brackets to upper income brackets. Jared Bernstein wrote: "If less of the economy 's market - generated growth -- i.e., before taxes and transfers kick in -- ends up in the lower reaches of the income scale, either there will be more poverty for any given level of GDP growth, or there will have to be a lot more transfers to offset inequality 's poverty - inducing impact. '' The Economic Policy Institute estimated that greater income inequality would have added 5.5 % to the poverty rate between 1979 and 2007, other factors equal. Income inequality was the largest driver of the change in the poverty rate, with economic growth, family structure, education and race other important factors. An estimated 16 % of Americans lived in poverty in 2012, versus 26 % in 1967.
A rise in income disparities weakens skills development among people with a poor educational background in term of the quantity and quality of education attained. Those with a low level of expertise will always consider themselves unworthy of any high position and pay
Lisa Shalett, chief investment officer at Merrill Lynch Wealth Management noted that, "for the last two decades and especially in the current period,... productivity soared... (but) U.S. real average hourly earnings are essentially flat to down, with today 's inflation - adjusted wage equating to about the same level as that attained by workers in 1970... So where have the benefits of technology - driven productivitycycle gone? Almost exclusively to corporations and their very top executives. '' In addition to the technological side of it, the affected functionality emanates from the perceived unfairness and the reduced trust of people towards the state. The study by Kristal and Cohen showed that rising wage inequality has brought about an unhealthy competition between institutions and technology. The technological changes, with computerization of the workplace, seem to give an upper hand to the high - skilled workers as the primary cause of inequality in America. The qualified will always be considered to be in a better position as compared to those dealing with hand work leading to replacements and unequal distribution of resources.
Economist Timothy Smeeding summed up the current trend:
Americans have the highest income inequality in the rich world and over the past 20 -- 30 years Americans have also experienced the greatest increase in income inequality among rich nations. The more detailed the data we can use to observe this change, the more skewed the change appears to be... the majority of large gains are indeed at the top of the distribution.
According to Janet L. Yellen, chair of the Federal Reserve,
... from 1973 to 2005, real hourly wages of those in the 90th percentile -- where most people have college or advanced degrees -- rose by 30 % or more... among this top 10 percent, the growth was heavily concentrated at the very tip of the top, that is, the top 1 percent. This includes the people who earn the very highest salaries in the U.S. economy, like sports and entertainment stars, investment bankers and venture capitalists, corporate attorneys, and CEOs. In contrast, at the 50th percentile and below -- where many people have at most a high school diploma -- real wages rose by only 5 to 10 % --
Economists Jared Bernstein and Paul Krugman have attacked the concentration of income as variously "unsustainable '' and "incompatible '' with real democracy. American political scientists Jacob S. Hacker and Paul Pierson quote a warning by Greek - Roman historian Plutarch: "An imbalance between rich and poor is the oldest and most fatal ailment of all republics. '' Some academic researchers have written that the US political system risks drifting towards a form of oligarchy, through the influence of corporations, the wealthy, and other special interest groups.
Rising income inequality has been linked to the political polarization in Washington DC. According to a 2013 study published in the Political Research Quarterly, elected officials tend to be more responsive to the upper income bracket and ignore lower income groups.
Paul Krugman wrote in November 2014 that: "The basic story of political polarization over the past few decades is that, as a wealthy minority has pulled away economically from the rest of the country, it has pulled one major party along with it... Any policy that benefits lower - and middle - income Americans at the expense of the elite -- like health reform, which guarantees insurance to all and pays for that guarantee in part with taxes on higher incomes -- will face bitter Republican opposition. '' He used environmental protection as another example, which was not a partisan issue in the 1990s but has since become one.
As income inequality has increased, the degree of House of Representatives polarization measured by voting record has also increased. The voting is mostly by the rich and for the rich making it hard to achieve equal income and resource distribution for the average population (Bonica et al., 2013). There is a little number of people who turn to government insurance with the rising wealth and real income since they consider inequality within the different government sectors. Additionally, there has been an increased influence by the rich on the regulatory, legislative and electoral processes within the country that has led to improved employment standards for the bureaucrats and politicians. Professors McCarty, Pool and Rosenthal wrote in 2007 that polarization and income inequality fell in tandem from 1913 to 1957 and rose together dramatically from 1977 on. They show that Republicans have moved politically to the right, away from redistributive policies that would reduce income inequality. Polarization thus creates a feedback loop, worsening inequality.
Several economists and political scientists have argued that economic inequality translates into political inequality, particularly in situations where politicians have financial incentives to respond to special interest groups and lobbyists. Researchers such as Larry Bartels of Vanderbilt University have shown that politicians are significantly more responsive to the political opinions of the wealthy, even when controlling for a range of variables including educational attainment and political knowledge.
Historically, discussions of income inequality and capital vs. labor debates have sometimes included the language of class warfare, from President Theodore Roosevelt (referring to the leaders of big corporations as "malefactors of great wealth ''), to President Franklin Roosevelt ("economic royalists... are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred ''), to more the recent "1 % versus the 99 % '' issue and the question of which political party better represents the interests of the middle class.
Investor Warren Buffett said in 2006 that: "There 's class warfare, all right, but it 's my class, the rich class, that 's making war, and we 're winning. '' He advocated much higher taxes on the wealthiest Americans, who pay lower effective tax rates than many middle - class persons.
Two journalists concerned about social separation in the US are economist Robert Frank, who notes that: "Today 's rich had formed their own virtual country... (T) hey had built a self - contained world unto themselves, complete with their own health - care system (concierge doctors), travel network (Net jets, destination clubs), separate economy... The rich were n't just getting richer; they were becoming financial foreigners, creating their own country within a country, their own society within a society, and their economy within an economy.
George Packer wrote that "Inequality hardens society into a class system... Inequality divides us from one another in schools, in neighborhoods, at work, on airplanes, in hospitals, in what we eat, in the condition of our bodies, in what we think, in our children 's futures, in how we die. Inequality makes it harder to imagine the lives of others.
Even these class levels can affect the politics in certain ways. There has been an increased influence by the rich on the regulatory, legislative and electoral processes within the country that has led to improved employment standards for the bureaucrats and politicians. They have a greater influence through their lobbying and contributions that give them an opportunity to immerse wealth for themselves.
Loss of income by the middle class relative to the top - earning 1 % and 0.1 % is both a cause and effect of political change, according to journalist Hedrick Smith. In the decade starting around 2000, business groups employed 30 times as many Washington lobbyists as trade unions and 16 times as many lobbyists as labor, consumer, and public interest lobbyists combined.
From 1998 through 2010 business interests and trade groups spent $28.6 billion on lobbying compared with $492 million for labor, nearly a 60 - to - 1 business advantage.
The result, according to Smith, is a political landscape dominated in the 1990s and 2000s by business groups, specifically "political insiders '' -- former members of Congress and government officials with an inside track -- working for "Wall Street banks, the oil, defense, and pharmaceutical industries; and business trade associations. '' In the decade or so prior to the Great Divergence, middle - class - dominated reformist grassroots efforts -- such as civil rights movement, environmental movement, consumer movement, labor movement -- had considerable political impact.
Joseph Stiglitz
Economist Joseph Stiglitz argues that hyper - inequality may explain political questions -- such as why America 's infrastructure (and other public investments) are deteriorating, or the country 's recent relative lack of reluctance to engage in military conflicts such as the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Top - earning families, wealthy enough to buy their own education, medical care, personal security, and parks, have little interest in helping pay for such things for the rest of society, and the political influence to make sure they do n't have to. So too, the lack of personal or family sacrifice involved for top earners in the military intervention of their country -- their children being few and far between in the relatively low - paying all - volunteer military -- may mean more willingness by influential wealthy to see its government wage war.
Economist Branko Milanovic argued that globalization and the related competition with cheaper labor from Asia and immigrants have caused U.S. middle - class wages to stagnate, fueling the rise of populist political candidates such as Donald Trump.
The relatively high rates of health problems and social problems, (obesity, mental illness, homicides, teenage births, incarceration, child conflict, drug use) and lower rates of social goods (life expectancy, educational performance, trust among strangers, women 's status, social mobility, even numbers of patents issued per capita), in the US compared to other developed countries may be related to its high income inequality. Using statistics from 23 developed countries and the 50 states of the US, British researchers Richard G. Wilkinson and Kate Pickett have found such a correlation which remains after accounting for ethnicity, national culture, and occupational classes or education levels. Their findings, based on UN Human Development Reports and other sources, locate the United States at the top of the list in regards to inequality and various social and health problems among developed countries. The authors argue inequality creates psychosocial stress and status anxiety that lead to social ills. A 2009 study conducted by researchers at Harvard University and published in the British Medical Journal attribute one in three deaths in the United States to high levels of inequality. According to The Earth Institute, life satisfaction in the US has been declining over the last several decades, which has been attributed to soaring inequality, lack of social trust and loss of faith in government.
It is claimed in a 2015 study by Princeton University researchers Angus Deaton and Anne Case that income inequality could be a driving factor in a marked increase in deaths among white males between the ages of 45 to 54 in the period 1999 to 2013.
Paul Krugman argues that the much lamented long - term funding problems of Social Security and Medicare can be blamed in part on the growth in inequality as well as the usual culprits like longer life expectancies. The traditional source of funding for these social welfare programs -- payroll taxes -- is inadequate because it does not capture income from capital, and income above the payroll tax cap, which make up a larger and larger share of national income as inequality increases.
Upward redistribution of income is responsible for about 43 % of the projected Social Security shortfall over the next 75 years.
Disagreeing with this focus on the top - earning 1 %, and urging attention to the economic and social pathologies of lower - income / lower education Americans, is conservative journalist David Brooks. Whereas in the 1970s, high school and college graduates had "very similar family structures '', today, high school grads are much less likely to get married and be active in their communities, and much more likely to smoke, be obese, get divorced, or have "a child out of wedlock. ''
The zooming wealth of the top one percent is a problem, but it 's not nearly as big a problem as the tens of millions of Americans who have dropped out of high school or college. It 's not nearly as big a problem as the 40 percent of children who are born out of wedlock. It 's not nearly as big a problem as the nation 's stagnant human capital, its stagnant social mobility and the disorganized social fabric for the bottom 50 percent.
Contradicting most of these arguments, classical liberals such as Friedrich Hayek have maintained that because individuals are diverse and different, state intervention to redistribute income is inevitably arbitrary and incompatible with the concept of general rules of law, and that "what is called ' social ' or distributive ' justice is indeed meaningless within a spontaneous order ''. Those who would use the state to redistribute, "take freedom for granted and ignore the preconditions necessary for its survival. ''
The growth of inequality has provoked a political protest movement -- the Occupy movement -- starting in Wall Street and spreading to 600 communities across the United States in 2011. Its main political slogan -- "We are the 99 % '' -- references its dissatisfaction with the concentration of income in the top 1 %.
A December 2011 Gallup poll found a decline in the number of Americans who felt reducing the gap in income and wealth between the rich and the poor was extremely or very important (21 percent of Republicans, 43 percent of independents, and 72 percent of Democrats). In 2012, several surveys of voters attitudes toward growing income inequality found the issue ranked less important than other economic issues such as growth and equality of opportunity, and relatively low in affecting voters "personally ''. In 1998 a Gallup poll had found 52 % of Americans agreeing that the gap between rich and the poor was a problem that needed to be fixed, while 45 % regarded it as "an acceptable part of the economic system ''. In 2011, those numbers are reversed: Only 45 % see the gap as in need of fixing, while 52 % do not. However, there was a large difference between Democrats and Republicans, with 71 % of Democrats calling for a fix.
In contrast, a January 2014 poll found 61 % of Republicans, 68 % of Democrats and 67 % of independents accept the notion that income inequality in the US has been growing over the last decade. The Pew Center poll also indicated that 69 % of Americans supported the government doing "a lot '' or "some '' to address income inequality and that 73 % of Americans supported raising the minimum wage from $7.25 to $10.10 per hour.
Opinion surveys of what respondents thought was the right level of inequality have found Americans no more accepting of income inequality than other citizens of other nations, but more accepting of what they thought the level of inequality was in their country, being under the impression that there was less inequality than there actually was. Dan Ariely and Michael Norton show in a study (2011) that US citizens across the political spectrum significantly underestimate the current US wealth inequality and would prefer a more egalitarian distribution of wealth. Joseph Stiglitz in "The Price of Inequality '' has argued that this sense of unfairness has led to distrust in government and business.
Income inequality (as measured by the Gini coefficient) is not uniform among the states: after - tax income inequality in 2009 was greatest in Texas and lowest in Maine. Income inequality has grown from 2005 to 2012 in more than 2 out of 3 metropolitan areas.
The household income Gini index for the United States was 0.468 in 2009, according to the US Census Bureau, though it varied significantly between states. The states of Utah, Alaska and Wyoming have a pre-tax income inequality Gini coefficient that is 10 % lower than the average, while Washington D.C. and Puerto Rico 10 % higher. After including the effects of federal and state taxes, the U.S. Federal Reserve estimates 34 states in the USA have a Gini coefficient between 0.30 and 0.35, with the state of Maine the lowest. At the county and municipality levels, the pre-tax Gini index ranged from 0.21 to 0.65 in 2010 across the United States, according to Census Bureau estimates.
Measured for all households, U.S. income inequality is comparable to other developed countries before taxes and transfers, but is among the worst after taxes and transfers, meaning the U.S. shifts relatively less income from higher income households to lower income households. Measured for working - age households, market income inequality is comparatively high (rather than moderate) and the level of redistribution is moderate (not low). These comparisons indicate Americans shift from reliance on market income to reliance on income transfers later in life and less fully than do households in other developed countries.
The U.S. was ranked the 41st worst among 141 countries (30th percentile) on income equality measured by the Gini index. The UN, CIA World Factbook, and OECD have used the Gini index to compare inequality between countries, and as of 2006, the United States had one of the highest levels of income inequality among similar developed or high income countries, as measured by the index. While inequality has increased since 1981 in two - thirds of OECD countries most developed countries are in the lower, more equal, end of the spectrum, with a Gini coefficient in the high twenties to mid thirties.
The gini rating (after taxes and government income transfers) of the United States is sufficiently high, however, to put it among less developed countries. The US ranks above (more unequal than) South American countries such Guyana, Nicaragua, and Venezuela, and roughly on par with Uruguay, Nicaragua, and Venezuela, according to the CIA.
The NYT reported in 2014: "With a big share of recent income gains in this country flowing to a relatively small slice of high - earning households, most Americans are not keeping pace with their counterparts around the world. '' Real median per capita income in many other industrialized countries was rising from 2000 - 2010 while the U.S. measure stagnated. The poor in much of Europe receive more than their U.S. counterparts.
One 2013 study indicated that U.S. income inequality is comparable to other developed countries before taxes and transfers, but rated last (worst) among 22 developed countries after taxes and transfers. This means that public policy choices, rather than market factors, drive U.S. income inequality disparities relative to comparable wealthy nations.
Some have argued that inequality is higher in other countries than official statistics indicate because of unreported income. European countries have higher amounts of wealth in offshore holdings.
The NYT reported in 2014 that there were three key reasons for other industrialized countries improving real median income relative to the United States over the 2000 - 2010 period:
According to The New York Times, Canadian middle class incomes are now higher than those in the United States as of 2014, and some European nations are closing the gap as their citizens have been receiving higher raises than their American counterparts. Bloomberg reported in August 2014 that only the wealthy saw pay increases since the 2008 recession, while average American workers saw no boost in their paychecks.
Economists have proposed a variety of solutions for addressing income inequality. For example, Federal Reserve Chair Janet Yellen described four "building blocks '' that could help address income and wealth inequality in an October 2014 speech. These included expanding resources available to children, affordable higher education, business ownership, and inheritance. While before - tax income inequality is subject to market factors, after - tax income inequality can be directly affected by tax and transfer policy. U.S. income inequality is comparable to other developed nations before taxes and transfers, but is among the worst after taxes and transfers. This suggests that more progressive tax and transfer policies would be required to align the U.S. with other developed nations. The Center for American Progress recommended a series of steps in September 2014, including tax reform, subsidizing and reducing healthcare and higher education costs, and strengthening labor influence.
However, there is debate regarding whether a public policy response is appropriate for income inequality. For example, Federal Reserve Economist Thomas Garrett wrote in 2010: "It is important to understand that income inequality is a byproduct of a well - functioning capitalist economy. Individuals ' earnings are directly related to their productivity... A wary eye should be cast on policies that aim to shrink the income distribution by redistributing income from the more productive to the less productive simply for the sake of ' fairness. ' ''
Public policy responses addressing causes and effects of income inequality include: progressive tax incidence adjustments, strengthening social safety net provisions such as Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, welfare, the food stamp program, Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid, increasing and reforming higher education subsidies, increasing infrastructure spending, and placing limits on and taxing rent - seeking. Democrat and Republican politicians also provided a series of recommendations for increasing median wages in December 2014. These included raising the minimum wage, infrastructure stimulus, and tax reform.
Research shows that children from lower - income households who get good - quality pre-Kindergarten education are more likely to graduate from high school, attend college, hold a job and have higher earnings. In 2010, the U.S. ranked 28th out of 38 advanced countries in the share of four - year - olds enrolled in public or private early childhood education. Gains in enrollment stalled after 2010, as did growth in funding, due to budget cuts arising from the Great Recession. Per - pupil spending in state - funded programs declined by 12 % after inflation since 2010. The U.S. differs from other countries in that it funds public education primarily through sub-national (state and local) taxes. The quality of funding for public education varies based on the tax base of the school system, with significant variation in local taxes and spending per pupil. Better teachers also raise the educational attainment and future earnings of students, but they tend to migrate to higher income school districts. Among developed countries, 70 % of 3 - year - olds go to preschool, versus 38 % in the United States.
Raising taxes on higher income persons to fund healthcare for lower income persons reduces after - tax inequality. The CBO described how the Affordable Care Act (ACA or "Obamacare '') reduced income inequality for calendar year 2014 in a March 2018 report:
Median annual earnings of full - time workers with a four - year bachelor 's degree is 79 % higher than the median for those with only a high school diploma. The wage premium for a graduate degree is considerably higher than the undergraduate degree. College costs have risen much faster than income, resulting in an increase in student loan debt from $260 billion in 2004 to $1.1 trillion in 2014. From 1995 to 2013, outstanding education debt grew from 26 % of average yearly income to 58 %, for households with net worth below the 50th percentile. The unemployment rate is also considerably lower for those with higher educational attainment. A college education is nearly free in many European countries, often funded by higher taxes.
The OECD asserts that public spending is vital in reducing the ever - expanding wealth gap. Lane Kenworthy advocates incremental reforms to the U.S. welfare state in the direction of the Nordic social democratic model, thereby increasing economic security and equal opportunity. Currently, the U.S. has the weakest social safety net of all developed nations.
Welfare spending may entice the poor away from finding remunerative work and toward dependency on the state. Eliminating social safety nets can discourage free market entrepreneurs by increasing the risk of business failure from a temporary setback to financial ruin.
CBO reported that less progressive tax and transfer policies contributed to an increase in after - tax income inequality between 1979 and 2007. This indicates that more progressive income tax policies (e.g., higher income taxes on the wealthy and a higher earned - income tax credit) would reduce after - tax income inequality.
Recent policies enacted under President Obama increase taxes on the wealthy, including the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 and the Affordable Care Act. As reported by The New York Times in January 2014, these laws include several tax increases on individuals earning over $400,000 and couples earning over $450,000:
These changes are estimated to add $600 billion to revenue over 10 years, while leaving the tax burden on everyone else mostly as it was. This reverses a long - term trend of lower tax rates for upper income persons.
The CBO estimated that the average tax rate for the top 1 % rose from 28.1 % in 2008 to 33.6 % in 2013, reducing after - tax income inequality relative to a baseline without those policies.
The economists Emmanuel Saez and Thomas Piketty recommend much higher top marginal tax rates on the wealthy, up to 50 percent, or 70 percent or even 90 percent. Ralph Nader, Jeffrey Sachs, the United Front Against Austerity, among others, call for a financial transactions tax (also known as the Robin Hood tax) to bolster the social safety net and the public sector.
The Pew Center reported in January 2014 that 54 % of Americans supported raising taxes on the wealthy and corporations to expand aid to the poor. By party, 29 % of Republicans and 75 % of Democrats supported this action.
During 2012, investor Warren Buffett advocated higher minimum effective income tax rates on the wealthy, considering all forms of income: "I would suggest 30 percent of taxable income between $1 million and $10 million, and 35 percent on amounts above that. '' This would eliminate special treatment for capital gains and carried interest, which are taxed at lower rates and comprise a relatively larger share of income for the wealthy. He argued that in 1992, the tax paid by the 400 highest incomes in the United States averaged 26.4 % of adjusted gross income. In 2009, the rate was 19.9 %.
Tax expenditures (i.e., exclusions, deductions, preferential tax rates, and tax credits) cause revenues to be much lower than they would otherwise be for any given tax rate structure. The benefits from tax expenditures, such as income exclusions for healthcare insurance premiums paid for by employers and tax deductions for mortgage interest, are distributed unevenly across the income spectrum. They are often what the Congress offers to special interests in exchange for their support. According to a report from the CBO that analyzed the 2013 data:
Understanding how each tax expenditure is distributed across the income spectrum can inform policy choices.
Economist Dean Baker argues that the existence of tax loopholes, deductions, and credits for the corporate income tax contributes to rising income inequality by permitting large corporations with many accountants to reduce their tax burden and by permitting large accounting firms to receive payments from smaller businesses in exchange for helping these businesses reduce their tax burden. He says that this redistributes large sums of money that would otherwise be taxed to individuals who are already wealthy yet contribute nothing to society in order to obtain this wealth. He further argues that since a large portion of corporate income is reinvested in the business, taxing corporate income amounts to a tax on reinvestment, which he says should be left untaxed. He concludes that eliminating the corporate income tax, while needing to be offset by revenue increases elsewhere, would reduce income inequality.
In his 2013 State of the Union address, Barack Obama proposed raising the federal minimum wage. The progressive economic think tank the Economic Policy Institute agrees with this position, stating: "Raising the minimum wage would help reverse the ongoing erosion of wages that has contributed significantly to growing income inequality. '' In response to the fast - food worker strikes of 2013, Labor Secretary Thomas Perez said that it was another sign of the need to raise the minimum wage for all workers: "It 's important to hear that voice... For all too many people working minimum wage jobs, the rungs on the ladder of opportunity are feeling further and further apart. ''
The Economist wrote in December 2013: "A minimum wage, providing it is not set too high, could thus boost pay with no ill effects on jobs... America 's federal minimum wage, at 38 % of median income, is one of the rich world 's lowest. Some studies find no harm to employment from federal of state minimum wages, others see a small one, but none finds any serious damage. ''
The U.S. minimum wage was last raised to $7.25 per hour in July 2009. As of December 2013, there were 21 states with minimum wages above the Federal minimum, with the State of Washington the highest at $9.32. Ten states index their minimum wage to inflation.
The Pew Center reported in January 2014 that 73 % of Americans supported raising the minimum wage from $7.25 to $10.10 per hour. By party, 53 % of Republicans and 90 % of Democrats favored this action. Also in January 2014, six hundred economists sent the President and Congress a letter urging for a minimum wage hike to $10.10 an hour by 2016.
In February 2014, the CBO reported the effects of a minimum wage increase under two scenarios, an increase to $10.10 with indexing for inflation thereafter and an increase to $9.00 with no indexing:
Amalgamated Transit Union international president Lawrence J. Hanley has called for a maximum wage law, which "would limit the amount of compensation an employer could receive to a specified multiple of the wage earned by his or her lowest paid employees. '' CEO pay at the largest 350 U.S. companies was 20 times the average worker pay in 1965; 58 times in 1989 and 273 times in 2012.
Others argue for a Basic income guarantee, ranging from civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. to libertarians such as Milton Friedman (in the form of negative income tax), Robert Anton Wilson, Gary Johnson (In the form of the fair tax "prebate '') and Charles Murray to the Green Party.
General limitations on and taxation of rent - seeking is popular with large segments of both Republicans and Democrats.
The economists Richard D. Wolff and Gar Alperovitz claim that greater economic equality could be achieved by extending democracy into the economic sphere. In an essay for Harper 's Magazine, investigative journalist Erik Reece argues that "With the political right entrenched in its opposition to unions, worker - owned cooperatives represent a less divisive yet more radical model for returning wealth to the workers who earned it. ''
The effect on income inequality of monetary policy pursued by the Federal Reserve is challenging to measure. Monetary policy can be used to stimulate the economy (e.g., by lowering interest rates, which encourages borrowing and spending, additional job creation, and inflationary pressure) or tightened, with the opposite effects. Former Fed Chair Ben Bernanke wrote in June 2015 that there are several effects on income and wealth inequality from monetary stimulus that work in opposing directions:
Various methods are used to determine income inequality and different sources may give different figures for gini coefficients or ratio different ratio of percentiles, etc... The United States Census Bureau studies on inequality of household income and individual income show lower levels of inequality than some other sources (Saez and Piketty, and the CBO), but do not include data for the highest - income households where most of change in income distribution has occurred.
Two commonly cited sources of income inequality data are the CBO and economist Emmanuel Saez, which differ somewhat in their sources and methods. According to Saez, for 2011 the share of "market income less transfers '' received by the top 1 % was about 19.5 %. Saez used IRS data in this measure. The CBO uses both IRS data and Census data in its computations and reported a lower "pre-tax '' figure for the top 1 % of 14.6 %. The two data series were approximately 5 percentage points apart in recent years.
Pioneers in the use of IRS income data to analyze income distribution are Emmanuel Saez and Thomas Piketty at the Paris School of Economics showed that the share of income held by the top 1 percent was as large in 2005 as in 1928. Other sources that have noted the increased inequality included economist Janet Yellen who stated, "the growth (in real income) was heavily concentrated at the very tip of the top, that is, the top 1 percent. '' Follow - up research, published in 2014, by Emmanuel Saez and Gabriel Zucman revealed that more than half of those in the top 1 percent had not experienced relative gains in wealth between 1960 and 2012. In fact, those between the top 1 percent and top. 5 percent had actually lost relative wealth. Only those in the top. 1 percent and above had made relative wealth gains during that time.
The comparative use of Census Bureau data, as well as most sources of demographic income data, has been questioned by statisticians for being unable to account for ' mobility of incomes '. At any given time, the Census Bureau ranks all households by household income and then divides this distribution of households into quintiles. The highest - ranked household in each quintile provides the upper income limit for each quintile. Comparing changes in these upper income limits for different quintiles is how changes are measured between one moment in time and the next. The problem with inferring income inequality on this basis is that the census statistics provide only a snapshot of income distribution in the U.S., at individual points in time. The statistics do not reflect the reality that income for many households changes over time -- i.e., incomes are mobile. For most people, income increases over time as they move from their first, low - paying job in high school to a better - paying job later in their lives. Also, some people lose income over time because of business - cycle contractions, demotions, career changes, retirement, etc. The implication of changing individual incomes is that individual households do not remain in the same income quintiles over time. Thus, comparing different income quintiles over time is like comparing apples to oranges, because it means comparing incomes of different people at different stages in their earnings profile.
Gary Burtless of the Brookings Institution notes that many economists and analysts who use U.S. census data fail to recognize recent and significant lower - and middle - income gains, primarily because census data does not capture key information: "A commonly used indicator of middle class income is the Census Bureau 's estimate of median household money income. The main problem with this income measure is that it only reflects households ' before - tax cash incomes. It fails to account for changing tax burdens and the impact of income sources that do not take the form of cash. This means, for example, that tax cuts in 2001 - 2003 and 2008 - 2012 are missed in the census statistics. Furthermore, the Census Bureau measure ignores income received as in - kind benefits and health insurance coverage from employers and the government. By ignoring such benefits as well as sizeable tax cuts in the recession, the Census Bureau 's money income measure seriously overstated the income losses that middle - income families suffered in the recession.
New CBO income statistics are beginning to show the growing importance of these items. In 1980, in - kind benefits and employer and government spending on health insurance accounted for just 6 % of the after - tax incomes of households in the middle one - fifth of the distribution. By 2010 these in - kind income sources represented 17 % of middle class households ' after - tax income. The income items missed by the Census Bureau are increasing faster than the income items included in its money income measure. What many observers miss, however, is the success of the nation 's tax and transfer systems in protecting low - and middle - income Americans against the full effects of a depressed economy. As a result of these programs, the spendable incomes of poor and middle - class families have been better insulated against recession - driven losses than the incomes of Americans in the top 1 %. As the CBO statistics demonstrate, incomes in the middle and at the bottom of the distribution have fared better since 2000 than incomes at the very top. ''
Inequality can be measured before and after the effects of taxes and transfer payments such as social security and unemployment insurance.
Comparisons of income over time should adjust for changes in average age, family size, number of breadwinners, and other characteristics of a population. Measuring personal income ignores dependent children, but household income also has problems -- a household of ten has a lower standard of living than one of two people, though the income of the two households may be the same. People 's earnings tend to rise over their working lifetimes, so "snapshot measures of income inequality can be misleading. '' The inequality of a recent college graduate and a 55 - year - old at the peak of his / her career is not an issue if the graduate has the same career path.
Conservative researchers and organizations have focused on the flaws of household income as a measure for standard of living in order to refute claims that income inequality is growing, becoming excessive or posing a problem for society. According to sociologist Dennis Gilbert, growing inequality can be explained in part by growing participation of women in the workforce. High earning households are more likely to be dual earner households, And according to a 2004 analysis of income quintile data by the Heritage Foundation, inequality becomes less when household income is adjusted for size of household. Aggregate share of income held by the upper quintile (the top earning 20 percent) decreases by 20.3 % when figures are adjusted to reflect household size.
However the Pew Research Center found household income has appeared to decline less than individual income in the twenty - first century because those who are no longer able to afford their own housing have increasingly been moving in with relatives, creating larger households with more income earners in them. The 2011 CBO study "Trends in the Distribution of Household Income '' mentioned in this article adjusts for household size so that its quintiles contain an equal number of people, not an equal number of households. Looking at the issue of how frequently workers or households move into higher or lower quintiles as their income rises or falls over the years, the CBO found income distribution over a multi-year period "modestly '' more equal than annual income. The CBO study confirms earlier studies.
Overall, according to Timothy Noah, correcting for demographic factors (today 's population is older than it was 33 years ago, and divorce and single parenthood have made households smaller), you find that income inequality, though less extreme than shown by the standard measure, is also growing faster than shown by the standard measure.
The Gini coefficient summarizes income inequality in a single number and is one of the most commonly used measures of income inequality. It uses a scale from 0 to 1 -- the higher the number the more inequality. Zero represents perfect equality (everyone having exactly the same income), and 1 represents perfect inequality (one person having all income). (Index scores are commonly multiplied by 100 to make them easier to understand.) Gini index ratings can be used to compare inequality within (by race, gender, employment) and between countries, before and after taxes. Different sources will often give different gini values for the same country or population measured. For example, the U.S. Census Bureau 's official Gini coefficient for the United States was 47.6 in 2013, up from 45.4 in 1993, the earliest year for comparable data. By contrast, the OECD 's Gini coefficient for income inequality in the United States is 37 in 2012 (including wages and other cash transfers), which is still the highest in the developed world, with the lowest being Denmark (24.3), Norway (25.6), and Sweden (25.9).
Professor Salvatore Babones of the University of Sydney notes:
A major gap in the measurement of income inequality is the exclusion of capital gains, profits made on increases in the value of investments. Capital gains are excluded for purely practical reasons. The Census does n't ask about them, so they ca n't be included in inequality statistics.
Obviously, the rich earn much more from investments than the poor. As a result, real levels of income inequality in America are much higher than the official Census Bureau figures would suggest.
Conservative researchers have argued that income inequality is not significant because consumption, rather than income should be the measure of inequality, and inequality of consumption is less extreme than inequality of income in the US. Will Wilkinson of the libertarian Cato Institute states that "the weight of the evidence shows that the run - up in consumption inequality has been considerably less dramatic than the rise in income inequality, '' and consumption is more important than income. According to Johnson, Smeeding, and Tory, consumption inequality was actually lower in 2001 than it was in 1986. The debate is summarized in "The Hidden Prosperity of the Poor '' by journalist Thomas B. Edsall. Other studies have not found consumption inequality less dramatic than household income inequality, and the CBO 's study found consumption data not "adequately '' capturing "consumption by high - income households '' as it does their income, though it did agree that household consumption numbers show more equal distribution than household income.
Others dispute the importance of consumption over income, pointing out that if middle and lower income are consuming more than they earn it is because they are saving less or going deeper into debt. A "growing body of work '' suggests that income inequality has been the driving factor in the growing household debt, as high earners bid up the price of real estate and middle income earners go deeper into debt trying to maintain what once was a middle class lifestyle. Between 1983 and 2007, the top 5 percent saw their debt fall from 80 cents for every dollar of income to 65 cents, while the bottom 95 percent saw their debt rise from 60 cents for every dollar of income to $1.40. Economist Krugman has found a strong correlation between inequality and household debt in the United States over the last hundred years.
Related to income inequality is the topic of wealth inequality, which refers to the distribution of net worth (i.e., what is owned minus what is owed) as opposed to annual income. Net worth is affected by movements in the prices of assets, such as stocks, bonds, and real estate, which can fluctuate significantly over the short - term. Income inequality also has a significant effect over long - term shifts in wealth inequality, as income is accumulated. Wealth inequality is also highly concentrated and increasing:
The increase in wealth for the 1 % was not homogeneous, with much of the wealth gains in the top 0.1 %. Those between the top 1 percent and top 0.5 percent have actually lost a significant share of wealth over the past 50 years.
Further, the top 400 Americans had net worth of $2 trillion in 2013, which was more than the combined net worth of the bottom 50 % of U.S. households. The average net worth of these 400 Americans was $5 billion. The lower 50 % of households held 3 % of the wealth in 1989 and 1 % in 2013. The average net worth of the bottom 50 % of households in 2013 was approximately $11,000.
This wealth inequality is apparent in the share of assets held. In 2010, the top 5 % wealthiest households had approximately 72 % of the financial wealth, while the bottom 80 % of households had 5 %. Financial wealth is measured as net worth minus home values, meaning income - generating financial assets like stocks and bonds, plus business equity.
The Center for American Progress reported in September 2014 that: "The trends in rising inequality are also striking when measured by wealth. Among the top 20 percent of families by net worth, average wealth increased by 120 percent between 1983 and 2010, while the middle 20 percent of families only saw their wealth increase by 13 percent, and the bottom fifth of families, on average, saw debt exceed assets -- in other words, negative net worth... Homeowners in the bottom quintile of wealth lost an astounding 94 percent of their wealth between 2007 and 2010. ''
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girl with two heads who controls the body | Abby and Brittany Hensel - wikipedia
Abigail Loraine "Abby '' Hensel and Brittany Lee Hensel (born March 7, 1990) are American dicephalic parapagus twins; in other words, they are conjoined twins, each of whom has a separate head, but whose bodies are joined. They are highly symmetric for conjoined twins, giving the appearance of having a single body without marked variation from normal proportions. In fact, several vital organs are doubled; each twin has a separate heart, stomach, spine, pair of lungs, and spinal cord.
Each twin controls her half of their body, operating one arm and one leg. As infants, the initial learning of physical processes that required bodily coordination, such as clapping, crawling, and walking, required the cooperation of both twins. While they can eat and write separately and simultaneously, activities such as running and swimming require them to coordinate and alternate their actions symmetrically. Other activities as diverse as brushing hair and driving a car require each twin to perform separate actions that coordinate with the other 's.
Due to the curiosity that their condition generated, the twins ' progress as they were growing up was covered in a number of popular media, including Life magazine and The Oprah Winfrey Show. At the age of 16, they gave an interview on The Learning Channel on December 17, 2006, in which they discussed aspects of their daily lives and plans for the future. They starred in their own reality series, Abby & Brittany, on TLC in 2012.
The twins were born in Carver County, Minnesota, to Patty, a registered nurse, and Mike Hensel, a carpenter and landscaper. They have a younger brother and sister. They were raised in New Germany, Minnesota, attended Lutheran High School in Mayer, and graduated from Bethel University in St. Paul in 2012.
The twins have a single body with separate heads and necks, a chest that is wider than normal, two arms, and two legs. At birth, they had a rudimentary arm between the bases of their necks attached to a shoulder blade at the back, being combined parts of Abby 's left arm and Brittany 's right arm. It was removed, leaving the shoulder blade.
Abby 's head tilts laterally outward about 5 degrees to the right, while Brittany 's tilts laterally at about 15 degrees to the left, causing her to appear shorter even when seated. Brittany 's leg is in fact nearly two inches shorter than Abby 's and Brittany tends to stand and walk on tip - toe which has made her calf muscle significantly larger than Abby 's. The continued growth of Abby 's spine was surgically halted after Brittany prematurely stopped growing. At age 12, they underwent surgery at Gillette Children 's Specialty Healthcare to correct scoliosis and to expand their chest cavity to prevent future difficulties with breathing.
Each twin manages one side of their conjoined body. The sense of touch of each is restricted to her body half; this shades off at the midsagittal plane such that there is a small amount of overlap at the midline. Stomach aches, however, are felt only by the twin on the opposite side. They are effective in cooperatively using their limbs when both hands or both legs are required. By coordinating their efforts, they are able to walk, run, swim, and ride a bicycle normally -- all tasks that they learned at a normal speed. Together, they can type on a computer keyboard at a normal speed and drive a car. However, their disparate heights (Abby, 5 ft 2 in (1.57 m), is taller and longer of leg than Brittany, 4 ft 10 in (1.47 m)) led to difficulty in balancing a Segway, as shown in their 2012 reality series.
The twins have individual organs in the upper part of their body, while most located at or below the level of the navel are shared, the exception being the spinal cord.
Upon their birth, the twins ' parents decided not to attempt surgical separation after hearing from doctors that it was not likely that both would survive the operation. As they grew and learned to walk and develop other skills, their parents confirmed their decision against separation, arguing that the quality of life for the surviving twin or twins living separately would be less than their quality of life as conjoined beings.
The twins both successfully passed their driver 's license exams, both the written and driving tests. They had to take the tests twice, once for each twin. Abby controls the devices located to the right of the driver 's seat; Brittany, those on the left. Together they control the steering wheel.
They both graduated from high school in 2008. They began college at Bethel University in Arden Hills, Minnesota, majoring in education. They had considered pursuing different concentrations within that major, but the volume of extra coursework was prohibitive. They graduated with Bachelor of Arts degrees in 2012.
In conversation, the twins are clearly distinct persons, with distinct likes and dislikes. Their preferences in food, clothing color, etc., differ. Some of their clothes are altered by their seamstress so that they have two separate necklines in order to emphasize their individuality. They usually have separate meals, but sometimes share a single meal for the sake of convenience (e.g., each taking a bite of the same hamburger). Abby is better at mathematics, and Brittany at writing. For tasks such as responding to email, they type and respond as one, anticipating each other 's feelings with little verbal communication between them. In such cases as the latter, their choice of grammatical person is to use the first person singular out of habit when they agree, but when their responses do differ, they use their names in the third person singular.
There is some concern about the twins ' continued good health, because only four known sets of conjoined twins who share an undivided torso and two legs have ever survived into adulthood, and most have congenital heart defects or other organ anomalies. None have shown up in their case. They intensely dislike being stared at or photographed by strangers while going about their private lives. In interviews for the Discovery Channel in 2006, they, then 16, said that they hoped to date, get married, and have children. They also stated that they hoped that by providing some information about themselves, they would be able to lead otherwise fairly typical social lives.
The twins appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show on April 8 and April 29, 1996. In April 1996, they were featured on the cover of Life under the caption "One Body, Two Souls '', and their daily lifestyle was depicted in the corresponding article entitled "The Hensels ' Summer ''. Life followed up with another story in September 1998. In 2002, they appeared in Joined for Life, a TV documentary by Advanced Medical Productions, distributed on the Discovery Health Channel and a 2003 follow - up, Joined at Birth. In 2003, an updated story of them at age 11 (filmed in 2001) was published in Time and again in Life. ABC TV also did a documentary called "Joined For Life ''. In 2006, Advanced Medical made another documentary, Joined for Life: Abby & Brittany turn 16, that discusses their adolescence, school, social life, and activities such as getting their driver 's licenses. A UK television special followed in 2005 as part of the series Extraordinary People. They starred in the reality TV show Abby & Brittany that started in August 2012. Abby and Brittany: Joined for Life was shown by the BBC in the UK in May 2013, and covers the period from their finishing college to starting a part - time teaching job.
Documentaries and other television appearances include:
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how did the valley of the moon form | Formation and evolution of the Solar System - wikipedia
The formation and evolution of the Solar System began 4.6 billion years ago with the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant molecular cloud. Most of the collapsing mass collected in the center, forming the Sun, while the rest flattened into a protoplanetary disk out of which the planets, moons, asteroids, and other small Solar System bodies formed.
This model, known as the nebular hypothesis, was first developed in the 18th century by Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre - Simon Laplace. Its subsequent development has interwoven a variety of scientific disciplines including astronomy, physics, geology, and planetary science. Since the dawn of the space age in the 1950s and the discovery of extrasolar planets in the 1990s, the model has been both challenged and refined to account for new observations.
The Solar System has evolved considerably since its initial formation. Many moons have formed from circling discs of gas and dust around their parent planets, while other moons are thought to have formed independently and later been captured by their planets. Still others, such as Earth 's Moon, may be the result of giant collisions. Collisions between bodies have occurred continually up to the present day and have been central to the evolution of the Solar System. The positions of the planets often shifted due to gravitational interactions. This planetary migration is now thought to have been responsible for much of the Solar System 's early evolution.
In roughly 5 billion years, the Sun will cool and expand outward to many times its current diameter (becoming a red giant), before casting off its outer layers as a planetary nebula and leaving behind a stellar remnant known as a white dwarf. In the far distant future, the gravity of passing stars will gradually reduce the Sun 's retinue of planets. Some planets will be destroyed, others ejected into interstellar space. Ultimately, over the course of tens of billions of years, it is likely that the Sun will be left with none of the original bodies in orbit around it.
Ideas concerning the origin and fate of the world date from the earliest known writings; however, for almost all of that time, there was no attempt to link such theories to the existence of a "Solar System '', simply because it was not generally thought that the Solar System, in the sense we now understand it, existed. The first step toward a theory of Solar System formation and evolution was the general acceptance of heliocentrism, which placed the Sun at the centre of the system and the Earth in orbit around it. This concept had developed for millennia (Aristarchus of Samos had suggested it as early as 250 BC), but was not widely accepted until the end of the 17th century. The first recorded use of the term "Solar System '' dates from 1704.
The current standard theory for Solar System formation, the nebular hypothesis, has fallen into and out of favour since its formulation by Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre - Simon Laplace in the 18th century. The most significant criticism of the hypothesis was its apparent inability to explain the Sun 's relative lack of angular momentum when compared to the planets. However, since the early 1980s studies of young stars have shown them to be surrounded by cool discs of dust and gas, exactly as the nebular hypothesis predicts, which has led to its re-acceptance.
Understanding of how the Sun is expected to continue to evolve required an understanding of the source of its power. Arthur Stanley Eddington 's confirmation of Albert Einstein 's theory of relativity led to his realisation that the Sun 's energy comes from nuclear fusion reactions in its core, fusing hydrogen into helium. In 1935, Eddington went further and suggested that other elements also might form within stars. Fred Hoyle elaborated on this premise by arguing that evolved stars called red giants created many elements heavier than hydrogen and helium in their cores. When a red giant finally casts off its outer layers, these elements would then be recycled to form other star systems.
The nebular hypothesis says that the Solar System formed from the gravitational collapse of a fragment of a giant molecular cloud. The cloud was about 20 parsec (65 light years) across, while the fragments were roughly 1 parsec (three and a quarter light - years) across. The further collapse of the fragments led to the formation of dense cores 0.01 -- 0.1 pc (2,000 -- 20,000 AU) in size. One of these collapsing fragments (known as the pre-solar nebula) formed what became the Solar System. The composition of this region with a mass just over that of the Sun (M) was about the same as that of the Sun today, with hydrogen, along with helium and trace amounts of lithium produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis, forming about 98 % of its mass. The remaining 2 % of the mass consisted of heavier elements that were created by nucleosynthesis in earlier generations of stars. Late in the life of these stars, they ejected heavier elements into the interstellar medium.
The oldest inclusions found in meteorites, thought to trace the first solid material to form in the pre-solar nebula, are 4568.2 million years old, which is one definition of the age of the Solar System. Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short - lived isotopes, such as iron - 60, that only form in exploding, short - lived stars. This indicates that one or more supernovae occurred near the Sun while it was forming. A shock wave from a supernova may have triggered the formation of the Sun by creating relatively dense regions within the cloud, causing these regions to collapse. Because only massive, short - lived stars produce supernovae, the Sun must have formed in a large star - forming region that produced massive stars, possibly similar to the Orion Nebula. Studies of the structure of the Kuiper belt and of anomalous materials within it suggest that the Sun formed within a cluster of between 1,000 and 10,000 stars with a diameter of between 6.5 and 19.5 light years and a collective mass of 3,000 M. This cluster began to break apart between 135 million and 535 million years after formation. Several simulations of our young Sun interacting with close - passing stars over the first 100 million years of its life produce anomalous orbits observed in the outer Solar System, such as detached objects.
Because of the conservation of angular momentum, the nebula spun faster as it collapsed. As the material within the nebula condensed, the atoms within it began to collide with increasing frequency, converting their kinetic energy into heat. The centre, where most of the mass collected, became increasingly hotter than the surrounding disc. Over about 100,000 years, the competing forces of gravity, gas pressure, magnetic fields, and rotation caused the contracting nebula to flatten into a spinning protoplanetary disc with a diameter of about 200 AU and form a hot, dense protostar (a star in which hydrogen fusion has not yet begun) at the centre.
At this point in its evolution, the Sun is thought to have been a T Tauri star. Studies of T Tauri stars show that they are often accompanied by discs of pre-planetary matter with masses of 0.001 -- 0.1 M. These discs extend to several hundred AU -- the Hubble Space Telescope has observed protoplanetary discs of up to 1000 AU in diameter in star - forming regions such as the Orion Nebula -- and are rather cool, reaching a surface temperature of only about 1000 kelvin at their hottest. Within 50 million years, the temperature and pressure at the core of the Sun became so great that its hydrogen began to fuse, creating an internal source of energy that countered gravitational contraction until hydrostatic equilibrium was achieved. This marked the Sun 's entry into the prime phase of its life, known as the main sequence. Main - sequence stars derive energy from the fusion of hydrogen into helium in their cores. The Sun remains a main - sequence star today.
The various planets are thought to have formed from the solar nebula, the disc - shaped cloud of gas and dust left over from the Sun 's formation. The currently accepted method by which the planets formed is accretion, in which the planets began as dust grains in orbit around the central protostar. Through direct contact, these grains formed into clumps up to 200 metres in diameter, which in turn collided to form larger bodies (planetesimals) of ~ 10 kilometres (km) in size. These gradually increased through further collisions, growing at the rate of centimetres per year over the course of the next few million years.
The inner Solar System, the region of the Solar System inside 4 AU, was too warm for volatile molecules like water and methane to condense, so the planetesimals that formed there could only form from compounds with high melting points, such as metals (like iron, nickel, and aluminium) and rocky silicates. These rocky bodies would become the terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars). These compounds are quite rare in the Universe, comprising only 0.6 % of the mass of the nebula, so the terrestrial planets could not grow very large. The terrestrial embryos grew to about 0.05 Earth masses (M) and ceased accumulating matter about 100,000 years after the formation of the Sun; subsequent collisions and mergers between these planet - sized bodies allowed terrestrial planets to grow to their present sizes (see Terrestrial planets below).
When the terrestrial planets were forming, they remained immersed in a disk of gas and dust. The gas was partially supported by pressure and so did not orbit the Sun as rapidly as the planets. The resulting drag and, more importantly, gravitational interactions with the surrounding material caused a transfer of angular momentum, and as a result the planets gradually migrated to new orbits. Models show that density and temperature variations in the disk governed this rate of migration, but the net trend was for the inner planets to migrate inward as the disk dissipated, leaving the planets in their current orbits.
The giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) formed further out, beyond the frost line, which is the point between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where the material is cool enough for volatile icy compounds to remain solid. The ices that formed the Jovian planets were more abundant than the metals and silicates that formed the terrestrial planets, allowing the giant planets to grow massive enough to capture hydrogen and helium, the lightest and most abundant elements. Planetesimals beyond the frost line accumulated up to 4 M within about 3 million years. Today, the four giant planets comprise just under 99 % of all the mass orbiting the Sun. Theorists believe it is no accident that Jupiter lies just beyond the frost line. Because the frost line accumulated large amounts of water via evaporation from infalling icy material, it created a region of lower pressure that increased the speed of orbiting dust particles and halted their motion toward the Sun. In effect, the frost line acted as a barrier that caused material to accumulate rapidly at ~ 5 AU from the Sun. This excess material coalesced into a large embryo (or core) on the order of 10 M, which began to accumulate an envelope via accretion of gas from the surrounding disc at an ever - increasing rate. Once the envelope mass became about equal to the solid core mass, growth proceeded very rapidly, reaching about 150 Earth masses ~ 10 years thereafter and finally topping out at 318 M. Saturn may owe its substantially lower mass simply to having formed a few million years after Jupiter, when there was less gas available to consume.
T Tauri stars like the young Sun have far stronger stellar winds than more stable, older stars. Uranus and Neptune are thought to have formed after Jupiter and Saturn did, when the strong solar wind had blown away much of the disc material. As a result, the planets accumulated little hydrogen and helium -- not more than 1 M each. Uranus and Neptune are sometimes referred to as failed cores. The main problem with formation theories for these planets is the timescale of their formation. At the current locations it would have taken millions of years for their cores to accrete. This means that Uranus and Neptune may have formed closer to the Sun -- near or even between Jupiter and Saturn -- and later migrated or were ejected outward (see Planetary migration below). Motion in the planetesimal era was not all inward toward the Sun; the Stardust sample return from Comet Wild 2 has suggested that materials from the early formation of the Solar System migrated from the warmer inner Solar System to the region of the Kuiper belt.
After between three and ten million years, the young Sun 's solar wind would have cleared away all the gas and dust in the protoplanetary disc, blowing it into interstellar space, thus ending the growth of the planets.
The planets were originally thought to have formed in or near their current orbits. From that a minimum mass of the nebula i.e. the protoplanetary disc, was derived that was necessary to form the planets - the minimum mass solar nebula. It was derived that the nebula mass must have exceeded 3585 times that of the Earth.
However, this has been questioned during the last 20 years. Currently, many scientists think that the Solar System might have looked very different after its initial formation: several objects at least as massive as Mercury were present in the inner Solar System, the outer Solar System was much more compact than it is now, and the Kuiper belt was much closer to the Sun.
At the end of the planetary formation epoch the inner Solar System was populated by 50 -- 100 Moon - to Mars - sized planetary embryos. Further growth was possible only because these bodies collided and merged, which took less than 100 million years. These objects would have gravitationally interacted with one another, tugging at each other 's orbits until they collided, growing larger until the four terrestrial planets we know today took shape. One such giant collision is thought to have formed the Moon (see Moons below), while another removed the outer envelope of the young Mercury.
One unresolved issue with this model is that it can not explain how the initial orbits of the proto - terrestrial planets, which would have needed to be highly eccentric to collide, produced the remarkably stable and nearly circular orbits they have today. One hypothesis for this "eccentricity dumping '' is that the terrestrials formed in a disc of gas still not expelled by the Sun. The "gravitational drag '' of this residual gas would have eventually lowered the planets ' energy, smoothing out their orbits. However, such gas, if it existed, would have prevented the terrestrial planets ' orbits from becoming so eccentric in the first place. Another hypothesis is that gravitational drag occurred not between the planets and residual gas but between the planets and the remaining small bodies. As the large bodies moved through the crowd of smaller objects, the smaller objects, attracted by the larger planets ' gravity, formed a region of higher density, a "gravitational wake '', in the larger objects ' path. As they did so, the increased gravity of the wake slowed the larger objects down into more regular orbits.
The outer edge of the terrestrial region, between 2 and 4 AU from the Sun, is called the asteroid belt. The asteroid belt initially contained more than enough matter to form 2 -- 3 Earth - like planets, and, indeed, a large number of planetesimals formed there. As with the terrestrials, planetesimals in this region later coalesced and formed 20 -- 30 Moon - to Mars - sized planetary embryos; however, the proximity of Jupiter meant that after this planet formed, 3 million years after the Sun, the region 's history changed dramatically. Orbital resonances with Jupiter and Saturn are particularly strong in the asteroid belt, and gravitational interactions with more massive embryos scattered many planetesimals into those resonances. Jupiter 's gravity increased the velocity of objects within these resonances, causing them to shatter upon collision with other bodies, rather than accrete.
As Jupiter migrated inward following its formation (see Planetary migration below), resonances would have swept across the asteroid belt, dynamically exciting the region 's population and increasing their velocities relative to each other. The cumulative action of the resonances and the embryos either scattered the planetesimals away from the asteroid belt or excited their orbital inclinations and eccentricities. Some of those massive embryos too were ejected by Jupiter, while others may have migrated to the inner Solar System and played a role in the final accretion of the terrestrial planets. During this primary depletion period, the effects of the giant planets and planetary embryos left the asteroid belt with a total mass equivalent to less than 1 % that of the Earth, composed mainly of small planetesimals. This is still 10 -- 20 times more than the current mass in the main belt, which is now about 1 / 2,000 M. A secondary depletion period that brought the asteroid belt down close to its present mass is thought to have followed when Jupiter and Saturn entered a temporary 2: 1 orbital resonance (see below).
The inner Solar System 's period of giant impacts probably played a role in the Earth acquiring its current water content (~ 6 × 10 kg) from the early asteroid belt. Water is too volatile to have been present at Earth 's formation and must have been subsequently delivered from outer, colder parts of the Solar System. The water was probably delivered by planetary embryos and small planetesimals thrown out of the asteroid belt by Jupiter. A population of main - belt comets discovered in 2006 has been also suggested as a possible source for Earth 's water. In contrast, comets from the Kuiper belt or farther regions delivered not more than about 6 % of Earth 's water. The panspermia hypothesis holds that life itself may have been deposited on Earth in this way, although this idea is not widely accepted.
According to the nebular hypothesis, the outer two planets may be in the "wrong place ''. Uranus and Neptune (known as the "ice giants '') exist in a region where the reduced density of the solar nebula and longer orbital times render their formation highly implausible. The two are instead thought to have formed in orbits near Jupiter and Saturn, where more material was available, and to have migrated outward to their current positions over hundreds of millions of years.
The migration of the outer planets is also necessary to account for the existence and properties of the Solar System 's outermost regions. Beyond Neptune, the Solar System continues into the Kuiper belt, the scattered disc, and the Oort cloud, three sparse populations of small icy bodies thought to be the points of origin for most observed comets. At their distance from the Sun, accretion was too slow to allow planets to form before the solar nebula dispersed, and thus the initial disc lacked enough mass density to consolidate into a planet. The Kuiper belt lies between 30 and 55 AU from the Sun, while the farther scattered disc extends to over 100 AU, and the distant Oort cloud begins at about 50,000 AU. Originally, however, the Kuiper belt was much denser and closer to the Sun, with an outer edge at approximately 30 AU. Its inner edge would have been just beyond the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, which were in turn far closer to the Sun when they formed (most likely in the range of 15 -- 20 AU), and in 50 % of simulations ended up opposite locations, with Uranus farther from the Sun than Neptune.
According to the Nice model, after the formation of the Solar System, the orbits of all the giant planets continued to change slowly, influenced by their interaction with the large number of remaining planetesimals. After 500 -- 600 million years (about 4 billion years ago) Jupiter and Saturn fell into a 2: 1 resonance: Saturn orbited the Sun once for every two Jupiter orbits. This resonance created a gravitational push against the outer planets, possibly causing Neptune to surge past Uranus and plough into the ancient Kuiper belt. The planets scattered the majority of the small icy bodies inwards, while themselves moving outwards. These planetesimals then scattered off the next planet they encountered in a similar manner, moving the planets ' orbits outwards while they moved inwards. This process continued until the planetesimals interacted with Jupiter, whose immense gravity sent them into highly elliptical orbits or even ejected them outright from the Solar System. This caused Jupiter to move slightly inward. Those objects scattered by Jupiter into highly elliptical orbits formed the Oort cloud; those objects scattered to a lesser degree by the migrating Neptune formed the current Kuiper belt and scattered disc. This scenario explains the Kuiper belt 's and scattered disc 's present low mass. Some of the scattered objects, including Pluto, became gravitationally tied to Neptune 's orbit, forcing them into mean - motion resonances. Eventually, friction within the planetesimal disc made the orbits of Uranus and Neptune circular again.
In contrast to the outer planets, the inner planets are not thought to have migrated significantly over the age of the Solar System, because their orbits have remained stable following the period of giant impacts.
Another question is why Mars came out so small compared with Earth. A study by Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, published June 6, 2011 (called the Grand Tack Hypothesis), proposes that Jupiter had migrated inward to 1.5 AU. After Saturn formed, migrated inward, and established the 2: 3 mean motion resonance with Jupiter, the study assumes that both planets migrated back to their present positions. Jupiter thus would have consumed much of the material that would have created a bigger Mars. The same simulations also reproduce the characteristics of the modern asteroid belt, with dry asteroids and water - rich objects similar to comets. However, it is unclear whether conditions in the solar nebula would have allowed Jupiter and Saturn to move back to their current positions, and according to current estimates this possibility appears unlikely. Moreover, alternative explanations for the small mass of Mars exist.
