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characters in chitty chitty bang bang the musical | Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (musical) - wikipedia
Chitty Chitty Bang Bang is a stage musical based on the 1968 film produced by Albert R. Broccoli. The music and lyrics were written by Richard and Robert Sherman with book by Jeremy Sams.
The musical premiered in the West End at the London Palladium on April 16, 2002 with six new songs by the Sherman Brothers who wrote the original Academy Award - nominated title and song score as well. The West End production, directed by Adrian Noble (at the time the artistic director of the Royal Shakespeare Company) with musical staging and choreography by Gillian Lynne, closed in September 2005. It was the longest running show ever at the London Palladium, taking in over £ 70 million in its three and a half year run. The Palladium 's famous revolving stage (as seen on Sunday Night at the London Palladium) was entirely taken out to accommodate the technology and storage space for the flying Chitty car, which itself holds the Guinness World Record as the most expensive stage prop, costing £ 750,000.
The Broadway production opened on April 28, 2005 at the Lyric Theatre (then the Hilton Theatre), garnering good reviews only for the lavish sets. Ben Brantley in the New York Times noted that the show "naggingly recalls the cold, futurist milieus of movies like ' Modern Times ' and ' Metropolis, ' in which machines rule the universe '' and featured songs that sounded "not unlike what you might hear in sing - along hour in a pre-K class ''. The production was again directed by Adrian Noble with choreography by Gillian Lynne and starred Raúl Esparza (Caractacus Potts), Erin Dilly (Truly Scrumptious), Philip Bosco (Grandpa Potts), Marc Kudisch (Baron Bomburst), Jan Maxwell (Baroness Bomburst), Ellen Marlow (Jemima Potts), and Henry Hodges (Jeremy Potts). The Broadway production closed on December 31, 2005 after 34 previews and 285 regular performances. According to producer Nicholas Paleologos, "A substantial portion of the $15 million (initial investment) will not be recouped on Broadway. ''
A US National tour began in November 2008 at the Broward Center in Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, with a revised script by Ray Roderick, who is the tour director. These revisions have since become part of the licensed script. The original US touring prop car is now under exclusive ownership by Tony Garofalo of New York City, released by Big League Productions and currently being used for private display use as well as fundraising events. This prop vehicle is a full sized version and fully equipped with many hydraulically activated stage tricks, such as surround stage mounted lighting, retractable wings, and spinning 45 degree tilt tires.
Since closing in London, Chitty Chitty Bang Bang toured around the UK, stopping in Sunderland (9 December 2005 - 4 March 2006), Manchester (20 March 2006 - 10 June 2006), Birmingham (23 June 2006 - 2 September 2006), Liverpool (18 September 2006 - 18 November 2006), Edinburgh (1 December 2006 - 24 February 2007), Bristol (9 March 2007 - 9 June 2007) and Southampton (25 June - 15 September 2007), Bradford (11 February 2008 - 5 April 2008), Sunderland (17 April 2008 - 7 June 2008), Cardiff (3 July 2008 - 30 August 2008). The UK Tour visited Asia for the first time when it opened on 2 November 2007 in Singapore 's Esplanade - Theatres on the Bay. Encouraging ticket sales resulted in an extension of the show to 9 December, adding 24 more shows to a run which was originally planned to end on 18 November 2007.
In 2009, the original production toured the UK until 2010 on a smaller scale, directed by original director Adrian Noble and choreographed by David Morgan. This tour used the script revisions used for the US tour by Ray Roderick.
A brand new production by Music and Lyrics Productions opened at the West Yorkshire Playhouse for the Christmas 2015 season, directed by artistic director, James Brining and choreographed by Stephen Mear. Following the run at the West Yorkshire Playhouse, the production toured the UK and Ireland from February 2016 at the Mayflower Theatre, Southampton, and ended in February 2017 at the Bristol Hippodrome.
The Australian national production of Chitty Chitty Bang Bang opened on November 17, 2012 at the Capitol Theatre in Sydney, featuring David Hobson and Rachael Beck.
The German premiere of Chitty Chitty Bang Bang took place on April 30, 2014 at the State Theatre on Gaertnerplatz in Munich / Germany, translated by Frank Thannhaeuser, directed by Josef E. Koepplinger and choreographed by Ricarda Regina Ludigkeit.
Notes: Since the 2008 US tour, the following songs have been omitted: "Come to the Funfair '', "Kiddy - Widdy - Winkies '', "Us Two / Chitty Prayer ''. "Kiddy - Widdy - Winkies '' was replaced with a version of "Lovely Lonely Man '' from the original film, sung by Truly Scrumptious. The overall script is also changed to more closely match the film, notably, missing the childcatcher tricking the family by dressing as the Toymaker and Grandpa. In the 2012 Australian production, "Kiddie - Widdy - Winkies '' was put back in the line - up of songs, but has since not been put back into the 2015 UK tour.
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Katie Ray
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when does lip sync battle come on tv | Lip Sync Battle - wikipedia
Lip Sync Battle is an American musical reality competition television series which premiered on April 2, 2015, on Spike. The show is based on an idea by Stephen Merchant and John Krasinski, in which celebrities battle each other with lip sync performances. It was used (and is still used) as a recurring segment on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon before it was developed into a separate show.
The premiere episode was the highest - rated premiere in Spike 's history. Lip Sync Battle has been a hit show for the network; it was renewed for a second season, which premiered on January 7, 2016. An hour - long holiday special aired on November 19, 2015. In January 2016, the series was renewed for a third season, which premiered on October 12, 2016. The series ' success has led to the creation of various international adaptions. In April 2017, The series was renewed for a fourth season, to premiere in January 2018 on the Paramount Network (Spike 's new name for the new year).
Lip Sync Battle debuted on the American cable network Spike, on Thursday April 2, 2015. It is produced by John Krasinski and Stephen Merchant and hosted by rapper and actor LL Cool J. Model Chrissy Teigen serves as color commentator.
The show is a spin - off of a bit first introduced on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon. Merchant, Krasinski and Krasinski 's wife, Emily Blunt, were brainstorming ideas for Krasinski 's upcoming appearance on Late Night when the idea took shape. Jimmy Fallon then developed it into a recurring segment on his show. The game pits two celebrities against each other in a lip syncing battle for two rounds with the crowd determining the winner of the battle after the two rounds have been completed.
In 2014, Merchant, Krasinski and Fallon pitched the show to NBC; the network, however, opted to pass on the show because the concept did not seem enough for being developed into a separate show. NBC 's cable channels USA Network and Bravo also passed. The competition series was eventually picked up by Spike cable channel, which was in the process of rebranding. "Part of what I wanted to do with Lip Sync Battle is increase co-viewing, but also add diversity to the network, '' said Kevin Kay, the president of the network.
Lip Sync Battle has been a major success for Spike; with 2.2 million viewers, its series premiere was the highest - rated non-scripted premiere in Spike 's history. Kay described the show as "a television and viral rock star for Spike. '' The show was renewed for a second season on April 22, 2015, with the network ordering 20 new episodes.
The show continued to deliver high ratings; in January 2016, the network renewed the series for a third season consisting of another 20 episodes. "Lip Sync Battle is a multiplatform pop - culture phenomenon that has played an integral role in delivering a new and broader audience to Spike, '' said Kevin Kay, the president of the network.
In July 2016, the show received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in the Outstanding Structured Reality Program category.
Josef Adalian writing for Vulture noted the show 's success by saying that Lip Sync Battle is "looking like a legitimate hit, both on TV and online. '' He also added that the show 's creators "opted not to impose artificial demographic targets, they also went out of their way not to futz up the very simple premise that worked so well on Fallon 's late - night shows. '' Amy Amatangelo of The Hollywood Reporter said that the debut of the show "had moments of great fun, '' although added that the series "still seems like it is better suited as an interlude on The Tonight Show, '' and that "some things are better in small doses. '' Adelle Platon of Vibe wrote that the show "is a welcome break from other singing shows crowding primetime, '' also adding that "with the in - house crowd serving as judges, the spirit of competition between both parties make it a fun - for - all ''. Emily Yahr from The Washington Post was more negative towards the show by saying that "taking out all the spontaneity and replacing it with the cheesy - slick production values of an American Idol group medley, Lip Sync Battle will probably wear out its welcome soon. ''
The series premiere of Lip Sync Battle delivered 2.2 million total viewers via Nielsen ratings, including a 1.3 rating in the 18 - 49 demographic which is the most important to advertisers. The episode notched the largest viewership for an unscripted series debut in the network 's history and the largest average audience in the slot in more than eight years. The total audience for the first several episodes of the show, including DVR replays and multiple reruns, has climbed past 15 million television viewers. Spike has also stated that various performance clips from the first three half - hour episodes of the show had already generated nearly 100 million online streams, as of April 2015.
In Australia, the series premiere scored 1.124 million viewers in preliminary overnight viewers, making it the fourth-most - watched program on free - to - air television of the evening. The second episode the following week scored 1.087 million preliminary overnight viewers and ranked the fifth - highest - rated program on free - to - air television of the night. This success has led to suggestions by commentators that a local adaption could be imminent.
A one - hour special hosted by Sarah Hyland aired on Nickelodeon on December 11, 2016 (followed by a repeat airing on Spike). In March 2017, a series order was announced for the kid - centric spin - off.
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where was sue the t rex fossil found | Sue (dinosaur) - wikipedia
Sue is the nickname given to FMNH PR 2081, which is the largest, most extensive and best preserved Tyrannosaurus rex specimen ever found at over 90 % recovered by bulk. It was discovered in August 1990, by Sue Hendrickson, a paleontologist, and was named after her. After ownership disputes were settled, the fossil was auctioned in October 1997, for US $8.3 million, the highest amount ever paid for a dinosaur fossil, and is now a permanent feature at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, Illinois.
During the summer of 1990, a group of workers from the Black Hills Institute, located in Hill City, searched for fossils at the Cheyenne River Indian Reservation in western South Dakota near the city of Faith. By the end of the summer, the group had discovered Edmontosaurus bones and was ready to leave. However, a flat tire was discovered on their truck before the group could depart on August 12. While the rest of the group went into town to repair the truck, Sue Hendrickson decided to explore the nearby cliffs that the group had not checked. As she was walking along the base of a cliff, she discovered some small pieces of bone. She looked above her to see where the bones had originated, and observed larger bones protruding from the wall of the cliff. She returned to camp with two small pieces of the bones and reported the discovery to the president of the Black Hills Institute, Peter Larson. He determined that the bones were from a T. rex by their distinctive contour and texture. Later, closer examination of the site showed many visible bones above the ground and some articulated vertebrae. The crew ordered extra plaster and, although some of the crew had to depart, Hendrickson and a few other workers began to uncover the bones. The group was excited, as it was evident that much of the dinosaur had been preserved. Previously discovered T. rex skeletons were usually missing over half of their bones. It was later determined that Sue was a record 90 percent complete by bulk, and 73 % complete counting the elements. Scientists believe that this specimen was covered by water and mud soon after its death which prevented other animals from carrying away the bones. Additionally, the rushing water mixed the skeleton together. When the fossil was found the hip bones were above the skull and the leg bones were intertwined with the ribs. The large size and the excellent condition of the bones were also surprising. The skull was 1,394 mm (54.9 in) long, and most of the teeth were still intact. After the group completed excavating the bones, each block was covered in burlap and coated in plaster, followed by a transfer to the offices of The Black Hills Institute where they began to clean the bones.
Soon after the fossils were found, a dispute arose over their legal ownership. The Black Hills Institute had obtained permission from the owner of the land, Maurice Williams, to excavate and remove the skeleton, and had, according to Larson, paid Williams US $5,000 for the remains. Williams later claimed that the money had not been for the sale of the fossil and that he had only allowed Larson to remove and clean the fossil for a later sale. Williams was a member of the Sioux tribe, and the tribe claimed the bones belonged to them. However, the property that the fossil had been found within was held in trust by the United States Department of the Interior.
In 1992, the FBI and the South Dakota National Guard raided the site where The Black Hills Institute had been cleaning the bones and seized the fossil, charging Larson on 158 points. The government transferred the remains to the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, where the skeleton was stored until the penal and civil legal disputes were settled. The United States Senate voted to not confirm the appointment of Kevin Schieffer as United States Attorney for the District of South Dakota after his controversial handling of the penal case. Larson was in 1996 convicted to a two year prison sentence on charges not directly related to Sue. After a lengthy civil case, the court decreed that Maurice Williams retained ownership, because as a beneficiary he was protected by the law against an impulsive selling of real property, and the remains were returned in 1995. Williams then decided to sell the remains, and contracted with Sotheby 's to auction the property. Many were then worried that the fossil would end up in a private collection where people would not be able to observe it. The Field Museum in Chicago was also concerned about this possibility, and decided to attempt to purchase Sue. However, the organization realized that they might have had difficulty securing funding and requested that companies and private citizens provide financial support. The California State University system, Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, McDonald 's, Ronald McDonald House Charities, and individual donors agreed to assist in purchasing Sue for The Field Museum. On October 4, 1997, the auction began at US $500,000; less than ten minutes later, The Field Museum had purchased the remains with the highest bid of US $7.6 million. The final cost with buyer 's premium was US $8,362,500. This is the highest amount ever paid for a dinosaur fossil.
The Field Museum hired a specialized moving company with experience in transporting delicate items to move the bones to Chicago. The truck arrived at the museum in October 1997. Two new research laboratories funded by McDonald 's were created and staffed by Field Museum preparators whose job was to slowly and carefully remove all the rock, or "matrix '', from the bones. One preparation lab was at the Field Museum itself, the other was at the newly opened Animal Kingdom in Disney World in Orlando. Millions of visitors observed the preparation of Sue 's bones through glass windows in both labs. Footage of the work was also put on the museum 's website. Several of the fossil 's bones had never been discovered, so preparators produced models of the missing bones from plastic to complete the exhibit. The modeled bones were colored in a purplish hue so that visitors could observe which bones were real and which bones were plastic. The preparators also poured molds of each bone. All the molds were sent to a company outside Toronto to be cast in hollow plastic. Field Museum kept one set of disarticulated casts in its research collection. The other sets were incorporated into mounted cast skeletons. One set of the casts was sent to Disney 's Animal Kingdom in Florida to be presented for public display. Two other mounted casts were placed into a traveling tour that was sponsored by the McDonald 's Corporation.
Once the preparators finished removing the matrix from each bone, it was sent to the museum 's photographer who made high - quality photographs. From there, the museum 's paleontologists began the study of the skeleton. In addition to photographing and studying each bone, the research staff also arranged for CT scanning of select bones. The skull was too large to fit into a medical CT scanner, so Boeing 's Rocketdyne laboratory in California agreed to let the museum use their CT scanner that was normally used to inspect space shuttle parts.
Close examination of the bones revealed that Sue was 28 years old at the time of death -- the oldest T. rex known until Trix was found in 2013. A Nova episode said that the death occurred in a seasonal stream bed, which washed away some small bones. During life, this carnivore received several injuries and suffered from numerous pathologies. An injury to the right shoulder region of Sue resulted in a damaged shoulder blade, a torn tendon in the right arm due most likely from a struggle with prey, and three broken ribs. This damage subsequently healed (though one rib healed into two separate pieces), indicating Sue survived the incident. The left fibula is twice the diameter of the right one, likely the result of infection. Original reports of this broken bone were contradicted by the CT scans which showed no fracture. Multiple holes in the front of the skull were originally thought to be either from a bacterial infection or bite marks by some other tyrannosaur. A subsequent study found these to be areas of parasitic infection instead, possibly from an infestation of an ancestral form of Trichomonas gallinae, a protozoan parasite that infests birds and ultimately leads to death by starvation due to internal swelling of the neck. Damage to the back end of the skull was interpreted early on as a fatal bite wound. Subsequent study by Field Museum paleontologists found no bite marks. The distortion and breakage seen in some of the bones in the back of the skull was likely caused by post-mortem trampling. Some of the tail vertebrae are fused in a pattern typical of arthritis due to injury. The animal is also believed to have suffered from gout. Scholars debate exactly how the animal died; the cause of death is ultimately unknown.
After the bones were prepared, photographed and studied, they were sent to New Jersey where work began on making the mount. This work consists of bending steel to support each bone safely and to display the entire skeleton articulated as it was in life. The real skull was not incorporated into the mount as subsequent study would be difficult with the head 4 m (13 ft) off the ground. Parts of the skull had been crushed and broken, and thus appeared distorted. The museum made a cast of the skull, and altered this cast to remove the distortions, thus approximating what the original undistorted skull may have looked like. The cast skull was also lighter, allowing it to be displayed on the mount without the use of a steel upright under the head. The original skull is exhibited in a case that can be opened to allow researchers access for study.
The Sue exhibit opened on May 17, 2000, with more than 10,000 visitors. John Gurche, a paleoartist, painted a mural of a Tyrannosaurus for the exhibit.
The Field Museum is relocating Sue. The T. Rex 's new location will be on the second floor, with a new exhibit dedicated to the specimen. Sue was moved in February 2018 and will be gone for about a year while the new exhibit is prepared. In the place of Sue within Stanley Field Hall is a mounted cast of a titanosaur skeleton, a Patagotitan dubbed "Maximo ''.
When Sue was originally mounted in 2000, scientists used a small part of gastralia as a hypothetical furcula. The new mount will not only correct this with the proper furcula, it will mount the entire gastralia to the rest of the skeleton.
Sue has a length of 12.3 meters (40 ft), stands 3.7 m (12 ft) tall at the hips, and has been estimated at between 8.4 -- 14 metric tons (9.26 -- 15.4 short tons) in recent estimates. It has been estimated by Hutchinson et al. in 2011 at between 9.5 -- 18.5 metric tons (10.5 -- 20.4 short tons), though the authors stated that their upper and lower estimates were based on models with wide error bars and that they "consider them (these extremes) to be too skinny, too fat, or too disproportionate ''. Another recent estimate portraying a leaner build placed the specimen at 8.4 metric tons (9.3 short tons). Historically more out of date estimations placed this specimen as low as 5.7 -- 6.4 metric tons (6.3 -- 7.1 short tons) in weight. Sue 's skull, which is displayed separately from the whole body display, weighs in at over 270 kg (600 lb). Of course, this weight represents the current mineralized fossil weight and the original weight would have been less. Currently this is the largest known complete tyrannosaur specimen on record.
A 1997 episode of the PBS show Nova, "Curse of the T. Rex '', discussed the history of the discovery and ensuing legal challenges.
Director Todd Miller 's documentary Dinosaur 13, which is about Sue 's discovery and subsequent legal actions, appeared at the 2014 Sundance Film Festival.
In 2015, an episode of NPR 's Planet Money discussed the acquisition of Sue from a financial and legal perspective.
The personified dinosaur, through Sue 's official Twitter and Field Museum press releases, uses the singular they pronoun and identifies as non-binary, as the specimen 's sex has not been determined. This has led to some calling Sue a non-binary icon.
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city with highest density of population in world | List of cities by Population density - wikipedia
This is a list of the cities worldwide by population density. The population, population density and land area for the cities listed are based on the entire city proper, the defined boundary or border of a city or the city limits of the city. The population density of the cities listed is based on the average number of people living per square mile or per square kilometre. This list does not refer to the population, population density or land area of the greater metropolitan area or urban area, nor particular districts in any of the cities listed.
The Philippines, the 12th most populous country in the world, holds the most number of cities (at 9 entries) in the table below.
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how many teams in spain qualify for champions league | La Liga - Wikipedia
The Primera División, commonly known as La Liga and as La Liga Santander for sponsorship reasons with Santander, is the men 's top professional association football division of the Spanish football league system. Administrated by the Liga de Fútbol Profesional (LFP), La Liga is contested by 20 teams, with the three lowest - placed teams relegated to the Segunda División and replaced by the top two teams in that division plus the winner of a play - off.
A total of 62 teams have competed in La Liga since its inception. Nine teams have been crowned champions, with Real Madrid winning the title a record 33 times and Barcelona 24 times. After Athletic Bilbao claimed several titles in the league 's early years, Real Madrid dominated the championship from the 1950s through to the 1980s, when Athletic and neighbours Real Sociedad each won the league twice. From the 1990s onwards, Barcelona (14 titles) and Real Madrid (9 titles) were both prominent, though La Liga also saw other champions, including Atlético Madrid, Valencia, and Deportivo de La Coruña. In the 2010s, Atlético Madrid became increasingly strong, forming a trio alongside Real Madrid and Barcelona which occupied the podium places exclusively.
According to UEFA 's league coefficient, La Liga has been the top league in Europe over the last five years and has led Europe for more years (13) than any other country. It has also produced the continent 's top - rated club more times (21) than any other league, more than double that of second - placed Serie A. Its clubs have won the most UEFA Champions League (17), UEFA Europa League (10), UEFA Super Cup (14), and FIFA Club World Cup (6) titles, and its players have accumulated the highest number of (FIFA) Ballon d'Or awards (19).
La Liga is one of the most popular professional sports leagues in the world, with an average attendance of 26,741 for league matches in the 2014 -- 15 season. This is the sixth - highest of any domestic professional sports league in the world and the fourth - highest of any professional association football league in the world, behind the Bundesliga, the Premier League, and the Indian Super League.
The competition format follows the usual double round - robin format. During the course of a season, which lasts from August to May, each club plays every other club twice, once at home and once away, for a total of 38 matchdays. Teams receive three points for a win, one point for a draw, and no points for a loss. Teams are ranked by total points, with the highest - ranked club at the end of the season crowned champion.
A system of promotion and relegation exists between the Primera División and the Segunda División. The three lowest placed teams in La Liga are relegated to the Segunda División, and the top two teams from the Segunda División promoted to La Liga, with an additional club promoted after a series of play - offs involving the third, fourth, fifth and sixth placed clubs. Below is a complete record of how many teams played in each season throughout the league 's history;
If points are equal between two or more clubs, the rules are:
The top teams in La Liga qualify for the UEFA Champions League. The first, second, third and fourth placed teams directly enter the group stage of UEFA Champions League. Teams placed fifth and sixth play in the UEFA Europa League, along with the cup winners. If both teams in the cup final finish in the top six, an additional berth in the Europa League is given to the team that finishes in seventh.
In April 1929, José María Acha, a director at Arenas Club de Getxo, first proposed the idea of a national league in Spain. After much debate about the size of the league and who would take part, the Real Federación Española de Fútbol eventually agreed on the ten teams who would form the first Primera División in 1929. Real Madrid, Barcelona, Athletic Bilbao, Real Sociedad, Arenas Club de Getxo and Real Unión were all selected as previous winners of the Copa del Rey. Atlético Madrid, Espanyol and Europa qualified as Copa del Rey runners - up and Racing de Santander qualified through a knockout competition. Only three of the founding clubs, Real Madrid, Barcelona and Athletic Bilbao, have never been relegated from the Primera División.
Although Barcelona won the very first Liga in 1929 and Real Madrid won their first titles in 1932 and 1933, it was Athletic Bilbao that set the early pace winning Primera División in 1930, 1931, 1934 and 1936. They were also runners - up in 1932 and 1933. In 1935, Real Betis, then known as Betis Balompié, won their only title to date. Primera División was suspended during the Spanish Civil War.
In 1937, the teams in the Republican area of Spain, with the notable exception of the two Madrid clubs, competed in the Mediterranean League and Barcelona emerged as champions. Seventy years later, on 28 September 2007, Barcelona requested the RFEF to recognise that title as a Liga title. This action was taken after RFEF was asked to recognise Levante FC 's Copa de la España Libre win as equivalent to Copa del Rey trophy. Nevertheless, the governing body of Spanish football has not made an outright decision yet.
When the Primera División resumed after the Spanish Civil War, it was Atlético Aviación (nowadays Atlético Madrid), Valencia, and Sevilla that initially emerged as the strongest clubs. Atlético were only awarded a place during the 1939 -- 40 season as a replacement for Real Oviedo, whose ground had been damaged during the war. The club subsequently won their first Liga title and retained it in 1941. While other clubs lost players to exile, execution, and as casualties of the war, the Atlético team was reinforced by a merger. The young, pre-war squad of Valencia had also remained intact and in the post-war years matured into champions, gaining three Liga titles in 1942, 1944, and 1947. They were also runners - up in 1948 and 1949. Sevilla also enjoyed a brief golden era, finishing as runners - up in 1940 and 1942 before winning their only title to date in 1946. By the latter part of the decade, Barcelona began to emerge as a force when they were crowned champions in 1945, 1948 and 1949.
Although Atlético Madrid, previously known as Atlético Aviación, were champions in 1950 and 1951 under catenaccio mastermind Helenio Herrera, the 1950s saw the beginning of the Barcelona / Real Madrid dominance. During the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, there were strict limits imposed on foreign players. In most cases, clubs could only have three foreign players in their squads, meaning that at least eight local players had to play in every game. During the 1950s, however, these rules were circumvented by Real Madrid and Barcelona, who naturalized Alfredo Di Stéfano, Ferenc Puskás, and László Kubala. Inspired by Kubala, Barça won the title in 1952 and 1953. Di Stéfano, Puskás, Raymond Kopa and Francisco Gento formed the nucleus of the Real Madrid team that dominated the second half of the 1950s. Madrid won the first division for the first time as Real Madrid in 1954 and retained its title in 1955. They were winners again in 1957 and 1958, with only Athletic Bilbao interrupting their sequence. During this period, Real Madrid also won an unprecedented five consecutive European Cups. Barcelona, with a team coached by Helenio Herrera and featuring Luis Suárez, won the title in 1959 and 1960.
Between 1961 and 1980, Real Madrid dominated the Primera División, being crowned champions 14 times, although their only European Cup triumph during this era came in 1966, a sharp contrast to their five successive victories in the competition starting with the first final in 1956.
This included a five - in - a-row sequence from 1961 to 1965 and two three - in - a-row sequences (1967 -- 1969 and 1978 -- 1980). During this era, only Atlético Madrid offered Real Madrid any serious challenge, adding four more titles to their tally in 1966, 1970, 1973, and 1977. Of the other clubs, only Valencia in 1971 and the Johan Cruyff - inspired Barcelona of 1974 managed to break the dominance of Real Madrid.
The Madrid winning sequence was ended more significantly in 1981 when Real Sociedad won their first - ever title. They retained it in 1982 and their two in a row was followed by another by their fellow Basques Athletic Bilbao, who won back - to - back titles in 1983 and 1984. Terry Venables led Barcelona to a solitary title in 1985 before Real Madrid won again another five in a row sequence (1986 -- 1990) with a team guided by Leo Beenhakker and including Hugo Sánchez and the legendary La Quinta del Buitre -- Emilio Butragueño, Manolo Sanchís, Martín Vázquez, Míchel and Miguel Pardeza.
Johan Cruyff returned to Barcelona as manager in 1988, and assembled the legendary Dream Team. Cruyff introduced players like Pep Guardiola, José Mari Bakero, Txiki Begiristain, Ion Andoni Goikoetxea, Ronald Koeman, Michael Laudrup, Romário and Hristo Stoichkov. This team won Primera División four times between 1991 and 1994 and won the European Cup in 1992. Laudrup then moved to arch - rivals Real Madrid, and helped them end Barcelona 's run in 1995. Atlético Madrid won their ninth Primera División title in 1996 before Real Madrid added another Liga trophy to their cabinet in 1997. After the success of Cruyff, another Dutchman -- Ajax manager Louis van Gaal -- arrived at the Camp Nou, and with the talents of Luís Figo, Luis Enrique, and Rivaldo, Barcelona again won the title in 1998 and 1999.
As Primera División entered a new century, the Big Two of Real Madrid and Barcelona found themselves facing new challengers. Between 1993 and 2004, Deportivo La Coruña finished in the top three on ten occasions, a better record than either Real Madrid or Barcelona, and in 2000, under Javier Irureta, they became the ninth team to be crowned champions. Real Madrid won two more Liga titles in 2001 and 2003 and also the UEFA Champions League in 2000 and 2002, and won their 30th league title in 2007 after a three - year drought. They were challenged by a re-emerging Valencia in both competitions. Under the management of Héctor Cúper, Valencia finished as Champions League runners - up in 2000 and 2001. His successor, Rafael Benítez, built on this and led the club to a Liga title in 2002 and winning the double with a league title and the UEFA Cup in 2004. The 2004 -- 05 season saw a resurgent Barcelona, inspired by the brilliant Ronaldinho, win their first title of the new century, in addition to the Liga - Champions League double in 2005 -- 06. With world - class players like Raúl, Ruud van Nistelrooy and Gonzalo Higuaín, Real Madrid won back - to - back La Liga titles in 2006 -- 07 and 2007 -- 08 season. Under Pep Guardiola 's Dream Team, powered by La Masia talents such as Lionel Messi, Xavi and Andrés Iniesta, Barcelona added three straight Liga titles (2008 -- 09, 2009 -- 10 and 2010 -- 11).
In the 2011 -- 12 season, Real Madrid won its 32nd title under the management of José Mourinho with a record - breaking points tally of 100, a record 121 number of goals scored, most overall (32) and away (16) wins in a single season in La Liga history. Barcelona coach Tito Vilanova matched the 100 - point record a year later in 2012 -- 13 while battling terminal cancer. Atlético Madrid won the 2013 -- 14 title, their first in 18 years, and the first title in ten years that Real Madrid or Barcelona had not won. Barcelona won the 2014 -- 15 season as well as the 2015 -- 16 season resulting in 6 titles in 8 years. Real Madrid have brought back the La Liga title under the management of Zinedine Zidane for the 2016 -- 17 season.
A total of 20 teams contest the league in its current season, including the top 17 sides from the 2016 -- 17 season and three promoted from the 2016 -- 17 Segunda División. These are two clubs promoted directly from that division (Levante and Girona), and the winner of the play - offs, Getafe.
The Primera División is currently first in the UEFA rankings of European leagues based on their performances in European competitions over a five - year period, ahead of Germany 's Bundesliga, England 's Premier League and Italy 's Serie A in fourth.
Real Madrid, Barcelona and Valencia are in the top ten most successful clubs in European football in terms of total European trophies. These three clubs, along with Sevilla and Atlético Madrid, are five of the most successful teams in European competition history; these five are the only Spanish clubs to have won five or more international trophies. Deportivo La Coruña are the sixth-most participating Spanish team in the Champions League -- after Real Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Atletico Madrid and Sevilla FC -- with five Champions League appearances in a row, including a semifinal appearance in 2003 -- 04.
In 2005 -- 06, Barcelona won the Champions League and Sevilla won the UEFA Cup, making the La Liga the first league to do the European "double '' since 1997. On 25 August 2015, La Liga became the first league to classify five teams for the UEFA Champions League group stage (Atlético Madrid, Barcelona, Real Madrid, Sevilla and Valencia).
The All - time La Liga table is an overall record of all match results, points, and goals of every team that has played in La Liga since its inception in 1929. The table is accurate as of the end of the 2016 -- 17 season. Teams in bold are part of the 2017 -- 18 La Liga.
League or status at 2017 -- 18:
In La Liga, players can claim citizenship from the nation their ancestors came from. If a player does not have European ancestry, he can claim Spanish citizenship after playing in Spain for five years. Sometimes, this can lead to a triple - citizenship situation; for example, Leo Franco, who was born in Argentina, is of Italian heritage yet can claim a Spanish passport, having played in La Liga for over five years.
In addition, players from the ACP countries -- countries in Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific that are signatories to the Cotonou Agreement -- are not counted against non-EU quotas due to the Kolpak ruling.
Until the season 2008 -- 09, no official awards for individuals in La Liga existed. Following the 2008 -- 09 season, the Liga de Fútbol Profesional (LFP) governing body sanctioned LFP Awards to player individuals. Additional awards relating to La Liga are distributed, some are sanctioned by the LFP or the Royal Spanish Football Federation (RFEF) and therefore not regarded as official.
The most notable of these are four awarded by Spain 's biggest sports paper, Marca, namely the Pichichi Trophy, awarded to the top scorer of the season; the Ricardo Zamora Trophy for the goalkeeper with the least "goals - to - games '' ratio; the Trofeo Alfredo di Stéfano, for the player judged to be the best overall player in the division; and the Zarra Trophy, awarded to the Spanish domestic player with the highest goal total in La Liga.
Since the 2013 -- 14 season, La Liga also awards the monthly Manager of the Month and Player of the Month awards.
The first La Liga player to be involved in a transfer which broke the world record was Luis Suárez in 1961, who moved from Barcelona to Internazionale for £ 152,000. Twelve years later, Johan Cruyff was the first player to join a La Liga club for a record fee, £ 922,000 from Ajax to Barcelona. In 1982, Barcelona again set the record by signing Diego Maradona from Boca Juniors for £ 5 million. Real Betis set the world record in 1998 when they signed Denílson from São Paulo for £ 21.5 million.
Four of the last six world transfer records (in euro) have been set by Real Madrid, signing Luís Figo, Zinedine Zidane, Cristiano Ronaldo (plus a deal for Kaká days before Ronaldo which fell just below a world record due to the way the fee was calculated) and finally Gareth Bale, who was bought for £ 85.3 million (€ 103.4 million / $140 million) from Tottenham Hotspur in 2013.
The Brazilian forward Neymar was the subject of an expensive and complicated transfer arrangement when he joined Barcelona from Santos in 2013, and his outgoing transfer to Paris Saint - Germain in 2017 set a new world record fee at € 222m (via his ' buyout clause '). Barcelona soon invested a large chunk of this money in a replacement, Ousmane Dembélé, whose deal -- € 105m -- was the second most expensive ever before Philippe Coutinho 's transfer to Barcelona for € 142m.
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when have man city won the premier league | Manchester City FC - Wikipedia
Manchester City Football Club is a football club in Manchester, England. Founded in 1880 as St. Mark 's (West Gorton), they became Ardwick Association Football Club in 1887 and Manchester City in 1894. The club moved to the City of Manchester Stadium in 2003, having played at Maine Road since 1923.
The club 's most successful period was in the late 1960s and early 1970s, when they won the League Championship, FA Cup, League Cup and European Cup Winners ' Cup under the management team of Joe Mercer and Malcolm Allison. After losing the 1981 FA Cup Final, the club went through a period of decline, culminating in relegation to the third tier of English football for the only time in their history in 1998. Having regained their Premier League status in the early 2000s, the club was purchased in 2008 by Abu Dhabi United Group and has since become one of the wealthiest in the world. Since 2011, the club have won five major honours, including the Premier League in 2012 and 2014.
By 2015 -- 16, Manchester City had the fifth - highest revenue in the footballing world with an annual revenue of € 524.9 million. In 2017, Forbes magazine estimated they were the world 's fifth-most valuable football club, worth US $ 2.08 billion.
City gained their first honours by winning the Second Division in 1899; with it came promotion to the highest level in English football, the First Division. They went on to claim their first major honour on 23 April 1904, beating Bolton Wanderers 1 -- 0 at Crystal Palace to win the FA Cup; City narrowly missed out on a League and Cup double that season after finishing runners - up in the League but City became the first club in Manchester to win a major honour. In the seasons following the FA Cup triumph, the club was dogged by allegations of financial irregularities, culminating in the suspension of seventeen players in 1906, including captain Billy Meredith, who subsequently moved across town to Manchester United. A fire at Hyde Road destroyed the main stand in 1920, and in 1923 the club moved to their new purpose - built stadium at Maine Road in Moss Side.
In the 1930s, Manchester City reached two consecutive FA Cup finals, losing to Everton in 1933, before claiming the Cup by beating Portsmouth in 1934. During the 1934 cup run, Manchester City broke the record for the highest home attendance of any club in English football history, as 84,569 fans packed Maine Road for a sixth round FA Cup tie against Stoke City in 1934 -- a record which still stands to this day. The club won the First Division title for the first time in 1937, but were relegated the following season, despite scoring more goals than any other team in the division. Twenty years later, a City team inspired by a tactical system known as the Revie Plan reached consecutive FA Cup finals again, in 1955 and 1956; just as in the 1930s, they lost the first one, to Newcastle United, and won the second. The 1956 final, in which Manchester City beat Birmingham City 3 -- 1, is one of the most famous finals of all - time, and is remembered for City goalkeeper Bert Trautmann continuing to play on after unknowingly breaking his neck.
After relegation to the Second Division in 1963, the future looked bleak with a record low home attendance of 8,015 against Swindon Town in January 1965. In the summer of 1965, the management team of Joe Mercer and Malcolm Allison was appointed. In the first season under Mercer, City won the Second Division title and made important signings in Mike Summerbee and Colin Bell. Two seasons later, in 1967 -- 68, Manchester City claimed the League Championship for the second time, clinching the title on the final day of the season with a 4 -- 3 win at Newcastle United and beating their close neighbours Manchester United into second place. Further trophies followed: City won the FA Cup in 1969, before achieving European success by winning the European Cup Winners ' Cup in 1970, beating Górnik Zabrze 2 -- 1 in Vienna. City also won the League Cup that season, becoming the second English team to win a European trophy and a domestic trophy in the same season.