Gravitational disruption from the outer planets ' migration would have sent large numbers of asteroids into the inner Solar System, severely depleting the original belt until it reached today 's extremely low mass. This event may have triggered the Late Heavy Bombardment that occurred approximately 4 billion years ago, 500 -- 600 million years after the formation of the Solar System. This period of heavy bombardment lasted several hundred million years and is evident in the cratering still visible on geologically dead bodies of the inner Solar System such as the Moon and Mercury. The oldest known evidence for life on Earth dates to 3.8 billion years ago -- almost immediately after the end of the Late Heavy Bombardment.
Impacts are thought to be a regular (if currently infrequent) part of the evolution of the Solar System. That they continue to happen is evidenced by the collision of Comet Shoemaker -- Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994, the 2009 Jupiter impact event, the Tunguska event, the Chelyabinsk meteor and the impact feature Meteor Crater in Arizona. The process of accretion, therefore, is not complete, and may still pose a threat to life on Earth.
Over the course of the Solar System 's evolution, comets were ejected out of the inner Solar System by the gravity of the giant planets, and sent thousands of AU outward to form the Oort cloud, a spherical outer swarm of cometary nuclei at the farthest extent of the Sun 's gravitational pull. Eventually, after about 800 million years, the gravitational disruption caused by galactic tides, passing stars and giant molecular clouds began to deplete the cloud, sending comets into the inner Solar System. The evolution of the outer Solar System also appears to have been influenced by space weathering from the solar wind, micrometeorites, and the neutral components of the interstellar medium.
The evolution of the asteroid belt after Late Heavy Bombardment was mainly governed by collisions. Objects with large mass have enough gravity to retain any material ejected by a violent collision. In the asteroid belt this usually is not the case. As a result, many larger objects have been broken apart, and sometimes newer objects have been forged from the remnants in less violent collisions. Moons around some asteroids currently can only be explained as consolidations of material flung away from the parent object without enough energy to entirely escape its gravity.
Moons have come to exist around most planets and many other Solar System bodies. These natural satellites originated by one of three possible mechanisms:
Jupiter and Saturn have several large moons, such as Io, Europa, Ganymede and Titan, which may have originated from discs around each giant planet in much the same way that the planets formed from the disc around the Sun. This origin is indicated by the large sizes of the moons and their proximity to the planet. These attributes are impossible to achieve via capture, while the gaseous nature of the primaries also make formation from collision debris unlikely. The outer moons of the giant planets tend to be small and have eccentric orbits with arbitrary inclinations. These are the characteristics expected of captured bodies. Most such moons orbit in the direction opposite the rotation of their primary. The largest irregular moon is Neptune 's moon Triton, which is thought to be a captured Kuiper belt object.
Moons of solid Solar System bodies have been created by both collisions and capture. Mars 's two small moons, Deimos and Phobos, are thought to be captured asteroids. The Earth 's Moon is thought to have formed as a result of a single, large head - on collision. The impacting object probably had a mass comparable to that of Mars, and the impact probably occurred near the end of the period of giant impacts. The collision kicked into orbit some of the impactor 's mantle, which then coalesced into the Moon. The impact was probably the last in the series of mergers that formed the Earth. It has been further hypothesized that the Mars - sized object may have formed at one of the stable Earth -- Sun Lagrangian points (either L or L) and drifted from its position. The moons of trans - Neptunian objects Pluto (Charon) and Orcus (Vanth) may also have formed by means of a large collision: the Pluto -- Charon, Orcus -- Vanth and Earth -- Moon systems are unusual in the Solar System in that the satellite 's mass is at least 1 % that of the larger body.
Astronomers estimate that the Solar System as we know it today will not change drastically until the Sun has fused almost all the hydrogen fuel in its core into helium, beginning its evolution from the main sequence of the Hertzsprung -- Russell diagram and into its red - giant phase. Even so, the Solar System will continue to evolve until then.
The Solar System is chaotic over million - and billion - year timescales, with the orbits of the planets open to long - term variations. One notable example of this chaos is the Neptune -- Pluto system, which lies in a 3: 2 orbital resonance. Although the resonance itself will remain stable, it becomes impossible to predict the position of Pluto with any degree of accuracy more than 10 -- 20 million years (the Lyapunov time) into the future. Another example is Earth 's axial tilt, which, due to friction raised within Earth 's mantle by tidal interactions with the Moon (see below), will be incomputable at some point between 1.5 and 4.5 billion years from now.
The outer planets ' orbits are chaotic over longer timescales, with a Lyapunov time in the range of 2 -- 230 million years. In all cases this means that the position of a planet along its orbit ultimately becomes impossible to predict with any certainty (so, for example, the timing of winter and summer become uncertain), but in some cases the orbits themselves may change dramatically. Such chaos manifests most strongly as changes in eccentricity, with some planets ' orbits becoming significantly more -- or less -- elliptical.
Ultimately, the Solar System is stable in that none of the planets are likely to collide with each other or be ejected from the system in the next few billion years. Beyond this, within five billion years or so Mars 's eccentricity may grow to around 0.2, such that it lies on an Earth - crossing orbit, leading to a potential collision. In the same timescale, Mercury 's eccentricity may grow even further, and a close encounter with Venus could theoretically eject it from the Solar System altogether or send it on a collision course with Venus or Earth. This could happen within a billion years, according to numerical simulations in which Mercury 's orbit is perturbed.
The evolution of moon systems is driven by tidal forces. A moon will raise a tidal bulge in the object it orbits (the primary) due to the differential gravitational force across diameter of the primary. If a moon is revolving in the same direction as the planet 's rotation and the planet is rotating faster than the orbital period of the moon, the bulge will constantly be pulled ahead of the moon. In this situation, angular momentum is transferred from the rotation of the primary to the revolution of the satellite. The moon gains energy and gradually spirals outward, while the primary rotates more slowly over time.
The Earth and its Moon are one example of this configuration. Today, the Moon is tidally locked to the Earth; one of its revolutions around the Earth (currently about 29 days) is equal to one of its rotations about its axis, so it always shows one face to the Earth. The Moon will continue to recede from Earth, and Earth 's spin will continue to slow gradually. In about 50 billion years, if they survive the Sun 's expansion, the Earth and Moon will become tidally locked to each other; each will be caught up in what is called a "spin -- orbit resonance '' in which the Moon will circle the Earth in about 47 days and both Moon and Earth will rotate around their axes in the same time, each only visible from one hemisphere of the other. Other examples are the Galilean moons of Jupiter (as well as many of Jupiter 's smaller moons) and most of the larger moons of Saturn.
A different scenario occurs when the moon is either revolving around the primary faster than the primary rotates, or is revolving in the direction opposite the planet 's rotation. In these cases, the tidal bulge lags behind the moon in its orbit. In the former case, the direction of angular momentum transfer is reversed, so the rotation of the primary speeds up while the satellite 's orbit shrinks. In the latter case, the angular momentum of the rotation and revolution have opposite signs, so transfer leads to decreases in the magnitude of each (that cancel each other out). In both cases, tidal deceleration causes the moon to spiral in towards the primary until it either is torn apart by tidal stresses, potentially creating a planetary ring system, or crashes into the planet 's surface or atmosphere. Such a fate awaits the moons Phobos of Mars (within 30 to 50 million years), Triton of Neptune (in 3.6 billion years), Metis and Adrastea of Jupiter, and at least 16 small satellites of Uranus and Neptune. Uranus 's Desdemona may even collide with one of its neighboring moons.
A third possibility is where the primary and moon are tidally locked to each other. In that case, the tidal bulge stays directly under the moon, there is no transfer of angular momentum, and the orbital period will not change. Pluto and Charon are an example of this type of configuration.
Prior to the 2004 arrival of the Cassini -- Huygens spacecraft, the rings of Saturn were widely thought to be much younger than the Solar System and were not expected to survive beyond another 300 million years. Gravitational interactions with Saturn 's moons were expected to gradually sweep the rings ' outer edge toward the planet, with abrasion by meteorites and Saturn 's gravity eventually taking the rest, leaving Saturn unadorned. However, data from the Cassini mission led scientists to revise that early view. Observations revealed 10 km - wide icy clumps of material that repeatedly break apart and reform, keeping the rings fresh. Saturn 's rings are far more massive than the rings of the other giant planets. This large mass is thought to have preserved Saturn 's rings since it first formed 4.5 billion years ago, and is likely to preserve them for billions of years to come.
In the long term, the greatest changes in the Solar System will come from changes in the Sun itself as it ages. As the Sun burns through its supply of hydrogen fuel, it gets hotter and burns the remaining fuel even faster. As a result, the Sun is growing brighter at a rate of ten percent every 1.1 billion years. In one billion years ' time, as the Sun 's radiation output increases, its circumstellar habitable zone will move outwards, making the Earth 's surface too hot for liquid water to exist there naturally. At this point, all life on land will become extinct. Evaporation of water, a potent greenhouse gas, from the oceans ' surface could accelerate temperature increase, potentially ending all life on Earth even sooner. During this time, it is possible that as Mars 's surface temperature gradually rises, carbon dioxide and water currently frozen under the surface regolith will release into the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that will heat the planet until it achieves conditions parallel to Earth today, providing a potential future abode for life. By 3.5 billion years from now, Earth 's surface conditions will be similar to those of Venus today.
Around 5.4 billion years from now, the core of the Sun will become hot enough to trigger hydrogen fusion in its surrounding shell. This will cause the outer layers of the star to expand greatly, and the star will enter a phase of its life in which it is called a red giant. Within 7.5 billion years, the Sun will have expanded to a radius of 1.2 AU -- 256 times its current size. At the tip of the red giant branch, as a result of the vastly increased surface area, the Sun 's surface will be much cooler (about 2600 K) than now and its luminosity much higher -- up to 2,700 current solar luminosities. For part of its red giant life, the Sun will have a strong stellar wind that will carry away around 33 % of its mass. During these times, it is possible that Saturn 's moon Titan could achieve surface temperatures necessary to support life.
As the Sun expands, it will swallow the planets Mercury and Venus. Earth 's fate is less clear; although the Sun will envelop Earth 's current orbit, the star 's loss of mass (and thus weaker gravity) will cause the planets ' orbits to move farther out. If it were only for this, Venus and Earth would probably escape incineration, but a 2008 study suggests that Earth will likely be swallowed up as a result of tidal interactions with the Sun 's weakly bound outer envelope.
Gradually, the hydrogen burning in the shell around the solar core will increase the mass of the core until it reaches about 45 % of the present solar mass. At this point the density and temperature will become so high that the fusion of helium into carbon will begin, leading to a helium flash; the Sun will shrink from around 250 to 11 times its present (main - sequence) radius. Consequently, its luminosity will decrease from around 3,000 to 54 times its current level, and its surface temperature will increase to about 4770 K. The Sun will become a horizontal giant, burning helium in its core in a stable fashion much like it burns hydrogen today. The helium - fusing stage will last only 100 million years. Eventually, it will have to again resort to the reserves of hydrogen and helium in its outer layers and will expand a second time, turning into what is known as an asymptotic giant. Here the luminosity of the Sun will increase again, reaching about 2,090 present luminosities, and it will cool to about 3500 K. This phase lasts about 30 million years, after which, over the course of a further 100,000 years, the Sun 's remaining outer layers will fall away, ejecting a vast stream of matter into space and forming a halo known (misleadingly) as a planetary nebula. The ejected material will contain the helium and carbon produced by the Sun 's nuclear reactions, continuing the enrichment of the interstellar medium with heavy elements for future generations of stars.
This is a relatively peaceful event, nothing akin to a supernova, which the Sun is too small to undergo as part of its evolution. Any observer present to witness this occurrence would see a massive increase in the speed of the solar wind, but not enough to destroy a planet completely. However, the star 's loss of mass could send the orbits of the surviving planets into chaos, causing some to collide, others to be ejected from the Solar System, and still others to be torn apart by tidal interactions. Afterwards, all that will remain of the Sun is a white dwarf, an extraordinarily dense object, 54 % its original mass but only the size of the Earth. Initially, this white dwarf may be 100 times as luminous as the Sun is now. It will consist entirely of degenerate carbon and oxygen, but will never reach temperatures hot enough to fuse these elements. Thus the white dwarf Sun will gradually cool, growing dimmer and dimmer.
As the Sun dies, its gravitational pull on the orbiting bodies such as planets, comets and asteroids will weaken due to its mass loss. All remaining planets ' orbits will expand; if Venus, Earth, and Mars still exist, their orbits will lie roughly at 1.4 AU (210,000,000 km), 1.9 AU (280,000,000 km), and 2.8 AU (420,000,000 km). They and the other remaining planets will become dark, frigid hulks, completely devoid of any form of life. They will continue to orbit their star, their speed slowed due to their increased distance from the Sun and the Sun 's reduced gravity. Two billion years later, when the Sun has cooled to the 6000 -- 8000K range, the carbon and oxygen in the Sun 's core will freeze, with over 90 % of its remaining mass assuming a crystalline structure. Eventually, after billions more years, the Sun will finally cease to shine altogether, becoming a black dwarf.
The Solar System travels alone through the Milky Way in a circular orbit approximately 30,000 light years from the Galactic Centre. Its speed is about 220 km / s. The period required for the Solar System to complete one revolution around the Galactic Centre, the galactic year, is in the range of 220 -- 250 million years. Since its formation, the Solar System has completed at least 20 such revolutions.
Various scientists have speculated that the Solar System 's path through the galaxy is a factor in the periodicity of mass extinctions observed in the Earth 's fossil record. One hypothesis supposes that vertical oscillations made by the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Centre cause it to regularly pass through the galactic plane. When the Sun 's orbit takes it outside the galactic disc, the influence of the galactic tide is weaker; as it re-enters the galactic disc, as it does every 20 -- 25 million years, it comes under the influence of the far stronger "disc tides '', which, according to mathematical models, increase the flux of Oort cloud comets into the Solar System by a factor of 4, leading to a massive increase in the likelihood of a devastating impact.
However, others argue that the Sun is currently close to the galactic plane, and yet the last great extinction event was 15 million years ago. Therefore, the Sun 's vertical position can not alone explain such periodic extinctions, and that extinctions instead occur when the Sun passes through the galaxy 's spiral arms. Spiral arms are home not only to larger numbers of molecular clouds, whose gravity may distort the Oort cloud, but also to higher concentrations of bright blue giants, which live for relatively short periods and then explode violently as supernovae.
Although the vast majority of galaxies in the Universe are moving away from the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, the largest member of the Local Group of galaxies, is heading toward it at about 120 km / s. In 4 billion years, Andromeda and the Milky Way will collide, causing both to deform as tidal forces distort their outer arms into vast tidal tails. If this initial disruption occurs, astronomers calculate a 12 % chance that the Solar System will be pulled outward into the Milky Way 's tidal tail and a 3 % chance that it will become gravitationally bound to Andromeda and thus a part of that galaxy. After a further series of glancing blows, during which the likelihood of the Solar System 's ejection rises to 30 %, the galaxies ' supermassive black holes will merge. Eventually, in roughly 6 billion years, the Milky Way and Andromeda will complete their merger into a giant elliptical galaxy. During the merger, if there is enough gas, the increased gravity will force the gas to the centre of the forming elliptical galaxy. This may lead to a short period of intensive star formation called a starburst. In addition, the infalling gas will feed the newly formed black hole, transforming it into an active galactic nucleus. The force of these interactions will likely push the Solar System into the new galaxy 's outer halo, leaving it relatively unscathed by the radiation from these collisions.
It is a common misconception that this collision will disrupt the orbits of the planets in the Solar System. Although it is true that the gravity of passing stars can detach planets into interstellar space, distances between stars are so great that the likelihood of the Milky Way -- Andromeda collision causing such disruption to any individual star system is negligible. Although the Solar System as a whole could be affected by these events, the Sun and planets are not expected to be disturbed.
However, over time, the cumulative probability of a chance encounter with a star increases, and disruption of the planets becomes all but inevitable. Assuming that the Big Crunch or Big Rip scenarios for the end of the Universe do not occur, calculations suggest that the gravity of passing stars will have completely stripped the dead Sun of its remaining planets within 1 quadrillion (10) years. This point marks the end of the Solar System. Although the Sun and planets may survive, the Solar System, in any meaningful sense, will cease to exist.
The time frame of the Solar System 's formation has been determined using radiometric dating. Scientists estimate that the Solar System is 4.6 billion years old. The oldest known mineral grains on Earth are approximately 4.4 billion years old. Rocks this old are rare, as Earth 's surface is constantly being reshaped by erosion, volcanism, and plate tectonics. To estimate the age of the Solar System, scientists use meteorites, which were formed during the early condensation of the solar nebula. Almost all meteorites (see the Canyon Diablo meteorite) are found to have an age of 4.6 billion years, suggesting that the Solar System must be at least this old.
Studies of discs around other stars have also done much to establish a time frame for Solar System formation. Stars between one and three million years old have discs rich in gas, whereas discs around stars more than 10 million years old have little to no gas, suggesting that giant planets within them have ceased forming.
Note: All dates and times in this chronology are approximate and should be taken as an order of magnitude indicator only.
Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Virgo Supercluster → Laniakea Supercluster → Observable universe → Universe Each arrow (→) may be read as "within '' or "part of ''.
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trans-european automated real-time gross settlement express transfer calendar | TARGET2 - wikipedia
TARGET2 (Trans - European Automated Real - time Gross Settlement Express Transfer System) is the real - time gross settlement (RTGS) system for the Eurozone, and is available to non-Eurozone countries. It was developed by and is owned by the Eurosystem. TARGET2 is based on an integrated central technical infrastructure, called the Single Shared Platform (SSP). SSP is operated by three providing central banks: France (Banque de France), Germany (Deutsche Bundesbank) and Italy (Banca d'Italia). TARGET2 started to replace TARGET in November 2007.
TARGET2 is also an interbank RTGS payment system for the clearing of cross-border transfers in the eurozone. Participants in the system are either direct or indirect. Direct participants hold an RTGS account and have access to real - time information and control tools. They are responsible for all payments sent from or received on their accounts by themselves or any indirect participants operating through them. Indirect participation means that payment orders are always sent to and received from the system via a direct participant, with only the relevant direct participant having a legal relationship with the Eurosystem. Finally, bank branches and subsidiaries can choose to participate in TARGET2 as multi-addressee access or addressable BICs (Bank Identifier Code).
The objectives of TARGET2 are to:
The use of TARGET2 is mandatory for the settlement of any euro operations involving the Eurosystem. The Eurosystem consists of the European Central Bank (ECB) and the national central banks of the 19 European Union member states that are part of the Eurozone. Participation in TARGET2 is mandatory for new member states joining the Eurozone.
TARGET2 services in euro are available to non-Eurozone states. National central banks of states which have not yet adopted the euro can also participate in TARGET2 to facilitate the settlement of transactions in euro. Central banks from four non-Eurozone states Bulgaria, Denmark, Poland and Romania also participate in TARGET2.
In 2012, TARGET2 had 999 direct participants, 3,386 indirect participants and 13,313 correspondents.
TARGET2 is the real - time gross settlement (RTGS) system with payment transactions being settled one by one on a continuous basis in central bank money with immediate finality. There is no upper or lower limit on the value of payments. TARGET2 mainly settles operations of monetary policy and money market operations. TARGET2 has to be used for all payments involving the Eurosystem, as well as for the settlement of operations of all large - value net settlement systems and securities settlement systems handling the euro. TARGET2 is operated on a single technical platform. The business relationships are established between the TARGET2 users and their National Central Bank. In terms of the value processed, TARGET2 is one of the largest payment systems in the world.
TARGET2 is a harmonised RTGS system covering the Eurozone. It operates on the Single Shared Platform (SSP), which replaced the decentralised first - generation TARGET system. It was designed to provide an enhanced service with benefits for economies of scale which allows it to charge lower fees and offer cost - efficiency. All participants of the Eurosystem, and outside it, can access the same functionalities and interfaces, as well as a single price structure. SWIFT standards and services (i.e.,, FIN, InterAct, FileAct and Browse) are used in the harmonised communication between the system and its participants.
Before the introduction of TARGET2, some central banks held "home accounts '' (also called "proprietary home accounting systems '') outside their RTGS systems. These were used primarily to manage minimum reserves, standing facilities and cash withdrawals, but also to settle ancillary systems ' transactions.
It was agreed that, in the context of the new system, these types of transaction should ultimately be settled on the RTGS accounts held on the SSP. However, some countries ' domestic arrangements did not allow these operations to be moved rapidly to the SSP. As a result, the Eurosystem agreed on a maximum transition period of four years for moving the settlement of these payments to the SSP.
The Information and Control Module (ICM) allows direct users to access information and manage parameters linked to balances and payments online. Via the ICM, users have access to the Payments Module and the Static Data Management function. Users of the ICM are able to choose what information they receive and when. Urgent messages (e.g.,, system broadcasts from central banks and warnings concerning payments with a debit time indicator) are automatically displayed on the screen.
TARGET2 provides settlement services for a wide range of ancillary systems. While each of these used to have its own settlement procedure, TARGET2 now offers six generic procedures for the settlement of ancillary systems and allows these systems to access any account on the SSP via a standardised interface.
In 2012, TARGET2:
The availability and cost of liquidity are two crucial issues for the smooth processing of payments in RTGS systems. In TARGET2, liquidity can be managed very flexibly and is available at low cost since fully remunerated minimum reserves -- which credit institutions are required to hold with their central bank -- can be used in full for settlement purposes during the day. The averaging provisions applied to minimum reserves allow banks to be flexible in their end - of - day liquidity management. The overnight lending and deposit facilities also allow for continuous liquidity management decisions. The Eurosystem provides intraday credit. This credit must be fully collateralised and no interest is charged. However, all Eurosystem credit must be fully collateralised, i.e. secured by other assets. The range of eligible collateral is very wide. Assets eligible for monetary policy purposes are also eligible for intraday credit. Under Eurosystem rules, credit can only be granted by the national central bank of the Member State where the participant is established. Banks ' treasury managers have a keen interest in the use of automated processes for the optimisation of payment and liquidity management. They need tools that will allow them to track activity across accounts and, where possible, make accurate intraday and overnight funding decisions from a single location -- e.g. their head office. TARGET2 users have, via the Information and Control Module, access to comprehensive online information and easy - to - use liquidity management features that meet their business needs.
TARGET2 has a range of features allowing efficient liquidity management, including payment priorities, timed transactions, liquidity reservation facilities, limits, liquidity pooling and optimisation procedures.
The access criteria for TARGET2 aim to allow broad levels of participation by institutions involved in clearing and settlement activities. Supervision by a competent authority ensures the soundness of such institutions. Supervised credit institutions established within the European Economic Area are the primary participants. Supervised investment firms, clearing and settlement organisations which are subject to oversight and government treasuries can also be admitted as participants.
There are two pricing schemes:
The TARGET2 system is closed on Saturdays and Sundays and on the following public holidays in all participating countries: 1 January, Good Friday and Easter Monday (according to the calendar used by Western Christianity), 1 May, 25 December and 26 December.
Since the establishment of the European Economic Community in 1958, there has been a progressive movement towards a more integrated European financial market. This movement has been marked by several events: In the field of payments, the most visible were the launch of the euro in 1999 and the cash changeover in the euro area countries in 2002. The establishment of the large - value central bank payment system TARGET was less visible, but also of great importance. It formed an integral part of the introduction of the euro and facilitated the rapid integration of the euro area money market.
The implementation of TARGET2 was based on a decision of the ECB Council of autumn 2002. TARGET2 started operations on 19 November 2007, when the first group of countries (Austria, Cyprus, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta and Slovenia) migrated to the SSP. This first migration was successful and confirmed the reliability of SSP. After this initial migration, TARGET2 already settled around 50 % of overall traffic in terms of volume and 30 % in terms of value.
On 18 February 2008, the second migration successfully migrated to TARGET2, comprising Belgium, Finland, France, Ireland, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain.
On 19 May 2008, the final group migrated to TARGET2, comprising Denmark, Estonia, Greece, Italy, Poland and the ECB. The six - month migration process went smoothly and did not cause any operational disruptions.
Slovakia joined TARGET2 on 1 January 2009, Bulgaria joined in February 2010, and Romania joined on 4 July 2011.
The main subjects of criticism are the unlimited credit facilities made available since the establishment of the TARGET system by the national central banks of the Eurosystem on the one hand and by the ECB on the other.
The issue of the increasing Target balances was brought to public attention for the first time in early 2011 by Hans - Werner Sinn, president of the Munich Ifo Institute. In an article in Wirtschaftswoche, he drew attention to the enormous increase in Target claims held by Germany 's Bundesbank, from 5 billion at the end of 2006 to 326 billion at the end of 2010, and to the attendant liability risk. In the German daily Süddeutsche Zeitung he put the entire volume of the Target liabilities of Greece, Ireland, Portugal, and Spain at 340 billion euros at the end of February 2011. Moreover, he pointed out that if these countries should exit the Eurozone and declare insolvency, Germany 's liability risk would amount to 33 % of that sum, or 114 billion euros, relating these sums to the other rescue facilities of euro countries and the International Monetary Fund. Before he made them public, Target deficits or surpluses were not explicitly itemised, being usually buried in obscure positions of central bank balance sheets.
Shortly thereafter, Sinn interpreted the Target balances for the first time within the context of current account deficits, international private capital movements and the international shifting of the refinancing credit that the national central banks of the Eurosystem grant to the commercial banks in their jurisdiction. He proved that the ECB system compensated the interruption and reversal in capital flows triggered by the financial crisis by shifting refinancing credit among national central banks. The increase in Target liabilities is a direct measure of net payment orders across borders, i.e. of the portion of the current account deficit that is not counterbalanced by capital imports, or, equivalently, the sum of the current account deficit and net capital exports. Indirectly, they also measure a country 's amount of central bank money created and lent out beyond what is needed for domestic circulation. Since every country needs a relatively steady amount of central bank money for its domestic transactions, payment orders to other countries, which reduce the domestic stock of money, must be offset by a continuous issuing of new refinancing credit, i.e., the creation of new central bank money. Similarly, the increase in money balances in the country whose central bank honours the payment orders reduces the demand for fresh refinancing credit. Hence, a country 's Target liabilities also indicate the extent to which its central bank has replaced the capital markets to finance its current account deficit, as well as any possible capital flight, by creating new central bank money through corresponding refinancing credit. Sinn illustrated that from an economic perspective, Target credit and formal rescue facilities serve the same purpose and involve similar liability risks. Sinn 's presentation on 19 May 2011 at the Munich Economic Summit motivated an op - ed column in the Financial Times. They reconstructed the data on the basis of the balance sheets of the Eurosystem 's national central banks and the balance - sheet statistics of the International Monetary Fund.
Later, in June 2011, Hans - Werner Sinn and Timo Wollmershaeuser compiled the first panel database of the Eurozone 's Target balances. The authors point out that the additional creation of money by the central banks of the crisis - stricken countries was provided by a lowering of the standards for the collateral that commercial banks have to provide to their national central banks to obtain refinancing credit. Furthermore, they showed that the commercial banks of the Eurozone 's core countries used the incoming liquidity to reduce the refinancing credit they drew from their national central bank, even lending the surplus liquidity to this central bank, which implies that the Target balances indirectly also measure the reallocation of refinancing credit among the countries of the Eurozone. The authors showed that the national central banks of the northern countries became net debtors to their own banking systems. Sinn and Wollmershaeuser argue that the euro crisis is a balance - of - payments crisis, which in its substance is similar to the Bretton Woods crisis. Moreover, they show the extent to which Target credit financed current account deficits or capital flight in Greece, Ireland, Portugal, Spain and Italy. They also show that the current account deficits of Greece and Portugal were financed for years by refinancing credits of their national central banks and the concomitant Target credit. They document as well the Irish capital flight and the capital flight from Spain and Italy, which began in earnest in summer 2011. Following Sinn, the authors compare the Target balances of the Eurosystem with the corresponding balances in the US settlement system (Interdistrict Settlement Account) and point out that US balances relative to US GDP have decreased thanks to a regularly performed settlement procedure in which ownership shares in a common Fed clearing portfolio are reallocated among the various District Feds comprising the US Federal Reserve System. They advocate the establishment of a similar system in Europe to end the ECB 's role as a provider of international public credit that undercuts private market conditions. Hans - Werner Sinn addressed the Target balances issue again in a special edition of ' ifo Schnelldienst ' and made it the main topic of his book ' Die Target - Falle ' ("The Target Trap ''), published in early October 2012.
A number of economists took a stand on the issue of the Target balances in a publication of the Ifo Institute, confirming Sinn 's analysis. Financial commentator David Marsh, writing in early 2012, noted that TARGET2 provides "automatic central bank funding for EMU countries suffering capital outflows provided through it '' and that the balances would "have to be shared out by central banks throughout the Eurosystem... if EMU fragments into its constituent parts. So the pressure on Germany is to keep the balances growing, in order to avoid crystallization of losses that would be hugely damaging not just to Berlin but also to central banks and governments in Paris and Rome ''.
The official reactions to Sinn 's research findings were mixed. At first, in February and March 2011, the Bundesbank downplayed the Target balances as an irrelevant statistical position. However, in early 2012, Bundesbank chief Jens Weidmann wrote a letter to ECB head Mario Draghi on the subject which "found its way into the columns of the conservative Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung newspaper. It appeared to suggest more secure collateralisation for the overall ECB credits to weaker EMU central banks, which now amount to more than € 800 billion under the ECB 's TARGET2 electronic payment system, '' Marsh noted in a subsequent column.
Jens Ulbrich and Alexander Lipponer (economists at the Bundesbank) justified the policy of the ECB during the European balance - of - payments crisis as follows: In the crisis, the Eurosystem consciously assumed a larger intermediation function in view of the massive disruptions in the interbank market by extending its liquidity control instruments. With this greater role in the provision of central bank money -- essentially by changing to a full allotment procedure in refinancing operations and the extension of longer - term refinancing operations -- the total volume of refinancing credits provided has increased (temporarily even markedly). At the same time, the quality requirements for the underlying collateral were reduced in the crisis. The higher risk was accepted to maintain the functioning of the financial system under more difficult conditions.
The ifo Institute 's regularly updated "Exposure level indicator '' (' Haftungspegel ') shows Germany 's potential financial burden should the crisis - stricken euro countries exit the currency union and declare insolvency. In another development, the Institute of Empirical Economic Research at the University of Osnabrueck collects and publishes Target2 data from all euro countries on the basis of the balance sheets of each central bank.
Nevertheless, there are also some economists who contradict some points of Sinn 's analysis. Paul De Grauwe and Yuemei Ji argue that Germany 's and other countries ' Target claims could be made void, without suffering any losses, since that the value of the central bank money, being "fiat money '', is independent of a central bank 's assets. Sinn, in his rejoinder, showed that the Target balances represent the shift of refinancing credit to the crisis - stricken countries, representing thus the claim on the interest returns from these countries. Eliminating the Target balances would thus entail a real loss of resources amounting to the present value of this interest income, which is reflected exactly by the amount of Target claims. This loss would result in a smaller transfer of Bundesbank 's revenues to the German budget and, should the situation arise, in the necessity to recapitalise the Bundesbank through increased taxation. Sinn uses the same reasoning in his book ' Die Target - Falle '. Sinn points out that the option of self - rescue for the crisis - affected countries by drawing Target credit forces Germany to approve the formal rescue facilities and eventually to accept Eurobonds as well. He considers the resulting path dependence in policy - making a "trap ''. Analysis of TARGET2 balances countering the IFO conclusions have been advanced by economist Karl Whelan at University College Dublin. In summer 2012, Thomas A. Lubik, a senior economist and research advisor, and Karl Rhodes, a writer, both at the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond (Virginia, USA), cited Whelan 's work and also drew parallels and distinctions between the US Fed and the ECB in analysing the balances. Lubik and Rhodes argued that "TARGET2 merely reflects persistent imbalances in current accounts and capital accounts. It does not cause them... (and does not represent) a ' stealth bailout ' of the periphery nations ''. Sinn countered that he was misinterpreted in this point insofar as he was just "saying that the current - account deficits were sustained with the extra refinancing credit behind the TARGET balances '' and this would "not equate to claiming that current - account deficits and TARGET deficits were positively correlated ''.
Again in late 2016, after some years of relative improvement but with rising worries over Italy, the level of TARGET2 intra-eurozone balances at the ECB had surpassed 2012 's record levels. The claims represented half of the Germany 's net foreign assets and were on track shortly to reach € 1 trillion if trends continued unchecked.
This article incorporates text from the corresponding German Wikipedia articles on TARGET and TARGET2 as of 4 April 2008. More text also from the website of the European Central Bank which provides and maintains information on TARGET2 both for the general public as for professional users of TARGET2
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which of the following is false in regard to precedents set in district of columbia v. heller | District of Columbia v. Heller - Wikipedia
District of Columbia v. Heller, 554 U.S. 570 (2008), is a landmark case in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that the Second Amendment protects an individual 's right to possess a firearm unconnected with service in a militia for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self - defense within the home, and that Washington, D.C. 's handgun ban and requirement that lawfully - owned rifles and shotguns be kept "unloaded and disassembled or bound by a trigger lock '' violated this guarantee. It also stated that the right to bear arms is not unlimited and that guns and gun ownership would continue to be regulated. Due to Washington, D.C. 's special status as a federal district, the decision did not address the question of whether the Second Amendment 's protections are incorporated by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment against the states, which was addressed two years later by McDonald v. City of Chicago (2010) in which it was found that they are. It was the first Supreme Court case to decide whether the Second Amendment protects an individual right to keep and bear arms for self - defense.
On June 26, 2008, the Supreme Court affirmed by a vote of 5 to 4 the Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit in Heller v. District of Columbia. The Supreme Court struck down provisions of the Firearms Control Regulations Act of 1975 as unconstitutional, determined that handguns are "arms '' for the purposes of the Second Amendment, found that the Regulations Act was an unconstitutional ban, and struck down the portion of the Regulations Act that requires all firearms including rifles and shotguns be kept "unloaded and disassembled or bound by a trigger lock ''. Prior to this decision the Firearms Control Regulation Act of 1975 also restricted residents from owning handguns except for those registered prior to 1975.
The majority opinion, written by Justice Antonin Scalia, and the primary dissenting opinion, written by Justice John Paul Stevens, are considered examples of the application of originalism in practice.
In 2002, Robert A. Levy, a Senior Fellow at the Cato Institute, began vetting plaintiffs with Clark M. Neily III, for a planned Second Amendment lawsuit that he would personally finance. Although he himself had never owned a gun, as a Constitutional scholar he had an academic interest in the subject and wanted to model his campaign after the legal strategies of Thurgood Marshall, who had successfully led the challenges that overturned school segregation. They aimed for a group that would be diverse in terms of gender, race, economic background, and age, and selected six plaintiffs from their mid-20s to early 60s, three men and three women, four white and two black:
Previous federal case law pertaining to the question of an individual 's right to bear arms included United States v. Emerson, 270 F. 3d 203 (5th Cir. 2001), which supported the right and Silveira v. Lockyer, 312 F. 3d 1052 (9th Cir. 2002), which opposed the right. The Supreme Court ruling in United States v. Miller, 307 U.S. 174 (1939) was interpreted to support both sides of the issue.
In February 2003, the six residents of Washington, D.C. filed a lawsuit in the District Court for the District of Columbia, challenging the constitutionality of provisions of the Firearms Control Regulations Act of 1975, a local law (part of the District of Columbia Code) enacted pursuant to District of Columbia home rule. This law restricted residents from owning handguns, excluding those grandfathered in by registration prior to 1975 and those possessed by active and retired law enforcement officers. The law also required that all firearms including rifles and shotguns be kept "unloaded and disassembled or bound by a trigger lock. '' They filed for an injunction pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 2201, 2202, and 42 U.S.C. § 1983. District Court Judge Ricardo M. Urbina dismissed the lawsuit.
On appeal, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit reversed the dismissal in a 2 -- 1 decision. The Court of Appeals struck down provisions of the Firearms Control Regulations Act as unconstitutional. Judges Karen L. Henderson, Thomas B. Griffith and Laurence H. Silberman formed the Court of Appeals panel, with Senior Circuit Judge Silberman writing the court 's opinion and Circuit Judge Henderson dissenting.
The court 's opinion first addressed whether appellants have standing to sue for declaratory and injunctive relief in section II (slip op. at 5 -- 12). The court concluded that of the six plaintiffs, only Heller -- who applied for a handgun permit but was denied -- had standing.
The court then held that the Second Amendment "protects an individual right to keep and bear arms '', that the "right existed prior to the formation of the new government under the Constitution '', also stating that the right was "premised on the private use of arms for activities such as hunting and self - defense, the latter being understood as resistance to either private lawlessness or the depredations of a tyrannical government (or a threat from abroad). '' They also noted that though the right to bear arms also helped preserve the citizen militia, "the activities (the Amendment) protects are not limited to militia service, nor is an individual 's enjoyment of the right contingent upon his or her continued or intermittent enrollment in the militia. '' The court determined that handguns are "Arms '' and concluded that thus they may not be banned by the District of Columbia.
The court also struck down the portion of the law that requires all firearms including rifles and shotguns be kept "unloaded and disassembled or bound by a trigger lock. '' The District argued that there is an implicit self - defense exception to these provisions, but the D.C. Circuit rejected this view, saying that the requirement amounted to a complete ban on functional firearms and prohibition on use for self - defense:
Section 7 - 2507.02, like the bar on carrying a pistol within the home, amounts to a complete prohibition on the lawful use of handguns for self - defense. As such, we hold it unconstitutional.
In her dissent, Circuit Judge Henderson stated that Second Amendment rights did not extend to residents of Washington D.C., writing:
To sum up, there is no dispute that the Constitution, case law and applicable statutes all establish that the District is not a State within the meaning of the Second Amendment. Under United States v. Miller, 307 U.S. at 178, the Second Amendment 's declaration and guarantee that "the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed '' relates to the Militia of the States only. That the Second Amendment does not apply to the District, then, is, to me, an unavoidable conclusion.
In April 2007, the District and Mayor Adrian Fenty petitioned for rehearing en banc, arguing that the ruling created inter - and intra-jurisdictional conflict. On May 8, the Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit denied the request to rehear the case, by a 6 -- 4 vote.
The defendants petitioned the United States Supreme Court to hear the case. The plaintiffs did not oppose but, in fact, welcomed the petition. The Supreme Court granted certiorari on November 20, 2007. The court rephrased the question to be decided as follows:
The petition for a writ of certiorari is granted limited to the following question: Whether the following provisions, D.C. Code § § 7 - 2502.02 (a) (4), 22 -- 4504 (a), and 7 - 2507.02, violate the Second Amendment rights of individuals who are not affiliated with any state - regulated militia, but who wish to keep handguns and other firearms for private use in their homes?
This represented the first time since the 1939 case United States v. Miller that the Supreme Court had directly addressed the scope of the Second Amendment.
Because of the controversial nature of the case, it garnered much attention from many groups on both sides of the gun rights issue. Many of those groups filed amicus curiae (friend of the court) briefs, about 47 urging the court to affirm the case and about 20 to remand it.
A majority of the members of Congress signed the brief authored by Stephen Halbrook advising that the case be affirmed overturning the ban on handguns not otherwise restricted by Congress. Vice President Dick Cheney joined in this brief, acting in his role as President of the United States Senate, and breaking with the George W. Bush administration 's official position. Arizona Senator John McCain, Republican, also signed the brief. Then - Illinois Senator Barack Obama, did not.
A majority of the states signed the brief of Texas Attorney General Greg Abbott, authored by Abbott 's solicitor general, Ted Cruz, advising that the case be affirmed, while at the same time emphasizing that the states have a strong interest in maintaining each of the states ' laws prohibiting and regulating firearms. Law enforcement organizations, including the Fraternal Order of Police and the Southern States Police Benevolent Association, also filed a brief urging that the case be affirmed.
A number of organizations signed friend of the court briefs advising that the case be remanded, including the United States Department of Justice and Attorneys General of New York, Hawaii, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Puerto Rico. Additionally, friend of the court briefs to remand were filed by a spectrum of religious and anti-violence groups, a number of cities and mayors, and many police chiefs and law enforcement organizations.
A collection of organizations and prominent scholars, represented by attorney Jeffrey Teichert, submitted an "errors brief '' arguing that many of the common historical and factual "myths and misrepresentations '' generally offered in favor of banning handguns were in error. Teichert 's errors brief argued from a historical perspective that the Second Amendment protected an individual right to keep and bear arms.
The Supreme Court heard oral arguments in the case on March 18, 2008. Both the transcript and the audio of the argument have been released. Each side was initially allotted 30 minutes to argue its case, with U.S. Solicitor General Paul D. Clement allotted 15 minutes to present the federal government 's views. During the argument, however, extra time was extended to the parties, and the argument ran 23 minutes over the allotted time.
Walter E. Dellinger of the law firm O'Melveny & Myers, also a professor at Duke University Law School and former Acting Solicitor General, argued the District 's side before the Supreme Court. Dellinger was assisted by Thomas Goldstein of Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld, Robert Long of Covington & Burling and D.C. Solicitor General Todd Kim. The law firms assisting the District worked pro bono.
Alan Gura, of the D.C. - based law firm Gura & Possessky, was lead counsel for Heller, and argued on his behalf before the Supreme Court. Robert Levy, a senior fellow at the Cato Institute, and Clark Neily, a senior attorney at the Institute for Justice, were his co-counsel.
The Supreme Court held:
The Opinion of the Court, delivered by Justice Scalia, was joined by Chief Justice John G. Roberts, Jr. and by Justices Anthony M. Kennedy, Clarence Thomas and Samuel A. Alito Jr.
The Illinois Supreme Court in People v. Aguilar (2013), summed up the Heller 's findings and reasoning:
In District of Columbia v. Heller, 554 U.S. 570 (2008), the Supreme Court undertook its first - ever "in - depth examination '' of the second amendment 's meaning Id. at 635. After a lengthy historical discussion, the Court ultimately concluded that the second amendment "guarantee (s) the individual right to possess and carry weapons in case of confrontation '' (id. at 592); that "central to '' this right is "the inherent right of self - defense '' (id. at 628); that "the home '' is "where the need for defense of self, family, and property is most acute '' (id. at 628); and that, "above all other interests, '' the second amendment elevates "the right of law - abiding, responsible citizens to use arms in defense of hearth and home '' (id. at 635). Based on this understanding, the Court held that a District of Columbia law banning handgun possession in the home violated the second amendment. Id. at 635.
The core holding in D.C. v. Heller is that the Second Amendment is an individual right intimately tied to the natural right of self - defense.
The Scalia majority invokes much historical material to support its finding that the right to keep and bear arms belongs to individuals; more precisely, Scalia asserts in the Court 's opinion that the "people '' to whom the Second Amendment right is accorded are the same "people '' who enjoy First and Fourth Amendment protection: "' The Constitution was written to be understood by the voters; its words and phrases were used in their normal and ordinary as distinguished from technical meaning. ' United States v. Sprague, 282 U.S. 716, 731 (1931); see also Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 1, 188 (1824). Normal meaning may of course include an idiomatic meaning, but it excludes secret or technical meanings... ''
With that finding as anchor, the Court ruled a total ban on operative handguns in the home is unconstitutional, as the ban runs afoul of both the self - defense purpose of the Second Amendment -- a purpose not previously articulated by the Court -- and the "in common use at the time '' prong of the Miller decision: since handguns are in common use, their ownership is protected.
The Court applies as remedy that "(a) ssuming that Heller is not disqualified from the exercise of Second Amendment rights, the District must permit him to register his handgun and must issue him a license to carry it in the home. '' The Court, additionally, hinted that other remedy might be available in the form of eliminating the license requirement for carry in the home, but that no such relief had been requested: "Respondent conceded at oral argument that he does not ' have a problem with... licensing ' and that the District 's law is permissible so long as it is ' not enforced in an arbitrary and capricious manner. ' Tr. of Oral Arg. 74 -- 75. We therefore assume that petitioners ' issuance of a license will satisfy respondent 's prayer for relief and do not address the licensing requirement. ''
In regard to the scope of the right, the Court wrote, in an obiter dictum, "Although we do not undertake an exhaustive historical analysis today of the full scope of the Second Amendment, nothing in our opinion should be taken to cast doubt on longstanding prohibitions on the possession of firearms by felons and the mentally ill, or laws forbidding the carrying of firearms in sensitive places such as schools and government buildings, or laws imposing conditions and qualifications on the commercial sale of arms. ''
The Court also added dicta regarding the private ownership of machine guns. In doing so, it suggested the elevation of the "in common use at the time '' prong of the Miller decision, which by itself protects handguns, over the first prong (protecting arms that "have some reasonable relationship to the preservation or efficiency of a well regulated militia ''), which may not by itself protect machine guns: "It may be objected that if weapons that are most useful in military service -- M16 rifles and the like -- may be banned, then the Second Amendment right is completely detached from the prefatory clause. But as we have said, the conception of the militia at the time of the Second Amendment 's ratification was the body of all citizens capable of military service, who would bring the sorts of lawful weapons that they possessed at home. ''
The Court did not address which level of judicial review should be used by lower courts in deciding future cases claiming infringement of the right to keep and bear arms: "(S) ince this case represents this Court 's first in - depth examination of the Second Amendment, one should not expect it to clarify the entire field. '' The Court states, "If all that was required to overcome the right to keep and bear arms was a rational basis, the Second Amendment would be redundant with the separate constitutional prohibitions on irrational laws, and would have no effect. '' Also, regarding Justice Breyer 's proposal of a "judge - empowering ' interest - balancing inquiry, ' '' the Court states, "We know of no other enumerated constitutional right whose core protection has been subjected to a freestanding ' interest - balancing ' approach. ''
In a dissenting opinion, Justice John Paul Stevens stated that the court 's judgment was "a strained and unpersuasive reading '' which overturned longstanding precedent, and that the court had "bestowed a dramatic upheaval in the law ''. Stevens also stated that the amendment was notable for the "omission of any statement of purpose related to the right to use firearms for hunting or personal self - defense '' which was present in the Declarations of Rights of Pennsylvania and Vermont.
The Stevens dissent seems to rest on four main points of disagreement: that the Founders would have made the individual right aspect of the Second Amendment express if that was what was intended; that the "militia '' preamble and exact phrase "to keep and bear arms '' demands the conclusion that the Second Amendment touches on state militia service only; that many lower courts ' later "collective - right '' reading of the Miller decision constitutes stare decisis, which may only be overturned at great peril; and that the Court has not considered gun - control laws (e.g., the National Firearms Act) unconstitutional. The dissent concludes, "The Court would have us believe that over 200 years ago, the Framers made a choice to limit the tools available to elected officials wishing to regulate civilian uses of weapons... I could not possibly conclude that the Framers made such a choice. ''
Justice Stevens ' dissent was joined by Justices David Souter, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, and Stephen Breyer.
Justice Breyer filed a separate dissenting opinion, joined by the same dissenting Justices, which sought to demonstrate that, starting from the premise of an individual - rights view, the District of Columbia 's handgun ban and trigger lock requirement would nevertheless be permissible limitations on the right.
The Breyer dissent looks to early municipal fire - safety laws that forbade the storage of gunpowder (and in Boston the carrying of loaded arms into certain buildings), and on nuisance laws providing fines or loss of firearm for imprudent usage, as demonstrating the Second Amendment has been understood to have no impact on the regulation of civilian firearms. The dissent argues the public safety necessity of gun - control laws, quoting that "guns were responsible for 69 deaths in this country each day. ' ''
With these two supports, the Breyer dissent goes on to conclude, "there simply is no untouchable constitutional right guaranteed by the Second Amendment to keep loaded handguns in the house in crime - ridden urban areas. '' It proposes that firearms laws be reviewed by balancing the interests (i.e., "' interest - balancing ' approach '') of Second Amendment protections against the government 's compelling interest of preventing crime.
The Breyer dissent also objected to the "common use '' distinction used by the majority to distinguish handguns from machineguns: "But what sense does this approach make? According to the majority 's reasoning, if Congress and the States lift restrictions on the possession and use of machineguns, and people buy machineguns to protect their homes, the Court will have to reverse course and find that the Second Amendment does, in fact, protect the individual self - defense - related right to possess a machine - gun... There is no basis for believing that the Framers intended such circular reasoning. ''
Attorney Alan Gura, in a 2003 filing, used the term "sham litigation '' to describe the NRA 's attempts to have Parker (aka Heller) consolidated with its own case challenging the D.C. law. Gura also stated that "the NRA was adamant about not wanting the Supreme Court to hear the case ''. These concerns were based on NRA lawyers ' assessment that the justices at the time the case was filed might reach an unfavorable decision. Cato Institute senior fellow Robert Levy, co-counsel to the Parker plaintiffs, has stated that the Parker plaintiffs "faced repeated attempts by the NRA to derail the litigation. '' He also stated that "The N.R.A. 's interference in this process set us back and almost killed the case. It was a very acrimonious relationship. ''
Wayne LaPierre, the NRA 's chief executive officer, confirmed the NRA 's misgivings. "There was a real dispute on our side among the constitutional scholars about whether there was a majority of justices on the Supreme Court who would support the Constitution as written, '' Mr. LaPierre said. Both Levy and LaPierre said the NRA and Mr. Levy 's team were now on good terms.
Elaine McArdle wrote in the Harvard Law Bulletin: "If Parker is the long - awaited "clean '' case, one reason may be that proponents of the individual - rights view of the Second Amendment -- including the National Rifle Association, which filed an amicus brief in the case -- have learned from earlier defeats, and crafted strategies to maximize the chances of Supreme Court review. '' The NRA did eventually support the litigation by filing an amicus brief with the Court arguing that the plaintiffs in Parker had standing to sue and that the D.C. ban was unconstitutional under the Second Amendment.
Chris Cox, executive director of the NRA 's Institute for Legislative Action, had indicated support of federal legislation which would repeal the D.C. gun ban. Opponents of the legislation argued that this would have rendered the Parker case moot, and would have effectively eliminated the possibility that the case would be heard by the Supreme Court.
Immediately after the Supreme Court 's ruling, the NRA filed a lawsuit against the city of Chicago over its handgun ban, followed the next day by a lawsuit against the city of San Francisco over its ban of handguns in public housing.
The Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence opposed the arguments made by the plaintiffs in Parker, and filed amicus curiae against those arguments in both the District and Circuit courts.
Paul Helmke, the president of the Brady Campaign, suggested to D.C. before the Court granted certiorari that it modify its gun laws rather than appeal to the Supreme Court. Helmke has written that if the Supreme Court upholds the Circuit court ruling, it "could lead to all current and proposed firearms laws being called into question. ''
After the ruling, Paul Helmke stated that, "the classic ' slippery slope ' argument '', "that even modest gun control would lead down the path to a complete ban on gun ownership '', "is now gone. '' Helmke added that, "The Court also rejected the absolutist misreading of the Second Amendment that some use to argue ' any gun, any time for anyone, ' which many politicians have used as an excuse to do nothing about the scourge of gun violence in our country and to block passage of common sense gun laws. ''
Various experts expressed opinions on the D.C. Circuit 's decision.
Harvard Law School professor Laurence Tribe contended that the Second Amendment protects an individual right, and predicted that if Parker is reviewed by the Supreme Court "there 's a really quite decent chance that it will be affirmed. '' However, Professor Tribe has also argued that the District 's ban on one class of weapons does not violate the Second Amendment even under an individual rights view.
Erwin Chemerinsky, then of Duke Law School and now dean of the University of California, Berkeley School of Law, argued that the District of Columbia 's handgun laws, even assuming an "individual rights '' interpretation of the Second Amendment, could be justified as reasonable regulations and thus upheld as constitutional. Professor Chemerinsky believes that the regulation of guns should be analyzed in the same way "as other regulation of property under modern constitutional law '' and "be allowed so long as it is rationally related to achieving a legitimate government purpose. '' However, the dicta in Heller suggests that applying a mere rational basis analysis is an incorrect reading of the Constitution and would, in fact, defeat the entire purpose of the Second Amendment.
Cato Institute senior fellow Robert Levy, co-counsel to the Parker plaintiffs, agreed with the court 's ruling but describes that his interpretation of the Second Amendment would not preclude all governmental regulation of private ownership of weapons:
Even the NRA concedes that you ca n't have mad men running around with weapons of mass destruction. So there are some restrictions that are permissible and it will be the task of the legislature and the courts to ferret all of that out and draw the lines. I am sure, though, that outright bans on handguns like they have in D.C. wo n't be permitted. That is not a reasonable restriction under anybody 's characterization. It is not a restriction, it 's a prohibition.
Clark Neily, an attorney for Dick Heller in this case, has said regarding Heller:
America went over 200 years without knowing whether a key provision of the Bill of Rights actually meant anything. We came within one vote of being told that it did not, notwithstanding what amounts to a national consensus that the Second Amendment means what it says: The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. Taking rights seriously, including rights we might not favor personally, is good medicine for the body politic, and Heller was an excellent dose.
Richard Posner, judge for the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, compares Heller to Roe v. Wade, stating that it created a federal constitutional right that did not previously exist, and he asserts that the originalist method -- to which Justice Antonin Scalia claimed to adhere -- would have yielded the opposite result of the majority opinion.
The text of the amendment, whether viewed alone or in light of the concerns that actuated its adoption, creates no right to the private possession of guns for hunting or other sport, or for the defense of person or property. It is doubtful that the amendment could even be thought to require that members of state militias be allowed to keep weapons in their homes, since that would reduce the militias ' effectiveness. Suppose part of a state 's militia was engaged in combat and needed additional weaponry. Would the militia 's commander have to collect the weapons from the homes of militiamen who had not been mobilized, as opposed to obtaining them from a storage facility? Since the purpose of the Second Amendment, judging from its language and background, was to assure the effectiveness of state militias, an interpretation that undermined their effectiveness by preventing states from making efficient arrangements for the storage and distribution of military weapons would not make sense.
J. Harvie Wilkinson III, chief judge of United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit, consents to Posner 's analysis, stating that Heller "encourages Americans to do what conservative jurists warned for years they should not do: bypass the ballot and seek to press their political agenda in the courts. ''
Heller thus represents the worst of missed opportunities -- the chance to ground conservative jurisprudence in enduring and consistent principles of restraint. The Constitution expresses the need for judicial restraint in many different ways -- separation of powers, federalism, and the grant of life tenure to unelected judges among them. It is an irony that Heller would in the name of originalism abandon insights so central to the Framers ' designs.
Alan Gura, Lead Counsel for Respondent in Heller rejects Wilkinson 's criticism, stating that "Rather, the Court affirmed the Second Amendment 's original public meaning, as confirmed by its plain text. Having determined the Amendment 's meaning, the Court showed the proper level of deference to the D.C. City Council 's outright repudiation of the constitutional text: none. ''
Since the June 2008 ruling, over 80 different cases have been heard in lower federal courts on the constitutionality of a wide variety of gun control laws. These courts have heard lawsuits in regard to bans of firearm possession by felons, drug addicts, illegal aliens, and individuals convicted of domestic violence misdemeanors. Also, cases have been heard on the constitutionality of laws prohibiting certain types of weapons, such as machine guns, sawed - off shotguns and / or specific types of weapons attachments. In addition, courts have heard challenges to laws barring guns in post offices and near schools and laws outlawing "straw '' purchases, carrying of concealed weapons, types of ammunition and possession of unregistered firearms.
The courts have upheld most of these laws as being constitutional. The basis for the lower court rulings is the paragraph near the end of the Heller ruling that states:
Nothing in our opinion should be taken to cast doubt on longstanding prohibitions on the possession of firearms by felons and the mentally ill, or laws forbidding the carrying of firearms in sensitive places such as schools and government buildings, or laws imposing conditions on the commercial sale of arms.
Consistently since the Heller ruling, the lower federal courts have ruled that almost all gun control measures as presently legislated are lawful and that according to UCLA professor of constitutional law Adam Winkler: "What gun rights advocates are discovering is that the vast majority of gun control laws fit within these categories. ''
Robert Levy, the executive director of the Cato Institute who funded the Heller litigation has commented on this passage describing constitutionally acceptable forms of prohibitions of firearms: "I would have preferred that that not have been there, '' and that this paragraph in Scalia 's opinion "created more confusion than light. ''
Similar to the lifting of gun bans mentioned previously in the settlements of lawsuits filed post-Heller, in US v. Arzberger, also decided post-Heller, it was noted:
To the extent, then, that the Second Amendment creates an individual right to possess a firearm unrelated to any military purpose, it also establishes a protectible liberty interest. And, although the Supreme Court has indicated that this privilege may be withdrawn from some groups of persons such as convicted felons, there is no basis for categorically depriving persons who are merely accused of certain crimes of the right to legal possession of a firearm.
The D.C. government indicated it would continue to use zoning ordinances to prevent firearms dealers from operating and selling to citizens residing in the District, meaning it would continue to be difficult for residents to legally purchase guns in the District. Additionally, the District enacted new firearms restrictions in an effort to cure the constitutional defects in the ordinance that the Supreme Court had identified in Heller. The new provisions were: (1) the firearms registration procedures; (2) the prohibition on assault weapons; and (3) the prohibition on large capacity ammunition feeding devices. In response, Dick Heller challenged these new restrictions filing a civil suit named Heller v. District of Columbia (Civil Action No. 08 - 1289 (RMU), No. 23., 25) where he requested a summary judgment to vacate the new prohibitions. On March 26, 2010, the D.C. District Judge Ricardo M. Urbina denied Dick Heller 's request and granted the cross motion, stating that the court "concludes that the regulatory provisions that the plaintiffs challenge permissibly regulate the exercise of the core Second Amendment right to use arms for the purpose of self - defense in the home. ''
Dick Heller 's application to register his semi-automatic pistol was rejected because the gun was a bottom - loading weapon, and according to the District 's interpretation, all bottom - loading guns, including magazine - fed non-assault - style rifles, are outlawed because they are grouped with machine guns. Revolvers will likely not fall under such a ban.
On December 16, 2008 the D.C. Council unanimously passed the Firearms Registration Emergency Amendment Act of 2008 which addresses the issues raised in the Heller Supreme Court decision, and also puts in place a number of registration requirements to update and strengthen the District 's gun laws.
Justice Antonin Scalia 's opinion for the majority provided Second Amendment protection for commonly used and popular handguns but not for atypical arms or arms used for unlawful purposes, such as short - barreled shotguns. Scalia stated: "Whatever the reason, handguns are the most popular weapon chosen by Americans for self - defense in the home, and a complete prohibition of their use is invalid. '' "We think that Miller 's "ordinary military equipment '' language must be read in tandem with what comes after: "(O) rdinarily when called for (militia) service (able - bodied) men were expected to appear bearing arms supplied by themselves and of the kind in common use at the time. '' 307 U.S., at 179. '' "We therefore read Miller to say only that the Second Amendment does not protect those weapons not typically possessed by law - abiding citizens for lawful purposes, such as short - barreled shotguns. '' "It may be objected that if weapons that are most useful in military service -- M - 16 rifles and the like -- may be banned, then the Second Amendment right is completely detached from the prefatory clause. But as we have said, the conception of the militia at the time of the Second Amendment 's ratification was the body of all citizens capable of military service, who would bring the sorts of lawful weapons that they possessed at home to militia duty. ''
On July 24, 2014, the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia ruled, in Palmer v. District of Columbia, that the District 's total ban on the public carrying of ready - to - use handguns is unconstitutional. In its decision, the Court stated: "(...) the Court finds that the District of Columbia 's complete ban on the carrying of handguns in public is unconstitutional. Accordingly, the Court grants Plaintiffs ' motion for summary judgment and enjoins Defendants from enforcing the home limitations of D.C. Code § 7 - 2502.02 (a) (4) and enforcing D.C. Code § 22 - 4504 (a) unless and until such time as the District of Columbia adopts a licensing mechanism consistent with constitutional standards enabling people to exercise their Second Amendment right to bear arms. Furthermore, this injunction prohibits the District from completely banning the carrying of handguns in public for self - defense by otherwise qualified non-residents based solely on the fact that they are not residents of the District. ''
Mayor of New York City Michael Bloomberg said that "all of the laws on the books in New York State and New York City '' would be allowed by the ruling as "reasonable regulation. '' Robert Levy has stated that the current New York City gun laws are "not much different '' from the D.C. ban that has been overturned. The National Rifle Association and other gun - rights advocates have not ruled out suing New York City, especially over the definition of "reasonable regulation ''.
Southern District of New York Magistrate Judge James Francis has said that, prior to Heller, it would not have been considered unreasonable to require a defendant to surrender a firearm as a condition of pretrial release. Specifically, according to Judge Francis:
This all changed, with the recent U.S. Supreme Court decision in District of Columbia v. Heller; 128 S. Ct. 2783 (2008), where the court changed the course of Second Amendment jurisprudence by creating what he said was a "protectible liberty interest '' in the possession of firearms. Thus, in the absence of an individualized determination at a bail hearing, requiring the defendant to give up any firearms violates due process.
Maloney v. Rice (a.k.a. Maloney v. Cuomo and Maloney v. Spitzer), 554 F. 3d 56 (2d. Cir. 2009) originally held that the 2nd Amendment does not apply to the states in the Second Circuit. The case involved a state ban on Nunchaku sticks (a martial arts weapon) in New York. In a memorandum opinion dated June 29, 2010, the Supreme Court vacated the Second Circuit decision in Maloney and remanded for further consideration in light of the holding in McDonald v. City of Chicago that the Second Amendment does apply to the states. The Second Circuit has remanded the case to the trial court.
The NRA has filed five related lawsuits since the Heller decision. In four Illinois lawsuits, the NRA sought to have the Second Amendment incorporated by the Fourteenth Amendment, causing the Second Amendment to apply to state and local jurisdictions and not just to the federal government. Three Illinois lawsuits have been negotiated and settled out of court involving agreements that repeal gun ban ordinances and did not result in incorporation of the Second Amendment to state and local jurisdictions. The fourth NRA lawsuit against Chicago was rejected. The NRA appealed the case to the 7th Circuit Court of Appeals. On June 2, 2009, the Court of Appeals affirmed the district court 's decision, based on the theory that Heller applied only to the Federal Government (including the District of Columbia), and not to states or their subordinate jurisdictions. This opinion directly conflicts with the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals 's earlier decision, holding that Heller applies to states as well.
On June 28, 2010, the Supreme Court reversed the Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit 's decision in McDonald v. City of Chicago and remanded it back to Seventh Circuit to resolve conflicts between certain Chicago gun restrictions and the Second Amendment. Chicago 's handgun law was likened to the D.C. handgun ban by Justice Breyer.
Similarly, three Illinois municipalities with gun control measures on the books that previously had banned all handguns have rescinded their handgun bans. These cities were Morton Grove, Illinois, Wilmette, another Illinois village, and Evanston, Illinois which enacted a partial repeal of its handgun ban.
In Ezell v. Chicago, decided July 6, 2011, the Seventh Circuit reversed a district court decision that the post-McDonald measures adopted by the City of Chicago were constitutional. The Chicago law required firearms training in a shooting range in order to obtain a gun permit, but also banned shooting ranges within the City of Chicago. The City had argued that applicants could obtain their training at gun ranges in the suburbs. The opinion noted that Chicago could not infringe Second Amendment rights on the grounds that they could be exercised elsewhere, any more than it could infringe the right to freedom of speech on the grounds that citizens could speak elsewhere.
On January 14, 2009, in Guy Montag Doe v. San Francisco Housing Authority, the San Francisco Housing Authority reached a settlement out of court with the NRA, which allows residents to possess legal firearms within a SFHA apartment building. The San Francisco lawsuit resulted in the elimination of the gun ban from the SF Housing Authority residential lease terms. Tim Larsen speaking for the Housing Authority said that they never intended to enforce its 2005 housing lease gun ban against law - abiding gun owners and have never done so.
On February 13, 2014, in Peruta v. San Diego, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit decided that the San Diego policy to disallow both concealed carry, and the State of California law that disallows open carry anywhere in the state, were not acceptable under Supreme Court precedent in Heller and McDonald. A "responsible, law - abiding citizen has a right under the Second Amendment to carry a firearm in public for self - defense. '' More specifically, "the Second Amendment does require that the states permit some form of carry for self - defense outside the home. '' (italics in original)... and "carrying weapons in public for the lawful purpose of self defense is a central component of the right to bear arms. '' The case was remanded to the district court because "San Diego County 's ' good cause ' permitting requirement impermissibly infringes on the Second Amendment right to bear arms in lawful self - defense. ''
On January 10, 2014, in Morris v. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the District Court struck down a Corps of Engineers regulation barring possession of loaded guns in recreation areas surrounding Corps dams. The court held that tents are akin to homes, and under Heller, Second Amendment rights are protected.
Initial reaction has deemed the Heller ruling to be of great significance, although it remains too soon to tell what the long - term effects may be. Sanford Levinson has written that he is inclined to believe that the Heller decision will be relatively insignificant to the practice of law in the long run but that it will have significance to other groups interested in cultural literacy and constitutional designers.
In 2009, both Levinson and Mark Tushnet speculated that it is quite unlikely that the case would be studied as part of casebooks of future law schools. As was predicted, a large surge of court cases was seen in lower federal courts in the aftermath of the 2008 ruling. As of March 2009, over 80 cases had been filed seeking to overturn existing gun laws.
The decision in McDonald v. City of Chicago, which was brought in response to Heller and decided in 2010, did invalidate much of Chicago 's gun purchase and registration laws, and has called into question many other state and local laws restricting purchase, possession, and carry of firearms.
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who plays the father in law in christmas vacation | Chevy Chase - wikipedia
Cornelius Crane "Chevy '' Chase (born October 8, 1943) (/ ˈtʃɛvi /) is an American actor, comedian and writer.
Born into a prominent New York family, Chase worked a variety of jobs before moving into comedy and began acting with National Lampoon. He became a key cast member in the first season of Saturday Night Live, where his recurring Weekend Update segment soon became a staple of the show. As both a performer and writer, he earned three Primetime Emmy Awards out of five nominations.
Chase had his first leading film role in the comedy Foul Play (1978), earning two Golden Globe Award nominations. He is further known for his portrayals of Clark Griswold in five National Lampoon 's Vacation films and Irwin "Fletch '' Fletcher in both Fletch (1985) and Fletch Lives (1989). Other prominent titles include Caddyshack (1980), Seems Like Old Times (1980), Spies Like Us (1985), ¡ Three Amigos! (1986), Memoirs of an Invisible Man (1992), Orange County (2002) and Hot Tub Time Machine (2010). He has hosted the Academy Awards twice (1987 and 1988) and briefly had his own late - night talk show, The Chevy Chase Show (1993). He played the character Pierce Hawthorne on the NBC comedy series Community from 2009 to 2014.
Cornelius Crane Chase was born on October 8, 1943 in Lower Manhattan, New York, and grew up in Woodstock, New York. His father, Edward Tinsley "Ned '' Chase, was a prominent Manhattan book editor and magazine writer. His mother, Cathalene Parker (née Browning), was a concert pianist and librettist who was the daughter of Admiral Miles Browning, most notable for serving as Rear Admiral Raymond A. Spruance 's Chief of Staff on the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise (CV - 6) at the Battle of Midway in World War II; Cathalene was adopted as a child by her stepfather, Cornelius Vanderbilt Crane, heir to The Crane Company, and took the name Cathalene Crane. Chase 's paternal grandfather was artist and illustrator Edward Leigh Chase, and his great - uncle was painter and teacher Frank Swift Chase. His maternal grandmother, Cathalene, was an opera singer who performed several times at Carnegie Hall.
Chase was named for his adoptive grandfather Cornelius, while the nickname "Chevy '' was bestowed by his grandmother, derived from the medieval English Ballad of Chevy Chase. As a descendant of the Scottish Clan Douglas, the name seemed appropriate to her. He is a 14th - generation New Yorker, and was listed in the Social Register at an early age. His mother 's ancestors arrived in Manhattan starting in 1624 -- among his ancestors are New York City mayors Stephanus Van Cortlandt and John Johnstone; the Dutch Schuyler family, through his ancestor Gertrude Schuyler, the wife of Stephanus Van Cortlandt; John Morin Scott, General of the New York Militia during the American Revolution; Anne Hutchinson, dissident Puritan preacher and healer; and Mayflower passengers and signers of the Mayflower Compact from England, John Howland, and the Pilgrim colonist leader and spiritual elder of the Plymouth Colony, William Brewster. According to his brother John:
As a child, Chase vacationed at Castle Hill, the Cranes ' summer estate in Ipswich, Massachusetts. Chase 's parents divorced when he was four; his father remarried into the Folgers coffee family, and his mother remarried twice. He has stated that he grew up in an upper middle class environment and that his adoptive maternal grandfather did not bequeath any assets to Chase 's mother when he died. In a 2007 biography, Chase stated that he was physically and psychologically abused as a child by his mother and stepfather, John Cederquist. Both his parents died in 2005.
Chase was educated at Riverdale Country School, a boarding independent school in the Riverdale neighborhood of New York City, before being expelled. He ultimately graduated from the Stockbridge School, an independent boarding school in the town of Stockbridge, Massachusetts. He then attended Haverford College during the 1962 -- 1963 term, where he was noted for slapstick comedy and an absurd sense of physical humor (including his signature pratfalls and "sticking forks into his orifices ''). During a 2009 interview on the Today show, he ostensibly verified the oft - publicized urban legend that he was expelled for harboring a cow in his fourth floor room, although his former roommate David Felson asserted in a 2003 interview that Chase left for academic reasons. Chase transferred to Bard College in Annandale - on - Hudson, New York, where he studied a pre-med curriculum and graduated in 1967 with a Bachelor of Arts in English.
Chase did not enter medical school, which meant he would be subject to the military draft. Chase was not drafted; when he appeared in January 1989 as the first guest of the just - launched late - night Pat Sajak Show, he said he had convinced his draft board he deserved a 4 - F classification by "falsely claiming, among other things, that he had homosexual tendencies ''.
Chase played drums with the college band The Leather Canary, headed by school friends Walter Becker and Donald Fagen. Chase has called the group "a bad jazz band ''; Becker and Fagen later founded the successful group Steely Dan. Chase has absolute pitch. He played drums and keyboards for a rock band called Chamaeleon Church, which recorded one album for MGM Records before disbanding in 1969. To give the album a more soft - rock sound, producer Alan Lorber made several alterations in the mixing, including the muting of Chase 's bass drum, and Chase was reportedly incensed when he heard the final mix. Before fame, Chase worked as a cab driver, truck driver, motorcycle messenger, construction worker, waiter, busboy, fruit picker, produce manager in a supermarket, audio engineer, salesman in a wine store, and theater usher.
Chase was a member of an early underground comedy ensemble called Channel One which he co-founded in 1967. He also wrote a one - page spoof on Mission: Impossible for MAD magazine in 1970 and was a writer for the short - lived Smothers Brothers TV show comeback in the spring of 1975. Chase made the move to comedy as a full - time career by 1973, when he became a cast member of The National Lampoon Radio Hour, a syndicated satirical radio series. The Lampoon Radio Hour also featured John Belushi, Gilda Radner, Bill Murray, and Brian Doyle - Murray, all of whom later became "Not - Ready - For - Prime Time Players '' on NBC Saturday Night (later retitled NBC 's Saturday Night and finally Saturday Night Live). Chase and Belushi also appeared in National Lampoon 's off - Broadway revue Lemmings, a sketch and musical send - up of popular youth culture (in which Chase also played the drums and piano during the musical numbers). He appeared in the theatrical release The Groove Tube which was directed by another co-founder of Channel One, Ken Shapiro, featuring several Channel One sketches.
Chase was one of the original cast members of Saturday Night Live (SNL), NBC 's late - night comedy television show, beginning in October 1975. During the first season, he introduced every show except two with, "Live from New York, it 's Saturday Night! '' The remark was often preceded by a pratfall, known as "The Fall of the Week ''. Chase became known for his skill at physical comedy. In one comedy sketch, he mimicked a real - life incident in which President Gerald Ford accidentally tripped while disembarking from Air Force One in Salzburg, Austria. This portrayal of President Ford as a bumbling klutz became a favorite device of Chase and helped form the popular concept of Ford as being a clumsy man. In later years, Chase met and became friendly with President Ford. Chase 's physical stunts led to at least one self - injury.
Chase was the original anchor for the Weekend Update segment of SNL, and his catchphrase introduction, "I 'm Chevy Chase... and you 're not '' became well known. His trademark conclusion, "Good night, and have a pleasant tomorrow '' was later resurrected by Jane Curtin and Tina Fey. Chase also wrote comedy material for Weekend Update. For example, he wrote and performed "The News for the Hard of Hearing ''. In this skit, Chase would read the top story of the day, aided by Garrett Morris, who would repeat the story by loudly shouting it. Chase claimed that his version of Weekend Update would later be the inspiration for other news satire shows such as The Daily Show and The Colbert Report. (Weekend Update was later revived as a segment on The Chevy Chase Show, a short - lived late - night talk - show produced by Chase and broadcast by Fox Broadcasting Company.)
Chase also performed in other skits on SNL including a recurring role as the Land Shark, a parody of the blockbuster movie Jaws. His racially charged "word association '' skit opposite Richard Pryor from SNL 's first season is frequently cited by television critics as one of the funniest (and most daring) skits in the show 's history.
Chase was committed contractually to SNL for only one year as a writer, and became a cast member during rehearsals just before the show 's premiere. He received two Emmy Awards and a Golden Globe Award for his comedy writing and live comic acting on the show. In Rolling Stone 's February 2015 appraisal of all 141 SNL cast members to date, Chase was ranked tenth in overall importance. "Strange as it sounds, Chase might be the most under - rated SNL player, '' they wrote. "It took him only one season to define the franchise... without that deadpan arrogance, the whole SNL style of humor would fall flat. ''
In a 1975 New York magazine cover story, which called him "The funniest man in America '', NBC executives referred to Chase as "The first real potential successor to Johnny Carson '' and claimed he would begin guest - hosting The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson within six months of the article. Chase dismissed chatter that he could be the next Carson by telling New York, "I 'd never be tied down for five years interviewing TV personalities. '' In fact, Chase did not even appear on the program until May 4, 1977, when he was promoting a prime time special for NBC. Carson later said of Chase; "He could n't ad lib a fart after a baked bean dinner ''.
Chase acknowledged Ernie Kovacs ' influence on his work in Saturday Night Live, and he thanked Kovacs during his acceptance speech for his Emmy Award. In addition, Chase spoke of Kovacs ' influence on his work in an appearance in the 1982 documentary called Ernie Kovacs: Television 's Original Genius.
In late 1976, in the middle of the second season, Chase became the first member of the original cast to leave the show. While he landed starring roles in several films on the strength of his SNL notoriety, he asserted that the principal reason for his departure was his girlfriend Jacqueline Carlin 's reluctance to move to New York. Chase moved to Los Angeles, married Carlin, and was replaced by Bill Murray, although he made a few appearances on the show during the second season.
Chase later hosted SNL eight times through 1997. He appeared on the show 's 25th anniversary special in 1999, and was interviewed for a 2005 NBC special on the first five years of SNL. Later appearances included a Caddyshack skit featuring Bill Murray, a 1997 episode with guest host Chris Farley, as the Land Shark in a Weekend Update segment in 2001, another Weekend Update segment in 2007, and in Justin Timberlake 's monologue in 2013 as a member of the Five - Timers Club, where he was reunited with his Three Amigos co-stars Steve Martin and Martin Short. He also participated in the 40th anniversary special in February 2015.
Chase 's early film roles included Tunnel Vision, the box office hit Foul Play, and Oh! Heavenly Dog. The role of Eric ' Otter ' Stratton in National Lampoon 's Animal House was originally written with Chase in mind, but he turned the role down to work on Foul Play. The role went to Tim Matheson instead. Chase said in an interview that he chose to do Foul Play so he could do "real acting '' for the first time in his career instead of just doing "schtick ''. Chase followed Foul Play with the successful Harold Ramis comedy Caddyshack, in 1980. That same year, he also reunited with Foul Play co-star Goldie Hawn for Neil Simon 's Seems Like Old Times and released a self - titled record album, co-produced by Chase and Tom Scott, with novelty and cover versions of songs by Randy Newman, Barry White, Bob Marley, the Beatles, Donna Summer, Tennessee Ernie Ford, The Troggs, and The Sugarhill Gang.
Chase narrowly escaped death by electrocution during the filming of Modern Problems in 1980. During a sequence in which Chase 's character wears "landing lights '' as he dreams that he is an airplane, the lights malfunctioned and electrical current passed through Chase 's arm, back, and neck muscles. The near - death experience caused Chase to experience a period of deep depression, as his marriage to Jacqueline had ended just prior to the start of filming. Chase continued his film career in 1983 's National Lampoon 's Vacation, directed by Ramis and written by John Hughes. He married Jayni Luke in 1982, and in 1985, he starred in Fletch, the first of two films based on Gregory Mcdonald 's Fletch books. Chase joined SNL veterans Steve Martin and Martin Short in the Lorne Michaels - produced comedy ¡ Three Amigos! in 1986, declaring in an interview that making ¡ Three Amigos! was the most fun he had making a film. The trio hosted SNL that year, the only time the show has had three hosts on one show.
At the height of his career in the late 1980s, Chase earned around US $7 million per film and was a highly visible celebrity. He appeared alongside Paul Simon, one of his best friends, in Simon 's 1986 second video for "You Can Call Me Al '', in which he lip - syncs all of Simon 's lyrics. Chase hosted the Academy Awards in 1987 and 1988, signing on to the proceedings in 1988 with the opener, "Good evening, Hollywood phonies! '' Chase filmed a sequel to Vacation, 1985 's National Lampoon 's European Vacation and then a third, National Lampoon 's Christmas Vacation, in 1989, which, thanks to its holiday theme, has become one of his more durable films, airing on NBC every December. He played saxophone onstage at Simon 's free concert at the Great Lawn in Central Park in the summer of 1991. Later in 1991, he helped record and appeared in the music video "Voices That Care '' to entertain and support U.S. troops involved in Operation Desert Storm, and supported the International Red Cross.
Chase 's career took a downturn in the early 1990s. Chase had three consecutive film flops -- 1991 's Razzie award - nominated Nothing but Trouble, 1992 's Memoirs of an Invisible Man, and 1994 's Cops & Robbersons. The three releases had a combined gross of $34 million in the United States. Even the durable Vacation series ground to a halt, following 1997 's Vegas Vacation installment. Some of the more recent movies starring Chase (e.g., Vacuums, Rent - a-Husband, Goose!) have not been widely released in the United States. He returned to mainstream movie - making in 2006, co-starring with Tim Allen and Courteney Cox in the comedy Zoom, though it was both a critical and commercial failure.
In September 1993, Chase hosted The Chevy Chase Show, a weeknight talk show, for the Fox Broadcasting Company. Though it had high commercial expectations, the show was cancelled by Fox after only five weeks. Chase later appeared in a commercial for Doritos, airing during the Super Bowl, in which he made humorous reference to the show 's failure.
Chase was Hasty Pudding 's 1993 Man of the Year, and received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1994. After having starred with Farrah Fawcett in the relatively successful Man of the House in 1995, he received The Harvard Lampoon 's Lifetime Achievement Award in 1996.
In 1998, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs, California, Walk of Stars was dedicated to him.
He was roasted by the New York Friars Club for a Comedy Central television special in 2002. This roast was noted for being unusually vitriolic. The only cast members of Saturday Night Live 's first season who appeared at the roast were Laraine Newman (one of the actors on the show), Al Franken, a bit player and writer on the show and eventually a U.S. Senator, and Paul Shaffer (a band leader on SNL in the 1970s and the host of the roast).
In 2005, Chase was the keynote speaker at Princeton University 's Class Day, part of commencement activities.
On March 20, 2012, Dan Aykroyd announced through his Facebook page that he is working with Chase on a script for a new comedy that would star the two actors.
In 2015, Chase reprised his role as Clark Griswold in the fifth Vacation installment, simply titled Vacation. Unlike the previous four films in which Clark is the main protagonist, he only has a brief though pivotal cameo appearance. In spite of largely negative critical reception, the film itself has proven to be a financial success grossing over $104 million worldwide, making it the highest grossing entry to date.
Chase guest - starred as an anti-Semitic murder suspect in "In Vino Veritas '', the November 3, 2006 episode of Law & Order. He also guest - starred in the ABC drama series Brothers & Sisters in two episodes as a former love interest of Sally Field 's character. Chase appeared in a prominent recurring role as villainous software magnate Ted Roark on the NBC spy - comedy Chuck. In 2009, Chase and Dan Aykroyd provided voices for the Family Guy episode "Spies Reminiscent of Us ''.
Chase starred in the NBC sitcom Community, as aging moist - towelette tycoon Pierce Hawthorne, starting in 2009. However, Chase left the show in 2012 after completing the majority of the episodes of Season 4. He returned for a cameo appearance in the Season 5 premiere. Though he had sometimes been involved in public disputes with creator Dan Harmon over the direction of the show, the role was nevertheless his most prominent in many years.
In 2010, he appeared in the film Hot Tub Time Machine, as well as a short online film featuring the Griswold Family, and in the Funny or Die original comedy sketch "Presidential Reunion '', where he played President Ford alongside other current and former SNL president impersonators.
Chase has appeared in a number of television commercials, including Dollar Rent - a-Car (1996), Doritos (1996), History Channel (1999), a series of commercials for AAMI Insurance (Australia, 1999), Aflac (2003), Cola Turka (2003), T - Mobile (2009) and Chase Manhattan Bank (2010).
Chase has three daughters: Cydney (born 1983), Caley (born 1985), and Emily (born 1988). He lives with his third wife, Jayni (née Luke), in Bedford, New York.
Chevy 's second marriage to Jacqueline Carlin was formalized on December 4, 1976. After one year and five months, they divorced. During this period, Chase 's daily cocaine consumption was reportedly more than two grams (0.07 oz), and the side effects of such drug use were megalomania, paranoia, and incoherence.
In 1986, Chase was admitted to the Betty Ford Clinic for treatment of an addiction to prescription painkillers. His use of these drugs reportedly began after he experienced ongoing back pain related to the many pratfalls he took beginning with his Saturday Night Live appearances. In 2010, he said that his drug abuse had been "low level ''. He entered Minnesota 's Hazelden Clinic in September 2016 for treatment of an alcohol - related issue.
Chase is an active environmentalist, charity fundraiser, and political liberal. He raised money and campaigned for Bill Clinton in the 1990s and John Kerry in the 2004 Presidential Election. Following the 2004 elections, Chase criticized President George W. Bush during a speech at a People for the American Way benefit at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, referring to the President as an "uneducated, real lying schmuck '' and a "dumb fuck ''. Event organizers and several Bush detractors present at the event distanced themselves from Chase 's comments, with Norman Lear remarking, "He 'll live with it, I wo n't. ''
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when was the samsung galaxy note 5 released | Samsung Galaxy Note 5 - wikipedia
The Samsung Galaxy Note 5 is an Android phablet smartphone developed and produced by Samsung Electronics. Unveiled on 13 August 2015, it is the successor to the Galaxy Note 4 as part of the Samsung Galaxy Note series.
The Galaxy Note 5 carries over hardware and software features from the Galaxy S6, including a refreshed design with a glass backing, improved camera, and fingerprint scanner. The device also includes built in livestreaming functionality as well as features meant for use with the device 's bundled, spring - loaded stylus. The device was released together with the Samsung Galaxy S6 Edge+.
The device received positive reviews from critics, who praised the upgraded build quality over prior models, along with improvements to its performance, camera, and other changes. Similarly to the S6, Samsung was criticized for making the Galaxy Note 5 's battery non-removable, and removing the ability to expand its storage via microSD. It was argued that these changes potentially alienated power users -- especially because the Galaxy Note series had historically been oriented towards this segment of the overall market.
The Galaxy Note 5 was briefly succeeded by the Samsung Galaxy Note 7, released in September 2016. However, that device was ultimately recalled and pulled from the market after repeated incidents where batteries overheated and caught on fire.
The Galaxy Note 5 adopts a similar design and construction to the Galaxy S6, featuring a unibody metal frame and glass backing, although unlike the standard S6, the back of the device is curved. It is offered in dark blue, white, gold, and silver color finishes. The storage slot for the S Pen stylus uses a spring - loaded mechanism to eject the pen.
The Galaxy Note 5 has a non-removable 3,000 mAh lithium - ion battery and supports the Qi open interface standard.
The Note 5 features a 5.7 - inch 1440p Super AMOLED It is powered by a 64 - bit Exynos 7 Octa 7420 system - on - chip, consisting of four 2.1 GHz Cortex - A57 cores, and four 1.5 GHz Cortex - A53 cores, and 4 GB of LPDDR4 RAM. The Galaxy Note 5 is available with either 32 GB or 64 GB of storage (a special "Winter Edition '' exclusive to South Korea offers 128 GB storage), and utilizes a 3020 mAh battery with wireless and fast charging support. Similarly to the S6, the Note 5 does not offer expandable storage or the ability to remove the battery, unlike its predecessor. As with the S6, the fingerprint scanner in the home button now uses a touch - based scanning mechanism rather than swipe - based, and the device also supports Samsung Pay. The 16 - megapixel rear - facing camera is identical to the Galaxy S6, with af / 1.9 aperture, optical image stabilization, object tracking autofocus, and real - time HDR.
The Galaxy Note 5 shipped with Android Lollipop. The new "Screen off memo '' feature allows the phone to be awoken directly to a note screen when the stylus is removed. The Camera app on the Note 5 also allows public and private livestreaming directly to YouTube, and supports export of RAW images.
In February 2016, Samsung began to release Marshmallow for the Galaxy Note 5.
The Galaxy Note 5 also gradually received the Nougat (Android 7.0) update during the first and second quarters of 2017.
The Galaxy Note 5 was not released in Europe, in favour of solely marketing the S6 Edge+ in the region. Samsung European Vice President of Brand and Marketing Rory O'Neill explained that the decision was based upon market research showing that consumers in the region primarily viewed large - screen phones as being oriented towards entertainment, and not productivity.
The Verge complimented the higher - quality build of the Galaxy Note 5, describing it as being a "more humane device '' due to its lighter build with thinner bezels in comparison to the Galaxy Note 4, along with its display, performance and additional S Pen features. However, the Galaxy Note 5 was panned for not offering a removable battery, expandable storage, or a 128 GB model, considering these oversights to be inappropriate for a device in a series that was "unapologetically meant for power users. '' The device was also described as being the result of Samsung "(holding themselves) back '', having dropped the "old, unfettered excessiveness of the old Note '' in favour of developing a "consumer - friendly '' device with only minor upgrades over the S6. Techradar shared a similar degree of positivity towards the Galaxy Note 5, noting that "the sacrifices Samsung felt it needed to make to get to that premium Note 5 design have turned off some longtime users. Thankfully, there 's a lot more to like about this phone upgrade than dislike. ''
Following its release, it was discovered that inserting the pen into the Note 5 's storage slot backwards could result in permament damage to the spring mechanism, making the stylus become stuck, or damaging the sensor that detects when the S Pen is removed; all of these scenarios render the stylus unusable. Samsung was aware of this issue and stated that it had provided a warning against backward pen insertion in the Galaxy Note 5 's manual, but placed more prominent warning labels on the device itself on later shipments. In January 2016, it was reported that the design of the mechanism had been revised to allow the safe ejection of a pen accidentally inserted backwards, without causing damage to the sensor.
In its first three days on sale, over 75,000 units of the Note 5 (together with the S6 Edge+) were sold in South Korea, exceeding the rate of sales of the previous year 's models. A study by AnTuTu detailed that this smartphone was one of the most popular Android devices in the first half of 2016.
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who's the killer in i still know | I Still Know What You Did Last Summer - Wikipedia
I Still Know What You Did Last Summer is a 1998 American slasher film and a sequel to the 1997 film I Know What You Did Last Summer. Directed by Danny Cannon, the film was written by Trey Callaway, and features characters originally created in Lois Duncan 's 1973 novel I Know What You Did Last Summer. Jennifer Love Hewitt, Freddie Prinze, Jr. and Muse Watson reprise their roles, with Brandy, Mekhi Phifer, Jennifer Esposito, and Matthew Settle joining the cast. I Still Know What You Did Last Summer continues after the events of the first film.
Callaway 's script was published in an edited "young adult '' format, leaving in all descriptions of violence but omitting the harsher language. Filming took place in Mexico and California. I Still Know What You Did Last Summer was released to negative reviews, but was a box office success, grossing $84 million worldwide. It is the second installment of I Know What You Did Last Summer series and was followed by I 'll Always Know What You Did Last Summer in 2006.
One year after the events of the first film, Julie James is attending summer classes in Boston, to avoid returning to her hometown of Southport, North Carolina. She suffers from memories and nightmares of the accident and brutal murders of her friends by the vengeful fisherman, Ben Willis, from the summer before.
Julie 's friend and roommate Karla Wilson receives a phone call from a local radio station, then winning an all - expenses - paid vacation to the Bahamas for the Fourth of July weekend. Julie invites her boyfriend, Ray Bronson, but he declines. He is hurt by her earlier refusal to visit him in Southport. Ray, intending to propose to Julie, changes his mind about the trip, planning to show up as a surprise.
That evening, Ray and his co-worker Dave drive to Boston to meet Julie. They stop due to a BMW and body in the middle of the road. Ray gets out to inspect the scene, only to find the body to be a mannequin dressed in fisherman 's clothing. Suddenly, Ben Willis appears and kills Dave with his hook. Ben takes Ray 's truck and chases him down the road. Ray gets away, but he is injured from falling down a hill.
The next morning, Julie and Karla depart on the trip with Karla 's boyfriend Tyrell and their friend, Will Benson. Knowing that Will has a crush on Julie, Karla invited him as a replacement for Ray, much to Julie 's discomfort. The group arrives at the hotel in Tower Bay, only to find that other guests are leaving due to the imminent hurricane season. To her surprise, Julie is sharing a hotel room with Will. That evening at the hotel 's bar, Julie is talked into singing karaoke. She stops when the words "I STILL KNOW WHAT YOU DID LAST SUMMER '' roll onto the screen. Terrified, she runs back to her room and is met by Will, who laid out flowers and a love note for her. Julie sidesteps Will 's affection for her, while Tyrell and Karla (and later Will) get into the hot tub.
Julie notices that her toothbrush is missing. Feeling something is wrong, she searches the room and finds the dockhand Darik hanging dead in the closet. She finds Tyrell, Karla, and Will, but when they return there is no sign of Darick 's body. The hotel manager refuses to believe her story and Julie tries to call the police, but the phone lines are dead due to the incoming hurricane. The group and the hotel staff prepare for the storm. Meanwhile, Ben arrives at the hotel and kills the employees. Olga, the maid, is stabbed in the back while the pool boy, Titus, is impaled with a pair of garden shears.
The following day, the group finds that the hotel staff and the manager have been murdered, and the two - way radio, their only way of contact, has been destroyed. Isolated, Julie tells the others about the previous summer. Tyrell suspects that Estes, the boat hand porter, is the killer, since he is the only one who can not be found. The group goes to Estes ' apartment, searching for clues. They find Julie 's toothbrush and Karla 's hair tie, concluding Estes has been using voodoo to protect them. Estes appears and states the capital of Brazil is not Rio, meaning the trip was a set - up. He leads them to a graveyard in the forest with the graves of Ben 's wife and daughter, and an empty grave and tombstone with Julie 's name. Estes explains that Ben and his wife Sarah had two children: son Will and daughter Susie. Ben murdered Sarah in the hotel room that Julie is staying in when he found out about her affair and her plans to leave him with their children. In anger, Julie shouts that she will not be killed by Ben and that they will fight against him.
Estes goes missing, and Will volunteers to find him. Julie, Karla, and Tyrell return to the hotel and gather supplies to defend themselves. They head to the hotel kitchen for something to eat, and find Nancy, the bartender, hiding in the freezer. Will finds Estes, but he attacks Will while Ray takes a boat to the island. Ben appears and stabs Tyrell in the throat with his hook, killing him. The girls retreat to the attic, where Karla is attacked by Ben. They both fall through to the hotel bedroom below. Karla runs from the room and jumps onto the greenhouse. Julie and Nancy rescue Karla and run to the storm cellar to take refuge. They find that the storm cellar stores Ben 's victims. Will bursts in and convinces the girls to head back to the hotel, stating that he saw Ben on the beach.
Back at the hotel, Julie sees Will is bleeding from his stomach, so Nancy takes Karla to find a first aid kit. While retrieving the kit, Nancy and Karla find Estes has been impaled with a harpoon. Ben appears and kills Nancy. Back in the lobby, Julie is tending to Will, unable to find a wound. Will admits this is because it is not his blood. He asks Julie what her favorite radio station is, revealing he was the radio host and killed Estes. Will drags Julie to the graveyard, and tells her he is Ben 's son, explaining his actions. Ben appears and attacks Julie. Ray arrives, and a fight ensues between him and Will. When Ben tries to stab Ray, he accidentally kills Will instead. While Ben is distraught from killing his son, Julie takes a gun and shoots him in the chest. Ben falls dead into the grave made for Julie. Ray comforts Julie. Back at the hotel, Karla is found alive. The three are rescued by the coast guard.
Sometime later, Ray and Julie have married and are in their new home. Ray is brushing his teeth before bed and Julie is in their bedroom. The bathroom door is quietly shut and locked while Ray is occupied. Julie sits down on her bed, looks in the mirror, and sees Ben under the bed. She screams as Ben grabs her feet with his hook and hand and pulls her under.
While the film is set in The Bahamas, it was actually shot at El Tecuan Marina Resort Costalagree, in Jalisco, Mexico; Los Angeles, California; and Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City, California.
The sequel made a gross $16.5 million at 2,443 theaters during its opening weekend. Unlike the original, the sequel opened at number two at the box office and dropped to number five only a week later. At the end of its fifteen - week run, the film grossed $40,020,622 in the United States. It grossed $44 million internationally, bringing the total worldwide gross to $84 million.
The film received highly negative reviews, with an overall rating of 7 % on Rotten Tomatoes with critics consensus being "Boring; predictable. '' It also has a 21 score on Metacritic compared to 52 for the original. The highest review score on Metacritic was 60 which came from Variety, who said "Purists will find the pic 's obviousness disappointing, but there 's no question that the film delivers a sufficient shock quotient to satisfy its youthful target audience ''. The film, much like the original, has obtained a "cult following ''.
Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale.
The soundtrack was released on November 17, 1998 by Warner Bros. Records. On January 19, 1999, "How Do I Deal '' was released a single, backed by Jory Eve 's "Try to Say Goodbye ''. A music video for "How Do I Deal '' was made available to music television networks.
On August 15, 2006, a straight - to - DVD sequel titled I 'll Always Know What You Did Last Summer was released. The film is unrelated to the two previous films, and features no returning cast members. It was originally proposed to continue where I Still Know What You Did Last Summer left off. Instead, the film features an unrelated plot with a brief mention of the first two films.
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insead- the business school for the world abu dhabi | INSEAD - wikipedia
INSEAD is a graduate business school with campuses in Europe (Fontainebleau, France), Asia (Singapore), and the Middle East (Abu Dhabi). "INSEAD '' is originally an acronym for the French "Institut Européen d'Administration des Affaires '' or European Institute of Business Administration.
INSEAD is consistently ranked among the best business schools in the world. Financial Times ranked it first across all full - time MBA programs in 2016 and 2017, and second in 2018.
INSEAD offers a full - time Master of Business Administration (MBA) programme, an Executive MBA (EMBA) programme, a Master in Finance programme, a PhD in management programme, and a variety of executive education programmes.
INSEAD was founded in 1957 by venture capitalist Georges Doriot (the "father of venture capitalism '') along with Claude Janssen and Olivier Giscard d'Estaing. Original seed money was provided by the Paris Chamber of Commerce. The school was originally based in the Château de Fontainebleau, before moving to its current Europe campus in 1967.
The original campus (Europe campus) is located in Fontainebleau, near Paris, France. INSEAD 's second campus (Asia campus) is in the Buona Vista district of the city - state of Singapore. The third and newest campus (Middle East campus) is located in Abu Dhabi. Although located in Europe and Asia, INSEAD pursues the US model of a business school. INSEAD has been a pioneer in setting up a multi-campus business school as a way to increase the global presence and nature of its faculty and curriculum. A Harvard Business School case study, for instance, explores its approach to business education in a global context and how it functions with a multi-campus setting.
INSEAD 's MBA participants can take the MBA 's core courses at either or both of its Europe and Asia campuses (as well as an elective MBA module at its Middle East campus). They follow the same core courses in parallel regardless of campus, and there are faculty who teach on both the Europe and Asia campuses as well as permanent faculty at each of the three campuses who live and work in the respective regions.
INSEAD offers two MBA schedules per year: one starting in September which takes ten months to complete, and a 12 - month promotion starting in January for students who want to complete a summer internship.
The INSEAD MBA curriculum comprises required core courses and electives. The core covers traditional management disciplines including finance, economics, organizational behavior, accounting, ethics, marketing, statistics, operations management, international political analysis, supply chain management, leadership and corporate strategy. There are 75 electives on offer in areas such as accounting and control, decision sciences, economics and political science, entrepreneurship and family enterprise, finance, and organisational, strategy, marketing, technology and operations management. Students are required to speak two languages upon entry and a third by graduation.
INSEAD has two EMBA Executive MBA programmes. The Global Executive MBA (GEMBA), and the Tsinghua INSEAD EMBA (TIEMBA). Both EMBA programmes are master 's - level degree programmes that take place on a part - time, modular basis.
The programmes offer experienced business executives an intensive 14 -- 17 - month modular course that takes place in modular periods (approximately every six to seven weeks). Each period on campus is between one and two weeks ' duration. For the GEMBA programme the physical time on campus represents 12 weeks in total with participants going to all three campuses (Fontainebleau, France, Abu Dhabi, and Singapore). For the TIEMBA programme the physical time on campus represents 12 weeks in total with participants alternating between Tsinghua 's campus in Beijing, China, and INSEAD 's campus in Singapore.
Both the GEMBA and TIEMBA programmes include a schedule of group coaching, 360 - degree assessments and team activities designed to develop a leadership style, called the Leadership Development Programme.
The Executive Master in Coaching and Consulting for Change is a specialized master 's degree. It provides a grounding in basic drivers of human behavior and the hidden dynamics of organizations. Integrating business education with a range of psychological disciplines, the programme enables participants to understand themselves and others at a fundamental level, which prepares them to assume roles in organisations, individual and organizational development and change management.
The INSEAD PhD in Management is a doctoral degree in business to prepare students for a career in academia. It requires four to five years of full - time study - the first two years devoted to coursework, while from the third and fourth (or sometimes fifth) years dedicated to research and dissertation. Students have the option to start their studies on either the Asia (Singapore) or Europe (France) campus, and do an exchange in North America (USA) through the INSEAD - Wharton Alliance. There are eight areas of specialization: Accounting, Decision Sciences, Entrepreneurship, Finance, Marketing, Organisational Behavior, Strategy, and Technology and Operations Management. INSEAD offers fellowships, whereby students receive full tuition fee waiver, annual stipend and research support funding.
INSEAD 's Master in Finance (MFin) teaches participants finance and accounting skills on a par with those taught in an MBA programme, and also offers leadership and management perspectives. The program is offered in a modular format over a 20 - month period to allow professionals to study while continuing to work. Participants take time off from work for each of the five modules (2 -- 3 weeks each) to take classes on campus, and continue working in between.
INSEAD holds both company / firm specific and open enrolment executive education programmes at its campuses in Europe and Asia and the Middle East, as well as in partnership with corporate universities. Participants usually come from senior or top management, with many years of experience within their company or industry and younger ' high - potentials ' identified as being key in succession strategies within their companies. Approximately 12,000 executives from over 125 countries undertake courses or programmes at INSEAD each year.
In 2011, INSEAD launched an Executive Certificate in Global Management which is a formal recognition awarded to participants who complete at least three INSEAD global management and leadership programmes within a four - year period.
INSEAD is consistently ranked among the world 's top business schools. Its MBA program has been ranked first globally in 2016 and 2017 in the Financial Times Global MBA Ranking, and second in the 2018 ranking. The dual degree Executive MBA with Tsinghua University is ranked first globally by the Financial Times. Moreover, INSEAD 's standalone Global Executive MBA is ranked seventh in the same ranking.. INSEAD is ranked first globally in the CEO World Magazine 2017 ranking of the Best Business Schools in the World.
INSEAD has the second highest number of MBA alumni holding Chief Executive Officer positions in 2015 in the Financial Times Global 500, which is composed of the world 's largest companies by market capitalization.
In 2015, PitchBook Data ranked INSEAD first outside the US and fifth globally for the number of MBA alumni receiving venture capital funding, with over $6.1 B raised. And, in 2016, the school 's MBA program was ranked fifth worldwide for social and environmental impact by Corporate Knights magazine.
INSEAD has exchange programmes with:
INSEAD has 15 research centres conducting research in different business and geographical areas. These include:
Teaching methods at INSEAD include case studies, lectures, peer - to - peer learning, tutorials, group work, simulations and role - plays.
The case method is largely used in the classroom as a teaching method. Business case studies authored by INSEAD professors are the second most widely used in classrooms by business schools globally, after Harvard Business School 's case studies.
The business cases that have been designed at INSEAD have received many awards, are made available in case clearing houses, and are used by many other business schools.
Business simulation games are used by INSEAD. Many of them have been designed by INSEAD faculties, and used in many institutions, including:
A number of researches and initiatives are conducted at INSEAD to incorporate innovative learning approaches.
Centers conduct research in learning technologies and approaches such as:
INSEAD currently has nine FT500 leaders. The Alumni Association was founded by a group of alumni in 1961, and works in close partnership with INSEAD to provide services to the global INSEAD alumni community of 46,000 + members in 171 countries. Many are members of the INSEAD International Alumni Association, which has 46 national alumni associations.
In addition to the national associations, INSEAD alumni have formed clubs and groups dedicated to specific industries and activities. These include the Hubert Society, Energy Club, INSEAD Healthcare Alumni Network and Salamander Golf Society.
Coordinates: 48 ° 24 ′ 19 '' N 2 ° 41 ′ 07 '' E / 48.4054 ° N 2.6853 ° E / 48.4054; 2.6853
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when was the last time mt lassen erupted | Lassen Peak - wikipedia
Lassen Peak, commonly referred to as Mount Lassen, is the southernmost active volcano in the Cascade Range of the Western United States. Located in the Shasta Cascade region of Northern California, Lassen stands 3,500 ft (1,100 m) above the surrounding terrain and has a volume of 0.5 cu mi (2 km), making it one of the largest lava domes on Earth. It arose on the destroyed northeastern flank of now - gone Mount Tehama, a stratovolcano at least 1,000 ft (300 m) higher than Lassen Peak. It is part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc, which stretches from southwestern British Columbia to northern California.
On May 22, 1915, a powerful explosive eruption at Lassen Peak devastated nearby areas, and spread volcanic ash as far as 200 mi (300 km) to the east. This explosion was the most powerful in a series of eruptions from 1914 through 1917. Lassen Peak and Mount St. Helens were the only two volcanoes in the contiguous United States to erupt during the 20th century. Lassen Volcanic National Park was created in Tehama County, California, to preserve the devastated areas as they were, for future observation and study, and to preserve the nearby volcanic features.
Lassen Peak has the highest known winter snowfall amounts in California. There is an average annual snowfall of 660 in (1,676 cm), and in some years, more than 1,000 in (2,500 cm) of snow falls at its base altitude of 8,250 ft (2,515 m) at Lake Helen. The Lassen Peak area receives more precipitation (rain, sleet, hail, snow, etc.) than anywhere in the Cascade Range south of the Three Sisters volcanoes in Oregon. The heavy annual snowfall on Lassen Peak creates fourteen permanent patches of snow on and around the mountain top, despite Lassen 's rather modest elevation, but no glaciers. Lightning has been known to strike the summit of the volcano frequently during summer thunderstorms.
Lassen Peak is the southernmost in the chain of eighteen large volcanic peaks that stretch from southwestern British Columbia to northern California. These peaks were formed during the past 35 million years while the large Juan de Fuca tectonic plate and the much smaller Gorda plate to its south subducted under the North American plate. As the oceanic crust of the Juan de Fuca plate melts in the subduction zone, pools of magma form; these have uplifted the Cascade Range and led to periodic volcanic eruptions.
Roughly 27,000 years ago, Lassen Peak started to form as a mound - shaped dacite lava dome pushed its way through Tehama 's destroyed north - eastern flank. As the lava dome grew it shattered overlaying rock, which formed a blanket of angular talus around the emerging steep - sided volcano. It likely resembled the nearby 1,100 - year - old Chaos Crags. Lassen Peak reached its present height in a relatively short time, probably in just a few years.
From 25,000 to 18,000 years ago, during the last glacial period of the current Ice Age, the shape of Lassen Peak was significantly modified by glacial erosion. For example, the bowl - shaped depression on the volcano 's northeastern flank, called a cirque, was eroded by a glacier that extended out 7 mi (11 km) from the dome.
The most recent eruptive period of Lassen Peak began in 1914, and lasted for about seven years (see below). The most powerful of these eruptions was an explosion in 1915 that sent ash and steam in a 6 mi (10 km) tall mushroom cloud, making it the largest recent eruption in the contiguous United States, until the explosion of Mount St. Helens in 1980. The region around Lassen Peak remains active, with mudpots, fumaroles, and hot springs demonstrating area activity. The areas around Lassen Peak and the nearby Mount Shasta are considered to be the most likely volcanoes in the Cascade Range to erupt during the coming decades and centuries.
Before the arrival of white settlers, the areas surrounding Lassen Peak, especially to its east, south, and southeast, were the traditional homeland of the northeastern Maidu American Indians.
Lassen Peak was named in honor of a Danish blacksmith, Peter Lassen, who guided immigrants past the peak to the Sacramento Valley during the 1830s. The trail that Lassen blazed never found generalized long - term use because it was considered unsafe. This trail was replaced by the Nobles Emigrant Trail, named for the guide William Nobles, which linked the Applegate Trail in northwestern Nevada to the northern part of the Sacramento Valley.
In 1864, Helen Tanner Brodt became the first white woman to reach the summit of Lassen Peak. A tarn lake on Lassen Peak is named "Lake Helen '' in her honor.
Beginning in 1914 and lasting until 1921, Lassen Peak emerged from dormancy with a series of phreatic eruptions (steam explosions), dacite lava flows, and lahars (volcanic mud flows). There were two to four hundred volcanic eruptions during this period of activity. Because of the eruptive activity and the area 's stark volcanic beauty, Lassen Peak, Cinder Cone, and the surrounding area were designated as the Lassen Volcanic National Park on August 9, 1916.
On May 30, 1914, Lassen became volcanically active again after 27,000 years dormancy, when it was shaken by a steam explosion. Such steam blasts occur when molten magma rises toward the surface of a volcano and heats shallow - lying groundwater. The superheated water rises under pressure through cracks, and upon nearing the surface, it flashes into steam, which then vents explosively through the paths of least resistance. By mid-May 1915, more than 180 steam explosions had blown out a 1,000 ft (300 m) wide crater near the summit of Lassen Peak.
Then the character of the eruption changed dramatically. On the evening of May 14, 1915, incandescent blocks of lava could be seen bouncing down the flanks of Lassen Peak from as far away as the town of Manton, 20 mi (30 km) to the west. By the next morning, a growing dome of dacite lava (lava consisting of 63 % to 68 % silica) had filled the volcano 's crater.
Late on the evening of May 19, a large steam explosion fragmented the dome, creating a new crater at the summit of Lassen Peak. No new magma was ejected in this explosion, but glowing blocks of hot lava from the dome fell onto the summit and snow - covered upper flanks of Lassen Peak. These falling blocks launched a half mile (800 m) wide avalanche of snow and volcanic rock that roared 4 mi (10 km) down the volcano 's steep northeast flank and over a low ridge at Emigrant Pass into Hat Creek.
As the hot lava blocks broke into smaller fragments, the snow melted, generating a mudflow of volcanic materials, called a lahar. The bulk of this lahar was deflected northwestward at Emigrant Pass and flowed 7 mi (11.3 km) down Lost Creek. Even after coming to rest, both the avalanche and lahar released huge volumes of water, flooding the lower Hat Creek Valley during the early morning hours of May 20. The lahar and flood destroyed six mostly not - yet - occupied summer ranch houses. The few people in these houses escaped with minor injuries.
Also during the night of May 19 -- 20, dacite lava somewhat more fluid than that which erupted on the night of May 14 -- 15 welled up into and filled the new crater at Lassen 's summit, spilled over low spots on its rim, and flowed 1,000 ft (300 m) down the steep west and northeast flanks of the volcano.
Then at 4: 20 p.m. on May 22, after two quiet days, Lassen exploded in a powerful eruption (referred to as "the Great Explosion '') that blasted volcanic ash, rock fragments, and pumice high into the air. This created the larger and deeper of the two craters seen near the summit of the volcano today. A huge column of volcanic ash and gas rose more than 30,000 ft (10,000 m) into the air and was visible from as far as Eureka, 150 mi (240 km) to the west, on the Pacific Coast.
Pumice falling onto the northeastern slope of Lassen Peak generated a high - speed avalanche of hot ash, pumice, rock fragments, and gas, called a pyroclastic flow, that swept down the side of the volcano, devastating a 3 sq mi (8 km) area. The pyroclastic flow rapidly incorporated and melted snow in its path. The water from the melted snow transformed the flow into a highly fluid lahar that followed the path of the lahar of May 19 -- 20, and it rushed nearly 10 miles (16 km) down "Lost Creek '' to the Old Station. This new lahar released a large volume of water that flooded the lower Hat Creek Valley a second time.
The powerful climactic eruption of May 22 also swept away the northeast lobe of the lava flow extruded two days earlier. The eruption produced smaller mudflows on all flanks of Lassen Peak, deposited a layer of volcanic ash and pumice traceable for 25 miles (40 km) to the northeast, and rained fine ash at least as far away as Winnemucca, Nevada, 200 mi (320 km) to the east. Together, these events created a devastated area, which is still sparsely populated by trees due to the low nutrient level and high porosity of the soil.
For several years after the large eruption in 1915, spring snowmelt water percolating down into Lassen Peak triggered steam explosions, an indication that magma beneath the surface of the volcano remained quite hot. Vigorous steam explosions in May 1917 blasted out the second of the two craters that are now seen near the northwest corner of the volcano 's summit. The two older craters were buried.
Steam vents could be found in the area of these craters into the 1950s, but their activity gradually waned, and they are difficult to locate today. Since then, the United States Geological Survey, in cooperation with the National Park Service, has been monitoring Lassen Peak and other volcanic and geothermal areas in the park.
Film made of the 1915 -- 1917 eruptions was rediscovered and published in 2015 by the Shasta Historical Society.
As the second - tallest volcano in Northern California, trailing only Mount Shasta, Lassen Peak is frequently visited by climbers and hikers. The mountain can be climbed year - round. The most popular climbing route in the warmer months is the Lassen Peak Trail, a 5 - mile round trip hike that ascends approximately 2,000 feet from the trailhead at 8,500 feet to the summit. Winter climbs on the mountain can involve longer approaches due to road closures and more extreme conditions due to the heavy snowfall the peak typically receives.
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who played polly in after the thin man | After the Thin Man - wikipedia
After the Thin Man is a 1936 American film, starring William Powell, Myrna Loy, and James Stewart, that is the sequel to the film The Thin Man. The movie presents Powell and Loy as Dashiell Hammett 's characters Nick and Nora Charles. The film was directed by W.S. Van Dyke and also featured Elissa Landi, Joseph Calleia, Jessie Ralph, Alan Marshal, and Penny Singleton.
This was actually the sixth pairing for Myrna Loy and William Powell. The two made 14 pictures together, six of them in the Thin Man series.
Nick and Nora Charles return from vacation to their home in San Francisco on New Year 's Eve, where Nora 's stuffy family expect the couple to join them for a formal dinner. Nick is despised by Nora 's Aunt Katherine, the family matriarch, as his immigrant heritage and experience as a "flat foot '' are considered below Nora. The true reason for their invitation is that Nora 's cousin Selma 's ne'er - do - well husband Robert has been missing. Nick is coerced into a little quiet detective work for the family.
They easily find Robert at a Chinese nightclub, where he 's been conducting an affair with Polly, the star performer. Robert tries to extort money from Selma 's unrequited love, David Graham (James Stewart): $25,000 and Robert will leave Selma alone permanently. Unknown to Robert, Polly and the nightclub 's owner, Dancer, plan to grift the money and dispose of him. After being paid off, and returning home for some clothes, Robert is shot at the stroke of midnight. David finds Selma standing over Robert and hurriedly disposes of her gun. Despite this, the police determine that she 's the prime suspect, and her fragile mental state only strengthens the case. Selma insists that she never fired her gun, and Nick is now obliged to investigate and determine the true murderer.
As suspects pile up, schemes and double - crosses are found and two more murders occur, including Polly 's brutal brother. Lt. Abrams (Sam Levene, making his series debut) readily accepts Nick 's assistance. Nick follows a trail of clues that lead him to the apartment of a mysterious "Anderson ''. As in the previous film, the film climaxes with a final interrogation and denouement featuring all the suspects. The murderer is revealed to be David (the mysterious "Anderson ''), who has harbored a vengeful hatred of Selma after she passed him over to marry Robert. The case solved, and once again traveling by train, Nora reveals to Nick that they are expecting a baby, although Nick has to be prodded into putting the "clues '' together and she comments: "And you call yourself a detective. ''
The cast is listed in order as documented by the American Film Institute.
The film 's story was written by Dashiell Hammett, based on his characters Nick and Nora, but not a particular novel or short story. Albert Hackett and Frances Goodrich wrote the screenplay.
The film was nominated for an Oscar in 1937 for Best Writing, Screenplay. The film carries a 100 % rating at Rotten Tomatoes, and 89 % audience rating.
The film grossed a total (domestic and foreign) of $3,165,000: $1,992,000 from the US and Canada and $1,173,000 elsewhere. It made a profit of $1,516,000.
After the Thin Man was presented on Lux Radio Theatre on CBS radio on June 17, 1940. Powell and Loy reprised their roles from the film in the hour - long adaptation.
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where was the bay of pigs launched from | Bay of Pigs invasion - wikipedia
The Bay of Pigs Invasion (Spanish: Invasión de Playa Girón or Invasión de Bahía de Cochinos or Batalla de Girón) was a failed military invasion of Cuba undertaken by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) - sponsored paramilitary group Brigade 2506 on 17 April 1961. A counter-revolutionary military group (made up of mostly Cuban exiles who traveled to the United States after Castro 's takeover, but also of some US military personnel), trained and funded by the CIA, Brigade 2506 fronted the armed wing of the Democratic Revolutionary Front (DRF) and intended to overthrow the increasingly communist government of Fidel Castro. Launched from Guatemala and Nicaragua, the invading force was defeated within three days by the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces, under the direct command of Castro.
The coup of 1952 led by General Fulgencio Batista, an ally of the United States, against President Carlos Prio, forced Prio into exile to Miami, Florida. Prio 's exile was the reason for the 26th July Movement led by Castro. The movement, which did not succeed until after the Cuban Revolution of 31 December 1958, severed the country 's formerly strong links with the US after nationalizing American economic assets (banks, oil refineries, sugar and coffee plantations, along with other American owned businesses).