The club continued to challenge for honours throughout the 1970s, finishing one point behind the league champions on two occasions and reaching the final of the 1974 League Cup. One of the matches from this period that is most fondly remembered by supporters of Manchester City is the final match of the 1973 -- 74 season against arch - rivals Manchester United, who needed to win to have any hope of avoiding relegation. Former United player Denis Law scored with a backheel to give City a 1 -- 0 win at Old Trafford and confirm the relegation of their rivals. The final trophy of the club 's most successful period was won in 1976, when Newcastle United were beaten 2 -- 1 in the League Cup final.
A long period of decline followed the success of the 1960s and 1970s. Malcolm Allison rejoined the club to become manager for the second time in 1979, but squandered large sums of money on unsuccessful signings, such as Steve Daley. A succession of managers then followed -- seven in the 1980s alone. Under John Bond, City reached the 1981 FA Cup final but lost in a replay to Tottenham Hotspur. The club were twice relegated from the top flight in the 1980s (in 1983 and 1987), but returned to the top flight again in 1989 and finished fifth in 1991 and 1992 under the management of Peter Reid. However, this was only a temporary respite, and following Reid 's departure Manchester City 's fortunes continued to fade. City were co-founders of the Premier League upon its creation in 1992, but after finishing ninth in its first season they endured three seasons of struggle before being relegated in 1996. After two seasons in Division One, City fell to the lowest point in their history, becoming the second ever European trophy winners to be relegated to their country 's third league tier, after 1. FC Magdeburg of Germany.
After relegation, the club underwent off - the - field upheaval, with new chairman David Bernstein introducing greater fiscal discipline. Under manager Joe Royle, City were promoted at the first attempt, achieved in dramatic fashion in a play - off against Gillingham. A second successive promotion saw City return to the top division, but this proved to have been a step too far for the recovering club, and in 2001 City were relegated once more. Kevin Keegan replaced Royle as manager in the close season, and achieved an immediate return to the top division as the club won the 2001 -- 02 Division One championship, breaking club records for the number of points gained and goals scored in a season in the process. The 2002 -- 03 season was the last at Maine Road, and included a 3 -- 1 derby victory over rivals Manchester United, ending a run of 13 years without a derby win. City also qualified for European competition for the first time in 25 years. In the 2003 close season, the club moved to the new City of Manchester Stadium. The first four seasons at the stadium all resulted in mid-table finishes. Former England manager Sven - Göran Eriksson became the club 's first manager from overseas when appointed in 2007. After a bright start, performances faded in the second half of the season, and Eriksson was sacked in June 2008. Eriksson was replaced by Mark Hughes two days later on 4 June 2008.
By 2008, the club was in a financially precarious position. Thaksin Shinawatra had taken control of the club a year before, but his political travails saw his assets frozen. Then, in August 2008, the club was purchased by the Abu Dhabi United Group. The takeover was immediately followed by a flurry of bids for high - profile players; the club broke the British transfer record by signing Brazilian international Robinho from Real Madrid for £ 32.5 million. Performances were not a huge improvement on the previous season despite the influx of money however, with the team finishing tenth, although they did well to reach the quarter - finals of the UEFA Cup. During the summer of 2009, the club took transfer spending to an unprecedented level, with an outlay of over £ 100 million on players Gareth Barry, Roque Santa Cruz, Kolo Touré, Emmanuel Adebayor, Carlos Tevez and Joleon Lescott. In December 2009, Mark Hughes -- who had been hired shortly before the change in ownership but was originally retained by the new board -- was replaced as manager by Roberto Mancini. City finished the season in fifth position in the Premier League, narrowly missing out on a place in the Champions League, and competed in the UEFA Europa League in season 2010 -- 11.
Continued investment in players followed in successive seasons, and results began to match the upturn in player quality. City reached the 2011 FA Cup Final, their first major final in over 30 years, after defeating derby rivals Manchester United in the semi-final, the first time they had knocked their rival out of a cup competition since 1975. They defeated Stoke City 1 -- 0 in the final, securing their fifth FA Cup, the club 's first major trophy since winning the 1976 League Cup. In the same week, the club qualified for the UEFA Champions League for the first time since 1968 with a 1 -- 0 Premier League win over Tottenham Hotspur. On the last day of the 2010 -- 11 season, City passed Arsenal for third place in the Premier League, thereby securing qualification directly into the Champions League group stage.
Strong performances continued to follow in the 2011 -- 12 season, with the club beginning the following season in commanding form, including beating Tottenham 5 -- 1 at White Hart Lane and humbling Manchester United by a 6 -- 1 scoreline in United 's own stadium. Although the strong form waned halfway through the season, and City at one point fell eight points behind their arch rivals with only six games left to play, a slump by United allowed the blue side of Manchester to draw back level with two games to go, setting up a thrilling finale to the season with both teams going into the last day equal on points. Despite City only needing a home win against a team in the relegation zone, they fell a goal behind by the end of normal time, leading some of United 's players to finish their game celebrating in the belief that they had won the league. Two goals in injury time -- including one scored almost five minutes after normal time had elapsed -- resulted in an almost - literal last - minute title victory, City 's first in 44 years, and became only the fifth team to win the Premier League since its creation in 1992. In the aftermath that followed, the event was described by media sources from the UK and around the world as the greatest moment in Premier League history. The game was also notable for former player Joey Barton 's sending off, where he committed three separate red card - able incidents on three different players in the space of only a couple of seconds, resulting in a 12 - match ban.
The following season City failed to capitalise on the gains made in the first two full seasons of Mancini 's reign. While City rarely seemed likely to drop below second in the table, they posed little title challenge all season. In the Champions League, the club was eliminated at the group stage for a second successive season, while a second FA Cup final in three seasons ended in a 1 -- 0 defeat to relegated Wigan Athletic. Mancini was dismissed two days later, ostensibly as he had failed to reach his targets for the season, but BBC Sports Editor David Bond reported he had been sacked for his poor communication and relationships with players and executives. In his place was appointed the Chilean Manuel Pellegrini. In Pellegrini 's first season, City won the League Cup and regained the Premier League title on the last day of the season.
L1 = Level 1 of the football league system; L2 = Level 2 of the football league system; L3 = Level 3 of the football league system.
Manchester City 's home colours are sky blue and white. Traditional away kit colours have been either maroon or (from the 1960s) red and black; however, in recent years several different colours have been used. The origins of the club 's home colours are unclear, but there is evidence that the club has worn blue since 1892 or earlier. A booklet entitled Famous Football Clubs -- Manchester City published in the 1940s indicates that West Gorton (St. Marks) originally played in scarlet and black, and reports dating from 1884 describe the team wearing black jerseys bearing a white cross, showing the club 's origins as a church side. The red and black away colours used infrequently yet recurrently come from former assistant manager Malcolm Allison, who believed that adopting the colours of A.C. Milan would inspire City to glory. Allison 's theory worked, with City winning the 1969 FA Cup Final, 1970 League Cup Final and the 1970 European Cup Winners ' Cup Final in red and black stripes as opposed to the club 's home kit of sky blue.
City have previously worn three other badges on their shirts, prior to their current badge which was implemented in 2016. The first, introduced in 1970, was based on designs which had been used on official club documentation since the mid-1960s. It consisted of a circular badge which used the same shield as the current badge, inside a circle bearing the name of the club. In 1972, this was replaced by a variation which replaced the lower half of the shield with the red rose of Lancashire. On occasions when Manchester City plays in a major cup final, the usual badge has not been used; instead shirts bearing a badge of the arms of the City of Manchester are used, as a symbol of pride in representing the city of Manchester at a major event. This practice originates from a time when the players ' shirts did not normally bear a badge of any kind, but has continued throughout the history of the club. For the 2011 FA Cup Final, City used the usual badge with a special legend, but the Manchester coat of arms was included as a small monochrome logo in the numbers on the back of players ' shirts.
A new club badge was adopted in 1997, as a result of the previous badge being ineligible for registration as a trademark. This badge was based on the arms of the city of Manchester, and consisted of a shield in front of a golden eagle. The eagle is an old heraldic symbol of the city of Manchester; a golden eagle was added to the city 's badge in 1958 (but has since been removed), representing the growing aviation industry. The shield features a ship on its upper half representing the Manchester Ship Canal, and three diagonal stripes in the lower half symbolise the city 's three rivers -- the Irwell, the Irk and the Medlock. The bottom of the badge bears the motto "Superbia in Proelio '', which translates as "Pride in Battle '' in Latin. Above the eagle and shield are three stars, which are purely decorative.
On 15 October 2015, following years of criticism from the fans over the design of the 1997 badge, the club announced they intended to carry out a fan consultation on whether to disregard the club badge and institute a new design. After the consultation, the club announced in late November 2015 the current club badge would be replaced in due course by a new version which would be designed in the style of the older, circular variants. A design purporting to be the new badge was unintentionally leaked two days early prior to the official unveiling on 26 December 2015 by the IPO when the design was trademarked on 22 December. The new design was officially unveiled at the club 's home match on 26 December against Sunderland.
Manchester City 's shirts have been sponsored by Etihad Airways since 2009. Previous sponsors have been Saab (1982 -- 84), Philips (1984 -- 87), Brother (1987 -- 99), Eidos (1999 -- 2002), First Advice (2002 -- 04), and Thomas Cook (2004 -- 07). Their kits have been manufactured by Nike since 2013. Prior manufacturers have been Umbro (1974 -- 97, 2009 -- 13), Kappa (1997 -- 99), Le Coq Sportif (1999 -- 2003, 2007 -- 09), and Reebok (2003 -- 07).
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Source: Manchester City official website
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
23 Marc - Vivien Foé, Midfielder (2002 -- 03) -- posthumous honour.
Since 2003, Manchester City have not issued the squad number 23. It was retired in memory of Marc - Vivien Foé, who was on loan to the club from Lyon at the time of his death on the field of play while playing for Cameroon in the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup.
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The following former Manchester City players and managers are inductees in the Manchester City F.C. Hall of Fame, and are listed according to the year of their induction:
The following former Manchester City players and managers are inductees in the English Football Hall of Fame (a.k.a. the National Football Museum Hall of Fame) and are listed according to the year of their induction within the various categories:
Last updated: 1 May 2014. Source: list of NFM Hall of Fame inductees
The following former Manchester City players and managers are inductees in the Scottish Football Hall of Fame (a.k.a. the Scottish Football Museum Hall of Fame) and are listed according to the year of their induction within the various categories:
Last updated: 30 March 2011. Source: list of SFM Hall of Fame inductees
The following former Manchester City players are inductees in the Welsh Sports Hall of Fame and are listed according to the year of their induction:
Manchester City has a large fanbase in relation to its comparative success on the pitch. Since moving to the City of Manchester Stadium, Manchester City 's average attendances have been in the top six in England, usually in excess of 40,000. Even in the late 1990s, when the club were relegated twice in three seasons and playing in the third tier of English football (then Division Two, now Football League One), home attendances were in the region of 30,000, compared to an average for the division of fewer than 8,000. Research carried out by Manchester City in 2005 estimates a fanbase of 886,000 in the United Kingdom and a total in excess of 2 million worldwide, although since the purchase of the club by Sheikh Mansour and the club 's recent trophies, that figure has ballooned to many times that size.
Manchester City 's officially recognised supporters club is the Manchester City FC Supporters Club (1949), formed from a merger of two existing organisations in 2010: the Official Supporters Club (OSC) and the Centenary Supporters Association (CSA). There have been several fanzines published by supporters; the longest running is King of the Kippax and it is the only one still published. The City fans ' song of choice is a rendition of "Blue Moon '', which despite its melancholic theme is belted out with gusto as though it were a heroic anthem. City supporters tend to believe that unpredictability is an inherent trait of their team, and label unexpected results "typical City ''. Events that fans regard as "typical City '' include City 's being the only reigning English champions ever to be relegated (in 1938), the only team to score and concede over 100 goals in the same season (1957 -- 58), or the more recent example that City were the only team to beat Chelsea in the 2004 -- 05 Premier League, yet in the same season City were knocked out of the FA Cup by Oldham Athletic, a team two divisions lower.
Manchester City 's biggest rivalry is with neighbours Manchester United, against whom they contest the Manchester derby. Before the Second World War, when travel to away games was rare, many Mancunian football fans regularly watched both teams even if considering themselves "supporters '' of only one. This practice continued into the early 1960s but as travel became easier, and the cost of entry to matches rose, watching both teams became unusual and the rivalry intensified. A common stereotype is that City fans come from Manchester proper, while United fans come from elsewhere. A 2002 report by a researcher at Manchester Metropolitan University found that while it was true that a higher proportion of City season ticket holders came from Manchester postcode areas (40 % compared to United 's 29 %), there were more United season ticket holders, the lower percentage being due to United 's higher overall number of season ticket holders (27,667 compared to City 's 16,481); not highlighted in the report was that within the City of Manchester itself, there were more City season ticket holders (approximately 4 for every 3 United). The report noted that since the compiling of data in 2001, the number of both City and United season ticket holders had risen; expansion of United 's ground and City 's move to the City of Manchester Stadium have caused season ticket sales to increase further. Man City also has a rivalry with that of Everton F.C.
In the late 1980s, City fans started a craze of bringing inflatable objects to matches, primarily oversized bananas. One disputed explanation for the craze is that in a match against West Bromwich Albion chants from fans calling for the introduction of Imre Varadi as a substitute mutated into "Imre Banana ''. Terraces packed with inflatable - waving supporters became a frequent sight in the 1988 -- 89 season as the craze spread to other clubs (inflatable fish were seen at Grimsby Town), with the phenomenon reaching a peak at City 's match at Stoke City on 26 December 1988, a match declared by fanzines as a fancy dress party. In 2010, City supporters adopted an exuberant dance, dubbed The Poznań, from fans of Polish club Lech Poznań.
The holding company of Manchester City F.C., Manchester City Limited, is a private limited company, with approximately 54 million shares in issue. The club has been in private hands since 2007, when the major shareholders agreed to sell their holdings to UK Sports Investments Limited (UKSIL), a company controlled by former Thailand prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra. UKSIL then made a formal offer to buy the shares held by several thousand small shareholders.
Prior to the Thaksin takeover, the club was listed on the specialist independent equity market PLUS (formerly OFEX), where it had been listed since 1995. On 6 July 2007, having acquired 75 % of the shares, Thaksin de-listed the club and re-registered it as a private company. By August UKSIL had acquired over 90 % of the shares, and exercised its rights under the Companies Act to "squeeze out '' the remaining shareholders, and acquire the entire shareholding. Thaksin Shinawatra became chairman of the club and two of Thaksin 's children, Pintongta and Oak Chinnawat also became directors. Former chairman John Wardle stayed on the board for a year, but resigned in July 2008 following Nike executive Garry Cook 's appointment as executive chairman in May. The club made a pre-tax loss of £ 11m in the year ending 31 May 2007, the final year for which accounts were published as a public company.
Thaksin 's purchase prompted a period of transfer spending at the club, spending in around £ 30 million, whereas over the previous few seasons net spending had been among the lowest in the division. A year later, this investment was itself dwarfed by larger sums. On 1 September 2008, Abu Dhabi - based Abu Dhabi United Group Investment and Development Limited completed a takeover of Manchester City. The deal, worth a reported £ 200 million, was announced on the morning of 1 September. It sparked various transfer "deadline - day '' rumours and bids such as the club 's attempt to gazump Manchester United 's protracted bid to sign Dimitar Berbatov from Tottenham Hotspur for a fee in excess of £ 30 million. Minutes before the transfer window closed, the club signed Robinho from Real Madrid for a British record transfer fee of £ 32.5 million. The wealth of the new owners meant that in the summer of 2009, the club was able to finance the purchase of several experienced international players prior to the new season, spending more than any other club in the Premier League.
Created in the 2013 -- 14 season to manage the global footballing interests of Abu Dhabi United Group, the City Football Group (CFG) is an umbrella corporation owning stakes in a network of global clubs for the purposes of resource sharing, academy networking and marketing. Through the City Football Group, City owns stakes in a number of clubs:
Manchester City 's stadium is the City of Manchester Stadium, also known as Eastlands and the Etihad Stadium since July 2011 because of sponsorship commitments. The stadium is situated in East Manchester and is part of a 200 - year operating lease from Manchester City Council after the 2002 Commonwealth Games. The stadium has been City 's home since the end of the 2002 -- 03 season, when the club moved from Maine Road. Before moving to the stadium, Manchester City spent in excess of £ 30 million to convert it to football use. The field of play was lowered by several metres, adding another tier of seating around the entire pitch. A new North Stand was also built. The inaugural match at the new stadium was a 2 -- 1 win over Barcelona in a friendly match. In August 2015, a 7,000 seat third tier on the South Stand was completed, in time for the start of the 2015 -- 16 football season. Current capacity stands at 55,097. A North Stand third tier has planning approval and work on it is expected to begin by 2017, increasing capacity to around 61,000.
Manchester City have used several grounds during their history: after playing home matches at five stadiums between 1880 and 1887, the club settled at Hyde Road Football Stadium, its home for 36 years. After a fire destroyed the Main Stand in 1920, the club started to seek a new site and moved to the 84,000 capacity Maine Road three years later. Maine Road, nicknamed the "Wembley of the North '' by its designers, hosted the largest - ever crowd at an English club ground when 84,569 attended an FA Cup tie against Stoke City on 3 March 1934. Though Maine Road was redeveloped several times over its 80 - year lifespan, by 1995 its capacity was restricted to 32,000, prompting the search for a new ground which culminated in the move to the City of Manchester Stadium in 2003.
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mott the hoople - all the young dudes | All the Young Dudes - wikipedia
"All the Young Dudes '' is a song written by David Bowie, originally recorded and released as a single by Mott the Hoople in 1972. In 2004, Rolling Stone rated "All the Young Dudes '' No. 253 in its list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time and on its 2010 update was ranked at number 256. It is also one of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll.
Regarded as one of glam rock 's anthems, the song originated after Bowie came into contact with Mott the Hoople 's bassist Peter Watts and learned that the band was ready to split due to continued lack of commercial success. When the band rejected his first offer of a composition, "Suffragette City '' (which later appeared on The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars), Bowie wrote "All the Young Dudes '' in short order especially for them, allegedly sitting cross-legged on the floor of a room in London 's Regent Street, in front of the band 's lead singer, Ian Hunter.
With its dirge - like music, youth suicide references and calls to an imaginary audience, the song bore similarities to Bowie 's own "Rock ' n ' Roll Suicide '', the final track from Ziggy Stardust. Described as being to glam rock what "All You Need Is Love '' was to the hippie era, the lyrics name - checked contemporary stars T. Rex and contained references to The Beatles and The Rolling Stones. NME editors Roy Carr and Charles Shaar Murray have described the track as "one of that rare breed: rock songs which hymn the solidarity of the disaffected without distress or sentimentality ''.
Bowie himself once claimed that the song was not intended to be an anthem for glam, that it actually carried a darker message of apocalypse. According to an interview Bowie gave to Rolling Stone magazine in 1973, the boys are carrying the same news that the newscaster was carrying in the song "Five Years '' from Ziggy Stardust; the news being the fact that the Earth had only five years left to live. Bowie explains: "All the Young Dudes is a song about this news. It 's no hymn to the youth, as people thought. It is completely the opposite. '' "All the Young Dudes '' is also thought of as a gay anthem. Lou Reed said "It 's a Gay Anthem! A rallying call to the young dudes to come out in the streets and show that they were beautiful and gay and proud of it. ''
Mott the Hoople 's single was released in July 1972 and made No. 3 in the UK Singles Chart, No. 37 in the US (in November) and No. 31 in Canada, and appeared on their album of the same name in September of that year. In November 1972, Bowie introduced the band on stage at the Tower near Philadelphia and performed the song with Hunter (released on All the Way from Stockholm to Philadelphia in 1998 and the expanded version of All The Young Dudes in 2006).
The original Mott the Hoople release had to be changed lyrically in order that it might be played on UK radio and TV. The line in the second verse: "Wendy 's stealing clothes from Marks and Sparks '' was a reference to UK retailer Marks & Spencer, also known by that colloquialism. As such, air play of the song in its original form would have breached broadcasting regulations relating to advertising in force at the time. The line was replaced with: "Wendy 's stealing clothes from unlocked cars ''. Today, both versions are freely aired.
Bowie took to performing "All the Young Dudes '' on his own 1973 tour, and a medley version appears on the album Ziggy Stardust -- The Motion Picture, the live recording of the last Ziggy show that was finally released officially in 1983. Bowie 's first released version of the song was in 1974 on the David Live double LP. Bowie had also offered "Drive - In Saturday '' to Mott the Hoople following "All the Young Dudes '', but they turned down this offer, at least partially owing to the then - current success of their own "Honaloochie Boogie ''.
In 1992, twenty years after their duet in Philadelphia, Bowie and Hunter again performed the song together with the surviving members of Queen, Mick Ronson, and Def Leppard 's Joe Elliott and Phil Collen at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert. The song was also featured during Bowie 's 1995 -- 1996 Outside Tour as well as the 2003 -- 2004 A Reality Tour tour, and is included on the A Reality Tour DVD and A Reality Tour album.
Bowie 's own studio version, recorded in December 1972 during the sessions for Aladdin Sane, went unreleased until 1995 when it appeared in mono on the album RarestOneBowie. It was subsequently included, again in mono, on The Best of David Bowie 1969 / 1974, the 2 - disc U.S. version of Best of Bowie, and the 30th Anniversary edition of Aladdin Sane. A stereo version, which is around a minute shorter than the mono version, circulated unofficially among collectors and finally saw official release in November 2014 on Bowie 's Nothing Has Changed compilation set. There also exists a version consisting of the backing track for Mott the Hoople 's version with Bowie 's guide vocal. A variant of this version, combining Bowie 's vocal on the verses with Ian Hunter 's on the chorus, was released on the 2006 reissue of All the Young Dudes. Bowie also used the music in reverse as the basis for "Move On, '' a track on his 1979 album, Lodger.
"All the Young Dudes '' was featured in the 1995 film Clueless, the 2007 Jason Reitman film Juno and the 2008 film The Wackness. It is also used in Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant 's 2010 film, Cemetery Junction. In 2010 the Mott the Hoople version has been used as the backing for two unrelated UK TV adverts.
"All the Young Dudes '' has been covered by many artists as album tracks, B - sides and in live performances.
Bruce Dickinson (of Iron Maiden), as a solo artist, released the song as a single, where it became a minor hit in the UK, reaching No. 23. It was part of his album Tattooed Millionaire.
World Party covered the track on the soundtrack to the 1995 movie Clueless.
Valensia covered the track on his 2004 album Queen Tribute.
Ozzy Osbourne covered the track on his 2005 covers ' album Under Cover.
Wreckless Eric & Amy Rigby reference "All The Young Dudes '', along with a number of other glitter - era hits, in "Another Drive - In Saturday '' on their self - titled 2008 album.
Tesla covered the track on Real to Reel, Vol. 2 in 2007.
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when do we say a material is neutral | Wikipedia: neutral point of view - Wikipedia
All encyclopedic content on Wikipedia must be written from a neutral point of view (NPOV), which means representing fairly, proportionately, and, as far as possible, without editorial bias, all of the significant views that have been published by reliable sources on a topic.
NPOV is a fundamental principle of Wikipedia and of other Wikimedia projects. It is also one of Wikipedia 's three core content policies; the other two are "Verifiability '' and "No original research ''. These policies jointly determine the type and quality of material that is acceptable in Wikipedia articles, and, because they work in harmony, they should not be interpreted in isolation from one another. Editors are strongly encouraged to familiarize themselves with all three.
This policy is non-negotiable, and the principles upon which it is based can not be superseded by other policies or guidelines, nor by editor consensus.
Achieving what the Wikipedia community understands as neutrality means carefully and critically analyzing a variety of reliable sources and then attempting to convey to the reader the information contained in them fairly, proportionately, and as far as possible without editorial bias. Wikipedia aims to describe disputes, but not engage in them. Editors, while naturally having their own points of view, should strive in good faith to provide complete information, and not to promote one particular point of view over another. As such, the neutral point of view does not mean exclusion of certain points of view, but including all verifiable points of view which have sufficient due weight. Observe the following principles to achieve the level of neutrality that is appropriate for an encyclopedia:
As a general rule, do not remove sourced information from the encyclopedia solely on the grounds that it seems biased. Instead, try to rewrite the passage or section to achieve a more neutral tone. Biased information can usually be balanced with material cited to other sources to produce a more neutral perspective, so such problems should be fixed when possible through the normal editing process. Remove material only where you have a good reason to believe it misinforms or misleads readers in ways that can not be addressed by rewriting the passage. The sections below offer specific guidance on common problems.
In some cases, the choice of name used for a topic can give an appearance of bias. While neutral terms are generally preferable, this must be balanced against clarity. If a name is widely used in reliable sources (particularly those written in English), and is therefore likely to be well recognized by readers, it may be used even though some may regard it as biased. For example, the widely used names "Boston Massacre '', "Teapot Dome scandal '', and "Jack the Ripper '' are legitimate ways of referring to the subjects in question, even though they may appear to pass judgment. The best name to use for a topic may depend on the context in which it is mentioned; it may be appropriate to mention alternative names and the controversies over their use, particularly when the topic in question is the main topic being discussed.
This advice especially applies to article titles. Although multiple terms may be in common usage, a single name should be chosen as the article title, in line with the article titling policy (and relevant guidelines such as on geographical names). Article titles that combine alternative names are discouraged. For example, "Derry / Londonderry '', "Aluminium / Aluminum '' or "Flat Earth (Round Earth) '' should not be used. Instead, alternative names should be given due prominence within the article itself, and redirects created as appropriate.
Some article titles are descriptive, rather than being a name. Descriptive titles should be worded neutrally, so as not to suggest a viewpoint for or against a topic, or to confine the content of the article to views on a particular side of an issue (for example, an article titled "Criticisms of X '' might be better renamed "Societal views on X ''). Neutral titles encourage multiple viewpoints and responsible article writing.
The internal structure of an article may require additional attention, to protect neutrality, and to avoid problems like POV forking and undue weight. Although specific article structures are not, as a rule, prohibited, care must be taken to ensure that the overall presentation is broadly neutral.
Segregation of text or other content into different regions or subsections, based solely on the apparent POV of the content itself, may result in an unencyclopedic structure, such as a back - and - forth dialogue between proponents and opponents. It may also create an apparent hierarchy of fact where details in the main passage appear "true '' and "undisputed '', whereas other, segregated material is deemed "controversial '', and therefore more likely to be false. Try to achieve a more neutral text by folding debates into the narrative, rather than isolating them into sections that ignore or fight against each other.
Pay attention to headers, footnotes, or other formatting elements that might unduly favor one point of view, and watch out for structural or stylistic aspects that make it difficult for a reader to fairly and equally assess the credibility of all relevant and related viewpoints.
Neutrality requires that each article or other page in the mainspace fairly represent all significant viewpoints that have been published by reliable sources, in proportion to the prominence of each viewpoint in the published, reliable sources. Giving due weight and avoiding giving undue weight means that articles should not give minority views or aspects as much of or as detailed a description as more widely held views or widely supported aspects. Generally, the views of tiny minorities should not be included at all, except perhaps in a "see also '' to an article about those specific views. For example, the article on the Earth does not directly mention modern support for the flat Earth concept, the view of a distinct minority; to do so would give undue weight to it.
Undue weight can be given in several ways, including but not limited to depth of detail, quantity of text, prominence of placement, and juxtaposition of statements. In articles specifically relating to a minority viewpoint, such views may receive more attention and space. However, these pages should still make appropriate reference to the majority viewpoint wherever relevant and must not represent content strictly from the perspective of the minority view. Specifically, it should always be clear which parts of the text describe the minority view. In addition, the majority view should be explained in sufficient detail that the reader can understand how the minority view differs from it, and controversies regarding aspects of the minority view should be clearly identified and explained. How much detail is required depends on the subject. For instance, articles on historical views such as Flat Earth, with few or no modern proponents, may briefly state the modern position, and then go on to discuss the history of the idea in great detail, neutrally presenting the history of a now - discredited belief. Other minority views may require much more extensive description of the majority view to avoid misleading the reader. See fringe theories guideline and the NPOV FAQ.
Wikipedia should not present a dispute as if a view held by a small minority deserves as much attention overall as the majority view. Views that are held by a tiny minority should not be represented except in articles devoted to those views (such as Flat Earth). To give undue weight to the view of a significant minority, or to include that of a tiny minority, might be misleading as to the shape of the dispute. Wikipedia aims to present competing views in proportion to their representation in reliable sources on the subject. This applies not only to article text, but to images, wikilinks, external links, categories, and all other material as well.
Keep in mind that, in determining proper weight, we consider a viewpoint 's prevalence in reliable sources, not its prevalence among Wikipedia editors or the general public.
If you can prove a theory that few or none currently believe, Wikipedia is not the place to present such a proof. Once it has been presented and discussed in reliable sources, it may be appropriately included. See "No original research '' and "Verifiability ''.
An article should not give undue weight to minor aspects of its subject, but should strive to treat each aspect with a weight proportional to its treatment in the body of reliable, published material on the subject. For example, discussion of isolated events, criticisms, or news reports about a subject may be verifiable and impartial, but still disproportionate to their overall significance to the article topic. This is a concern especially in relation to recent events that may be in the news.
-- BBC Trust 's policy on science reporting 2011 See updated report from 2014.
While it is important to account for all significant viewpoints on any topic, Wikipedia policy does not state or imply that every minority view or extraordinary claim needs to be presented along with commonly accepted mainstream scholarship as if they were of equal validity. There are many such beliefs in the world, some popular and some little - known: claims that the Earth is flat, that the Knights Templar possessed the Holy Grail, that the Apollo moon landings were a hoax, and similar ones. Conspiracy theories, pseudoscience, speculative history, or plausible but currently unaccepted theories should not be legitimized through comparison to accepted academic scholarship. We do not take a stand on these issues as encyclopedia writers, for or against; we merely omit this information where including it would unduly legitimize it, and otherwise include and describe these ideas in their proper context with respect to established scholarship and the beliefs of the wider world.
Good and unbiased research, based upon the best and most reputable authoritative sources available, helps prevent NPOV disagreements. Try the library for reputable books and journal articles, and look online for the most reliable resources. If you need help finding high - quality sources, ask other editors on the talk page of the article you are working on, or ask at the reference desk.
Neutrality assigns weight to viewpoints in proportion to their prominence. However, when reputable sources contradict one another and are relatively equal in prominence, describe both points of view and work for balance. This involves describing the opposing views clearly, drawing on secondary or tertiary sources that describe the disagreement from a disinterested viewpoint.
Wikipedia describes disputes. Wikipedia does not engage in disputes. A neutral characterization of disputes requires presenting viewpoints with a consistently impartial tone; otherwise articles end up as partisan commentaries even while presenting all relevant points of view. Even where a topic is presented in terms of facts rather than opinions, inappropriate tone can be introduced through the way in which facts are selected, presented, or organized. Neutral articles are written with a tone that provides an unbiased, accurate, and proportionate representation of all positions included in the article.
The tone of Wikipedia articles should be impartial, neither endorsing nor rejecting a particular point of view. Try not to quote directly from participants engaged in a heated dispute; instead, summarize and present the arguments in an impartial tone.
Wikipedia articles about art and other creative topics (e.g., musicians, actors, books, etc.) have a tendency to become effusive. This is out of place in an encyclopedia. Aesthetic opinions are diverse and subjective -- we might not all agree about who the world 's greatest soprano is. However, it is appropriate to note how an artist or a work has been received by prominent experts and the general public. For instance, the article on Shakespeare should note that he is widely considered to be one of the greatest authors in the English language. Articles should provide an overview of the common interpretations of a creative work, preferably with citations to experts holding that interpretation. Verifiable public and scholarly critiques provide useful context for works of art.
There are no forbidden words or expressions on Wikipedia, but certain expressions should be used with care, because they may introduce bias. For example, the word claim, as in "Jim claimed he paid for the sandwich '', could imply a lack of credibility. Using this or other expressions of doubt may make an article appear to promote one position over another. Try to state the facts more simply without using such loaded words; for example, "Jim said that he paid for the sandwich ''. Strive to eliminate expressions that are flattering, disparaging, vague, or clichéd, or that endorse a particular point of view (unless those expressions are part of a quote from a noteworthy source).
A common argument in a dispute about reliable sources is that one source is biased and so another source should be given preference. The bias in sources argument is one way to present a POV as neutral by excluding sources that dispute the POV as biased. Biased sources are not inherently disallowed based on bias alone, although other aspects of the source may make it invalid. Neutral point of view should be achieved by balancing the bias in sources based on the weight of the opinion in reliable sources and not by excluding sources that do not conform to the editor 's point of view. This does not mean any biased source must be used; it may well serve an article better to exclude the material altogether.
Biased statements of opinion can be presented only with attribution. For instance, "John Doe is the best baseball player '' expresses an opinion and can not be asserted in Wikipedia as if it were a fact. It can be included as a factual statement about the opinion: "John Doe 's baseball skills have been praised by baseball insiders such as Al Kaline and Joe Torre. '' Opinions must still be verifiable and appropriately cited.
Another approach is to specify or substantiate the statement, by giving those details that actually are factual. For example: "John Doe had the highest batting average in the major leagues from 2003 through 2006. '' People may still argue over whether he was the best baseball player. But they will not argue over this.
Avoid the temptation to rephrase biased or opinion statements with weasel words, for example, "Many people think John Doe is the best baseball player. '' But "Who? '' and "How many? '' are natural objections. An exception is a situation where a phrase such as "Most people think '' can be supported by a reliable source, such as in the reporting of a survey of opinions within the group.
A POV fork is an attempt to evade the neutrality policy by creating a new article about a subject that is already treated in an article, often to avoid or highlight negative or positive viewpoints or facts. POV forks are not permitted in Wikipedia.
All facts and significant points of view on a given subject should be treated in one article except in the case of a spinoff sub-article. Some topics are so large that one article can not reasonably cover all facets of the topic, so a spinoff sub-article is created. For example, Evolution as fact and theory is a sub-article of Evolution, and Creation - evolution controversy is a sub-article of Creationism. This type of split is permissible only if written from a neutral point of view and must not be an attempt to evade the consensus process at another article.
When writing articles, there may be cases where making some assumptions is necessary to get through a topic. For example, in writing about evolution, it is not helpful to hash out the creation - evolution controversy on every page. There are virtually no topics that could proceed without making some assumptions that someone would find controversial. This is true not only in evolutionary biology, but also in philosophy, history, physics, etc.
It is difficult to draw up a rule, but the following principle may help: there is probably not a good reason to discuss some assumption on a given page, if that assumption is best discussed in depth on some other page. However, a brief, unobtrusive pointer might be appropriate.
Wikipedia deals with numerous areas that are frequently subjects of intense debate both in the real world and among editors of the encyclopedia. A proper understanding and application of NPOV is sought in all areas of Wikipedia, but it is often needed most in these.
Pseudoscientific theories are presented by proponents as science, but characteristically fail to adhere to scientific standards and methods. Conversely, by its very nature, scientific consensus is the majority viewpoint of scientists towards a topic. Thus, when talking about pseudoscientific topics, we should not describe these two opposing viewpoints as being equal to each other. While pseudoscience may in some cases be significant to an article, it should not obfuscate the description of the mainstream views of the scientific community. Any inclusion of pseudoscientific views should not give them undue weight. The pseudoscientific view should be clearly described as such. An explanation of how scientists have reacted to pseudoscientific theories should be prominently included. This helps us to describe differing views fairly. This also applies to other fringe subjects, for instance, forms of historical revisionism that are considered by more reliable sources to either lack evidence or actively ignore evidence, such as claims that Pope John Paul I was murdered, or that the Apollo moon landing was faked.
See Wikipedia 's established pseudoscience guidelines to help with deciding whether a topic is appropriately classified as pseudoscience.
In the case of beliefs and practices, Wikipedia content should not only encompass what motivates individuals who hold these beliefs and practices, but also account for how such beliefs and practices developed. Wikipedia articles on history and religion draw from a religion 's sacred texts as well as from modern archaeological, historical, and scientific sources.