It was after the Cuban Revolution of 1959, that Castro forged strong economic links with the Soviet Union, with which, at the time, the United States was engaged in the Cold War. US President Dwight D. Eisenhower was very concerned at the direction Castro 's government was taking, and in March 1960 he allocated $13.1 million to the CIA to plan Castro 's overthrow (though the plan was put off for Kennedy to decide). The CIA proceeded to organize the operation with the aid of various Cuban counter-revolutionary forces, training Brigade 2506 in Guatemala. Eisenhower 's successor, John F. Kennedy, approved the final invasion plan on 4 April 1961.
Over 1,400 paramilitaries, divided into five infantry battalions and one paratrooper battalion, assembled in Guatemala before setting out for Cuba by boat on 13 April 1961. Two days later, on 15 April, eight CIA - supplied B - 26 bombers attacked Cuban airfields and then returned to the US. On the night of 16 April, the main invasion landed at a beach named Playa Girón in the Bay of Pigs. It initially overwhelmed a local revolutionary militia. The Cuban Army 's counter-offensive was led by José Ramón Fernández, before Castro decided to take personal control of the operation. As the US involvement became apparent to the world, and with the initiative turning against the invasion, Kennedy decided against providing further air cover. As a result, the operation only had half the forces the CIA had deemed necessary. The original plan devised during Eisenhower 's presidency had required both air and naval support. On 20 April, the invaders surrendered after only three days, with the majority being publicly interrogated and put into Cuban prisons.
The failed invasion helped to strengthen the position of Castro 's leadership, made him a national hero, and entrenched the rocky relationship between the former allies. It also strengthened the relations between Cuba and the Soviet Union. This eventually led to the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The invasion was a major failure for US foreign policy; Kennedy ordered a number of internal investigations across Latin America. Cuban forces under Castro 's leadership clashed directly with US forces during the Invasion of Grenada over 20 years later.
Since the middle of the 18th century Cuba had been the crown jewel of the Spanish colonial empire. In the late 19th century, Cuban nationalist revolutionaries rebelled against Spanish dominance, resulting in three liberation wars: the Ten Years ' War (1868 -- 1878), the Little War (1879 -- 1880) and the Cuban War of Independence (1895 -- 1898). The United States government proclaimed war on the Spanish Empire, resulting in the Spanish -- American War (1898). The US subsequently invaded the island, and forced the Spanish army out. On 20 May 1902, a new independent government proclaimed the foundation of the Republic of Cuba, with US Military governor Leonard Wood handing over control to President Tomás Estrada Palma, a Cuban - born US citizen. Subsequently, large numbers of US settlers and businessmen arrived in Cuba, and by 1905, 60 % of rural properties were owned by non-Cuban North Americans. Between 1906 and 1909, 5,000 US Marines were stationed across the island, and returned in 1912, 1917 and 1921 to intervene in internal affairs, sometimes at the behest of the Cuban government.
In March 1952, a Cuban general and politician, Fulgencio Batista, seized power on the island, proclaimed himself president and deposed the discredited president Carlos Prío Socarrás of the Partido Auténtico. Batista canceled the planned presidential elections, and described his new system as "disciplined democracy ''. Although Batista gained some popular support, many Cubans saw it as the establishment of a one - man dictatorship. Many opponents of the Batista regime took to armed rebellion in an attempt to oust the government, sparking the Cuban Revolution. One of these groups was the National Revolutionary Movement (Movimiento Nacional Revolucionario -- MNR), a militant organization containing largely middle class members that had been founded by the Professor of Philosophy Rafael García Bárcena. Another was the Directorio Revolucionario Estudantil (DRE), which had been founded by the Federation of University Students (FEU) President José Antonio Echevarría (1932 -- 1957). However, the best known of these anti-Batista groups was the "26th of July Movement '' (MR - 26 - 7), founded by a lawyer named Fidel Castro. With Castro as the MR - 26 - 7 's head, the organization was based upon a clandestine cell system, with each cell containing ten members, none of whom knew the whereabouts or activities of the other cells.
Between December 1956 and 1959, Castro led a guerrilla army against the forces of Batista from his base camp in the Sierra Maestra mountains. Batista 's repression of revolutionaries had earned him widespread unpopularity, and by 1958 his armies were in retreat. On 31 December 1958, Batista resigned and fled into exile, taking with him an amassed fortune of more than US $ 300,000,000. The presidency fell to Castro 's chosen candidate, the lawyer Manuel Urrutia Lleó, while members of the MR - 26 - 7 took control of most positions in the cabinet. On 16 February 1959, Castro himself took on the role of Prime Minister. Dismissing the need for elections, Castro proclaimed the new administration an example of direct democracy, in which the Cuban populace could assemble en masse at demonstrations and express their democratic will to him personally. Critics instead condemned the new regime as un-democratic.
Soon after the success of the Cuban Revolution, militant counter-revolutionary groups developed in an attempt to overthrow the new regime. Undertaking armed attacks against government forces, some set up guerrilla bases in Cuba 's mountainous regions, leading to the six - year Escambray Rebellion. These dissidents were funded and armed by various foreign sources, including the exiled Cuban community, the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and Rafael Trujillo 's regime in the Dominican Republic. No quarter was given during the suppression of the resistance in the Escambray Mountains, where former rebels from the war against Batista took different sides. On 3 April 1961, a bomb attack on militia barracks in Bayamo killed four militia, and wounded eight more. On 6 April, the Hershey Sugar factory in Matanzas was destroyed by sabotage. On 14 April 1961, guerrillas led by Agapito Rivera fought Cuban government forces near Las Cruces, Montembo, Las Villas, where several government troops were killed and others wounded. Also on 14 April 1961, a Cubana airliner was hijacked and flown to Jacksonville, Florida; resultant confusion then helped the staged ' defection ' of a B - 26 and pilot at Miami on 15 April.
Castro 's government began a crackdown on this opposition movement, arresting hundreds of dissidents. Though it rejected the physical torture Batista 's regime had used, Castro 's government sanctioned psychological torture, subjecting some prisoners to solitary confinement, rough treatment, hunger, and threatening behavior. After conservative editors and journalists began expressing hostility towards the government following its left - ward turn, the pro-Castro printers ' trade union began to harass and disrupt editorial staff actions. In January 1960, the government proclaimed that each newspaper was obliged to publish a "clarification '' by the printers ' union at the end of any article that criticized the government. This was the start of press censorship in Castro 's Cuba.
Popular uproar across Cuba demanded that those figures who had been complicit in the widespread torture and killing of civilians be brought to justice. Although he remained a moderating force and tried to prevent the mass reprisal killings of Batistanos advocated by many Cubans, Castro helped to set up trials of many figures involved in the old regime across the country, resulting in hundreds of executions. Critics, in particular from the U.S. press, argued that many of these did not meet the standards of a fair trial, and condemned Cuba 's new government as being more interested in vengeance than justice. Castro retaliated strongly against such accusations, proclaiming that "revolutionary justice is not based on legal precepts, but on moral conviction. '' In a show of support for this "revolutionary justice '', he organized the first Havana trial to take place before a mass audience of 17,000 at the Sports Palace stadium; when a group of aviators accused of bombing a village were found not guilty, he ordered a retrial, in which they were instead found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment. On 11 March 1961, Jesus Carreras and American William Alexander Morgan (a former Castro ally) were executed after a trial.
Castro 's Cuban government ordered the country 's oil refineries -- then controlled by US corporations Esso and Standard Oil and Anglo - Dutch Shell -- to process crude oil purchased from the Soviet Union, but under pressure from the US government, these companies refused. Castro responded by expropriating the refineries and nationalizing them under state control. In retaliation, the US canceled its import of Cuban sugar, provoking Castro to nationalize most US - owned assets, including banks and sugar mills. Relations between Cuba and the US were further strained following the explosion and sinking of a French vessel, the Le Coubre, in Havana harbor in March 1960. The cause of the explosion was never determined, but Castro publicly insinuated that the US government were guilty of sabotage. On 13 October 1960, the US government then prohibited the majority of exports to Cuba -- the exceptions being medicines and certain foodstuffs -- marking the start of an economic embargo. In retaliation, the Cuban National Institute for Agrarian Reform took control of 383 private - run businesses on 14 October, and on 25 October a further 166 US companies operating in Cuba had their premises seized and nationalized, including Coca - Cola and Sears Roebuck. On 16 December, the US then ended its import quota of Cuban sugar.
The US government was becoming increasingly critical of Castro 's revolutionary government. At an August 1960 meeting of the Organization of American States (OAS) held in Costa Rica, the US Secretary of State, Christian Herter, publicly proclaimed that Castro 's administration was "following faithfully the Bolshevik pattern '' by instituting a single - party political system, taking governmental control of trade unions, suppressing civil liberties, and removing both the freedom of speech and freedom of the press. He furthermore asserted that international communism was using Cuba as an "operational base '' for spreading revolution in the western hemisphere, and called on other OAS members to condemn the Cuban government for its breach of human rights. In turn, Castro lambasted the treatment of black people and the working classes he had witnessed in New York, which he lampooned as that "superfree, superdemocratic, superhumane, and supercivilized city ''. Proclaiming that the US poor were living "in the bowels of the imperialist monster '', he attacked the mainstream US media and accused it of being controlled by big business. It must be noted that, on the surface, the US was trying to improve its relationship with Cuba. Several negotiations between representatives from Cuba and the US took place around this time. Repairing financial international relations was the focal point of these discussions. Political relations were another hot topic of these conferences. The US stated that they would not interfere with Cuba 's choice of government or its domestic structure; however, the US also ordered the Cubans to sever all ties with the Soviet Union.
In August 1960, the CIA contacted the Cosa Nostra in Chicago with the intention to draft a simultaneous assassination of Fidel Castro, Raúl Castro and Che Guevara. In exchange, if the operation was a success and if a pro-US government was restored in Cuba, the CIA agreed that the Mafia would get their "monopoly on gaming, prostitution and drugs. ''
Tensions percolated when the CIA began to act on its desires to snuff out Castro. The general public became aware of the attempts to assassinate Castro in 1975 when a report was leaked. Frank Church was the leader of a Senate Committee that was responsible for drafting a report on these clandestine CIA operations. Fourteen reports were issued under the name "Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders ''. Castro was one of the leaders that the "alleged assassination plots '' referred to. Efforts to murder Castro officially commenced in 1960. Some methods that the CIA undertook to murder Castro were ridiculously creative. Some examples of these creative ways are: "poison pills, an exploding sea shell, and a planned gift of a diving suit contaminated with toxins. '' More traditional ways of slaying Castro were also planned, such as elimination via high - powered rifles with telescopic sights. CIA agents went to unbelievable lengths to try to murder Castro. Another example of this comes from operation AMLASH. Rolando Cubela was a Cuban Revolutionary hero that headlined this operation. He was contacted with hopes of possibly recruiting someone close to Fidel Castro that was interested in creating a military coup. However, this goal shifted from that to strictly hopes of recruiting someone close to Castro to murder him. All of the time, effort, and resources the CIA devoted to killing Castro were ultimately futile. Moreover, the time period selected by the CIA to carry out these missions stirs up a bit of controversy. In 1963, the CIA made plans to murder Castro, while in the same year, the Kennedy administration had peace talks with Castro. To complicate things even further, a high level CIA agent by the name of Desmond Fitzgerald met with Rolando Cubela and portrayed himself as a personal representative of Robert Kennedy without Kennedy 's actually knowing about it.
The idea of overthrowing Castro 's dictatorship first emerged within the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), an independent civilian intelligence agency of the United States government, in early 1960. Founded in 1947 by the National Security Act, the CIA was "a product of the Cold War '', having been designed to counter the espionage activities of the Soviet Union 's own national security agency, the KGB. As the perceived threat of "international communism '' grew larger, the CIA expanded its activities to undertake covert economic, political, and military activities that would advance causes favourable to U.S. interests (often resulting in brutal dictatorships that favored US interests). The CIA 's Director at the time, Allen Dulles, was responsible for overseeing clandestine operations across the world, and although widely considered an ineffectual administrator, he was immensely popular among his employees, whom he had protected from the accusations of McCarthyism. Recognizing that Castro and his government were becoming increasingly hostile and openly opposed to the United States, President Dwight D. Eisenhower directed the Central Intelligence Agency to begin preparations of invading Cuba and overthrowing the Castro regime. The man overseeing plans for the Bay of Pigs Invasion was Richard M. Bissell Jr., the CIA 's Deputy Director for Plans (DDP). Putting together a "Special Group '' known as the 5412 Committee, he assembled a number of other agents to aid him in the plot, many of whom had worked on the 1954 Guatemalan coup six years before; these included David Philips, Gerry Droller and E. Howard Hunt.
Bissell placed Droller in charge of liaising with anti-Castro segments of the Cuban - American community living in the United States, and asked Hunt to fashion a government - in - exile, which the CIA would effectively control. Hunt proceeded to travel to Havana, the capital city of Cuba, where he spoke with Cubans from various different backgrounds and discovered a brothel through the Mercedes - Benz agency. Returning to the US, he informed the Cuban - Americans with whom he was liaising that they would have to move their base of operations from Florida to Mexico City, because the State Department refused to permit the training of a militia on US soil. Although unhappy with the news, they conceded to the order.
On 17 March 1960, the CIA put forward their plan for the overthrow of Castro 's administration to the U.S. National Security Council (NSC), where it was given the support of US President Dwight D. Eisenhower. The stated first objective of the plan was to "bring about the replacement of the Castro regime with one more devoted to the true interests of the Cuban people and more acceptable to the US in such a manner to avoid any appearance of US intervention. '' Four major forms of action were to be taken to aid anti-communist opposition in Cuba at the time. These were to: provide a powerful propaganda offensive against the regime, perfect a covert intelligence network within Cuba, develop paramilitary forces outside of Cuba, and get the necessary logistical support for covert military operations on the island. At this stage it was still not clear that an invasion would take place.
On 18 August 1960, Eisenhower approved a budget of $13,000,000 for the operation. By 31 October 1960, most guerrilla infiltrations and supply drops directed by the CIA into Cuba had failed, and developments of further guerrilla strategies were replaced by plans to mount an initial amphibious assault, with a minimum of 1,500 men. On 18 November 1960, Allen Dulles (CIA Director) and Richard Bissell (CIA Deputy Director for Plans) first briefed President - elect John Kennedy on the outline plans. Having experience in actions such as the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état, Dulles was confident that the CIA was capable of overthrowing the Cuban government as led by Prime Minister Fidel Castro since 16 February 1959. On 29 November 1960, President Eisenhower met with the chiefs of the CIA, Defense, State and Treasury departments to discuss the new concept. No objections were expressed, and Eisenhower approved the plans, with the intention of persuading John Kennedy of their merit. On 8 December 1960, Bissell presented outline plans to the "Special Group '' while declining to commit details to written records. Further development of the plans continued, and on 4 January 1961 they consisted of an intention to carry out a "lodgement '' by 750 men at an undisclosed site in Cuba, supported by considerable air power.
Meanwhile, in the 1960 presidential election, both main candidates, Richard Nixon of the Republican Party and John F. Kennedy of the Democratic Party, campaigned on the issue of Cuba, with both candidates taking a hardline stance on Castro. Nixon -- who was then Vice President -- sent a military aide to Dulles to ask how the planned invasion was progressing; he believed that it was taking too long, considering the swift preparation of the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'etat. Nixon insisted that Kennedy should not be informed of the military plans, to which Dulles conceded.
On 28 January 1961, President Kennedy was briefed, together with all the major departments, on the latest plan (code - named Operation Pluto), which involved 1,000 men landed in a ship - borne invasion at Trinidad, Cuba, about 270 km (170 mi) south - east of Havana, at the foothills of the Escambray Mountains in Sancti Spiritus province. Kennedy authorized the active departments to continue, and to report progress. Trinidad had good port facilities, it was closer to many existing counter-revolutionary activities, it had an easily defensible beachhead, and it offered an escape route into the Escambray Mountains. When that scheme was subsequently rejected by the State Department, the CIA went on to propose an alternative plan. Kennedy rejected the landings at Trinidad largely because the airfield there was not large enough for B - 26 bombers and, since B - 26s were to play a prominent role in the invasion, this would destroy the façade that the invasion was just an uprising with no American involvement. On 4 April 1961, President Kennedy then approved the Bay of Pigs plan (also known as Operation Zapata), because it had an airfield that did not need extending to handle bomber operations, it was farther away from large groups of civilians than the Trinidad plan, and it was less "noisy '' militarily, which would make any future denial of direct US involvement more plausible. The invasion landing area was changed to beaches bordering the Bahía de Cochinos (Bay of Pigs) in Las Villas Province, 150 km south - east of Havana, and east of the Zapata Peninsula. The landings were to take place at Playa Girón (code - named Blue Beach), Playa Larga (code - named Red Beach), and Caleta Buena Inlet (code - named Green Beach).
Interestingly, top aids to Kennedy, such as the secretary of state Dean Rusk and both Joint chiefs of staff later said that they had hesitations about the plans but muted their thoughts. Some leaders blamed these problems on the "Cold War mindset '' or the determination of the Kennedy brothers to oust Castro and fulfill campaign promises.
In March 1961, the CIA helped Cuban exiles in Miami to create the Cuban Revolutionary Council (CRC), chaired by José Miró Cardona, former Prime Minister of Cuba in January 1959. Cardona became the de facto leader - in - waiting of the intended post-invasion Cuban government.
In April 1960, the CIA began to recruit anti-Castro Cuban exiles in the Miami area. Until July 1960, assessment and training was carried out on Useppa Island and at various other facilities in South Florida, such as Homestead AFB. Specialist guerrilla training took place at Fort Gulick, Panama and at Fort Clayton, Panama. The force that became Brigade 2506 started with 28 men, who initially were told that their training was being paid for by an anonymous Cuban millionaire émigré, but the recruits soon guessed who was paying the bills, calling their supposed anonymous benefactor "Uncle Sam '', and the pretense was dropped. The overall leader was Dr. Manuel Artime while the military leader was José "Pepe '' Peréz San Román, a former Cuban Army officer imprisoned under both Batista and Castro.
For the increasing ranks of recruits, infantry training was carried out at a CIA - run base (code - named JMTrax) near Retalhuleu in the Sierra Madre on the Pacific coast of Guatemala. The exiled group named themselves Brigade 2506 (Brigada Asalto 2506). In summer 1960, an airfield (code - named JMadd, aka Rayo Base) was constructed near Retalhuleu, Guatemala. Gunnery and flight training of Brigade 2506 aircrews was carried out by personnel from Alabama ANG (Air National Guard) under General Reid Doster, using at least six Douglas B - 26 Invaders in the markings of Fuerza Aérea Guatemalteca, legitimate delivery of those being delayed by about six months. An additional 26 B - 26s were obtained from US military stocks, ' sanitized ' at ' Field Three ' to obscure their origins, and about 20 of them were converted for offensive operations by removal of defensive armament, standardization of the ' eight - gun nose ', addition of underwing drop tanks and rocket racks. Paratroop training was at a base nicknamed Garrapatenango, near Quetzaltenango, Guatemala. Training for boat handling and amphibious landings took place at Vieques Island, Puerto Rico. Tank training took place at Fort Knox, Kentucky, and Fort Benning, Georgia. Underwater demolition and infiltration training took place at Belle Chase near New Orleans. To create a navy, the CIA purchased five cargo ships from the Cuban - owned, but Miami - based Garcia Line, thereby giving "plausible deniability '' as the State Department had insisted no US ships could be involved in the invasion. The first four of the five ships, namely the Atlantico, the Caribe, the Houston and Rió Escondido were to carry enough supplies and weapons to last thirty days while the Lake Charles had 15 days of supplies and was intended to land the provisional government of Cuba. The ships were loaded with supplies at New Orleans and sailed to Puerto Cabezas, Nicaragua. Additionally, the invasion force had two old Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) ships, the Blagar and Barbara J from World War II that were part of the CIA 's "ghost ship '' fleet and served as command ships for the invasion. The crews of the supply ships were Cuban while the crews of the LCIs were Americans, borrowed by the CIA from the Military Sea Transportation Service (MSTS) One CIA officer wrote that MSTS sailors were all professional and experienced, but not trained for combat.
In November 1960, the Retalhuleu recruits took part in quelling an officers ' rebellion in Guatemala, in addition to the intervention of the US Navy.
The CIA transported people, supplies, and arms from Florida to all the bases at night, using Douglas C - 54 transports. On 9 April 1961, Brigade 2506 personnel, ships, and aircraft started transferring from Guatemala to Puerto Cabezas. Curtiss C - 46s were also used for transport between Retalhuleu and a CIA base (code - named JMTide, aka Happy Valley) at Puerto Cabezas.
Facilities and limited logistical assistance were provided by the governments of General Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes in Guatemala, and General Luis Somoza Debayle in Nicaragua, but no military personnel or equipment of those nations was directly employed in the conflict. Both governments later received military training and equipment, including some of the CIA 's remaining B - 26s.
In early 1961, Cuba 's army possessed Soviet - designed T - 34 medium tanks, IS - 2 heavy tanks, SU - 100 tank destroyers, 122mm howitzers, other artillery and small arms plus Italian 105mm howitzers. The Cuban air force armed inventory included Douglas B - 26 Invader light bombers, Hawker Sea Fury fighters, and Lockheed T - 33 jets, all remaining from the Fuerza Aérea del Ejército de Cuba (FAEC), the Cuban air force of the Batista government.
Anticipating an invasion, Che Guevara stressed the importance of an armed civilian populace, stating: "all of the Cuban people must become a guerrilla army; each and every Cuban must learn to handle and if necessary use firearms in defense of the nation ''.
In April 1960, FRD (Frente Revolucionario Democratico - Democratic Revolutionary Front) rebels were taken to Useppa Island, a private island off the coast of Florida, which was covertly leased by the CIA at the time. Once the rebels had arrived they were greeted by instructors from U.S. Army special forces groups, members from the U.S. Air Force and Air National Guard and members of the CIA. The rebels were trained in amphibious assault tactics, guerrilla warfare, infantry and weapons training, unit tactics and land navigation.
Recruiting of Cuban exiles in Miami was organized by CIA staff officers E. Howard Hunt and Gerry Droller. Detailed planning, training and military operations were conducted by Jacob Esterline, Colonel Jack Hawkins, Felix Rodriguez and Colonel Stanley W. Beerli under the direction of Richard Bissell and his deputy Tracy Barnes.
Already, Fidel Castro was known as, and addressed as, the commander - in - chief of Cuban armed forces, with a nominal base at ' Point One ' in Havana. In early April 1961, his brother Raúl Castro was assigned command of forces in the east, based in Santiago de Cuba. Che Guevara commanded western forces, based in Pinar del Río. Major Juan Almeida Bosque commanded forces in the central provinces, based in Santa Clara. Raúl Curbelo Morales was head of the air force. Sergio del Valle Jiménez was Director of Headquarters Operations at Point One. Efigenio Ameijeiras was the Head of the Revolutionary National Police. Ramiro Valdés Menéndez was Minister of the Interior and head of G - 2 (Seguridad del Estado, or state security). His deputy was Comandante Manuel Piñeiro Losada, also known as ' Barba Roja '. Captain José Ramón Fernández was head of the School of Militia Leaders (Cadets) at Matanzas.
Other commanders of units during the conflict included Major Raúl Menéndez Tomassevich, Major Filiberto Olivera Moya, Major René de los Santos, Major Augusto Martínez Sanchez, Major Félix Duque, Major Pedro Miret, Major Flavio Bravo, Major Antonio Lussón, Captain Orlando Pupo Pena, Captain Victor Dreke, Captain Emilio Aragonés, Captain Angel Fernández Vila, Arnaldo Ochoa, and Orlando Rodriguez Puerta.
Soviet - trained Spanish advisors were brought to Cuba from Eastern Bloc countries. These advisors had held high staff positions in the Soviet armies during World War II, and became known as "Hispano - Soviets '', having long resided in the Soviet Union. The most senior of these were the Spanish communist veterans of the Spanish Civil War, Francisco Ciutat de Miguel, Enrique Líster, and Cuban - born Alberto Bayo. Ciutat de Miguel (Cuban alias: Ángel Martínez Riosola, commonly referred to as "Angelito ''), was an advisor to forces in the central provinces. The role of other Soviet agents at the time is uncertain, but some of them acquired greater fame later. For example, two KGB colonels, Vadim Kochergin and Victor Simanov were first sighted in Cuba in about September 1959.
The Cuban security apparatus knew the invasion was coming, via their extensive secret intelligence network, as well as loose talk by members of the brigade, some of which was heard in Miami, and was repeated in US and foreign newspaper reports. Nevertheless, days before the invasion, multiple acts of sabotage were carried out, such as the El Encanto fire, an arson attack in a department store in Havana on 13 April, that killed one shop worker. The Cuban government also had been warned by senior KGB agents Osvaldo Sánchez Cabrera and ' Aragon ', who died violently before and after the invasion, respectively. The general Cuban population was not well informed, except for CIA - funded Radio Swan. As of May 1960, almost all means of public communication were in the government 's hands.
On 29 April 2000, a Washington Post article, "Soviets Knew Date of Cuba Attack '', reported that the CIA had information indicating that the Soviet Union knew the invasion was going to take place, and did not inform Kennedy. On 13 April 1961, Radio Moscow broadcast an English - language newscast, predicting the invasion "in a plot hatched by the CIA '' using paid "criminals '' within a week. The invasion took place four days later.
David Ormsby - Gore, British Ambassador to the US, stated that British intelligence analysis, as made available to the CIA, indicated that the Cuban people were predominantly behind Castro, and that there was no likelihood of mass defections or insurrections.
From June to September 1960, the most time consuming task was the acquisition of the aircraft to be used in the invasion. The anti-Castro effort depended on the success of these aircraft. Although models such as the C - 46, C - 47 and C - 54 were to be used for airdrops and bomb drops as well as infiltration and exfiltration, they were looking for an aircraft that could perform tactical strikes. The two models that were going to be decided on were the Navy 's AD - 5 Skyraider or the Air Forces light bomber, the B - 26. The AD - 5 was readily available and ready for the Navy to train pilots, and in a meeting among a special group in the office of the Deputy Director of the CIA, the AD - 5 was approved and decided on. After a cost benefit analysis, word was sent that the AD - 5 plan would be abandoned and the B - 26 would take its place.
Under the cover of darkness, the invasion fleet set sail from Puerto Cabezas, Nicaragua and headed towards the Bay of Pigs on the night of 14 April. Following behind the fleet was the carrier USS Essex and five destroyers.
During the night of 14 / 15 April, a diversionary landing was planned near Baracoa, Oriente Province, by about 164 Cuban exiles commanded by Higinio ' Nino ' Diaz. Their mother ship, named La Playa or Santa Ana, had sailed from Key West under a Costa Rican ensign. Several US Navy destroyers were stationed offshore near Guantánamo Bay to give the appearance of an impending invasion fleet. The reconnaissance boats turned back to the ship after their crews detected activities by Cuban militia forces along the coastline.
As a result of those activities, at daybreak, a reconnaissance sortie over the Baracoa area was launched from Santiago de Cuba. That was a FAR (Fuerza Aérea Revolucionaria) (Cuban Air Force) T - 33, piloted by Lt Orestes Acosta, and it crashed fatally into the sea. On 17 April, his name was falsely quoted as a defector among the disinformation circulating in Miami.
The CIA, with the backing of the Pentagon, had originally requested permission to produce sonic booms over Havana on 14 April to create an air of confusion. The request was a form of psychological warfare that had proven successful in the overthrow of Jacobo Arbenz in Guatemala in 1954. The point was to create confusion in Havana and have it be a distraction to Castro if they could "break all the windows in town ''. The request was denied, however, since officials thought such would be too obvious a sign of involvement by the United States.
On 15 April 1961, at about 06: 00 AM Cuban local time, eight Douglas B - 26B Invader bombers in three groups simultaneously attacked three Cuban airfields at San Antonio de los Baños and at Ciudad Libertad (formerly named Campo Columbia), both near Havana, plus the Antonio Maceo International Airport at Santiago de Cuba. The B - 26s had been prepared by the CIA on behalf of Brigade 2506, and had been painted with the false flag markings of the FAR, the air force of the Cuban government. Each was armed with bombs, rockets and machine guns. They had flown from Puerto Cabezas in Nicaragua, and were crewed by exiled Cuban pilots and navigators of the self - styled Fuerza Aérea de Liberación (FAL). The purpose of the action (code - named Operation Puma) was reportedly to destroy most or all of the armed aircraft of the FAR in preparation for the main invasion. At Santiago, the two attackers destroyed a C - 47 transport, a PBY Catalina flying boat, two B - 26s and a civilian DC - 3 plus various other civilian aircraft. At San Antonio, the three attackers destroyed three FAR B - 26s, one Sea Fury and one T - 33, and one attacker diverted to Grand Cayman due to low usable fuel. Aircraft that diverted to the Caymans were aggressively seized since Great Britain was leery that the Cayman Islands might be perceived as a launch site for the invasion. At Ciudad Libertad, the three attackers destroyed only non-operational aircraft such as two P - 47 Thunderbolts. One of those attackers was damaged by anti-aircraft fire, and ditched about 50 km north of Cuba, with the loss of its crew Daniel Fernández Mon and Gaston Pérez. Its companion B - 26, also damaged, continued north and landed at Boca Chica field (Naval Air Station Key West), Florida. The crew, José Crespo and Lorenzo Pérez - Lorenzo, were granted political asylum, and made their way back to Nicaragua the next day via Miami and the daily CIA C - 54 flight from Opa - locka Airport to Puerto Cabezas Airport. Their B - 26, purposely numbered 933, the same as at least two other B - 26s that day for disinformation reasons, was held until late on 17 April.
About 90 minutes after the eight B - 26s had taken off from Puerto Cabezas to attack Cuban airfields, another B - 26 departed on a deception flight that took it close to Cuba but headed north towards Florida. Like the bomber groups, it carried false FAR markings and the same number 933 as painted on at least two of the others. Before departure, the cowling from one of the aircraft 's two engines was removed by CIA personnel, fired upon, then re-installed to give the false appearance that the aircraft had taken ground fire at some point during its flight. At a safe distance north of Cuba, the pilot feathered the engine with the pre-installed bullet holes in the cowling, radioed a mayday call, and requested immediate permission to land at Miami International airport. He landed and taxied to the military area of the airport near an Air Force C - 47 and was met by several government cars. The pilot was Mario Zúñiga, formerly of the FAEC (Cuban Air Force under Batista), and after landing he masqueraded as ' Juan Garcia ', and publicly claimed that three colleagues had also defected from the FAR. The next day he was granted political asylum, and that night he returned to Puerto Cabezas via Opa - Locka. This deception operation was successful at the time in convincing much of the world media that the attacks on the Cuban Air Force bases were the work of an internal anti-Communist faction, and did not involve outside actors.
At 10: 30 am on 15 April at the United Nations, the Cuban Foreign Minister Raúl Roa accused the US of aggressive air attacks against Cuba, and that afternoon formally tabled a motion to the Political (First) Committee of the UN General Assembly. Only days earlier, the CIA had unsuccessfully attempted to entice Raúl Roa into defecting. In response to Roa 's accusations before the UN, US ambassador to the UN Adlai Stevenson stated that US armed forces would not "under any conditions '' intervene in Cuba, and that the US would do everything in its power to ensure that no US citizens would participate in actions against Cuba. He also stated that Cuban defectors had carried out the attacks that day, and he presented a UPI wire photo of Zúñiga 's B - 26 in Cuban markings at Miami airport. Stevenson was later embarrassed to realize that the CIA had lied to him and to Secretary of State Dean Rusk.
President Kennedy supported the statement made by Stevenson: "I have emphasized before that this was a struggle of Cuban patriots against a Cuban dictator. While we could not be expected to hide our sympathies, we made it repeatedly clear that the armed forces of this country would not intervene in any way ''.
On 15 April, the Cuban national police, led by Efigenio Ameijeiras, started the process of arresting thousands of suspected anti-revolutionary individuals, and detaining them in provisional locations such as the Karl Marx Theatre, the moat of Fortaleza de la Cabana and the Principe Castle all in Havana, and the baseball park in Matanzas.
On the night of 15 / 16 April, the Nino Diaz group failed in a second attempted diversionary landing at a fresh location near Baracoa.
On 16 April, Merardo Leon, Jose Leon, and 14 others staged an armed uprising at Las Delicias Estate in Las Villas, with only four surviving. Leonel Martinez and three others took to the countryside.
Following the air strikes on airfields on 15 April 1961, the FAR managed to prepare for armed action at least four T - 33s, four Sea Furies and five or six B - 26s. All three types were armed with machine guns (20mm cannon, in the case of the Sea Furies) for air - to - air combat and for strafing of ships and ground targets. CIA planners had failed to discover that the US - supplied T - 33 jets had long been armed with M - 3 machine guns. The three types could also carry bombs, for attacks against ships and tanks.
No additional air strikes against Cuban airfields and aircraft were specifically planned before 17 April, because B - 26 pilots ' exaggerated claims gave the CIA false confidence in the success of 15 April attacks, until U-2 reconnaissance photos taken on 16 April showed otherwise. Late on 16 April, President Kennedy ordered cancellation of further airfield strikes planned for dawn on 17 April, to attempt plausible deniability of US direct involvement.
Late on 16 April, the CIA / Brigade 2506 invasion fleet converged on ' Rendezvous Point Zulu ', about 65 kilometres (40 mi) south of Cuba, having sailed from Puerto Cabezas in Nicaragua where they had been loaded with troops and other materiel, after loading arms and supplies at New Orleans. The US Navy operation was code - named Bumpy Road, having been changed from Crosspatch on 1 April 1961. The fleet, labelled the ' Cuban Expeditionary Force ' (CEF), included five 2,400 - ton (empty weight) freighter ships chartered by the CIA from the Garcia Line, and subsequently outfitted with anti-aircraft guns. Four of the freighters, Houston (code name Aguja), Río Escondido (code name Ballena), Caribe (code name Sardina), and Atlántico (code - name Tiburón), were planned to transport about 1,400 troops in seven battalions of troops and armaments near to the invasion beaches. The fifth freighter, Lake Charles, was loaded with follow - up supplies and some Operation 40 infiltration personnel. The freighters sailed under Liberian ensigns. Accompanying them were two LCIs (Landing Craft Infantry) outfitted with heavy armament at Key West. The LCIs were Blagar (code - name Marsopa) and Barbara J (code - name Barracuda), sailing under Nicaraguan ensigns. After exercises and training at Vieques Island, the CEF ships were individually escorted (outside visual range) to Point Zulu by US Navy destroyers USS Bache, USS Beale, USS Conway, USS Cony, USS Eaton, USS Murray, and USS Waller. US Navy Task Group 81.8 had already assembled off the Cayman Islands, commanded by Rear Admiral John E. Clark onboard aircraft carrier USS Essex, plus helicopter assault carrier USS Boxer, destroyers USS Hank, USS John W. Weeks, USS Purdy, USS Wren, and submarines USS Cobbler and USS Threadfin. Command and control ship USS Northampton and carrier USS Shangri - La were also reportedly active in the Caribbean at the time. USS San Marcos was a Landing Ship Dock that carried three LCUs (Landing Craft Utility) and four LCVPs (Landing Craft, Vehicles, Personnel). San Marcos had sailed from Vieques Island. At Point Zulu, the seven CEF ships sailed north without the USN escorts, except for San Marcos that continued until the seven landing craft were unloaded when just outside the 5 kilometres (3 mi) Cuban territorial limit.
During the night of 16 / 17 April, a mock diversionary landing was organized by CIA operatives near Bahía Honda, Pinar del Río Province. A flotilla containing equipment that broadcast sounds and other effects of a shipborne invasion landing provided the source of Cuban reports that briefly lured Fidel Castro away from the Bay of Pigs battlefront area.
At about 00: 00 on 17 April 1961, the two CIA LCIs Blagar and Barbara J, each with a CIA ' operations officer ' and an Underwater Demolition Team (UDT) of five frogmen, entered the Bay of Pigs (Bahía de Cochinos) on the southern coast of Cuba. They headed a force of four transport ships (Houston, Río Escondido, Caribe and Atlántico) carrying about 1,400 Cuban exile ground troops of Brigade 2506, plus tanks and other vehicles in the landing craft. At about 01: 00, Blagar, as the battlefield command ship, directed the principal landing at Playa Girón (code - named Blue Beach), led by the frogmen in rubber boats followed by troops from Caribe in small aluminium boats, then LCVPs and LCUs. Barbara J, leading Houston, similarly landed troops 35 km further northwest at Playa Larga (code - named Red Beach), using small fiberglass boats. Unloading troops at night was delayed, due to engine failures and boats damaged by unforeseen coral reefs. As the frogmen came in, they were shocked to discover that the Red Beach was lit with floodlights, which led to the location of the landing being hastily changed. As the frogmen landed, a firefight broke out when a jeep carrying Cuban militia happened by. The few militia in the area succeeded in warning Cuban armed forces via radio soon after the first landing, before the invaders overcame their token resistance. Castro was woken up at about 3: 15 am to be informed of the landings, which led him to put all militia units in the area on the highest state of alert and to order airstrikes. The Cuban regime planned to strike the brigadistas at Playa Larga first as they were inland before turning on the brigadistas at Girón at the sea. El Comandante departed personally to lead his forces into battle against the brigadistas.
At daybreak around 06: 30 AM, three FAR Sea Furies, one B - 26 bomber and two Lockheed T - 33 fighter jets started attacking those CEF ships still unloading troops. At about 06: 50, and 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) south of Playa Larga, Houston was damaged by several bombs and rockets from a Sea Fury and a T - 33, and about two hours later captain Luis Morse intentionally beached it on the western side of the bay. About 270 troops had been unloaded, but about 180 survivors who struggled ashore were incapable of taking part in further action because of the loss of most of their weapons and equipment. The loss of Houston was a great blow to the bridgadistas as that ship was carrying much of the Brigade 2506 's medical supplies, which meant that wounded bridgadistas had to make do with inadequate medical care. At about 07: 00, two invading FAL B - 26s attacked and sank the Cuban Navy Patrol Escort ship El Baire at Nueva Gerona on the Isle of Pines. They then proceeded to Girón to join two other B - 26s to attack Cuban ground troops and provide distraction air cover for the paratroop C - 46s and the CEF ships under air attack. Brigade 2506 's tanks had been all landed by 7: 30 am at Blue Beach and all of the troops by 8: 30 am. Neither San Román at Blue Beach nor Erneido Oliva at Red Beach could communicate as all of the radios had been soaked in the water during the landings.
At about 07: 30, five C - 46 and one C - 54 transport aircraft dropped 177 paratroops from the parachute battalion of Brigade 2506 in an action code - named Operation Falcon. About 30 men, plus heavy equipment, were dropped south of the Central Australia sugar mill on the road to Palpite and Playa Larga, but the equipment was lost in the swamps, and the troops failed to block the road. Other troops were dropped at San Blas, at Jocuma between Covadonga and San Blas, and at Horquitas between Yaguaramas and San Blas. Those positions to block the roads were maintained for two days, reinforced by ground troops from Playa Girón. The paratroopers had landed amid a collection of militia, but their training allowed them to hold their own against the ill - trained militiamen. However, the dispersal of the paratroopers as they landed meant they were unable to take the road from the Central Australia sugar mill down to Playa Larga, which allowed the government to continue to send troops down to resist the invasion.
At about 08: 30, a FAR Sea Fury piloted by Carlos Ulloa Arauz crashed in the bay, due to stalling or anti-aircraft fire, after encountering a FAL C - 46 returning south after dropping paratroops. By 09: 00, Cuban troops and militia from outside the area had started arriving at the Central Australia sugar mill, Covadonga and Yaguaramas. Throughout the day they were reinforced by more troops, heavy armour and T - 34 tanks typically carried on flat - bed trucks. At about 09: 30, FAR Sea Furies and T - 33s fired rockets at Rio Escondido, which then ' blew up ' and sank about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) south of Girón. Rio Escondido was loaded with aviation fuel and as the ship started to burn, the captain gave the order to abandon ship with the ship being destroyed in three explosions shortly afterwards. Rio Escondido carried not only fuel, but also enough ammunition, food and medical supplies to last ten days and the radio that allowed the Brigade to communicate with the Liberation Air Force. The loss of the communications ship Rio Escondido meant that San Román was only able to issue orders to the forces at Blue Beach, and he had no idea of what was happening at Red Beach or with the paratroopers. A messenger from Red Beach arrived at about 10: 00 am asking San Román to send tank and infantry to block the road from the Central Australia sugar mill, a request that he agreed to. It was not expected that government forces would be counter-attacking from this direction.
At about 11: 00, Premier Fidel Castro issued a statement over Cuba 's nationwide network saying that the invaders, members of the exiled Cuban revolutionary front, have come to destroy the revolution and take away the dignity and rights of men.
At about 11: 00, a FAR T - 33 attacked and shot down a FAL B - 26 (serial number 935) piloted by Matias Farias, who then survived a crashlanding on the Girón airfield, his navigator Eduardo González already killed by gunfire. His companion B - 26 suffered damage and diverted to Grand Cayman Island; pilot Mario Zúñiga (the ' defector ') and navigator Oscar Vega returned to Puerto Cabezas via CIA C - 54 on 18 April. By about 11: 00, the two remaining freighters Caribe and Atlántico, and the CIA LCIs and LCUs, started retreating south to international waters, but still pursued by FAR aircraft. At about 12: 00, a FAR B - 26 exploded due to heavy anti-aircraft fire from Blagar, and pilot Luis Silva Tablada (on his second sortie) and his crew of three were lost.
By 12: 00, hundreds of Cuban militia cadets from Matanzas had secured Palpite, and cautiously advanced on foot south towards Playa Larga, suffering many casualties during attacks by FAL B - 26s. By dusk, other Cuban ground forces were gradually advancing southward from Covadonga and southwest from Yaguaramas toward San Blas, and westward along coastal tracks from Cienfuegos towards Girón, all without heavy weapons or armour. At 2: 30 pm a group of militiamen from the 339th Battalion set up a position, which came under attack from the brigadista M41 Walker Bulldog tanks, who inflicted heavy losses on the defenders. This action is remembered in Cuba as the "Slaughter of the Lost Battalion '' as most of the militiamen were killed.
Three FAL B - 26s were shot down by FAR T - 33s, with the loss of pilots Raúl Vianello, José Crespo, Osvaldo Piedra and navigators Lorenzo Pérez - Lorenzo and José Fernández. Vianello 's navigator Demetrio Pérez bailed out and was picked up by USS Murray. Pilot Crispín García Fernández and navigator Juan González Romero, in B - 26 serial 940, diverted to Boca Chica, but late that night they attempted to fly back to Puerto Cabezas in B - 26 serial 933 that Crespo had flown to Boca Chica on 15 April. In October 1961, the remains of the B - 26 and its two crew were found in dense jungle in Nicaragua. One FAL B - 26 diverted to Grand Cayman with engine failure. By 16: 00, Fidel Castro had arrived at the Central Australia sugar mill, joining José Ramón Fernández whom he had appointed as battlefield commander before dawn that day.
On 17 April 1961, Osvaldo Ramírez (leader of the rural resistance to Castro) was captured by Castro 's forces in Aromas de Velázquez, and immediately executed.
At about 21: 00 on 17 April 1961, a night air strike by three FAL B - 26s on San Antonio de Los Baños airfield failed, reportedly due to incompetence and bad weather. Two other B - 26s had aborted the mission after take - off. Other sources allege that heavy anti-aircraft fire scared the aircrews As night fell, Atlantico and Caribe pulled away from Cuba, to be followed by Blagar and Barbara J. The ships were to return to the Bay of Pigs the next day to land more ammunition, but the captains of Atlantico and Caribe decided to abandon the invasion and headed out to the open sea out of fear of further air attacks by the FAR. Destroyers from the US Navy intercepted Atlantico about 110 miles south of Cuba, and persuaded the captain to return, but Caribe was not intercepted until she was 218 miles away from Cuba, and she was not to return until it was too late.
During the night of 17 -- 18 April, the force at Red Beach came under repeated counter-attacks from the Cuban Army and militia. As casualties mounted and ammunition was used up, the brigadistas steadily gave way. Airdrops from four C - 52s and 2 C - 46s had only limited success in landing more ammunition. Both the Blagar and Barbara J returned at midnight to land more ammunition, which proved insufficient for the brigadistas. Following desperate appeals for help from Oliva, San Román ordered all of his M41 tanks ' six mortars to assist in the defence. During the night fighting, a tank battle broke out with the brigadista tanks clashed with the T - 34 tanks of the Cuban Army, a sharp action that ended with the brigadistas being driven back. At 8: 00 pm, the Cuban Army opened fire with its 76.2 mm and 122mm artillery guns on the brigadista forces at Playa Larga, which was followed by an attack by T - 34 tanks at about midnight. The 2,000 artillery rounds fired by the Cuban Army had mostly missed the brigadista defense positions and the T - 34 tanks rode into an ambush when they came under fire from the brigadista M41 tanks and mortar fire, and a number of T - 34 tanks were destroyed or knocked out. At 1: 00 am, Cuban Army infantrymen and militiamen started an offensive. Despite heavy losses on the part of the Communist forces, the shortage of ammunition forced the brigadistas back and the T - 34 tanks continued to force their way past the wreckage of the battlefield to press on the assault. The Communist forces numbered about 2,100 consisting of about 300 FAR soldiers, 1,600 militiamen and 200 policemen supported by 20 T - 34s who were faced by 370 brigadistas. By 5: 00 am, Oliva started to order his men to retreat as he had almost no ammunition or mortar rounds left. By about 10: 30 am on 18 April, Cuban troops and militia, supported by the T - 34 tanks and 122mm artillery, took Playa Larga after Brigade forces had fled towards Girón in the early hours. During the day, Brigade forces retreated to San Blas along the two roads from Covadonga and Yaguaramas. By then, both Fidel Castro and José Ramón Fernández had re-located to that battlefront area.
As the men from Red Beach arrived at Girón, San Román and Oliva met to discuss the situation. With ammunition running low, Oliva suggested that the Brigade 2506 retreat into the Escambray mountains to wage guerilla warfare, but San Román decided to hold the beachhead. At about 11: 00 am, the Cuban government began an offensive to take San Blas. San Román ordered all of the paratroopers back in order to hold San Blas, and they halted the offensive. During the afternoon, Castro kept the brigadistas under steady air attack and artillery fire, but did not order any new major attacks.
At 14: 00, President Kennedy received a telegram from Nikita Khrushchev in Moscow, stating the Russians would not allow the US to enter Cuba, and implied swift nuclear retribution to the United States heartland if their warnings were not heeded.
At about 17: 00 on 18 April, FAL B - 26s attacked a Cuban column of 12 civilian buses leading trucks carrying tanks and other armour, moving southeast between Playa Larga and Punta Perdiz. The vehicles, loaded with civilians, militia, police and soldiers, were attacked with bombs, napalm and rockets, suffering heavy casualties. The six B - 26s were piloted by two CIA contract pilots plus four pilots and six navigators from Brigade 2506 air force. The column later re-formed and advanced to Punta Perdiz, about 11 km northwest of Girón.
During the night of 18 April, a FAL C - 46 delivered arms and equipment to the Girón airstrip occupied by Brigade 2506 ground forces, and took off before daybreak on 19 April. The C - 46 also evacuated Matias Farias, the pilot of B - 26 serial ' 935 ' (code - named Chico Two) that had been shot down and crash - landed at Girón on 17 April. The crews of the Barbara J and Blagar had done their best to land what ammunition they had left onto the beachhead, but without air support the captains of both ships reported that it was too dangerous to be operating off the Cuban coast by day.
The final air attack mission (code - named Mad Dog Flight) comprised five B - 26s, four of which were manned by American CIA contract air crews and pilots from the Alabama Air Guard. One FAR Sea Fury (piloted by Douglas Rudd) and two FAR T - 33s (piloted by Rafael del Pino and Alvaro Prendes) shot down two of these B - 26s, killing four American airmen. Combat air patrols were flown by Douglas A4D - 2N Skyhawk jets of VA - 34 squadron operating from USS Essex, with nationality and other markings removed. Sorties were flown to reassure Brigade soldiers and pilots, and to intimidate Cuban government forces without directly engaging in acts of war. At 10 am, a tank battle had broken out, with the brigadista holding their line until about 2: 00 pm, which led Olvia to order a retreat into Girón. Following the last air attacks, San Román ordered his paratroopers and the men of the 3rd Battalion to launch a surprise attack, which was initially successful, but soon failed. With the brigadistas in disorganized retreat, the Cuban Army and militiamen started to advance rapidly, taking San Blas and only being stopped outside of Girón at about 11 am. Later that afternoon, San Román heard the rumbling of the advancing T - 34s and reported with no more mortar rounds and bazooka rounds, he could not stop the tanks and ordered his men to fall back to the beach. Oliva arrived afterwards to find that the brigadistas were all heading out to the beach or retreating into the jungle or swamps. Without direct air support, and short of ammunition, Brigade 2506 ground forces retreated to the beaches in the face of considerable onslaught from Cuban government artillery, tanks and infantry.
Late on 19 April, destroyers USS Eaton (code - named Santiago) and USS Murray (code - named Tampico) moved into Cochinos Bay to evacuate retreating Brigade soldiers from beaches, before fire from Cuban army tanks caused Commodore Crutchfield to order a withdrawal.
From 19 April until about 22 April, sorties were flown by A4D - 2Ns to obtain visual intelligence over combat areas. Reconnaissance flights are also reported of Douglas AD - 5Ws of VFP - 62 and / or VAW - 12 squadron from USS Essex or another carrier, such as USS Shangri - La that was part of the task force assembled off the Cayman Islands.
On 21 April, Eaton and Murray, joined on 22 April by destroyers USS Conway and USS Cony, plus submarine USS Threadfin and a CIA PBY - 5A Catalina flying boat, continued to search the coastline, reefs and islands for scattered Brigade survivors, about 24 -- 30 being rescued.
114 Cuban exiles from Brigade 2506 were killed in action. Aircrews killed in action totalled 6 from the Cuban air force, 10 Cuban exiles and 4 American airmen. Paratrooper Eugene Herman Koch was killed in action, and the American airmen shot down were Thomas W. Ray, Leo F. Baker, Riley W. Shamburger, and Wade C. Gray. In 1979, the body of Thomas ' Pete ' Ray was repatriated from Cuba. In the 1990s, the CIA admitted he was linked to the agency, and awarded him the Intelligence Star.
The final toll in Cuban armed forces during the conflict was 176 killed in action. This figure includes only the Cuban Army and it is estimated that about 2,000 militiamen were killed or wounded during the fighting. Other Cuban forces casualties were between 500 and 4,000 (killed, wounded or missing). The airfield attacks on 15 April left 7 Cubans dead and 53 wounded.
In 2011, the National Security Archive, in accordance with the Freedom of Information Act, released over 1200 pages of documents. One detail within these documents was incidents of friendly fire. The CIA had outfitted some B - 26 bombers to appear as Cuban aircraft, having ordered them to remain inland to avoid being fired upon by American - backed forces. Some of the planes did not heed the warning, and were fired upon. According to CIA operative Grayston Lynch, "we could n't tell them from the Castro planes. We ended up shooting at two or three of them. We hit some of them there because when they came at us... it was a silhouette, that was all you could see. ''
On 19 April 1961, at least seven Cubans plus two CIA - hired US citizens (Angus K. McNair and Howard F. Anderson) were executed in Pinar del Rio province, after a two - day trial. On 20 April, Humberto Sorí Marin was executed at Fortaleza de la Cabaña, having been arrested on 18 March following infiltration into Cuba with 14 tons of explosives. His fellow conspirators Rogelio González Corzo (alias "Francisco Gutierrez ''), Rafael Diaz Hanscom, Eufemio Fernandez, Arturo Hernandez Tellaheche and Manuel Lorenzo Puig Miyar were also executed.
Between April and October 1961, hundreds of executions took place in response to the invasion. They took place at various prisons, including the Fortaleza de la Cabaña and Morro Castle. Infiltration team leaders Antonio Diaz Pou and Raimundo E. Lopez, as well as underground students Virgilio Campaneria, Alberto Tapia Ruano, and more than one hundred other insurgents were executed.
About 1,202 members of Brigade 2506 were captured, of whom nine died from asphyxiation during transfer to Havana in a closed truck. In May 1961, Fidel Castro proposed to exchange the surviving Brigade prisoners for 500 large farm tractors, valued at US $ 28,000,000. On 8 September 1961, 14 Brigade prisoners were convicted of torture, murder and other major crimes committed in Cuba before the invasion, five being executed and nine jailed for 30 years. Three confirmed as executed were Ramon Calvino, Emilio Soler Puig ("el Muerte '') and Jorge King Yun ("el Chino ''). On 29 March 1962, 1,179 men were put on trial for treason. On 7 April 1962, all were convicted and sentenced to 30 years in prison. On 14 April 1962, 60 wounded and sick prisoners were freed and transported to the US.
On 21 December 1962, Cuban Prime Minister Fidel Castro and James B. Donovan, a US lawyer aided by Milan C. Miskovsky, a CIA legal officer, signed an agreement to exchange 1,113 prisoners for US $53 million in food and medicine, sourced from private donations and from companies expecting tax concessions. On 24 December 1962, some prisoners were flown to Miami, others following on the ship African Pilot, plus about 1,000 family members also allowed to leave Cuba. On 29 December 1962, President Kennedy and his wife Jacqueline attended a "welcome back '' ceremony for Brigade 2506 veterans at the Orange Bowl in Miami, Florida.
The failed invasion severely embarrassed the Kennedy administration, and made Castro wary of future US intervention in Cuba. On 21 April, in a State Department press conference, President Kennedy said: "There 's an old saying that victory has a hundred fathers and defeat is an orphan... Further statements, detailed discussions, are not to conceal responsibility because I 'm the responsible officer of the Government... ''
The initial U.S. response concerning the first air attacks were of a dismissive quality. U.S. Ambassador Adlai Stevenson denied any involvement in the first wave of air strikes, stating before the United Nations, "These charges are totally false and I deny them categorically. '' Stevenson continued to promote a story of two Cuban planes that had reportedly defected to the United States, apparently unaware that they were in fact U.S. planes piloted by U.S. - backed Cuban pilots in an effort to promote a false story of defection.
In August 1961, during an economic conference of the Organization of American States in Punta del Este, Uruguay, Che Guevara sent a note to Kennedy via Richard N. Goodwin, a secretary of the White House. It read: "Thanks for Playa Girón. Before the invasion, the revolution was weak. Now it 's stronger than ever ''.
Additionally, Guevara answered a set of questions from Leo Huberman of Monthly Review following the invasion. In one reply, Guevara was asked to explain the growing number of Cuban counter-revolutionaries and defectors from the regime, to which he replied that the repelled invasion was the climax of counter revolution, and that afterwards such actions "fell drastically to zero. '' In regard to the defections of some prominent figures within the Cuban government, Guevara remarked that this was because "the socialist revolution left the opportunists, the ambitious, and the fearful far behind and now advances toward a new regime free of this class of vermin. ''
As Allen Dulles later stated, CIA planners believed that once the troops were on the ground, Kennedy would authorize any action required to prevent failure -- as Eisenhower had done in Guatemala in 1954 after that invasion looked as if it would collapse. President Kennedy was deeply dispirited and angered with the failure. Several years after his death, the New York Times reported that he told an unspecified high administration official of wanting "to splinter the CIA in a thousand pieces and scatter it to the winds. '' However, following a "rigorous inquiry into the agency 's affairs, methods, and problems... (Kennedy) did not ' splinter ' it after all and did not recommend Congressional supervision. '' Kennedy commented to his journalist friend Ben Bradlee, "The first advice I 'm going to give my successor is to watch the generals and to avoid feeling that because they were military men their opinions on military matters were worth a damn. ''
The aftermath of the Bay of Pigs invasion and events involving Cuba that followed caused the US to feel threatened by their neighbor. Previous to the events at Playa Girón the US government imposed embargoes that limited trade with Cuba. An article that appeared in The New York Times on 6 January 1960 called trade with Cuba "too risky '' and about six months later in July 1960, the US reduced the import quota of Cuban sugar, which left the US to increase its sugar supply using other sources. Just following the Bay of Pigs invasion the Kennedy Administration considered complete trade restrictions with Cuba. Five months later the president was authorized to do so. After Cuba 's declaration of Marxism, the Kennedy administration imposed a complete trade embargo against Cuba. After the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 the Kennedy Administration imposed strict travel restrictions for U.S. citizens.
According to author Jim Rasenberger, the Kennedy administration became very aggressive in regards to overthrowing Fidel Castro following failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion, reportedly doubling its efforts against Castro. Rasenberger elaborated on the fact that, almost every decision that was made by Kennedy following the Bay of Pigs had some correlation with the destruction of the Castro administration. Shortly after the invasion ended, Kennedy ordered the Pentagon to design secret operations to overthrow the Castro regime. Also, President Kennedy persuaded his brother Robert to set up a covert operation against Castro which was known as "Operation Mongoose. '' This covert operation included sabotage and assassination plots. One major flaw with these operations was that, both Castro and Khrushchev were aware of these secret plots and even the plan to invade the Bay of Pigs which can possibly explain the failure of the operation.
On 22 April 1961, President Kennedy asked General Maxwell D. Taylor, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, Admiral Arleigh Burke and CIA Director Allen Dulles to form the Cuba Study Group, to report on lessons to learn from the failed operation. On 13 June, General Taylor submitted the Board of Inquiry 's report to President Kennedy. The report attributed the defeat to lack of early realization of the impossibility of success by covert means, inadequate aircraft, limitations on armaments, pilots and air attacks to attempt plausible deniability -- and ultimately, loss of important ships and lack of ammunition.