Some adherents of a religion might object to a critical historical treatment of their own faith because in their view such analysis discriminates against their religious beliefs. Their point of view can be mentioned if it can be documented by relevant, reliable sources, yet note that there is no contradiction. NPOV policy means that Wikipedia editors ought to try to write sentences like this: "Certain Frisbeetarianists (such as the Rev. Carlin) believe This and That, and also believe that This and That have been tenets of Frisbeetarianism from its earliest days; however, influenced by the findings of modern historians and archaeologists (such as Dr. Investigate 's textual analysis and Prof. Iconoclast 's carbon - dating work) certain sects -- calling themselves Ultimate Frisbeetarianists -- still believe This, but instead of That now believe Something Else. ''
Several words that have very specific meanings in studies of religion have different meanings in less formal contexts, e.g., fundamentalism, mythology, and (as in the prior paragraph) critical. Wikipedia articles about religious topics should take care to use these words only in their formal senses to avoid causing unnecessary offence or misleading the reader. Conversely, editors should not avoid using terminology that has been established by the majority of the current reliable and relevant sources on a topic out of sympathy for a particular point of view, or concern that readers may confuse the formal and informal meanings. Details about particular terms can be found at Wikipedia: Manual of Style / Words to watch.
Common objections or concerns raised to Wikipedia 's NPOV policy include the following.
Since the NPOV policy is often unfamiliar to newcomers -- and is so central to Wikipedia 's approach -- many issues surrounding it have been covered before very extensively. If you have some new contribution to make to the debate, you could try the policy talk page. Before asking, please review the links below.
NPOV is one of the oldest policies on Wikipedia.
Five pillars Statement of our principles
Jimbo 's statement Historic principles
Simplified ruleset Synopsis of our conventions
Wikimedia principles Common to all projects (in Meta - Wiki)
Principles Other essays on Wikipedia 's principles
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where does the phrase taking the mickey come from | Taking the piss - wikipedia
Taking the piss is a Commonwealth term meaning to take liberties at the expense of others, or to be joking, or to be unreasonable. It is often used to mean (or confused with) taking the piss out of, which is an expression meaning to mock, tease, joke, ridicule, or scoff. It is also not to be confused with "taking a piss '', which refers to the act of urinating. Taking the Mickey (Mickey Bliss, Cockney rhyming slang) or taking the Michael is another term for making fun of someone. These terms are most widely used in the United Kingdom, Ireland, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia.
The term sometimes refers to a form of mockery in which the mocker exaggerates the other person 's characteristics; pretending to take on his or her attitudes, etc., for the purpose of comedic effect at the expense of another. This would be described as "taking the piss '' out of that person, or "a piss - take ''. It may be also be used to refer to a ruse whereby a person is led to believe a plainly unbelievable fact for the purpose of ridicule of the subject, e.g. "Are you being serious? '' "No, I 'm just taking the piss. ''
The phrase is in common usage throughout British society, employed by headline writers in broadsheet gazettes and tabloids as well as colloquially. It is also used in English speaking countries such as Australia.
In colloquial usage, "taking the piss '' is also used to refer to someone or something that makes a claim which is not in line with a recognised agreement e.g. an invoice that is double the quoted price with no explanation for the added charge could be said to "take the piss '', or likewise if something consistently misses a deadline.
The term can also mean to take unfair advantage. For example, if someone has a food buffet and one guest clearly takes more than their expected share. It can also relate to an abuse of trust, such as "You can use my ' phone, but do n't take the piss! '', i.e. do not abuse my offer of assistance by making lengthy calls that will cost me a lot of money. Equally, a wilfully unproductive employee could be described as "taking the piss '' for accepting a wage while knowingly failing to deliver on their obligation, or an employer could be accused of "taking the piss '' for making unreasonable requests of their employees, e.g. expecting them to do unpaid overtime.
"Take the piss '' may be a reference to a related (and dated) idiomatic expression, piss - proud, which is a vulgar pun referring to the morning erections which happen when a man awakens at the end of a dream cycle (each about 90 minutes in length throughout the night) or may be caused by a full bladder pressing upon nerves that help effect erection. This could be considered a ' false ' erection, as its origin is physiological not sexual, so in a metaphoric sense, then, someone who is "piss - proud '' would suffer from false pride, and taking the piss out of them refers to deflating this false pride, through disparagement or mockery. As knowledge of the expression 's metaphoric origin became lost on users, "taking the piss out of '' came to be synonymous with disparagement or mockery itself, with less regard to the pride of the subject.
"Take the mickey '' may be an abbreviated form of the Cockney rhyming slang "take the Mickey Bliss '', a euphemism for "take the piss. '' It has also been suggested that "mickey '' is a contraction of "micturition, '' in which case "take the micturition '' would be a synonymous euphemism for "take the piss. '' The phrase has been noted since the 1930s.
One theory is that during the age of the canals in Britain, urine would be brought up the canals to the wool mills in Northern England (particularly to Yorkshire), as urine was used in the process of fixing dye to wool. This was particularly the case when dyeing items blue with indigo or more traditionally with woad, before synthetic dyes were invented or made commercially available. Being in the business of transporting urine was much less lucrative than transporting wine, so when the boatmen were questioned what they were carrying they would lie and say "I 'm taking wine '' and the response would be "No, you 're taking the piss '' to express disbelief.
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when did the original tickle me elmo come out | Tickle Me Elmo - wikipedia
Tickle Me Elmo is a children 's plush toy from Tyco Preschool, a division of Tyco Toys, of the Muppet character Elmo from the children 's television show, Sesame Street. When squeezed, Elmo shakes and vibrates.
The toy was first produced in the United States in 1996 and slowly became a fad. The doll 's limited supply, due to the unexpected demand, led to a second generation market where scalpers would sell the plush toy for thousands of US dollars. Some instances of violence were reported over the limited supply amidst heavy consumer demand. People reported that the toy, which retailed for US $29.99 according to its MSRP, had been advertised in newspapers and on the Internet, with sellers asking up to $10,000 by the end of 1996.
"Tickles The Chimp '', the precursor to Tickle Me Elmo, was invented by Ron Dubren and Greg Hyman in 1992. In 1992, it was presented to Tyco Preschool as "Tickles The Chimp, '' which was a toy monkey with a computer chip which laughed when tickled. At the time Tyco did n't have rights to make Sesame Street plush, but did have Looney Tunes plush rights so it was worked on for several months as Tickle Me Tasmanian Devil. A short time later, Tyco lost rights to do Looney Tunes but gained the rights to Sesame Street, thus starting Tickle Me Elmo. The invention was originally introduced under Cabbage Patch at Hasbro Industries.
Neil Friedman, who was then president of Tyco Preschool, recalled years later that, "When you played with (Tickle Me Elmo) for the first time, it brought a smile to everyone 's face. It was a magical surprise. ''
Tickle Me Elmo was released in July 1996, with a supply of 400,000 units. The dolls sold well and remained widely available in stores until the day after Thanksgiving, when they suddenly sold out. With the Christmas shopping season approaching, Tyco Preschool ordered 600,000 more dolls from their suppliers. Promotion was helped by Rosie O'Donnell, who had shown the toy on her popular TV show in early October. O'Donnell's "surprise plug '' created unexpected demand for Elmo, resulting in shortages in the stores that sold it.
The scarcity of the new toy provoked a "shopping frenzy ''. Two women were arrested in Chicago for fighting over the doll, while in New York some people ran after delivery trucks hoping to get their hands on Elmo before it reached stores. Someone allegedly purchased a Tickle Me Elmo for $7,100 in Denver. A clerk working at a Wal - Mart store in Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada was among those injured by "Elmo - mania ''. During a Midnight Madness sale on December 14, a crowd of 300 stampeded down the aisle after spotting him being handed a box of the toys by another employee. Trampled, he suffered "a pulled hamstring, injuries to his back, jaw and knee, a broken rib and a concussion ''.
By the end of December, the entire stock of one million "Tickle Me Elmo '' toys had been sold.
In early 1997, Tyco released new "Tickle Me '' toys based on other characters from Sesame Street -- first Tickle Me Ernie and Tickle Me Big Bird, then Tickle Me Cookie Monster -- but despite good sales, none of these toys achieved as much fame as Tickle Me Elmo. With the re-release of Tickle Me Elmo, Mini Tickle Me Cookie Monster and Mini Tickle Me Ernie were also put on the market.
The "Surprise Edition '' of Tickle Me Elmo, issued fall 2001, was an elaborate contest. Five of the "Surprise Edition '' Elmos stopped laughing on January 9, 2002, and instead announced to the people squeezing them that they had won a prize. The grand prize was $200,000.
In 2006 for the tenth anniversary of Tickle Me Elmo, Fisher - Price released a new Elmo doll called TMX, meaning "Tickle Me (Elmo) Ten '' or "Tickle Me eXtreme ''. The toy, which was designed by Bruce Lund of Lund and Co. Invention (River Forest, Illinois), was first announced at the American International Toy Fair. Rather than simply vibrating like the original, the TMX rolls around on the floor, laughing and smashing his fist on the ground, begging for the tickler to stop.
The full look of the doll was not revealed until it debuted live on ABC 's Good Morning America and arrived on store shelves on September 19, 2006. Toy experts said that the delay was unprecedented, with only a few people in the media allowed to preview the product, and only after signing confidentiality agreements. The packaging was designed so that the doll could not be seen without purchasing it. The box includes a preview flap, but upon opening, only the doll 's eyes are visible. It requires six AA batteries, and costs approximately $40. In a promotional clip, Jim Silver, co-publisher of Toy Wishes magazine said, "The first reaction I had was, ' Where are the wires? ' Because I did n't think anything like that could move on its own. ''.
Toy analyst Chris Byrne told USA Today, "This is a quantum leap forward, another breakthrough in the preschool plush category. '' Byrne believed sales would be high, but the reaction would not be as unprecedented. "The culture has moved beyond that, the whole hot - toy phenomenon. '' He cited the fact there has not been such a craze since Furby in 1998. However, some members of the media expected a large response. Toys "R '' Us stores and Amazon had a pre-sale program for the doll, the first included elaborate in - store displays with a digital countdown to the doll 's launch. Amazon took more presale orders than it could fulfill. As with the original Tickle Me Elmo doll, demand for the new toy gave rise to some extreme acts. One person in Tampa, Florida was allegedly threatened with a gun to hand over a TMX toy. This was parodied on Saturday Night Live, which said the man "was subdued by the new ' Gimmie a Reason Bert ' ''.
TMX and other toys helped Mattel 's earnings for the third quarter of the 2006 financial year to grow by six percent and beat the expectations of financial analysts. TMX also helped increase sales of other Elmo toys.
In January 2007, Mattel announced it would release TMX Friends, featuring Elmo, Ernie and Cookie Monster.
For the Christmas 2007 season, Fisher - Price released a version with hidden surprises. Mattel has provided a website with rhyming clues that can help find the special messages.
Playskool released the toy again as LOL Elmo. Not a single image of the toy was revealed until the American International Toy Fair 2012; in the Hasbro showroom 's Sesame Street section, there is a sign printed "Laughter Unleashed! Fall 2012 ''. Above it was a video of kids giggling. The toy was released in September. It is also known as Tickle Time Elmo.
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companies that went out of business during the recession | List of banks acquired or bankrupted during the Great Recession - wikipedia
This is a list of notable financial institutions worldwide that were severely affected by the Great Recession centered in 2007 -- 2009. The list includes banks (including savings and loan associations, commercial banks and investment banks), building societies and insurance companies that were:
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where can wind shear associated with a thunderstorm be found | Wind shear - wikipedia
Wind shear (or windshear), sometimes referred to as wind gradient, is a difference in wind speed and / or direction over a relatively short distance in the atmosphere. Atmospheric wind shear is normally described as either vertical or horizontal wind shear. Vertical wind shear is a change in wind speed or direction with change in altitude. Horizontal wind shear is a change in wind speed with change in lateral position for a given altitude.
Wind shear is a microscale meteorological phenomenon occurring over a very small distance, but it can be associated with mesoscale or synoptic scale weather features such as squall lines and cold fronts. It is commonly observed near microbursts and downbursts caused by thunderstorms, fronts, areas of locally higher low - level winds referred to as low level jets, near mountains, radiation inversions that occur due to clear skies and calm winds, buildings, wind turbines, and sailboats. Wind shear has significant effects on control of an aircraft effect, and it has been a sole or contributing cause of many aircraft accidents.
Wind shear is sometimes experienced by pedestrians at ground level when walking across a plaza towards a tower block and suddenly encountering a strong wind stream that is flowing around the base of the tower.
Sound movement through the atmosphere is affected by wind shear, which can bend the wave front, causing sounds to be heard where they normally would not, or vice versa. Strong vertical wind shear within the troposphere also inhibits tropical cyclone development, but helps to organize individual thunderstorms into longer life cycles which can then produce severe weather. The thermal wind concept explains how differences in wind speed at different heights are dependent on horizontal temperature differences, and explains the existence of the jet stream.
Wind shear refers to the variation of wind over either horizontal or vertical distances. Airplane pilots generally regard significant wind shear to be a horizontal change in airspeed of 30 knots (15 m / s) for light aircraft, and near 45 knots (22 m / s) for airliners at flight altitude. Vertical speed changes greater than 4.9 knots (2.5 m / s) also qualify as significant wind shear for aircraft. Low level wind shear can affect aircraft airspeed during take off and landing in disastrous ways, and airliner pilots are trained to avoid all microburst wind shear (headwind loss in excess of 30 knots). The rationale for this additional caution includes: (1) microburst intensity can double in a minute or less, (2) the winds can shift to excessive cross wind, (3) 40 - 50 knots is the threshold for survivability at some stages of low - altitude operations, and (4) several of the historical wind shear accidents involved 35 - 45 knot microbursts. Wind shear is also a key factor in the creation of severe thunderstorms. The additional hazard of turbulence is often associated with wind shear.
Weather situations where shear is observed include:
Weather fronts are boundaries between two masses of air of different densities, or different temperature and moisture properties, which normally are convergence zones in the wind field and are the principal cause of significant weather. Within surface weather analyses, they are depicted using various colored lines and symbols. The air masses usually differ in temperature and may also differ in humidity. Wind shear in the horizontal occurs near these boundaries. Cold fronts feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather, and may be preceded by squall lines and dry lines. Cold fronts are sharper surface boundaries with more significant horizontal wind shear than warm fronts. When a front becomes stationary, it can degenerate into a line which separates regions of differing wind speed, known as a shear line, though the wind direction across the front normally remains constant. In the tropics, tropical waves move from east to west across the Atlantic and eastern Pacific basins. Directional and speed shear can occur across the axis of stronger tropical waves, as northerly winds precede the wave axis and southeast winds are seen behind the wave axis. Horizontal wind shear can also occur along local land breeze and sea breeze boundaries.
The magnitude of winds offshore are nearly double the wind speed observed onshore. This is attributed to the differences in friction between land masses and offshore waters. Sometimes, there are even directional differences, particularly if local sea breezes change the wind on shore during daylight hours.
Thermal wind is a meteorological term not referring to an actual wind, but a difference in the geostrophic wind between two pressure levels p 1 (\ displaystyle p_ (1)) and p 0 (\ displaystyle p_ (0)), with p 1 < p 0 (\ displaystyle p_ (1) < p_ (0)); in essence, wind shear. It is only present in an atmosphere with horizontal changes in temperature (or in an ocean with horizontal gradients of density), i.e. baroclinicity. In a barotropic atmosphere, where temperature is uniform, the geostrophic wind is independent of height. The name stems from the fact that this wind flows around areas of low (and high) temperature in the same manner as the geostrophic wind flows around areas of low (and high) pressure.
The thermal wind equation is
where the φ x (\ displaystyle \ phi _ (x)) are geopotential height fields with φ 1 > φ 0 (\ displaystyle \ phi _ (1) > \ phi _ (0)), f (\ displaystyle f) is the Coriolis parameter, and k (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (k)) is the upward - pointing unit vector in the vertical direction. The thermal wind equation does not determine the wind in the tropics. Since f (\ displaystyle f) is small or zero, such as near the equator, the equation reduces to stating that ∇ (φ 1 − φ 0) (\ displaystyle \ nabla (\ phi _ (1) - \ phi _ (0))) is small.
This equation basically describes the existence of the jet stream, a westerly current of air with maximum wind speeds close to the tropopause which is (even though other factors are also important) the result of the temperature contrast between equator and pole.
Tropical cyclones are basically heat engines that are fueled by the temperature gradient between the warm tropical ocean surface and the colder upper atmosphere. Tropical cyclone development requires relatively low values of vertical wind shear so that their warm core can remain above their surface circulation center, thereby promoting intensification. Vertical wind shear tears up the "machinery '' of the heat engine causing it to break down. Strongly sheared tropical cyclones weaken as the upper circulation is blown away from the low level center.
The vertical wind shear in a tropical cyclone 's environment is very important. When the wind shear is weak, the storms that are part of the cyclone grow vertically, and the latent heat from condensation is released into the air directly above the storm, aiding in development. When there is stronger wind shear, this means that the storms become more slanted and the latent heat release is dispersed over a much larger area
Severe thunderstorms, which can spawn tornadoes and hailstorms, require wind shear to organize the storm in such a way as to maintain the thunderstorm for a longer period of time. This occurs as the storm 's inflow becomes separated from its rain - cooled outflow. An increasing nocturnal, or overnight, low level jet can increase the severe weather potential by increasing the vertical wind shear through the troposphere. Thunderstorms in an atmosphere with virtually no vertical wind shear weaken as soon as they send out an outflow boundary in all directions, which then quickly cuts off its inflow of relatively warm, moist air and kills the thunderstorm.
The atmospheric effect of surface friction with winds aloft force surface winds to slow and back counterclockwise near the surface of the Earth blowing inward across isobars (lines of equal pressure), when compared to the winds in frictionless flow well above the Earth 's surface. This layer where friction slows and changes the wind is known as the planetary boundary layer, sometimes the Ekman layer, and it is thickest during the day and thinnest at night. Daytime heating thickens the boundary layer as winds at the surface become increasingly mixed with winds aloft due to insolation, or solar heating. Radiative cooling overnight further enhances wind decoupling between the winds at the surface and the winds above the boundary layer by calming the surface wind which increases wind shear. These wind changes force wind shear between the boundary layer and the wind aloft, and is most emphasized at night.
In gliding, wind gradients just above the surface affect the takeoff and landing phases of flight of a glider. Wind gradient can have a noticeable effect on ground launches, also known as winch launches or wire launches. If the wind gradient is significant or sudden, or both, and the pilot maintains the same pitch attitude, the indicated airspeed will increase, possibly exceeding the maximum ground launch tow speed. The pilot must adjust the airspeed to deal with the effect of the gradient.
When landing, wind shear is also a hazard, particularly when the winds are strong. As the glider descends through the wind gradient on final approach to landing, airspeed decreases while sink rate increases, and there is insufficient time to accelerate prior to ground contact. The pilot must anticipate the wind gradient and use a higher approach speed to compensate for it.
Wind shear is also a hazard for aircraft making steep turns near the ground. It is a particular problem for gliders which have a relatively long wingspan, which exposes them to a greater wind speed difference for a given bank angle. The different airspeed experienced by each wing tip can result in an aerodynamic stall on one wing, causing a loss of control accident.
Wind shear or wind gradients are a threat to parachutists, particularly to BASE jumping and wingsuit flying. Skydivers have been pushed off of their course by sudden shifts in wind direction and speed, and have collided with bridges, cliffsides, trees, other skydivers, the ground, and other obstacles. Skydivers routinely make adjustments to the position of their open canopies to compensate for changes in direction while making landings to prevent accidents such as canopy collisions and canopy inversion.
Soaring related to wind shear, also called dynamic soaring, is a technique used by soaring birds like albatrosses, who can maintain flight without wing flapping. If the wind shear is of sufficient magnitude, a bird can climb into the wind gradient, trading ground speed for height, while maintaining airspeed. By then turning downwind, and diving through the wind gradient, they can also gain energy. It has also been used by glider pilots on rare occasions.
Wind shear can also create wave. This occurs when an atmospheric inversion separates two layers with a marked difference in wind direction. If the wind encounters distortions in the inversion layer caused by thermals coming up from below, it will create significant shear waves that can be used for soaring.
Strong outflow from thunderstorms causes rapid changes in the three - dimensional wind velocity just above ground level. Initially, this outflow causes a headwind that increases airspeed, which normally causes a pilot to reduce engine power if they are unaware of the wind shear. As the aircraft passes into the region of the downdraft, the localized headwind diminishes, reducing the aircraft 's airspeed and increasing its sink rate. Then, when the aircraft passes through the other side of the downdraft, the headwind becomes a tailwind, reducing lift generated by the wings, and leaving the aircraft in a low - power, low - speed descent. This can lead to an accident if the aircraft is too low to effect a recovery before ground contact.
As the result of the accidents in the 1970s and 1980s, most notably following the 1985 crash of Delta Air Lines Flight 191, in 1988 the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration mandated that all commercial aircraft have on - board wind shear detection systems by 1993. Between 1964 and 1985, wind shear directly caused or contributed to 26 major civil transport aircraft accidents in the U.S. that led to 620 deaths and 200 injuries. Since 1995, the number of major civil aircraft accidents caused by wind shear has dropped to approximately one every ten years, due to the mandated on - board detection as well as the addition of Doppler weather radar units on the ground (NEXRAD). The installation of high - resolution Terminal Doppler Weather Radar stations at many U.S. airports that are commonly affected by wind shear has further aided the ability of pilots and ground controllers to avoid wind shear conditions.
Wind shear affects sailboats in motion by presenting a different wind speed and direction at different heights along the mast. The effect of low level wind shear can be factored into the selection of sail twist in the sail design, but this can be difficult to predict since wind shear may vary widely in different weather conditions. Sailors may also adjust the trim of the sail to account for low level wind shear, for example using a boom vang.
Wind shear can have a pronounced effect upon sound propagation in the lower atmosphere, where waves can be "bent '' by refraction phenomenon. The audibility of sounds from distant sources, such as thunder or gunshots, is very dependent on the amount of shear. The result of these differing sound levels is key in noise pollution considerations, for example from roadway noise and aircraft noise, and must be considered in the design of noise barriers. This phenomenon was first applied to the field of noise pollution study in the 1960s, contributing to the design of urban highways as well as noise barriers.
The speed of sound varies with temperature. Since temperature and sound velocity normally decrease with increasing altitude, sound is refracted upward, away from listeners on the ground, creating an acoustic shadow at some distance from the source. In the 1862, during the American Civil War Battle of Iuka, an acoustic shadow, believed to have been enhanced by a northeast wind, kept two divisions of Union soldiers out of the battle, because they could not hear the sounds of battle only six miles downwind.
Wind engineering is a field of engineering devoted to the analysis of wind effects on the natural and built environment. It includes strong winds which may cause discomfort as well as extreme winds such as tornadoes, hurricanes and storms which may cause widespread destruction. Wind engineering draws upon meteorology, aerodynamics and a number of specialist engineering disciplines. The tools used include climate models, atmospheric boundary layer wind tunnels and numerical models. It involves, among other topics, how wind impacting buildings must be accounted for in engineering.
Wind turbines are affected by wind shear. Vertical wind - speed profiles result in different wind speeds at the blades nearest to the ground level compared to those at the top of blade travel, and this in turn affects the turbine operation. This low level wind shear can create a large bending moment in the shaft of a two bladed turbine when the blades are vertical. The reduced wind shear over water means shorter and less expensive wind turbine towers can be used in shallow seas.
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how many episodes are there in the arrow | List of Arrow episodes - wikipedia
Arrow is an American television series, developed by Greg Berlanti, Marc Guggenheim and Andrew Kreisberg, based on the DC Comics character Green Arrow. The series premiered in the United States on October 10, 2012 for The CW television network. The first five seasons have been released on DVD to Regions 1, 2 and 4 and on Blu - ray to Regions A and B.
Arrow follows billionaire playboy Oliver Queen (Stephen Amell), who, after five years of being stranded on a hostile island, returns home to his mother, Moira Queen (Susanna Thompson) and sister, Thea Queen (Willa Holland) and becomes a bow and arrow - wielding vigilante. He is initially aided by his friends, John Diggle (David Ramsey) and Felicity Smoak (Emily Bett Rickards), and later aspiring vigilantes Roy Harper (Colton Haynes), Ray Palmer (Brandon Routh), Curtis Holt (Echo Kellum), Rene Ramirez (Rick Gonzalez), Evelyn Sharp (Madison McLaughlin), Rory Regan (Joe Dinicol), and Dinah Drake (Juliana Harkavy) join them. In addition, Queen 's team receives help from the Lance family; Laurel (Katie Cassidy), Sara (Caity Lotz), and Quentin (Paul Blackthorne), sharing the goal of bringing justice to Starling City (later Star City). The series also featured flashbacks in most episodes in the first five seasons to the time Queen was missing, and how his experiences there shaped him into the man who returned home to fight crime.
On January 8, 2017, The CW renewed the series for a sixth season, which debuted on October 12, 2017. As of April 12, 2018, 133 episodes of Arrow have aired.
Flashbacks to Hong Kong show Oliver learning how to torture suspects effectively to get information. In the present, Oliver and Roy track down the home of Digger Harkness, the boomerang - wielding murderer, but they only find A.R.G.U.S. operatives looking for the same man. Caitlin and Cisco arrive in Starling City to help Felicity investigate Sara 's death. Digger attempts to kill Lyla; Roy, Oliver and Barry arrive and stop him. Later, Lyla reveals Digger was part of the Suicide Squad. Oliver 's extreme interrogation methods lead Barry to question how emotionally stable Oliver is. Digger traces Oliver 's hideout, where he wounds Lyla before escaping. In order to leave town, Digger plants 5 bombs around the city. While Oliver captures Digger, Barry uses both his and Oliver 's teams to defuse the bombs at the same time. Digger is incarcerated in the island with Slade. Lyla accepts Diggle 's marriage proposal. Before Barry and his team 's departure, he and Oliver decide to have a friendly duel.
Malcolm orchestrates a meeting between Savage, Barry, and Oliver. Savage demands they turn over Kendra and Carter or he will destroy both Central City and Star City with the Staff of Horus. They devise a plan to deliver the pair as a ruse to get close enough to destroy the staff. The plan fails; Kendra and Carter are killed and Savage uses the staff to destroy everyone else in the city. Barry escapes and runs fast enough to go back in time to the point of the original negotiation. Barry informs Oliver of his time travel and the mistakes that led to their defeat. They change their approach to the plan and Barry is able to steal the staff. He and Oliver use it on Savage, burning his body. Afterward, Kendra and Carter decide to use their powers to help others in another city. Cisco gives her a tracking device. Meanwhile, Oliver learns about his son, William, and accepts Samantha 's condition not to tell William or anyone else about the paternity in order to be able to see William. Malcolm collects Savage 's ashes, repeating the words Savage said the first time he killed the pair.
Oliver finds himself back at Queen Manor; both his parents are alive, he is about to be married to Laurel Lance, and Diggle is the Hood. However, it is revealed that he, Diggle, Thea, Sara, and Ray are all being held unconscious inside pods aboard the Dominator mothership. Meanwhile, Felicity, Curtis, and Cisco Ramon try to hack into the Dominators ' mainframe using a piece of their technology. The team recovers a necessary device with the help of the Flash and Supergirl and manages to locate the others. Oliver begins seeing flashes of his former life, as do Sara and Ray. All five captives soon realize that they are inside a shared hallucination of simulated reality. Their escape attempt is blocked by manifestations of Malcolm Merlyn, Deathstroke, Damien Darhk, and their mercenaries. The group defeats all of them, then leaves the dream and awakens inside the ship. Escaping in a shuttle, they are rescued by the Waverider. Ray deduces that the Dominators were gathering information from their minds to help them complete a special "weapon '', using the hallucination as a distraction. The team learns that the Dominator mothership is headed toward Earth.
In S.T.A.R. Labs, a captured interdimensional villain from Earth - X, Prometheus - X, is revealed to be a parallel universe doppelgänger of Tommy Merlyn. After he cruelly taunts Oliver over his attachment to Tommy, Prometheus - X commits suicide out of loyalty to Earth - X 's Nazi regime. Prometheus - X 's partners, Dark Arrow (Oliver 's doppelgänger), Overgirl (Kara Danvers ' doppelgänger), and Eobard Thawne steal a sublight generator, the Prism, from research company Dayton Optical Systems; Oliver, Barry, Kara, and the others believe that Dark Arrow seeks to build a neutron bomb with it to aid his conquest on Earth - 1. After a series of battles, most of the heroes including Team Arrow are in captivity at S.T.A.R. Labs after the Nazi forces infiltrate it, and Oliver, Barry and his allies are transported to Earth - X 's concentration camp, but Kara is moved to S.T.A.R. Labs. Oliver is determined to kill Dark Arrow after his capture. The villains reveal that Overgirl is dying and Dark Arrow plans to use the Prism, charged by S.T.A.R. Labs ' particle accelerator, to produce artificial red sunlight that would weaken both Kara and Overgirl 's respective invulnerability, allowing a heart transplant for Overgirl but killing Kara in the process.
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how many ml is a water bottle cap | Bottle cap - wikipedia
A bottle cap seals the top opening of a bottle. A cap is typically colourfully decorated with the logo of the brand of beverage. Plastic caps are used for plastic bottles, while metal with plastic backing is used for glass; the metal is usually steel. Plastic caps may have a pour spout. Flip - Top caps like Flapper closures provide controlled dispensing of dry products. Caps for plastic bottles are often made of a different type of plastic than the bottle.
Caps were originally designed to be pressed over and around the top of a glass bottle to grab a small flange on the bottleneck.
The crown cork was patented by William Painter on February 2, 1892 (U.S. Patent 468,258). It had 24 teeth and a cork seal with a paper backing to prevent contact between the contents and the metal cap. The current version has 21 teeth. To open these bottles, a bottle opener is generally used.
The height of the crown cap was reduced and specified in the German standard DIN 6099 in the 1960s. This also defined the "twist - off '' crown cap, now used in the United States, Canada, and Australia. This cap is pressed around screw threads instead of a flange, and can be removed by twisting the cap by hand, eliminating the need for an opener.
The "flip - top '' or "swing - top '' consists of a plastic or ceramic stopper held in place by a set of wires. Prior to the invention of the crown cork, this was the dominant method of sealing bottles that contained carbonated liquid.
An opened "flip - top '' bottle
A pair of bottles with flip - top closures
Plastic bottle screw cap used to seal a plastic bottle.
Glass stoppers for wine bottles and a cork stopper.
A "sports cap '' made of plastic, as seen on many water bottles, here seen in closed configuration.
Same sports cap in open mode, allowing the liquid to pass around the central blue piece.
A recloseable wire, ceramic, and rubber bottle clasp, from a German mineral water bottle.
Bottle closer.
Easy Pull Bottle Cap
Pull - off bottle cap.
Screw on closures are the most common bottle caps. They are easy to apply by a wide variety of automated equipment, or they can be applied by hand. The application torque of closures however must be controlled in order for the closures to perform properly in the field. Closures must be applied tight enough to maintain a seal and to resist closure back - off, but must be not be applied so tightly that the end user can not remove the closure. They are often found on top of beers, such as Coors or Bud Light.
Screw caps were originally an internal thread design. A glass bottle / jar with an internal screw - thread immediately below a gasket - seat, having a beveled seat, was patented by Hyman (Himan) Frank of the William Frank & Sons, Inc. of Pittsburgh, PA. He was awarded patent US 130208 A on August 6, 1872.
Commonly used with plastic screw caps. F - 217 is a soft polyethylene foam core covered on top and bottom with solid, clear polyethylene supplied in 0.050 inch thickness. F217 has become the industry standard due to its all purpose compatibility, resilient, compressible seal, cleanliness (no pulp dust) and economy. F217 liners have excellent chemical resistance and a low moisture transmission rate. F217 has good taste and odor resistance.
Plastisol is the standard lining material used in metal closures for vacuum packing glass bottles and jars. Plastisol is a flowed - in compound, usually a dispersion of PVC resins in plasticizers. It forms a solid, self - bonding, sealing gasket in the closures. Plastisol liners are used in metal twist - off and metal continuous thread screw caps for use on hot - pack food products where the preservation of a vacuum is essential.
Styrene foam material coated on the down facing side with torque - activated adhesive. Pressure - sensitive inner seals adhere to plastic or glass bottles with normal application torque. Pressures sensitive liners are supplied pressed into closures and adhere to the bottle finish when the closure is applied. Pressure - sensitive liners stick to the container because one side is coated with pockets of adhesive. When the closure is applied to the container, the pockets of adhesive rupture between the closure and finish of bottle or jar. The pressure - sensitive liners then stick to the bottle or jar and remain in place when the closure is removed. No extra equipment is required. The closures are supplied with a standard liner as a backing. This material needs a dry land area on the bottle and therefore is suitable only for use with dry products such as vitamins, foods and pharmaceuticals.
Molded in Low Density Polyethylene, Polyseal cone liners form to the inside of the bottle neck providing a leakproof seal which guards against back - off and product evaporation. Excellent for use with acid products and essential oils, these closures are recommended for use on glass bottles only.
A popular general purpose linerless sealing mechanism which can be used on most all bottles. The design typically features a. 045 '' molded inner flange which when applied with normal application torque compresses to approximately one - half of its thickness while sealing against the bottle lip. The liner creates a water tight seal with a bottle having a minimum. 065 '' wide sealing surface which is free of nicks, burrs or irregularities. This style linerless mechanism is available in popular dispensing caps.
Soda companies particularly use caps for promotion. A message is printed on the inside of the cap and people with the right message may win a prize. Since the bottle must be purchased to determine the message and win, people usually purchase more of the drink to increase their chances of winning. Some companies print interesting facts, riddles or games on the inside of caps.
A long - running promotion by the Coca - Cola company is the MyCokeRewards program started in 2006; most caps have an alphanumeric code that can be input to their website in return for points.
One of the more prominent use of the conventional metal bottle cap in popular culture is its use in the Fallout series of video games. In the post-apocalyptic America of the series, bottle caps - usually shortened simply to "caps '' - have been adopted by the various peoples of the wasteland as a de facto currency. Although official currencies are used by some of the more developed factions, caps are essentially a universal medium of trade across the remains of the country, to the point that the discovery of a working bottle cap press threatens to destabilize the economy.
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where do cars spawn in next day survival | My Summer car - Wikipedia
My Summer Car is an open world survival game in development by Finnish developer Johannes Rojola of Amistech. It was released on Steam 's Early Access program on October 24, 2016.
My Summer Car is set in rural Finland during the summer of 1995, where the 19 - year - old player character has the family home to themselves while their parents are on holiday in Tenerife. The player has to assemble, restore and upgrade their father 's dilapidated Satsuma car (modeled after the Datsun 100A) using various car parts found around the garage, as well as by purchasing new parts. To earn money for the parts, the player can perform various countryside chores for neighbours such as delivering firewood on a tractor - pulled trailer, using a vacuum truck to empty their septic tanks, making kilju (Finnish moonshine) and selling it to an alcoholic neighbor, and picking up aforementioned neighbor from the town pub the early mornings in exchange for a small sum of money. After passing the Satsuma at the vehicle inspection office and installing the appropriate aftermarket parts, the player 's car is eligible to enter a weekly amateur rallying event for a chance to win a trophy and prize money.
Building the car is not obvious as the player must literally build the car from the ground up. At the start of the game, the car is entirely disassembled down to the last bolt, and the player must place each part in its correct location, including bolting them in one - by - one with the correct size spanner. While most parts only fit together correctly, it is entirely possible to assemble the car wrong, e.g. leave out an engine gasket or a bolt, which will in turn break the car. In addition to gasoline, the car also requires maintenance of additional fluids, including motor oil, radiator coolant, and hydraulic fluids for the brakes and clutch, which deplete in use and time. The player also has access to various other pre-assembled vehicles that only require refueling as maintenance, such as a cargo van capable of carrying large loads, a tractor and a vacuum truck for utilitarian uses, a two - stroke "Jonnez ES '' moped (a Suzuki - based model which namesake is based on the term "mopojonne '', a moped teen who drinks energy drinks), and a small two - stroke launch at a nearby dock that allows for travel across the map 's massive lake. Both the moped and the boat require two - stroke fuel. All of the player 's road - going vehicles have the added ability to tow each other as well as salvageable car wrecks. High speed crashes will likely kill the player (though this also includes dying from hunger, dehydration, fatigue, or even killed by speeding drivers or hostile NPCs); the game optionally features permadeath (deletes save data when dying).
Meanwhile, the player must also cater to various survival game aspects as balancing hunger, thirst and fatigue, but also unusual ones such as urine and dirtiness. For nutrition, the player can buy food and beer from the store or drink water directly from faucets, fatigue can be restored by sleeping or by drinking coffee in a pub, the player can freely urinate anywhere, and dirtiness must be decreased thanks to a shower. Drinking too much beer (or hard liquor) will eventually get the player drunk, which first causes the player to waver and their vision to distort, but eventually the player can pass out and wake up at a random place on the map the next day. Police traffic stops randomly spawn along the main road of the in - game world, issuing fines for speeding or drink - driving violations; if the player fails to pay for a fine, police officers will eventually surround player character 's home to arrest him and imprison him in jail for a period of time scaled based on the cost of the fine. In recent experimental updates, the player can now use a sauna to get rid of stress, drinking vodka, or, smoke cigarettes. Failing to do so will lead to an increase of stress that eventually can kill you.
Much of the game 's originality comes from its irreverent tone: The game 's world is largely populated by low - class residents, many of which are slovenly or drunkards, and the game includes drunk driving. There are three distinct buttons for cursing and flipping people off - none of which has any consequences other than the occasional response. The game 's dialogue is entirely in Finnish, with English subtitles. The player may also save the game 's progress at their toilet at home or at any of the outhouses dotting the countryside, which also serves to advance the in - game time by two hours. The game also features a minor backstory involving the drunkard neighbor who hid a suitcase full of 5 million markkas in lottery winnings from his wife; if the player finds it and keeps it for himself, the same neighbor will eventually intrude into the player 's house and attempt to murder the player with an axe.
The game does not have mod support as of now, but modifications can be done by using Unity Asset Explorer, mostly texture modifications. Thanks to this, one can make their own car paintjob, edit the rear window stickers and even change the appearance of other vehicles and buildings. There are also unofficial mods such as cars and objects made in Blender, two of the most notable are the Lada 1200 Station Wagon and Utesuma (Satsuma pickup) mod.
Writing for Rock, Paper, Shotgun, Brendan Caldwell called the game "Funny, detailed and thoroughly confusing ''; while writing for Kotaku, Nathan Grayson called the game "Janky and weird as f * * *, but fun ''. Both Caldwell and Eurogamer 's Martin Robinson compared the game 's difficulty curve to Dark Souls.
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when is the next special olympics going to be held | Special Olympics World Games - wikipedia
The Special Olympics World Games are an international sporting competition for athletes with intellectual disabilities, organized by the IOC - recognised Special Olympics organisation.
Although local Special Olympics events and competitions are held around the world every day, the World Games are flagship events. The goal is to showcase the skills and accomplishments of people with intellectual disabilities on a global stage. The World Games feature more than a week of competitions involving thousands of athletes. Through media coverage of the Games, the stories and achievements of children and adults with intellectual disabilities are made known to millions of people worldwide.
Special Olympics World Games take place every two years and alternate between Summer and Winter Games, a schedule similar to the Olympics and Paralympics. Attracting as many as 350,000 volunteers and coaches, plus several thousands of athletes, these World Games can be the world 's largest sporting event of the year.
Special Olympics athletes can compete in 32 Olympic - style summer or winter sports. The athletes are adults and children with intellectual disabilities who can range from gifted, world - class competitors to average athletes to those with limited physical ability. It 's a fundamental rule of Special Olympics competitions that athletes are matched up according to their ability and age. This "divisioning '' process is an effort to make every competition fair, competitive and exciting for athletes as well as fans.
The first International Special Olympics Summer Games were held in Chicago, Illinois, US, in 1968, while the first International Special Olympics Winter Games were held in February 1977 in Steamboat Springs, Colorado, US. In 1991, the name was officially changed from International Special Olympics Summer / Winter Games to Special Olympics World Summer / Winter Games.
In 2011, Special Olympics World Summer Games were held on June 25 -- July 4 in Athens, Greece, involving 6,000 athletes with intellectual disabilities from 170 countries.
The most recent Special Olympics World Winter Games were held in PyeongChang, South Korea from Jan. 29 -- Feb. 5, 2013. The Host Town program, in which families host Special Olympics athletes from around the world t 13.
The most recent 2015 Special Olympics World Summer Games were held in Los Angeles, California from July 25 -- Aug. 2, 2015. These games were the first Special Olympics World Summer Games held in the United States in 16 years since the 1999 Summer Games held in Raleigh, North Carolina.
The next World Winter Games will be the 2017 Special Olympics World Winter Games in Graz and Schladming in Styria, Austria. This marks a return: Salzburg and Schladming, Austria hosted the fifth Special Olympics World Winter Games in 1993. These were the first Special Olympics World Games held outside the United States. The 2017 World Winter Games will be held March 14 - March 25, 2017.
In 2013, Australia hosted the first ever Special Olympics Asia Pacific Games.
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how much above sea level is tampa florida | Tampa, Florida - Wikipedia
Tampa (/ ˈtæmpə /) is a major city in, and the county seat of, Hillsborough County, Florida, United States. It is on the west coast of Florida on Tampa Bay, near the Gulf of Mexico, and is the largest city in the Tampa Bay Area. The city had a population of 335,709 at the 2010 census, and an estimated population of 377,165 in 2016.
Archaeological evidence indicates the shores of Tampa Bay were inhabited by indigenous peoples for thousands of years. The Safety Harbor culture developed in the area around the year 1000 AD, and the descendant Tocobaga and Pohoy chiefdoms were living in or near the current city limits of Tampa when the area was first visited by Spanish explorers in the 16th century. Interactions between native peoples and the Spanish were brief and often violent, and although the newcomers did not stay for long, they introduced European diseases which brought the collapse of native societies across the Florida peninsula over the ensuing decades. Although Spain claimed all of Florida and beyond as part of New Spain, it did not found a colony on the west coast. After the disappearance of the indigenous populations, there were no permanent settlements in the Tampa Bay area until after the United States acquired Florida from Spain in 1821.
In 1824, the United States Army established a frontier outpost called Fort Brooke at the mouth of the Hillsborough River, near the site of today 's Tampa Convention Center downtown. The first civilian residents were pioneer ranchers and farmers who settled near the fort for protection from the nearby Seminole population.
The town grew slowly, and had become a minor shipping port for cattle and citrus by the time of the United States Civil War. Tampa Bay was blockaded by the United States Navy during the war, and Tampa fell into a long period of economic stagnation that continued long after the war ended.
The situation finally improved in the 1880s, when the first railroad links, the discovery of phosphate, and the arrival of the cigar industry jump - started its development, helping Tampa to grow from an isolated village with less than 800 residents in 1880 to a bustling city of over 30,000 by the early 1900s.
Today, Tampa is part of the metropolitan area most commonly referred to as the "Tampa Bay Area ''. For U.S. Census purposes, Tampa is part of the Tampa - St. Petersburg - Clearwater, Florida Metropolitan Statistical Area. The four - county area is composed of roughly 2.9 million residents, making it the second largest metropolitan statistical area (MSA) in the state, and the fourth largest in the Southeastern United States, behind Miami, Washington, D.C., and Atlanta. The Greater Tampa Bay area has over 4 million residents and generally includes the Tampa and Sarasota metro areas.
The Tampa Bay Partnership and U.S. Census data showed an average annual growth of 2.47 percent, or a gain of approximately 97,000 residents per year. Between 2000 and 2006, the Greater Tampa Bay Market experienced a combined growth rate of 14.8 percent, growing from 3.4 million to 3.9 million and hitting the 4 million population mark on April 1, 2007. A 2012 estimate shows the Tampa Bay area population to have 4,310,524 people and a 2017 projection of 4,536,854 people.
A 2004 survey by the New York University newspaper Washington Square News ranked Tampa as a top city for "twenty - somethings. ''
In 2008, Forbes ranked Tampa as America 's fifth best outdoor city.
A 2009 Pew Research Center study ranked Tampa as the fifth most popular American city, based on where people want to live.
In 2016, Loughborough University ranked Tampa as a "Gamma '' world city, alongside Phoenix, Austin, Cincinnati, Lausanne, and Harare.
In 2015, Tampa was rated the best big city to live in within the Southeastern United States by Money Magazine.
When the pioneer community living near the US Army outpost of Fort Brooke was incorporated in 1849, it was called "Tampa Town '', and the name was shortened to simply "Tampa '' in 1855. The etymology of the name is unclear. The word "Tampa '' may have meant "sticks of fire '' in the language of the Calusa, a Native American tribe that once lived south of today 's Tampa Bay. This might be a reference to the many lightning strikes that the area receives during the summer months. Other historians claim the name means "the place to gather sticks ''. Toponymist George R. Stewart writes that the name was the result of a miscommunication between the Spanish and the Indians, the Indian word being "itimpi '', meaning simply "near it ''.
The first iteration of the name "Tampa '' first appears in the memoirs of Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda (1575), who had spent 17 years as a Calusa captive and traveled through much of peninsular Florida. He spelled it "Tanpa '' and describes it as an important Calusa town on the west coast. While "Tanpa '' may be the basis for the modern name, archaeologist Jerald Milanich states that the Calusa village of Tanpa was on the shores of Charlotte Harbor, which is about 65 miles south of Tampa Bay. A later Spanish expedition did not notice the mouth of Charlotte Harbor while sailing north along the west coast of Florida and assumed that the current Tampa Bay was the bay they sought, thus accidentally transferring the name on Spanish navigational charts. Tampa Bay was labeled Bahía de Espíritu Santo (Bay of the Holy Spirit) in the earliest Spanish maps of Florida, but became known as Bahía Tampa (Tampa Bay) as early as 1695.
People from Tampa are generally known as "Tampans '' or "Tampanians ''. Local authorities consulted by Michael Kruse of the Tampa Bay Times suggest that "Tampan '' was historically more common, while "Tampanian '' became popular when the former term came to be seen as a potential insult. A mix of Cuban, Italian, and Spanish immigrants began arriving in the late 1800s to live and work in the new communities of Ybor City and West Tampa. By about 1900, these newcomers came to be known as "tampeños '' (or "tampeñas '' for females), a term that is still sometimes used to refer to their descendants living in the area.
Not much is known about the cultures who called the Tampa Bay area home before European contact. When Spanish explorers arrived in the 1520s, they found Tocobaga villages around the northern half of Tampa Bay and Calusa villages along the southern portion of the bay.
Expeditions led by Pánfilo de Narváez and Hernando de Soto landed near Tampa, but neither conquistador stayed long. The native inhabitants repulsed any Spanish attempt to establish a permanent settlement or convert them to Catholicism. The newcomers brought with them infectious diseases, resulting in a total collapse of the native cultures of Florida. The Tampa area was depopulated and ignored for more than 200 years.
In the mid-18th century, events in American colonies drove the Seminole people into northern Florida. During this period, the Tampa area had only a handful of residents: Cuban and Native American fishermen. They lived in a small village at the mouth of Spanishtown Creek on Tampa Bay, in today 's Hyde Park neighborhood along Bayshore Boulevard.
After purchasing Florida from Spain in 1821, the United States built forts and trading posts in the new territory. Fort Brooke was established in January 1824 at the mouth of the Hillsborough River on Tampa Bay, in Downtown Tampa.
Tampa was initially an isolated frontier outpost. The sparse civilian population practically abandoned the area during the Second Seminole War from 1835 to 1842, after which the Seminoles were forced out and many settlers returned.
Florida became the 27th state in 1845. On January 18, 1849, Tampa was officially incorporated as the "Village of Tampa ''. It was home to 185 civilians, or 974 total residents including military personnel, in 1850. Tampa was reincorporated as a town on December 15, 1855.
During the Civil War, Florida seceded along with most of the southern states to form the Confederate States of America, and Fort Brooke was manned by Confederate troops. Martial law was declared in Tampa in January 1862, and Tampa 's city government ceased to operate for the duration of the war.
In 1861, the Union Navy set up a blockade around many southern ports to cut off the Confederacy, and several ships were stationed near the mouth of Tampa Bay. The Battle of Fort Brooke on October 16 and the Battle of Ballast Point on October 18, 1863, damaged the Confederates, with Union troops destroying Confederate blockade runners. The Civil War ended in April 1865 with a Confederate defeat.
In May 1865, federal troops arrived in Tampa to occupy the fort and the town as part of Reconstruction. They remained until August 1869.
Tampa was a fishing village with very few people and little industry, and limited prospects for development. Tampa 's chronic yellow fever epidemics, borne by mosquitoes from the swampland, were widespread during the late 1860s and 1870s, and many residents left.
In 1869, residents voted to abolish the city of Tampa government. The population of "Tampa Town '' was below 800 by 1870, and had fallen further by 1880. Fort Brooke was decommissioned in 1883, and except for two cannons displayed on the University of Tampa campus, all traces of the fort are gone.
In the mid-1880s, Tampa 's fortunes took several sudden turns for the better. First, phosphate was discovered in the Bone Valley region southeast of Tampa in 1883. The mineral, vital for the production of fertilizers and other products, was soon being shipped out from the Port of Tampa in great volume. Tampa is still a major phosphate exporter.
The discovery of phosphate, the arrival of Plant 's railroad, and the founding of Ybor City and West Tampa -- all in the mid-1880s -- were crucial to Tampa 's development. The once - struggling village of Tampa became a bustling boomtown almost overnight, and had grown into one of the largest cities in Florida by 1900.
Henry B. Plant 's narrow - gauge South Florida Railroad reached Tampa and its port in late 1883, finally connecting the small town to the nation 's railroad system after years of efforts by local leaders. Previously, Tampa 's overland transportation links had consisted of sandy roads stretching across the Florida countryside. Plant 's railroad made it much easier to get goods in and out of the Tampa Bay area. Phosphate and commercial fishing exports could be sent north by rail, and many new products were brought into the Tampa market, along with the first tourists.
The new railroad link enabled another important industry to come to Tampa. In 1885, the Tampa Board of Trade enticed Vicente Martinez Ybor to move his cigar manufacturing operations to Tampa from Key West. Proximity to Cuba made importation of "clear Havana tobacco '' easy by sea, and Plant 's railroad made shipment of finished cigars to the rest of the US market easy by land.
Since Tampa was still a small town at the time (population less than 5,000), Ybor built hundreds of small houses around his factory to accommodate the immediate influx of mainly Cuban and Spanish cigar workers. Ybor City 's factories rolled their first cigars in 1886, and many different cigar manufacturers moved their operations to town in ensuing years. Many Italian and a few eastern European Jewish immigrants arrived starting in the late 1880s, opening businesses and shops that catered to cigar workers. By 1900, over 10,000 immigrants had moved to the neighborhood. Several thousand more Cuban immigrants built West Tampa, another cigar - centric suburb founded a few years later by Hugh MacFarlane. Between them, two "Latin '' communities combined to exponentially expand Tampa 's population, economic base, and tax revenues, as Tampa became the "Cigar Capital of the World ''.
During the first few decades of the 20th century, the cigar - making industry was the backbone of Tampa 's economy. The factories in Ybor City and West Tampa made an enormous number of cigars -- in the peak year of 1929, over 500,000,000 cigars were hand rolled in the city.
In 1904, a civic association of local businessmen dubbed themselves Ye Mystic Krewe of Gasparilla (named after local mythical pirate José Gaspar), and staged an "invasion '' of the city followed by a parade. With a few exceptions, the Gasparilla Pirate Festival has been held every year since.
Beginning in the late 19th century, illegal bolita lotteries were very popular among the Tampa working classes, especially in Ybor City. In the early 1920s, this small - time operation was taken over by Charlie Wall, the rebellious son of a prominent Tampa family, and went big - time. Bolita was able to openly thrive only because of kick - backs and bribes to key local politicians and law enforcement officials, and many were on the take.
Profits from the bolita lotteries and Prohibition - era bootlegging led to the development of several organized crime factions in the city. Charlie Wall was the first major boss, but various power struggles culminated in consolidation of control by Sicilian mafioso Santo Trafficante Sr. and his faction in the 1950s. After his death in 1954 from cancer, control passed to his son, Santo Trafficante Jr., who established alliances with families in New York City and extended his power throughout Florida and into Batista - era Cuba.
The era of rampant and open corruption ended in the 1950s, when Estes Kefauver 's traveling organized crime hearings came to town and were followed by the sensational misconduct trials of several local officials. Although many of the worst offenders in government and the mob were not charged, the trials helped to end the sense of lawlessness which had prevailed in Tampa for decades.
Tampa grew considerably as a result of World War II. Prior to the United States ' involvement in the conflict, construction began on MacDill Field, which served as a main base for Army Air Corps and later Army Air Forces operations just before and during World War II, with multiple auxiliary airfields around the Tampa Bay area and surrounding counties. At the end of the war, MacDill remained as an active military installation, while the auxiliary fields reverted to civilian control. Two of these auxiliary fields would later become the present - day Tampa International Airport and St. Pete -- Clearwater International Airport. With the establishment of an independent U.S. Air Force in 1947, MacDill Field became MacDill Air Force Base.
During the 1950s and 1960s Tampa saw record - setting population growth that has not been seen since. This amazing growth spurred major expansion of the city 's highways and bridges, bringing thousands into the city and creating opportunities for Tampa business owners who welcomed tourists and new citizens alike into their neighborhoods. It was during this time period in the city 's history that two of the most popular tourist attractions in the area were developed -- Busch Gardens and Lowry Park. Many of the well - known institutions that play an important role in the economic development of the city were established during this time period.
The University of South Florida was established in North Tampa in 1956 and opened for students in September 1960. The school spurred the construction of several residential and commercial developments in the previously agriculture - dominated area around the new campus. Overall, Tampa continued to expand away from the city center during the 1960s as new hospitals, schools, churches and subdivisions all began appearing to accommodate the growth. Many business offices began moving away from the traditional downtown office building into more convenient neighborhood office plazas.
In 1970, the U.S. Census Bureau reported city 's population as 80.0 % white and 19.7 % black.
Four attempts have been made to consolidate the municipal government of the city of Tampa with the county government of Hillsborough County (1967, 1970, 1971, and 1972), all of which failed at the ballot box; the greatest loss was the most recent attempt in 1972, with the final tally being 33,160 (31 %) in favor and 73,568 (69 %) against the proposed charter.
The biggest recent growth in the city was the development of New Tampa, which started in 1988 when the city annexed a mostly rural area of 24 square miles (62 km) between I - 275 and I - 75.
East Tampa, historically a mostly black community, was the scene of several race riots during and for some time after the period of racial segregation, mainly due to problems between residents and the Tampa Police Department.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 175.3 square miles (453.9 km), including 113.4 square miles (293.7 km) of land and 61.8 square miles (160.1 km) (35.3 %) of water. The highest point in the city is only 48 feet (15 m) above sea level. Tampa is bordered by two bodies of water, Old Tampa Bay and Hillsborough Bay, which flow together to form Tampa Bay, which in turn flows into the Gulf of Mexico. The Hillsborough River flows into Hillsborough Bay, passing directly in front of Downtown Tampa and supplying Tampa 's main source of fresh water. The Palm River is a smaller river flowing from just east of the city into McKay Bay, which is a smaller inlet, sited at the northeast end of Hillsborough Bay. Tampa 's geography is marked by the Interbay Peninsula which divides Hillsborough Bay (the eastern) from Old Tampa Bay (the western).
The Tampa Bay area has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) zone, although due to its location on the Florida peninsula on Tampa Bay and the Gulf of Mexico, it shows some characteristics of a tropical climate. Tampa 's climate generally features hot summers with frequent thunderstorms and dry and mild winters. Average highs range from 70 to 90 ° F (21 to 32 ° C) year round, and lows 52 to 76 ° F (11 to 24 ° C).
Summertime weather patterns predominate from around mid-May through mid-October, which roughly coincides with the rainy season. Daily temperatures are very consistent during this period, with daytime highs very often measuring near 90 ° F (32 ° C) and lows in the mid - to upper 70s ° F (23 -- 25 ° C), almost always accompanied by high humidity. Mainly due to the proximity of large bodies of water, the official high temperature has never hit 100 ° F (37.8 ° C) -- the all - time record high temperature is 99 ° F (37 ° C), recorded on June 5, 1985. Afternoon thunderstorms, usually generated by the interaction of the Gulf and Atlantic sea breezes, are such a regular occurrence during the summer that the Tampa Bay area and nearby inland areas of Central Florida are recognized as the "Lightning Capital of North America ''. The regular summertime afternoon thundershowers occasionally intensify into a severe thunderstorm, bringing heavy downpours, frequent lightning, strong straight - line winds, and sometimes hail. Average temperatures gradually fall beginning in September, and average daily rainfall amounts decrease as well during autumn.
Winter in the area is generally dry and mild. Average high temperatures range from the low to mid 70s ° F (21 -- 24 ° C) during the day to the low to mid 50s ° F (10 -- 13 ° C) at night. Occasionally cold fronts make it all the way south to the Tampa area and daytime highs stay in the 50s ° F (10 -- 13 ° C) for a day or two, and nighttime lows fall below 40 F (5 C). Tampa average 2 days a year of frost, although many years may pass without a frost in the Tampa area. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Tampa was 18 ° F (− 8 ° C) on December 13, 1962. The last measurable snow recorded in Tampa fell on January 19, 1977, with amounts between a trace and 0.2 inches (0.5 cm).
Spring in Tampa sees a slow increase in temperatures beginning in late February. However, monthly rainfall averages stay low until June, usually leading to dry conditions and the threat of brush fires in April and May.
Though threatened by tropical systems almost every hurricane season (which runs from June 1 to November 30), Tampa seldom feels major effects from tropical storms or hurricane; no hurricane has made landfall in the immediate Tampa Bay area since the 1921 Tampa Bay hurricane made landfall near Tarpon Springs and caused extensive damage throughout the region. Three major hurricanes have seriously threatened Tampa in the ensuing decades. Hurricane Donna (1960), Hurricane Charley (2004), and Hurricane Irma (2017) were each forecast to make landfall in Tampa Bay from the southwest, a worst - case track that would result in maximum storm surges throughout the region. However, all three storms turned to the east and made landfall in southwest Florida instead. Irma came closest, moving almost due north after making landfall near Marco Island on September 10, 2017 and passing just east of Tampa as a Category 1 storm. Irma caused substantial damage to the area, particularly to the electrical grid.
Because of tremendous population growth and coastal development since the last hurricane strike combined with rising sea levels due to climate change, Tampa and the entire Tampa Bay area is considered one of the most vulnerable regions in the world to a direct hit from a major storm.
The city of Tampa is split between two USDA climate zones. According to the 2012 USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map, Tampa is listed as USDA zone 9b north of Kennedy Boulevard away from the bay and 10a south of Kennedy Boulevard and along the bay, Zone 10a is about the northern limit of where coconut palms and royal palms can be grown, although some specimens do grow in northern Tampa. Since the Tampa area is home to a diverse range of freeze - sensitive agriculture and aquaculture, hard freezes, although quite rare, are a major concern. Since Tampa has some characteristics of a tropical climate, hard freezes (defined as below 28 ° F (− 2.2 ° C)) happen rarely (every five to 20 years depending on location). The last officially recorded freeze at Tampa International Airport took place on the morning of January 13, 2011, when the temperature dropped to 31 ° F (− 1 ° C).
The city is divided into many neighborhoods, many of which were towns and unincorporated communities annexed by the growing city. Generally, the city is divided into the following areas: Downtown Tampa, New Tampa, West Tampa, East Tampa, North Tampa, and South Tampa. Well - known neighborhoods include Ybor City, Forest Hills, Ballast Point, Sulphur Springs, Seminole Heights, Tampa Heights, Palma Ceia, Hyde Park, Davis Islands, Tampa Palms, College Hill, and non-residential areas of Gary and the Westshore Business District.
Tampa displays a wide variety of architectural designs and styles. Most of Tampa 's high rises demonstrate post-modern architecture. The design for the renovated Tampa Museum of Art displays post-modern architecture, while the city hall and the Tampa Theatre belong to Art Deco architecture.
The Tampa mayor Pam Iorio made the redevelopment of Tampa 's downtown, especially residential development, a priority. Several residential and mixed - development high - rises have been constructed. Another of Mayor Iorio 's initiatives was the Tampa Riverwalk, a mixed - use path along the Hillsborough River in downtown. Channelside was recently approved to undergo major renovations by Tampa Bay Lightning owner Jeff Vinik along with other investors. Several museums are part of the plan, including new homes for the Tampa Bay History Center, the Glazer Children 's Museum, and the Tampa Museum of Art. Mayor Bob Buckhorn has continued these developments.
Tampa is the site of several skyscrapers. Overall, there are 18 completed buildings that rise over 250 feet (76 m) high. The city also has 69 high - rises, second only to Miami in the state of Florida. The tallest building in the city is 100 North Tampa, formerly the AmSouth Building, which rises 42 floors and 579 feet (176 m) in Downtown Tampa. The structure was completed in 1992, and is the tallest building in Florida outside of Miami and Jacksonville.
100 North Tampa (1992)
Bank of America Plaza (1986)
One Tampa City Center (1981)
SunTrust Financial Centre (1992)
The Element (2009)
Park Tower (1972)
Rivergate Tower (1988)
The Sunshine Skyway Bridge (1987)
The Sulphur Springs Water Tower, a landmark in the Sulphur Springs section of the city, dates back to the late 1920s. This boom period for Florida also saw the construction of an ornate movie palace, the Tampa Theatre, a Mediterranean revival on Davis Islands, and Bayshore Boulevard, which borders Hillsborough Bay from downtown Tampa to areas in South Tampa. The road has a 6 - mile (10 km) continuous sidewalk on the eastern end, the longest in the world.
The Ybor City District is home to several buildings on the National Register of Historic Places and has been declared a National Historic Landmark. Notable structures include El Centro Español de Tampa, Centro Asturiano de Tampa and other social clubs built in the early 1900s.
Babe Zaharias Golf Course in the Forest Hills area of Tampa has been designated a Historical Landmark by the National Register of Historic Places. It was bought in 1949 by the famous "Babe '' Didrikson Zaharias, who had a residence nearby, and closed upon her death. In 1974, the city of Tampa opened the golf course to the public.
The Story of Tampa, a public painting by Lynn Ash, is a 4 - by - 8 - foot (1.2 m × 2.4 m) oil on masonite mural that weaves together many of the notable aspects of Tampa 's unique character and identity. It was commissioned in 2003 by the city 's Public Art Program and can be found in the lobby of the Tampa Municipal Office Building.
Park Tower (originally the First Financial Bank of Florida) is the first substantial skyscraper in downtown Tampa. Completed in 1973, it was the tallest skyscraper in Tampa until the completion of One Tampa City Center in 1981. The Rivergate building, a cylindrical structure known as the "Beer Can building '', was featured in the movie The Punisher.
Spanning the southern part of Tampa Bay is the massive steel - span Sunshine Skyway Bridge.
Tampa is home to the Bro Bowl, one of the last remaining skateparks built during skateboarding 's "Golden Era '' in the 1970s. It opened in 1979 and was constructed by Tampa Parks and Recreation. It was the first public skatepark to be constructed in Florida and the third on the East Coast.
As of 2000, the largest European ancestries in the city were German (9.2 %), Irish (8.4 %), English (7.7 %), Italian (5.6 %), and French (2.4 %).
As of 2010, there were 157,130 households out of which 13.5 % were vacant. In 2000, 27.6 % households had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.4 % were married couples living together, 16.1 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.9 % were non-families. 33.7 % of all households were made up of individuals and 10.2 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 3.07.
In 2000, the city 's population was spread out with 24.6 % under the age of 18, 10.0 % from 18 to 24, 32.3 % from 25 to 44, 20.5 % from 45 to 64, and 12.5 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34.7 years old. For every 100 females there were 95.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.1 males.
In 2006, the median income for a household in the city was $39,602, and the median income for a family was $45,823. Males had a median income of $40,461 versus $29,868 for females. The per capita income for the city was $26,522. 20.1 % of the population and 16.4 % of families were below the poverty line. 31.0 % of those under the age of 18 and 13.6 % of those 65 and older are living below the poverty level.
As of 2000, those who spoke only English at home accounted for 77.4 % of all residents, while 22.6 % spoke other languages in their homes. The most significant was Spanish speakers who made up 17.8 % of the population, while French came up as the third most spoken language, which made up 0.6 %, and Italian was at fourth, with 0.6 % of the population.
There is a large gay population and a gay cultural center known as the GaYbor District.
Communities of faith have organized in Tampa from 1846, when a Methodist congregation established the city 's first church, to 1939, when a 21 - year - old Billy Graham began his career as a spiritual evangelist and preacher on downtown 's Franklin Street, and through to today. Among Tampa 's noteworthy religious structures are Sacred Heart Catholic Church, a 1905 downtown landmark noted for its soaring, Romanesque revival construction in granite and marble with German - crafted stained glass windows, the distinctive rock and mortar St. James Episcopal House of Prayer, listed with the National Register of Historic Places, and the St. Paul AME church, which has seen the likes of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and President Bill Clinton speak from its pulpit. The latter two have been designated by the city government as Local Landmark Structures.
Tampa 's religious community includes a broad representation of Christian denominations, including those above, and Presbyterian, Lutheran, Christian Science, Church of God, United Church of Christ, Philippine Independent Church, Unitarian Universalist, Metropolitan Community Church, Seventh - day Adventist, Eastern Orthodox (Greek, Coptic, Syrian, and OCA), various Pentecostal movements, Anglicans, the Quakers, Jehovah 's Witnesses, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints. There is also at least one congregation of Messianic Jews in Tampa. There is a Korean Baptist church, a Mennonite church, several Haitian churches, and a Vietnamese Baptist Church. Tampa has several Jewish synagogues practicing Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. In addition, there is a small Zoroastrian community present in Tampa.
Around the city are located a handful of mosques for followers of Islam, as well as a Tibetan - style Buddhist temple, a Thai Buddhist Wat, and local worship centers for the Sikh, Hindu and Bahá'í faiths. The Church of Scientology, based in nearby Clearwater, maintains a location for its members in Tampa.
Overall, Tampa is 50th out of the largest 51 metropolitan area in the percentage of the populace that attends religious services of any kind.
Finance, retail, healthcare, insurance, shipping by air and sea, national defense, professional sports, tourism, and real estate all play vital roles in the area 's economy. Hillsborough County alone has an estimated 740,000 employees, a figure which is projected to increase to 922,000 by 2015. Several large corporations, such as banks and telecommunications companies, maintain regional offices in Tampa.
Several Fortune 1000 companies are headquartered in the metropolitan area, including OSI Restaurant Partners, WellCare, TECO Energy, and Raymond James Financial.
Downtown Tampa is undergoing significant development and redevelopment in line with a general national trend toward urban residential development. As of April 2007, the Tampa Downtown Partnership noted development proceeding on 20 residential, hotel, and mixed - use projects. Many of the new downtown developments are nearing completion in the midst of a housing market slump, which has caused numerous projects to be delayed or revamped, and some of the 20 projects TDP lists have not broken ground and are being refinanced. Nonetheless several developments are nearing completion, which city leaders hope will make downtown into a 24 - hour neighborhood instead of a 9 to 5 business district. As of 2010, Tampa residents faced a decline in rent of 2 %. Nationally rent had decreased 4 %. The Tampa Business Journal found Tampa to be the number two city for real estate investment in 2014.
Tampa 's port is now the seventh largest in the nation and Florida 's largest tonnage port, handling nearly half of all seaborne commerce that passes through the state. Tampa currently ranks second in the state behind Miami in terms of cruise ship travel. Besides smaller regional cruise ships such as Yacht Starship and SunCruz Casino, Tampa also serves as a port of call for three cruise lines: Holland America 's MS Ryndam, Royal Caribbean 's Grandeur of the Seas and Radiance of the Seas, and Carnival 's Inspiration and Legend.
The main server farm for Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects is located in Tampa.
MacDill Air Force Base remains a major employer as the parent installation for over 15,000 active uniformed military, Department of Defense (DoD) civil service and DoD contractor personnel in the Tampa Bay area. A significant majority of the civil service and contractor personnel are, in fact, themselves retired career military personnel. In addition to the 6th Air Mobility Wing, which is "host wing '' for the base, MacDill is also home to Headquarters, United States Central Command (USCENTCOM), Headquarters, United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM), the 927th Air Refueling Wing, Headquarters, United States Marine Forces Central Command (USMARCENT), Headquarters, United States Special Operations Command Central (USSOCCENT), and numerous other military activities of the active and reserve components of the armed forces.
Since the year 2000, Tampa has seen a notable upsurge in high - market demand from consumers, signaling more wealth concentrated in the area.
Tampa is home to a variety of stage and performing arts venues and theaters, including the David A. Straz Jr. Center for the Performing Arts, Tampa Theatre, Gorilla Theatre, and the MidFlorida Credit Union Amphitheatre next to the Florida State Fairgrounds.
Performing arts companies and organizations which call Tampa home include the Florida Orchestra, Opera Tampa, Jobsite Theater, the Master Chorale of Tampa Bay, Stageworks Theatre, Spanish Lyric Theater, Tampa Bay Opera, and the Tampa Bay Symphony.
Current popular nightlife districts include Channelside, Ybor City, SoHo, International Plaza and Bay Street, and Seminole Hard Rock. Downtown Tampa also contains some nightlife, and there are more clubs / bars to be found in other areas of the city. Tampa is rated sixth on Maxim magazine 's list of top party cities.
The area has become a "de facto '' headquarters of professional wrestling, with many pros living in the area. WWE 's former developmental territory, Florida Championship Wrestling, was also based in Tampa.
Tampa is home to several death metal bands, an extreme form of heavy metal music that evolved from thrash metal. Many of the genre 's pioneers and foremost figures are based in and around the city. Chief among these are Deicide, Six Feet Under, Obituary, Cannibal Corpse, Death and Morbid Angel. The Tampa scene grew with the birth of Morrisound Recording, which established itself as an international recording destination for metal bands.
The underground rock band, the Baskervils, got their start in Tampa. They played the Tampa Bay area between 1994 and 1997 and then moved to New York City. Underground hip - hop group Equilibrium is based out of Tampa, as well as the Christian metalcore band Underoath.
In 2009, the new Frank Wildhorn musical Wonderland: Alice 's New Musical Adventure hosted its world premiere at the Straz Center.
The Tampa area is home to a number of museums that cover a wide array of subjects and studies. These include the Museum of Science & Industry (MOSI), which has several floors of science - related exhibits plus the only domed IMAX theater in Florida and a planetarium; the Tampa Museum of Art; the USF Contemporary Art Museum; the Tampa Bay History Center; the Tampa Firefighters Museum; the Henry B. Plant Museum; and Ybor City Museum State Park. Permanently docked in downtown 's Channel District is the SS American Victory, a former World War II Victory ship which is now used as a museum ship.
Tampa has a diverse culinary scene from small cafes and bakeries to bistros and farm - to - table restaurants. The food of Tampa has a history of Cuban, Spanish, Floribbean and Italian cuisines. There are also many Colombian, Puerto Rican, Vietnamese and barbecue restaurants. Seafood is very popular in Tampa, and Greek cuisine is prominent in the area, including around Tarpon Springs. Food trucks are popular, and the area holds the record for the world 's largest food truck rally. In addition to Ybor, the areas of Seminole Heights and South Tampa are known for their restaurants.
Tampa is the birthplace of the Florida version of the deviled crab and the Cuban sandwich, which has been officially designated as the "signature sandwich of the city of Tampa '' by the city council. A Tampa Cuban sandwich is distinct from other regional versions, as Genoa salami is layered in with the other ingredients, likely due to the influence of Italian immigrants living next to Cubans and Spaniards in Ybor City.
Several restaurant chains were founded or headquartered in Tampa, including Outback Steakhouse, The Melting Pot, Front Burner Brands, Carrabba 's, Fleming 's Prime Steakhouse & Wine Bar, Bonefish Grill, Columbia Restaurant, Checkers and Rally 's, Taco Bus, and PDQ.
The city of Tampa operates over 165 parks and beaches covering 2,286 acres (9.25 km) within city limits; 42 more in surrounding suburbs covering 70,000 acres (280 km) are maintained by Hillsborough County. These areas include Hillsborough River State Park, just northeast of the city. Tampa is home to a number of attractions and theme parks, including Busch Gardens Tampa, Adventure Island, the Lowry Park Zoo, and the Florida Aquarium.
The Lowry Park Zoo features over 2,000 animals, interactive exhibits, rides, educational shows and more. The zoo serves as an economic, cultural, environmental and educational anchor in Tampa.
Big Cat Rescue is one of the largest accredited sanctuaries in the world dedicated entirely to abused and abandoned big cats. It is home to about 80 lions, tigers, bobcats, cougars and other species, most of whom have been abandoned, abused, orphaned, saved from being turned into fur coats, or retired from performing acts. They have a variety of different tours available.
Busch Gardens Tampa is a 335 - acre (1.36 km) Africa - themed park located near the University of South Florida. It features many thrilling roller coasters, for which it is known, including Sheikra, Montu, Gwazi and Kumba. Visitors can also view and interact with a number of African wildlife. Adventure Island is a 30 - acre (12 ha) water park adjacent to Busch Gardens.