The Taylor Commission received criticism due to implications of bias. Attorney General Robert Kennedy was included in the group and collectively, the commission was seen as a unit more preoccupied with deflecting the White House from blame than that of a group concerned with realizing the true depth of mistakes that promoted the failure in Cuba. Jack Pfeiffer, who worked as a historian for the CIA until the mid-1980s, simplified his own view of the failed Bay of Pigs effort by including a quote from Raúl Castro, Fidel 's brother, given to a Mexican media member in 1975. "Kennedy vacillated, '' Castro said. "If at that moment he had decided to invade us, he could have suffocated the island in a sea of blood, but he could have destroyed the revolution. Lucky for us, he vacillated. ''
In November 1961, CIA Inspector - General Lyman B Kirkpatrick, authored a report ' Survey of the Cuban Operation ', that remained classified until 1996. Conclusions were:
In spite of vigorous rebuttals by CIA management of the findings, CIA Director Allen Dulles, CIA Deputy Director Charles Cabell, and Deputy Director for Plans Richard Bissell were all forced to resign by early 1962.
In later years, the CIA 's behavior in the event became the prime example cited for the psychology paradigm known as groupthink syndrome.
Further study shows that among various components of groupthink analyzed by Irving Janis, The Bay of Pigs Invasion followed the structural characteristics that led to an irrational decision making in foreign policy pushed by deficiency in impartial leadership. An account on the process of invasion decision reads,
(At) each meeting, instead of opening up the agenda to permit a full airing of the opposing considerations, he allowed the CIA representatives to dominate the entire discussion. The president permitted them to refute immediately each tentative doubt that one of the others might express, instead of asking whether anyone else had the same doubt or wanted to pursue the implications of the new worrisome issue that had been raised.
Referencing to both the Survey of the Cuban Operation and Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascoes by Irving Janis, the lack of communication and the mere assumption of concurrence can be identified to be the main causes behind the C.I.A and the president 's collective failure to efficiently evaluate the facts before them. In fact, a considerable amount of information presented before President Kennedy actually proved to be false in reality, making it inevitable to assess the situation and the future of the operation irrationally. The absence of the initiative to explore other options of the debate led the participants to remain optimistic and rigid in their belief that the operation would succeed, being unknowingly biased in the group psychology of wishful thinking as well.
In mid-1960, CIA operative E. Howard Hunt had interviewed Cubans in Havana; in a 1997 interview with CNN, he said, "... all I could find was a lot of enthusiasm for Fidel Castro. ''
For many Latin Americans, the Bay of Pigs Invasion served to reinforce the already widely held belief that the US could not be trusted. The invasion also illustrated that the US could be defeated, and thus, the failed invasion encouraged political groups across the Latin American region to find ways to undermine US influence.
The invasion is often recognized as making Castro even more popular, adding nationalistic sentiments to the support for his economic policies. Following the air attacks on Cuban airfields on 15 April, he declared the revolution "Marxist - Leninist ''. After the invasion, he pursued closer relations with the Soviet Union, partly for protection, that helped pave the way for the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. Castro was then increasingly wary of further US intervention, and more open to Soviet suggestions of placing nuclear weapons on Cuba to ensure its security.
In March 2001, shortly before the 40th anniversary of the invasion, a conference took place in Havana, attended by about 60 American delegates. The conference was titled Bay of Pigs: 40 Years After, co-sponsored by the University of Havana and the US - based National Security Archive.
There are still yearly nationwide drills in Cuba during the ' Dia de la Defensa ' (Defense Day), to prepare the population for an invasion.
Many who fought for the CIA in the conflict remained loyal after the event; some Bay of Pigs veterans became officers in the US Army in Vietnam, including 6 colonels, 19 lieutenant colonels, 9 majors, and 29 captains. By March 2007, about half of the Brigade had died.
In April 2010, the Cuban Pilot 's Association unveiled a monument at the Kendall - Tamiami Executive Airport in memory of the 16 aviators for the exile side killed during the battle. The memorial consists of an obelisk and a restored B - 26 replica aircraft atop a large Cuban flag.
The name for the invasion in Spanish is politically contested. The Cuban government generally calls it "Playa Girón '', while Cuban exiles generally call it "Bahía de Cochinos ''.
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oecd global forum on transparency and exchange of information for tax purposes | Global Forum on Transparency and exchange of information for tax Purposes - wikipedia
The Global Forum on Transparency and Exchange of Information for Tax Purposes, founded in 2000 and restructured in September 2009, consists of OECD countries and other jurisdictions that agreed to implement tax related transparency and information exchange. It addresses tax evasion, tax havens, offshore financial centres, tax information exchange agreements, double taxation and money laundering. The forum works under the auspices of the OECD and G20. In 2000 it published a blacklist of 35 tax havens, which by 2009 had shrunk to zero. It has since focused on increasing the standard for information exchange. As of January 2018, the Forum had 147 member tax jurisdictions and the European Union.
The Forum promotes the implementation of two internationally agreed standards on exchange of information for tax purposes. Members must commit to at least implement the Exchange of Information on Request (EOIR) standard, the lowest common denominator for information exchange, which is a weaker standard than Automatic Exchange of Information (AEOI) standard.
It uses peer review to monitor that exchange information on request is implemented. As a prerequisite, countries have to pass relevant laws, which are then to be reviewed (Phase 1). Thereafter in Phase 2, the degree of implementation is graded into four categories from A to D. Since 2009 it has classified tax havens into a "blacklist '' of non-committers and a "graylist '' (or "greylist '') of non-implementers of the request - based "internationally agreed tax standard ''. The terms blacklist and graylist are not used by the Forum but by news services like Reuters, the BBC and the Congressional Research Service.
The 2009 estimate of a budget was 2.9 million. It was raised by a flat fee of 15000 euros for each of the members plus a fee based on the overall GNP with an abatement of 450 USD / inhabitant.
In April 1998 an OECD report acknowledged that tax havens erode the tax base of other countries and undermine the fairness of tax systems, diminishing global welfare. It noted that tax havens were expanding at an exponential rate. The report focused on tax havens in the Caribbean who were not OECD members, and the OECD was thus criticized for not addressing tax havens who were its members. A second report in 2000 included a blacklist of 35 secrecy jurisdictions - all outside the OECD - and a threat of defensive measures against them, with backing from the United States under the Clinton administration.
In 2000, the Global Forum was created with 32 members. Efforts to move against tax evasion in tax havens were quickly "bogged down in arcane haggling '', including by a working group between tax havens and the OECD set up at the suggestion of the Commonwealth. In the United States, the Heritage Foundation criticized the move as a European effort to limit competition among tax jurisdictions. The new U.S. administration of George Bush and his first treasury secretary Paul O'Neill stated in May 2001 that the OECD 's efforts were "not in line with the administration 's priorities ''. The OECD gave in and announced it had no intention to pursue "defensive measures '' against tax havens.
After the September 11, 2001, attacks the United States wanted better cooperation from tax havens on terrorist financing, but was reluctant to tackle tax evasion forcefully. Since the two practices are very similar, the United States only asked the OECD to require tax havens to provide information on request under very narrow conditions, which became the OECD 's model for information on tax exchange. As a result, for example Jersey, an important tax haven, provided information to the United States in only five or six cases over a period of seven years.
The activities against tax havens were only expanded after the financial crisis of 2007 - 08. At the April 2009 G - 20 London summit tax havens were divided into a "blacklist '' of non-committers and a "graylist '' of non-implementers, based on compliance with the request - based "internationally agreed tax standard ''. The actual list included three categories:
The list of non-implementers initially included, among others, Austria, Belgium, Luxembourg and Switzerland. The list of non-committed included Costa Rica, Malaysia, the Philippines and Uruguay. Within five days Costa Rica, Malaysia, the Philippines and Uruguay made "a full commitment to exchange information to the OECD standards '' and were removed from the "blacklist '' which was thus empty. Panama was ' white listed ' because it signed a tax information exchange agreement (TIEA) with France. The British Virgin Islands and the Cayman Islands were white listed by August 2009. No G - 20 country was on the greylist of non-implementers, prompting Luxembourg Prime Minister Jean - Claude Juncker to criticise it for failing to include various states of the USA which provide incorporation infrastructure indistinguishable from the tax havens on the G - 20 blacklist. Der Spiegel called the list "The World 's Shortest Blacklist '' and "the Fight against Tax Havens Is a Sham ''.
At a meeting in Mexico in September 2009, the Global Forum was restructured and received its own Secretariat. The main decisions were:
In March 2010, international efforts were stepped up when the U.S. Congress passed the Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act (FATCA) which forces foreign financial firms to disclose their American clients. Also in 2010, the 1988 Convention on Mutual Administrative Assistance in Tax Matters was amended to include automated exchange of tax information, a key instrument in fighting tax evasion, and expanding it to developing countries. In 2013, a working group was formed to promote the automated exchange of tax information.
In July 2014, the Forum published standards for Automatic Exchange of Financial Account Information.
As of November 2015, more than 90 members have committed to go beyond Exchange of Information on Request and to implement Automatic Exchange of Information. An international framework agreement, the Common Reporting Standard Multilateral Competent Authority Agreement (CRS MCAA), specifies the details of what information will be exchanged and when. As of October 2015, it has been signed by 74 jurisdictions. Since the agreement is a framework agreement, it only comes into effect for each signatory after it has confirmed that it has undertaken certain steps such as passing national legislation. According to the Forum, "Work is currently underway to implement this Standard, with the first exchanges occurring on a very ambitious timeline of 2017 and 2018 ''.
The Forum had 32 member jurisdictions at its founding in 2000, and 90 in September 2009. As of November 2015, the Forum had 128 member tax jurisdictions and the European Union, and in January 2018 it had 147 members.
(this list has not been updated since November 2015)
Tax jurisdictions
As of November 2015 there are 15 observer intergovernmental organizations:
The forum reviews compliance of its member tax jurisdictions separately for the two standards, the more limited exchange of information on request and the more comprehensive automated exchange of information.
More than 80 countries and territories were not (yet) members of the Global Forum as of November 2015 and are thus not included in the lists below. Notable non-members include Belarus and Serbia in Europe; Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela in Latin America; Egypt, Ethiopia, Algeria and many smaller countries in Africa; as well as Iran, Myanmar, North Korea, Thailand and Vietnam in Asia. All important tax havens, however, are members of the Global Forum - the 30 countries topping the Financial Secrecy Index in 2013 were all members as of 2015.
The Global Forum 's peer review process examines both the legal and regulatory aspects of exchange (Phase 1 reviews) and the exchange of information in practice (Phase 2). The peer reviews cover only the limited exchange of information on request.
At its meeting in Jakarta in November 2013, the Global Forum assigned the ratings for the first 50 jurisdictions that had completed their Phase 1 and Phase 2 reviews. The Phase 1 review found that 14 countries and territories had gaps in their legal framework and were not allowed to move to Phase 2 unless they improved their legal framework.
The ten countries and territories that were at the top of the Financial Secrecy Index 2013, an index established by the NGO Tax Justice Network and that also takes into account the size of the transactions in a tax haven, were categorized as follows: Lebanons and Switzerland had not completed Phase 1. Luxembourg was listed as Category D, Jersey as Category C, and the Cayman Islands, Germany, Hong Kong, Singapore as well as the United States were listed as Category B. Japan was the only country classified as one of the ten major tax havens by the Tax Justice Network that was listed in Category A.
The following jurisdictions are not eligible to move to Phase 2 review until they act on recommendations to improve their legal and regulatory framework:
Among those countries that had created an adequate legal framework and thus had moved to Phase 2, four countries - including Luxembourg - were found to be non-compliant with their own legal framework (grade D). Two countries - Austria and Turkey - were only partially compliant (grade C).
As of October 31, 2015 the ratings were as follows: 8 countries still had deficiencies in their legal framework. 25 countries, including Switzerland, had completed their legal framework (Phase 1 review), but had not yet had a Phase 2 review. Among the countries and territories that had passed a Phase 2 review, none was rated non-compliant (Grade D) any more. Nine countries were rated as only partially compliant (Grade C), still including Austria and Turkey.
The ten countries and territories that were at the top of the Financial Secrecy Index 2015, an index established by the NGO Tax Justice Network and that also takes into account the size of the transactions in a tax haven, were categorized as follows: Lebanon had not completed Phase 1. Switzerland and the UAE had completed Phase 1 and were awaiting Phase 2. Luxembourg and Jersey had moved up to Category B, along with the Cayman Islands, Germany, Hong Kong, Singapore as well as the United States. Bahrain, which had not been among the top ten tax havens in 2013, was also in Category B. Japan and Jersey had improved their transparency and were not any more among the ten most important tax havens, moving to number 12 and 16 respectively.
The following jurisdictions are not eligible to move to Phase 2 review until they act on recommendations to improve their legal and regulatory framework:
The following jurisdictions have completed the Phase 1 review, i.e. their legal framework had been reviewed and they were eligible to move to Phase 2:
The following countries and territories had passed a Phase 2 review:
As of March 2015, more than 90 countries have committed in principle to the automated exchange of tax information. More specifically, the first undertaking first exchanges by 2017 will be: Anguilla, Argentina, Barbados, Belgium, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Bulgaria, Cayman Islands, Colombia, Croatia, Curaçao, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Dominica, Estonia, Faroe Islands, Finland, France, Germany, Gibraltar, Greece, Greenland, Guernsey, Hungary, Iceland, India, Ireland, Isle of Man, Italy, Jersey, Korea, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Montserrat, Netherlands, Niue, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, San Marino, Seychelles, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands, United Kingdom The ones undertaking first exchanges by 2018 will be: Albania, Andorra, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Australia, Austria, The Bahamas, Belize, Brazil, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, China, Cook Islands, Costa Rica, Ghana, Grenada, Hong Kong (China), Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Kuwait, Marshall Islands, Macao (China), Malaysia, Mauritius, Monaco, New Zealand, Qatar, Russia, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Samoa, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sint Maarten, Switzerland, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Uruguay
In the old situation, assessed at 2014, 50 countries had made a commitment (the list needs to be updated and completed):
As of November 2015, 41 countries have submitted specific commitments to implement legislation and other measures related to the automated exchange of tax information. No single tax haven has made specific commitments to the automated exchange of information so far. The following countries have passed primary legislation related to the automated exchange of tax information:
For the automated exchange of information to be implemented secondary legislation is also necessary. India, Japan, South Korea, Spain and the UK are the only countries that have also passed secondary legislation until October 2015. A peer review process on automated exchange of information, based on the existing peer review for information exchange on request, is in the process of being set up.
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what was the fatal weakness of the visogothic kingdom in spain | Visigothic Kingdom - wikipedia
The Visigothic Kingdom or Kingdom of the Visigoths (Latin: Regnum Gothorum) was a kingdom that occupied what is now southwestern France and the Iberian Peninsula from the 5th to the 8th centuries. One of the Germanic successor states to the Western Roman Empire, it was originally created by the settlement of the Visigoths under King Wallia in the province of Aquitaine in southwest France by the Roman government and then extended by conquest over all of the Iberian Peninsula. The Kingdom maintained independence from the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire, the attempts of which to re-establish Roman authority in Iberia were only partially successful and short - lived.
Sometimes referred to as the regnum Tolosanum or Kingdom of Toulouse after its capital Toulouse in modern historiography, the kingdom lost much of its territory in Gaul to the Franks in the early 6th century, save the narrow coastal strip of Septimania, but the Visigoth control of Iberia was secured by the end of that century with the submission of the Suebi. The kingdom of the 6th and 7th centuries is sometimes called the regnum Toletanum after the new capital of Toledo.
The ethnic distinction between the indigenous Hispano - Roman population and the Visigoths had largely disappeared by this time (the Gothic language lost its last and probably already declining function as a church language when the Visigoths converted to Catholicism in 589). The Visigothic Code (completed in 654) abolished the old tradition of having different laws for Romans and for Visigoths. Most of the Visigothic Kingdom was conquered by Umayyad troops from North Africa in 711 AD, with only the northern reaches of Spain remaining in Christian hands. These gave birth to the medieval Kingdom of Asturias when a local landlord called Pelayo, most likely of Gothic origin, was elected Princeps by the Astures.
The Visigoths and their early kings were Arians and came into conflict with the Catholic Church, but after they converted to Nicene Christianity, the Church exerted an enormous influence on secular affairs through the Councils of Toledo. The Visigoths also developed the highly influential law code known in Western Europe as the Visigothic Code (Liber Iudiciorum), which would become the basis for Spanish law throughout the Middle Ages.
From 407 to 409 AD, the Germanic Vandals, with the allied Alans and Suebi, crossed the frozen Rhine and swept across modern France and into the Iberian peninsula. For their part, the Visigoths under Alaric famously sacked Rome in 410, capturing Galla Placidia, the sister of Western Roman emperor Honorius.
Ataulf (King of the Visigoths from 410 to 415) spent the next few years operating in the Gallic and Hispanic countrysides, diplomatically playing competing factions of Germanic and Roman commanders against one another to skillful effect, and taking over cities such as Narbonne and Toulouse (in 413). After he married Placidia, the Emperor Honorius enlisted him to provide Visigothic assistance in regaining nominal Roman control of Hispania from the Vandals, Alans and Suevi.
In 418, Honorius rewarded his Visigothic federates under King Wallia (reigned 415 -- 419) by giving them land in the Garonne valley of Gallia Aquitania on which to settle. This probably took place under hospitalitas, the rules for billeting army soldiers. It seems likely that at first the Visigoths were not given a large amount of land estates in the region (as previously believed), but that they acquired the taxes of the region, with the local Gallic aristocrats now paying their taxes to the Visigoths instead of to the Roman government.
The Visigoths with their capital at Toulouse, remained de facto independent, and soon began expanding into Roman territory at the expense of the feeble Western empire. Under Theodoric I (418 -- 451), the Visigoths attacked Arles (in 425 and 430) and Narbonne (436), but were checked by Flavius Aetius using Hunnic mercenaries, and Theodoric was defeated in 438. By 451, the situation had reversed and the Huns had invaded Gaul; now Theodoric fought under Aetius against Attila the Hun in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains. Attila was driven back, but Theodoric was killed in the battle.
The Vandals completed the conquest of North Africa when they took Carthage on October 19, 439 and the Suevi had taken most of Hispania. The Roman emperor Avitus now sent the Visigoths into Hispania. Theodoric II (453 -- 466) invaded and defeated the King of the Suevi, Rechiarius, at the battle on the river Orbigo in 456 near Asturica Augusta (Astorga) and then sacked Bracara Augusta (Braga) the Suevi capital. The Goths sacked the cities in Spain quite brutally: they massacred a portion of the population and even attacked some holy places, probably due to the clergy 's support of the Suevi. Theoderic took control over Hispania Baetica, Carthaginiensis and southern Lusitania. In 461, the Goths received the city of Narbonne from the emperor Libius Severus in exchange for their support. This led to a revolt by the army and by Gallo - Romans under Aegidius; as a result, Romans under Severus and the Visigoths fought other Roman troops, and the revolt ended only in 465.
In 466, Euric, who was the youngest son of Theodoric I, came to the Visigothic throne. He is infamous for murdering his elder brother Theodoric II who had himself become king by murdering his elder brother Thorismund. Under Euric (466 -- 484), the Visigoths began expanding in Gaul and consolidating their presence in the Iberian peninsula. Euric fought a series of wars with the Suebi who retained some influence in Lusitania, and brought most of this region under Visigothic power, taking Emerita Augusta (Mérida) in 469. Euric also attacked the Western Roman Empire, capturing Hispania Tarraconensis in 472, the last bastion of Roman rule in Spain. By 476, he had extended his rule to the Rhone and the Loire rivers which comprised most of southern Gaul. He also occupied the key Roman cities of Arles and Marseilles. In his campaigns, Euric had counted on a portion of the Gallo - Roman and Hispano - Roman aristocracy who served under him as generals and governors. The Visigothic Kingdom was formally recognized when the Western emperor Julius Nepos (473 -- 480) signed an alliance with Euric, granting him the lands south of the Loire and west of the Rhone in exchange for military service and the lands in Provence (including Arles and Marseilles). The lands in Hispania remained under de facto Visigothic control. After Odoacer deposed the last Roman emperor in the West, Romulus Augustulus, Euric quickly recaptured Provence, a fact which Odoacer formally accepted in a treaty.
By 500, the Visigothic Kingdom, centered at Toulouse, controlled Gallia Aquitania and Gallia Narbonensis and most of Hispania with the exception of the Suebic Kingdom of Galicia in the northwest and small areas controlled by independent iberian peoples, such as the Basques and the Cantabrians. Euric 's son Alaric II (484 -- 507) issued a new body of laws, the Breviarium Alarici and held a church council at Agde.
The Visigoths now came into conflict with the Franks under their King Clovis I, who had conquered northern Gaul. Following a brief war with the Franks, Alaric was forced to put down a rebellion in Tarraconensis, probably caused by recent Visigoth immigration to Hispania due to pressure from the Franks. In 507, the Franks attacked again, this time allied with the Burgundians. Alaric II was killed at the battle of Campus Vogladensis (Vouillé) near Poitiers, and Toulouse was sacked. By 508, the Visigoths had lost most of their Gallic holdings save Septimania in the south.
After Alaric II 's death, his illegitimate son Gesalec took power until he was deposed by Theodoric the Great, ruler of the Ostrogothic Kingdom, who invaded and defeated him at Barcelona. Gesalic fled and regrouped, but was defeated again at Barcelona, and was captured and killed. Theodoric then installed his grandson Amalaric (511 -- 531), the son of Alaric II, as king. Amalaric, however, was still a child and power in Spain remained under the Ostrogothic general and regent, Theudis. Only after Theoderic 's death (526) did Amalaric obtain control of his kingdom. His rule did not last long, as in 531, Amalaric was defeated by the Frankish king Childebert I and then murdered at Barcelona. Afterwards, Theudis (531 -- 548) became king. He expanded Visigothic control over the southern regions, but he was also murdered after a failed invasion of Africa. Visigothic Spain suffered a civil war under King Agila I (549 -- 554), which prompted the Roman / Byzantine emperor Justinian I to send an army and carve out the small province of Spania for the Byzantine Empire along the coast of southern Spain. Agila was eventually killed, and his enemy Athanagild (552 -- 568) became the new king. He attacked the Byzantines, but he was unable to dislodge them from southern Spain, and was obliged to formally acknowledge the suzerainty of the Empire.
The next Visigothic king was Liuvigild (569 -- April 21, 586). He was an effective military leader and consolidated Visigothic power in Spain. Liuvigild campaigned against the Romans in the south in the 570s and he took back Cordova after another revolt. He also fought in the north against the Suebi and various small independent states, including the Basques and the Cantabrians. He pacified northern Spain, but was unable to completely conquer these peoples. When Liuvigild established his son Hermenegild as joint ruler, a civil war ensued between them. Hermenegild became the first Visigothic king to convert to Nicene Christianity due to his ties with the Romans, but he was defeated in 584 and killed in 585. By the end of his reign, Liuvigild had united the entire Iberian peninsula, including the Suebic Kingdom which he conquered in 585 during a Suebi civil war that ensued after the death of King Miro. Liuvigild established amicable terms with the Franks through royal marriages, and they remained at peace throughout most of his reign. Liuvigild also founded new cities, such as Reccopolis and Victoriacum (Vitoria), the first barbarian king to do so.
On becoming King, Liuvigild 's son Reccared I (586 -- 601) converted from Arian to Chalcedonian Christianity. This led to some unrest in the kingdom, notably a revolt by the Arian bishop of Mérida which was put down; he also beat back another Frankish offensive in the north. Reccared I then oversaw the Third Council of Toledo in 589, where he announced his faith in the Nicene creed and denounced Arian. He adopted the name Flavius, the family name of the Constantinian dynasty, and styled himself as the successor to the Roman emperors. Reccared also fought the Byzantines in Hispania Baetica after they had begun a new offensive.
Reccared 's son Liuva II became king in 601, but was deposed by the Visigothic noble Witteric (603 -- 610), ending the short - lived dynasty. There were various Visigothic Kings between 610 and 631, and this period saw constant regicide. This period also saw the definitive conquest of the Byzantine territories in the south. War continued in the north against the Basques and Asturians, as indeed it would continue for the rest of the Visigothic Kingdom 's existence. These Kings also worked on religious legislature, especially King Sisebut (612 -- 621), who passed several harsh laws against Jews and forced many Jews to convert to Christianity. Sisebut was also successful against the Byzantines, taking several of their cities, including Málaga. The Byzantines were finally defeated by Suintila (621 -- 631), who had captured all of their Spanish holdings by 625. Suinthila was deposed by the Franks and replaced by Sisinand.
The instability of this period can be attributed to the power struggle between the kings and the nobility. Religious unification strengthened the political power of the church, which it exercised through church councils at Toledo along with the nobles. The fourth council, held during the brief reign of Sisinand in 633, excommunicated and exiled the king, replacing him with Chintila (636 -- 639). The church councils were now the most powerful institution in the Visigothic state; they took the role of regulating the process of succession to the kingship by election of the king by Gothic noble ' senators ' and the church officials. They also decided to meet on a regular basis to discuss ecclesiastical and political matters affecting the Church. Finally, they decided the kings should die in peace, and declared their persons sacred, seeking to end the violence and regicides of the past. Despite all this, another coup took place and Chintila was deposed in 639, and King Tulga took his place; he was also deposed in the third year of his reign and the council elected the noble Chindasuinth as king.
The reigns of Chindasuinth and his son Recceswinth saw the compilation of the most important Visigothic law book, the Liber Iudiciorum (completed in 654). The code included old laws by past kings, such as Alaric II in his Breviarium Alarici, and Leovigild, but many were also new laws. The code was based almost wholly on Roman law, with some influence of Germanic law in rare cases. The new laws applied to both Gothic and Spanish populations who had been under different laws in the past, and it replaced all older codes of law. Among the eliminated old laws were the harsh laws against Jews. The Liber showed the old system of military and civil divisions in administration was changing, and dukes (duces provinciae) and counts (comites civitatis) had begun taking more responsibilities outside their original military and civil duties. The servants or slaves of the king became very prominent in the bureaucracy and exercised wide administrative powers. With the Visigoth law codes, women could inherit land and title and manage it independently from their husbands or male relations, dispose of their property in legal wills if they had no heirs, and could represent themselves and bear witness in court by age 14 and arrange for their own marriages by age 20. Chindasuinth (642 -- 653) strengthened the monarchy at the expense of the nobility, he executed some 700 nobles, forced dignitaries to swear oaths, and in the seventh council of Toledo laid down his right to excommunicate clergy who acted against the government. He was also able to maneuver his son Recceswinth on the throne, sparking a rebellion by a gothic noble who allied with the Basques, but was put down. Reccesuinth (653 -- 672) held another council of Toledo, which reduced sentences for treason and affirmed the power of the councils to elect kings.
Following Reccesuinth, King Wamba (672 -- 680) was elected king. He had to deal with initial revolts in Tarraconensis, and because of this, he felt a need to reform the army. He passed a law declaring all dukes, counts and other military leaders, as well as bishops, had to come to the aid of the kingdom once danger became known or risk harsh punishment. Wamba was eventually deposed in a bloodless coup. King Ervig (680 -- 687) held further church councils and repealed the previous harsh laws of Wamba, though he still made provisions for the army. Ervig had his son - in - law Egica made king. Despite a rebellion by the bishop of Toledo, the 16th council, held in 693, denounced the bishop 's revolt. The 17th council in 694 passed harsh laws against the Jews, citing a conspiracy, and many were enslaved, especially those who had converted from Christianity. Egica also raised his son Wittiza as coruler in 698. Not much is known about his reign, but a period of civil war quickly ensued between his sons (Achila and Ardo) and King Roderic, who had seized Toledo.
In 711, Tariq ibn Ziyad, a Muslim Berber client of Musa bin Nusair, the governor of Islamic Africa, invaded Spain with about 7,000 Berber men, while Roderic was in the north fighting the Basques. The tale that Julian, Count of Ceuta, facilitated the invasion, because one of his daughters had been dishonored by Roderic, is both late and mythical. By late July, a battle took place at the Guadalete River in the province of Cádiz. Roderic was betrayed by his troops, who sided with his enemies, and the king was killed in battle. The Muslims then took much of southern Spain with little resistance, and went on to capture Toledo, where they executed several Visigothic nobles. In 712, Musa, the governor of Ifriqiya, arrived with another army of 18,000, with large Arab contingents. He took Mérida in 713 and invaded the north, taking Saragossa and León, which were still under King Ardo, in 714. After being recalled by the Caliph, Musa left his son Abd al - ' Aziz in command. By 716, most of the Iberian Peninsula was under Islamic rule, with Septimania taken between 721 and 725. The only effective resistance was in Asturias, where a Visigothic nobleman named Pelagius (Pelayo) revolted in 718, allied with the Basques and defeated the Muslims at the battle of Covadonga. Resistance also continued in the regions around the Pyrenees with the establishment of the Marca Hispanica from 760 to 785. The Berbers settled in the south and the Meseta Central in Castile. Initially, the Muslims generally left the Christians alone to practise their religion, although non-Muslims were subject to Islamic law and treated as second - class citizens.
Visigothic settlement was concentrated along the Garonne River between Bordeaux and Toulouse in Aquitaine, and later in Spain and Portugal around the Ebro River, around the city of Mérida, between the upper reaches of the Douro River, in Tierra de Campos also known as Campi Gothorum in Central Castile and León, Asturias and Toledo, and along the Tagus River north of Lisbon. Little Visigothic settlement occurred elsewhere in the kingdom.
The Visigoths founded the only new cities in Western Europe between the fifth and eighth centuries. It is certain (through contemporary Spanish accounts) that they founded four, and a possible fifth city is ascribed to them by a later Arabic source. All of these cities were founded for military purposes and three of them in celebration of victory.
The first, Reccopolis, was founded by Liuvigild in 578 after his victory over the Franks, near what is today the tiny village of Zorita de los Canes. He named it after his son Reccared and built it with Byzantine imitations, containing a palace complex and mint, but it lay in ruins by the 9th century (after the Arab conquest).
At a slightly later date, Liuvigild founded a city he named Victoriacum after his victory over the Basques. Though it is often supposed to survive as the city of Vitoria, contemporary 12th - century sources refer to the latter city 's foundation by Sancho VI of Navarre.
Liuvigild 's son and namesake of the first Visigothic city founded his own sometime around 600. It is referred to by Isidore of Seville as Lugo id est Luceo in the Asturias, built after a victory over the Asturians or Cantabri.
The fourth and possibly final city of the Goths was Ologicus (perhaps Ologitis), founded using Basque labour in 621 by Suintila as a fortification against the recently subjected Basques. It is to be identified with modern Olite.
The possible fifth Visigothic foundation is Baiyara (perhaps modern Montoro), mentioned as founded by Reccared in the Geography of Kitab al - Rawd al - Mitar.
These kings and leaders -- with the exception of Fritigern and possibly Alavivus -- were pagans.
These kings were Arians (followers of the theological teaching of Arius). They tended to succeed their fathers or close relatives on the throne and thus constitute a dynasty, the Balti.
The Visigothic monarchy took on a completely elective character with the fall of the Balti, but the monarchy remained Arian until Reccared I converted in 587 (Hermenegild had also converted earlier). Only a few sons succeeded their fathers to the throne in this period.
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when was last time browns won a game | 2016 Cleveland Browns season - wikipedia
The 2016 Cleveland Browns season was the franchise 's 68th season as a professional sports franchise, its 64th as a member of the National Football League and its first under head coach Hue Jackson and de facto general manager Sashi Brown. The Browns failed to improve upon their 3 -- 13 record from their previous season, finishing 1 -- 15, their worst record in franchise history at the time. They started the season 0 -- 14, tied for their worst 14 - game start in franchise history, and in so doing, clinched a losing record for a franchise record ninth straight season, failed to make the playoffs for a franchise record 14th straight season, finished in fourth place in the AFC North for the sixth straight season, went 0 -- 6 within the division, failed to win a road game in a season for only the second time in franchise history (first occurred during the 1975 season), and set a franchise record for most consecutive losses, losing 17 straight games going back to their final three games of the previous season. They also extended their road losing streak to 13 games, a streak that began in Week 7 of the 2015 season, when they lost their final five road games. The Browns were also the first team to start 0 -- 14 since the Detroit Lions went winless during 2008, the first team to finish with a 1 -- 15 record since 2009, and only the 10th team in NFL history to finish with 15 losses. The Browns ' lone victory was a 20 -- 17 win over the San Diego Chargers in Week 16.
Despite the team 's performance, history was made as OT Joe Thomas became one of only five players in the NFL to be selected to the Pro Bowl in each of his first 10 seasons.
On January 3, just hours after the Browns ' final game of the 2015 season, the team fired general manager Ray Farmer, who had been the general manager the past two seasons. Team owner Jimmy Haslam also announced that the team 's general counsel Sashi Brown would become the team 's vice president of football operations.
On January 5, the Browns hired former New York Mets executive Paul DePodesta to be their chief strategy officer. DePodesta brings over 20 years of experience in the Major League Baseball front offices, but has never held an executive position in the NFL before this.
On March 4, the Browns announced the resignation of team president Alec Scheiner, effective March 31.
On January 3, the Browns fired head coach Mike Pettine. In two seasons with the Browns, Pettine had a record of 10 -- 22, but went just 4 -- 19 after a 6 -- 3 start to the 2014 season.
On January 13, the Browns hired former Cincinnati Bengals offensive coordinator Hue Jackson as head coach. Jackson was the Bengals ' offensive coordinator for the past two seasons and was the head coach of the Oakland Raiders in 2011, in which they posted an 8 -- 8 record.
Notes
On April 1, wide receiver Josh Gordon applied for reinstatement following an indefinite suspension by the NFL due to repeated violations of the league 's substance abuse policy, causing him to miss the entire 2015 season. On April 11, it was revealed that Gordon had failed another drug test, and on April 12, the league announced that Gordon 's appeal had been denied. He was eligible to reapply on August 1.
On July 25, the NFL announced that Gordon would be reinstated on a conditional basis, and can stay with the team during a four - game ban to begin the season.
Note: Intra-division opponents are in bold text.
at Lincoln Financial Field, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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The Browns opened their 2016 regular season with a road game against the Philadelphia Eagles and rookie quarterback Carson Wentz, whom the Browns had passed up in the 2016 draft. The Eagles won 29 -- 10 and with the loss, the Browns started the season 0 -- 1. This would be their 12th straight regular season opening loss.
at FirstEnergy Stadium, Cleveland, Ohio
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The Browns scored on their first three drives and led 20 -- 2 early in the first quarter. The 18 point lead at the end of the first quarter was the Browns ' largest lead after the 1st quarter since 1960. However, the Browns ' offense stalled the rest of the game. The Ravens would score the final 23 points of the game to win 25 -- 20. The Browns had a chance to score a go ahead touchdown on a drive with less than a minute to play, but things went wrong after a controversial taunting penalty was called on Pryor following his catch at the Ravens ' 10 - yard line with under 30 seconds to play. McCown would throw an interception on the next play to seal the loss. With the loss, the Browns fell to 0 -- 2.
Their regular season losing streak extended to 5.
at Hard Rock Stadium, Miami Gardens, Florida
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Cody Kessler made his debut as the Browns ' starting quarterback. The Browns led 13 -- 10 at halftime. However, the Dolphins scored two consecutive touchdowns to go up 24 -- 13 early in the fourth quarter. The Browns, sparked by Pryor, rallied to tie the game. The Dolphins attempted a game - winning drive in the final minute of regulation. However, Dolphins QB, Ryan Tannehill, fumbled the ball, and the Browns secured possession. The Browns had a chance to win it at the end of regulation. However, recently signed Browns kicker, Cody Parkey, missed the 46 - yard field goal, sending the game to overtime. It was his third miss of the day. Both teams traded punts on their opening possession in overtime. On their second possession, the Dolphins, who got the ball around midfield to start the drive, reached the endzone after a few plays and won the game. With the loss, the Browns fell to 0 -- 3 and remained in 4th place in the AFC North.
This would also be the team 's sixth straight regular season loss dating back to last season.
at FedExField, Landover, Maryland
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The Browns came to Washington for a matchup against the Redskins. The Browns had a 20 -- 17 lead going into the fourth quarter but the offense once again stalled with a Josh Norman pick and two touchdowns by the Redskins ' offense would drop the Browns to 0 -- 4 for the first time since 2012. Wins by the Jaguars, Bears, and Saints would make the Browns the only team in the NFL without a victory through Week 4.
The team 's losing streak increased to 7.
at FirstEnergy Stadium, Cleveland, Ohio
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With Tom Brady back from his four - game suspension due to his alleged role in Deflategate, the Browns hosted the Patriots in a duel game. The game turned out to be a disaster for the Browns as Brady and the Pats stormed the Browns defense, dropping the Browns to 0 -- 5. This was the second consecutive season a team started 0 -- 5, after the 2015 Detroit Lions. This is the team 's first start with such a record since 2012. It is also the team 's eighth straight loss, dating back to the 2015 season.
at Nissan Stadium, Nashville, Tennessee
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With the loss, the Browns dropped to 0 -- 6 and became the first NFL team to start 0 -- 6 since the Oakland Raiders in 2014. It was the Browns ' first 0 -- 6 start since the 1999 season. It is also the Browns ' ninth consecutive loss dating back to Week 15 of last season.
at Paul Brown Stadium, Cincinnati, Ohio
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With their fourth straight loss to the Bengals, the Browns started 0 -- 7 for the first time since 1999 and became the first NFL team to start 0 -- 7 since the 2014 Raiders.
Their regular season losing streak now sits at 10.
at FirstEnergy Stadium, Cleveland, Ohio
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Hoping to stop a 10 - game losing streak dating back to last year, the Browns hosted the Jets in an AFC duel. The Browns led 20 -- 7 at halftime. However, they gave up 24 unanswered points to fall behind 31 -- 20 in the 4th quarter. They also committed two turnovers in the 4th quarter. The Browns scored late in the 4th quarter to cut the deficit to 31 -- 28, but a comeback could not be secured as the Jets secured the onside kick, ran out the clock, and dropped the Browns to 0 -- 8. It was only their second 0 -- 8 start in franchise history and the first 0 -- 8 start since the 1975 season. With the loss, the Browns failed to have a winning record for the ninth consecutive season. They also tied a franchise record (first set in between the 2011 and 2012 seasons) for most consecutive losses (11) in franchise history. They would also be the first team to start 0 -- 8 since the 2014 Raiders.
at FirstEnergy Stadium, Cleveland, Ohio
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Attempting to stop their 11 - game losing streak, the Cleveland Browns hosted the Dallas Cowboys. The Cowboys routed the Browns 35 -- 10. With the loss, the Browns dropped to 0 -- 9 for the first time since 1975 and clinched their ninth consecutive losing season. They also lost their 12th consecutive game dating back to the end of the previous season, setting a new franchise record for most consecutive losses.
at M&T Bank Stadium, Baltimore, Maryland
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Trying to halt their 12 - game losing streak that had started back during the 2015 NFL season, the Browns traveled to Baltimore to play against the Baltimore Ravens who beat them in Week 2. This was the Browns ' only prime time game this year. The Browns led 7 -- 6 at halftime, but the Ravens dominated the second half, outscoring them 22 -- 0 and winning 28 -- 7. The seven points scored by the Browns represented their fewest points scored in a game this season. With the loss, the Browns fell to 0 -- 10. It was their worst 10 - game start in franchise history. They also lost their 13th consecutive game, extending their current franchise record for most consecutive losses. They are also the first team to begin the season 0 -- 10 since the 2014 Oakland Raiders. On the following Sunday, the Denver Broncos and the Kansas City Chiefs won their games, which mathematically eliminated the Browns from the NFL Wild Card race.
at FirstEnergy Stadium, Cleveland, Ohio
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The Browns hosted the Pittsburgh Steelers, who were coming off a loss against the Cowboys. The Steelers defeated the Browns 24 -- 9, dropping the Browns to 0 -- 11. With the loss, the Browns were mathematically eliminated from postseason contention for the 14th consecutive season. For the second consecutive season, they were the first NFL team to be mathematically eliminated from contention. The Browns have now gone 24 consecutive seasons without winning a division title, extending the longest active streak in the NFL. They also extended their current franchise record for most consecutive games lost to 14 games. The team is also the first team to start 0 -- 11 since the 2011 Indianapolis Colts.
at FirstEnergy Stadium, Cleveland, Ohio
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The Browns took on the Giants who were on a five - game winning streak and were coming off their 22 -- 16 win over the Bears, but the Browns suffered their 12th straight loss this season due to three touchdown passes by Eli Manning to Odell Beckham Jr. and a fumble return by Jason Pierre - Paul for a touchdown. The Browns extended their current franchise record for most consecutive losses. They have now lost 15 straight games, with their last win coming in Week 14 of 2015 over San Francisco.
The team went into their bye week at 0 -- 12. They would be the first team to start with such a record since the 2011 Colts.
at FirstEnergy Stadium, Cleveland, Ohio
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Coming off their bye week, the Browns hosted the Bengals in a rematch of Week 7. The Bengals jumped out to a 20 -- 0 halftime lead and never looked back, handing Cleveland a 23 -- 10 loss. It was the Browns ' 16th consecutive defeat dating back to the 2015 season. With the loss, Cleveland became the eighth team since 1960 to start a season 0 -- 13, and the first since the 2011 Indianapolis Colts. They became the first franchise to lose 16 in a row since the Oakland Raiders did it during the 2013 and 2014 seasons.
at New Era Field, Orchard Park, New York
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The Browns headed to Buffalo to try to collect their first win of the season, but the Bills routed the Browns 33 -- 13. With the loss, the Browns fell to 0 -- 14 and became the first team to lose 17 consecutive regular season games since the St. Louis Rams in the 2008 and 2009 seasons. The Browns also became the fourth team to start a season 0 -- 14, joining the 1976 Tampa Bay Buccaneers (went winless in a 14 - game season), 1980 New Orleans Saints (went 1 - 15), and the 2008 Detroit Lions (went 0 -- 16). The Browns also tied their franchise record for total losses in a single season. The Browns also became the first team since the 2013 Houston Texans, who lost their last 14 games after starting their season 2 - 0, to have 14 straight losses in a single season.
On December 21, OT Joe Thomas was voted to his 10th consecutive Pro Bowl. Thomas now holds the Browns record for most Pro Bowls, passing Pro Football Hall of Famers Jim Brown (nine) and Lou Groza (nine). Thomas joins Pro Football Hall of Famers Merlin Olsen (14), Mel Renfro (10), Barry Sanders (10) and Lawrence Taylor (10) as the only players in NFL history to make the Pro Bowl in each of their first 10 seasons. Thomas ' streak of 10 consecutive Pro Bowls is the longest active streak in the NFL.
at FirstEnergy Stadium, Cleveland, Ohio
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In their final home game of the year, the Browns hosted the San Diego Chargers on Christmas Eve afternoon, looking to get their first win. The contest was competitive throughout the afternoon. The Chargers had a game - tying field goal attempt blocked by Jamie Meder with just under 4 minutes to go in the fourth quarter. After the Browns punted, the Chargers drove down the field and reached the Browns ' 27 - yard line in the final seconds. However, the Chargers had no timeouts remaining and had to rush the field goal unit out in the final seconds. Kicker Josh Lambo missed the potential game - tying field goal as time expired, allowing the Browns to pick up their first win of the season, ending a 17 - game losing streak and improving to 1 -- 14. It was the first and only time this season that the Browns allowed fewer than 23 points in a single game. This was the last victory the Browns achieved as of the current year 2018.
at Heinz Field, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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The Browns entered this game looking to win consecutive games for the first time since they won 3 in a row during Weeks 8 - 10 of the 2014 season. The Steelers entered the game locked into the AFC 's # 3 seed and rested most of their starters. However, the Browns would still fall to the Steelers, losing 27 -- 24 in an overtime affair. With the loss, the Browns finished the season with a 1 -- 15 record, their worst record in franchise history. The Browns also became the 10th team in NFL history, and the first team since the 2009 Rams, to finish 1 - 15. They failed to win a division game for the first time since the 2011 season and extended their losing streak within the division to 11 games. The Browns also failed to win a road game in a season for only the second time in franchise history and the first time since the 1975 season. They also extended their road losing streak to 13 games and failed to win a road game against the Steelers for the thirteenth consecutive season. The Browns finished with the worst record in the NFL and secured the # 1 overall pick in the 2017 NFL Draft. This marked the beginning of a 17 game losing streak continuing into the 2017 0 - 16 season.
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Rookies in italics 53 Active, 15 Inactive, 10 Practice squad
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where does scott calvin live in the santa clause | The Santa Clause - wikipedia
The Santa Clause is a 1994 American Christmas fantasy family comedy film directed by John Pasquin. It is the first installment in The Santa Clause trilogy and it stars Tim Allen as Scott Calvin, an ordinary man who accidentally causes Santa Claus to fall from his roof on Christmas Eve. When he and his young son, Charlie, finish St. Nick 's trip and deliveries, they go to the North Pole where Scott learns that he must become the new Santa and convince those he loves that he is indeed Father Christmas.
This was Pasquin and Allen 's first movie collaboration after they both worked together on the TV series Home Improvement. Pasquin and Allen would later work again on the films Jungle 2 Jungle and Joe Somebody, and on the television series Last Man Standing.
The film was followed by two sequels, The Santa Clause 2 (2002) and The Santa Clause 3: The Escape Clause (2006). In comparison to the original, the former received mixed critical response while the latter was panned by most critics.
Scott Calvin (Tim Allen) is a successful executive at a toy company. However, he spends less and less time with his son Charlie (Eric Lloyd), to the point where Charlie is n't too happy to spend Christmas with Scott. After picking Charlie up from his ex-wife's, Laura (Wendy Crewson) and her new husband Neil (Judge Reinhold), the two head to Scott 's. However, he burns the turkey and the two are forced to Denny 's for dinner. After reading Charlie the book T'was the night before Christmas, Charlie wakes Scott up after hearing noises on the roof.
Rushing outside, Scott startles a man dressed as Santa on the roof causing him to slip and fall. Attempting to help the man, Scott finds a card on him that states "Take my coat, the Reindeer will know what to do, '' after which the the body disappears. Charlie comes outside and discovers reindeer and a sleigh on the roof. Pushed by his son, Scott puts on the Santa suit and delivers a few gifts before the reindeer take the to the north pole. Bernard (David Krumholtz), the head elf, explains to Scott that because he put on the suit he is now Santa, and gives him 1 year to get his affairs in order before becoming Santa. Overwhelmed, Scott changes into pajamas and falls asleep. Eventually waking up in his own bed, Scott believes he had an elaborate dream, until Charlie begins telling him events of the previous night.
Over the course of the next year several strange things begin to occur. Firstly, Charlies obsession with Christmas and Santa begin to seem unhealthy to Laura and Neil. Secondly, Scott begins his transformation into Santa; including gaining significant weight, his facial hair growing at a rapid weight, and his hair turning stark white. These two eventually lead to Laura and Neil getting a judge to suspend Scotts visitation rights. Scott eventually visits Charlie on final time, and is convinced by his convictions that he is Santa. Bernard appears, and whisks both to the north pole to begin preparations for Christmas.
Laura and Neil believe Scott has kidnapped Charlie and contact the police. In the north pole, Scott sets out for Christmas with Charlie in tow. However, upon arriving at his old home, Scott is arrested. The elves eventually send a crack team of extraction elves to rescue Santa. Scott returns to Laura 's and reveals that he is Santa to them. Initially unbelieving, eventually both come around and believe that Scott is now Santa. After a very public departure, Scott travels the would delivering gifts. Using a magic snow globe given to him by Bernard, Charlie summons Scott back home. Laura agrees to let Charlie go with Scott to deliver the gifts and to the two head off into the night.
This film was entirely shot in the Greater Toronto Area. Oakville served as the city of Lakeside, Illinois. It was originally going to be released under the Hollywood Pictures banner, but was moved to Walt Disney Pictures after positive test screenings among children (despite Hollywood Pictures received a marquee credit -- placement of the studio 's production logo on marketing materials with the film 's opening titles).
The Santa Clause grossed over USD $144 million in the United States and Canada, and over $189 million worldwide, making it a box - office hit. The film has since gone on to become a Christmas classic. Freeform and AMC have played the film during the holiday season with record ratings.
The film received generally positive reviews from the critics. The film currently holds a "Certified Fresh '' rating of 75 % on Rotten Tomatoes, with 39 positive reviews from 52 counted and an average rating of 6 / 10. The consensus from the site is "The Santa Clause is utterly undemanding, but it 's firmly rooted in the sort of good old - fashioned holiday spirit missing from too many modern yuletide films. ''
Note that songs listed here (and in the movie credits) can not always be found on CD soundtracks.
The film 's soundtrack was released on October 10, 1994 in the United States.
This film was first released on Home Video (VHS and Laserdisc) on October 20, 1995. The first DVD was released in October 13, 1998 and 1999. The Santa Clause along with its sequels were released in a three movie DVD collection in 2007. All three movies were released as a Blu - ray set on October 16, 2012.
Towards the beginning of the film a brief exchange between Scott and Laura takes place in which Laura hands Scott a piece of paper with Neil 's mother 's phone number on it. Scott then exclaims "1 - 800 - SPANK - ME? I know that number! ''. In the United States, the exchange was removed from the 1999 DVD release as well as the 2002 Special Edition DVD and VHS releases and the 2012 Blu - ray release after a 1996 incident in which a child from Steilacoom, Washington called the number and racked up a $400 phone bill. On television airings, the phone number is changed to "1 - 800 - POUND ''. The line remains intact on the 1995 VHS release.
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where did the name italian stallion come from | The Italian Stallion - wikipedia
The Italian Stallion may refer to:
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what dominoes are in a double six set | Dominoes - wikipedia
Dominoes is a family of tile - based games played with rectangular "domino '' tiles. Each domino is a rectangular tile with a line dividing its face into two square ends. Each end is marked with a number of spots (also called pips, nips, or dobs) or is blank. The backs of the dominoes in a set are indistinguishable, either blank or having some common design. The domino gaming pieces (colloquially nicknamed bones, cards, tiles, tickets, stones, chips, or spinners) make up a domino set, sometimes called a deck or pack. The traditional Sino - European domino set consists of 28 dominoes, featuring all combinations of spot counts between zero and six. A domino set is a generic gaming device, similar to playing cards or dice, in that a variety of games can be played with a set.
The earliest mention of dominoes is from Song dynasty China found in the text Former Events in Wulin by Zhou Mi (1232 -- 1298). Modern dominoes first appeared in Italy during the 18th century, but how Chinese dominoes developed into the modern game is unknown. Italian missionaries in China may have brought the game to Europe.
The name "domino '' is most likely from the resemblance to a kind of carnival costume worn during the Venetian Carnival, often consisting of a black - hooded robe and a white mask. Despite the coinage of the word polyomino as a generalization, there is no connection between the word "domino '' and the number 2 in any language.
European - style dominoes are traditionally made of bone or ivory, or a dark hardwood such as ebony, with contrasting black or white pips (inlaid or painted). Alternatively, domino sets have been made from many different natural materials: stone (e.g., marble, granite or soapstone); other hardwoods (e.g., ash, oak, redwood, and cedar); metals (e.g., brass or pewter); ceramic clay, or even frosted glass or crystal. These sets have a more novel look, and the often heavier weight makes them feel more substantial; also, such materials and the resulting products are usually much more expensive than polymer materials.
Modern commercial domino sets are usually made of synthetic materials, such as ABS or polystyrene plastics, or Bakelite and other phenolic resins; many sets approximate the look and feel of ivory while others use colored or even translucent plastics to achieve a more contemporary look. Modern sets also commonly use a different color for the dots of each different end value (one - spots might have black pips while two - spots might be green, three red, etc.) to facilitate finding matching ends. Occasionally, one may find a domino set made of card stock like that for playing cards. Such sets are lightweight, compact, and inexpensive, and like cards are more susceptible to minor disturbances such as a sudden breeze. Sometimes, dominoes have a metal pin (called a spinner or pivot) in the middle.
The traditional set of dominoes contains one unique piece for each possible combination of two ends with zero to six spots, and is known as a double - six set because the highest - value piece has six pips on each end (the "double six ''). The spots from one to six are generally arranged as they are on six - sided dice, but because blank ends having no spots are used, seven faces are possible, allowing 28 unique pieces in a double - six set.
However, this is a relatively small number especially when playing with more than four people, so many domino sets are "extended '' by introducing ends with greater numbers of spots, which increases the number of unique combinations of ends and thus of pieces. Each progressively larger set increases the maximum number of pips on an end by three, so the common extended sets are double - nine, double - 12, double - 15, and double - 18. Larger sets such as double - 21 can theoretically exist, but are rarely seen in retail stores, as identifying the number of pips on each domino becomes difficult, and a double - 21 set would have 253 pieces, far more than is normally necessary for most domino games even with eight players.
The oldest confirmed written mention of dominoes in China comes from the Former Events in Wulin (i.e., the capital Hangzhou) written by the Yuan Dynasty (1271 -- 1368) author Zhou Mi (1232 -- 1298), who listed pupai (gambling plaques or dominoes), as well as dice as items sold by peddlers during the reign of Emperor Xiaozong of Song (r. 1162 -- 1189). Andrew Lo asserts that Zhou Mi meant dominoes when referring to pupai, since the Ming author Lu Rong (1436 -- 1494) explicitly defined pupai as dominoes (in regard to a story of a suitor who won a maiden 's hand by drawing out four winning pupai from a set).
The earliest known manual written about dominoes is the 《 宣 和 牌 譜 》 (Manual of the Xuanhe Period) written by Qu You (1341 -- 1437), but some Chinese scholars believe this manual is a forgery from a later time.
In the Encyclopedia of a Myriad of Treasures, Zhang Pu (1602 -- 1641) described the game of laying out dominoes as pupai, although the character for pu had changed, yet retained the same pronunciation. Traditional Chinese domino games include Tien Gow, Pai Gow, Che Deng, and others. The 32 - piece Chinese domino set, made to represent each possible face of two thrown dice and thus have no blank faces, differs from the 28 - piece domino set found in the West during the mid 18th century. Chinese dominoes with blank faces were known during the 17th century.
Many different domino sets have been used for centuries in various parts of the world to play a variety of domino games. Each domino originally represented one of the 21 results of throwing two six - sided dice (2d6). One half of each domino is set with the pips from one die and the other half contains the pips from the second die. Chinese sets also introduce duplicates of some throws and divide the dominoes into two suits: military and civil. Chinese dominoes are also longer than typical European dominoes.
The early 18th century had dominoes making their way to Europe, making their first appearance in Italy. The game changed somewhat in the translation from Chinese to the European culture. European domino sets contain neither suit distinctions nor the duplicates that went with them. Instead, European sets contain seven additional dominoes, with six of these representing the values that result from throwing a single die with the other half of the tile left blank, and the seventh domino representing the blank - blank (0 -- 0) combination.
Ivory dominoes were routinely used in 19th - century rural England in the settling of disputes over traditional grazing boundaries, and were commonly referred to as "bonesticks ''.
Domino tiles, also known as bones, are twice as long as they are wide and usually have a line in the middle dividing them into two squares. The value of either side is the number of spots or pips. In the most common variant (double - six), the values range from blank or no pips to six. The sum of the two values, i.e. the total number of pips, may be referred to as the rank or weight of a tile, and a tile with more pips may be called heavier than a lighter tile with fewer pips.
Tiles are generally named after their two values; e.g. deuce - five or five - deuce (2 -- 5 or 5 -- 2) are alternative ways of describing the tile with the values two and five. Tiles that have the same value on both ends are called doubles, and are typically referred to as double - zero, double - one, etc. Tiles with two different values are called singles.
Every tile belongs to the two suits of its two values, e.g. 0 -- 3 belongs both to the blank suit (or 0 suit) and to the 3 suit. Naturally the doubles form an exception in that each double belongs to only one suit. In 42, the doubles can be treated as an additional suit of doubles, so the double - six (6 -- 6) belongs both to the six suit and the suit of doubles.
The most common domino sets commercially available are double six (with 28 tiles) and double nine (with 55 tiles). Larger sets exist and are popular for games involving several players or for players looking for long domino games. The number of tiles in a set has the formula (n + 1) (n + 2) 2 (\ displaystyle (\ frac ((n + 1) (n + 2)) (2))) for a double - n set.
The most popular type of play are layout games, which fall into two main categories, blocking games and scoring games.
The most basic domino variant is for two players and requires a double - six set. The 28 tiles are shuffled face down and form the stock or boneyard. Each player draws seven tiles; the remainder are not used. Once the players begin drawing tiles, they are typically placed on - edge in front of the players, so each player can see their own tiles, but none can see the value of other players ' tiles. Every player can thus see how many tiles remain in the opponent 's hands at all times during gameplay.
One player begins by downing (playing the first tile) one of their tiles. This tile starts the line of play, in which values of adjacent pairs of tile ends must match. The players alternately extend the line of play with one tile at one of its two ends; if a player is unable to place a valid tile, they must keep on pulling tiles from the stock until they can. The game ends when one player wins by playing their last tile, or when the game is blocked because neither player can play. If that occurs, whoever caused the block gets all of the remaining player points not counting their own.
Players accrue points during game play for certain configurations, moves, or emptying one 's hand. Most scoring games use variations of the draw game. If a player does not call "domino '' before the tile is laid on the table, and another player says domino after the tile is laid, the first player must pick up an extra domino.
In a draw game (blocking or scoring), players are additionally allowed to draw as many tiles as desired from the stock before playing a tile, and they are not allowed to pass before the stock is (nearly) empty. The score of a game is the number of pips in the losing player 's hand plus the number of pips in the stock. Most rules prescribe that two tiles need to remain in the stock. The draw game is often referred to as simply "dominoes ''.
Adaptations of both games can accommodate more than two players, who may play individually or in teams.
The line of play is the configuration of played tiles on the table. It starts with a single tile and typically grows in two opposite directions when players add matching tiles. In practice, players often play tiles at right angles when the line of play gets too close to the edge of the table.
The rules for the line of play often differ from one variant to another. In many rules, the doubles serve as spinners, i.e., they can be played on all four sides, causing the line of play to branch. Sometimes, the first tile is required to be a double, which serves as the only spinner. In some games such as Chicken Foot, all sides of a spinner must be occupied before anybody is allowed to play elsewhere. Matador has unusual rules for matching. Bendomino uses curved tiles, so one side of the line of play (or both) may be blocked for geometrical reasons.
In Mexican Train and other train games, the game starts with a spinner from which various trains branch off. Most trains are owned by a player and in most situations players are allowed to extend only their own train.
In blocking games, scoring happens at the end of the game. After a player has emptied their hand, thereby winning the game for the team, the score consists of the total pip count of the losing team 's hands. In some rules, the pip count of the remaining stock is added. If a game is blocked because no player can move, the winner is often determined by adding the pips in players ' hands.
In scoring games, each individual can potentially add to the score. For example, in Bergen, players score two points whenever they cause a configuration in which both open ends have the same value and three points if additionally one open end is formed by a double. In Muggins, players score by ensuring the total pip count of the open ends is a multiple of a certain number. In variants of Muggins, the line of play may branch due to spinners.
In British public houses and social clubs, a scoring version of "5s - and - 3s '' is used. The game is normally played in pairs (two against two) and is played as a series of "ends ''. In each "end '', the objective is for players to attach a domino from their hand to one end of those already played so that the sum of the end dominoes is divisible by five or three. One point is scored for each time five or three can be divided into the sum of the two dominoes, i.e. four at one end and five at the other makes nine, which is divisible by three three times, resulting in three points. Double five at one end and five at the other makes 15, which is divisible by three five times (five points) and divisible by five three times (three points) for a total of eight points.
An "end '' stops when one of the players is out, i.e., has played all of their dominoes. In the event no player is able to empty their hand, then the player with the lowest domino left in hand is deemed to be out and scores one point. A game consists of any number of ends with points scored in the ends accumulating towards a total. The game ends when one of the pair 's total score exceeds a set number of points. A running total score is often kept on a cribbage board. 5s - and - 3s is played in a number of competitive leagues in the British Isles.
For 40 years the game has been played by four people, with the winner being the first player to score 150 points, in multiples of five, by using 27 bones, using mathematical strategic defenses and explosive offense. At times, it has been played with pairs of partners. The double - six set is the preferred deck with the lowest denomination of game pieces, with 28 dominoes.
In many versions of the game, the player with the highest double leads with that double, for example "double - six ''. If no one has it, the next - highest double is called: "double - five? '', then "double - four? '', etc. until the highest double in any of the players ' hands is played. If no player has an "opening '' double, the next heaviest domino in the highest suit is called - "six - five? '', "six - four? ''. In some variants, players take turns picking dominoes from the stock until an opening double is picked and played. In other variants, the hand is reshuffled and each player picks seven dominoes. After the first hand, the winner (or winning team) of the previous hand is allowed to pick first and begins by playing any domino in his or her hand.
Playing the first bone of a hand is sometimes called setting, leading, downing, or posing the first bone. Dominoes aficionados often call this procedure smacking down the bone. After each hand, bones are shuffled and each player draws the number of bones required, normally seven. Play proceeds clockwise. Players, in turn, must play a bone with an end that matches one of the open ends of the layouts.
In some versions of the games, the pips or points on the end, and the section to be played next to it must add up to a given number. For example, in a double - six set, the "sum '' would be six, requiring a blank to be played next to a six, an ace (one) next to a five, a deuce (two) next to a four, etc.
The stock of bones left behind, if any, is called the bone yard, and the bones therein are said to be sleeping. In draw games, players take part in the bone selection, typically drawing from the bone yard when they do not have a "match '' in their hands.
If a player inadvertently picks up and sees one or more extra dominoes, those dominoes become part of his or her hand.
A player who can play a tile may be allowed to pass anyway. Passing can be signalled by tapping twice on the table or by saying "go '' or "pass ''.
Play continues until one of the players has played all the dominoes in his or her hand, calls "Out! '', "I win '', or "Domino! '' and wins the hand, or until all players are blocked and no legal plays remain. This is sometimes referred to as locked down or sewed up. In a common version of the game, the next player after the block picks up all the dominoes in the bone yard as if trying to find a (nonexistent) match. If all the players are blocked, or locked out, the player with the lowest hand (pip count) wins. In team play, the team with the lowest individual hand wins. In the case of a tie, the first of tied players or the first team in the play rotation wins.
In games where points accrue, the winning player scores a point for each pip on each bone still held by each opponent or the opposing team. If no player went out, the win is determined by the lightest hand, sometimes only the excess points held by opponents.
A game is generally played to 100 points, the tally being kept on paper. In more common games, mainly urban rules, games are played to 150, 200, or 250 points.
In some games, the tally is kept by creating houses, where the beginning of the house (the first 10 points) is a large +, the next 10 points are O, and scoring with a five is a /, and are placed in the four corners of the house. One house is equal to 50 points.
In some versions, if a lock down occurs, the first person to call a lock - down gains the other players bones and adds the amount of the pips to his or her house. If a person who calls rocks after a call of lock - down or domino finds the number of pips a player called is incorrect, those points become his.
When a player plays out of turn or knocks when he could have played and someone calls bogus play, the other person is awarded 50 points.
Apart from the usual blocking and scoring games, also domino games of a very different character are played, such as solitaire or trick - taking games. Most of these are adaptations of card games and were once popular in certain areas to circumvent religious proscriptions against playing cards. A very simple example is a Concentration variant played with a double - six set; two tiles are considered to match if their total pip count is 12.
A popular domino game in Texas is 42. The game is similar to the card game spades. It is played with four players paired into teams. Each player draws seven dominoes, and the dominoes are played into tricks. Each trick counts as one point, and any domino with a multiple of five dots counts toward the total of the hand. These 35 points of "five count '' and seven tricks equals 42 points, hence the name.
Dominoes is played at a professional level, similar to poker. Numerous organisations and clubs of amateur domino players exist around the world. Some organizations, including the Fédération Internationale de Domino (FIDO) organize international competitions. The 2008 and 2009 Double FIDO domino world champion from the UK is Darren Elhindi.
Besides playing games, another use of dominoes is the domino show, which involves standing them on end in long lines so that when the first tile is toppled, it topples the second, which topples the third, etc., resulting in all of the tiles falling. By analogy, the phenomenon of small events causing similar events leading to eventual catastrophe is called the domino effect.
Arrangements of millions of tiles have been made that have taken many minutes, even hours to fall. For large and elaborate arrangements, special blockages (also known as firebreaks) are employed at regular distances to prevent a premature toppling from undoing more than a section of the dominoes while still being able to be removed without damage.
The phenomenon also has some theoretical relevance (amplifier, digital signal, information processing), and this amounts to the theoretical possibility of building domino computers. Dominoes are also commonly used as components in Rube Goldberg machines.
The Netherlands has hosted an annual domino - toppling exhibition called Domino Day since 1986. The event held on 18 November 2005 knocked over 4 million dominoes by a team from Weijers Domino Productions. On Domino Day 2008 (14 November 2008), the Weijers Domino Productions team attempted to set 10 records:
This record attempt was held in the WTC Expo hall (nl) in Leeuwarden. The artist who toppled the first stone was the Finnish acrobat Salima Peippo.
At one time, Pressman Toys manufactured a product called Domino Rally that contained tiles and mechanical devices for setting up toppling exhibits.
In Berlin on 9 November 2009, giant dominoes were toppled in a 20th - anniversary commemoration of the fall of the Berlin Wall. Former Polish president and Solidarity leader Lech Wałęsa set the toppling in motion.
Since April 2008, the character encoding standard Unicode includes characters that represent the double - six domino tiles in various orientations. All combinations of blank through six pips on the left or right provides 49 glyphs, the same combinations vertically for another 49, and also a horizontal and a vertical "back '' for a total of 100 glyphs. In this arrangement, both orientations are present: horizontally both tiles (1 6) and (6 1) exist, while a regular game set only has one such tile. The Unicode range for dominoes is U + 1F030 -- U + 1F09F. The naming pattern in Unicode is, by example, U + 1F03B 🀻 DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL - 01 - 03. Few fonts are known to support these glyphs. While the complete domino set has only 28 tiles, for printing layout reasons, the Unicode set needs both horizontal and vertical forms for each tile, plus the 01 - 03 (plain) 03 - 01 (reversed) pairs, and generic backsides.
Media related to Dominoes at Wikimedia Commons
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who played rebecca in bridget jones edge of reason | Bridget Jones: the Edge of Reason (film) - wikipedia
Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason is a 2004 romantic comedy film directed by Beeban Kidron and written by Adam Brooks, Richard Curtis, Andrew Davies, and Helen Fielding, based on Fielding 's 1999 novel of the same name. It stars Renée Zellweger as Bridget Jones, Colin Firth as Mark Darcy, and Hugh Grant as Daniel Cleaver.
The sequel to Bridget Jones 's Diary (2001), the film was released in the United Kingdom on 12 November 2004 and in the United States a week later on 19 November 2004 to generally negative reviews from critics. Despite this, the film was a box office success, grossing over $260 million worldwide.
The film begins shortly before Bridget 's mother 's (Gemma Jones) annual Turkey Curry Buffet. Bridget (Renée Zellweger) is ecstatic about her relationship with Mark Darcy (Colin Firth). However, Bridget 's confidence in her relationship is shattered when she meets Mark 's assistant, a beautiful, slim and quick witted Australian named Rebecca Gillies (Jacinda Barrett). Bridget meets her ex, Daniel Cleaver (Hugh Grant), at her job for TV morning show Sit - Up Britain and is offered a position alongside Cleaver in a new travel tv series. Bridget initially refuses and declares that Daniel is a "deceitful, sexist, disgusting specimen of humanity ''. Bridget eventually relents and agrees to sign on to the project, despite her friends ' serious misgivings.
Bridget is delighted when Mark invites her to the "Law Council Dinner '', assuming he will propose afterwards, but the night does not end well. She is overdressed for the event, wearing a gold dress while everyone else is wearing serious lawyer black; the hairdresser has ruined her hair, which her friends hurriedly repair at her flat; she heavily rouges her cheeks in the taxi and then as a final debacle, makes a critical error in the trivial quiz that almost causes her team to lose with a question about Madonna. Rebecca Gillies wins the night by chiming in with the correct answer. Bridget 's confidence is thoroughly deflated.
After the "Law Council Dinner '', Mark and Bridget have an argument and she walks away from him in a huff. Mark goes to Bridget 's apartment, apologizes, and tells her he loves her for the first time. Later in the night, Mark asks Bridget if she 'd like to go on a ski holiday in Vorarlberg, Austria. Once on the slopes, she learns Rebecca recommended the vacation spot to Mark. While on the holiday, Bridget suspects she 's pregnant; after an argument concerning the upbringing and education of their future children, the pregnancy test proves negative. After they return home, Bridget and Mark attended a scheduled lunch with both of their parents. When the subject of marriage comes up during conversation, Bridget is hurt by Mark 's comment that it 's not something they 're even thinking about yet.
Bridget overhears a message from Rebecca on Mark 's answering machine and discusses it with her friends, who advise Bridget that "If Mark says ' I refuse to dignify that question with an answer ', then you know he 's having an affair ''. Bridget asks the question, Mark responds predictably and Bridget breaks up with him. She travels to Thailand with her friend, Shazzer (Sally Phillips) and Daniel Cleaver to film "The Smooth Guide ''. Bridget and Daniel film the show, visit several exotic locations and flirt while off duty. Bridget loses faith in Daniel again when she is in his hotel room and while getting ready to romance, notices that a Thai prostitute has arrived for him. She decides he has not changed.
During the Thailand vacation, Shazzer has a fling with a younger British man called Jed. While packing up for their trip back home, Shazzer asks Bridget to put Jed 's (Paul Nicholls) gift in her bag. Bridget is arrested and sent to a Thai prison after airport security dogs detect a large stash of cocaine inside the gift. In prison, Bridget spends her time sharing stories with the inmates, giving relationship advice and teaching them how to sing and dance to Madonna 's "Like a Virgin ''. Mark arrives to tell Bridget that his superiors have sent him to put her release in motion. Bridget identifies Jed in a picture as the man who gave Shazzer the hidden cocaine. Mark states that he was "just the messenger '' and after confirming Jed 's identity and that Bridget "spent the night with Daniel Cleaver '', declares that her sex life does not interest him. Bridget does not protest or correct his presumption. Back in Britain, Mark confronts Daniel for not helping Bridget when she was arrested, and they start a fight outside an art gallery in Kensington Gardens. Eventually, Daniel swears off Bridget for good and sarcastically suggests to Mark "why do n't you just marry her ''.
Bridget arrives at Heathrow Airport as an international human rights celebrity. She is greeted by her parents, who have been busy planning their vow renewal ceremony. Her mother apologises for not making a bigger effort to participate in Bridget 's jail release campaign, saying she 's been busy. At home, Bridget is surprised by her friends, who inform her that Mark personally tracked down Jed the drug trafficker, arranged for his custody and extradition, and force Jed to admit Bridget 's innocence. Hopeful that Mark still loves her, Bridget immediately runs to his house. She finds Rebecca there and assumes that there is a romantic relationship between Mark and her. Rebecca reveals that she is not seeking an affair with Mark; she is actually infatuated with Bridget and kisses her. Bridget is flattered but politely turns her down.
Bridget confronts Mark at his legal chambers and asks him to take her back. Mark proposes to Bridget and she accepts. The film ends with Bridget 's parents renewing their vows and Bridget catching the bouquet outside while snow is falling.
Principal photography began in 6 October 2003 and clouded in 15 February 2004
During the fight scene between Daniel and Mark, it was for the most part not choreographed, instead, the actors were simply asked to fight each other any way they could. At one point in the film (where Bridget and Shazzer are at the Thai airport), Bridget indulges in a fantasy of Mark coming out of water in a wet white shirt, just like Colin Firth did in the 1995 BBC version of Pride and Prejudice. The poem that Daniel quotes from while passing Ko Panyi is the story of "Phra Aphai Mani '' by Sunthorn Phu.
One of the more significant differences between the novel and the film is that the film makes no mention of Bridget 's fascination with the BBC television version of Jane Austen 's Pride and Prejudice (Colin Firth starred in that production.)
Sandra Gregory stated that the scenes involving the Thai prison probably received inspiration from her incident since Helen Fielding knew the next door neighbors of her parents and presumably would have talked to them.
Although the film received mostly negative reviews from critics, it was voted Evening Standard Readers ' Film of 2004, was in the shortlist for the Orange Film of the Year award at 2005 BAFTAs and the second interpretation of Bridget gained Zellweger another Golden Globe nomination and the People 's Choice Award as Favorite Leading Lady of 2005.
The film holds a 27 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with the consensus stating: "Edge of Reason is a predictable continuation to the Bridget Jones story, with too much slapstick and silliness. ''
Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason opened in the United States on a limited release on 12 November 2004 and grossed $8,684,055, at # 5 at the box office; a week later, the film was given a wide release, again hitting # 5 at the box office, this time with $10,044,890. By the end of its theatrical run, it had grossed $40,226,215 domestically and $222,294,509 internationally, totaling $262,520,724 worldwide.
In July 2009, the BBC reported that a third film was in the early stages of production. On 1 March 2011 it was reported that both Renée Zellweger and Colin Firth had shown interest in reprising their roles. An announcement was made on August 11, 2011 that a third film was greenlit by Universal Pictures, Miramax and Working Title.
Colin Firth talked to The Chicago Sun Times in April 2013. "Unfortunately, it might be a bit of a long wait, '' he said. "I would n't say that it 's completely dead in the water, but the way it 's going, you might be seeing Bridget Jones 's granddaughter 's story being told by the time we get there. ''
In an interview in October 2014, Hugh Grant mentioned an existing script for a sequel, however also expressed his dislike for it and that he would not star in a third film. Filming officially began on 2 October 2015. The movie opened on 16 September 2016.
The film was released on DVD in 2004 with a variety of bonus features.
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who sang the song let me go lover | Let Me Go, Lover! - Wikipedia
"Let Me Go, Lover! '', a popular song, was written by Jenny Lou Carson and Al Hill, a pseudonym used by Fred Wise, Kathleen Twomey, and Ben Weisman. It is based on an earlier song called "Let Me Go, Devil '', about alcoholism.
"Let Me Go, Lover '' was featured on the television program Studio One on November 15, 1954, and caught the fancy of the public. The episode was a murder mystery that revolved around a hit record and a disc jockey. Producer Felix Jackson asked Columbia Records ' Mitch Miller for a recording to use in the show, and Miller provided Joan Weber 's version of "Let Me Go, Lover ''. Miller took advantage of the recording 's exposure on national television and sent copies of the record to 2,000 disc jockeys, who began to play it on their radio stations.
Weber was pregnant when she recorded the song. A result of the program was to illustrate how efficiently a song could be promoted by introducing it to the public via radio or a TV production. The recording was released by Columbia Records as catalog number 40366. Mitch Miller stocked national record stores the week before the program and because of its availability the record sold over 100,000 the first week of its release. It first reached the Billboard magazine charts on December 4, 1954. By January 1955, Weber 's record of the song had hit No. 1 on all the Billboard charts (the Disk Jockey chart, the Best Seller chart, and the Juke Box chart). The song reached No. 16 in the UK Singles Chart, and was awarded a gold record.
It was also quickly covered by a number of other singers. One artist to cover it was Lucille Ball, in the March 18, 1955 episode of I Love Lucy, entitled "Bull Fight Dance ''.
Among the cover versions was one by Patti Page. This recording was released by Mercury Records as catalog number 70511. It first reached the Billboard charts on December 18, 1954. On the Disk Jockey chart, it peaked at No. 8; on the Best Seller chart, at No. 24; on the Juke Box chart, at No. 12.
Another cover, by Teresa Brewer and The Lancers, was recorded on November 18, 1954, and released by Coral Records as catalog number 61315. It reached No. 6 on the Billboard chart and No. 9 on the UK Singles Chart.
Peggy Lee also released the song in 1954, reaching No. 26. On the Cash Box Best - Selling Records chart, all the versions were combined, and the song was also a No. 1 hit on that chart.
Hank Snow 's version ("Let Me Go, Woman '') went to No. 1 on the country music charts in 1955.
Dean Martin had the song released as a single in 1955, reaching No. 3 in the UK Singles Chart.
In March 1955, Ruby Murray reached 5 in the UK Singles Chart with her version.
Kathy Kirby 's version of the song went to No. 10 on the UK Singles Chart in 1964.
It was also covered by Billy Fury, and turned out to one of the last songs he recorded before his death in 1983.
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who played king george vi in the king's speech | The King 's Speech - wikipedia
The King 's Speech is a 2010 British historical drama film directed by Tom Hooper and written by David Seidler. Colin Firth plays the future King George VI who, to cope with a stammer, sees Lionel Logue, an Australian speech and language therapist played by Geoffrey Rush. The men become friends as they work together, and after his brother abdicates the throne, the new king relies on Logue to help him make his first wartime radio broadcast on Britain 's declaration of war on Germany in 1939.
Seidler read about George VI 's life after overcoming a stuttering condition he endured during his own youth. He started writing about the relationship between the therapist and his royal patient as early as the 1980s, but at the request of the King 's widow, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, postponed work until her death in 2002. He later rewrote his screenplay for the stage to focus on the essential relationship between the two protagonists. Nine weeks before filming began, Logue 's notebooks were discovered and quotations from them were incorporated into the script.
Principal photography took place in London and around Britain from November 2009 to January 2010. The opening scenes were filmed at Elland Road, Leeds, and Odsal Stadium, Bradford, both locations standing in for the old Wembley Stadium. For indoor scenes, Lancaster House substituted for Buckingham Palace, and Ely Cathedral stood in for Westminster Abbey, while the weaving mill scene was filmed at the Queen Street Mill in Burnley. The cinematography differs from that of other historical dramas: hard light was used to give the story a greater resonance and wider than normal lenses were employed to recreate the Duke of York 's feelings of constriction. A third technique Hooper employed was the off - centre framing of characters: in his first consultation with Logue, the Duke is captured hunched on the side of a couch at the edge of the frame.
Released in the United Kingdom on 7 January 2011, The King 's Speech was a major box office and critical success. Censors initially gave it adult ratings due to profanity, though these were later revised downwards after criticism by the makers and distributors in the UK and some instances of swearing were muted in the US. On a budget of £ 8 million, it earned over £ 250 million internationally ($400 million). It was widely praised by film critics for its visual style, art direction, and acting. Other commentators discussed the film 's representation of historical detail, especially the reversal of Winston Churchill 's opposition to abdication. The film received many awards and nominations, particularly for Colin Firth 's performance; his Golden Globe Award for Best Actor was the sole win at that ceremony from seven nominations. The King 's Speech won seven British Academy Film Awards, including Best Film, Best Actor (Firth), Best Supporting Actor (Rush), and Best Supporting Actress (Helena Bonham Carter). The film also won four Academy Awards: Best Picture, Best Director (Hooper), Best Actor (Firth), and Best Original Screenplay (Seidler).
At the closing of the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley Stadium, the Prince Albert, Duke of York, the second son of King George V, addresses them with a strong stammer. His search for treatment has been discouraging, but his wife Elizabeth persuades him to see the Australian - born Lionel Logue, a non-medically trained Harley Street speech defects therapist. "Bertie, '' as he is called by his family, believes the first session is not going well although Lionel (he insists that all his patients address him as such) manages to have the potential client recite, on an acetate recording, Hamlet 's "To be, or not to be '' soliloquy sublimely all the while hearing piped - in classical music on a pair of head phones. Bertie is disappointed and Lionel gives him the recording as a souvenir.
Bertie 's father, King George V makes his 1934 Christmas wireless address, and he explains to Bertie that the machine will play a significant part in the role of the Royal Family invading the homes of the people and that Bertie 's brother 's neglect of his responsibilities make training on it necessary. The attempt is a failure. Bertie in frustration plays the recording Lionel gave him. Bertie returns for daily treatments of exercises and practices to overcome the physical and psychological roots of his speaking difficulty.
George V dies in 1936, and his eldest son David ascends the throne as King Edward VIII. A constitutional crisis arises with the new king over a prospective marriage with the twice - divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson. Edward, as head of the Church of England, can not marry her, even if she receives her second divorce, since both her previous husbands are alive.
At an unscheduled session, Albert (Bertie) expresses his frustration that while his speech has improved when talking to most people, he still stammers when talking to David and reveals the extent of Edward VIII 's folly with Simpson. When Lionel insists that Bertie could be a good king, Bertie accuses Lionel of speaking treason and quits Lionel. Bertie must face the Accession Council without any assistance from Lionel.
Bertie and Lionel come together after King Edward decides to abdicate in order to marry Simpson, and Bertie becomes King George VI. The new Royal pair visit the home of Lionel before the Coronation, much to the surprise of Mrs. Logue when she comes upon Queen Elizabeth having tea at her dining room table, and learning that the King is her husband 's patient.
Bertie and Lionel 's relationship comes to be known to the King 's advisors when there are preparations for his coronation in Westminster Abbey. It comes to light that George never asked for advice from his advisors about his speech defect treatment and that Lionel never had formal training to be a medical doctor. Lionel explains that at the time he started with speech defects there was no formal training and that the only known help that was available for returning Great War shell - shocked Australian soldiers was from personal experience.
Bertie remains unconvinced about his suitability as king until provoked into expressing his voice, angered by Lionel 's disrespect for King Edward 's Chair and the Stone of Scone. Only after this pivotal moment is Bertie able to rehearse with Lionel, and then complete the coronation ceremony.
Now King George VI, Bertie is in a crisis when he must declare over the wireless in 1939 Britain 's declaration of war with Nazi Germany. Lionel is summoned to Buckingham Palace to prepare the new king for his wireless address to Britain and the Empire. Knowing the challenge that lies before him, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Winston Churchill, and Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain are present to offer support. The King and Logue are then left in the broadcasting room. He delivers his speech with Logue conducting him, but by the end he is speaking freely. Preparing to leave the room for the congratulations of those present in the palace, Logue mentions to the King that he still had difficulty enunciating ' w ' and the King jokes back, "I had to throw in a few so they 'd know it was me ''.
The Royal Family step onto the balcony of the palace and are applauded by the crowd, a title card explains that Logue was always present at King George VI 's speeches during the war and that they remained friends for the rest of their lives.
-- David Seidler
As a child, David Seidler developed a stammer, which he believes was caused by the emotional trauma of World War II and the murder of his grandparents during the Holocaust. King George VI 's success in overcoming his stammer inspired the young Seidler, "Here was a stutterer who was a king and had to give radio speeches where everyone was listening to every syllable he uttered, and yet did so with passion and intensity. '' When Seidler became an adult, he resolved to write about King George VI. During the late 1970s and 1980s he voraciously researched the King, but found a dearth of information on Logue. Eventually Seidler contacted Valentine Logue, who agreed to discuss his father and make his notebooks available if the Queen Mother gave her permission. She asked him not to do so in her lifetime, and Seidler halted the project.
The Queen Mother died in 2002. Three years later, Seidler returned to the story during a bout of creative work inspired by a recovery from cancer. His research, including a chance encounter with an uncle whom Logue had treated, indicated he used mechanical breathing exercises combined with psychological counselling to probe the underlying causes of the condition. Thus prepared, Seidler imagined the sessions. He showed the finished screenplay to his wife, who liked it, but pronounced it too "seduced by cinematic technique ''. She suggested he rewrite it as a stage play to focus on the essential relationship between the King and Logue. After he had completed it, he sent it to a few friends who worked in theatre in London and New York for feedback.
In 2005, Joan Lane of Wilde Thyme, a production company in London, received the script. Lane started talking with Simon Egan and Gareth Unwin of Bedlam Productions, and they invited Seidler to London to rewrite the play again, this time for the screen. Together, Lane and Bedlam Productions organised a reading of the play in Pleasance Theatre, a small house in north London, to a group of Australian expatriates, among whom was Tom Hooper 's mother. She called her son and said, "I 've found your next project ''.
Instead of trying to contact his agent, Lane asked an Australian staff member to hand - deliver the script to Geoffrey Rush 's house, not far away from hers in Melbourne. Unwin reports that he received a four - page e-mail from Rush 's manager admonishing them for the breach of etiquette, but ending with an invitation to discuss the project further. Iain Canning from See - Saw Films became involved and, in Gareth Unwin 's words: "We worked with ex-chair of BAFTA Richard Price, and started turning this story about two grumpy men sitting in a room into something bigger. '' Hooper liked the story, but thought that the original ending needed to be changed to reflect events more closely: "Originally, it had a Hollywood ending... If you hear the real speech, he 's clearly coping with his stammer. But it 's not a perfect performance. He 's managing it. ''
The production team learned -- some nine weeks prior to the start of filming -- of a diary containing Logue 's original notes on his treatment of the Duke. They then went back and re-worked the script to reflect what was in the notes. Hooper said some of the film 's most memorable lines, such as at the climax, when Logue smiles, "You still stammered on the W '' to the King, who replies, "I had to throw in a few so they would know it was me '' were direct quotations from Logue 's notes. Changes from the script to reflect the historical record included Michael Gambon improvising the ramblings of George V as he signed away authority, and the decision in the opening scene to dress the Duke in an overcoat rather than regal finery.
Seidler thought Paul Bettany would be a good choice to play King George VI, Tom Hooper preferred Hugh Grant, though both actors refused the offer. Once they met with Firth and heard him read for the part, Seidler and Hooper were convinced of his suitability for the role.
The UK Film Council awarded the production £ 1 million in June 2009. Filming began in December 2009, and lasted 39 days. Most was shot in the three weeks before Christmas because Rush would be performing in a play in January. The schedule was further complicated by Bonham Carter 's availability: she worked on Harry Potter during the week, so her scenes had to be filmed during the weekend.
Period dramas rely to an extent on the quality of production, so combining regal opulence with scruffy, depression - era London on the relatively limited £ 8 million budget presented a challenge. On 25 November 2009 the crew took over the Pullens buildings in Southwark. To emphasise Logue 's humble background, the entire street was transformed into one from 1930s London. Large advertisements for (among other things) Bovril and fascism were added to walls, grit and grime to streets and buildings. To reproduce London smog of the time -- thick enough that cars might need guidance from someone walking ahead -- so much artificial smoke was used that fire alarms were triggered.
On 26 November, a week 's filming with Firth, Rush, and Jacobi began at Ely Cathedral, the location used for Westminster Abbey. The production had asked for permission to film in the Abbey but were denied due to the demands of tourism. Though Lincoln Cathedral is architecturally a closer match to the Abbey, they preferred Ely, a favoured filming location. Its size allowed them to build sets showing not just the coronation, but the preparations before it.
Lancaster House, an opulent government - owned period house in London, was rented (at £ 20,000 per day) for interior scenes of Buckingham Palace. The 1936 Accession Council at St. James 's Palace, where George VI swore an oath, was filmed in the Livery Hall of Drapers ' Hall. The room, ornate and vast, met the occasion: the daunting nature of the new King 's responsibilities was shown by surrounding him with rich detail, flags and royal portraiture.
The crew investigated Logue 's former consultation rooms, but they were too small to film in. Instead, they found a high, vaulted room not far away in 33 Portland Place. Eve Stewart, the production designer, liked the mottled, peeling wallpaper there so much that she recreated the effect throughout the entire room. In his DVD commentary, Hooper said he liked Portland Place as a set because it felt "lived - in '', unlike other period houses in London. The scenes of the Duke of York at home with his family were also filmed here; showing the Prince living in a townhouse "subverted '' expectations of a royal drama.
The opening scene, set at the closing ceremony of the 1925 British Empire Exhibition at Wembley Stadium, was filmed on location at Elland Road, home of Leeds United, and Odsal Stadium, home of Bradford RLFC. Elland Road was used for the speech elements of the prince stammering his way through his first public address, and Odsal Stadium was selected because of the resemblance of its curved ends to Wembley Stadium in 1925. The crew had access to the stadium only at 10 pm, after a football game. They filled the terraces with inflatable dummies and over 250 extras dressed in period costumes. Live actors were interspersed to give the impression of a crowd. Additional people, as well as more ranks of soldiers on the pitch, were added in post-production with visual effects.
Other locations include Cumberland Lodge, Harley Street, Knebworth, Hatfield House, the Old Royal Naval College in Greenwich, Queen Street Mill Textile Museum in Burnley, and Battersea Power Station, which doubled as a BBC wireless control room. The final cut of the film was completed on 31 August 2010.
In developing his portrayal of George VI 's stammer, Firth worked with Neil Swain, the voice coach for the film. His sister, Kate Firth, also a professional voice coach to actors, proposed exercises the King might have done with Logue, and made suggestions on how to imagine Logue 's mix of physical and psychological coaching for the film. In addition, Firth watched archive footage of the King speaking. In an interview with Allan Tyrer published by the British Stammering Association, Swain said: "(It) was very interesting while we were working on the film just to think tonally how far we could go and should go with the strength of George 's stammer. I think a less courageous director than Tom (Hooper) -- and indeed a less courageous actor than Colin (Firth) -- might have felt the need to slightly sanitise the degree and authenticity of that stammer, and I 'm really really pleased that neither of them did. '' In May 2011 Firth said he was finding traces of the stammer difficult to eliminate: "You can probably hear even from this interview, there are moments when it 's quite infectious, '' he said. "You find yourself doing it and if I start thinking about it the worse it gets. If nothing else it 's an insight into what it feels like. ''
The film 's original score was composed by Alexandre Desplat. In a film about a man struggling to articulate himself, Desplat was wary of overshadowing the dramaturgy: "This is a film about the sound of the voice. Music has to deal with that. Music has to deal with silence. Music has to deal with time. '' The score is a sparse arrangement of strings and piano (with the addition of oboe and harp in one cut), intended to convey the sadness of the King 's muteness, and then the growing warmth of friendship between him and Logue. The minimalist approach emphasises the protagonist 's struggle for control. Desplat used the repetition of a single note to represent the stickiness of the King 's speech. As the film progresses, growing banks of warm strings swaddle the deepening friendship between the two leads. The music rises to a climax in the coronation scene. Hooper originally wanted to film the scene without music, but Desplat argued that it was the real climax of the story -- the point when the friendship was ratified by their decision to trust each other. "That is really rare '', said Desplat, "mostly you have love stories ''.
To create a dated sound, the score was recorded on old microphones extracted from the EMI archives which had been specially made for the royal family. The music played during the broadcast of the 1939 radio speech at the climax of the film is from the 2nd movement (Allegretto) of Beethoven 's 7th Symphony; it was added by Tariq Anwar, the editor. When Desplat later joined the team to write the music, he praised and defended Anwar 's suggestion. Hooper further remarked that the stature of the piece helps elevate the status of the speech to a public event.
The score was nominated for several awards, including Best Original Score at the Oscars, Golden Globes, and BAFTAs, winning the latter award. The score also won a Grammy at the 54th Grammy Awards.
All tracks written by Alexandre Desplat, except where noted.
Hooper employed a number of cinematic techniques to evoke the King 's feelings of constriction. He and cinematographer Danny Cohen used wider than normal lenses to photograph the film, typically 14mm, 18mm, 21mm, 25mm and 27mm, where the subtle distortion of the picture helps to convey the King 's discomfort. For instance, the subjective point of view shot during the Empire exhibition speech used a close up of the microphone with a wider lens, similar to the filming technique used for one of the Duke 's early consultations with a physician. In The New York Times, Manohla Dargis wrote that the feeling of entrapment inside the King 's head was rendered overly literal with what she believed to be a fisheye lens, though in these scenes the wider lenses were used. Hooper also discussed using the 18mm lens, one he likes "because it puts human beings in their context ''.
Roger Ebert noted that the majority of the film was shot indoors, where oblong sets, corridors, and small spaces manifest constriction and tightness, in contrast to the usual emphasis on sweep and majesty in historical dramas. Hooper used wide shots to capture the actors ' body language, particularly that of Geoffrey Rush, who trained at L'École Internationale de Théâtre Jacques Lecoq in Paris and "is consequently brilliant in the way he carries his body ''. Hooper widened his scope first to capture Rush 's gestures, then full body movements and silhouettes. The approach carried over to Firth as well. In the first consultation scene, the Duke is squeezed against the end of a long couch framed against a large wall, "as if to use the arm of the sofa as a kind of friend, as a security blanket? '' Martin Filler praised the "low - wattage '' cinematography of Danny Cohen 's, as making everything look like it has been "steeped in strong tea ''.
At other times, the camera was positioned very close to the actors to catch the emotion in their faces: "If you put a lens 6 inches from somebody 's face, you get more emotion than if you 're on a long lens 20 feet away, '' Cohen said in an interview. Hooper sought a second subtlety while filming the first consultation room scene between the two men, having placed the camera 18 inches from Colin Firth 's face: "I wanted the nervousness of the first day to percolate into his performances, '' he said.
Historical dramas traditionally tend to use "soft light '', but Hooper wanted to use a harsher glare, which gives a more contemporary feel, and thus a greater emotional resonance. To achieve the effect, the lighting team erected huge blackout tents over the Georgian buildings and used large lights filtered through Egyptian cotton.
The filmmakers not only tightened the chronology of the events to just a few years but even shifted the timeline of treatment. The Duke of York actually began working with Logue in October 1926, ten years before the abdication crisis, and the improvement in his speech was apparent in months rather than years as suggested by the film. When he was dispatched to Australia to open their new parliament in 1927, the Duke gave numerous speeches during the journey and performed well despite Logue not accompanying him on the trip. He wrote to Logue from the Caribbean, "You remember my fear of ' The King '. I give it every evening at dinner on board. This does not worry me any more. '' And of his speech opening Parliament it was observed that he spoke "resonantly and without stuttering ''.
Robert Logue, a grandson of Lionel, doubted the film 's depiction of the speech therapist, stating "I do n't think he ever swore in front of the King and he certainly never called him ' Bertie ' ''. Andrew Roberts, an English historian, states that the severity of the King 's stammer was exaggerated and the characters of Edward VIII, Wallis Simpson, and George V made more antagonistic than they really were, to increase the dramatic effect.
Christopher Hitchens and Isaac Chotiner have criticised the film for failing to indict the appeasement of the era or to portray Edward VIII 's sympathetic attitude to Nazi Germany. The Guardian also corrected the portrayal of Stanley Baldwin as having resigned due to his refusal to order Britain 's re-armament, when he in fact stepped down as "a national hero, exhausted by more than a decade at the top ''.
Hugo Vickers, an adviser on the film, agreed that the alteration of historical details to preserve the essence of the dramatic story was sometimes necessary. The high - ranking officials, for instance, would not have been present when the King made his speech, nor would Churchill have been involved at any level, "but the average viewer knows who Churchill is; he does n't know who Lord Halifax and Sir Samuel Hoare (later Lord Templewood) are. ''
Hitchens and Chotiner also challenged the film 's portrayal of Winston Churchill 's role in the abdication crisis. It is well established that Churchill encouraged Edward VIII to resist pressure to abdicate, whereas he is portrayed in the film as supportive of the Duke of York and not opposed to the abdication. Hitchens attributes this treatment to the "cult '' surrounding Churchill 's legacy. In a smart, well - made film "would the true story not have been fractionally more interesting for the audience? '', he wondered.
Martin Filler acknowledged that the film legitimately used artistic licence to make valid dramatic points, such as in the probably imagined scene when George V lectures his son on the importance of broadcasting. Filler cautions that George VI would never have tolerated Logue addressing him casually, nor swearing, and the King almost certainly would have understood a newsreel of Hitler speaking in German. Filler makes the larger point that both the King and his wife were, in reality, lukewarm towards Churchill because of the latter 's support for his brother during the abdication crisis.
Commenting on the film 's final scene on the balcony of Buckingham Palace, Andrew Roberts has written, "The scene is fairly absurd from a historical point of view -- Neville Chamberlain and Winston Churchill were not present and there were no cheering crowds outside Buckingham Palace. '' But Roberts praises the film overall as a sympathetic portrayal of the King 's "quiet, unassuming heroism ''... The portrayals by Firth and Bonham Carter are sympathetic and acute, and the movie 's occasional factual bêtises should not detract from that. ''
The film had its world première on 6 September 2010 at the Telluride Film Festival in the United States. It was screened at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival, on Firth 's 50th birthday, where it received a standing ovation and won the People 's Choice Award. The cinema release poster was re-designed to show an extreme close - up of Firth 's jaw and a microphone after Hooper criticised the first design as a "train smash ''. Tim Appelo called the original, air - brushed effort, which showed the three leads, "shockingly awful '' though the new one "really is worthwhile ''.
The film was distributed by Transmission Films in Australia and by Momentum Pictures in the United Kingdom. The Weinstein Company distributed it in North America, Germany, Benelux, Scandinavia, China, Hong Kong, and Latin America. The film was released in France on 2 February 2011, under the title Le discours d'un roi. It was distributed by Wild Bunch Distribution.
The film was initially given a 15 certificate by the British Board of Film Classification, due to a minute - long scene where Logue encourages the King to shout profanities, which he could do without stuttering. At the London Film Festival, Hooper criticised the decision, questioning how the board could certify the film "15 '' for bad language but allow films such as Salt (2010) and Casino Royale (2006) to have "12A '' ratings, despite their graphic torture scenes. Following Hooper 's criticism, the board lowered the rating to "12A '', allowing children under 12 years of age to see the film if they are accompanied by an adult. Hooper levelled the same criticism at the Motion Picture Association of America, which gave the film an "R '' rating, preventing anyone under the age of 17 from seeing the film without an adult. In his review, Roger Ebert criticised the "R '' rating, calling it "utterly inexplicable '', and wrote, "This is an excellent film for teenagers. ''
In January 2011 Harvey Weinstein, the executive producer and distributor, said he was considering having the film re-edited to remove some profanity, so that it would receive a lower classification and reach a larger audience. Hooper, however, refused to cut the film, though he considered covering the swear words with bleeps. Helena Bonham Carter also defended the film, saying, "(The film) is not violent. It 's full of humanity and wit. (It 's) for people not with just a speech impediment, but who have got confidence (doubts). '' After receiving his Academy Award, Colin Firth noted that he does not support re-editing the film; while he does not condone the use of profanity, he maintains that its use was not offensive in this context. "The scene serves a purpose '', Firth states. An alternate version, with some of the profanities muted out, was classified as "PG - 13 '' in the United States; this version was released to cinemas on 1 April 2011, replacing the R - rated one. The PG - 13 version of this film is not available on DVD and Blu - ray.
In Great Britain and Ireland, the film was the highest earning film on its opening weekend. It took in £ 3,510,000 from 395 cinemas. The Guardian said that it was one of the biggest takes in recent memory, and compared it to Slumdog Millionaire (2008), which, two years earlier, earned £ 1.5 million less. The King 's Speech continued a "stunning three weeks '' atop the UK Box office, and earned over £ 3 million for four consecutive weekends, the first film to do so since Toy Story 3 (2010). After five weeks on UK release, it was hailed as the most successful independent British film ever.
In the United States The King 's Speech opened with $355,450 (£ 220,000) in four cinemas. It holds the record for the highest per - cinema gross of 2010. It was widened to 700 screens on Christmas Day and 1,543 screens on 14 January 2011. It eventually made $138 million in North America overall.
In Australia The King 's Speech made more than A $ 6,281,686 (£ 4 million) in the first two weeks, according to figures collected by the Motion Picture Distributors Association of Australia. The executive director of Palace Cinemas, Benjamin Zeccola, said customer feedback on the film was spectacular. "It 's our No. 1 for all the period, all throughout the country... I think this is more successful than Slumdog Millionaire and a more uplifting film. It 's a good example of a film that started out in the independent cinemas and then spread to the mainstream cinemas. ''
Of the film 's net profit, estimated to amount to $30 -- 40 million (£ 20 -- 25 million) from the cinema release alone, roughly 20 % will be split between Geoffrey Rush (as executive producer), Tom Hooper and Colin Firth, who receive their bonuses before the other stakeholders. The remaining profit is to be split equally between the producers and the equity investors. The UK Film Council invested £ 1 million of public funds from the United Kingdom lottery into the film. In March 2011 Variety estimated that the return could be between fifteen and twenty times that. The Council 's merger into the British Film Institute means that the profits are to be returned to that body.
-- Rex Reed, New York Observer
The King 's Speech has received widespread critical acclaim, with Firth 's performance receiving universal praise. Bonham Carter and Rush were also widely praised with both going on to win BAFTA 's and receiving Academy Award nominations Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 95 % based on reviews from 283 critics; the film 's average rating was calculated as 8.6 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads: "Colin Firth gives a masterful performance in The King 's Speech, a predictable but stylishly produced and rousing period drama. '' Metacritic gave the film a weighted score of 88 / 100, based on 41 critical reviews, which indicates "universal acclaim ''. CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare "A + '' grade. Empire gave the film five stars out of five, commenting, "You 'll be lost for words. '' Lisa Kennedy of the Denver Post gave the film full marks for its humane qualities and craftsmanship: "It is an intelligent, winning drama fit for a king -- and the rest of us '', she said. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times awarded the film a full four stars, commenting that "what we have here is a superior historical drama and a powerful personal one. '' Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave four stars out of five, stating, "Tom Hooper 's richly enjoyable and handsomely produced movie... is a massively confident crowd - pleaser. ''
Manohla Dargis, whilst generally ambivalent towards the film, called the lead performances one of its principal attractions. "With their volume turned up, the appealing, impeccably professional Mr. Firth and Mr. Rush rise to the acting occasion by twinkling and growling as their characters warily circle each other before settling into the therapeutic swing of things and unknowingly preparing for the big speech that partly gives the film its title, '' she wrote. The Daily Telegraph called Guy Pearce 's performance as Edward VIII "formidable... with glamour, charisma and utter self - absorption ''. Empire said he played the role well as "a flash harry flinty enough to shed a nation for a wife. '' The New York Times thought he was able to create "a thorny tangle of complications in only a few abbreviated scenes ''. Hooper praised the actor in the DVD commentary, saying he "nailed '' the 1930s royal accent. Richard Corliss of Time magazine named Colin Firth 's performance one of the Top 10 Movie Performances of 2010.
The British Stammering Association welcomed the release of The King 's Speech, congratulating the film makers on their "realistic depiction of the frustration and the fear of speaking faced by people who stammer on a daily basis. '' It said that "Colin Firth 's portrayal of the King 's stammer in particular strikes us as very authentic and accurate. '' The Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists welcomed the film, and launched their "Giving Voice '' campaign around the time of its commercial release.
Allociné, a French cinema website, gave the film an average of four out of five stars, based on a survey of 21 reviews. Le Monde, which characterised the film as the "latest manifestation of British narcissism '' and summarised it as "We are ugly and boring, but, By Jove!, we are right! '', nevertheless admired the performances of Firth, Rush, and Bonham Carter. It said that, though the film swept British appeasement under the carpet, it was still enjoyable.
Slovenian Marxist philosopher and cultural critic Slavoj Žižek has incorporated the film into his critique of ideology by describing it as "reactionary, '' interpreting the king 's stutter as evidence that he "displays a minimum of common sense, experiencing the stupidity of seriously accepting that one is king by divine will '' and claiming that "the task of the Australian voice - coach is to render him stupid enough to accept his being a king as his natural property. '' Žižek thus interprets the king 's stutter as a case of what is referred to in Lacanian psychoanalysis as "symbolic castration. ''
Queen Elizabeth II, the daughter and successor of King George VI, was sent two copies of the film before Christmas 2010. The Sun newspaper reported she had watched the film in a private screening at Sandringham House. A palace source described her reaction as being "touched by a moving portrayal of her father ''. Seidler called the reports "the highest honour '' the film could receive.
At the 83rd Academy Awards, The King 's Speech won the Academy Award for Best Picture, Best Director (Hooper), Best Actor (Firth), and Best Original Screenplay (Seidler). The film had received 12 Oscar nominations, more than any other film in that year. Besides the four categories it won, the film received nominations for Best Cinematography (Danny Cohen) and two for the supporting actors (Bonham Carter and Rush), as well as two for its mise - en - scène: Art Direction and Costumes.
At the 64th British Academy Film Awards, it won seven awards, including Best Film, Outstanding British Film, Best Actor for Firth, Best Supporting Actor for Rush, Best Supporting Actress for Bonham Carter, Best Original Screenplay for Seidler, and Best Music for Alexandre Desplat. The film had been nominated for 14 BAFTAs, more than any other film. At the 68th Golden Globe Awards, Firth won for Best Actor. The film won no other Golden Globes, despite earning seven nominations, more than any other film.
At the 17th Screen Actors Guild Awards, Firth won the Best Actor award and the entire cast won Best Ensemble, meaning Firth went home with two acting awards in one evening. Hooper won the Directors Guild of America Awards 2010 for Best Director. The film won the Darryl F. Zanuck Award for Best Theatrical Motion Picture at the Producers Guild of America Awards 2010.
The King 's Speech won the People 's Choice Award at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival, Best British Independent Film at the 2010 British Independent Film Awards, and the 2011 Goya Award for Best European Film from the Academia de las Artes y las Ciencias Cinematográficas de España (Spanish Academy of Cinematic Art and Science).
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what are the different components of the scientific method | Scientific method - wikipedia
The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry is commonly based on empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. The Oxford Dictionaries Online defines the scientific method as "a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses ''. Experiments are a procedure designed to test hypotheses. Experiments are an important tool of the scientific method.
The method is a continuous process that begins with observations about the natural world. People are naturally inquisitive, so they often come up with questions about things they see or hear, and they often develop ideas or hypotheses about why things are the way they are. The best hypotheses lead to predictions that can be tested in various ways. The strongest tests of hypotheses come from carefully controlled experiments that gather empirical data. Depending on how well additional tests match the predictions, the original hypothesis may require refinement, alteration, expansion or even rejection. If a particular hypothesis becomes very well supported, a general theory may be developed.
Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, they are frequently the same from one to another. The process of the scientific method involves making conjectures (hypotheses), deriving predictions from them as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments or empirical observations based on those predictions. A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question. The hypothesis might be very specific, or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments or studies. A scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment or observation that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis can not be meaningfully tested.
The purpose of an experiment is to determine whether observations agree with or conflict with the predictions derived from a hypothesis. Experiments can take place anywhere from a college lab to CERN 's Large Hadron Collider. There are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method, however. Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, it represents rather a set of general principles. Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry (nor to the same degree), and they are not always in the same order. Some philosophers and scientists have argued that there is no scientific method; they include physicist Lee Smolin and philosopher Paul Feyerabend (in his Against Method). Nola and Sankey remark that "For some, the whole idea of a theory of scientific method is yester - year 's debate ''.
The scientific method is the process by which science is carried out. As in other areas of inquiry, science (through the scientific method) can build on previous knowledge and develop a more sophisticated understanding of its topics of study over time. This model can be seen to underlay the scientific revolution. One thousand years ago, Alhazen argued the importance of forming questions and subsequently testing them, an approach which was advocated by Galileo in 1638 with the publication of Two New Sciences. The current method is based on a hypothetico - deductive model formulated in the 20th century, although it has undergone significant revision since first proposed (for a more formal discussion, see below).
The overall process involves making conjectures (hypotheses), deriving predictions from them as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments based on those predictions to determine whether the original conjecture was correct. There are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method, however. Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, these actions are better considered as general principles. Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry (nor to the same degree), and they are not always done in the same order. As noted by scientist and philosopher William Whewell (1794 -- 1866), "invention, sagacity, (and) genius '' are required at every step.
The question can refer to the explanation of a specific observation, as in "Why is the sky blue? '' but can also be open - ended, as in "How can I design a drug to cure this particular disease? '' This stage frequently involves finding and evaluating evidence from previous experiments, personal scientific observations or assertions, as well as the work of other scientists. If the answer is already known, a different question that builds on the evidence can be posed. When applying the scientific method to research, determining a good question can be very difficult and it will affect the outcome of the investigation.
A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while formulating the question, that may explain any given behavior. The hypothesis might be very specific; for example, Einstein 's equivalence principle or Francis Crick 's "DNA makes RNA makes protein '', or it might be broad; for example, unknown species of life dwell in the unexplored depths of the oceans. A statistical hypothesis is a conjecture about a given statistical population. For example, the population might be people with a particular disease. The conjecture might be that a new drug will cure the disease in some of those people. Terms commonly associated with statistical hypotheses are null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. A null hypothesis is the conjecture that the statistical hypothesis is false; for example, that the new drug does nothing and that any cure is caused by chance. Researchers normally want to show that the null hypothesis is false. The alternative hypothesis is the desired outcome, that the drug does better than chance. A final point: a scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, meaning that one can identify a possible outcome of an experiment that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, it can not be meaningfully tested.
This step involves determining the logical consequences of the hypothesis. One or more predictions are then selected for further testing. The more unlikely that a prediction would be correct simply by coincidence, then the more convincing it would be if the prediction were fulfilled; evidence is also stronger if the answer to the prediction is not already known, due to the effects of hindsight bias (see also postdiction). Ideally, the prediction must also distinguish the hypothesis from likely alternatives; if two hypotheses make the same prediction, observing the prediction to be correct is not evidence for either one over the other. (These statements about the relative strength of evidence can be mathematically derived using Bayes ' Theorem).
This is an investigation of whether the real world behaves as predicted by the hypothesis. Scientists (and other people) test hypotheses by conducting experiments. The purpose of an experiment is to determine whether observations of the real world agree with or conflict with the predictions derived from a hypothesis. If they agree, confidence in the hypothesis increases; otherwise, it decreases. Agreement does not assure that the hypothesis is true; future experiments may reveal problems. Karl Popper advised scientists to try to falsify hypotheses, i.e., to search for and test those experiments that seem most doubtful. Large numbers of successful confirmations are not convincing if they arise from experiments that avoid risk. Experiments should be designed to minimize possible errors, especially through the use of appropriate scientific controls. For example, tests of medical treatments are commonly run as double - blind tests. Test personnel, who might unwittingly reveal to test subjects which samples are the desired test drugs and which are placebos, are kept ignorant of which are which. Such hints can bias the responses of the test subjects. Furthermore, failure of an experiment does not necessarily mean the hypothesis is false. Experiments always depend on several hypotheses, e.g., that the test equipment is working properly, and a failure may be a failure of one of the auxiliary hypotheses. (See the Duhem -- Quine thesis.) Experiments can be conducted in a college lab, on a kitchen table, at CERN 's Large Hadron Collider, at the bottom of an ocean, on Mars (using one of the working rovers), and so on. Astronomers do experiments, searching for planets around distant stars. Finally, most individual experiments address highly specific topics for reasons of practicality. As a result, evidence about broader topics is usually accumulated gradually.
This involves determining what the results of the experiment show and deciding on the next actions to take. The predictions of the hypothesis are compared to those of the null hypothesis, to determine which is better able to explain the data. In cases where an experiment is repeated many times, a statistical analysis such as a chi - squared test may be required. If the evidence has falsified the hypothesis, a new hypothesis is required; if the experiment supports the hypothesis but the evidence is not strong enough for high confidence, other predictions from the hypothesis must be tested. Once a hypothesis is strongly supported by evidence, a new question can be asked to provide further insight on the same topic. Evidence from other scientists and experience are frequently incorporated at any stage in the process. Depending on the complexity of the experiment, many iterations may be required to gather sufficient evidence to answer a question with confidence, or to build up many answers to highly specific questions in order to answer a single broader question.
The discovery became the starting point for many further studies involving the genetic material, such as the field of molecular genetics, and it was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1962. Each step of the example is examined in more detail later in the article.
The scientific method also includes other components required even when all the iterations of the steps above have been completed:
If an experiment can not be repeated to produce the same results, this implies that the original results might have been in error. As a result, it is common for a single experiment to be performed multiple times, especially when there are uncontrolled variables or other indications of experimental error. For significant or surprising results, other scientists may also attempt to replicate the results for themselves, especially if those results would be important to their own work.
The process of peer review involves evaluation of the experiment by experts, who typically give their opinions anonymously. Some journals request that the experimenter provide lists of possible peer reviewers, especially if the field is highly specialized. Peer review does not certify correctness of the results, only that, in the opinion of the reviewer, the experiments themselves were sound (based on the description supplied by the experimenter). If the work passes peer review, which occasionally may require new experiments requested by the reviewers, it will be published in a peer - reviewed scientific journal. The specific journal that publishes the results indicates the perceived quality of the work.
Scientists typically are careful in recording their data, a requirement promoted by Ludwik Fleck (1896 -- 1961) and others. Though not typically required, they might be requested to supply this data to other scientists who wish to replicate their original results (or parts of their original results), extending to the sharing of any experimental samples that may be difficult to obtain.
Scientific inquiry generally aims to obtain knowledge in the form of testable explanations that scientists can use to predict the results of future experiments. This allows scientists to gain a better understanding of the topic under study, and later to use that understanding to intervene in its causal mechanisms (such as to cure disease). The better an explanation is at making predictions, the more useful it frequently can be, and the more likely it will continue to explain a body of evidence better than its alternatives. The most successful explanations -- those which explain and make accurate predictions in a wide range of circumstances -- are often called scientific theories.
Most experimental results do not produce large changes in human understanding; improvements in theoretical scientific understanding typically result from a gradual process of development over time, sometimes across different domains of science. Scientific models vary in the extent to which they have been experimentally tested and for how long, and in their acceptance in the scientific community. In general, explanations become accepted over time as evidence accumulates on a given topic, and the explanation in question proves more powerful than its alternatives at explaining the evidence. Often subsequent researchers re-formulate the explanations over time, or combined explanations to produce new explanations.
Tow sees the scientific method in terms of an evolutionary algorithm applied to science and technology.
Scientific knowledge is closely tied to empirical findings, and can remain subject to falsification if new experimental observation incompatible with it is found. That is, no theory can ever be considered final, since new problematic evidence might be discovered. If such evidence is found, a new theory may be proposed, or (more commonly) it is found that modifications to the previous theory are sufficient to explain the new evidence. The strength of a theory can be argued to relate to how long it has persisted without major alteration to its core principles.
Theories can also become subsumed by other theories. For example, Newton 's laws explained thousands of years of scientific observations of the planets almost perfectly. However, these laws were then determined to be special cases of a more general theory (relativity), which explained both the (previously unexplained) exceptions to Newton 's laws and predicted and explained other observations such as the deflection of light by gravity. Thus, in certain cases independent, unconnected, scientific observations can be connected to each other, unified by principles of increasing explanatory power.
Since new theories might be more comprehensive than what preceded them, and thus be able to explain more than previous ones, successor theories might be able to meet a higher standard by explaining a larger body of observations than their predecessors. For example, the theory of evolution explains the diversity of life on Earth, how species adapt to their environments, and many other patterns observed in the natural world; its most recent major modification was unification with genetics to form the modern evolutionary synthesis. In subsequent modifications, it has also subsumed aspects of many other fields such as biochemistry and molecular biology.
Scientific methodology often directs that hypotheses be tested in controlled conditions wherever possible. This is frequently possible in certain areas, such as in the biological sciences, and more difficult in other areas, such as in astronomy. The practice of experimental control and reproducibility can have the effect of diminishing the potentially harmful effects of circumstance, and to a degree, personal bias. For example, pre-existing beliefs can alter the interpretation of results, as in confirmation bias; this is a heuristic that leads a person with a particular belief to see things as reinforcing their belief, even if another observer might disagree (in other words, people tend to observe what they expect to observe).