The Florida Aquarium is a 250,000 sq ft (23,000 m) aquarium located in the Channel District. It hosts over 20,000 species of aquatic plants and animals. It is known for its unique glass architecture. Adjacent to the aquarium is the SS American Victory, a World War II Victory ship preserved as a museum ship.
The Tampa Bay History Center is a museum located in the Channel District. It boasts over 60,000 sq ft (5,600 m) of exhibits through 12,000 years. There are theaters, a map gallery, a research center and a museum store.
Well - known shopping areas include International Plaza and Bay Street, WestShore Plaza, the SoHo district, and Hyde Park Village. Palma Ceia is home to the Palma Ceia Design District. Previously, Tampa had been home to the Floriland Mall (now an office park), Tampa Bay Center (demolished and replaced with the new Tampa Bay Buccaneers training facility, known as "One Buc Place ''), and East Lake Square Mall (now an office park).
The Tampa Port Authority currently operates three cruise ship terminals in Tampa 's Channel District. The Port of Tampa is the year - round home port for Carnival Cruise Lines ' MS Carnival Inspiration and MS Carnival Legend. In 2010 Tampa will also be a seasonal port for Holland America Line 's MS Ryndam, as well as Royal Caribbean International 's MS Grandeur of the Seas and MS Radiance of the Seas. A fourth company, Norwegian Cruise Line, has announced plans to sail out of Tampa for the first time. The 2,240 passenger MS Norwegian Star will be Tampa 's largest cruise ship when it debuts a seasonal schedule in 2011. Cruise itineraries from Tampa include stops in the Eastern and Western Caribbean islands, Honduras, Belize, and Mexico.
Perhaps the most well known and anticipated events are those from Tampa 's annual celebration of "Gasparilla '', particularly the Gasparilla Pirate Festival, a mock pirate invasion held since 1904 in late January or early February. Often referred to as Tampa 's "Mardi Gras '', the invasion flotilla led by the pirate ship, Jose Gasparilla, and subsequent parade draw over 400,000 attendees, contributing tens of millions of dollars to the city 's economy. Beyond the initial invasion, numerous Gasparilla festivities take place each year between January and March, including the Gasparilla Children 's Parade, the more adult - oriented Sant'Yago Knight Parade, the Gasparilla Distance Classic, Gasparilla Festival of the Arts, and the Gasparilla International Film Festival, among other pirate themed events.
Other notable events include the Outback Bowl, which is held New Year 's Day at Raymond James Stadium. Each February, The Florida State Fair brings crowds from across the state, while "Fiesta Day '' celebrates Tampa 's Cuban, Spanish, German, Italian, English, Irish, Jewish, and African - Cuban immigrant heritage. The India International Film Festival (IIFF) of Tampa Bay also takes place in February. In April the MacDill Air Fest entertains as one of the largest military air shows in the U.S. Guavaween, a nighttime street celebration infuses Halloween with the Latin flavor of Ybor City. Downtown Tampa hosts the largest anime convention in Florida, Metrocon, a three - day event held in either June or July at the Tampa Convention Center. Ybor also hosts "GaYbor Days '', an annual street party in the GLBT - friendly GaYbor district. The Tampa International Gay and Lesbian Film Festival, held annually since 1989, is the city 's largest film festival event, and one of the largest independent gay film festivals in the country.
Tampa hosted the 2012 Republican National Convention and the 15th International Indian Film Academy Awards in April 2014.
Tampa is represented by teams in three major professional sports leagues: the National Football League, the National Hockey League, and Major League Baseball. The NFL 's Tampa Bay Buccaneers and the NHL 's Tampa Bay Lightning call Tampa home, while the Tampa Bay Rays of the MLB play across the bay in St. Petersburg. As indicated by their names, these teams, plus several other sports teams, represent the entire Tampa metropolitan area.
The Tampa Bay area has long been a site for Major League Baseball spring training facilities and minor league baseball teams. The New York Yankees conduct spring training in Tampa, and the Tampa Yankees play there in the summer. On the collegiate level, the University of South Florida Bulls and the University of Tampa Spartans participate in many different sports.
The Tampa Bay Buccaneers began in 1976 as an expansion team of the NFL. They struggled at first, losing their first 26 games in a row to set a league record for futility. After a brief taste of success in the late 1970s, the Bucs again returned to their losing ways, and at one point lost 10 + games for 12 seasons in a row. The hiring of Tony Dungy in 1996 started an improving trend that eventually led to the team 's victory in Super Bowl XXXVII in 2003 under coach Jon Gruden.
Tampa has hosted four Super Bowls: Super Bowl XVIII (1984), Super Bowl XXV (1991), Super Bowl XXXV (2001), and Super Bowl XLIII (2009). The first two events were held at Tampa Stadium, and the other two at Raymond James Stadium. Tampa will be the host for Super Bowl LV in 2021.
Originally the Pittsburgh Gladiators and a charter member of the Arena Football League, the Tampa Bay Storm relocated from Pittsburgh in 1991 and won ArenaBowl V that year. They have won 4 more ArenaBowls since then: ArenaBowl VII, IX, X, and XVII, and also appeared in ArenaBowl I, III, XII and XXIII. They have the most Arena Bowl titles.
Tampa was also home to the Tampa Bay Bandits of the United States Football League. The Bandits made the playoffs twice in their three seasons under head coach Steve Spurrier and drew league - leading crowds to Tampa Stadium, but the team folded along with the rest of the USFL after the 1985 season. They played at Tampa Stadium, which hosted the 1984 USFL Championship Game.
Raymond James Stadium hosted the 2017 College Football Playoff National Championship.
The Tampa Bay area has long been home to spring training, minor league, and excellent amateur baseball. The Tampa Bay Rays (originally "Devil Rays '') began playing in 1998 at Tropicana Field in St. Petersburg. After a decade of futility, the Rays won the 2008 American League Pennant and made it to the World Series. They also won American League East titles in 2008 and 2010.
In 2007, the Rays began the process of searching for a stadium site closer to the center of the area 's population, possibly in Tampa.
Several Major League baseball teams conduct spring training in the area, and most also operate minor league teams in the Class - A Florida State League. The New York Yankees and the affiliated Tampa Yankees use George M. Steinbrenner Field across Dale Mabry Highway from Raymond James Stadium.
The NHL 's Tampa Bay Lightning was established in 1992, and currently play their home games at Amalie Arena, located in downtown Tampa. In 2004, the team won their first and only Stanley Cup. The Lightning lost the Eastern Conference Final in 2011 in 7 games against that year 's champion Boston Bruins. The Bolts were Eastern Conference Champions in 2015. They returned to the Eastern Conference Final in 2016 but lost in 7 games to the eventual champion Pittsburgh Penguins.
The Tampa Bay Rowdies compete in the United Soccer League (2nd Division) after spending their first 6 seasons in the North American Soccer League. The team began play at Tampa 's George M. Steinbrenner Field in 2010, then moved to St. Petersburg 's Al Lang Field in 2011. The Rowdies won their first league championship in Soccer Bowl 2012.
Previously, Tampa had hosted two top - level soccer teams. The Tampa Bay Rowdies of the original North American Soccer League was the area 's first major sports franchise, beginning play in 1975 at Tampa Stadium. The Rowdies were an immediate success, drawing good crowds and winning Soccer Bowl ' 75 in their first season to bring Tampa its first professional sports championship. Though the NASL ceased operations in 1984, the Rowdies continued to compete in various soccer leagues until finally folding in 1993.
The success of the Rowdies prompted Major League Soccer (MLS) to award Tampa a charter member of the new league in 1996. The Tampa Bay Mutiny were the first MLS Supporters ' Shield winner and had much early success beginning in 1996. However, the club folded in 2001 when local ownership could not be secured mainly due to a financially poor lease agreement for Raymond James Stadium. The city has no current representation in MLS, however, the Rowdies are currently seeking to join the league.
The University of South Florida is the only NCAA Division I sports program in Tampa. USF began playing intercollegiate sports in 1965. The South Florida Bulls established a basketball team in 1971 and a football team in 1997. The Bulls joined the Big East in 2005, and the football team rose to as high as # 2 in the BCS rankings in 2007. They are now part of the American Athletic Conference.
The University of Tampa Spartans compete at the NCAA Division II level in the Sunshine State Conference (SSC).
Tampa is governed under the strong mayor form of government. The Mayor of Tampa is the chief executive officer of city government and is elected in four - year terms, with a limit of two consecutive terms. The current mayor is Bob Buckhorn, who took office on April 1, 2011. The City Council is a legislative body served by seven members. Four members are elected from specific numbered areas designated City Districts, and the other three are "at - large '' members (serving citywide).
The city of Tampa is served by Tampa Fire Rescue. With 22 fire stations, the department provides fire and medical protection for Tampa and New Tampa, and provides support to other departments such as Tampa International Airport and Hillsborough County Fire Rescue.
The city of Tampa has a large police department that provides law enforcement services. The Tampa Police Department has over 1000 sworn officers and many civilian service support personnel.
Public primary and secondary education is operated by Hillsborough County Public Schools, officially known as the School District of Hillsborough County (SDHC). It is ranked the eighth largest school district in the United States, with around 189,469 enrolled students. SDHC runs 208 schools, 133 being elementary, 42 middle, 27 high schools, two K - 8s, and four career centers. There are 73 additional schools in the district that are charter, ESE, alternative, etc. Twelve out of 27 high schools in the SDHC are included in Newsweek 's list of America 's Best High Schools.
Tampa 's library system is operated by the Tampa - Hillsborough County Public Library System. THPLS operates 25 libraries throughout Tampa and Hillsborough County, including the John F. Germany Public Library in Downtown Tampa. The Tampa library system first started in the early 20th century, with the West Tampa Library, which was made possible with funds donated by Andrew Carnegie. Tampa 's libraries are also a part of a larger library network, The Hillsborough County Public Library Cooperative, which includes the libraries of the neighboring municipalities of Temple Terrace and Plant City.
There are a number of institutions of higher education in Tampa.
The city is home to the main campus of the University of South Florida (USF), a member of the State University System of Florida founded in 1956. In 2010, it was the eleventh highest individual campus enrollment in the U.S. with over 46,000 students. The University of Tampa (UT) is a private, four - year liberal arts institution. It was founded in 1931, and in 1933, it moved into the former Tampa Bay Hotel across the Hillsborough River from downtown Tampa. "UT '' has undergone several expansions in recent years, and had an enrollment of over 8000 students in 2015.
Hillsborough Community College is a two - year community college in the Florida College System with campuses in Tampa and Hillsborough County. Southern Technical College is a private two - year college that operates a campus in Tampa. Hillsborough Technical Education Centers (HiTEC) is the postsecondary extension of the local areas Public Schools district. The schools provide for a variety of technical training certification courses as well as job placement skills.
The Stetson University College of Law is located in Gulfport and has a second campus, the Tampa Law Center, in downtown Tampa. The Law Center houses the Tampa branch of Florida 's Second District Court of Appeal.
Other colleges and universities in the wider Tampa Bay Area include Jersey College, Eckerd College, and St. Petersburg College in St. Petersburg.
The major daily newspaper serving the city is the Tampa Bay Times, which purchased its longtime competition, The Tampa Tribune, in 2016. Print news coverage is also provided by a variety of smaller regional newspapers, alternative weeklies, and magazines, including the Florida Sentinel Bulletin, Creative Loafing, Reax Music Magazine, The Oracle, Tampa Bay Business Journal, MacDill Thunderbolt, and La Gaceta, which notable for being the nation 's only trilingual newspaper - English, Spanish, and Italian, owing to its roots in the cigar - making immigrant neighborhood of Ybor City.
Major television stations include WFTS 28 (ABC), WTSP 10 (CBS), WFLA - TV 8 (NBC), WTVT 13 (Fox), WTOG 44 (The CW), WTTA 38 (MyNetworkTV), WEDU 3 (PBS), WEDQ 16 (PBS), WMOR - TV 32 (Independent), WXPX 66 (ION), WCLF 22 (CTN), WFTT 50 (UniMás) and WVEA 62 (Univision).
The area is served by dozens of FM and AM radio stations including WDAE, which was the first radio station in Florida when it went on the air in 1922.
Three motor vehicle bridges cross Tampa Bay to Pinellas County from Tampa city limits: the Howard Frankland Bridge (I - 275), the Courtney Campbell Causeway (SR 60), and the Gandy Bridge (U.S. 92). The old Gandy Bridge was completely replaced by new spans during the 1990s, but a span of the old bridge was saved and converted into a pedestrian and biking bridge renamed The Friendship Trail. It is the longest overwater recreation trail in the world. However, the bridge was closed in 2008 due to structural problems.
Tampa has several freeways which serve the city. There are two tolled freeways bringing traffic in and out of Tampa. The Lee Roy Selmon Expressway (SR 618) (formerly known as the Crosstown Expressway), runs from suburban Brandon at its eastern terminus, through Downtown Tampa, to the neighborhoods in South Tampa (near MacDill Air Force Base) at its western terminus. The Veterans Expressway (SR 589), meanwhile connects Tampa International Airport and the bay bridges to the northwestern suburbs of Carrollwood, Northdale, Westchase, Citrus Park, Cheval, and Lutz, before continuing north as the Suncoast Parkway into Pasco and Hernando counties.
Three of the city 's freeways carry the interstate highway designation. Interstate 4 and Interstate 275 cut across the city and intersect near downtown. Interstate 75 runs along the east side of town for much of its route through Hillsborough County until veering to the west to bisect New Tampa.
Along with the city 's freeways, major surface roads serve as main arteries of the city. These roads are Hillsborough Avenue (U.S. 92 and U.S. 41), Dale Mabry Highway (U.S. 92), Nebraska Avenue (U.S. 41 / SR 45), Florida Avenue (U.S. 41 Business), Bruce B. Downs Boulevard, Fowler Avenue, Busch Boulevard, Kennedy Boulevard (SR 60), Adamo Drive, and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard.
Tampa is served by three airports (one in Tampa, two in the metro area) that provide significant scheduled passenger air service:
Tampa 's intercity passenger rail service is based at Tampa Union Station, a historic facility, adjacent to downtown between the Channel District and Ybor City. The station is served by Amtrak 's Silver Star, which calls on Tampa twice daily: southbound to Miami and northbound for New York City. Union Station also serves as the transfer hub for Amtrak Thruway Motorcoach service, offering bus connections to several cities in southwest Florida and to Orlando.
Uceta Rail Yard on Tampa 's east side services CSX as a storage and intermodal freight transport facility. Freight and container cargo operations at the city 's seaports also depend upon dockside rail facilities.
The Port of Tampa is the largest port in Florida in throughput tonnage, making it one of the busiest commercial ports in North America. Petroleum and phosphate are the lead commodities, accounting for two - thirds of the 37 million tons of total bulk and general cargo handled by the port in 2009. The port is also home to Foreign Trade Zone # 79, which assists companies in Tampa Bay and along the I - 4 Corridor in importing, exporting, manufacturing, and distribution activities as part of the United States foreign trade zone program.
Weekly containerized cargo service is available in the Port of Tampa. Cargo service is offered by Ports America, Zim American Integrated Shipping Company, and MSC which has recently partnered with Zim. Currently 3,000 to 4,250 TEU containerships regularly call the Port of Tampa.
The bay bottom is very sandy, with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers constantly dredging the ship channels to keep them navigable to large cargo ships.
Public mass transit in Tampa is operated by the Hillsborough Area Regional Transit Authority (HART), and includes public bus as well as a streetcar line. The HART bus system 's main hub is the Marion Transit Center in Downtown Tampa, serving nearly 30 local and express routes. HART is also currently making a bus rapid transit system called MetroRapid that will run between Downtown and the University of South Florida.
The TECO Line Streetcar System runs electric streetcar service along eleven stations on a 2.7 - mile (4.3 km) route, connecting Ybor City, the Channel District, the Tampa Convention Center, and downtown Tampa. The TECO Line fleet features varnished wood interiors reminiscent of late 19th and mid-20th century streetcars.
Limited transportation by privately operated "Neighborhood Electric Vehicles '' (NEV) is available, primarily in Downtown Tampa and Ybor City. Water taxis are available on a charter basis for tours along the downtown waterfront and the Hillsborough River.
The Tampa Bay Area Regional Transportation Authority (TBARTA) develops bus, light rail, and other transportation options for the seven - county Tampa Bay area.
Tampa and its surrounding suburbs are host to over 20 hospitals, four trauma centers, and multiple Cancer treatment centers. Three of the area 's hospitals were ranked among "America 's best hospitals '' by US News and World Report. Tampa is also home to many health research institutions. The major hospitals in Tampa include Tampa General Hospital, St. Joseph 's Children 's & Women 's Hospital, James A. Haley Veterans Hospital, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, and The Pepin Heart Institute. Shriners Hospitals for Children is based in Tampa. USF 's Byrd Alzheimer 's Institute is both a prominent research facility and Alzheimer 's patient care center in Tampa. Along with human health care, there are hundreds of animal medical centers including a Humane Society of America.
Water in the area is managed by the Southwest Florida Water Management District. The water is mainly supplied by the Hillsborough River, which in turn arises from the Green Swamp, but several other rivers and desalination plants in the area contribute to the supply. Power is mainly generated by TECO Energy.
Tampa has formalized sister city agreements with the following cities:
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who sings background vocals on i hope you dance | I Hope You Dance - wikipedia
"I Hope You Dance '' is a crossover country pop song written by Mark D. Sanders and Tia Sillers and recorded by country singer Lee Ann Womack with Sons of the Desert. The song, which was featured on Womack 's 2000 album of the same name, reached number one on both the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks and Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks charts, and also reached number fourteen on the Billboard Hot 100. It is considered to be Womack 's signature song, and it is the only Billboard number one for both Womack and Sons of the Desert. "I Hope You Dance '' won the 2001 CMA, ACM, NSAI, ASCAP and BMI awards for Song of the Year. It also won the Grammy Award for Best Country Song and was nominated for Song of the Year. "I Hope You Dance '' is ranked 352 in the list "Songs of the Century '' compiled by Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). "I Hope You Dance '' reached its 2 million sales mark in the United States in October 2015, and as of August 2016, it has sold 2,093,000 digital copies in the US.
Womack told The Today Show, "You ca n't hear those lyrics and not think about children and -- and -- and hope for the future and things you want for them. And those are the things I want for them in life. I want them to feel small when they stand beside the ocean. '' She also said, "Sometimes I have fun and lighthearted things. But even "I Hope You Dance. '' I was so shocked to see the way the kids got it. When -- when I say kids, I mean, you know, like teen - agers. And we saw a big difference in our audience and -- and the young kids that were coming out to the shows and really into "I Hope You Dance. '' It turned into like a prom and graduation theme. '' Womack told The Early Show, "I thought it was very special. It made me think about Aubrie and Anna Lisa. And I -- I did n't know -- I ca n't predict if something 's going to be a big hit or not. But it certainly hit home with a lot of people, connected with a lot of people and took me a lot of new places that I had not been able to go before and took my career to a new level. ''
Womack told Billboard, "It made me think about my daughters and the different times in their lives. As a parent, you just hope those are the kinds of things you will make your children think of. But it can be so many things to different people. Certainly, it can represent everything a parent hopes for their child, but it can also be for a relationship that 's ending as a fond wish for the other person 's happiness or for someone graduating, having a baby, or embarking on a new path. It fits almost every circumstance I can think of. '' In another interview with Billboard, Womack said, "When a song really connects with so many people, it 's because they felt something when they heard it. This song makes you think about and feel for the people you really love in your life. Who does n't have someone like that in their life? ''
In 2006 Womack told Billboard about an incident at the Country Radio Seminar and said, "I made some new friends at radio, caught up with friends that I had known since the beginning of my career and was able to enjoy a few drinks. Unfortunately, the next day I was performing at the MCA luncheon in front of a crowd of radio folks and, feeling a bit under the weather, I completely blanked out on the lyrics of ' I Hope You Dance, ' of all songs. Lucky for me, most of the audience was hung over too and had a good sense of humor about it. ''
"I Hope You Dance '' is a mid-tempo country pop ballad in which the narrator, a mother, expresses her wishes to her children.
Two versions of Womack 's recording were released. The original version features Sons of the Desert (who, like Womack, were signed to MCA at the time) singing a counterpoint chorus alongside Womack 's main chorus, while a second version of the song released for pop radio omits the counterpoint chorus in favor of background vocals to accompany the main chorus. The song was also Sons of the Desert 's first Top 40 country hit since "Leaving October '' in 1998. The music video features Lee Ann Womack singing the song to her daughters.
Editors at Billboard gave the song a positive review and wrote, "This is a career record. Years from now, when critics are discussing Womack 's vocal gifts and impressive body of work, this is a song that will stand out. It 's one of those life - affirming songs that makes you pause and take stock of how you 're living. It 's filled with lovely poetry that will make listeners think. It 's a great song, and Womack does it justice. Her sweet, vulnerable voice perfectly captures the tender sentiment of the lyric. The production is clean and understated, letting Womack 's stunning vocal and the great lyric take center stage. Excellence deserves to be rewarded. Ken Barnes of USA Today listed the "I Hope You Dance '' as the fourth best song of 2000 and wrote, "Uplifting message song whose greeting - card sentiments and imprecise rhymes are outweighed by a gorgeous performance by today 's reigning pure - country vocalist.
Womack performed the song at The Early Show on October 4, 2000 It was also performed on The Tonight Show in June 2000. In July 2016, Womack performed the song with Rachel Platten in a medley with Platten 's "Stand by You '' on the short - lived ABC series Greatest Hits.
US CD Single
US CD Promo
UK CD Single
Australia CD Single
"I Hope You Dance '' was covered by Irish singer / songwriter Ronan Keating and released as the first single from his greatest hits compilation, 10 Years of Hits. The single was released in September 2004, peaking at number two on the UK Singles Chart. The single featured a new version of "This Is Your Song '', a song recorded when Keating lost his mother in 1998. Royalties from sales of the single were donated to the organization Breast Cancer Care.
A Gladys Knight cover version is included in the 2008 film Tyler Perry 's The Family That Preys.
The track was chosen for Lauren Alaina by singer Jennifer Lopez in season 10 of American Idol.
In 2012, Dutch singer Glennis Grace recorded a Dutch version, ("Dat Is Mijn Wens ''), with lyrics by producer Edwin Evers, for her album "This Is My Voice ''.
Voice actress Michelle Creber covers the song on her album Timeless: Songs of a Century.
In 2013, CCM singer Mandisa covered the song on the deluxe version of her album, Overcomer.
In July 13, 2014, Sarah Darling makes a song selection from Rising Star.
In September 22, 2015, Emily Ann Roberts covered a song choice selection from the Blind Audition from The Voice (U.S. season 9).
In January 2016, Jennifer Lopez covered the song during her Las Vegas Residency All I Have
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10 most wanted criminals in the world 2018 | The World 's 10 Most Wanted Fugitives - wikipedia
The World 's Most Wanted Fugitives is a list published by the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation and American publishing and media company Forbes. The list contains 10 fugitives that Forbes, with the help of international law enforcement agencies, deems to be the world 's most wanted.
The World 's Most Wanted Fugitives list was first published in April 2008. Subsequently, in August 2008, Forbes debuted an additional list focused solely on white - collar crime: the World 's 10 Most Wanted White - Collar Fugitives. Forbes debuted yet another list in May 2011, following the death of Osama bin Laden: FBI Most Wanted Terrorists.
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who did tesla go find after he arrived in the usa | Nikola Tesla - wikipedia
Nikola Tesla (/ ˈtɛslə /; Serbo - Croatian: (nǐkola têsla); Serbian Cyrillic: Никола Тесла; 10 July 1856 -- 7 January 1943) was a Serbian - American inventor, electrical engineer, mechanical engineer, and futurist who is best known for his contributions to the design of the modern alternating current (AC) electricity supply system.
Born and raised in the Austrian Empire, Tesla received an advanced education in engineering and physics in the 1870s and gained practical experience in the early 1880s working in telephony and at Continental Edison in the new electric power industry. He emigrated to the United States in 1884, where he would become a naturalized citizen. He worked for a short time at the Edison Machine Works in New York City before he struck out on his own. With the help of partners to finance and market his ideas, Tesla set up laboratories and companies in New York to develop a range of electrical and mechanical devices. His alternating current (AC) induction motor and related polyphase AC patents, licensed by Westinghouse Electric in 1888, earned him a considerable amount of money and became the cornerstone of the polyphase system which that company would eventually market.
Attempting to develop inventions he could patent and market, Tesla conducted a range of experiments with mechanical oscillators / generators, electrical discharge tubes, and early X-ray imaging. He also built a wireless - controlled boat, one of the first ever exhibited. Tesla became well known as an inventor and would demonstrate his achievements to celebrities and wealthy patrons at his lab, and was noted for his showmanship at public lectures. Throughout the 1890s, Tesla pursued his ideas for wireless lighting and worldwide wireless electric power distribution in his high - voltage, high - frequency power experiments in New York and Colorado Springs. In 1893, he made pronouncements on the possibility of wireless communication with his devices. Tesla tried to put these ideas to practical use in his unfinished Wardenclyffe Tower project, an intercontinental wireless communication and power transmitter, but ran out of funding before he could complete it.
After Wardenclyffe, Tesla experimented with a series of inventions in the 1910s and 1920s with varying degrees of success. Having spent most of his money, Tesla lived in a series of New York hotels, leaving behind unpaid bills. He died in New York City in January 1943. Tesla 's work fell into relative obscurity following his death, until 1960, when the General Conference on Weights and Measures named the SI unit of magnetic flux density the tesla in his honor. There has been a resurgence in popular interest in Tesla since the 1990s.
Nikola Tesla was born an ethnic Serb in the village Smiljan, Lika county, in the Austrian Empire (present day Croatia), on 10 July (O.S. 28 June) 1856. His father, Milutin Tesla (1819 -- 1879), was an Eastern Orthodox priest. Tesla 's mother, Đuka Tesla (née Mandić; 1822 -- 1892), whose father was also an Orthodox priest, had a talent for making home craft tools and mechanical appliances and the ability to memorize Serbian epic poems. Đuka had never received a formal education. Tesla credited his eidetic memory and creative abilities to his mother 's genetics and influence. Tesla 's progenitors were from western Serbia, near Montenegro.
Tesla was the fourth of five children. He had three sisters, Milka, Angelina and Marica, and an older brother named Dane, who was killed in a horse riding accident when Tesla was aged five. In 1861, Tesla attended primary school in Smiljan where he studied German, arithmetic, and religion. In 1862, the Tesla family moved to the nearby Gospić, Lika where Tesla 's father worked as parish priest. Nikola completed primary school, followed by middle school.
In 1870, Tesla moved far north to Karlovac to attend high school at the Higher Real Gymnasium. The classes were held in German, as it was a school within the Austro - Hungarian Military Frontier.
Tesla would later write that he became interested in demonstrations of electricity by his physics professor. Tesla noted that these demonstrations of this "mysterious phenomena '' made him want "to know more of this wonderful force ''. Tesla was able to perform integral calculus in his head, which prompted his teachers to believe that he was cheating. He finished a four - year term in three years, graduating in 1873.
In 1873, Tesla returned to Smiljan. Shortly after he arrived, he contracted cholera, was bedridden for nine months and was near death multiple times. Tesla 's father, in a moment of despair, (who had originally wanted him to enter the priesthood) promised to send him to the best engineering school if he recovered from the illness.
In 1874, Tesla evaded conscription into the Austro - Hungarian Army in Smiljan by running away southeast of Lika to Tomingaj, near Gračac. There he explored the mountains wearing hunter 's garb. Tesla said that this contact with nature made him stronger, both physically and mentally. He read many books while in Tomingaj and later said that Mark Twain 's works had helped him to miraculously recover from his earlier illness.
In 1875, Tesla enrolled at Austrian Polytechnic in Graz, Austria, on a Military Frontier scholarship. During his first year, Tesla never missed a lecture, earned the highest grades possible, passed nine exams (nearly twice as many as required), started a Serb cultural club, and even received a letter of commendation from the dean of the technical faculty to his father, which stated, "Your son is a star of first rank. '' During his second year, Tesla came into conflict with Professor Poeschl over the Gramme dynamo, when Tesla suggested that commutators were not necessary.
Tesla claimed that he worked from 3 a.m. to 11 p.m., no Sundays or holidays excepted. He was "mortified when (his) father made light of (those) hard won honors. '' After his father 's death in 1879, Tesla found a package of letters from his professors to his father, warning that unless he were removed from the school, Tesla would die through overwork. At the end of his second year, Tesla lost his scholarship and became addicted to gambling. During his third year, Tesla gambled away his allowance and his tuition money, later gambling back his initial losses and returning the balance to his family. Tesla said that he "conquered (his) passion then and there, '' but later in the U.S. he was again known to play billiards. When examination time came, Tesla was unprepared and asked for an extension to study, but was denied. He did not receive grades for the last semester of the third year and he never graduated from the university.
In December 1878, Tesla left Graz and severed all relations with his family to hide the fact that he dropped out of school. His friends thought that he had drowned in the nearby Mur River. Tesla moved to Maribor, where he worked as a draftsman for 60 florins per month. He spent his spare time playing cards with local men on the streets.
In March 1879, Tesla 's father went to Maribor to beg his son to return home, but he refused. Nikola suffered a nervous breakdown around the same time. On 24 March 1879, Tesla was returned to Gospić under police guard for not having a residence permit.
On 17 April 1879, Milutin Tesla died at the age of 60 after contracting an unspecified illness. Some sources say that he died of a stroke. During that year, Tesla taught a large class of students in his old school in Gospić.
In January 1880, two of Tesla 's uncles put together enough money to help him leave Gospić for Prague, where he was to study. He arrived too late to enroll at Charles - Ferdinand University; he had never studied Greek, a required subject; and he was illiterate in Czech, another required subject. Tesla did, however, attend lectures in philosophy at the university as an auditor but he did not receive grades for the courses.
In 1881, Tesla moved to Budapest, Hungary, to work under Tivadar Puskás at a telegraph company, the Budapest Telephone Exchange. Upon arrival, Tesla realized that the company, then under construction, was not functional, so he worked as a draftsman in the Central Telegraph Office instead. Within a few months, the Budapest Telephone Exchange became functional, and Tesla was allocated the chief electrician position. During his employment, Tesla made many improvements to the Central Station equipment and claimed to have perfected a telephone repeater or amplifier, which was never patented nor publicly described.
In 1882, Tivadar Puskás got Tesla another job in Paris with the Continental Edison Company. Tesla began working in what was then a brand new industry, installing indoor incandescent lighting citywide in the form of an electric power utility. The company had several subdivisions and Tesla worked at the Société Electrique Edison, the division in the Ivry - sur - Seine suburb of Paris in charge of installing the lighting system. There he gained a great deal of practical experience in electrical engineering. Management took notice of his advanced knowledge in engineering and physics and soon had him designing and building improved versions of generating dynamos and motors. They also sent him on to troubleshoot engineering problems at other Edison utilities being built around France and in Germany.
In 1884, Edison manager Charles Batchelor, who had been overseeing the Paris installation, was brought back to the US to manage the Edison Machine Works, a manufacturing division situated in New York City, and asked that Tesla be brought to the US as well. In June 1884, Tesla emigrated to the United States. He began working almost immediately at the Machine Works on Manhattan 's Lower East Side, an overcrowded shop with a workforce of several hundred machinists, laborers, managing staff, and 20 "field engineers '' struggling with the task of building the large electric utility in that city. As in Paris, Tesla was working on troubleshooting installations and improving generators. Historian W. Bernard Carlson notes Tesla may have met company founder Thomas Alva Edison only a couple of times. One of those times was noted in Tesla 's autobiography where, after staying up all night repairing the damaged dynamos on the ocean liner SS Oregon, he ran into Batchelor and Edison, who made a quip about their "Parisian '' being out all night. After Tesla told them he had been up all night fixing the Oregon Edison commented to Batchelor that "this is a damned good man. '' One of the projects given to Tesla was to develop an arc lamp - based street lighting system. Arc lighting was the most popular type of street lighting but it required high voltages and was incompatible with the Edison low - voltage incandescent system, causing the company to lose contracts in cities that wanted street lighting as well. Tesla 's designs were never put into production, possibly because of technical improvements in incandescent street lighting or because of an installation deal that Edison cut with an arc lighting company.
Tesla had been working at the Machine Works for a total of six months when he quit. What event precipitated his leaving is unclear. It may have been over a bonus he did not receive, either for redesigning generators or for the arc lighting system that was shelved. Tesla had previous run - ins with the Edison company over unpaid bonuses he believed he had earned. In his own biography, Tesla stated the manager of the Edison Machine Works offered a $50,000 bonus to design "twenty - four different types of standard machines '' "but it turned out to be a practical joke ''. Later versions of this story have Thomas Edison himself offering and then reneging on the deal, quipping "Tesla, you do n't understand our American humor. '' The size of the bonus in either story has been noted as odd since Machine Works manager Batchelor was stingy with pay and the company did not have that amount of cash (equivalent to $12 million today) on hand. Tesla 's diary contains just one comment on what happened at the end of his employment, a note he scrawled across the two pages covering 7 December 1884, to 4 January 1885, saying "Good by to the Edison Machine Works ''.
Soon after leaving the Edison company, Tesla was working on patenting an arc lighting system, possibly the same one he had developed at Edison. In March 1885, he met with patent attorney Lemuel W. Serrell, the same attorney used by Edison, to obtain help with submitting the patents. Serrell introduced Tesla to two businessmen, Robert Lane and Benjamin Vail, who agreed to finance an arc lighting manufacturing and utility company in Tesla 's name, the Tesla Electric Light & Manufacturing. Tesla worked for the rest of the year obtaining the patents that included an improved DC generator, the first patents issued to Tesla in the US, and building and installing the system in Rahway, New Jersey Tesla 's new system gained notice in the technical press, which commented on its advanced features.
The investors showed little interest in Tesla 's ideas for new types of alternating current motors and electrical transmission equipment. After the utility was up and running in 1886, they decided that the manufacturing side of the business was too competitive and opted to simply run an electric utility. They formed a new utility company, abandoning Tesla 's company and leaving the inventor penniless. Tesla even lost control of the patents he had generated, since he had assigned them to the company in exchange for stock. He had to work at various electrical repair jobs and as a ditch digger for $2 per day. Later in life Tesla would recount that part of 1886 as a time of hardship, writing "My high education in various branches of science, mechanics and literature seemed to me like a mockery ''.
In late 1886, Tesla met Alfred S. Brown, a Western Union superintendent, and New York attorney Charles F. Peck. The two men were experienced in setting up companies and promoting inventions and patents for financial gain. Based on Tesla 's new ideas for electrical equipment, including a thermo - magnetic motor idea, they agreed to back the inventor financially and handle his patents. Together they formed the Tesla Electric Company in April 1887, with an agreement that profits from generated patents would go 1 / 3 to Tesla, 1 / 3 to Peck and Brown, and 1 / 3 to fund development. They set up a laboratory for Tesla at 89 Liberty Street in Manhattan, where he worked on improving and developing new types of electric motors, generators, and other devices.
In 1887, Tesla developed an induction motor that ran on alternating current (AC), a power system format that was rapidly expanding in Europe and the United States because of its advantages in long - distance, high - voltage transmission. The motor used polyphase current, which generated a rotating magnetic field to turn the motor (a principle that Tesla claimed to have conceived in 1882). This innovative electric motor, patented in May 1888, was a simple self - starting design that did not need a commutator, thus avoiding sparking and the high maintenance of constantly servicing and replacing mechanical brushes.
Along with getting the motor patented, Peck and Brown arranged to get the motor publicized, starting with independent testing to verify it was a functional improvement, followed by press releases sent to technical publications for articles to run concurrent with the issue of the patent. Physicist William Arnold Anthony (who tested the motor) and Electrical World magazine editor Thomas Commerford Martin arranged for Tesla to demonstrate his AC motor on 16 May 1888 at the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Engineers working for the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company reported to George Westinghouse that Tesla had a viable AC motor and related power system -- something Westinghouse needed for the alternating current system he was already marketing. Westinghouse looked into getting a patent on a similar commutator-less, rotating magnetic field - based induction motor developed in 1885 and presented in a paper in March 1888 by Italian physicist Galileo Ferraris, but decided that Tesla 's patent would probably control the market.
In July 1888, Brown and Peck negotiated a licensing deal with George Westinghouse for Tesla 's polyphase induction motor and transformer designs for $60,000 in cash and stock and a royalty of $2.50 per AC horsepower produced by each motor. Westinghouse also hired Tesla for one year for the large fee of $2,000 ($54,500 in today 's dollars) per month to be a consultant at the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company 's Pittsburgh labs.
During that year, Tesla worked in Pittsburgh, helping to create an alternating current system to power the city 's streetcars. He found it a frustrating period because of conflicts with the other Westinghouse engineers over how best to implement AC power. Between them, they settled on a 60 - cycle AC system that Tesla proposed (to match the working frequency of Tesla 's motor), but they soon found that it would not work for streetcars, since Tesla 's induction motor could run only at a constant speed. They ended up using a DC traction motor instead.
Tesla 's demonstration of his induction motor and Westinghouse 's subsequent licensing of the patent, both in 1888, came at the time of extreme competition between electric companies. The three big firms, Westinghouse, Edison, and Thomson - Houston, were trying to grow in a capital - intensive business while financially undercutting each other. There was even a "War of Currents '' propaganda campaign going on with Edison Electric trying to claim their direct current system was better and safer than the Westinghouse alternating current system. Competing in this market meant Westinghouse would not have the cash or engineering resources to develop Tesla 's motor and the related polyphase system right away.
Two years after signing the Tesla contract, Westinghouse Electric was in trouble. The near collapse of Barings Bank in London triggered the financial panic of 1890, causing investors to call in their loans to W.E. The sudden cash shortage forced the company to refinance its debts. The new lenders demanded that Westinghouse cut back on what looked like excessive spending on acquisition of other companies, research, and patents, including the per motor royalty in the Tesla contract. At that point, the Tesla induction motor had been unsuccessful and was stuck in development. Westinghouse was paying a $15,000 - a-year guaranteed royalty even though operating examples of the motor were rare and polyphase power systems needed to run it were even rarer. In early 1891, George Westinghouse explained his financial difficulties to Tesla in stark terms, saying that, if he did not meet the demands of his lenders, he would no longer be in control of Westinghouse Electric and Tesla would have to "deal with the bankers '' to try to collect future royalties. The advantages of having Westinghouse continue to champion the motor probably seemed obvious to Tesla and he agreed to release the company from the royalty payment clause in the contract. Six years later Westinghouse would purchase Tesla 's patent for a lump sum payment of $216,000 as part of a patent - sharing agreement signed with General Electric (a company created from the 1892 merger of Edison and Thomson - Houston).
The money Tesla made from licensing his AC patents made him independently wealthy and gave him the time and funds to pursue his own interests. In 1889, Tesla moved out of the Liberty Street shop Peck and Brown had rented and for the next dozen years would work out of a series of workshop / laboratory spaces in Manhattan. These included a lab at 175 Grand Street (1889 -- 1892), the fourth floor of 33 -- 35 South Fifth Avenue (1892 -- 1895), and sixth and seventh floors of 46 & 48 East Houston Street (1895 -- 1902). Tesla and his hired staff would conduct some of his most significant work in these workshops.
In the summer of 1889, Tesla traveled to the 1889 Exposition Universelle in Paris and learned of Heinrich Hertz ' 1886 -- 88 experiments that proved the existence of electromagnetic radiation, including radio waves. Tesla found this new discovery "refreshing '' and decided to explore it more fully. In repeating, and then expanding on, these experiments, Tesla tried powering a Ruhmkorff coil with a high speed alternator he had been developing as part of an improved arc lighting system but found that the high frequency current overheated the iron core and melted the insulation between the primary and secondary windings in the coil. To fix this problem Tesla came up with his Tesla coil with an air gap instead of insulating material between the primary and secondary windings and an iron core that could be moved to different positions in or out of the coil.
On 30 July 1891, aged 35, Tesla became a naturalized citizen of the United States. In the same year, he patented his Tesla coil.
After 1890, Tesla experimented with transmitting power by inductive and capacitive coupling using high AC voltages generated with his Tesla coil. He attempted to develop a wireless lighting system based on near - field inductive and capacitive coupling and conducted a series of public demonstrations where he lit Geissler tubes and even incandescent light bulbs from across a stage. He would spend most of the decade working on variations of this new form of lighting with the help of various investors but none of the ventures succeeded in making a commercial product out of his findings.
In 1893 at St. Louis, Missouri, the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and the National Electric Light Association, Tesla told onlookers that he was sure a system like his could eventually conduct "intelligible signals or perhaps even power to any distance without the use of wires '' by conducting it through the Earth.
Tesla served as a vice-president of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers from 1892 to 1894, the forerunner of the modern - day IEEE (along with the Institute of Radio Engineers).
Trying to come up with a better way to generate alternating current, Tesla developed a steam powered reciprocating electricity generator. He patented it in 1893 and introduced it at the Chicago World 's Columbian Exposition that year. Steam would be forced into the oscillator and rush out through a series of ports, pushing a piston up and down that was attached to an armature. The magnetic armature vibrated up and down at high speed, producing an alternating magnetic field. This induced alternating electric current in the wire coils located adjacent. It did away with the complicated parts of a steam engine / generator, but never caught on as a feasible engineering solution to generate electricity.
At the beginning of 1893, Westinghouse engineer Benjamin Lamme had made great progress developing an efficient version of Tesla 's induction motor, and Westinghouse Electric started branding their complete polyphase AC system as the "Tesla Polyphase System ''. They believed that Tesla 's patents gave them patent priority over other AC systems.
Westinghouse Electric asked Tesla to participate in the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago where the company had a large space in a building devoted to electrical exhibits. Westinghouse Electric won the bid to light the Exposition with alternating current and it was a key event in the history of AC power, as the company demonstrated to the American public the safety, reliability, and efficiency of a fully integrated alternating current system. Tesla showed a series of electrical effects related to alternating current as well as his wireless lighting system, using a demonstration he had previously performed throughout America and Europe; these included using high - voltage, high - frequency alternating current to light a wireless gas - discharge lamp.
An observer noted:
Within the room were suspended two hard - rubber plates covered with tin foil. These were about fifteen feet apart, and served as terminals of the wires leading from the transformers. When the current was turned on, the lamps or tubes, which had no wires connected to them, but lay on a table between the suspended plates, or which might be held in the hand in almost any part of the room, were made luminous. These were the same experiments and the same apparatus shown by Tesla in London about two years previous, "where they produced so much wonder and astonishment ''.
Tesla also explained the principles of the rotating magnetic field in an induction motor by demonstrating how to make a copper egg stand on end, using a device that he constructed known as the Egg of Columbus and introduced his new steam powered oscillator AC generator.
In 1893, Edward Dean Adams, who headed up the Niagara Falls Cataract Construction Company, sought Tesla 's opinion on what system would be best to transmit power generated at the falls. Over several years, there had been a series of proposals and open competitions on how best to use power generated by the falls. Among the systems proposed by several US and European companies were two - phase and three - phase AC, high - voltage DC, and compressed air. Adams pumped Tesla for information about the current state of all the competing systems. Tesla advised Adams that a two - phased system would be the most reliable, and that there was a Westinghouse system to light incandescent bulbs using two - phase alternating current. The company awarded a contract to Westinghouse Electric for building a two - phase AC generating system at the Niagara Falls, based on Tesla 's advice and Westinghouse 's demonstration at the Columbian Exposition that they could build a complete AC system. At the same time, a further contract was awarded to General Electric to build the AC distribution system.
In 1895, Edward Dean Adams, impressed with what he saw when he toured Tesla 's lab, agreed to help found the Nikola Tesla Company, set up to fund, develop, and market a variety of previous Tesla patents and inventions as well as new ones. Alfred Brown signed on, bringing along patents developed under Peck and Brown. The board was filled out with William Birch Rankine and Charles F. Coaney. It found few investors; the mid-1890s was a tough time financially, and the wireless lighting and oscillators patents it was set up to market never panned out. The company would handle Tesla 's patents for decades to come.
In the early morning hours of 13 March 1895, the South Fifth Avenue building that housed Tesla 's lab caught fire. It started in the basement of the building and was so intense Tesla 's 4th floor lab burned and collapsed into the second floor. The fire not only set back Tesla 's ongoing projects, it destroyed a collection of early notes and research material, models, and demonstration pieces, including many that had been exhibited at the 1893 Worlds Colombian Exposition. Tesla told The New York Times "I am in too much grief to talk. What can I say? '' After the fire Tesla moved to 46 & 48 East Houston Street and rebuilt his lab on the 6th and 7th floors.
Starting in 1894, Tesla began investigating what he referred to as radiant energy of "invisible '' kinds after he had noticed damaged film in his laboratory in previous experiments (later identified as "Roentgen rays '' or "X-Rays ''). His early experiments were with Crookes tubes, a cold cathode electrical discharge tube. Tesla may have inadvertently captured an X-ray image -- predating, by a few weeks, Wilhelm Röntgen 's December 1895 announcement of the discovery of x-rays -- when he tried to photograph Mark Twain illuminated by a Geissler tube, an earlier type of gas discharge tube. The only thing captured in the image was the metal locking screw on the camera lens.
In March 1896, after hearing of Wilhelm Röntgen 's discovery of X-ray and X-ray imaging (radiography), Tesla proceeded to do his own experiments in X-ray imaging, developing a high energy single terminal vacuum tube of his own design that had no target electrode and that worked from the output of the Tesla Coil (the modern term for the phenomenon produced by this device is bremsstrahlung or braking radiation). In his research, Tesla devised several experimental setups to produce X-rays. Tesla held that, with his circuits, the "instrument will... enable one to generate Roentgen rays of much greater power than obtainable with ordinary apparatus. ''
Tesla noted the hazards of working with his circuit and single - node X-ray - producing devices. In his many notes on the early investigation of this phenomenon, he attributed the skin damage to various causes. He believed early on that damage to the skin was not caused by the Roentgen rays, but by the ozone generated in contact with the skin, and to a lesser extent, by nitrous acid. Tesla incorrectly believed that X-rays were longitudinal waves, such as those produced in waves in plasmas. These plasma waves can occur in force - free magnetic fields.
On 11 July 1934, the New York Herald Tribune published an article on Tesla, in which he recalled an event that would occasionally take place while experimenting with his single - electrode vacuum tubes; a minute particle would break off the cathode, pass out of the tube, and physically strike him:
Tesla said he could feel a sharp stinging pain where it entered his body, and again at the place where it passed out. In comparing these particles with the bits of metal projected by his "electric gun, '' Tesla said, "The particles in the beam of force... will travel much faster than such particles... and they will travel in concentrations. ''
In 1898, Tesla demonstrated a boat that used a coherer - based radio control -- which he dubbed "telautomaton '' -- to the public during an electrical exhibition at Madison Square Garden. The crowd that witnessed the demonstration made outrageous claims about the workings of the boat, such as magic, telepathy, and being piloted by a trained monkey hidden inside. Tesla tried to sell his idea to the U.S. military as a type of radio - controlled torpedo, but they showed little interest. Remote radio control remained a novelty until World War I and afterward, when a number of countries used it in military programs. Tesla took the opportunity to further demonstrate "Teleautomatics '' in an address to a meeting of the Commercial Club in Chicago, while he was travelling to Colorado Springs, on 13 May 1899.
From the 1890s through 1906, Tesla spent a great deal of his time and fortune on a series of projects trying to develop the transmission of electrical power without wires. It was an expansion of his idea of using coils to transmit power that he had been demonstrating in wireless lighting. He saw this as not only a way to transmit large amounts of power around the world but also, as he had pointed out in his earlier lectures, a way to transmit worldwide communications.
At the time Tesla was formulating his ideas, there was no feasible way to wirelessly transmit communication signals over long distances, let alone large amounts of power. Tesla had studied radio waves early on, and came to the conclusion that part of existing study on them, by Hertz, was incorrect. Also, this new form of radiation was widely considered at the time to be a short - distance phenomenon that seemed to die out in less than a mile. Tesla noted that, even if theories on radio waves were true, they were totally worthless for his intended purposes since this form of "invisible light '' would diminish over distance just like any other radiation and would travel in straight lines right out into space, becoming "hopelessly lost ''.
By the mid 1890s, Tesla was working on the idea that he might be able to conduct electricity long distance through the Earth or the atmosphere, and began working on experiments to test this idea including setting up a large resonance transformer magnifying transmitter in his East Houston Street lab. Seeming to borrow from a common idea at the time that the Earth 's atmosphere was conductive, he proposed a system composed of balloons suspending, transmitting, and receiving, electrodes in the air above 30,000 feet (9,100 m) in altitude, where he thought the lower pressure would allow him to send high voltages (millions of volts) long distances.
To further study the conductive nature of low pressure air, Tesla set up an experimental station at high altitude in Colorado Springs during 1899. There he could safely operate much larger coils than in the cramped confines of his New York lab, and an associate had made an arrangement for the El Paso Power Company to supply alternating current free of charge. To fund his experiments he convinced John Jacob Astor IV to invest $100,000 to become a majority share holder in the Nikola Tesla Company. Astor thought he was primarily investing in the new wireless lighting system. Instead, Tesla used the money to fund his Colorado Springs experiments. Upon his arrival, he told reporters that he planned to conduct wireless telegraphy experiments, transmitting signals from Pikes Peak to Paris.
There he conducted experiments with a large coil operating in the megavolts range, producing artificial lightning (and thunder) consisting of millions of volts and up to 135 feet (41 m) long discharges and, at one point, inadvertently burned out the generator in El Paso, causing a power outage. The observations he made of the electronic noise of lightning strikes, led him to (incorrectly) conclude that he could use the entire globe of the Earth to conduct electrical energy.
During his time at his laboratory, Tesla observed unusual signals from his receiver which he speculated to be communications from another planet. He mentioned them in a letter to a reporter in December 1899 and to the Red Cross Society in December 1900. Reporters treated it as a sensational story and jumped to the conclusion Tesla was hearing signals from Mars. He expanded on the signals he heard in a 9 February 1901 Collier 's Weekly article "Talking With Planets '' where he said it had not been immediately apparent to him that he was hearing "intelligently controlled signals '' and that the signals could come from Mars, Venus, or other planets. It has been hypothesized that he may have intercepted Guglielmo Marconi 's European experiments in July 1899 -- Marconi may have transmitted the letter S (dot / dot / dot) in a naval demonstration, the same three impulses that Tesla hinted at hearing in Colorado -- or signals from another experimenter in wireless transmission.
Tesla had an agreement with the editor of The Century Magazine to produce an article on his findings. The magazine sent a photographer to Colorado to photograph the work being done there. The article, titled "The Problem of Increasing Human Energy '', appeared in the June 1900 edition of the magazine. He explained the superiority of the wireless system he envisioned but the article was more of a lengthy philosophical treatise than an understandable scientific description of his work, illustrated with what were to become iconic images of Tesla and his Colorado Springs experiments.
Tesla made the rounds in New York trying to find investors for what he thought would be a viable system of wireless transmission, wining and dining them at the Waldorf - Astoria 's Palm Garden (the hotel where he was living at the time), The Players Club, and Delmonico 's. In March 1901, he obtained $150,000 ($4,412,400 in today 's dollars) from J. Pierpont Morgan in return for a 51 % share of any generated wireless patents, and began planning the Wardenclyffe Tower facility to be built in Shoreham, New York, 100 miles (161 km) east of the city on the North Shore of Long Island.
By July 1901, Tesla had expanded his plans to build a more powerful transmitter to leap ahead of Marconi 's radio based system, which Tesla thought was a copy of his own system. He approached Morgan to ask for more money to build the larger system but Morgan refused to supply any further funds. In December 1901, Marconi successfully transmitted the letter S from England to Newfoundland, defeating Tesla in the race to be first to complete such a transmission. A month after Marconi 's success, Tesla tried to get Morgan to back an even larger plan to transmit messages and power by controlling "vibrations throughout the globe ''. Over the next five years, Tesla wrote more than 50 letters to Morgan, pleading for and demanding additional funding to complete the construction of Wardenclyffe. Tesla continued the project for another nine months into 1902. The tower was erected to its full 187 feet (57 m). In June 1902, Tesla moved his lab operations from Houston Street to Wardenclyffe.
Investors on Wall Street were putting their money into Marconi 's system, and some in the press began turning against Tesla 's project, claiming it was a hoax. The project came to a halt in 1905, and in 1906, the financial problems and other events may have led to what Tesla biographer Marc J. Seifer suspects was a nervous breakdown on Tesla 's part. Tesla mortgaged the Wardenclyffe property to cover his debts at the Waldorf - Astoria, which eventually mounted to $20,000 ($488,600 in today 's dollars). He lost the property in foreclosure in 1915, and in 1917 the Tower was demolished by the new owner to make the land a more viable real estate asset.
After Wardencyiffe closed, Tesla continued to write to Morgan; after "the great man '' died, Tesla wrote to Morgan 's son Jack, trying to get further funding for the project. In 1906, Tesla opened offices at 165 Broadway in Manhattan, trying to raise further funds by developing and marketing his patents. He went on to have offices at the Metropolitan Life Tower from 1910 to 1914; rented for a few months at the Woolworth Building, moving out because he could not afford the rent; and then to office space at 8 West 40th Street from 1915 to 1925. After moving to 8 West 40th Street, he was effectively bankrupt. Most of his patents had run out and he was having trouble with the new inventions he was trying to develop.
On his 50th birthday, in 1906, Tesla demonstrated a 200 horsepower (150 kilowatts) 16,000 rpm bladeless turbine. During 1910 -- 1911 at the Waterside Power Station in New York, several of his bladeless turbine engines were tested at 100 -- 5,000 hp. Tesla worked with several companies including the period 1919 -- 1922 working in Milwaukee for Allis - Chalmers. He spent most of his time trying to perfect the Tesla turbine with Hans Dahlstrand, the head engineer at the company, but engineering difficulties meant it was never made into a practical device. Tesla did license the idea to a precision instrument company and it found use in the form of luxury car speedometers and other instruments.
When World War I broke out, the British cut the transatlantic telegraph cable linking the US to Germany in order to control the flow of information between the two countries. They also tried to shut off German wireless communication to and from the US by having the US Marconi Company sue the German radio company Telefunken for patent infringement. Telefunken brought in the physicists Jonathan Zenneck and Karl Ferdinand Braun for their defense, and hired Tesla as a witness for two years for $1,000 a month. The case stalled and then went moot when the US entered the war against Germany in 1917.
In 1915, Tesla attempted to sue the Marconi Company for infringement of his wireless tuning patents. Marconi 's initial radio patent had been awarded in the US in 1897, but his 1900 patent submission covering improvements to radio transmission had been rejected several times, before it was finally approved in 1904, on the grounds that it infringed on other existing patents including two 1897 Tesla wireless power tuning patents. Tesla 's 1915 case went nowhere, but in a related case, where the Marconi Company tried to sue the US government over WWI patent infringements, a Supreme Court of the United States 1943 decision restored the prior patents of Oliver Lodge, John Stone, and Tesla. The court declared that their decision had no bearing on Marconi 's claim as the first to achieve radio transmission, just that since Marconi 's claim to certain patented improvements were questionable, the company could not claim infringement on those same patents.
On 6 November 1915, a Reuters news agency report from London had the 1915 Nobel Prize in Physics awarded to Thomas Edison and Nikola Tesla; however, on 15 November, a Reuters story from Stockholm stated the prize that year was being awarded to Sir William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg "for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays. '' There were unsubstantiated rumors at the time that either Tesla or Edison had refused the prize. The Nobel Foundation said, "Any rumor that a person has not been given a Nobel Prize because he has made known his intention to refuse the reward is ridiculous ''; a recipient could decline a Nobel Prize only after he is announced a winner.
There have been subsequent claims by Tesla biographers that Edison and Tesla were the original recipients and that neither was given the award because of their animosity toward each other; that each sought to minimize the other 's achievements and right to win the award; that both refused ever to accept the award if the other received it first; that both rejected any possibility of sharing it; and even that a wealthy Edison refused it to keep Tesla from getting the $20,000 prize money.
In the years after these rumors, neither Tesla nor Edison won the prize (although Edison did receive one of 38 possible bids in 1915 and Tesla did receive one of 38 possible bids in 1937).
Tesla won numerous medals and awards over this time. They include:
Tesla attempted to market several devices based on the production of ozone. These included his 1900 Tesla Ozone Company selling an 1896 patented device based on his Tesla Coil, used to bubble ozone through different types of oils to make a therapeutic gel. He also tried to develop a variation of this a few years later as a room sanitizer for hospitals.
Tesla theorized that the application of electricity to the brain enhanced intelligence. In 1912, he crafted "a plan to make dull students bright by saturating them unconsciously with electricity, '' wiring the walls of a schoolroom and, "saturating (the schoolroom) with infinitesimal electric waves vibrating at high frequency. The whole room will thus, Mr. Tesla claims, be converted into a health - giving and stimulating electromagnetic field or ' bath. ' '' The plan was, at least provisionally, approved by then superintendent of New York City schools, William H. Maxwell.
Before World War I, Tesla sought overseas investors. After the war started, Tesla lost the funding he was receiving from his patents in European countries.
In the August 1917 edition of the magazine Electrical Experimenter, Tesla postulated that electricity could be used to locate submarines via using the reflection of an "electric ray '' of "tremendous frequency, '' with the signal being viewed on a fluorescent screen (a system that has been noted to have a superficial resemblance to modern radar). Tesla was incorrect in his assumption that high frequency radio waves would penetrate water. Émile Girardeau, who helped develop France 's first radar system in the 1930s, noted in 1953 that Tesla 's general speculation that a very strong high - frequency signal would be needed was correct. Girardeau said, "(Tesla) was prophesying or dreaming, since he had at his disposal no means of carrying them out, but one must add that if he was dreaming, at least he was dreaming correctly. ''
In 1928, Tesla received U.S. Patent 1,655,114, for a biplane capable of taking off vertically (VTOL aircraft) and then of being "gradually tilted through manipulation of the elevator devices '' in flight until it was flying like a conventional plane. Tesla thought the plane would sell for less than $1,000, although the aircraft has been described as impractical. This would be his last patent and at this time Tesla closed his last office at 350 Madison Ave., which he had moved into two years earlier.
Since 1900, Tesla had been living at the Waldorf Astoria in New York running up a large bill. In 1922, he moved to St. Regis Hotel and would follow a pattern from then on of moving to a new hotel every few years leaving behind unpaid bills.
Tesla would walk to the park every day to feed the pigeons. He took to feeding them at the window of his hotel room and bringing the injured ones in to nurse back to health. He said that he had been visited by a specific injured white pigeon daily. Tesla spent over $2,000, including building a device that comfortably supported her so her bones could heal, to fix her broken wing and leg. Tesla stated:
I have been feeding pigeons, thousands of them for years. But there was one, a beautiful bird, pure white with light grey tips on its wings; that one was different. It was a female. I had only to wish and call her and she would come flying to me. I loved that pigeon as a man loves a woman, and she loved me. As long as I had her, there was a purpose to my life.
Tesla 's unpaid bills, and complaints about the mess from his pigeon - feeding, forced him to leave the St. Regis in 1923, the Hotel Pennsylvania in 1930, and the Hotel Governor Clinton in 1934. At one point, he also took rooms at the Hotel Marguery.
In 1934, Tesla moved to the Hotel New Yorker, and Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company began paying him $125 per month as well as paying his rent, expenses the Company would pay for the rest of Tesla 's life. Accounts of how this came about vary. Several sources say Westinghouse was worried (or warned) about potential bad publicity surrounding the impoverished conditions under which their former star inventor was living. The payment has been described as being couched as a "consulting fee '' to get around Tesla 's aversion to accept charity, or by one biographer (Marc Seifer) as a type of unspecified settlement.
In 1931, Kenneth Swezey, a young writer who had been associated with Tesla for some time, organized a celebration for the inventor 's 75th birthday. Tesla received congratulatory letters from more than 70 pioneers in science and engineering, including Albert Einstein, and he was also featured on the cover of Time magazine. The cover caption "All the world 's his power house '' noted his contribution to electrical power generation. The party went so well that Tesla made it an annual event, an occasion where he would put out a large spread of food and drink (featuring dishes of his own creation) and invite the press to see his inventions and hear stories about past exploits, views on current events, or sometimes odd or baffling claims.
At the 1932 occasion, Tesla claimed he had invented a motor that would run on cosmic rays. In 1933, at age 77, Tesla told reporters that, after thirty - five years of work, he was on the verge of producing proof of a new form of energy. He claimed it was a theory of energy that was "violently opposed '' to Einsteinian physics, and could be tapped with an apparatus that would be cheap to run and last 500 years. He also told reporters he was working on a way to transmit individualized private radio wavelengths, working on breakthroughs in metallurgy, and developing a way to photograph the retina to record thought.
At the 1934 party, Tesla told reporters he had designed a superweapon he claimed would end all war. He would call it "teleforce '', but was usually referred to as his death ray. Tesla described it as a defensive weapon that would be put up along the border of a country to be used against attacking ground - based infantry or aircraft. Tesla never revealed detailed plans of how the weapon worked during his lifetime, but in 1984, they surfaced at the Nikola Tesla Museum archive in Belgrade. The treatise, The New Art of Projecting Concentrated Non-dispersive Energy through the Natural Media, described an open - ended vacuum tube with a gas jet seal that allows particles to exit, a method of charging slugs of tungsten or mercury to millions of volts, and directing them in streams (through electrostatic repulsion). Tesla tried to interest the US War Department, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and Yugoslavia in the device.
In 1935, at his 79th birthday party, Tesla covered many topics. He claimed to have discovered the cosmic ray in 1896 and invented a way to produce direct current by induction, and made many claims about his mechanical oscillator. Describing the device (which he expected would earn him $100 million within two years) he told reporters that a version of his oscillator had caused an earthquake in his 46 East Houston Street lab and neighboring streets in downtown New York City in 1898. He went on to tell reporters his oscillator could destroy the Empire State Building with 5 lbs of air pressure. He also explained a new technique he developed using his oscillators he called "Telegeodynamics '', using it to transmit vibrations into the ground that he claimed would work over any distance to be used for communication or locating underground mineral deposits.
At his 1937 celebration in the Grand Ballroom of Hotel New Yorker, Tesla received the "Order of the White Lion '' from the Czechoslovakia ambassador and a medal from the Yugoslavian ambassador. On questions concerning the death ray, Tesla stated, "But it is not an experiment... I have built, demonstrated and used it. Only a little time will pass before I can give it to the world. ''
In the fall of 1937, after midnight one night, Tesla left the Hotel New Yorker to make his regular commute to the cathedral and the library to feed the pigeons. While crossing a street a couple of blocks from the hotel, Tesla was unable to dodge a moving taxicab and was thrown to the ground. His back was severely wrenched and three of his ribs were broken in the accident. The full extent of his injuries were never known; Tesla refused to consult a doctor, an almost lifelong custom, and never fully recovered.
On 7 January 1943, at the age of 86, Tesla died alone in Room 3327 of the New Yorker Hotel. His body was later found by maid Alice Monaghan after she had entered Tesla 's room, ignoring the "do not disturb '' sign that Tesla had placed on his door two days earlier. Assistant medical examiner H.W. Wembley examined the body and ruled that the cause of death had been coronary thrombosis.
Two days later the Federal Bureau of Investigation ordered the Alien Property Custodian to seize Tesla 's belongings. John G. Trump, a professor at M.I.T. and a well - known electrical engineer serving as a technical aide to the National Defense Research Committee, was called in to analyze the Tesla items, which were being held in custody. After a three - day investigation, Trump 's report concluded that there was nothing which would constitute a hazard in unfriendly hands, stating:
(Tesla 's) thoughts and efforts during at least the past 15 years were primarily of a speculative, philosophical, and somewhat promotional character often concerned with the production and wireless transmission of power; but did not include new, sound, workable principles or methods for realizing such results.
In a box purported to contain a part of Tesla 's "death ray '', Trump found a 45 - year - old multidecade resistance box.
On 10 January 1943, New York City mayor Fiorello La Guardia read a eulogy written by Slovene - American author Louis Adamic live over the WNYC radio while violin pieces "Ave Maria '' and "Tamo daleko '' were played in the background. On 12 January, two thousand people attended a state funeral for Tesla at the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine. After the funeral, Tesla 's body was taken to the Ferncliff Cemetery in Ardsley, New York, where it was later cremated. The following day, a second service was conducted by prominent priests in the Trinity Chapel (today 's Serbian Orthodox Cathedral of Saint Sava) in New York City.
In 1952, following pressure from Tesla 's nephew, Sava Kosanović, Tesla 's entire estate was shipped to Belgrade in 80 trunks marked N.T. In 1957, Kosanović 's secretary Charlotte Muzar transported Tesla 's ashes from the United States to Belgrade. The ashes are displayed in a gold - plated sphere on a marble pedestal in the Nikola Tesla Museum.
Tesla obtained around 300 patents worldwide for his inventions. Some of Tesla 's patents are not accounted for, and various sources have discovered some that have lain hidden in patent archives. There are a minimum of 278 known patents issued to Tesla in 26 countries. Many of Tesla 's patents were in the United States, Britain, and Canada, but many other patents were approved in countries around the globe. Many inventions developed by Tesla were not put into patent protection.
Tesla worked every day from 9: 00 a.m. until 6: 00 p.m. or later, with dinner from exactly 8: 10 p.m., at Delmonico 's restaurant and later the Waldorf - Astoria Hotel. Tesla would telephone his dinner order to the headwaiter, who also could be the only one to serve him. "The meal was required to be ready at eight o'clock... He dined alone, except on the rare occasions when he would give a dinner to a group to meet his social obligations. Tesla would then resume his work, often until 3: 00 a.m. ''
For exercise, Tesla walked between 8 and 10 miles (13 and 16 km) per day. He curled his toes one hundred times for each foot every night, saying that it stimulated his brain cells.
In an interview with newspaper editor Arthur Brisbane, Tesla said that he did not believe in telepathy, stating, "Suppose I made up my mind to murder you, '' he said, "In a second you would know it. Now, is n't that wonderful? By what process does the mind get at all this? '' In the same interview, Tesla said that he believed that all fundamental laws could be reduced to one.
Tesla became a vegetarian in his later years, living on only milk, bread, honey, and vegetable juices.
Tesla was 6 feet 2 inches (1.88 m) tall and weighed 142 pounds (64 kg), with almost no weight variance from 1888 to about 1926. His appearance was described by newspaper editor Arthur Brisbane as "almost the tallest, almost the thinnest and certainly the most serious man who goes to Delmonico 's regularly ''. He was an elegant, stylish figure in New York City, meticulous in his grooming, clothing, and regimented in his daily activities, an appearance he maintained as to further his business relationships. He was also described as having light eyes, "very big hands '', and "remarkably big '' thumbs.
Tesla read many works, memorizing complete books, and supposedly possessed a photographic memory. He was a polyglot, speaking eight languages: Serbo - Croatian, Czech, English, French, German, Hungarian, Italian, and Latin. Tesla related in his autobiography that he experienced detailed moments of inspiration. During his early life, Tesla was repeatedly stricken with illness. He suffered a peculiar affliction in which blinding flashes of light would appear before his eyes, often accompanied by visions. Often, the visions were linked to a word or idea he might have come across; at other times they would provide the solution to a particular problem he had encountered. Just by hearing the name of an item, he would be able to envision it in realistic detail. Tesla would visualize an invention in his mind with extreme precision, including all dimensions, before moving to the construction stage, a technique sometimes known as picture thinking. He typically did not make drawings by hand but worked from memory. Beginning in his childhood, Tesla had frequent flashbacks to events that had happened previously in his life.
Tesla claimed never to sleep more than two hours per night. However, he did admit to "dozing '' from time to time "to recharge his batteries. '' During his second year of study at Graz, Tesla developed a passionate proficiency for billiards, chess, and card - playing, sometimes spending more than 48 hours in a stretch at a gaming table. On one occasion at his laboratory, Tesla worked for a period of 84 hours without rest. Kenneth Swezey, a journalist whom Tesla had befriended, confirmed that Tesla rarely slept. Swezey recalled one morning when Tesla called him at 3 a.m.: "I was sleeping in my room like one dead... Suddenly, the telephone ring awakened me... (Tesla) spoke animatedly, with pauses, (as he)... work (ed) out a problem, comparing one theory to another, commenting; and when he felt he had arrived at the solution, he suddenly closed the telephone. ''
Tesla never married, explaining that his chastity was very helpful to his scientific abilities. He once said in earlier years that he felt he could never be worthy enough for a woman, considering women superior in every way. His opinion had started to sway in later years when he felt that women were trying to outdo men and make themselves more dominant. This "new woman '' was met with much indignation from Tesla, who felt that women were losing their femininity by trying to be in power. In an interview with the Galveston Daily News on 10 August 1924 he stated, "In place of the soft voiced, gentle woman of my reverent worship, has come the woman who thinks that her chief success in life lies in making herself as much as possible like man -- in dress, voice and actions, in sports and achievements of every kind... The tendency of women to push aside man, supplanting the old spirit of cooperation with him in all the affairs of life, is very disappointing to me ''. Although he told a reporter in later years that he sometimes felt that by not marrying, he had made too great a sacrifice to his work, Tesla chose to never pursue or engage in any known relationships, instead finding all the stimulation he needed in his work.
Tesla was asocial and prone to seclude himself with his work. However, when he did engage in a social life, many people spoke very positively and admiringly of Tesla. Robert Underwood Johnson described him as attaining a "distinguished sweetness, sincerity, modesty, refinement, generosity, and force. '' His secretary, Dorothy Skerrit, wrote: "his genial smile and nobility of bearing always denoted the gentlemanly characteristics that were so ingrained in his soul. '' Tesla 's friend, Julian Hawthorne, wrote, "seldom did one meet a scientist or engineer who was also a poet, a philosopher, an appreciator of fine music, a linguist, and a connoisseur of food and drink. ''
Tesla was a good friend of Francis Marion Crawford, Robert Underwood Johnson, Stanford White, Fritz Lowenstein, George Scherff, and Kenneth Swezey. In middle age, Tesla became a close friend of Mark Twain; they spent a lot of time together in his lab and elsewhere. Twain notably described Tesla 's induction motor invention as "the most valuable patent since the telephone. '' In the late 1920s, Tesla befriended George Sylvester Viereck, a poet, writer, mystic, and later, a Nazi propagandist. Tesla occasionally attended dinner parties held by Viereck and his wife.
Tesla could be harsh at times and openly expressed disgust for overweight people, such as when he fired a secretary because of her weight. He was quick to criticize clothing; on several occasions, Tesla directed a subordinate to go home and change her dress. When Thomas Edison died, in 1931, Tesla contributed the only negative opinion to The New York Times, buried in an extensive coverage of Edison 's life:
He had no hobby, cared for no sort of amusement of any kind and lived in utter disregard of the most elementary rules of hygiene... His method was inefficient in the extreme, for an immense ground had to be covered to get anything at all unless blind chance intervened and, at first, I was almost a sorry witness of his doings, knowing that just a little theory and calculation would have saved him 90 percent of the labor. But he had a veritable contempt for book learning and mathematical knowledge, trusting himself entirely to his inventor 's instinct and practical American sense.
Tesla disagreed with the theory of atoms being composed of smaller subatomic particles, stating there was no such thing as an electron creating an electric charge. He believed that if electrons existed at all, they were some fourth state of matter or "sub-atom '' that could exist only in an experimental vacuum and that they had nothing to do with electricity. Tesla believed that atoms are immutable -- they could not change state or be split in any way. He was a believer in the 19th - century concept of an all - pervasive "ether '' that transmitted electrical energy.
Tesla was generally antagonistic towards theories about the conversion of matter into energy. He was also critical of Einstein 's theory of relativity, saying:
I hold that space can not be curved, for the simple reason that it can have no properties. It might as well be said that God has properties. He has not, but only attributes and these are of our own making. Of properties we can only speak when dealing with matter filling the space. To say that in the presence of large bodies space becomes curved is equivalent to stating that something can act upon nothing. I, for one, refuse to subscribe to such a view.
Tesla claimed to have developed his own physical principle regarding matter and energy that he started working on in 1892, and in 1937, at age 81, claimed in a letter to have completed a "dynamic theory of gravity '' that "(would) put an end to idle speculations and false conceptions, as that of curved space. '' He stated that the theory was "worked out in all details '' and that he hoped to soon give it to the world. Further elucidation of his theory was never found in his writings.
Tesla is widely considered by his biographers to have been a humanist in philosophical outlook on top of his gifts as a technological scientist. This did not preclude Tesla, like many of his era, becoming a proponent of an imposed selective breeding version of eugenics.
Tesla expressed the belief that human "pity '' had come to interfere with the natural "ruthless workings of nature. '' Though his argumentation did not depend on a concept of a "master race '' or the inherent superiority of one person over another, he advocated for eugenics. In a 1937 interview he stated:
... man 's new sense of pity began to interfere with the ruthless workings of nature. The only method compatible with our notions of civilization and the race is to prevent the breeding of the unfit by sterilization and the deliberate guidance of the mating instinct... The trend of opinion among eugenists is that we must make marriage more difficult. Certainly no one who is not a desirable parent should be permitted to produce progeny. A century from now it will no more occur to a normal person to mate with a person eugenically unfit than to marry a habitual criminal.