A historical example is the belief that the legs of a galloping horse are splayed at the point when none of the horse 's legs touches the ground, to the point of this image being included in paintings by its supporters. However, the first stop - action pictures of a horse 's gallop by Eadweard Muybridge showed this to be false, and that the legs are instead gathered together. Another important human bias that plays a role is a preference for new, surprising statements (see appeal to novelty), which can result in a search for evidence that the new is true. In contrast to this standard in the scientific method, poorly attested beliefs can be believed and acted upon via a less rigorous heuristic, sometimes taking advantage of the narrative fallacy that when narrative is constructed its elements become easier to believe. Sometimes, these have their elements assumed a priori, or contain some other logical or methodological flaw in the process that ultimately produced them.
There are different ways of outlining the basic method used for scientific inquiry. The scientific community and philosophers of science generally agree on the following classification of method components. These methodological elements and organization of procedures tend to be more characteristic of natural sciences than social sciences. Nonetheless, the cycle of formulating hypotheses, testing and analyzing the results, and formulating new hypotheses, will resemble the cycle described below.
Each element of the scientific method is subject to peer review for possible mistakes. These activities do not describe all that scientists do (see below) but apply mostly to experimental sciences (e.g., physics, chemistry, and biology). The elements above are often taught in the educational system as "the scientific method ''.
The scientific method is not a single recipe: it requires intelligence, imagination, and creativity. In this sense, it is not a mindless set of standards and procedures to follow, but is rather an ongoing cycle, constantly developing more useful, accurate and comprehensive models and methods. For example, when Einstein developed the Special and General Theories of Relativity, he did not in any way refute or discount Newton 's Principia. On the contrary, if the astronomically large, the vanishingly small, and the extremely fast are removed from Einstein 's theories -- all phenomena Newton could not have observed -- Newton 's equations are what remain. Einstein 's theories are expansions and refinements of Newton 's theories and, thus, increase confidence in Newton 's work.
A linearized, pragmatic scheme of the four points above is sometimes offered as a guideline for proceeding:
The iterative cycle inherent in this step - by - step method goes from point 3 to 6 back to 3 again.
While this schema outlines a typical hypothesis / testing method, it should also be noted that a number of philosophers, historians, and sociologists of science, including Paul Feyerabend, claim that such descriptions of scientific method have little relation to the ways that science is actually practiced.
The scientific method depends upon increasingly sophisticated characterizations of the subjects of investigation. (The subjects can also be called unsolved problems or the unknowns.) For example, Benjamin Franklin conjectured, correctly, that St. Elmo 's fire was electrical in nature, but it has taken a long series of experiments and theoretical changes to establish this. While seeking the pertinent properties of the subjects, careful thought may also entail some definitions and observations; the observations often demand careful measurements and / or counting.
The systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities is often the critical difference between pseudo-sciences, such as alchemy, and science, such as chemistry or biology. Scientific measurements are usually tabulated, graphed, or mapped, and statistical manipulations, such as correlation and regression, performed on them. The measurements might be made in a controlled setting, such as a laboratory, or made on more or less inaccessible or unmanipulatable objects such as stars or human populations. The measurements often require specialized scientific instruments such as thermometers, spectroscopes, particle accelerators, or voltmeters, and the progress of a scientific field is usually intimately tied to their invention and improvement.
I am not accustomed to saying anything with certainty after only one or two observations.
Measurements in scientific work are also usually accompanied by estimates of their uncertainty. The uncertainty is often estimated by making repeated measurements of the desired quantity. Uncertainties may also be calculated by consideration of the uncertainties of the individual underlying quantities used. Counts of things, such as the number of people in a nation at a particular time, may also have an uncertainty due to data collection limitations. Or counts may represent a sample of desired quantities, with an uncertainty that depends upon the sampling method used and the number of samples taken.
Measurements demand the use of operational definitions of relevant quantities. That is, a scientific quantity is described or defined by how it is measured, as opposed to some more vague, inexact or "idealized '' definition. For example, electric current, measured in amperes, may be operationally defined in terms of the mass of silver deposited in a certain time on an electrode in an electrochemical device that is described in some detail. The operational definition of a thing often relies on comparisons with standards: the operational definition of "mass '' ultimately relies on the use of an artifact, such as a particular kilogram of platinum - iridium kept in a laboratory in France.
The scientific definition of a term sometimes differs substantially from its natural language usage. For example, mass and weight overlap in meaning in common discourse, but have distinct meanings in mechanics. Scientific quantities are often characterized by their units of measure which can later be described in terms of conventional physical units when communicating the work.
New theories are sometimes developed after realizing certain terms have not previously been sufficiently clearly defined. For example, Albert Einstein 's first paper on relativity begins by defining simultaneity and the means for determining length. These ideas were skipped over by Isaac Newton with, "I do not define time, space, place and motion, as being well known to all. '' Einstein 's paper then demonstrates that they (viz., absolute time and length independent of motion) were approximations. Francis Crick cautions us that when characterizing a subject, however, it can be premature to define something when it remains ill - understood. In Crick 's study of consciousness, he actually found it easier to study awareness in the visual system, rather than to study free will, for example. His cautionary example was the gene; the gene was much more poorly understood before Watson and Crick 's pioneering discovery of the structure of DNA; it would have been counterproductive to spend much time on the definition of the gene, before them.
The history of the discovery of the structure of DNA is a classic example of the elements of the scientific method: in 1950 it was known that genetic inheritance had a mathematical description, starting with the studies of Gregor Mendel, and that DNA contained genetic information (Oswald Avery 's transforming principle). But the mechanism of storing genetic information (i.e., genes) in DNA was unclear. Researchers in Bragg 's laboratory at Cambridge University made X-ray diffraction pictures of various molecules, starting with crystals of salt, and proceeding to more complicated substances. Using clues painstakingly assembled over decades, beginning with its chemical composition, it was determined that it should be possible to characterize the physical structure of DNA, and the X-ray images would be the vehicle.... 2. DNA - hypotheses
The characterization element can require extended and extensive study, even centuries. It took thousands of years of measurements, from the Chaldean, Indian, Persian, Greek, Arabic and European astronomers, to fully record the motion of planet Earth. Newton was able to include those measurements into consequences of his laws of motion. But the perihelion of the planet Mercury 's orbit exhibits a precession that can not be fully explained by Newton 's laws of motion (see diagram to the right), as Leverrier pointed out in 1859. The observed difference for Mercury 's precession between Newtonian theory and observation was one of the things that occurred to Einstein as a possible early test of his theory of General Relativity. His relativistic calculations matched observation much more closely than did Newtonian theory. The difference is approximately 43 arc - seconds per century.
A hypothesis is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon, or alternately a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between or among a set of phenomena.
Normally hypotheses have the form of a mathematical model. Sometimes, but not always, they can also be formulated as existential statements, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon being studied has some characteristic and causal explanations, which have the general form of universal statements, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic.
Scientists are free to use whatever resources they have -- their own creativity, ideas from other fields, inductive reasoning, Bayesian inference, and so on -- to imagine possible explanations for a phenomenon under study. Charles Sanders Peirce, borrowing a page from Aristotle (Prior Analytics, 2.25) described the incipient stages of inquiry, instigated by the "irritation of doubt '' to venture a plausible guess, as abductive reasoning. The history of science is filled with stories of scientists claiming a "flash of inspiration '', or a hunch, which then motivated them to look for evidence to support or refute their idea. Michael Polanyi made such creativity the centerpiece of his discussion of methodology.
William Glen observes that
In general scientists tend to look for theories that are "elegant '' or "beautiful ''. In contrast to the usual English use of these terms, they here refer to a theory in accordance with the known facts, which is nevertheless relatively simple and easy to handle. Occam 's Razor serves as a rule of thumb for choosing the most desirable amongst a group of equally explanatory hypotheses.
To minimize the confirmation bias which results from entertaining a single hypothesis, strong inference emphasizes the need for entertaining multiple alternative hypotheses.
Linus Pauling proposed that DNA might be a triple helix. This hypothesis was also considered by Francis Crick and James D. Watson but discarded. When Watson and Crick learned of Pauling 's hypothesis, they understood from existing data that Pauling was wrong and that Pauling would soon admit his difficulties with that structure. So, the race was on to figure out the correct structure (except that Pauling did not realize at the time that he was in a race)... 3. DNA - predictions
Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions, by reasoning including deductive reasoning. It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction can also be statistical and deal only with probabilities.
It is essential that the outcome of testing such a prediction be currently unknown. Only in this case does a successful outcome increase the probability that the hypothesis is true. If the outcome is already known, it is called a consequence and should have already been considered while formulating the hypothesis.
If the predictions are not accessible by observation or experience, the hypothesis is not yet testable and so will remain to that extent unscientific in a strict sense. A new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible. Thus, much scientifically based speculation might convince one (or many) that the hypothesis that other intelligent species exist is true. But since there no experiment now known which can test this hypothesis, science itself can have little to say about the possibility. In future, some new technique might lead to an experimental test and the speculation would then become part of accepted science.
James D. Watson, Francis Crick, and others hypothesized that DNA had a helical structure. This implied that DNA 's X-ray diffraction pattern would be ' x shaped '. This prediction followed from the work of Cochran, Crick and Vand (and independently by Stokes). The Cochran - Crick - Vand - Stokes theorem provided a mathematical explanation for the empirical observation that diffraction from helical structures produces x shaped patterns.
In their first paper, Watson and Crick also noted that the double helix structure they proposed provided a simple mechanism for DNA replication, writing, "It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material ''.... 4. DNA - experiments
Einstein 's theory of General Relativity makes several specific predictions about the observable structure of space - time, such as that light bends in a gravitational field, and that the amount of bending depends in a precise way on the strength of that gravitational field. Arthur Eddington 's observations made during a 1919 solar eclipse supported General Relativity rather than Newtonian gravitation.
Once predictions are made, they can be sought by experiments. If the test results contradict the predictions, the hypotheses which entailed them are called into question and become less tenable. Sometimes the experiments are conducted incorrectly or are not very well designed, when compared to a crucial experiment. If the experimental results confirm the predictions, then the hypotheses are considered more likely to be correct, but might still be wrong and continue to be subject to further testing. The experimental control is a technique for dealing with observational error. This technique uses the contrast between multiple samples (or observations) under differing conditions to see what varies or what remains the same. We vary the conditions for each measurement, to help isolate what has changed. Mill 's canons can then help us figure out what the important factor is. Factor analysis is one technique for discovering the important factor in an effect.
Depending on the predictions, the experiments can have different shapes. It could be a classical experiment in a laboratory setting, a double - blind study or an archaeological excavation. Even taking a plane from New York to Paris is an experiment which tests the aerodynamical hypotheses used for constructing the plane.
Scientists assume an attitude of openness and accountability on the part of those conducting an experiment. Detailed record keeping is essential, to aid in recording and reporting on the experimental results, and supports the effectiveness and integrity of the procedure. They will also assist in reproducing the experimental results, likely by others. Traces of this approach can be seen in the work of Hipparchus (190 -- 120 BCE), when determining a value for the precession of the Earth, while controlled experiments can be seen in the works of Jābir ibn Hayyān (721 -- 815 CE), al - Battani (853 -- 929) and Alhazen (965 -- 1039).
Watson and Crick showed an initial (and incorrect) proposal for the structure of DNA to a team from Kings College -- Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins, and Raymond Gosling. Franklin immediately spotted the flaws which concerned the water content. Later Watson saw Franklin 's detailed X-ray diffraction images which showed an X-shape and was able to confirm the structure was helical. This rekindled Watson and Crick 's model building and led to the correct structure... 1. DNA - characterizations
The scientific method is iterative. At any stage it is possible to refine its accuracy and precision, so that some consideration will lead the scientist to repeat an earlier part of the process. Failure to develop an interesting hypothesis may lead a scientist to re-define the subject under consideration. Failure of a hypothesis to produce interesting and testable predictions may lead to reconsideration of the hypothesis or of the definition of the subject. Failure of an experiment to produce interesting results may lead a scientist to reconsider the experimental method, the hypothesis, or the definition of the subject.
Other scientists may start their own research and enter the process at any stage. They might adopt the characterization and formulate their own hypothesis, or they might adopt the hypothesis and deduce their own predictions. Often the experiment is not done by the person who made the prediction, and the characterization is based on experiments done by someone else. Published results of experiments can also serve as a hypothesis predicting their own reproducibility.
After considerable fruitless experimentation, being discouraged by their superior from continuing, and numerous false starts, Watson and Crick were able to infer the essential structure of DNA by concrete modeling of the physical shapes of the nucleotides which comprise it. They were guided by the bond lengths which had been deduced by Linus Pauling and by Rosalind Franklin 's X-ray diffraction images... DNA Example
Science is a social enterprise, and scientific work tends to be accepted by the scientific community when it has been confirmed. Crucially, experimental and theoretical results must be reproduced by others within the scientific community. Researchers have given their lives for this vision; Georg Wilhelm Richmann was killed by ball lightning (1753) when attempting to replicate the 1752 kite - flying experiment of Benjamin Franklin.
To protect against bad science and fraudulent data, government research - granting agencies such as the National Science Foundation, and science journals, including Nature and Science, have a policy that researchers must archive their data and methods so that other researchers can test the data and methods and build on the research that has gone before. Scientific data archiving can be done at a number of national archives in the U.S. or in the World Data Center.
The classical model of scientific inquiry derives from Aristotle, who distinguished the forms of approximate and exact reasoning, set out the threefold scheme of abductive, deductive, and inductive inference, and also treated the compound forms such as reasoning by analogy.
In 1877, Charles Sanders Peirce (/ ˈpɜːrs / like "purse ''; 1839 -- 1914) characterized inquiry in general not as the pursuit of truth per se but as the struggle to move from irritating, inhibitory doubts born of surprises, disagreements, and the like, and to reach a secure belief, belief being that on which one is prepared to act. He framed scientific inquiry as part of a broader spectrum and as spurred, like inquiry generally, by actual doubt, not mere verbal or hyperbolic doubt, which he held to be fruitless. He outlined four methods of settling opinion, ordered from least to most successful:
Peirce held that slow, stumbling ratiocination can be dangerously inferior to instinct and traditional sentiment in practical matters, and that the scientific method is best suited to theoretical research, which in turn should not be trammeled by the other methods and practical ends; reason 's "first rule '' is that, in order to learn, one must desire to learn and, as a corollary, must not block the way of inquiry. The scientific method excels the others by being deliberately designed to arrive -- eventually -- at the most secure beliefs, upon which the most successful practices can be based. Starting from the idea that people seek not truth per se but instead to subdue irritating, inhibitory doubt, Peirce showed how, through the struggle, some can come to submit to truth for the sake of belief 's integrity, seek as truth the guidance of potential practice correctly to its given goal, and wed themselves to the scientific method.
For Peirce, rational inquiry implies presuppositions about truth and the real; to reason is to presuppose (and at least to hope), as a principle of the reasoner 's self - regulation, that the real is discoverable and independent of our vagaries of opinion. In that vein he defined truth as the correspondence of a sign (in particular, a proposition) to its object and, pragmatically, not as actual consensus of some definite, finite community (such that to inquire would be to poll the experts), but instead as that final opinion which all investigators would reach sooner or later but still inevitably, if they were to push investigation far enough, even when they start from different points. In tandem he defined the real as a true sign 's object (be that object a possibility or quality, or an actuality or brute fact, or a necessity or norm or law), which is what it is independently of any finite community 's opinion and, pragmatically, depends only on the final opinion destined in a sufficient investigation. That is a destination as far, or near, as the truth itself to you or me or the given finite community. Thus, his theory of inquiry boils down to "Do the science. '' Those conceptions of truth and the real involve the idea of a community both without definite limits (and thus potentially self - correcting as far as needed) and capable of definite increase of knowledge. As inference, "logic is rooted in the social principle '' since it depends on a standpoint that is, in a sense, unlimited.
Paying special attention to the generation of explanations, Peirce outlined the scientific method as a coordination of three kinds of inference in a purposeful cycle aimed at settling doubts, as follows (in § III -- IV in "A Neglected Argument '' except as otherwise noted):
Frequently the scientific method is employed not only by a single person, but also by several people cooperating directly or indirectly. Such cooperation can be regarded as an important element of a scientific community. Various standards of scientific methodology are used within such an environment.
Scientific journals use a process of peer review, in which scientists ' manuscripts are submitted by editors of scientific journals to (usually one to three) fellow (usually anonymous) scientists familiar with the field for evaluation. In certain journals, the journal itself selects the referees; while in others (especially journals that are extremely specialized), the manuscript author might recommend referees. The referees may or may not recommend publication, or they might recommend publication with suggested modifications, or sometimes, publication in another journal. This standard is practiced to various degrees by different journals, and can have the effect of keeping the literature free of obvious errors and to generally improve the quality of the material, especially in the journals who use the standard most rigorously. The peer review process can have limitations when considering research outside the conventional scientific paradigm: problems of "groupthink '' can interfere with open and fair deliberation of some new research.
Sometimes experimenters may make systematic errors during their experiments, veer from standard methods and practices (Pathological science) for various reasons, or, in rare cases, deliberately report false results. Occasionally because of this then, other scientists might attempt to repeat the experiments in order to duplicate the results.
Researchers sometimes practice scientific data archiving, such as in compliance with the policies of government funding agencies and scientific journals. In these cases, detailed records of their experimental procedures, raw data, statistical analyses and source code can be preserved in order to provide evidence of the methodology and practice of the procedure and assist in any potential future attempts to reproduce the result. These procedural records may also assist in the conception of new experiments to test the hypothesis, and may prove useful to engineers who might examine the potential practical applications of a discovery.
When additional information is needed before a study can be reproduced, the author of the study might be asked to provide it. They might provide it, or if the author refuses to share data, appeals can be made to the journal editors who published the study or to the institution which funded the research.
Since it is impossible for a scientist to record everything that took place in an experiment, facts selected for their apparent relevance are reported. This may lead, unavoidably, to problems later if some supposedly irrelevant feature is questioned. For example, Heinrich Hertz did not report the size of the room used to test Maxwell 's equations, which later turned out to account for a small deviation in the results. The problem is that parts of the theory itself need to be assumed in order to select and report the experimental conditions. The observations are hence sometimes described as being ' theory - laden '.
The primary constraints on contemporary science are:
It has not always been like this: in the old days of the "gentleman scientist '' funding (and to a lesser extent publication) were far weaker constraints.
Both of these constraints indirectly require scientific method -- work that violates the constraints will be difficult to publish and difficult to get funded. Journals require submitted papers to conform to "good scientific practice '' and to a degree this can be enforced by peer review. Originality, importance and interest are more important -- see for example the author guidelines for Nature.
Smaldino and McElreath 2016 have noted that our need to reward scientific understanding is being nullified by poor research design and poor data analysis, which is leading to false - positive findings.
Philosophy of science looks at the underpinning logic of the scientific method, at what separates science from non-science, and the ethic that is implicit in science. There are basic assumptions, derived from philosophy by at least one prominent scientist, that form the base of the scientific method -- namely, that reality is objective and consistent, that humans have the capacity to perceive reality accurately, and that rational explanations exist for elements of the real world. These assumptions from methodological naturalism form a basis on which science may be grounded. Logical Positivist, empiricist, falsificationist, and other theories have criticized these assumptions and given alternative accounts of the logic of science, but each has also itself been criticized. More generally, the scientific method can be recognized as an idealization.
Thomas Kuhn examined the history of science in his The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, and found that the actual method used by scientists differed dramatically from the then - espoused method. His observations of science practice are essentially sociological and do not speak to how science is or can be practiced in other times and other cultures.
Norwood Russell Hanson, Imre Lakatos and Thomas Kuhn have done extensive work on the "theory laden '' character of observation. Hanson (1958) first coined the term for the idea that all observation is dependent on the conceptual framework of the observer, using the concept of gestalt to show how preconceptions can affect both observation and description. He opens Chapter 1 with a discussion of the Golgi bodies and their initial rejection as an artefact of staining technique, and a discussion of Brahe and Kepler observing the dawn and seeing a "different '' sun rise despite the same physiological phenomenon. Kuhn and Feyerabend acknowledge the pioneering significance of his work.
Kuhn (1961) said the scientist generally has a theory in mind before designing and undertaking experiments so as to make empirical observations, and that the "route from theory to measurement can almost never be traveled backward ''. This implies that the way in which theory is tested is dictated by the nature of the theory itself, which led Kuhn (1961, p. 166) to argue that "once it has been adopted by a profession... no theory is recognized to be testable by any quantitative tests that it has not already passed ''.
Paul Feyerabend similarly examined the history of science, and was led to deny that science is genuinely a methodological process. In his book Against Method he argues that scientific progress is not the result of applying any particular method. In essence, he says that for any specific method or norm of science, one can find a historic episode where violating it has contributed to the progress of science. Thus, if believers in scientific method wish to express a single universally valid rule, Feyerabend jokingly suggests, it should be ' anything goes '. Criticisms such as his led to the strong programme, a radical approach to the sociology of science.
The postmodernist critiques of science have themselves been the subject of intense controversy. This ongoing debate, known as the science wars, is the result of conflicting values and assumptions between the postmodernist and realist camps. Whereas postmodernists assert that scientific knowledge is simply another discourse (note that this term has special meaning in this context) and not representative of any form of fundamental truth, realists in the scientific community maintain that scientific knowledge does reveal real and fundamental truths about reality. Many books have been written by scientists which take on this problem and challenge the assertions of the postmodernists while defending science as a legitimate method of deriving truth.
Somewhere between 33 % and 50 % of all scientific discoveries are estimated to have been stumbled upon, rather than sought out. This may explain why scientists so often express that they were lucky. Louis Pasteur is credited with the famous saying that "Luck favours the prepared mind '', but some psychologists have begun to study what it means to be ' prepared for luck ' in the scientific context. Research is showing that scientists are taught various heuristics that tend to harness chance and the unexpected. This is what Nassim Nicholas Taleb calls "Anti-fragility ''; while some systems of investigation are fragile in the face of human error, human bias, and randomness, the scientific method is more than resistant or tough -- it actually benefits from such randomness in many ways (it is anti-fragile). Taleb believes that the more anti-fragile the system, the more it will flourish in the real world.
Psychologist Kevin Dunbar says the process of discovery often starts with researchers finding bugs in their experiments. These unexpected results lead researchers to try to fix what they think is an error in their method. Eventually, the researcher decides the error is too persistent and systematic to be a coincidence. The highly controlled, cautious and curious aspects of the scientific method are thus what make it well suited for identifying such persistent systematic errors. At this point, the researcher will begin to think of theoretical explanations for the error, often seeking the help of colleagues across different domains of expertise.
The history of scientific method considers changes in the methodology of scientific inquiry, as distinct from the history of science itself. The development of rules for scientific reasoning has not been straightforward; scientific method has been the subject of intense and recurring debate throughout the history of science, and eminent natural philosophers and scientists have argued for the primacy of one or another approach to establishing scientific knowledge. Despite the disagreements about approaches, scientific method has advanced in definite steps. Rationalist explanations of nature, including atomism, appeared both in ancient Greece in the thought of Leucippus and Democritus, and in ancient India, in the Nyaya, Vaisesika and Buddhist schools, while Charvaka materialism rejected inference as a source of knowledge in favour of an empiricism that was always subject to doubt. Aristotle pioneered scientific method in ancient Greece alongside his empirical biology and his work on logic, rejecting a purely deductive framework in favour of generalisations made from observations of nature. Important debates in the history of scientific method center on rationalism, especially as advocated by René Descartes, inductivism, which rose to particular prominence with Isaac Newton and his followers, and hypothetico - deductivism, which came to the fore in the early 19th century. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a debate over realism vs. antirealism was conducted as powerful scientific theories extended beyond the realm of the observable, while in the mid-20th century, prominent philosophers such as Paul Feyerabend argued against any universal rules of science at all.
Science is the process of gathering, comparing, and evaluating proposed models against observables. A model can be a simulation, mathematical or chemical formula, or set of proposed steps. Science is like mathematics in that researchers in both disciplines can clearly distinguish what is known from what is unknown at each stage of discovery. Models, in both science and mathematics, need to be internally consistent and also ought to be falsifiable (capable of disproof). In mathematics, a statement need not yet be proven; at such a stage, that statement would be called a conjecture. But when a statement has attained mathematical proof, that statement gains a kind of immortality which is highly prized by mathematicians, and for which some mathematicians devote their lives.
Mathematical work and scientific work can inspire each other. For example, the technical concept of time arose in science, and timelessness was a hallmark of a mathematical topic. But today, the Poincaré conjecture has been proven using time as a mathematical concept in which objects can flow (see Ricci flow).
Nevertheless, the connection between mathematics and reality (and so science to the extent it describes reality) remains obscure. Eugene Wigner 's paper, The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences, is a very well known account of the issue from a Nobel Prize - winning physicist. In fact, some observers (including some well known mathematicians such as Gregory Chaitin, and others such as Lakoff and Núñez) have suggested that mathematics is the result of practitioner bias and human limitation (including cultural ones), somewhat like the post-modernist view of science.
George Pólya 's work on problem solving, the construction of mathematical proofs, and heuristic show that the mathematical method and the scientific method differ in detail, while nevertheless resembling each other in using iterative or recursive steps.
In Pólya 's view, understanding involves restating unfamiliar definitions in your own words, resorting to geometrical figures, and questioning what we know and do not know already; analysis, which Pólya takes from Pappus, involves free and heuristic construction of plausible arguments, working backward from the goal, and devising a plan for constructing the proof; synthesis is the strict Euclidean exposition of step - by - step details of the proof; review involves reconsidering and re-examining the result and the path taken to it.
Gauss, when asked how he came about his theorems, once replied "durch planmässiges Tattonieren '' (through systematic palpable experimentation).
Imre Lakatos argued that mathematicians actually use contradiction, criticism and revision as principles for improving their work. In like manner to science, where truth is sought, but certainty is not found, in Proofs and refutations (1976), what Lakatos tried to establish was that no theorem of informal mathematics is final or perfect. This means that we should not think that a theorem is ultimately true, only that no counterexample has yet been found. Once a counterexample, i.e. an entity contradicting / not explained by the theorem is found, we adjust the theorem, possibly extending the domain of its validity. This is a continuous way our knowledge accumulates, through the logic and process of proofs and refutations. (If axioms are given for a branch of mathematics, however, Lakatos claimed that proofs from those axioms were tautological, i.e. logically true, by rewriting them, as did Poincaré (Proofs and Refutations, 1976).)
Lakatos proposed an account of mathematical knowledge based on Polya 's idea of heuristics. In Proofs and Refutations, Lakatos gave several basic rules for finding proofs and counterexamples to conjectures. He thought that mathematical ' thought experiments ' are a valid way to discover mathematical conjectures and proofs.
The scientific method has been extremely successful in bringing the world out of medieval thinking, especially once it was combined with industrial processes. However, when the scientific method employs statistics as part of its arsenal, there are mathematical and practical issues that can have a deleterious effect on the reliability of the output of scientific methods. This is described in a popular 2005 scientific paper "Why Most Published Research Findings Are False '' by John Ioannidis.
The particular points raised are statistical ("The smaller the studies conducted in a scientific field, the less likely the research findings are to be true '' and "The greater the flexibility in designs, definitions, outcomes, and analytical modes in a scientific field, the less likely the research findings are to be true. '') and economical ("The greater the financial and other interests and prejudices in a scientific field, the less likely the research findings are to be true '' and "The hotter a scientific field (with more scientific teams involved), the less likely the research findings are to be true. '') Hence: "Most research findings are false for most research designs and for most fields '' and "As shown, the majority of modern biomedical research is operating in areas with very low pre - and poststudy probability for true findings. '' However: "Nevertheless, most new discoveries will continue to stem from hypothesis - generating research with low or very low pre-study odds, '' which means that * new * discoveries will come from research that, when that research started, had low or very low odds (a low or very low chance) of succeeding. Hence, if the scientific method is used to expand the frontiers of knowledge, research into areas that are outside the mainstream will yield most new discoveries.
... (rational) inquiry of every type, fully carried out, has the vital power of self - correction and of growth. This is a property so deeply saturating its inmost nature that it may truly be said that there is but one thing needful for learning the truth, and that is a hearty and active desire to learn what is true.
For it is not sufficient that a hypothesis should be a justifiable one. Any hypothesis which explains the facts is justified critically. But among justifiable hypotheses we have to select that one which is suitable for being tested by experiment.
Consequently, to discover is simply to expedite an event that would occur sooner or later, if we had not troubled ourselves to make the discovery. Consequently, the art of discovery is purely a question of economics. The economics of research is, so far as logic is concerned, the leading doctrine with reference to the art of discovery. Consequently, the conduct of abduction, which is chiefly a question of heuretic and is the first question of heuretic, is to be governed by economical considerations.
Thus, twenty skillful hypotheses will ascertain what 200,000 stupid ones might fail to do.
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cause and effect of labor unrest after ww1 | Boston police strike - wikipedia
In the Boston Police Strike, Boston police officers went on strike on September 9, 1919. They sought recognition for their trade union and improvements in wages and working conditions. Police Commissioner Edwin Upton Curtis denied that police officers had any right to form a union, much less one affiliated with a larger organization like the American Federation of Labor (AFL). Attempts at reconciliation between the Commissioner and the police officers, particularly on the part of Boston 's Mayor Andrew James Peters, failed.
During the strike, Boston experienced several nights of lawlessness. Several thousand members of the State Guard, supported by volunteers, restored order. Press reaction both locally and nationally described the strike as Bolshevik - inspired and directed at the destruction of civil society. The strikers were called "deserters '' and "agents of Lenin. ''
Samuel Gompers of the AFL recognized that the strike was damaging the cause of labor in the public mind and advised the strikers to return to work. Commissioner Curtis refused to re-hire the striking policemen. He was supported by Massachusetts Governor Calvin Coolidge, whose rebuke of Gompers earned him a national reputation. The strike proved a setback for labor unions, and the AFL discontinued its attempts to organize police officers for another two decades. Coolidge won the Republican nomination for vice-president of the U.S. in the 1920 presidential election.
In 1895, the Massachusetts legislature transferred control of the Boston police department from Boston 's mayor to the governor of Massachusetts, whom it authorized to appoint a five - person board of commissioners to manage the department. In 1906, the legislature abolished that board and gave the governor the authority to name a single commissioner to a term of five years, subject to removal by the governor. The mayor and the city continued to have responsibility for the department 's expenses and the physical working conditions of its employees, but the commissioner controlled department operations and the hiring, training, and discipline of the police officers.
In 1918, the salary for patrolmen was set at $1,400 a year. Police officers had to buy their own uniforms and equipment which cost over $200. New recruits received $730 during their first year, which increased annually to $821.25 and $1000, and to $1,400 after six years. In the years following World War I, inflation dramatically eroded the value of a police officer 's salary. From 1913 to May 1919, the cost of living rose by 76 %, while police wages rose just 18 %. Discontent and restiveness among the Boston police force grew as they compared their wages and found they were earning less than an unskilled steelworker, half as much as a carpenter or mechanic and 50 cents a day less than a streetcar conductor. Boston city laborers were earning a third more on an hourly basis.
Police officers had an extensive list of grievances. They worked ten - hour shifts and typically recorded weekly totals between 75 and 90 hours. They were not paid for time spent on court appearances. They also objected to being required to perform such tasks as "delivering unpaid tax bills, surveying rooming houses, taking the census, or watching the polls at election '' and checking the backgrounds of prospective jurors as well as serving as "errand boys '' for their officers. They complained about having to share beds and the lack of sanitation, baths, and toilets at many of the 19 station houses where they were required to live, most of which dated to before the Civil War. The Court Street station had four toilets for 135 men, and one bathtub.
Boston 's police officers, acting with the sponsorship of the police department, had formed an association known as the Boston Social Club in 1906. In 1917, a committee of police officers representing the Social Club met with Commissioner Stephen O'Meara to ask about a raise. He was sympathetic, but advised them to wait for a better time. They pressed the issue in the summer of 1918 and, near the end of the year, Mayor Andrew Peters offered salary increases that would affect about one - fourth of the officers. O'Meara died in December 1918, and Governor Samuel McCall appointed Edwin Upton Curtis, former Mayor of Boston, as Commissioner of the Boston Police Department. After another meeting where representatives of the Social Club repeated their salary demands, Peters said: "while the word ' strike ' was not mentioned, the whole situation is far more serious than I realized. '' He also made it clear to the rank and file that they were not entitled to form their own union. Curtis did not share his predecessor 's or the mayor 's sympathy for the police, but in February 1918 he offered a wage compromise that the police rejected. In May, Governor Coolidge announced raises, which were also rejected. When the Social Club 's representatives tried to raise grievances with him, Curtis set up his own grievance committee to handle management - employee disputes, based on the election of representatives from each precinct house by secret ballot, and it met just once.
A few months later, in June 1919, the American Federation of Labor (AFL), responding to repeated requests from local police organizations, began accepting police organizations into their membership. By September, it had granted charters to police unions in 37 cities, including Washington, D.C., Los Angeles, Miami, and St. Paul, though not without protests from some city officials, who opposed the unionization of police, firefighters, and teachers.
The Boston police decided to organize under an AFL charter in order to gain support from other unions in their negotiations and any strike that might ensue. On August 9, 1919, the Boston Social Club requested a charter from the AFL. On August 11, Curtis issued a General Order forbidding police officers to join any "organization, club or body outside the department '', making an exception only for patriotic organizations such as the American Legion. His administration argued that such a rule was based on the conflict of interest between police officers ' duties and union membership:
It is or should be apparent to any thinking person that the police department of this or any other city can not fulfill its duty to the entire public if its members are subject to the direction of an organization existing outside the department... If troubles and disturbances arise where the interests of this organization and the interests of other elements and classes in the community conflict, the situation immediately arises which always arises when a man attempts to serve two masters, -- he must fail either in his duty as a policeman, or in his obligation to the organization that controls him.
On August 15, the police received their AFL charter. On August 17, the Central Labor Union of Boston welcomed the police union and denounced Curtis for his assertions that the police had no right to unionize. Curtis refused to meet with the eight members of the police union 's committee. He suspended them and 11 others who held various union offices and scheduled trials to determine if they had violated his General Order. At this point, Curtis was a hero to business interests. Late in August, the New Hampshire Association of Manufacturers called him "the Ole Hanson of the east, '' equating the events they anticipated in Boston with the earlier Seattle General Strike.
Mayor Peters sought to play an intermediary role by appointing a Citizen 's Committee to review the dispute about union representation. He chose a well - known local reformer as its chair, James J. Storrow. Storrow 's group recommended that Curtis and the police agree to a police union without AFL ties and without the right to strike. Curtis in turn would recognize the police union and the union would agree to remain "independent and unaffiliated ''. Storrow 's group also recommended that no action be taken against the 19 men whom Curtis had suspended. Four of Boston 's five newspapers backed the compromise, with only the Boston Transcript holding to a consistent anti-union position. The Boston Chamber of Commerce backed it as well.
Curtis, with the backing of Massachusetts Governor Calvin Coolidge, rejected the Storrow Commission 's proposal. He proceeded with department trials of the 19 and on September 8 found them guilty of union activity. Rather than dismiss them from the police force, he extended their suspensions. He later explained that he was giving them an opportunity to reconsider their actions and avoid discharges, which would have been irrevocable. The police union members responded that same day by voting 1134 to 2 in favor of a strike and scheduled it to start at evening roll call the next day. Their stated grounds omitted wages and working conditions. They said the strike 's rationale was to protest the Commissioner 's denial of their right to ally themselves with the AFL.
In anticipation of the strike, all of Boston 's newspapers called it "Bolshevistic, '' pleaded with the police to reconsider and predicted dire consequences. One also warned the police that their eventual defeat was guaranteed, that they would lose because "behind Boston in this skirmish with Bolshevism stands Massachusetts, and behind Massachusetts stands America. ''
On September 9, Boston Police Department officers went on strike at 5: 45 p.m. Of the force 's 1,544 officers and men, 1,117 (72 %) failed to report for work. Coolidge assigned 100 members of the state 's Metropolitan Park Police Department to replace the striking officers, but 58 of them refused to participate and were suspended from their jobs. Despite assurances from Commissioner Curtis to Mayor Peters and Governor Coolidge, Boston had little police protection for the night of September 9. Volunteer replacements were still being organized and due to report the next morning. Many of those who provided scab labor were students at Harvard University.
Over the night of September 9 -- 10, the city witnessed an outbreak of hooliganism and looting. Some was rowdy behavior that scared respectable citizens, such as youths throwing rocks at streetcars and overturning the carts of street vendors. More overtly criminal activity included the smashing of store windows and looting their displays or setting off false fire alarms. Such activity was restricted to certain parts of the city and, according to the New York Times, "throughout the greater part of the city the usual peace and quiet prevailed. '' In the morning the mayor asked the governor to furnish a force of State Guards; Coolidge promptly agreed and eventually provided almost 5,000 men. Commissioner Curtis later praised the State Guards ' performance in his Annual Report: "The whole community is now aware of the effectiveness with which the Massachusetts State Guard worked when it came into the city. I can not add anything to the universal chorus of commendation that has greeted their work. '' The morning papers following the first night 's violence were full of loud complaints and derogatory terms for the police: "deserters '', "agents of Lenin. ''
Violence peaked the next evening, the night of September 10 -- 11. Businesses were better prepared. Some had boarded up and others stayed open all night with armed guards visible to discourage thieves taking advantage of the strike. Gamblers played dice in open view, and women had their handbags snatched. But the Guard 's inexperience at handling crowds resulted in dangerous attempts to assert control. Gunfire in South Boston left two dead and others wounded. One person died in a riot at Scollay Square, a center of amusement halls and theaters. Whether the crowds were threatening property or making trouble because they were in sympathy with the strikers is unknown. The death total ultimately reached nine.
City life continued relatively normally, especially during daytime hours. Schools remained open. Later claims against the city for losses incurred during the two nights of disorder ran to $35,000, of which the city paid $34,000. Those figures represent a non-partisan calculation of the costs of the strike to the Boston business community.
When Governor Coolidge called the strikers "deserters '' and "traitors, '' a mass meeting of the Boston Police Union responded:
When we were honorably discharged from the United States army, we were hailed as heroes and saviors of our country. We returned to our duties on the police force of Boston.
Now, though only a few months have passed, we are denounced as deserters, as traitors to our city and violators of our oath of office.
The first men to raise the cry were those who have always been opposed to giving to labor a living wage. It was taken up by the newspapers, who cared little for the real facts. You finally added your word of condemnation...
Among us are men who have gone against spitting machine guns single - handed, and captured them, volunteering for the job. Among us are men who have ridden with dispatches through shell fire so dense that four men fell and only the fifth got through.
Not one man of us ever disgraced the flag or his service. It is bitter to come home and be called deserters and traitors. We are the same men who were on the French front.
Some of us fought in the Spanish war of 1898. Wo n't you tell the people of Massachusetts in which war you served?
On the evening of September 11, the Central Labor Union met to consider calling a general strike in support of the striking police. Earlier it had expressed enthusiasm for a general strike, more likely as an expression of solidarity than a declaration of serious intent. It collected the votes of its constituent unions and on September 12 announced it was delaying a decision. Their statement explained their reasoning: "We are not to act in a manner that will give the prejudiced press and autocratic employers a chance to criticize us. ''
On September 11, Matthew Woll, an AFL vice-president, said his organization discouraged strikes by government employees but defended their right to organize: "all wage earners have the right to associate with one another and collectively to improve their condition ''. He blamed the strike on government managers who failed to recognize that right and put the Boston situation in the context of the broader union movement: "On the question of industrial democracy (i.e., unionization), we find still that group of employers, Bourbonic in character, who believe democracy means for them to ruin or rule industrially. They can not conceive that the workers have any right in the management of industry... The time has passed when any man can say he is the ruler of the people in his employment. '' AFL President Samuel Gompers, just returned from Europe, quickly assessed the situation and the strength of public sentiment. On September 12, he urged the strikers to return to work, asking the city to agree to suspend judgment on whether to recognize the police union. In a telegram to Mayor Peters he cited the model of Washington, D.C., which had, at the suggestion of President Wilson, suspended its regulation forbidding police officers to join a union affiliated with the AFL until a conference scheduled for October 6. The police accepted Gompers ' recommendation immediately. Coolidge replied with a statement of support for Curtis ' hard line. Gompers telegraphed Coolidge again, this time blaming Curtis for the crisis. Coolidge dismissed the Commissioner 's behavior as irrelevant, because no provocation could justify the police walkout. His terse summation created his reputation on the national scene: "There is no right to strike against the public safety, anywhere, anytime. '' Coolidge said he would continue to "defend the sovereignty of Massachusetts. ''
By the weekend, the presence of the State Guards had become a curiosity. Larger than usual crowds strolled in the center of the city. Thousands attended a band concert on the Boston Common. "The shootings of the last few days for interference with guardsmen, '' said the New York Times, "seem to have had a marked effect. ''
Coolidge said he originally hoped to reinstate the officers, stating in a telegram to a labor convention, "I earnestly hope that circumstances may arise which will cause the police officers to be reinstated ''. Over the objections of Mayor Peters, Commissioner Curtis announced on September 13 that he planned to recruit a new force. He fired roughly 1,100 and hired 1,574 replacement police officers from a pool of unemployed World War I veterans. Members of the United Garment Workers refused to sew uniforms for the new hires, who had to report for work in civilian clothing.
The new officers hired in the wake of the strike received higher salaries and more vacation days than the strikers had. They enjoyed a starting salary of $1,400 along with a pension plan, and the department covered the cost of their uniforms and equipment. The population of Boston raised $472,000 to help pay for the State Guards until new police officers could be recruited.
In an editorial on the first morning of the strike, the New York Times supported the police commissioner and said that the strikers were "(i) nspired unconsciously by anti-social ideals, or acting by ' suggestion ' of their London and Liverpool brethren '', which had recently seen similar strikes. It said:
A policeman has no more right to belong to a union than a soldier or a sailor. He must be ready to obey orders, the orders of his superiors, not those of any outside body. One of his duties is the maintenance of order in the case of strike violence. In such a case, if he is faithful to his union, he may have to be unfaithful to the public, which pays him to protect it. The situation is false and impossible... It is the privilege of Boston policemen to resign if they are not satisfied with the conditions of their employment... but it is intolerable that a city... should be deserted by men who misunderstand their position and function as policemen, and who take their orders from outside... (I) t is an imported, revolutionary idea that may spread to various cities. There should be plain and stern law against it. It is practically an analogue of military desertion... (I) t ought to be punished suitably and repressed.
It later called the strike "this Boston essay in Bolshevism '' and lamented the attempt of Mayor Peters and the Storrow Commission "to submit to compromise an issue that could not be compromised ''. Newspaper accounts exaggerated the level of crime and violence that accompanied the strike, resulting in a national furor that shaped the political response. A Philadelphia paper viewed the Boston violence in the same light as other labor unrest and numerous race riots in 1919: "Bolshevism in the United States is no longer a specter. Boston in chaos reveals its sinister substance. '' President Woodrow Wilson, speaking from Montana, branded the walkout "a crime against civilization '' that left the city "at the mercy of an army of thugs. '' He said that "the obligation of a policeman is as sacred and direct as the obligation of a soldier. He is a public servant, not a private employee, and the whole honor of the community is in his hands. He has no right to prefer any private advantage to the public safety. '' Elihu Root, a former Secretary of War and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize, told a Carnegie Hall audience on September 17 that the strike was an attack on constitutional government because it represented "the passing of power to enforce laws, the power to punish crime, the power to maintain order from the whole people of the United States '' to the 3 % of the population represented by the AFL.
A report from Washington, D.C. included this headline: "Senators Think Effort to Sovietize the Government Is Started. '' Senator Henry Cabot Lodge saw in the strike the dangers of the national labor movement: "If the American Federation of Labor succeeds in getting hold of the police in Boston it will go all over the country, and we shall be in measurable distance of Soviet government by labor unions. '' The Ohio State Journal opposed any sympathetic treatment of the strikers: "When a policeman strikes, he should be debarred not only from resuming his office, but from citizenship as well. He has committed the unpardonable sin; he has forfeited all his rights. ''
In the police commissioner 's Annual Report for 1919, Curtis presented his view of the strike. He argued that he had not even needed the requested State Guards for the strike 's first night because the city remained quiet and he had reports that many policemen would not join the strike. By the end of the year the strikers had formed a new organization called the Association of Former Police of the City of Boston.
The strike gave momentum to Coolidge 's political career. In 1918, he had narrowly been elected governor. In 1919 he won 62 % of the votes when running against an opponent who favored reinstating the strikers. He failed to carry Boston by just 5,000 votes, an impressive showing for a Republican in a strongly Democratic city. The Boston Transcript reported:
Massachusetts is hailed today from Maine to California as the winner of a shining triumph for straight Americanism. The voting booths of the old Bay State were a battleground for the nation. The ancient faith was under fire. Law and order formed the line of cleavage. The Governor was the Commander - in - chief, the people of the commonwealth were the invincible army, the issue was America, and in the triumph of that issue all America triumphs.
Coolidge himself later said, "No doubt it was the police strike in Boston that brought me into national prominence. '' In a post-election congratulatory telegram President Wilson wrote: "I congratulate you upon your election as a victory for law and order. When that is the issue, all Americans must stand together. '' His role in the strike, however limited, became a prominent feature of his resume as he sought higher office. According to one obituary, "the Boston police strike of 1919... brought him national prominence and the nomination for the Vice Presidency '' in 1920. When he succeeded to the presidency in 1923 upon the death of Warren Harding, the New York Times headlined its biography: "Coolidge Firmness Won Recognition; His Suppression of the Boston Police Strike Made Him a National Figure ''. Coolidge 's political rivals interpreted his role differently. In 1925, U.S. Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin said that Coolidge 's failure to intervene in that year 's coal strike mirrored his 1919 actions when he "persistently refused to act upon the requests of the Mayor of Boston for assistance until riot and bloodshed had aroused the entire State. Then when order had been restored by the efforts of Mayor Peters and the Storrow committee Coolidge sent in the militia and claimed full credit for restoring ' law and order '. ''
The strike heightened public fear of labor unrest and the possible radicalism that lay behind it. It contributed to the public anxiety of the period known as the Red Scare of 1919 -- 1920. The failure of this and other strikes in the years following World War I contributed to declining union membership in subsequent years. The American Federation of Labor responded to political pressure experienced during the strike and revoked the charters it had granted to police unions. That ended police unionism in the U.S. for two decades, as police would not try to organize until World War II.
In 1930, a history of the Boston Transcript, the most resolutely anti-union of Boston 's newspapers in 1919, perpetuated its original account of urban chaos during the strike 's first nights. It described large crowds, including a number of sailors from docked naval ships, that took to the streets, smashing windows, committing robbery and stoning bystanders and cars. It said that the northern, southern, and western areas of the city were all taken over by armed gangs.
Legislation passed by the Massachusetts legislature in 1933 made it easier for police officers who had been off the force for more than a year to apply for reinstatement. It was expected that this would lead to an effort by the former strikers to be rehired, but several subsequent appeals for reinstatement were denied. In 1937, Massachusetts Governor Charles F. Hurley, after meeting with some of the 1919 strikers, backed the decision of Police Commissioner Joseph Timilty not to reinstate them.
The Boston Police Patrolman 's Association was formed in 1965 following the enactment of a state statute allowing state and municipal workers to organize for the sake of collective bargaining.
No police officers in the U.S. went out on strike until July 1974, when some Baltimore police, estimated at 15 % to 50 % of the force, refused to report for work for several days as a demonstration of support for other striking municipal unions.
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who has the most assists of all time | List of National Basketball Association career assists leaders - wikipedia
This article provides two lists:
This is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season assists recorded.
This is a progressive list of assist leaders showing how the record increased through the years.
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who created the cave paintings of altamira spain | Cave of Altamira - Wikipedia
The Cave of Altamira (Spanish: Cueva de Altamira; pronounced (ˈku̯e. βa ðe al. ta. ˈmi. ɾa)) located near the historic town Santillana del Mar in Cantabria, Spain, is renowned for its numerous parietal cave paintings featuring charcoal drawings and polychrome paintings of contemporary local fauna and human hands, created during the Upper Paleolithic. The earliest paintings in the cave were executed around 15,500 years ago.
Altamira was the first European cave for which prehistoric origin of the paintings was suggested and promoted by Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola. He published his research with the support of Juan Vilanova y Piera in 1880 to public acclaim. Nonetheless a bitter public controversy among experts ensued and continued until 1902, as reports of similar findings of prehistoric paintings in the region had accumulated and evidence could no longer be rejected.
Altamira is located in the Franco - Cantabrian region and declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO as the central element of the Cave of Altamira and Paleolithic Cave Art of Northern Spain.
The cave is approximately 1000 meters long and consists of a series of twisting passages and chambers. The main passage varies from two to six meters in height. The cave was formed through collapses following early Karst phenomena in the calcareous rock of Mount Vispieres.
Archaeological excavations in the cave floor found rich deposits of artifacts from the Upper Solutrean (c. 18,500 years ago) and Lower Magdalenian (between c. 16,590 and 14,000 years ago). Both periods belong to the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. In the millennia between these two occupations, the cave was evidently inhabited only by wild animals. Human occupants of the site were well - positioned to take advantage of the rich wildlife that grazed in the valleys of the surrounding mountains as well as the marine life available in nearby coastal areas. Around 13,000 years ago a rockfall sealed the cave 's entrance, preserving its contents until its eventual discovery, which occurred after a nearby tree fell and disturbed the fallen rocks.
Human occupation was limited to the cave mouth, although paintings were created throughout the length of the cave. The artists used charcoal and ochre or haematite to create the images, often diluting these pigments to produce variations in intensity and creating an impression of chiaroscuro. They also exploited the natural contours of the cave walls to give their subjects a three - dimensional effect. The Polychrome Ceiling is the most impressive feature of the cave, depicting a herd of extinct steppe bison (Bison priscus) in different poses, two horses, a large doe, and possibly a wild boar.
Dated to the Magdalenian occupation, these paintings include abstract shapes in addition to animal subjects. Solutrean paintings include images of horses and goats, as well as handprints that were created when artists placed their hands on the cave wall and blew pigment over them to leave a negative image. Numerous other caves in northern Spain contain Paleolithic art, but none is as complex or well - populated as Altamira.
In 1879, amateur archaeologist Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola was led by his eight - year - old daughter María to discover the cave 's drawings. The cave was excavated by Sautuola and archaeologist Juan Vilanova y Piera from the University of Madrid, resulting in a much acclaimed publication in 1880 which interpreted the paintings as Paleolithic in origin. The French specialists, led by Gabriel de Mortillet and Emile Cartailhac, were particularly adamant in rejecting the hypothesis of Sautuola and Piera, and their findings were loudly ridiculed at the 1889 Prehistorical Congress in Lisbon. Due to the supreme artistic quality, and the exceptional state of conservation of the paintings, Sautuola was even accused of forgery, as he was unable to answer why there were no soot (smoke) marks on the walls and ceilings of the cave. A fellow countryman maintained that the paintings had been produced by a contemporary artist, on Sautuola 's orders. Later Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola found out the artist could have used marrow fat as oil for the lamp, producing much less soot than any other combustibles. Alcohol was not available at the time as far as we know. Still, it remains unexplained how the paintings in Altamira cave remained unaltered being wet.
It was not until 1902, when several other findings of prehistoric paintings had served to render the hypothesis of the extreme antiquity of the Altamira paintings less offensive, that the scientific society retracted their opposition to the Spaniards. That year, Emile Cartailhac emphatically admitted his mistake in the famous article, "Mea culpa d'un sceptique '', published in the journal L'Anthropologie. Sautuola, having died 14 years earlier, did not live to witness his rehabilitation.
Further excavation work on the cave was done by Hermilio Alcalde del Río between 1902 -- 04, the German Hugo Obermaier between 1924 -- 25 and finally by Joaquín González Echegaray in 1968.
There is no scientific agreement on the dating of the archeological artifacts found in the cave, nor the drawings and paintings, and scientists continue to evaluate the age of the cave art at Altamira.
In 2008, researchers using uranium - thorium dating found that the paintings were completed over a period of up to 20,000 years rather than during a comparatively brief period.
A later study published in 2012 based on data obtained from further uranium - thorium dating research, dated some paintings in several caves in North Spain, including some of the claviform signs in the "Gran sala '' of Altamira, and concluded that the first works in Altamira belonged to the Aurignacian culture, 35,600 years old, right at the beginning of human occupation of North Spain by modern humans. This means that these drawings could have been made by Neanderthal authors instead of homo sapiens, as assumed until now.
During the 1970s and 2000s, the paintings were being damaged by the carbon dioxide in the breath of the large number of visitors. Altamira was completely closed to the public in 1977, and reopened to limited access in 1982. Very few visitors were allowed in per day, resulting in a three - year waiting list. After green mold began to appear on some paintings in 2002, the caves were closed to public access. A replica cave and museum were built nearby and completed in 2001 by Manuel Franquelo and Sven Nebel, reproducing the cave and its art. The replica allows a more comfortable view of the polychrome paintings of the main hall of the cave, as well as a selection of minor works. It also includes some sculptures of human faces that are not visitable in the real cave.
As well as the adjacent National Museum and Research Center of Altamira there are reproductions in the National Archaeological Museum of Spain (Madrid), in the Deutsches Museum in Munich (completed 1964) and in Japan (completed 1993).
During 2010 there were plans to reopen access to the cave towards the end of that year. In December 2010, however, the Spanish Ministry of Culture decided that the cave would remain closed to the public. This decision was based on advice from a group of experts who had found that the conservation conditions inside the cave had become much more stable since the closure.
Some of the polychrome paintings at Altamira Cave are well known in Spanish popular culture. The logo used by the autonomous government of Cantabria to promote tourism to the region is based on one of the bisons in this cave. Bisonte (Spanish for "bison ''), a Spanish cigarette brand of the 20th century, also used a Paleolithic style bison figure along with its logo.
The Spanish comic series Altamiro de la Cueva, created in 1965, are a consequence of the fame of Altamira Cave. The comic series depicts the adventures of a group of prehistoric cavemen, shown as modern people, but dressed in pieces of fur, a bit like the Flintstones.
The song "The Caves of Altamira '' appears on the 1976 album The Royal Scam by jazz - rock band Steely Dan, later covered by soul group Perri.
The mid-20th - century modern dinnerware line Primitive, designed by Viktor Schreckengost for the American pottery company Salem China, was based on the bison, deer, and stick figure hunters depicted in the Altamira cave paintings.
The song "Cuevas de Altamira '' (Caves of Altamira) appears on the 1978 album Cuevas de Altamira by the symphonic progressive rock - folk group Ibio from Cantabria.
The iconic bison image has been used for the cover of the poetry collection Songs for the Devil and Death by Scottish author Hal Duncan.
The protagonist in Satyajit Ray 's film Agantuk was inspired by the charging Bison painting to leave his home and study tribals.
In 2016, British Director Hugh Hudson released the film Altamira (called Finding Altamira outside Spain) about the discovery of the caves, starring Antonio Banderas and with music by Mark Knopfler.
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the only child of a president to be born in the whitehouse | List of children of the Presidents of the United States - wikipedia
This is a list of children of U.S. Presidents, including stepchildren and alleged illegitimate children. All full names with married names are given. Currently there are 31 confirmed, known living presidential children, the oldest Lynda Bird Johnson Robb, the youngest confirmed Barron Trump. Two presidential children, John Quincy Adams and George W. Bush, have become president in their own right.
Presidential children have been studied individually and as a class. As individuals they are more often notable in their own right than most individuals: They disproportionately circulate among political and social leaders and the wealthier classes, and they are more likely to be scrutinized as part of celebrity culture. Additionally, as individuals they frequently have significant influence on other notable family members. So, for instance, a child who may appear otherwise non-notable as an individual may, in fact, have had a significant influence on the child 's parent: acting as a sounding board, or having behavioral issues that affected the parent 's beliefs or performance. John Scott Harrison is the only person to be both the child and the parent of a U.S. President, being the son of William Henry Harrison and the father of Benjamin Harrison.
As a class, the children of presidents have also occasioned significant study. Study has generally followed two paths: The issue of what access and inclusion within the circles of power does to individuals ' lives, aspirations, and outcomes; and the issue of their influence on society and politics.
Father of:
Mother of:
Father of:
Mother of 12, including:
No children together, but raised the older of Dolley 's 2 sons from her first marriage:
Served as United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom (1861 - 1868) Father of 7, including:
Both Lyon Jr. and Harrison were still alive as of March 6, 2018, meaning John Tyler is, by far, the earliest president with living grandchildren.
The Polks are the only presidential couple to never have children while together, biologically, adopted, or from previous marriage.
Mother of:
Father of:
(married for ten years)
Grover Cleveland acknowledged possibility he was Oscar Folsom Cleveland 's father. During the 1884 presidential race the controversy prompted Cleveland 's opponents to adopt the chant, "Ma, ma, where 's my pa? '' The child was adopted as "James E. King Jr '' into the family of Dr. James King.
Father of 2, including William Henry Harrison (1896 -- 1990)
Father of:
Father of:
Mother of:
Mother of:
Father of:
Father of:
Mother of:
Father of:
As of October 2018, 31 presidential children are living. In order of their ages, they are:
Current First Child
The most recent Presidential child to die was John Eisenhower, the son of Dwight D. Eisenhower, who died on December 21, 2013. He was also the father - in - law of Julie Nixon Eisenhower, another Presidential child.