In 1926, Tesla commented on the ills of the social subservience of women and the struggle of women toward gender equality, and indicated that humanity 's future would be run by "Queen Bees. '' He believed that women would become the dominant sex in the future.
Tesla made predictions about the relevant issues of a post-World War I environment in a printed article, "Science and Discovery are the great Forces which will lead to the Consummation of the War '' (20 December 1914). Tesla believed that the League of Nations was not a remedy for the times and issues.
Tesla was raised an Orthodox Christian. Later in life he did not consider himself to be a "believer in the orthodox sense, '' said he opposed religious fanaticism, and said "Buddhism and Christianity are the greatest religions both in number of disciples and in importance ''. He also said "To me, the universe is simply a great machine which never came into being and never will end '' and "what we call ' soul ' or ' spirit, ' is nothing more than the sum of the functionings of the body. When this functioning ceases, the ' soul ' or the ' spirit ' ceases likewise ''.
Tesla wrote a number of books and articles for magazines and journals. Among his books are My Inventions: The Autobiography of Nikola Tesla, compiled and edited by Ben Johnston; The Fantastic Inventions of Nikola Tesla, compiled and edited by David Hatcher Childress; and The Tesla Papers.
Many of Tesla 's writings are freely available online, including the article "The Problem of Increasing Human Energy, '' published in The Century Magazine in 1900, and the article "Experiments With Alternate Currents Of High Potential And High Frequency, '' published in his book Inventions, Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla.
Tesla 's legacy has endured in books, films, radio, TV, music, live theater, comics, and video games. The impact of the technologies invented or envisioned by Tesla is a recurring theme in several types of science fiction.
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where are the toyota plants in the usa | List of Toyota Manufacturing facilities - wikipedia
This list comprises Toyota 's manufacturing facilities worldwide, as well as others that are jointly owned by the company or run under a contract.
Toyota do Brasil Ltda.
In 2011, Toyota Motor Corporation will invest in a new plant that will produce about 70,000 vehicles a year when complete for Rp 5,500,000,000,000 (US $638 million) besides Rp 2,600,000,000,000 (US $302 million) to expand its sales outlets throughout the country. The current production is 110,000 units vehicles per year.
There are a total of sixteen Toyota - owned factories in Japan. All but three of these are located in or near Toyota City, while the others are located in Kyushu, Hokkaido and northern Honshu.
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titan is the natural satellite of which planet | Titan (moon) - Wikipedia
Titan is the largest moon of Saturn. It is the only moon known to have a dense atmosphere, and the only object in space other than Earth where clear evidence of stable bodies of surface liquid has been found.
Titan is the sixth ellipsoidal moon from Saturn. Frequently described as a planet - like moon, Titan is 50 % larger than Earth 's Moon, and it is 80 % more massive. It is the second - largest moon in the Solar System, after Jupiter 's moon Ganymede, and is larger than the smallest planet, Mercury, but only 40 % as massive. Discovered in 1655 by the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens, Titan was the first known moon of Saturn, and the sixth known planetary satellite (after Earth 's Moon and the four Galilean moons of Jupiter). Titan orbits Saturn at 20 Saturn radii. From Titan 's surface, Saturn subtends an arc of 5.09 degrees and would appear 11.4 times larger in the sky than the Moon from Earth.
Titan is primarily composed of water ice and rocky material. Much as with Venus before the Space Age, the dense opaque atmosphere prevented understanding of Titan 's surface until new information from the Cassini -- Huygens mission in 2004, including the discovery of liquid hydrocarbon lakes in Titan 's polar regions. The geologically young surface is generally smooth, with few impact craters, although mountains and several possible cryovolcanoes have been found.
The atmosphere of Titan is largely nitrogen; minor components lead to the formation of methane and ethane clouds and nitrogen - rich organic smog. The climate -- including wind and rain -- creates surface features similar to those of Earth, such as dunes, rivers, lakes, seas (probably of liquid methane and ethane), and deltas, and is dominated by seasonal weather patterns as on Earth. With its liquids (both surface and subsurface) and robust nitrogen atmosphere, Titan 's methane cycle is analogous to Earth 's water cycle, at the much lower temperature of about 94 K (− 179.2 ° C).
Titan was discovered on March 25, 1655 by the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens. Huygens was inspired by Galileo 's discovery of Jupiter 's four largest moons in 1610 and his improvements in telescope technology. Christiaan, with the help of his brother Constantijn Huygens, Jr., began building telescopes around 1650 and discovered the first observed moon orbiting Saturn with one of the telescopes they built. It was the sixth moon to be discovered, after Earth 's Moon and the Galilean moons of Jupiter.
He named it Saturni Luna (or Luna Saturni, Latin for "Saturn 's moon ''), publishing in the 1655 tract De Saturni Luna Observatio Nova (A New Observation of Saturn 's Moon). After Giovanni Domenico Cassini published his discoveries of four more moons of Saturn between 1673 and 1686, astronomers fell into the habit of referring to these and Titan as Saturn I through V (with Titan then in fourth position). Other early epithets for Titan include "Saturn 's ordinary satellite ''. Titan is officially numbered Saturn VI because after the 1789 discoveries the numbering scheme was frozen to avoid causing any more confusion (Titan having borne the numbers II and IV as well as VI). Numerous small moons have been discovered closer to Saturn since then.
The name Titan, and the names of all seven satellites of Saturn then known, came from John Herschel (son of William Herschel, discoverer of Mimas and Enceladus) in his 1847 publication Results of Astronomical Observations Made during the Years 1834, 5, 6, 7, 8, at the Cape of Good Hope. He suggested the names of the mythological Titans (Ancient Greek: Τῑτάν), brothers and sisters of Cronus, the Greek Saturn. In Greek mythology, the Titans were a race of powerful deities, descendants of Gaia and Uranus, that ruled during the legendary Golden Age.
Titan orbits Saturn once every 15 days and 22 hours. Like the Moon and many of the satellites of the giant planets, its rotational period (its day) is identical to its orbital period; Titan is tidally locked in synchronous rotation with Saturn, and permanently shows one face to the planet, so Titan 's "day '' is equal to its orbit period. Because of this, there is a sub-Saturnian point on its surface, from which the planet would always appear to hang directly overhead. Longitudes on Titan are measured westward, starting from the meridian passing through this point. Its orbital eccentricity is 0.0288, and the orbital plane is inclined 0.348 degrees relative to the Saturnian equator. Viewed from Earth, Titan reaches an angular distance of about 20 Saturn radii (just over 1,200,000 kilometers (750,000 mi)) from Saturn and subtends a disk 0.8 arcseconds in diameter.
The small, irregularly shaped satellite Hyperion is locked in a 3: 4 orbital resonance with Titan. A "slow and smooth '' evolution of the resonance -- in which Hyperion migrated from a chaotic orbit -- is considered unlikely, based on models. Hyperion probably formed in a stable orbital island, whereas the massive Titan absorbed or ejected bodies that made close approaches.
Titan is 5,151 kilometers (3,201 mi) in diameter, 1.06 times that of the planet Mercury, 1.48 that of the Moon, and 0.40 that of Earth. Before the arrival of Voyager 1 in 1980, Titan was thought to be slightly larger than Ganymede (diameter 5,262 kilometers (3,270 mi)) and thus the largest moon in the Solar System; this was an overestimation caused by Titan 's dense, opaque atmosphere, which extends many kilometres above its surface and increases its apparent diameter. Titan 's diameter and mass (and thus its density) are similar to those of the Jovian moons Ganymede and Callisto. Based on its bulk density of 1.88 g / cm, Titan 's composition is half water ice and half rocky material. Though similar in composition to Dione and Enceladus, it is denser due to gravitational compression. It has a mass 1 / 4226 that of Saturn, making it the largest moon of the gas giants relative to the mass of its primary. It is second in terms of relative diameter of moons to a gas giant; Titan being 1 / 22.609 of Saturn 's diameter, Triton is larger in diameter relative to Neptune at 1 / 18.092.
Titan is likely differentiated into several layers with a 3,400 - kilometer (2,100 mi) rocky center surrounded by several layers composed of different crystalline forms of ice. Its interior may still be hot enough for a liquid layer consisting of a "magma '' composed of water and ammonia between the ice I crust and deeper ice layers made of high - pressure forms of ice. The presence of ammonia allows water to remain liquid even at a temperature as low as 176 K (− 97 ° C) (for eutectic mixture with water). The Cassini probe discovered the evidence for the layered structure in the form of natural extremely - low - frequency radio waves in Titan 's atmosphere. Titan 's surface is thought to be a poor reflector of extremely - low - frequency radio waves, so they may instead be reflecting off the liquid -- ice boundary of a subsurface ocean. Surface features were observed by the Cassini spacecraft to systematically shift by up to 30 kilometers (19 mi) between October 2005 and May 2007, which suggests that the crust is decoupled from the interior, and provides additional evidence for an interior liquid layer. Further supporting evidence for a liquid layer and ice shell decoupled from the solid core comes from the way the gravity field varies as Titan orbits Saturn. Comparison of the gravity field with the RADAR - based topography observations also suggests that the ice shell may be substantially rigid.
The moons of Jupiter and Saturn are thought to have formed through co-accretion, a similar process to that believed to have formed the planets in the Solar System. As the young gas giants formed, they were surrounded by discs of material that gradually coalesced into moons. Whereas Jupiter possesses four large satellites in highly regular, planet - like orbits, Titan overwhelmingly dominates Saturn 's system and possesses a high orbital eccentricity not immediately explained by co-accretion alone. A proposed model for the formation of Titan is that Saturn 's system began with a group of moons similar to Jupiter 's Galilean satellites, but that they were disrupted by a series of giant impacts, which would go on to form Titan. Saturn 's mid-sized moons, such as Iapetus and Rhea, were formed from the debris of these collisions. Such a violent beginning would also explain Titan 's orbital eccentricity.
In 2014, analysis of Titan 's atmospheric nitrogen suggested that it has possibly been sourced from material similar to that found in the Oort cloud and not from sources present during co-accretion of materials around Saturn.
Titan is the only known moon with a significant atmosphere, and its atmosphere is the only nitrogen - rich dense atmosphere in the Solar System aside from Earth 's. Observations of it made in 2004 by Cassini suggest that Titan is a "super rotator '', like Venus, with an atmosphere that rotates much faster than its surface. Observations from the Voyager space probes have shown that Titan 's atmosphere is denser than Earth 's, with a surface pressure about 1.45 atm. It is also about 1.19 times as massive as Earth 's overall, or about 7.3 times more massive on a per surface area basis. Opaque haze layers block most visible light from the Sun and other sources and obscures Titan 's surface features. Titan 's lower gravity means that its atmosphere is far more extended than Earth 's. The atmosphere of Titan is opaque at many wavelengths and as a result, a complete reflectance spectrum of the surface is impossible to acquire from orbit. It was not until the arrival of the Cassini -- Huygens spacecraft in 2004 that the first direct images of Titan 's surface were obtained.
Titan 's atmospheric composition in the stratosphere is 98.4 % nitrogen with the remaining 1.6 % composed mostly of methane (1.4 %) and hydrogen (0.1 -- 0.2 %). There are trace amounts of other hydrocarbons, such as ethane, diacetylene, methylacetylene, acetylene and propane, and of other gases, such as cyanoacetylene, hydrogen cyanide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, cyanogen, argon and helium. The hydrocarbons are thought to form in Titan 's upper atmosphere in reactions resulting from the breakup of methane by the Sun 's ultraviolet light, producing a thick orange smog. Titan spends 95 % of its time within Saturn 's magnetosphere, which may help shield it from the solar wind.
Energy from the Sun should have converted all traces of methane in Titan 's atmosphere into more complex hydrocarbons within 50 million years -- a short time compared to the age of the Solar System. This suggests that methane must be replenished by a reservoir on or within Titan itself. The ultimate origin of the methane in its atmosphere may be its interior, released via eruptions from cryovolcanoes.
On April 3, 2013, NASA reported that complex organic chemicals could arise on Titan, based on studies simulating the atmosphere of Titan.
On June 6, 2013, scientists at the IAA - CSIC reported the detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the upper atmosphere of Titan.
On September 30, 2013, propene was detected in the atmosphere of Titan by NASA 's Cassini spacecraft, using its composite infrared spectrometer (CIRS). This is the first time propene has been found on any moon or planet other than Earth and is the first chemical found by the CIRS. The detection of propene fills a mysterious gap in observations that date back to NASA 's Voyager 1 spacecraft 's first close flyby of Titan in 1980, during which it was discovered that many of the gases that make up Titan 's brown haze were hydrocarbons, theoretically formed via the recombination of radicals created by the Sun 's ultraviolet photolysis of methane.
On October 24, 2014, methane was found in polar clouds on Titan.
Titan 's surface temperature is about 94 K (− 179.2 ° C). At this temperature, water ice has an extremely low vapor pressure, so the little water vapor present appears limited to the stratosphere. Titan receives about 1 % as much sunlight as Earth. Before sunlight reaches the surface, about 90 % has been absorbed by the thick atmosphere, leaving only 0.1 % of the amount of light Earth receives.
Atmospheric methane creates a greenhouse effect on Titan 's surface, without which Titan would be far colder. Conversely, haze in Titan 's atmosphere contributes to an anti-greenhouse effect by reflecting sunlight back into space, cancelling a portion of the greenhouse effect and making its surface significantly colder than its upper atmosphere.
Titan 's clouds, probably composed of methane, ethane or other simple organics, are scattered and variable, punctuating the overall haze. The findings of the Huygens probe indicate that Titan 's atmosphere periodically rains liquid methane and other organic compounds onto its surface.
Clouds typically cover 1 % of Titan 's disk, though outburst events have been observed in which the cloud cover rapidly expands to as much as 8 %. One hypothesis asserts that the southern clouds are formed when heightened levels of sunlight during the southern summer generate uplift in the atmosphere, resulting in convection. This explanation is complicated by the fact that cloud formation has been observed not only after the southern summer solstice but also during mid-spring. Increased methane humidity at the south pole possibly contributes to the rapid increases in cloud size. It was summer in Titan 's southern hemisphere until 2010, when Saturn 's orbit, which governs Titan 's motion, moved Titan 's northern hemisphere into the sunlight. When the seasons switch, it is expected that ethane will begin to condense over the south pole.
The surface of Titan has been described as "complex, fluid - processed, (and) geologically young ''. Titan has been around since the Solar System 's formation, but its surface is much younger, between 100 million and 1 billion years old. Geological processes may have reshaped Titan 's surface. Titan 's atmosphere is twice as thick as Earth 's, making it difficult for astronomical instruments to image its surface in the visible light spectrum. The Cassini spacecraft used infrared instruments, radar altimetry and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging to map portions of Titan during its close fly - bys. The first images revealed a diverse geology, with both rough and smooth areas. There are features that may be volcanic in origin, disgorging water mixed with ammonia onto the surface. There is also evidence that Titan 's ice shell may be substantially rigid, which would suggest little geologic activity.
There are also streaky features, some of them hundreds of kilometers in length, that appear to be caused by windblown particles. Examination has also shown the surface to be relatively smooth; the few objects that seem to be impact craters appeared to have been filled in, perhaps by raining hydrocarbons or volcanoes. Radar altimetry suggests height variation is low, typically no more than 150 meters. Occasional elevation changes of 500 meters have been discovered and Titan has mountains that sometimes reach several hundred meters to more than 1 kilometer in height.
Titan 's surface is marked by broad regions of bright and dark terrain. These include Xanadu, a large, reflective equatorial area about the size of Australia. It was first identified in infrared images from the Hubble Space Telescope in 1994, and later viewed by the Cassini spacecraft. The convoluted region is filled with hills and cut by valleys and chasms. It is criss - crossed in places by dark lineaments -- sinuous topographical features resembling ridges or crevices. These may represent tectonic activity, which would indicate that Xanadu is geologically young. Alternatively, the lineaments may be liquid - formed channels, suggesting old terrain that has been cut through by stream systems. There are dark areas of similar size elsewhere on Titan, observed from the ground and by Cassini; at least one of these, Ligeia Mare, Titan 's second - largest sea, is almost a pure methane sea.
The possibility of hydrocarbon seas on Titan was first suggested based on Voyager 1 and 2 data that showed Titan to have a thick atmosphere of approximately the correct temperature and composition to support them, but direct evidence was not obtained until 1995 when data from Hubble and other observations suggested the existence of liquid methane on Titan, either in disconnected pockets or on the scale of satellite - wide oceans, similar to water on Earth.
The Cassini mission confirmed the former hypothesis. When the probe arrived in the Saturnian system in 2004, it was hoped that hydrocarbon lakes or oceans would be detected from the sunlight reflected off their surface, but no specular reflections were initially observed. Near Titan 's south pole, an enigmatic dark feature named Ontario Lacus was identified (and later confirmed to be a lake). A possible shoreline was also identified near the pole via radar imagery. Following a flyby on July 22, 2006, in which the Cassini spacecraft 's radar imaged the northern latitudes (that were then in winter), several large, smooth (and thus dark to radar) patches were seen dotting the surface near the pole. Based on the observations, scientists announced "definitive evidence of lakes filled with methane on Saturn 's moon Titan '' in January 2007. The Cassini -- Huygens team concluded that the imaged features are almost certainly the long - sought hydrocarbon lakes, the first stable bodies of surface liquid found outside of Earth. Some appear to have channels associated with liquid and lie in topographical depressions. The liquid erosion features appear to be a very recent occurrence: channels in some regions have created surprisingly little erosion, suggesting erosion on Titan is extremely slow, or some other recent phenomena may have wiped out older riverbeds and landforms. Overall, the Cassini radar observations have shown that lakes cover only a small percentage of the surface, making Titan much drier than Earth. Most of the lakes are concentrated near the poles (where the relative lack of sunlight prevents evaporation), but several long - standing hydrocarbon lakes in the equatorial desert regions have also been discovered, including one near the Huygens landing site in the Shangri - La region, which is about half the size of Utah 's Great Salt Lake. The equatorial lakes are probably "oases '', i.e. the likely supplier is underground aquifers.
In June 2008, the Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer on Cassini confirmed the presence of liquid ethane beyond doubt in Ontario Lacus. On December 21, 2008, Cassini passed directly over Ontario Lacus and observed specular reflection in radar. The strength of the reflection saturated the probe 's receiver, indicating that the lake level did not vary by more than 3 mm (implying either that surface winds were minimal, or the lake 's hydrocarbon fluid is viscous).
Specular reflections are indicative of a smooth, mirror - like surface, so the observation corroborated the inference of the presence of a large liquid body drawn from radar imaging. The observation was made soon after the north polar region emerged from 15 years of winter darkness.
On July 8, 2009, Cassini 's VIMS observed a specular reflection indicative of a smooth, mirror - like surface, off what today is called Jingpo Lacus, a lake in the north polar region shortly after the area emerged from 15 years of winter darkness.
Early radar measurements made in July 2009 and January 2010 indicated that Ontario Lacus was extremely shallow, with an average depth of 0.4 -- 3 m, and a maximum depth of 3 to 7 m (9.8 to 23.0 ft). In contrast, the northern hemisphere 's Ligeia Mare was initially mapped to depths exceeding 8 m, the maximum discernable by the radar instrument and the analysis techniques of the time. Later science analysis, released in 2014, more fully mapped the depths of Titan 's three methane seas and showed depths of more than 200 meters (660 ft). Ligeia Mare averages from 20 to 40 m (66 to 131 ft) in depth, while other parts of Ligeia did not register any radar reflection at all, indicating a depth of more than 200 m (660 ft). While only the second largest of Titan 's methane seas, Ligeia "contains enough liquid methane to fill three Lake Michigans. ''
During a flyby on 26 September 2012, Cassini 's radar detected in Titan 's northern polar region what is likely a river with a length of more than 400 kilometers. It has been compared with the much larger Nile river on Earth. This feature is connected to Ligeia Mare. Later, a paper ("Liquid - filled Canyons on Titan '') published on Geophysical Research Letters on 9 August 2016 reported about the May 2013 Cassini RADAR altimeter observation of Vid Flumina channels, defined as a drainage network connected to Titan 's second largest hydrocarbon sea, Ligeia Mare. Analysis of the received altimeter echoes showed that the channels are located in deep (up to ~ 570 m), steep - sided, canyons and have strong specular surface reflections that indicate they are currently liquid filled. Elevations of the liquid in these channels are at the same level as Ligeia Mare to within a vertical precision of about 0.7 m, consistent with the interpretation of drowned river valleys. Specular reflections are also observed in lower order tributaries elevated above the level of Ligeia Mare, consistent with drainage feeding into the main channel system. This is likely the first direct evidence of the presence of liquid channels on Titan and the first observation of hundred - meter deep canyons on Titan. Vid Flumina canyons are thus drowned by the sea but there are a few isolated observations to attest to the presence of surface liquids standing at higher elevations.
During six flybys of Titan from 2006 to 2011, Cassini gathered radiometric tracking and optical navigation data from which investigators could roughly infer Titan 's changing shape. The density of Titan is consistent with a body that is about 60 % rock and 40 % water. The team 's analyses suggest that Titan 's surface can rise and fall by up to 10 metres during each orbit. That degree of warping suggests that Titan 's interior is relatively deformable, and that the most likely model of Titan is one in which an icy shell dozens of kilometres thick floats atop a global ocean. The team 's findings, together with the results of previous studies, hint that Titan 's ocean may lie no more than 100 kilometers (62 mi) below its surface. On July 2, 2014, NASA reported the ocean inside Titan may be as salty as the Dead Sea. On September 3, 2014, NASA reported studies suggesting methane rainfall on Titan may interact with a layer of icy materials underground, called an "alkanofer, '' to produce ethane and propane that may eventually feed into rivers and lakes.
In 2016, Cassini found the first evidence of fluid - filled channels on Titan, in a series of deep, steep - sided canyons flowing into Ligeia Mare. This network of canyons, dubbed Vid Flumina, range in depth from 240 to 570 m and have sides as steep as 40 °. They are believed to have formed either by crustal uplifting, like Earth 's Grand Canyon, or a lowering of sea level, or perhaps a combination of the two. The depth of erosion suggests that liquid flows in this part of Titan are long - term features that persist for thousands of years.
Radar, SAR and imaging data from Cassini have revealed few impact craters on Titan 's surface. These impacts appear to be relatively young, compared to Titan 's age. The few impact craters discovered include a 440 - kilometer - wide (270 mi) two - ring impact basin named Menrva seen by Cassini 's ISS as a bright - dark concentric pattern. A smaller, 60 - kilometer - wide (37 mi), flat - floored crater named Sinlap and a 30 km (19 mi) crater with a central peak and dark floor named Ksa have also been observed. Radar and Cassini imaging have also revealed "crateriforms '', circular features on the surface of Titan that may be impact related, but lack certain features that would make identification certain. For example, a 90 - kilometer - wide (56 mi) ring of bright, rough material known as Guabonito has been observed by Cassini. This feature is thought to be an impact crater filled in by dark, windblown sediment. Several other similar features have been observed in the dark Shangri - la and Aaru regions. Radar observed several circular features that may be craters in the bright region Xanadu during Cassini 's April 30, 2006 flyby of Titan.
Many of Titan 's craters or probable craters display evidence of extensive erosion, and all show some indication of modification. Most large craters have breached or incomplete rims, despite the fact that some craters on Titan have relatively more massive rims than those anywhere else in the Solar System. There is little evidence of formation of palimpsests through viscoelastic crustal relaxation, unlike on other large icy moons. Most craters lack central peaks and have smooth floors, possibly due to impact - generation or later eruption of cryovolcanic lava. Infill from various geological processes is one reason for Titan 's relative deficiency of craters; atmospheric shielding also plays a role. It is estimated that Titan 's atmosphere reduces the number of craters on its surface by a factor of two.
The limited high - resolution radar coverage of Titan obtained through 2007 (22 %) suggested the existence of nonuniformities in its crater distribution. Xanadu has 2 -- 9 times more craters than elsewhere. The leading hemisphere has a 30 % higher density than the trailing hemisphere. There are lower crater densities in areas of equatorial dunes and in the north polar region (where hydrocarbon lakes and seas are most common).
Pre-Cassini models of impact trajectories and angles suggest that where the impactor strikes the water ice crust, a small amount of ejecta remains as liquid water within the crater. It may persist as liquid for centuries or longer, sufficient for "the synthesis of simple precursor molecules to the origin of life ''.
Scientists have long speculated that conditions on Titan resemble those of early Earth, though at a much lower temperature. The detection of argon - 40 in the atmosphere in 2004 indicated that volcanoes had spawned plumes of "lava '' composed of water and ammonia. Global maps of the lake distribution on Titan 's surface revealed that there is not enough surface methane to account for its continued presence in its atmosphere, and thus that a significant portion must be added through volcanic processes.
Still, there is a paucity of surface features that can be unambiguously interpreted as cryovolcanoes. One of the first of such features revealed by Cassini radar observations in 2004, called Ganesa Macula, resembles the geographic features called "pancake domes '' found on Venus, and was thus initially thought to be cryovolcanic in origin, until Kirk et al. refuted this hypothesis at the American Geophysical Union annual meeting in December 2008. The feature was found to be not a dome at all, but appeared to result from accidental combination of light and dark patches. In 2004 Cassini also detected an unusually bright feature (called Tortola Facula), which was interpreted as a cryovolcanic dome. No similar features have been identified as of 2010. In December 2008, astronomers announced the discovery of two transient but unusually long - lived "bright spots '' in Titan 's atmosphere, which appear too persistent to be explained by mere weather patterns, suggesting they were the result of extended cryovolcanic episodes.
In March 2009, structures resembling lava flows were announced in a region of Titan called Hotei Arcus, which appears to fluctuate in brightness over several months. Though many phenomena were suggested to explain this fluctuation, the lava flows were found to rise 200 meters (660 ft) above Titan 's surface, consistent with it having been erupted from beneath the surface.
A mountain range measuring 150 kilometers (93 mi) long, 30 kilometers (19 mi) wide and 1.5 kilometers (0.93 mi) high was also discovered by Cassini in 2006. This range lies in the southern hemisphere and is thought to be composed of icy material and covered in methane snow. The movement of tectonic plates, perhaps influenced by a nearby impact basin, could have opened a gap through which the mountain 's material upwelled. Prior to Cassini, scientists assumed that most of the topography on Titan would be impact structures, yet these findings reveal that similar to Earth, the mountains were formed through geological processes. In December 2010, the Cassini mission team announced the most compelling possible cryovolcano yet found. Named Sotra Patera, it is one in a chain of at least three mountains, each between 1000 and 1500 m in height, several of which are topped by large craters. The ground around their bases appears to be overlaid by frozen lava flows.
Most of Titan 's highest peaks occur near its equator in so - called "ridge belts ''. They are believed to be analogous to Earth 's fold mountains such as the Rockies or the Himalayas, formed by the collision and buckling of tectonic plates, or to subduction zones like the Andes, where upwelling lava (or cryolava) from a melting descending plate rises to the surface. One possible mechanism for their formation is tidal forces from Saturn. Because Titan 's icy mantle is less viscous than Earth 's magma mantle, and because its icy bedrock is softer than Earth 's granite bedrock, mountains are unlikely to reach heights as great as those on Earth. In 2016, the Cassini team announced what they believe to be the tallest mountain on Titan. Located in the Mithrim Montes range, it is 3,337 m tall.
If volcanism on Titan really exists, the hypothesis is that it is driven by energy released from the decay of radioactive elements within the mantle, as it is on Earth. Magma on Earth is made of liquid rock, which is less dense than the solid rocky crust through which it erupts. Because ice is less dense than water, Titan 's watery magma would be denser than its solid icy crust. This means that cryovolcanism on Titan would require a large amount of additional energy to operate, possibly via tidal flexing from nearby Saturn. The low - pressure ice, overlaying a liquid layer of ammonium sulfate, ascends buoyantly, and the unstable system can produce dramatic plume events. Titan is resurfaced through the process by grain - sized ice and ammonium sulfate ash, which helps produce a wind - shaped landscape and sand dune features.
In 2008 Jeffrey Moore (planetary geologist of Ames Research Center) proposed an alternate view of Titan 's geology. Noting that no volcanic features had been unambiguously identified on Titan so far, he asserted that Titan is a geologically dead world, whose surface is shaped only by impact cratering, fluvial and eolian erosion, mass wasting and other exogenic processes. According to this hypothesis, methane is not emitted by volcanoes but slowly diffuses out of Titan 's cold and stiff interior. Ganesa Macula may be an eroded impact crater with a dark dune in the center. The mountainous ridges observed in some regions can be explained as heavily degraded scarps of large multi-ring impact structures or as a result of the global contraction due to the slow cooling of the interior. Even in this case, Titan may still have an internal ocean made of the eutectic water -- ammonia mixture with a temperature of 176 K (− 97 ° C), which is low enough to be explained by the decay of radioactive elements in the core. The bright Xanadu terrain may be a degraded heavily cratered terrain similar to that observed on the surface of Callisto. Indeed, were it not for its lack of an atmosphere, Callisto could serve as a model for Titan 's geology in this scenario. Jeffrey Moore even called Titan Callisto with weather.
Many of the more prominent mountains and hills have been given official names by the International Astronomical Union. According to JPL, "By convention, mountains on Titan are named for mountains from Middle - earth, the fictional setting in fantasy novels by J.R.R. Tolkien. '' Colles (collections of hills) are named for characters from the same Tolkien works.
In the first images of Titan 's surface taken by Earth - based telescopes in the early 2000s, large regions of dark terrain were revealed straddling Titan 's equator. Prior to the arrival of Cassini, these regions were thought to be seas of liquid hydrocarbons. Radar images captured by the Cassini spacecraft have instead revealed some of these regions to be extensive plains covered in longitudinal dunes, up to 330 ft (100 m) high about a kilometer wide, and tens to hundreds of kilometers long. Dunes of this type are always aligned with average wind direction. In the case of Titan, steady zonal (eastward) winds combine with variable tidal winds (approximately 0.5 meters per second). The tidal winds are the result of tidal forces from Saturn on Titan 's atmosphere, which are 400 times stronger than the tidal forces of the Moon on Earth and tend to drive wind toward the equator. This wind pattern, it was theorized, causes granular material on the surface to gradually build up in long parallel dunes aligned west - to - east. The dunes break up around mountains, where the wind direction shifts.
The longitudinal (or linear) dunes were initially presumed to be formed by moderately variable winds that either follow one mean direction or alternate between two different directions. Subsequent observations indicate that the dunes point to the east although climate simulations indicate Titan 's surface winds blow toward the west. At less than 1 meter per second, they are not powerful enough to lift and transport surface material. Recent computer simulations indicate that the dunes may be the result of rare storm winds that happen only every fifteen years when Titan is in equinox. These storms produce strong downdrafts, flowing eastward at up to 10 meters per second when they reach the surface.
The "sand '' on Titan is likely not made up of small grains of silicates like the sand on Earth, but rather might have formed when liquid methane rained and eroded the water - ice bedrock, possibly in the form of flash floods. Alternatively, the sand could also have come from organic solids produced by photochemical reactions in Titan 's atmosphere. Studies of dunes ' composition in May 2008 revealed that they possessed less water than the rest of Titan, and are thus most likely derived from organic soot like hydrocarbon polymers clumping together after raining onto the surface. Calculations indicate the sand on Titan has a density of one - third that of terrestrial sand. The low density combined with the dryness of Titan 's atmosphere might cause the grains to clump together because of static electricity buildup. The "stickiness '' might make it difficult for the generally mild breeze close to Titan 's surface to move the dunes although more powerful winds from seasonal storms could still blow them eastward.
Titan is never visible to the naked eye, but can be observed through small telescopes or strong binoculars. Amateur observation is difficult because of the proximity of Titan to Saturn 's brilliant globe and ring system; an occulting bar, covering part of the eyepiece and used to block the bright planet, greatly improves viewing. Titan has a maximum apparent magnitude of + 8.2, and mean opposition magnitude 8.4. This compares to + 4.6 for the similarly sized Ganymede, in the Jovian system.
Observations of Titan prior to the space age were limited. In 1907 Spanish astronomer Josep Comas i Solà observed limb darkening of Titan, the first evidence that the body has an atmosphere. In 1944 Gerard P. Kuiper used a spectroscopic technique to detect an atmosphere of methane.
The first probe to visit the Saturnian system was Pioneer 11 in 1979, which revealed that Titan was probably too cold to support life. It took images of Titan, including Titan and Saturn together in mid to late 1979. The quality was soon surpassed by the two Voyagers.
Titan was examined by both Voyager 1 and 2 in 1980 and 1981, respectively. Voyager 1 's trajectory was designed to provide an optimized Titan flyby, during which the spacecraft was able to determine the density, composition, and temperature of the atmosphere, and obtain a precise measurement of Titan 's mass. Atmospheric haze prevented direct imaging of the surface, though in 2004 intensive digital processing of images taken through Voyager 1 's orange filter did reveal hints of the light and dark features now known as Xanadu and Shangri - la, which had been observed in the infrared by the Hubble Space Telescope. Voyager 2, which would have been diverted to perform the Titan flyby if Voyager 1 had been unable to, did not pass near Titan and continued on to Uranus and Neptune.
Even with the data provided by the Voyagers, Titan remained a body of mystery -- a large satellite shrouded in an atmosphere that makes detailed observation difficult. The mystery that had surrounded Titan since the 17th - century observations of Christiaan Huygens and Giovanni Cassini was revealed by a spacecraft named in their honor.
The Cassini -- Huygens spacecraft reached Saturn on July 1, 2004, and began the process of mapping Titan 's surface by radar. A joint project of the European Space Agency (ESA) and NASA, Cassini -- Huygens proved a very successful mission. The Cassini probe flew by Titan on October 26, 2004, and took the highest - resolution images ever of Titan 's surface, at only 1,200 kilometers (750 mi), discerning patches of light and dark that would be invisible to the human eye.
On July 22, 2006, Cassini made its first targeted, close fly - by at 950 kilometers (590 mi) from Titan; the closest flyby was at 880 kilometers (550 mi) on June 21, 2010. Liquid has been found in abundance on the surface in the north polar region, in the form of many lakes and seas discovered by Cassini.
Huygens landed on Titan on January 14, 2005, discovering that many of its surface features seem to have been formed by fluids at some point in the past. Titan is the most distant body from Earth to have a space probe land on its surface.
The Huygens probe landed just off the easternmost tip of a bright region now called Adiri. The probe photographed pale hills with dark "rivers '' running down to a dark plain. Current understanding is that the hills (also referred to as highlands) are composed mainly of water ice. Dark organic compounds, created in the upper atmosphere by the ultraviolet radiation of the Sun, may rain from Titan 's atmosphere. They are washed down the hills with the methane rain and are deposited on the plains over geological time scales.
After landing, Huygens photographed a dark plain covered in small rocks and pebbles, which are composed of water ice. The two rocks just below the middle of the image on the right are smaller than they may appear: the left - hand one is 15 centimeters across, and the one in the center is 4 centimeters across, at a distance of about 85 centimeters from Huygens. There is evidence of erosion at the base of the rocks, indicating possible fluvial activity. The surface is darker than originally expected, consisting of a mixture of water and hydrocarbon ice. The "soil '' visible in the images is interpreted to be precipitation from the hydrocarbon haze above.
In March 2007, NASA, ESA, and COSPAR decided to name the Huygens landing site the Hubert Curien Memorial Station in memory of the former president of the ESA.
There have been several conceptual missions proposed in recent years for returning a robotic space probe to Titan. Initial conceptual work has been completed for such missions by NASA, the ESA and JPL. At present, none of these proposals have become funded missions.
The Titan Saturn System Mission (TSSM) was a joint NASA / ESA proposal for exploration of Saturn 's moons. It envisions a hot - air balloon floating in Titan 's atmosphere for six months. It was competing against the Europa Jupiter System Mission (EJSM) proposal for funding. In February 2009 it was announced that ESA / NASA had given the EJSM mission priority ahead of the TSSM.
The proposed Titan Mare Explorer (TiME) was a low - cost lander that would splash down in a lake in Titan 's northern hemisphere and float on the surface of the lake for three to six months. It was selected for a Phase - A design study in 2011 as a candidate mission for the 12th NASA Discovery Program opportunity, but was not selected for flight.
Another mission to Titan proposed in early 2012 by Jason Barnes, a scientist at the University of Idaho, is the Aerial Vehicle for In - situ and Airborne Titan Reconnaissance (AVIATR): an unmanned plane (or drone) that would fly through Titan 's atmosphere and take high - definition images of the surface of Titan. NASA did not approve the requested $715 million, and the future of the project is uncertain.