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who is the original singer of in christ alone | In Christ Alone - wikipedia
"In Christ Alone '' is a popular, modern Christian song written by Keith Getty (Northern Ireland) and Stuart Townend (England), both songwriters of Christian hymns and contemporary worship music. The song, with a strong Irish melody, copyrighted by Getty and Townend 2001 Kingsway Music Thankyou Music, is the first the two songwriters penned down in their partnership of songwriting. The music was by Getty and the original lyrics by Townend.
"In Christ Alone '' is considered a Christian credal song for belief in Jesus Christ. The theme of the song is the life, death and resurrection of Christ, and that he is a God who even death can not hold:
No guilt in life, no fear in death This is the power of Christ in me
Till on that cross as Jesus died The wrath of God was satisfied For every sin on Him was laid Here in the death of Christ I live
The song is commonly known as "In Christ Alone (My Hope Is Found) '' and "In Christ Alone (I Stand) '' taking verses from the song and has become very popular and has been the subject of many cover versions and many language translations.
The Getty / Townend song should not be confused with the similarly titled song "In Christ Alone '' co-written by Don Koch and Shawn Craig, originally recorded by Michael English on his self - titled debut solo album Michael English, and many others.
The song was composed in 2001 and gained increased popularity first in Ireland and the UK and then in the United States and internationally. By 2005, it had been named by a BBC Songs of Praise survey as the 9th best loved hymn of all time in the UK; By 2006, it rose to the No. 1 position on the United Kingdom CCLI (Christian Copyright Licensing International) charts. "In Christ Alone '' appeared on CCLI 's "Top 25 CCLI Songs '' American songs list for the first time in the February 2008 report although it had appeared in the CCLI chart for Canada, Australia and New Zealand prior to that.
In 2008, the song was included in the release of Christian Worship: Supplement for the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS). In 2015, the song was listed among the "Fifty Favorite Hymns '' in a WELS survey.
In 2010, Owl City 's Adam Young recorded a version and offered it through his blog. About the song he wrote: "I 'm twenty four years old, yet something about this song makes me bawl like a baby. The way the melodies and lyrics swirl together is so poignant and beautiful. If I were to count on one hand, the number of songs that have ever deeply moved me, this one would take the cake. Last night I probably spent more time actually crying at the piano than I did recording it. Such are the secret confessions of a shy boy from Minnesota ''.
A committee of the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) opted not to include "In Christ Alone '' in the church 's 2013 hymnal Glory to God! for various reasons cited by Mary Louise Bringle in The Christian Century, "Debating Hymns '' 1 May 2013. A committee statement explained the copyright holders would not grant the copyright request to reprint the hymn exactly as found in Celebrating Grace, a hymnal published in 2010 by a large group of Baptists. Variations in the hymn versions concerned the differences in theological significance of the line published in the Celebrating Grace Baptist hymnal: "Till on that cross as Jesus died the love of God was magnified '' and the line the copyright holders prefer, "Till on that cross as Jesus died the wrath of God was satisfied. '' The question concerns interpretations of atonement theory, particularly penal substitution theory and the satisfaction theory of atonement. Such questions also address the attributes of God.
In 2013, the song was sung at the enthronement of Justin Welby as Archbishop of Canterbury.
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how much does a 1999 ford f350 weight | Ford Super Duty - wikipedia
The Ford F - Series Super Duty (often shortened to Ford Super Duty) is a series of trucks manufactured by Ford Motor Company. Introduced in 1998 for the 1999 model year, the F - Series Super Duty trucks marked the addition of a heavy - duty pickup to the Ford F - Series range, including the F - 250 and F - 350 pickups; the previous 1987 -- 1997 F - Super Duty chassis cabs were replaced by the F - 450 and F - 550 Super Duty.
Distinguished from the F - 150 by its separate bodywork, the Super Duty trucks utilize a distinct chassis from the F - 150 with heavier - duty chassis and suspension components to allow for higher payload and towing capacities; additionally, the product line continued the use of Ford PowerStroke diesel engines. With a GVWR over 8,500 lb (3,900 kg); Super Duty pickups are Class 3 trucks while chassis - cab trucks are in the Class 4 - 5 range. The F - Series Super Duty has been used as the donor chassis of the Ford Excursion full - size SUV.
Ford F - 250 to F - 550 Super Duty trucks are assembled at the Kentucky Truck Plant in Louisville, Kentucky with medium - duty F - 650 and F - 750s are assembled at Ohio Assembly in Avon Lake, Ohio (prior to 2014, medium - duty trucks were assembled in the Blue Diamond Truck joint venture with Navistar in Mexico). As of 2016, the Ford Super Duty is sold in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Venezuela (F - 250 and F - 350), Suriname, Brazil (F - 350 / F - 4000), Argentina (F - 4000 only), Angola (F - 250 and F - 350), Cambodia, the Middle East, and Iceland (F - 350 only) in LHD only. In Australia, where it was officially imported in right hand drive from Brazil between 2001 -- 06, newer American - built units can be imported but must be converted locally to right hand drive. In Suriname, even though traffic is on the left side of the road, the import and registry of left hand drive vehicles is allowed.
In 1958, Ford introduced the Super Duty family of V8 engines. Built specifically for trucks, the 401, 477, and 534 cubic - inch gasoline V8s were the largest - block V8 engines ever built by Ford Motor Company (other than the 1100 cu in GAA, developed for the US Army as a tank powerplant; this however was a ' cut - down ' V - 12, with a 60 ° V - angle, and was not originally designed as a V - 8), and were the largest mass - produced gasoline V8 engines in the world. To showcase the engine launch, the "Big Job '' conventional truck variants of the F - Series were re-branded as Super Duty, a name added to other Ford trucks as well. Alongside the Ford C - Series and H - Series cabovers, the N - Series conventional adopted the Super Duty name. Although its poor fuel economy would prove uncompetitive against diesel engines, the durability of the Super Duty would keep it in production into 1981.
In 1987 Ford would revitalize the name as a Class 4 truck badged as "F - Super Duty '', Manufactured as a chassis cab with the frame open for a bed that would suit its future application, these trucks would be equipped with the 7.5 liter gasoline engine or a 7.3 liter IDI diesel engine. The weight and class of these trucks would make them the heaviest trucks in the F - Series line at the time.
Following the redesign of the 1997 Ford F - 150, the Ford F - Series began a transition in its layout. In response to the changing demographics of pickup truck purchases during the 1980s and 1990s, Ford shifted the design of the F - 150 separate from the larger F - 250 and F - 350 (which remained in production). While still a full - size pickup under the skin, to expand its appeal among consumers, the F - 150 adopted carlike aerodynamics and convenience features. To market a truck that appealed towards commercial buyers, fleet buyers, and users who tow, Ford sought to create a separate, dedicated heavy - duty truck platform (in place of using one chassis for all of its trucks). By expanding into two separate but related platforms for F - Series trucks, the inevitable compromises inherent in offering a wide range of load - carrying capacities were avoided. The F - 250HD lasted into 1997 (alongside a separate 1997 / 1998 F - 250 based upon the F - 150); the F - 350 pickup was put on hiatus after 1997.
Beginning production in early 1998 for the 1999 model, the Ford F - Series Super Duty consisted of the F - 250 pickup truck, F - 350 pickup truck and chassis cab, and introduced the F - 450 and F - 550 chassis cab trucks (see below). The Super Duty trucks would be produced with three cab configurations: two - door standard cab, 2 + 2 door SuperCab, and four - door crew cab. The SuperCab configuration of the Super Duty marked the introduction of two standard rear - hinged doors on the extended cab, a feature also adopted by the F - 150 and Ranger / Mazda B - Series for 1999. The standard cab was produced with an 8 - foot bed; SuperCab and crew cabs were produced with a 6 3 / 4 - foot bed, with an 8 - foot bed optional. Two - wheel drive was standard, with four - wheel drive as an option; on F - 350 pickup trucks, a dual rear - wheel axle was optional with either drive configuration.
Styled by Andrew Jacobson (designer of the 1997 Ford F - 150) and Moray Callum, aside from taillamp lenses and the tailgate, the Super Duty F - Series trucks share no visible exterior parts with the Ford F - 150. Under the skin, only the base - equipment 5.4 L V8 and 4R100 transmission are shared. While sharing the similar aerodynamic cab design of its smaller counterpart, the exterior of the Super Duty trucks are much different forward of the windshield. While an influence often compared to the 1994 -- 2001 Dodge Ram, the Super Duty also derives elements of styling from much larger Ford trucks, including the Ford LTL - 9000 and Aeromax, with a raised hoodline, large grille, and low fenders. A feature drawn from 1996 redesign of the Louisville / Aeromax was in the design of the side window openings: the front portion is lowered, allowing for increased side visibility (as well as larger sideview mirrors). To improve aerodynamics over metal - framed mirrors, manual - telescoping trailer tow mirrors were available as an option. As an industry first, 2 large complete ring - style front tow hooks were included. A minor update occurred in the 2002 model year which saw a new instrument cluster with a digital odometer.
For the 2005 model year, the Ford Super Duty trucks were given exterior and interior updates. For the exterior, a new grille, front bumper, and headlights were introduced alongside the introduction of a locking tailgate for all pickup trucks. Under the skin (with thicker frame rails), updated Triton gasoline engines were introduced with higher engine output and larger alternators; in response to the increased power, all trucks were given 4 - wheel disc brakes (with two - piston calipers). To accommodate the larger brakes, 17 - inch wheels became standard, with 18 - inch wheels optional (on single rear - wheel trucks); forged Alcoa wheels were an option. The long - running Twin I - Beam front suspension continued on two - wheel drive trucks.
To the interior, several changes were made to improve functionality for end - users. Along with the addition of a driver - side glove compartment, the truck added the option of dashboard - mounted auxiliary switches (for owners who fit equipment such as snowplows, winches, and auxiliary lights); these are switches that were typically user designed. For users that tow, a new option was Ford TowCommand, a Trailer brake controller built into the dashboard, allowing it to integrate with the ABS system and engine computer from the factory.
During its production, the first - generation Ford F - Series Super Duty was sold with two gasoline and two diesel engines.
Replacing the overhead - valve engines used in previous F - Series models, for the Super Duty, Ford transitioned to the Triton overhead - cam engine family (truck versions of the Ford Modular engines).
At its launch, the standard engine in the Super Duty was a Triton V8. Producing 255 hp / 350 lb - ft of torque, the SOHC 16 - valve V8 was shared with the F - 150 and Ford E-Series. During 1999, the engine was retuned to 260 hp. In 2005, the cylinder heads were redesigned to 3 - valve design, converting it to a 24 - valve V8; output was increased to 300 hp / 365 lb - ft of torque.
As a replacement for the long - running 7.5 L / 460 V8, for the Super Duty, Ford introduced a Triton V10. A SOHC 20 - valve engine, the V10 produced 310 hp / 425 lb - ft of torque. In 2005, the V10 would also receive 3 - valve cylinder heads, increasing its output to 362 hp / 457 lb - ft of torque.
Both the V8 and V10 Triton engines are designed with a fail - safe cooling system to protect the engine in case of major coolant loss. If the engine overheats, the engine will operate on half of its cylinders. Alternating back and forth between each set of 4 (or 5) pistons, the set that is not receiving fuel and ignition is operating to pump air through the engine to lower its temperature. Although engine output is limited, dependent on upon vehicle load, outside temperature, and current road conditions, the system is designed to allow the vehicle to travel a short distance to obtain service or to reach a repair facility.
255 hp (190 kW; 259 PS), 350 lb ⋅ ft (475 N ⋅ m)
260 hp (194 kW; 264 PS), 350 lb ⋅ ft (475 N ⋅ m)
300 hp (224 kW; 304 PS), 365 lb ⋅ ft (495 N ⋅ m)
Available in both F - 250 and F - 350 pickup trucks as well as F - 450 and F - 550 chassis cabs, the F - Series was sold with optional PowerStroke V8 diesel engines produced under its joint venture with Navistar International.
At its launch, the Super Duty F - Series was sold with the 7.3 L Power Stroke V8. Initially producing 235 hp / 500 lb - ft of torque, the engine was retuned in 2001. Versions equipped with an automatic transmission produced 250 hp while manual - transmission examples produced 275 hp; with either transmission, the engine produced 525 lb - ft of torque. As the 7.3 L V8 was no longer able to comply with emissions regulations for diesel engines, it was discontinued midway through the 2003 model year.
As a running change during the 2003 model year, the 6.0 L PowerStroke V8 was introduced as the replacement for the previous 7.3 L V8 in LHD markets supplied with the American - assembled trucks while RHD ones supplied from Brazil kept the 7.3 until 2005. As before, the engine continued to be produced by Navistar. A 32 - valve pushrod engine, the 6.0 L V8 featured a single variable - vane turbocharger. While a smaller - displacement engine than its predecessor, its output is higher than the 7.3 L, providing 325 hp / 560 lb - ft of torque (in 2005, the torque increased to 570 lb - ft). Due to problems with the head bolts Navistar re-designed the engine with reinforced heads, more torque and, power releasing the new design in 2005 - 6. As with its predecessor, the 6.0 L would end its production run due to tighter emissions requirements, replaced as part of the Super Duty redesign for the 2008 model year.
Four transmissions were available. Several configurations of ZF5 five speed manual transmissions were offered. Small block pattern, big block pattern, and diesel. Close ratio and wide ratios were available, as well as 4wd and 2wd configurations with the exception of integrated driveshaft brake 2wd versions using the 4x4 style transmission. Earlier s5 - 42 versions were rated to 420 ft - lbs of torque, while later s5 - 47 versions were rated to 470 ft - lbs. ZF 6 - speed manual for diesel engines. An optional 4R100 4 - speed automatic was available for either the gas or diesel engines, later being replaced with the TorqShift 5 - speed automatic. The 5 - speed automatics are rated at exactly 1,000 lb (450 kg), enabling higher towing capacity than trucks with the standard 5 / 6 - speed manual transmission. The 6 - speed manual transmission comes with an integrated PTO.
The Torqshift 5 - speed 5R110 automatic transmission replaced the 4 - speed in the 2003 model year diesel trucks in order to compete with the Allison 1000 series from General Motors; it was paired with the new 6.0 L diesel engine. The TorqShift design in fact has six forward ratios, but only five are advertised, with the ' hidden ' gear only used in extreme cold weather. The TorqShift 1st to 5th gear ratios are 3.11, 2.22, 1.55, 1.00, and 0.71: 1. It also utilizes an alternate 4th gear, overdrive on 2nd gear of the 3 - speed automatic component (0.72 x 1.55), that is 1.10: 1 that is used under cold start conditions to aid engine and transmission warm up. On the TorqShift, once the Tow / Haul mode is activated it can help increase a driver 's control when towing large loads up and down steep grades and automatically minimizes shifts and maximizes available torque. Upon descent, the Tow / Haul mode utilizes engine braking to help extend brake life and improve driver control. An adaptive shift function monitors the TorqShift 's performance over its lifetime, and adjusts shift pressures in real time to assure consistent shift feel and compensate for wear. For ease of maintenance, the TorqShift 's oil filter is a spin - off style, mounted on the passenger - side exterior of the transmission. Also the TorqShift 's larger fluid lines and a larger transmission oil cooler help to assure cooler operating temperatures, even under the most demanding conditions. This was Ford 's first automatic transmission to feature PTO. The transmission can be equipped with an integrated PTO provision (which automatically locks the torque converter providing power to the PTO gear when the operator turns on the PTO switch).
On 4x4 models there is a choice of a manual chain - driven transfer case floor shifter with manual front locking hubs or Electronic - Shift - On - the - Fly (ESOF, a $185 option over the manual) dash knob with vacuum activated automatic and (in case of failure) manual override front hubs. The optional FX4 models are basically a standard 4x4 with an Off Road package that includes a few extras like upgraded heavy duty Rancho shocks, electronic locking rear differential, added skid plates for the fuel tank and transfer case, and two "FX4 '' decals on both back bed - sides instead of the standard "4x4 ''. For all 4x4 models, the 2 - speed transfer case 4x4 - LOW range has a gear reduction of 2.72: 1. Brazilian and Venezuelan versions had only the ESOF transfer case.
For the first - generation Super Duty range, Ford used several different suspension configurations, depending on the model of truck. All models have heavy - duty 3 '' wide leaf springs and staggered shock absorbers. A standard stabilizer bar is included on dual rear - wheel models and an option on single rear - wheel versions. An optional slide - in camper certification package with heavier - duty springs was available on single rear - wheel models. All versions of the Super Duty trucks came equipped with four - wheel disc brakes.
On two - wheel drive F - 250 and F - 350 pickups, the Twin I - Beam independent front suspension with coil springs was used; their four - wheel drive counterparts were equipped with solid front axle (Dana 50 and Dana 60) with leaf springs. In 2005, the front suspension was updated as four - wheel drive trucks were converted to front coil springs; to reduce unsprung weight, the mounting of the front sway bar was changed to the frame instead of the front axle. The manual locking hubs on Super Duty trucks are made by Warn.
On the F - 250 and F - 350, the rear suspension used heavy - duty 3 '' wide leaf springs and staggered shock absorbers; a standard stabilizer bar was included on dual rear - wheel models. Single - rear wheel versions were fitted with a 10.5 - inch (270 mm) Sterling 10.5 axle 35 - spline axle with choices of conventional or limited - slip differentials; initially developed for previous - generation Ford trucks, it was strengthened for use in the Super Duty. In dual - rear wheel F - 350s, the rear axle was a Dana 80.
On F - 450 and F - 550 cab - chassis trucks, the Dana 60 front axle was replaced with a Dana Super 60 in 2005. The rear suspension on 2011 - 2014 F - 450s Pickup used Dana 80 axles and 2008 - 2010 & 2015 - 2018 F - 450s Pickup used Dana S 110. F - 450 cab - chassis used a Dana S 110. F - 550s used a Dana 135 from 1995 to 2004; in 2005, the Dana S 110 rear axle was added to the F - 550.
The Dana 50 axle featured on most F - 250 Super Dutys differs greatly from the early models. The Dana 50 started out as a Twin Traction Beam axle (much like independent suspension) in 1980. This lasted all the way to 1997 models. The Super Duty models then used a solid axle version of this axle. The ring, pinion, carrier and u joints all remained the same however. The Dana 50 was phased out of the trucks in 2004, in favor of the Dana 60 and was last used in the Ford Excursion.
Throughout its production run, the first - generation 1999 - 2007 Ford F - Series Super Duty was offered in three main trim levels:
The base XL was the "work truck '' trim level of the F - Series Super Duty. Its standard features included a manual transmission, an AM / FM stereo with two front door - mounted speakers, a heater and blower, vinyl - trimmed seating surfaces with bench seats, steel wheels with black center hubs, black front and rear bumpers, a black "egg - crate '' front grille, and manual windows and door locks. Optional features that were offered on this trim level included cloth - trimmed seating surfaces or vinyl - and - cloth - trimmed seating surfaces, power windows and door locks, an AM / FM stereo with cassette player (later, a single - disc CD player instead of a cassette player) and four speakers, chrome front and rear bumpers as part of an XL Decor Group, an automatic transmission, and air conditioning.
The mid-range XLT was the most popular trim level of the F - Series Super Duty. It added the following features to the base XL trim level: an AM / FM stereo with cassette player (later, a single - disc CD player instead of a cassette player) and four speakers, cloth - trimmed seating surfaces, bright center wheel hubs, chrome front and rear bumpers, a chrome "egg - crate '' front grille with black inserts, power windows and door locks, and air conditioning. Optional features that were offered on this trim level included aluminum wheels, keyless entry (later, this option became standard equipment on this trim level), an AM / FM stereo with both a cassette player and a single - disc CD player (later, a six - disc, in - dash CD changer), an automatic transmission, and a power - adjustable front driver 's bench seat.
The top - of - the - line Lariat was the most luxurious trim level of the F - Series Super Duty. It added the following features to the mid-range XLT trim level: an AM / FM stereo with both a cassette player and a single - disc CD player (later, a six - disc, in - dash CD changer), leather - trimmed seating surfaces, chrome - clad (later aluminum) wheels and center wheel hubs, keyless entry, a security system, electronic climate controls, a power front bench seat with fold - down center armrest, wood interior trim panels, and a chrome front grille with chrome inserts. Available options included two - tone exterior paint, color - keyed grille insert as well as front & rear bumpers, bucket seats replacing the bench seat, heated front seats, and an automatic transmission (which later became standard on this trim level).
There were multiple special edition Super Duty models that were offered as well.
The Lariat LE (Limited Edition) was first offered for the 2000 model year F - 350 Crew Cab ' duallie ' (dual - rear - wheel), and featured a special Black Clear Coat with Harvest Gold Metallic two - tone paint job, exterior sun visor with clearance lamps, 16 '' Polished Aluminum Wheel with Bright Hub Cover, lighted running boards and front and rear leather bucket seats (with special Lariat LE stitching) with dual center consoles; on top of standard Lariat features.
Factory integrated fog lamps, power adjustable pedals and a reverse sensing system were added to the list of standard equipment for 2001.
For 2002, the Lariat LE was available in two new paint colors. Either Ebony Clear Coat solid paint, or with the distinctive Ebony and Dark Shadow Grey Metallic two - tone. The interior also receive updates for the 2002 model year including a new Medium Flint perforated leather trim for the quad captain 's chairs, and a new look to the wood grain appearance on the door panels and console lids.
2004 was the final model year for the Lariat LE package. The only major changes were Arizona Beige Metallic replacing Dark Shadow Grey on the Lariat LE exclusive two - tone paint job, and Parchment leather replaces Medium Flint.
To bridge the gap between the pickup line and the much larger medium - duty F - 650 / F - 750, Ford introduced the F - 450 and F - 550 variants of the Super Duty; with an available GVWR from 17,950 - 19,500 lbs, it pushes the Super Duty into the Class 5 truck market. Available only as a chassis cab for commercial upfitters, both versions were fitted with dual rear wheels.
While largely aimed at fleet buyers, F - 450 and F - 550 were configurable in XL, XLT, and Lariat trim levels available to Super Duty pickup buyers. The sole gasoline engine was the 6.8 L V10 while the 7.3 L PowerStroke was the diesel option; in 2003, this was replaced by the 6.0 L PowerStroke.
In 2005, the F - 450 and F - 550 received further updates to the exterior than the rest of the Super Duty line, with an extended front bumper and front fenders; the F - 550 received a "wide - track '' front axle to sharpen its turning radius.
The Ford F - 350 Super Duty first generation was also assembled in Venezuela as a commercial small truck from 1999 to 2010. For this market the F - 350 featured the 5.4 L V8 Triton engine, a 5 - speed manual transmission, and a choice of 4x2 or 4x4.
Ford Super Duty trucks were built in Brazil, with different engines than its North American counterparts and fewer options, initially between 1999 and 2011, with a limited reintroduction of the F - 350 in 2014. The dual - rear wheel variant of the F - 350 is known locally as F - 4000. They were widely exported to Australia (F - 250 and F - 350), South Africa (F - 250) and Argentina (F - 250, rebadged as F - 100, and the F - 350 DRW rebadged as F - 4000), usually following the Brazilian specification (with an obvious change of the cockpit location in the versions targeted to Australia, South Africa and other RHD markets) but Australia had a wider range of options in pair with its American counterparts, including automatic transmission and the V8 engines. Supercab extended - cab bodystyle was never officially available in Brazil and regional export markets (Uruguay and Argentina), but was made in RHD for export to Australia. South Africa had only the MWM engine and 5 - speed manual transmission, with the option of 2WD and 4WD for the single - cab while the crew - cab had 4WD as standard.
The second - generation Super Duty was to debut for model year 2007, but quality issues pushed it back to the 2008 model year. It features an all - new 6.4 L, 390.5 cu in Power Stroke Diesel V8 with piezo fuel injectors and sequential turbos to replace the problematic 6.0 L Power Stroke single - turbo Diesel V8. The new engine produces 350 hp (260 kW) and 650 ft ⋅ lbf (880 N ⋅ m) of torque. The vehicle had its first official showing at the Texas State Fair in 2006. Ford started taking orders in January 2007. The first 2008 F450 pickup, sold to the public, was delivered to Randy Whipple of Muskegon, Michigan in February 2007.
Located near the same dash area as the last generation (but slightly to the right and more directly below the radio), this generation of Super Duty has the same Ford TowCommand TBC (Trailer Brake Controller) and 4 AUX Upfitter switches as the last generation set - up.
There is an optional concealed slide - out step and swing - up hand grab bar in the rear tailgate for easy access.
Ford introduces its all new optional "Rapid - Heat Supplemental Cab Heater, '' only available on Super Duty trucks with the Diesel engine and TorqShift automatic transmission. In the winter, it quickly raises the cabin temperature to a comfortable level until the engine is warm enough to handle the job.
This 2nd generation of Super Duty includes the F - 250 Super Duty (starting at $22,380), F - 350 Super Duty (starting at $24,025), and the all new F - 450 Super Duty (starting at $39,205). The F - 250 and F - 350 Super Duty basically has the same payload and towing specs as the last generation.
The model lineup for the 2010 F - 250 and F - 350 Super Duty is the XL (starting at $25,300), XLT (starting at $28,845), Lariat (starting at $36,420), Cabela 's (starting at $42,655), King Ranch (starting at $42,955), and Harley - Davidson (starting at $56,925).
The model lineup for the F - 450 Super Duty is the XL (starting at $44,145), XLT (starting at $49,525), Lariat (starting at $52,965), King Ranch (starting at $56,955), and the Harley - Davidson (starting at $62,625)
The FX4 model, which was once just an optional Off Road 4x4 package that could be added to any model in the lineup, is replaced by the 4x4 Off Road Package. The FX4 became a model of its own. It still had the same specs as the previous generation but with more of a sporty trim package. The FX4 model has been discontinued for the 2010 model year and has been reverted to an optional Off Road 4X4 package.
The same two gas engines are carried over and rated exactly the same from the 2nd generation. The 3 - valve 5,408 cc (5.408 L; 330.0 cu in) V8 SOHC is standard. The 3 - valve 6,802 cc (6.802 L; 415.1 cu in) V10 SOHC was still a $699 option over the 5.4 L V8. The 4 - valve Navistar 6.4 L (6400 cc, 390.5 cu in) V8 OHV Power Stroke diesel engine was the diesel engine option and was a $6,895 option over the 5,408 cc (5.408 L; 330.0 cu in) V8.
Some unique points to highlight of the 2008, 2009 & 2010 F - 450 with a regular production pickup bed, which was only offered as a chassis cab before. It has 2 available axle ratios of 4.30 and 4.88: 1. The F - 450 Super Duty with the optional ' High Capacity Trailer Tow Package ' increases the GCWR from 26,000 to 33,000 lb (15,000 kg). Maximum payload is 6,120 lb (2,780 kg). Maximum towing is 24,500 lb (11,100 kg) (4.88 axle ratio) / 20,500 lb (9,300 kg) (4.30 axle ratio). It comes standard with Crew Cab, 8 - foot (2.4 m) long bed, DRW (Dual Rear Wheels), Limited Slip rear axle, 10 - lug 19.5 - inch (500 mm) Forged wheels made by Alcoa, Trailer Tow package, and the TowCommand TBC (Trailer Brake Controller). The only engine offered in the F - 450 Super Duty is the 6.4 L V8 Power Stroke Sequential turbo diesel. The F - 450 is equipped with a standard 6 - speed manual or optional 5 - speed TorqShift automatic transmission.
Ford F - 250 Super Duty Harley - Davidson crew cab
2008 Ford F - 450 crew cab
Ford F - 550 Super Duty
The Super Duty line received a large exterior upgrade that includes a new, bigger front fascia. Its engines were also upgraded to better compete with the new Silverado HD and Ram HD. Ford stated in the 2011 Chicago Auto Show that the 2011 trucks have the thickest gauge steel frame of any Heavy Duty truck, this was due to frame being the same design that debuted in 1999. The added thickness only marginally helped increase strength, it was still the weakest frame of any Heavy Duty. The 2011 Ford F - Series Super Duty was awarded Truckin 's "Topline Pulling Power '' award for 2011. It also won Popular Mechanics best workhorse of 2011, and the best "Gear of the Year '' in the trucks category.
The F - 450 is able to tow 24,400 pounds (11,100 kg) and has a maximum payload of 4,920 pounds (2,230 kg). The F350 has a maximum 21,600 pounds (9,800 kg) of towing capacity and 7,110 pounds (3,230 kg) of payload. Each engine is mated to a 6R140 heavy - duty TorqShift six - speed automatic transmission. The Ford F - 250, the F - 350 and the F - 450 all come with trim levels including the XL, XLT, Lariat, King Ranch, and Platinum.
The 2nd generation Facelift of the Ford Super Duty Trucks are assembled at Ford 's Kentucky Truck Plant, with additional production for other countries in Venezuela and Mexico. In Venezuela the F - 350 super duty is offered as a commercial use small truck cutaway featuring a 6.2 L V8 gas engine with a 5 - speed manual TREMEC transmission TR - 4050 with a choice of 4x2 or 4x4 wheel drive. Since 2012 due to government regulations, the Venezuelan F - 350 Super Duty is factory equipped to use both natural gas and gasoline. The F - 250 super duty was also recently re-introduced in this market after ten years. It is being marketed using the same engine as the Venezuelan F - 350, but only with a 6 - speed automatic transmission, 4x2 or 4x4 wheel drive option in both single and double cab configurations.
A feature unique to the 2011 Super Duty is the addition of a locking differential. It is only available for the F - 250 and SRW F - 350 4x4 models with a rear Sterling 10.5 axle. It is a 390.00 USD option The diesel F - 250 relies on vacuum - boost brakes, while the F - 350 relies on Hydro - boost. Both gas versions of the F - 250 and SRW F - 350 use vacuum - boost. F - 250 is a class 2 truck. While the F - 350 SRW, F - 350 DRW, & F - 450 pickup are class 3. The F - 250 and F - 350 (SRW & DRW) have 13.66 inch front brakes and 13.39 inch rear brakes. The 2015 - 2016 F - 250 and F - 350 have 14.29 inch vented disc brakes on the front and rear axles as an improvement made for these model years. The F - 450 pickup has 14.53 inch front brakes and 15.35 inch rear brakes. The F - 450 has a wider track than the F - 350. The F - 450 remains available in class 4 as a Chassis Cab truck.
The trucks were once under investigation by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration for steering failures, but the investigation revealed the failures were driver error and had nothing to do with design.
The 2011 Ford Super Duty is available with either a gas or diesel engine. The gas option is an E85 - capable 6.2 L 2 - valve SOHC V8, which puts out 385 horsepower (287 kW) and 405 pound - feet (549 N ⋅ m) of torque under 10,000 lb GVWR, 316 hp and 397 lb / ft of torque over 10,000 GVWR. The diesel is the new 6.7 L Power Stroke V8, producing 390 hp (291 kW) and 735 lb ⋅ ft (997 N ⋅ m) of torque. The new engine is an entirely Ford product, unlike previous diesels, therefore reducing development costs and shipping delays. The 6.8 - liter V10 was dropped from the regular Super Duty models, however it is still an option with the F - 450 and F - 550 chassis cabs, mated with a 5 - speed automatic transmission.
Shortly after the unveiling of the 6.7 L Power Stroke V8, GM unveiled the 2011 Chevrolet Silverado and GMC Sierra 3500HD with Duramax 6.6 - liter turbodiesel V8, making 397 hp (296 kW) and 765 lb ⋅ ft (1,037 N ⋅ m) of torque. Ford quickly responded by boosting the output of the Power Stroke just months after its initial release, to 400 horsepower (298 kW) and 800 lb ⋅ ft (1,100 N ⋅ m) of torque. For customers who purchased a Super Duty with the original Power Stroke V8, Ford offered a free upgrade at dealerships to the new level of output. Power and torque was increased to 440 horsepower (328 kW) and 860 lb ⋅ ft (1,170 N ⋅ m) of torque on 2015 models.
No manual transmission is available in the United States, but in Mexico and Venezuela the F - 350 is available with a 5 Speed Manual. Automatic transmission features a manual mode. The diesel engine 's transmission optionally features a PTO and is a "live - drive '' unit. "Live - drive '' meaning the PTO is directly connected to the engines crankshaft, whereas the GM 's Allison 1000 transmission and Ram 's Aisin use a torque converter or clutch (depending on being an automatic or manual, respectively).
There are 2 separate cooling systems:
A belt - driven pump mounted low on the driver side circulates the high - temperature coolant, while a separate belt - driven pump mounted higher on the passenger side circulates the low - temperature coolant.
The F - 450 pickup is available only in a single configuration; a crew cab with a dual rear - wheel 8 - foot bed. The only powertrain combination is the 6.7 L Powerstroke turbodiesel V8 mated to the six - speed TorqShift automatic transmission. Trims include the XL, XLT, Lariat, King Ranch, and Platinum
The Ford Chassis cabs were updated using the new 2011 body style. Ford chassis cabs are still rated up to the industry maximum 19,500 pound Gross Vehicle Weight Rating. The Gross Combined weight was upped 2,000 pounds to 35,000 lb maximum; 5,000 pounds greater than the nearest competitor.
2013 F - 550 4x4 Single Cab Rollback Tow Truck
On September 24, 2015, Ford unveiled the 2017 Ford Super Duty line at the 2015 State Fair of Texas. This marks the first all - new Super Duty line since their 1998 debut, the frame is made from 95 % high strength steel and the body (like the F - 150) is made from high - strength military grade aluminum alloy.
For the first time since 1999, both the Super Duty and F - 150 lines are constructed using the same cab. In a major departure, the stand - alone front grille and stepped front fenders seen since 1998 were eliminated from the exterior. The 2 - bar grille introduced in 2011 was widened, integrating the headlights into its design.
In a switch to an aluminum - intensive body similar to the F - 150, Ford created a potential 700 lbs (318kg) of weight savings; in spite of the addition of heavier - duty frame and driveline components, the 2017 Super Duty weighs in at up to 350 lbs (159kg) less than comparable 2016 models. Ford strengthened the frame and drivetrain with fortified drive shafts, axles, brakes and the 4WD transfer case. F - 250 and F - 350 pickups are built on a fully boxed frame; chassis - cab models are produced on a frame boxed up to the rear of the cab and of C - channel design rearward.
For 2017 production, the Super Duty line shares its powertrain lineup with its 2016 predecessor: a 6.2 L gasoline V8, 6.8 L V10 (F - 450 and above), with a 6.7 L diesel V8 available in all versions. The 6.2 L gasoline V8 engine remains at 385 hp but torque rises from 405 lb - ft to 430 lb - ft. Additionally, the gasoline V8 produces its max torque at over 700 RPM less than the previous 405 lb - ft engine. The 6.7 L diesel engine also remains at the same 440 hp (323kW) but torque increases from 860 lb - ft upwards to 925 lb - ft. The diesel engine now produces its peak torque at 1800RPM instead of the previous 1600RPM. The F - 250 receives a TorqShift - G six - speed automatic while all other Super Duty trucks are paired with the 6R140 6 - speed automatic. Crew Cab models will have a 34 - gallon (128l) tank for the 6.75 - foot bed and 48 - gallon fuel tank for the 8 - foot bed.
The interior design of the all - new Super Duty is similar to that of the 2015 Ford F - 150, and shares many of the F - 150 's components.
Trim levels will continue to be XL, XLT, Lariat, King Ranch Edition, and Platinum. Cab configurations continue to be 2 - Door Regular Cab, 4 - Door Super Cab, and 4 - Door Super Crew Cab (the F - 450, in pickup truck configuration, is only available in this configuration), with Short Box (6 ' 9 ") and Long Box (8 ') bed lengths. The truck will be available in F - 250, F - 350, and F - 450 pickup truck models, and F - 350, F - 450, and F - 550 chassis cab models. All will be available in both 4X2 and 4X4 configurations. The F - 350 will be the only model available in either Single Rear Wheel (SRW) or Dual Rear Wheel (DRW) configurations, the F - 450 and F - 550 will only be available in a Dual Rear Wheel (DRW) configuration, and the F - 250 will only be available in a Single Rear Wheel configuration. Base prices in the U.S. range from $32,535 (F - 250 XL) to $77,125 (F - 450 Platinum). Full pricing is available on the manufacturer 's website.
In September 2017, Ford announced that the 2018 F - 450 would be the first $100,000 pickup truck, with the addition of the new Limited trim, which debuted on the Ford F150.
Ford has announced the engine lineup for the all - new Super Duty:
All engines will be paired with a "TorqShift '' 6 - speed automatic transmission, with the gasoline engines featuring 2 transmissions: 5 - speed manual transmission (Chassis Cab F - 350 Mexico Market only), Ford 's all - new "TorqShift - G '' automatic transmission.
The Super Duty will be available in eleven exterior color options.
On April 4, 2017, all Ford F - 250 Super Duty trucks built between October 1, 2015 to April 1, 2017 were recalled due to the risk of improper and damaged rods in the parking brake and transmission allowing the truck to move while in park. This affected 52,000 trucks but no injuries or accidents were reported.
The 2020 refreshed Super Duty was spied on a construction zone which peeks its minor facelift on its camouflage.
In 2000, Ford returned to the Class 6 - 7 truck market as it expanded the Super Duty line into the medium - duty segment. Developed in a joint venture with Navistar International, the F - 650 and F - 750 Super Duty were assembled in Mexico. While the chassis and other components would be common to both manufacturers, Ford and International would each source their own bodywork and powertrain; the cab for the Ford trucks would be common with other Super Duty models.
For the 2016 model year, the medium - duty truck range was given a major upgrade, following the end of the joint venture and the shift of the production to the United States. In place of outsourced engines and transmissions, the 2016 F - 650 and F - 750 now use a 6.8 L gasoline V10, a 6.7 L PowerStroke diesel V8, and a 6 - speed automatic transmission supplied by Ford.
From 2000 to 2005, the F - 250 Super Duty served as a basis for the Ford Excursion sport - utility vehicle. Along with Chevrolet Suburban (and its Cadillac / GMC / Holden counterparts) and the International Harvester Travelall, the Ford Excursion was the longest non-limousine sport - utility vehicle ever sold.
The Excursion was available in three trim packages, XLT, Limited, and top - of - the - line Eddie Bauer. It could be had in two or four wheel drive and with three engine options, the 5.4 L V8, 6.8 L V10 or the Powerstroke V8 Turbodiesel. The Excursion was only available with an automatic transmission.
While the Excursion was largely sold in North America and Mexico, a similar vehicle was sold in Brazil from 1998 to 2012 as a second - party conversion of the Ford F - 250 crew - cab (similar to the Centurion F - Series / Bronco conversions).
As a result of the heavy - duty frame and powertrain of its chassis, the Ford Super Duty has served as a donor platform for multiple types of armored vehicles, for civilian, law enforcement, and military use. Most versions are constructed using the Ford F - 550 chassis cab. Examples include the Didgori - 2, Lenco BearCat, Plasan Sand Cat, GAV Gurkha, and Conquest Knight XV.
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where did shoo fly pie get its name | Shoofly pie - wikipedia
Shoofly pie (or shoo - fly pie) is a molasses pie or cake that developed its traditional form among the Pennsylvania Dutch in the 1880s, who ate it with strong black coffee for breakfast. It is called Melassich Riwwelboi or Melassichriwwelkuche (molasses crumb cake) in the Pennsylvania Dutch language.
Shoofly pie is a molasses crumb cake that was baked in a pie crust. The addition of a pie crust made it easier for people to hold a piece in the hand while eating it.
It comes in two different versions: wet - bottom and dry - bottom. The dry - bottom version is baked until fully set and results in a more cake - like consistency throughout. The wet - bottom version is set like cake at the top where it was mixed in with the crumbs, but the very bottom is a stickier, gooier custard - like consistency.
A Montgomery pie is similar to a shoofly pie, except lemon juice is usually added to the bottom layer and buttermilk to the topping. Treacle tart is a pie with a filling made from light treacle.
Shoofly pie began as a crust-less molasses cake called Centennial cake in 1876, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence in Philadelphia. In the 1880s, home bakers added a crust to make it easier to eat alongside a cup of coffee in the morning, without plates and forks. Precursors include Jenny Lind cake, a gingerbread cake from the middle of the 19th century.
Because the cake contains molasses but no eggs, historians conclude that it was typically baked during the winter, when chickens laid no eggs but when molasses would store well in the cold weather. The use of baking powder places its invention firmly after the Civil War and in the 1870s, when Pennsylvania Dutch bakers began using baking powder.
The name comes from a particular brand of molasses, Shoofly Molasses. This brand was named after a popular circus animal that toured in Pennsylvania in the 19th century, Shoofly the Boxing Mule. The mule, in turn, may have been named after a song that became popular half a century before: "Shoo Fly, Do n't Bother Me ''.
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phases of life cycle in plants which alternate with each other | Biological life cycle - wikipedia
In biology, a biological life cycle (or just life cycle when the biological context is clear) is a series of changes in form that an organism undergoes, returning to the starting state. "The concept is closely related to those of the life history, development and ontogeny, but differs from them in stressing renewal. '' Transitions of form may involve growth, asexual reproduction, or sexual reproduction.
In some organisms, different "generations '' of the species succeed each other during the life cycle. For plants and many algae, there are two multicellular stages, and the life cycle is referred to as alternation of generations. The term life history is often used, particularly for organisms such as the red algae which have three multicellular stages (or more), rather than two.
Life cycles that include sexual reproduction involve alternating haploid (n) and diploid (2n) stages, i.e., a change of ploidy is involved. To return from a diploid stage to a haploid stage, meiosis must occur. In regard to changes of ploidy, there are 3 types of cycles:
The cycles differ in when mitosis (growth) occurs. Zygotic meiosis and gametic meiosis have one mitotic stage: mitosis occurs during the n phase in zygotic meiosis and during the 2n phase in gametic meiosis. Therefore, zygotic and gametic meiosis are collectively termed haplobiontic (single mitotic phase, not to be confused with haplontic). Sporic meiosis, on the other hand, has mitosis in two stages, both the diploid and haploid stages, termed diplobiontic (not to be confused with diplontic).
The study of reproduction and development in organisms was carried out by many botanists and zoologists.
Wilhelm Hofmeister demonstrated that alternation of generations is a feature that unites plants, and published this result in 1851 (see plant sexuality).
Some terms (haplobiont and diplobiont) used for the description of life cycles were proposed initially for algae by Nils Svedelius, and then became used for other organisms. Other terms (autogamy and gamontogamy) used in protist life cycles were introduced by Karl Gottlieb Grell. The description of the complex life cycles of various organisms contributed to the disproof of the ideas of spontaneous generation in the 1840s and 1850s.
A zygotic meiosis is a meiosis of a zygote immediately after karyogamy, which is the fusion of two cell nuclei. This way, the organism ends its diploid phase and produces several haploid cells. These cells divide mitotically to form either larger, multicellular individuals, or more haploid cells. Two opposite types of gametes (e.g., male and female) from these individuals or cells fuse to become a zygote.
In the whole cycle, zygotes are the only diploid cell; mitosis occurs only in the haploid phase.
The individuals or cells as a result of mitosis are haplonts, hence this life cycle is also called haplontic life cycle. Haplonts are:
In gametic meiosis, instead of immediately dividing meiotically to produce haploid cells, the zygote divides mitotically to produce a multicellular diploid individual or a group of more unicellular diploid cells. Cells from the diploid individuals then undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells or gametes. Haploid cells may divide again (by mitosis) to form more haploid cells, as in many yeasts, but the haploid phase is not the predominant life cycle phase. In most diplonts, mitosis occurs only in the diploid phase, i.e. gametes usually form quickly and fuse to produce diploid zygotes.
In the whole cycle, gametes are usually the only haploid cells, and mitosis usually occurs only in the diploid phase.
The diploid multicellular individual is a diplont, hence a gametic meiosis is also called a diplontic life cycle. Diplonts are:
In sporic meiosis (also commonly known as intermediary meiosis), the zygote divides mitotically to produce a multicellular diploid sporophyte. The sporophyte creates spores via meiosis which also then divide mitotically producing haploid individuals called gametophytes. The gametophytes produce gametes via mitosis. In some plants the gametophyte is not only small - sized but also short - lived; in other plants and many algae, the gametophyte is the "dominant '' stage of the life cycle.
Haplodiplonts are:
Some animals have a sex - determination system called haplodiploid, but this is not related to the haplodiplontic life cycle.
Some red algae (such as Bonnemaisonia and Lemanea) and green algae (such as Prasiola) have vegetative meiosis, also called somatic meiosis, which is a rare phenomenon. Vegetative meiosis can occur in haplodiplontic and also in diplontic life cycles. The gametophytes remain attached to and part of the sporophyte. Vegetative (non-reproductive) diploid cells undergo meiosis, generating vegetative haploid cells. These undergo many mitosis, and produces gametes.
A different phenomenon, called vegetative diploidization, a type of apomixis, occurs in some brown algae (e.g., Elachista stellaris). Cells in a haploid part of the plant spontaneously duplicate their chromosomes to produce diploid tissue.
The primitive type of life cycle probably had haploid individuals with asexual reproduction. Bacteria and archaea exhibit a life cycle like this, and some eukaryotes apparently do too (e.g., Cryptophyta, Choanoflagellata, many Euglenozoa, many Amoebozoa, some red algae, some green algae, the imperfect fungi, some rotifers and many other groups, not necessarily haploid). However, these eukaryotes probably are not primitively asexual, but have lost their sexual reproduction, or it just was not observed yet. Many eukaryotes (including animals and plants) exhibit asexual reproduction, which may be facultative or obligate in the life cycle, with sexual reproduction occurring more or less frequently.
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what is the highest score ever in an mlb game | Game score - wikipedia
Game Score is a metric devised by Bill James to determine the strength of a pitcher in any particular baseball game. To determine a starting pitcher 's game score:
The maximum possible game score in a nine - inning game while allowing no baserunners is 114, possible only if a pitcher goes nine innings while striking out every batter he faces and facing three batters per inning. The pitcher receives 50 to begin with, and loses no points because there are no hits, walks, or runs of any kind. He receives 27 points for the 27 outs, and 10 points for five innings completed after the fourth inning, for a total of 87. In this "perfect score '' scenario, the pitcher would have to strike out every hitter he faced, netting him an additional 27 points, for a grand total of 114.
The absolute maximum possible score requires the extremely unlikely scenario in which three base runners reach base each inning on wild pitches or passed balls on third strikes. If this were to happen such that no one scored, and the pitcher recorded all outs by strikeout, a pitcher could theoretically record six strikeouts per inning, and thus 54 for the game, netting him 54 points in addition to the 87 he would have received as described above, for a total of 141.
The highest game score for a nine - inning game in the history of baseball is Kerry Wood 's one - hit, no walk, 20 - strikeout shutout performance for the Chicago Cubs against the Houston Astros on May 6, 1998. His game score was 105 (50 + 27 + 10 + 20 -- 2).
The highest game score for a no - hitter occurred on October 3, 2015, when Max Scherzer of the Washington Nationals allowed no hits and no walks, striking out 17, against the New York Mets. This is also the second - highest nine - inning game score in Major League Baseball history at 104 (50 + 27 + 10 + 17).
The 100th game score of 100 points or higher was pitched by Matt Cain in June 2012. Of the 100 such games, only ten of them were a regulation nine innings. Higher scores have been accomplished in extra-inning games. The two highest game scores ever recorded both occurred in the same game: the famous 26 - inning duel from 1920, Joe Oeschger scored 153 and Leon Cadore scored 140. Oeschger had earlier scored a 102 in a 14 - inning game in 1917 against Jeff Pfeffer, who scored 114. Oeschger 's record in these games was 0 - 0, because both ended in ties and were called by darkness. In all, there have been nine games in which both starting pitchers scored 100 points; all required extra innings and none has occurred since 1971. Juan Marichal and Warren Spahn scored 112 and 97, respectively, during a complete game 16 - inning match up; Spahn 's score fell below 100 because of Willie Mays ' game - winning home run in the bottom of the 16th.
21 pitchers with 100 or more game score points did so in losing games, including Harvey Haddix, who scored a 107 for the game in which he took a perfect game into the 13th inning. The highest - ever losing game score was 118, from Art Nehf, who outlasted the opposing starter by six innings but lost in the 21st inning. 17 of the 100 + game scores came in suspended tie games. Only seven of the 100 highest game scores were no - hitters.
Walter Johnson and Nolan Ryan had the most 100 - point game scores with four apiece. Johnson had two in 1918, one in 1919, and a fourth in 1926; Ryan 's came in 1972, 1973, 1990 and 1991. Warren Spahn had three 100 - point game scores, in 1948, 1952 and 1960. Juan Marichal had three 100 - point game scores, in 1963, 1966 and 1969. Eight pitchers had two 100 - point game scores: Art Nehf (1917 and 1918), Joe Oeschger (1917 and 1920), Burleigh Grimes (1918 and 1920), Eric Erickson (1918 and 1921), Herb Pennock (1923 and 1925), Jim Maloney (1964 and 1965), Frank Tanana (1975 and 1976), and Max Scherzer (both 2015).
Corey Kluber 's game score of 98 in an eight - inning, no - run, one - hit, no - walk, 18 - strikeout performance against the St. Louis Cardinals on May 13, 2015, is the highest by any pitcher in MLB history in a non-complete game. Indians bench coach Brad Mills removed him after the eighth inning, and Cody Allen pitched the ninth inning to seal a 2 - 0 win. The previous holder of the record was Matt Harvey, who achieved a game score of 97 for a nine - inning non-complete game against the Chicago White Sox. (Harvey 's New York Mets won in ten innings.)
On June 18, 2014, Clayton Kershaw posted the 2nd highest ever game score for a 9 - inning, no - hit effort. Kershaw struck out 15 while walking none, and the only baserunner was the result of a throwing error. His game score of 102 is the third - highest for a 9 - inning game in MLB history (50 + 27 + 10 + 15).
The lowest game score in baseball history was Allan Travers ' 26 - hit, 24 - run start for the Detroit Tigers on May 18, 1912. His game score was a − 52. This performance only came about because the regular Tiger players staged a strike in protest of Ty Cobb 's suspension. To avoid a forfeit, local college players (including Travers) were enlisted as impromptu fill - ins. The lowest game score since 1957 was Oakland pitcher Mike Oquist 's, who allowed 16 hits and 14 earned runs in five innings on August 3, 1998, for a − 21.
The game score concept expands on Major League Baseball 's official definition of a quality start. MLB defines a quality start as six or more innings pitched while allowing three or fewer earned runs. The game score system defines a quality start as a game score at or above 60 hypothetically (50 base + 18 for outs recorded + 4 for the 5th / 6th inning - 12 for three earned runs), but as it is rare that an earned run occurs with no walks / hits, the true game score for a baseline quality start would be somewhere between 50 - 60. Furthermore, the game score rewards pitchers for going deeper into the game, even if they give up more earned runs. A baseline quality start would be lost if, after going into deeper innings than the 6th, a pitcher gives up more earned runs.
The advantage that the system has over the official definition is that it allows a statistician a better view of the degree of quality in a pitcher 's performance. Game scores can be quantified, and a pitcher 's performance tracked over time. It is also possible to compare different pitchers. If one averages a 60 and another averages 55, presumably the first pitcher has had a better season.
In terms of high scores, the system favors current pitchers. It is difficult to achieve a very high score in a game without amassing a substantial number of strikeouts. In earlier eras, even for the very best pitchers, strikeouts were less plentiful. For instance, Cy Young 's two no - hitters earned scores of just 90 and 88 due to their low strikeout totals (three and two, respectively). However, most of the all - time high game scores occurred in baseball 's earlier era, when starting pitchers were permitted to remain in games longer than today; four of the top six all - time game scores were accomplished in stints of 21 innings or more.
Fourteen times in Major League Baseball history, a pitcher has achieved a game score of 100 or higher in a 9 - inning game, as detailed here. Also included in the table is the game score according to version 2.0, which is described below. Results from this formula tend to be higher and must not be confused with those from the original Bill James formula.
The total number of game scores listed for each pitcher are starts in which he reached 90 points or higher. The parenthetical totals represent the highest score in the pitcher 's career, and the number of game scores equal to or greater than 100 (if any). This is not a complete list and includes only pitchers with five or more games of 90 or higher (through 10 / 9 / 2015).
On December 14, 2014, Tom Tango introduced Game Score Version 2.0 in an attempt to, as he demonstrates, "fix the gaps '' in the original Game Score calculation devised by James more than thirty years previously. Key changes made by Tango to the original formula included applying a base of 40 points to starting pitchers ' game scores (instead of 50); equalizing the penalty for giving up a walk with that of giving up a hit; and introducing home runs given up into the equation.
The new 2.0 formula is:
Tango subsequently published his new formula on April 11, 2016 on FanGraphs.com, a well - known and respected baseball analysis and statistics website, which at the same time also began including the new measure on their game log pages for individual pitchers for whom the building block data are available.
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the major port for british control between the indian ocean and the south china sea was | Strait of Malacca - wikipedia
The Strait of Malacca (Malay: Selat Melaka, Indonesian: Selat Malaka; Jawi: سلت ملاک) or Straits of Malacca is a narrow, 550 mi (890 km) stretch of water between the Malay Peninsula (Peninsular Malaysia) and the Indonesian island of Sumatra. It is named after the Malacca Sultanate that ruled over the archipelago between 1400 and 1511.
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Strait of Malacca as follows:
From an economic and strategic perspective, the Strait of Malacca is one of the most important shipping lanes in the world.
The strait is the main shipping channel between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, linking major Asian economies such as India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, China, Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea. Over 94,000 vessels pass through the strait each year (2008) making it the busiest strait in the world, carrying about 25 % of the world 's traded goods, including oil, Chinese manufactured products, coal, palm oil and Indonesian coffee. About a quarter of all oil carried by sea passes through the Strait, mainly from Persian Gulf suppliers to Asian markets. In 2007, an estimated 13.7 million barrels per day were transported through the strait, increasing to an estimated 15.2 million barrels per day in 2011. In addition, it is also one of the world 's most congested shipping choke points because it narrows to only 2.8 km (1.5 nautical miles) wide at the Phillips Channel (close to the south of Singapore).
The maximum size of a vessel that can pass through the Strait is referred to as Malaccamax. For some of the world 's largest ships (mostly oil tankers), the Strait 's minimum depth (25 metres or 82 feet) is not deep enough. In addition, the next closest passageway (the Sunda Strait between Sumatra and Java) is even more shallow and narrow than Malacca. Therefore, these large ships must detour several thousand miles / kilometers and use the Lombok Strait, Makassar Strait, Sibutu Passage, or Mindoro Strait instead.
Piracy has been a problem in the strait. Piracy had been high in the 2000s, with additional increase after the events of September 11, 2001. After attacks rose again in the first half of 2004, regional navies stepped up their patrols of the area in July 2004. Subsequently, attacks on ships in the Strait of Malacca dropped, to 79 in 2005 and 50 in 2006. Recent reports indicate that attacks have dropped to near - zero levels in recent years.
There are 34 shipwrecks, some dating to the 1880s, in the Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS), the channel for commercial ships. These pose a collision hazard in the narrow and shallow strait.
On 20 August 2017, the United States Navy destroyer USS John S. McCain was involved in a collision with the merchant ship Alnic MC east of strait off the coast of Malaysia.
Another risk is the annual haze due to bush fires in Sumatra, Indonesia. It may reduce visibility to 200 metres (660 ft), forcing ships to slow down in the busy strait. The strait is frequently used by ships longer than 350 metres (1,150 ft).
Thailand has developed several plans to diminish the economic significance of the strait. The Thai government has, several times, proposed to cut a canal through the Isthmus of Kra, saving around 960 kilometres (600 mi) from the journey from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific. China has offered to cover the costs, according to a report leaked to The Washington Times in 2004. Nevertheless, and despite the support of several Thai politicians, the prohibitive financial and ecological costs suggest that such a canal will not be built.
A second alternative is to build a pipeline across the Isthmus of Kra to carry oil to ships waiting on the other side. Proponents say it would cut the cost of oil delivery to Asia by about $0.50 / barrel ($3 / m). Burma has also made a similar pipeline proposal.
Early traders from Arabia, Africa, Persia, and the Southern Indian kingdoms reached Kedah before arriving at Guangzhou. Kedah served as a western port on the Malay Peninsula. They traded glassware, camphor, cotton goods, brocades, ivory, sandalwood, perfume, and precious stones. These traders sailed to Kedah via the monsoon winds between June and November. They returned between December and May. Kedah provided accommodations, porters, small vessels, bamboo rafts, elephants, and also tax collections for goods to be transported overland toward the eastern ports of the Malay Peninsula such as Langkasuka and Kelantan. Ships from China came to trade at these eastern trading posts and ports. Kedah and Funan were famous ports through the 6th century, before shipping began to utilize the Strait of Malacca itself as a trade route.
In the 7th century the maritime empire of Srivijaya based on Palembang, Sumatra, rose to power, and its influence expanded to the Malay peninsula and Java. The empire gained effective control on two major choke points in maritime Southeast Asia; the Strait of Malacca and the Sunda Strait. By launching a series of conquests and raids on potentially rival ports on both side of the strait, Srivijaya ensured its economic and military domination in the region lasted for about 700 years. Srivijaya gained a great benefit from the lucrative spice trade, the tributary trade system with China, and trade with Indian and Arab merchants. The Strait of Malacca became the important maritime trade route between India and China. The importance of the Strait of Malacca in global trade networks continued well into later centuries with the rise of the Malacca Sultanate in the 15th century, the Johor Sultanate, and the rise of the modern city - state of Singapore.
Since the 17th century, the strait has been the main shipping channel between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. Different major regional powers managed the straits during different historical periods.
In the early 19th century, the Dutch and British empires drew an arbitrary boundary line in the strait and promised to hunt down pirates on their respective sides; that line went on to become today 's border between Malaysia and Indonesia. The strait was already established as one of the world 's busiest shipping lanes, with Indonesia controlling the majority of the sea lane.
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