A conceptual design for another lake lander was proposed in late 2012 by the Spanish - based private engineering firm SENER and the Centro de Astrobiología in Madrid. The concept probe is called Titan Lake In - situ Sampling Propelled Explorer (TALISE). The major difference compared to the TiME probe would be that TALISE is envisioned with its own propulsion system and would therefore not be limited to simply drifting on the lake when it splashes down.
A Discovery Program contestant for its mission # 13 is Journey to Enceladus and Titan (JET), an astrobiology Saturn orbiter that would assess the habitability potential of Enceladus and Titan.
In 2015, the NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts program (NIAC) awarded a Phase II grant to a design study of a submarine to explore the seas of Titan.
Titan is thought to be a prebiotic environment rich in complex organic chemistry with a possible subsurface liquid ocean serving as a biotic environment.
The Cassini -- Huygens mission was not equipped to provide evidence for biosignatures or complex organic compounds; it showed an environment on Titan that is similar, in some ways, to ones theorized for the primordial Earth. Scientists surmise that the atmosphere of early Earth was similar in composition to the current atmosphere on Titan, with the important exception of a lack of water vapor on Titan.
The Miller -- Urey experiment and several following experiments have shown that with an atmosphere similar to that of Titan and the addition of UV radiation, complex molecules and polymer substances like tholins can be generated. The reaction starts with dissociation of nitrogen and methane, forming hydrogen cyanide and acetylene. Further reactions have been studied extensively.
It has been reported that when energy was applied to a combination of gases like those in Titan 's atmosphere, five nucleotide bases, the building blocks of DNA and RNA, were among the many compounds produced. In addition, amino acids, the building blocks of protein were found. It was the first time nucleotide bases and amino acids had been found in such an experiment without liquid water being present.
On April 3, 2013, NASA reported that complex organic chemicals could arise on Titan based on studies simulating the atmosphere of Titan.
On July 26, 2017, Cassini scientists positively identified the presence of carbon chain anions in Titan 's upper atmosphere which appeared to be involved in the production of large complex organics. These highly reactive molecules were previously known to contribute to building complex organics in the Interstellar Medium, therefore highlighting a possibly universal stepping stone to producing complex organic material.
On July 28, 2017, scientists reported that acrylonitrile, or vinyl cyanide, (C H CN), possibly essential for life by being related to cell membrane and vesicle structure formation, had been found on Titan.
Laboratory simulations have led to the suggestion that enough organic material exists on Titan to start a chemical evolution analogous to what is thought to have started life on Earth. The analogy assumes the presence of liquid water for longer periods than is currently observable; several theories suggest that liquid water from an impact could be preserved under a frozen isolation layer. It has also been theorized that liquid - ammonia oceans could exist deep below the surface. Another model suggests an ammonia -- water solution as much as 200 kilometers (120 mi) deep beneath a water - ice crust with conditions that, although extreme by terrestrial standards, are such that life could survive. Heat transfer between the interior and upper layers would be critical in sustaining any subsurface oceanic life. Detection of microbial life on Titan would depend on its biogenic effects. That the atmospheric methane and nitrogen might be of biological origin has been examined, for example.
It has been suggested that life could exist in the lakes of liquid methane on Titan, just as organisms on Earth live in water. Such organisms would inhale H in place of O, metabolize it with acetylene instead of glucose, and exhale methane instead of carbon dioxide.
All living things on Earth (including methanogens) use liquid water as a solvent; it is speculated that life on Titan might instead use a liquid hydrocarbon, such as methane or ethane. Water is a stronger solvent than methane. Water is also more chemically reactive, and can break down large organic molecules through hydrolysis. A life - form whose solvent was a hydrocarbon would not face the risk of its biomolecules being destroyed in this way.
In 2005, astrobiologist Chris McKay argued that if methanogenic life did exist on the surface of Titan, it would likely have a measurable effect on the mixing ratio in the Titan troposphere: levels of hydrogen and acetylene would be measurably lower than otherwise expected.
In 2010, Darrell Strobel, from Johns Hopkins University, identified a greater abundance of molecular hydrogen in the upper atmospheric layers of Titan compared to the lower layers, arguing for a downward flow at a rate of roughly 10 molecules per second and disappearance of hydrogen near Titan 's surface; as Strobel noted, his findings were in line with the effects McKay had predicted if methanogenic life - forms were present. The same year, another study showed low levels of acetylene on Titan 's surface, which were interpreted by McKay as consistent with the hypothesis of organisms consuming hydrocarbons. Although restating the biological hypothesis, he cautioned that other explanations for the hydrogen and acetylene findings are more likely: the possibilities of yet unidentified physical or chemical processes (e.g. a surface catalyst accepting hydrocarbons or hydrogen), or flaws in the current models of material flow. Composition data and transport models need to be substantiated, etc. Even so, despite saying that a non-biological catalytic explanation would be less startling than a biological one, McKay noted that the discovery of a catalyst effective at 95 K (− 180 ° C) would still be significant.
As NASA notes in its news article on the June 2010 findings: "To date, methane - based life forms are only hypothetical. Scientists have not yet detected this form of life anywhere. '' As the NASA statement also says: "some scientists believe these chemical signatures bolster the argument for a primitive, exotic form of life or precursor to life on Titan 's surface. ''
In February 2015, a hypothetical cell membrane capable of functioning in liquid methane in Titan conditions was modeled. Composed of small molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, it would have the same stability and flexibility as cell membranes on Earth, which are composed of phospholipids, compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus. This hypothetical cell membrane was termed an "azotosome '', a combination of "azote '', French for nitrogen, and "liposome ''.
Despite these biological possibilities, there are formidable obstacles to life on Titan, and any analogy to Earth is inexact. At a vast distance from the Sun, Titan is frigid, and its atmosphere lacks CO. At Titan 's surface, water exists only in solid form. Because of these difficulties, scientists such as Jonathan Lunine have viewed Titan less as a likely habitat for life, than as an experiment for examining theories on the conditions that prevailed prior to the appearance of life on Earth. Although life itself may not exist, the prebiotic conditions on Titan and the associated organic chemistry remain of great interest in understanding the early history of the terrestrial biosphere. Using Titan as a prebiotic experiment involves not only observation through spacecraft, but laboratory experiments, and chemical and photochemical modeling on Earth.
It is hypothesized that large asteroid and cometary impacts on Earth 's surface may have caused fragments of microbe - laden rock to escape Earth 's gravity, suggesting the possibility of transpermia. Calculations indicate that these would encounter many of the bodies in the Solar System, including Titan. On the other hand, Jonathan Lunine has argued that any living things in Titan 's cryogenic hydrocarbon lakes would need to be so different chemically from Earth life that it would not be possible for one to be the ancestor of the other.
Conditions on Titan could become far more habitable in the far future. Five billion years from now, as the Sun becomes a red giant, its surface temperature could rise enough for Titan to support liquid water on its surface, making it habitable. As the Sun 's ultraviolet output decreases, the haze in Titan 's upper atmosphere will be depleted, lessening the anti-greenhouse effect on the surface and enabling the greenhouse created by atmospheric methane to play a far greater role. These conditions together could create a habitable environment, and could persist for several hundred million years. This was sufficient time for simple life to spawn on Earth, though the presence of ammonia on Titan would cause chemical reactions to proceed more slowly.
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who played poindexter on revenge of the nerds | Timothy Busfield - wikipedia
Timothy Busfield (born June 12, 1957) is an American actor and director. He has played Elliot Weston on the television series thirtysomething; Mark, Kevin Costner 's brother - in - law in Field of Dreams; and Danny Concannon on the television series The West Wing. In 1991 he received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series for thirtysomething. He is also the founder of the 501 (c) (3) non-profit children 's theatre Fantasy Theatre for Children and B Street Theatre.
Busfield was born in Lansing, Michigan, the son of drama professor Roger and secretary Jean Busfield.
In 1981, Busfield had a small part in the hit comedy Stripes with Bill Murray and Harold Ramis. He plays a mortar gunner on the practice range.
In 1984, Busfield landed his first major film role as Arnold Poindexter in Revenge of the Nerds. He reprised the role in the 1987 sequel to that film, Revenge of the Nerds II: Nerds in Paradise.
Busfield 's first television series was Trapper John, M.D., in which he played the physician son of the title character. Immediately prior to being cast on the 1980s series thirtysomething, he was still often playing teenagers and young adults, and the producers of the show asked him to grow his beard so he 'd look old enough for the role. He would win an Emmy Award for this role. Later he was cast in the lead of other series, although none have lasted very long. Produced by Steven Spielberg, The Byrds of Paradise with Arlo Guthrie may be the most memorable for its setting in Hawaii and its offbeat characters.
In a 1987 episode of Matlock "The Rat Pack, '' he played a feature role. After appearing in Sneakers (1992) starring Robert Redford and Sidney Poitier, Busfield went to London in 1993 to make the television film Wall Of Silence, in which he played Ephraim Lipshitz, a Mossad agent infiltrating a community of Hasidic Jews. Also in that year, he starred in the film The Skateboard Kid.
In 1994, Busfield starred in the film Little Big League. Other film appearances include Sneakers (1992), Field of Dreams (1989) with Kevin Costner, and First Kid (1996) with comedian Sinbad.
In 1997, Busfield starred in the Canadian television film Trucks.
Recurring television roles include White House correspondent Danny Concannon on The West Wing; and the title character 's incorrigible brother on the sitcom Ed, a show on which he was a co-executive producer and supervising producer.
Busfield also dabbles in directing television and has directed multiple episodes of thirtysomething, Without a Trace (on which he appeared as a divorce lawyer, in a wheelchair, for Jack Malone), and the Sorkin / Schlamme predecessor to The West Wing, Sports Night.
Beginning in September 2006, Busfield was a regular on the short lived Sorkin / Schlamme series, Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip, where he played Cal Shanley, the fictional show 's director. He also directed 6 episodes. After Studio 60, he continued to direct episodes of Las Vegas. He has also appeared in various episodes of Entourage playing himself, directing the fictional series Five Towns.
He guest starred in the 2010 Law & Order episode, "Brilliant Disguise '' and in the 2011 Law & Order: Special Victims Unit episode "Russian Brides ''.
Busfield remains a stage actor and director whose Broadway credits include A Few Good Men and Brighton Beach Memoirs, where he was star Matthew Broderick 's understudy. Off - Broadway, he worked with Circle Repertory Company in 1982. With elder brother Buck Busfield, he is co-founder of the B Street Theater in Sacramento, California, where he has appeared in and directed numerous contemporary works. The Busfield brothers also established Fantasy Theater, a touring troupe that plays to children. Busfield writes children 's plays for the Fantasy troupe.
Busfield was married to actress and director Radha Delamarter before divorcing in 1986. The couple had a son, Willy. In 1988 he married fashion designer Jennifer Merwin, with whom he had children Daisy and Samuel. They filed for divorce in 2007.
A representative for Busfield said in January 2013 that Busfield had become engaged to actress Melissa Gilbert over the holiday season. They were married April 24, 2013 in a private ceremony at San Ysidro Ranch in Santa Barbara, California. Busfield and Gilbert now reside in Howell, Michigan.
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when did the british first use gas in ww1 | Chemical weapons in World War I - wikipedia
Although the use of toxic chemicals as weapons dates back thousands of years, the first large scale use of chemical weapons was during World War I. They were primarily used to demoralize, injure, and kill entrenched defenders, against whom the indiscriminate and generally very slow - moving or static nature of gas clouds would be most effective. The types of weapons employed ranged from disabling chemicals, such as tear gas, to lethal agents like phosgene, chlorine, and mustard gas. This chemical warfare was a major component of the first global war and first total war of the 20th century. The killing capacity of gas was limited, with about ninety thousand fatalities from a total of some 1.3 million casualties caused by gas attacks. Gas was unlike most other weapons of the period because it was possible to develop countermeasures, such as gas masks. In the later stages of the war, as the use of gas increased, its overall effectiveness diminished. The widespread use of these agents of chemical warfare, and wartime advances in the composition of high explosives, gave rise to an occasionally expressed view of World War I as "the chemist 's war '' and also the era where weapons of mass destruction were created.
The use of poison gas performed by all major belligerents throughout World War I constituted war crimes as its use violated the 1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gases and the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, which prohibited the use of "poison or poisoned weapons '' in warfare.
The earliest military uses of chemicals were tear - inducing irritants rather than fatal or disabling poisons. During World War I, the French army was the first to employ gas, using 26 mm grenades filled with tear gas (ethyl bromoacetate) in August 1914. The small quantities of gas delivered, roughly 19 cm3 per cartridge, were not even detected by the Germans. The stocks were rapidly consumed and by November a new order was placed by the French military. As bromine was scarce among the Entente allies, the active ingredient was changed to chloroacetone.
In October 1914, German troops fired fragmentation shells filled with a chemical irritant against British positions at Neuve Chapelle, though the concentration achieved was so small that it too was barely noticed. None of the combatants considered the use of tear gas to be in conflict with the Hague Treaty of 1899, which prohibited the launching of projectiles containing asphyxiating or poisonous gas.
The first instance of large - scale use of gas as a weapon was on 31 January 1915, when Germany fired 18,000 artillery shells containing liquid xylyl bromide tear gas on Russian positions on the Rawka River, west of Warsaw during the Battle of Bolimov. However, instead of vaporizing, the chemical froze and failed to have the desired effect.
The first killing agent used by the German military was chlorine. Chlorine is a powerful irritant that can inflict damage to the eyes, nose, throat and lungs. At high concentrations and prolonged exposure it can cause death by asphyxiation. German chemical companies BASF, Hoechst and Bayer (which formed the IG Farben conglomerate in 1925) had been producing chlorine as a by - product of their dye manufacturing. In cooperation with Fritz Haber of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin, they began developing methods of discharging chlorine gas against enemy trenches.
According to the fieldpost letter of Major Karl von Zingler, the first chlorine gas attack by German forces took place before 2 January 1915: "In other war theaters it does not go better and it has been said that our Chlorine is very effective. 140 English officers have been killed. This is a horrible weapon... ''.
By 22 April 1915, the German Army had 168 tons of chlorine deployed in 5,730 cylinders from Langemark -- Poelkapelle, north of Ypres. At 17: 30, in a slight easterly breeze, the gas was released, forming a gray - green cloud that drifted across positions held by French Colonial troops from Martinique, as well as the 1st Tirailleurs and the 2nd Zouaves from Algeria. Faced with an unfamiliar threat these troops broke ranks, abandoning their trenches and creating an 8,000 - yard (7 km) gap in the Allied line. However, the German infantry were also wary of the gas and, lacking reinforcements, failed to exploit the break before the 1st Canadian Division and assorted French troops reformed the line in scattered, hastily prepared positions 1,000 -- 3,000 yards (910 -- 2,740 m) apart. The Entente governments quickly claimed the attack was a flagrant violation of international law but Germany argued that the Hague treaty had only banned chemical shells, rather than the use of gas projectors.
In what became the Second Battle of Ypres, the Germans used gas on three more occasions; on 24 April against the 1st Canadian Division, on 2 May near Mouse Trap Farm and on 5 May against the British at Hill 60. The British Official History stated that at Hill 60, "90 men died from gas poisoning in the trenches or before they could be got to a dressing station; of the 207 brought to the nearest dressing stations, 46 died almost immediately and 12 after long suffering. ''
On August 6, German troops used chlorine gas against Russian troops defending the Fortress of Osowiec. Surviving defenders drove back the attack and retained the fortress.
Germany used chemical weapons on the eastern front in an attack at Rawka, south of Warsaw. The Russian army took 9,000 casualties, with more than 1,000 fatalities. In response, the artillery branch of the Russian army organized a commission to study the delivery of poison gas in shells.
It quickly became evident that the men who stayed in their places suffered less than those who ran away, as any movement worsened the effects of the gas, and that those who stood up on the fire step suffered less -- indeed they often escaped any serious effects -- than those who lay down or sat at the bottom of a trench. Men who stood on the parapet suffered least, as the gas was denser near the ground. The worst sufferers were the wounded lying on the ground, or on stretchers, and the men who moved back with the cloud. Chlorine was less effective as a weapon than the Germans had hoped, particularly as soon as simple countermeasures were introduced. The gas produced a visible greenish cloud and strong odour, making it easy to detect. It was water - soluble, so the simple expedient of covering the mouth and nose with a damp cloth was somewhat effective at reducing the effect of the gas. It was thought to be even more effective to use urine rather than water, as it was known at the time that chlorine reacted readily with urea (present in urine) to form dichloro urea.
Chlorine required a concentration of 1,000 parts per million to be fatal, destroying tissue in the lungs, likely through the formation of hydrochloric acid when dissolved in the water in the lungs (2Cl + 2H O → 4HCl + O). Despite its limitations, however, chlorine was an effective psychological weapon -- the sight of an oncoming cloud of the gas was a continual source of dread for the infantry.
Countermeasures were quickly introduced in response to the use of chlorine. The Germans issued their troops with small gauze pads filled with cotton waste, and bottles of a bicarbonate solution with which to dampen the pads. Immediately following the use of chlorine gas by the Germans, instructions were sent to British and French troops to hold wet handkerchiefs or cloths over their mouths. Simple pad respirators similar to those issued to German troops were soon proposed by Lieutenant - Colonel N.C. Ferguson, the A.D.M.S. of the 28th Division. These pads were intended to be used damp, preferably dipped into a solution of bicarbonate kept in buckets for that purpose, though other liquids were also used. Because such pads could not be expected to arrive at the front for several days, army divisions set about making them for themselves. Locally available muslin, flannel and gauze were used, officers were sent to Paris to buy more and local French women were employed making up rudimentary pads with string ties. Other units used lint bandages manufactured in the convent at Poperinge. Pad respirators were sent up with rations to British troops in the line as early as the evening of 24 April.
In Britain the Daily Mail newspaper encouraged women to manufacture cotton pads, and within one month a variety of pad respirators were available to British and French troops, along with motoring goggles to protect the eyes. The response was enormous and a million gas masks were produced in a day. Unfortunately, the Mail 's design was useless when dry and caused suffocation when wet -- the respirator was responsible for the deaths of scores of men. By 6 July 1915, the entire British army was equipped with the far more effective "smoke helmet '' designed by Major Cluny MacPherson, Newfoundland Regiment, which was a flannel bag with a celluloid window, which entirely covered the head. The race was then on between the introduction of new and more effective poison gases and the production of effective countermeasures, which marked gas warfare until the armistice in November 1918.
The British expressed outrage at Germany 's use of poison gas at Ypres but responded by developing their own gas warfare capability. The commander of II Corps, Lieutenant General Sir Charles Ferguson, said of gas:
It is a cowardly form of warfare which does not commend itself to me or other English soldiers... We can not win this war unless we kill or incapacitate more of our enemies than they do of us, and if this can only be done by our copying the enemy in his choice of weapons, we must not refuse to do so.
The first use of gas by the British was at the Battle of Loos, 25 September 1915, but the attempt was a disaster. Chlorine, codenamed Red Star, was the agent to be used (140 tons arrayed in 5,100 cylinders), and the attack was dependent on a favorable wind. However, on this occasion the wind proved fickle, and the gas either lingered in no man 's land or, in places, blew back on the British trenches. This debacle was compounded when the gas could not be released from all the British canisters because the wrong turning keys were sent with them. Subsequent retaliatory German shelling hit some of those unused full cylinders, releasing more gas among the British troops. Exacerbating the situation were the primitive flannel gas masks distributed to the British. The masks got hot, and the small eye - pieces misted over, reducing visibility. Some of the troops lifted the masks to get some fresh air, causing them to be gassed.
The deficiencies of chlorine were overcome with the introduction of phosgene, which was prepared by a group of French chemists led by Victor Grignard and first used by France in 1915. Colourless and having an odor likened to "mouldy hay, '' phosgene was difficult to detect, making it a more effective weapon. Although phosgene was sometimes used on its own, it was more often used mixed with an equal volume of chlorine, with the chlorine helping to spread the denser phosgene. The Allies called this combination White Star after the marking painted on shells containing the mixture.
Phosgene was a potent killing agent, deadlier than chlorine. It had a potential drawback in that some of the symptoms of exposure took 24 hours or more to manifest. This meant that the victims were initially still capable of putting up a fight; although this could also mean that apparently fit troops would be incapacitated by the effects of the gas on the following day.
In the first combined chlorine -- phosgene attack by Germany, against British troops at Wieltje near Ypres, Belgium on 19 December 1915, 88 tons of the gas were released from cylinders causing 1069 casualties and 69 deaths. The British P gas helmet, issued at the time, was impregnated with sodium phenolate and partially effective against phosgene. The modified PH Gas Helmet, which was impregnated with phenate hexamine and hexamethylene tetramine (urotropine) to improve the protection against phosgene, was issued in January 1916.
Around 36,600 tons of phosgene were manufactured during the war, out of a total of 190,000 tons for all chemical weapons, making it second only to chlorine (93,800 tons) in the quantity manufactured:
Although phosgene was never as notorious in public consciousness as mustard gas, it killed far more people, about 85 % of the 100,000 deaths caused by chemical weapons during World War I.
On 29 June 1916, Austrian forces attacked the Italian lines on Monte San Michele with a mix of phosgene and chlorine gas. Thousands of Italian soldiers died in this first chemical weapons attack on the Italian Front.
The most widely reported and, perhaps, the most effective gas of the First World War was mustard gas. It was a vesicant that was introduced by Germany in July 1917 prior to the Third Battle of Ypres. The Germans marked their shells yellow for mustard gas and green for chlorine and phosgene; hence they called the new gas Yellow Cross. It was known to the British as HS (Hun Stuff), while the French called it Yperite (named after Ypres).
Mustard gas is not a particularly effective killing agent (though in high enough doses it is fatal) but can be used to harass and disable the enemy and pollute the battlefield. Delivered in artillery shells, mustard gas was heavier than air, and it settled to the ground as an oily liquid resembling sherry. Once in the soil, mustard gas remained active for several days, weeks, or even months, depending on the weather conditions.
The skin of victims of mustard gas blistered, their eyes became very sore and they began to vomit. Mustard gas caused internal and external bleeding and attacked the bronchial tubes, stripping off the mucous membrane. This was extremely painful. Fatally injured victims sometimes took four or five weeks to die of mustard gas exposure.
One nurse, Vera Brittain, wrote: "I wish those people who talk about going on with this war whatever it costs could see the soldiers suffering from mustard gas poisoning. Great mustard - coloured blisters, blind eyes, all sticky and stuck together, always fighting for breath, with voices a mere whisper, saying that their throats are closing and they know they will choke. ''
The polluting nature of mustard gas meant that it was not always suitable for supporting an attack as the assaulting infantry would be exposed to the gas when they advanced. When Germany launched Operation Michael on 21 March 1918, they saturated the Flesquières salient with mustard gas instead of attacking it directly, believing that the harassing effect of the gas, coupled with threats to the salient 's flanks, would make the British position untenable.
Gas never reproduced the dramatic success of 22 April 1915; however, it became a standard weapon which, combined with conventional artillery, was used to support most attacks in the later stages of the war. Gas was employed primarily on the Western Front -- the static, confined trench system was ideal for achieving an effective concentration. Germany also made use of gas against Russia on the Eastern Front, where the lack of effective countermeasures resulted in deaths of over 56,000 Russians, while Britain experimented with gas in Palestine during the Second Battle of Gaza. Russia began manufacturing chlorine gas in 1916, with phosgene being produced later in the year. However, most of the manufactured gas was never used.
The British Army believed that the use of gas was needed, but did not use mustard gas until November 1917 at Cambrai, after their armies had captured a stockpile of German mustard - gas shells. It took the British more than a year to develop their own mustard gas weapon, with production of the chemicals centred on Avonmouth Docks. (The only option available to the British was the Despretz -- Niemann -- Guthrie process). This was used first in September 1918 during the breaking of the Hindenburg Line with the Hundred Days ' Offensive.
The Allies mounted more gas attacks than the Germans in 1917 and 1918 because of a marked increase in production of gas from the Allied nations. Germany was unable to keep up with this pace despite creating various new gases for use in battle, mostly as a result of very costly methods of production. Entry into the war by the United States allowed the Allies to increase mustard gas production far more than Germany. Also the prevailing wind on the Western Front was blowing from west to east, which meant the British more frequently had favorable conditions for a gas release than did the Germans.
When the United States entered the war, it was already mobilizing resources from academic, industry and military sectors for research and development into poison gas. A Subcommittee on Noxious Gases was created by the National Research Committee, a major research center was established at Camp American University, and the 1st Gas Regiment was recruited. The 1st Gas Regiment eventually served in France, where it used phosgene gas in a number of attacks. The Artillery used Mustard gas with significant effect during the Meuse Argonne Offensive on at least three occasions. The United States began large - scale production of an improved vesicant gas known as Lewisite, for use in an offensive planned for early 1919. By the time of the armistice on 11 November, a plant near Willoughby, Ohio was producing 10 tons per day of the substance, for a total of about 150 tons. It is uncertain what effect this new chemical would have had on the battlefield, however, as it degrades in moist conditions.
By the end of the war, chemical weapons had lost much of their effectiveness against well trained and equipped troops. At that time, chemical weapon agents inflicted an estimated 1.3 million casualties.
Nevertheless, in the following years, chemical weapons were used in several, mainly colonial, wars where one side had an advantage in equipment over the other. The British used poison gas, possibly adamsite, against Russian revolutionary troops beginning on August 27, 1919 and contemplated using chemical weapons against Iraqi insurgents in the 1920s; Bolshevik troops used poison gas to suppress the Tambov Rebellion in 1920, Spain used chemical weapons in Morocco against Rif tribesmen throughout the 1920s and Italy used mustard gas in Libya in 1930 and again during its invasion of Ethiopia in 1936. In 1925, a Chinese warlord, Zhang Zuolin, contracted a German company to build him a mustard gas plant in Shenyang, which was completed in 1927.
Public opinion had by then turned against the use of such weapons which led to the Geneva Protocol, an updated and extensive prohibition of poison weapons. The Protocol, which was signed by most First World War combatants in 1925, bans the use (but not the stockpiling) of lethal gas and bacteriological weapons. Most countries that signed ratified it within around five years, although a few took much longer -- Brazil, Japan, Uruguay, and the United States did not do so until the 1970s, and Nicaragua ratified it only in 1990. The signatory nations agreed not to use poison gas in the future, stating "the use in war of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases, and of all analogous liquids, materials or devices, has been justly condemned by the general opinion of the civilized world. ''
Although chemical weapons have been used in at least a dozen wars since the end of the First World War, they were not used in combat on a large scale until mustard gas and the more deadly nerve agents were used by Iraq during the 8 - year Iran -- Iraq War. It killed around 20,000 Iranian troops (and injured another 80,000), which is around a quarter of the number of deaths caused by chemical weapons during the First World War.
Although all major combatants stockpiled chemical weapons during the Second World War, the only reports of its use in the conflict were the Japanese use of relatively small amounts of mustard gas and lewisite in China, and very rare occurrences in Europe (for example some sulfur mustard bombs were dropped on Warsaw on 3 September 1939, which Germany acknowledged in 1942 but indicated had been accidental). Mustard gas was the agent of choice, with the British stockpiling 40,719 tons, the Soviets 77,400 tons, the Americans over 87,000 tons and the Germans 27,597 tons. The destruction of an American cargo ship containing mustard gas led to many casualties in Bari, Italy, in December 1943.
In both Axis and Allied nations, children in school were taught to wear gas masks in case of gas attack. Germany developed the poison gases tabun, sarin, and soman during the war, and used Zyklon B in their extermination camps. Neither Germany nor the Allied nations used any of their war gases in combat, despite maintaining large stockpiles and occasional calls for their use. Poison gas played an important role in the Holocaust.
Britain made plans to use mustard gas on the landing beaches in the event of an invasion of the United Kingdom in 1940. The United States considered using gas to support their planned invasion of Japan.
The contribution of gas weapons to the total casualty figures was relatively minor. British figures, which were accurately maintained from 1916, recorded that only 3 % of gas casualties were fatal, 2 % were permanently invalid and 70 % were fit for duty again within six weeks.
It was remarked as a joke that if someone yelled ' Gas ', everyone in France would put on a mask... Gas shock was as frequent as shell shock.
Gas! GAS! Quick, boys! -- An ecstasy of fumbling, Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time; But someone still was yelling out and stumbling, And flound'ring like a man in fire or lime... Dim, through the misty panes and thick green light, As under a green sea, I saw him drowning. In all my dreams, before my helpless sight, He plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning.
Death by gas was often slow and painful. According to Denis Winter (Death 's Men, 1978), a fatal dose of phosgene eventually led to "shallow breathing and retching, pulse up to 120, an ashen face and the discharge of four pints (2 litres) of yellow liquid from the lungs each hour for the 48 of the drowning spasms. ''
A common fate of those exposed to gas was blindness, chlorine gas or mustard gas being the main causes. One of the most famous First World War paintings, Gassed by John Singer Sargent, captures such a scene of mustard gas casualties which he witnessed at a dressing station at Le Bac - du - Sud near Arras in July 1918. (The gases used during that battle (tear gas) caused temporary blindness and / or a painful stinging in the eyes. These bandages were normally water - soaked to provide a rudimentary form of pain relief to the eyes of casualties before they reached more organized medical help.)
The proportion of mustard gas fatalities to total casualties was low; only 2 % of mustard gas casualties died and many of these succumbed to secondary infections rather than the gas itself. Once it was introduced at the third battle of Ypres, mustard gas produced 90 % of all British gas casualties and 14 % of battle casualties of any type.
Mustard gas was a source of extreme dread. In The Anatomy of Courage (1945), Lord Moran, who had been a medical officer during the war, wrote:
After July 1917 gas partly usurped the role of high explosive in bringing to head a natural unfitness for war. The gassed men were an expression of trench fatigue, a menace when the manhood of the nation had been picked over.
Mustard gas did not need to be inhaled to be effective -- any contact with skin was sufficient. Exposure to 0.1 ppm was enough to cause massive blisters. Higher concentrations could burn flesh to the bone. It was particularly effective against the soft skin of the eyes, nose, armpits and groin, since it dissolved in the natural moisture of those areas. Typical exposure would result in swelling of the conjunctiva and eyelids, forcing them closed and rendering the victim temporarily blind. Where it contacted the skin, moist red patches would immediately appear which after 24 hours would have formed into blisters. Other symptoms included severe headache, elevated pulse and temperature (fever), and pneumonia (from blistering in the lungs).
Many of those who survived a gas attack were scarred for life. Respiratory disease and failing eyesight were common post-war afflictions. Of the Canadians who, without any effective protection, had withstood the first chlorine attacks during 2nd Ypres, 60 % of the casualties had to be repatriated and half of these were still unfit by the end of the war, over three years later.
In reading the statistics of the time, one should bear the longer term in mind. Many of those who were fairly soon recorded as fit for service were left with scar tissue in their lungs. This tissue was susceptible to tuberculosis attack. It was from this that many of the 1918 casualties died, around the time of the Second World War, shortly before sulfa drugs became widely available for its treatment.
A British nurse treating mustard gas cases recorded:
They can not be bandaged or touched. We cover them with a tent of propped - up sheets. Gas burns must be agonizing because usually the other cases do not complain even with the worst wounds but gas cases are invariably beyond endurance and they can not help crying out.
A postmortem account from the British official medical history records one of the British casualties:
The distribution of gas cloud casualties was not only limited to the front. Nearby towns were at risk from winds blowing the poison gases through. Civilians rarely had a warning system put into place to alert their neighbours of the danger. In addition to poor warning systems, civilians often did not have access to effective gas masks. Also, when the gas came to the towns over the wind, it could easily get into houses through open windows and doors. An estimated 100,000 - 260,000 civilian casualties were caused by chemical weapons during the conflict and tens of thousands (along with military personnel) died from scarring of the lungs, skin damage, and cerebral damage in the years after the conflict ended. Many commanders on both sides knew that such weapon would cause major harm to civilians as wind would blow poison gases into nearby civilian towns but nonetheless continued to use them throughout the war. British Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig wrote in his diary: "My officers and I were aware that such weapon would cause harm to women and children living in nearby towns, as strong winds were common on the battlefront. However, because the weapon was to be directed against the enemy, none of us were overly concerned at all. ''
None of the First World War 's combatants were prepared for the introduction of poison gas as a weapon. Once gas was introduced, development of gas protection began and the process continued for much of the war producing a series of increasingly effective gas masks.
Even at Second Ypres, Germany, still unsure of the weapon 's effectiveness, only issued breathing masks to the engineers handling the gas. At Ypres a Canadian medical officer, who was also a chemist, quickly identified the gas as chlorine and recommended that the troops urinate on a cloth and hold it over their mouth and nose. The first official equipment issued was similarly crude; a pad of material, usually impregnated with a chemical, tied over the lower face. To protect the eyes from tear gas, soldiers were issued with gas goggles.
The next advance was the introduction of the gas helmet -- basically a bag placed over the head. The fabric of the bag was impregnated with a chemical to neutralize the gas -- however, the chemical would wash out into the soldier 's eyes whenever it rained. Eye - pieces, which were prone to fog up, were initially made from talc. When going into combat, gas helmets were typically worn rolled up on top of the head, to be pulled down and secured about the neck when the gas alarm was given. The first British version was the Hypo helmet, the fabric of which was soaked in sodium hyposulfite (commonly known as "hypo ''). The British P gas helmet, partially effective against phosgene and with which all infantry were equipped with at Loos, was impregnated with sodium phenolate. A mouthpiece was added through which the wearer would breathe out to prevent carbon dioxide build - up. The adjutant of the 1 / 23rd Battalion, The London Regiment, recalled his experience of the P helmet at Loos:
The goggles rapidly dimmed over, and the air came through in such suffocatingly small quantities as to demand a continuous exercise of will - power on the part of the wearers.
A modified version of the P Helmet, called the PH Helmet, was issued in January 1916, and was additionally impregnated with hexamethylenetetramine to improve the protection against phosgene.
Self - contained box respirators represented the culmination of gas mask development during the First World War. Box respirators used a two - piece design; a mouthpiece connected via a hose to a box filter. The box filter contained granules of chemicals that neutralised the gas, delivering clean air to the wearer. Separating the filter from the mask enabled a bulky but efficient filter to be supplied. Nevertheless, the first version, known as the Large Box Respirator (LBR) or "Harrison 's Tower '', was deemed too bulky -- the box canister needed to be carried on the back. The LBR had no mask, just a mouthpiece and nose clip; separate gas goggles had to be worn. It continued to be issued to the artillery gun crews but the infantry were supplied with the "Small Box Respirator '' (SBR).
The Small Box Respirator featured a single - piece, close - fitting rubberized mask with eye - pieces. The box filter was compact and could be worn around the neck. The SBR could be readily upgraded as more effective filter technology was developed. The British - designed SBR was also adopted for use by the American Expeditionary Force. The SBR was the prized possession of the ordinary infantryman; when the British were forced to retreat during the German Spring Offensive of 1918, it was found that while some troops had discarded their rifles, hardly any had left behind their respirators.
Humans were not the only ones that needed protection from gas clouds. Horses and mules were important methods of transportation that could be endangered if they came into close contact with gas. This was not so much of a problem until it became common to launch gas great distances. This caused many researchers to develop masks that could be used on animals such as dogs, horses, mules, and even carrier pigeons.
The following are some examples of improvised animal gas masks that were implemented:
For mustard gas, which could cause severe damage by simply making contact with skin, no effective countermeasure was found during the war. The kilt - wearing Scottish regiments were especially vulnerable to mustard gas injuries due to their bare legs. At Nieuwpoort in Flanders some Scottish battalions took to wearing women 's tights beneath the kilt as a form of protection.
Gas alert procedure became a routine for the front - line soldier. To warn of a gas attack, a bell would be rung, often made from a spent artillery shell. At the noisy batteries of the siege guns, a compressed air strombus horn was used, which could be heard nine miles (14 km) away. Notices would be posted on all approaches to an affected area, warning people to take precautions.
Other British attempts at countermeasures were not so effective. An early plan was to use 100,000 fans to disperse the gas. Burning coal or carborundum dust was tried. A proposal was made to equip front - line sentries with diving helmets, air being pumped to them through a 100 ft (30 m) hose.
However, the effectiveness of all countermeasures is apparent. In 1915, when poison gas was relatively new, less than 3 % of British gas casualties died. In 1916, the proportion of fatalities jumped to 17 %. By 1918, the figure was back below 3 %, though the total number of British gas casualties was now nine times the 1915 levels.
The first system employed for the mass delivery of gas involved releasing the gas cylinders in a favourable wind such that it was carried over the enemy 's trenches. The Hague Convention of 1899 prohibited the use of poisons gasses delivered by projectiles. The main advantage of this method was that it was relatively simple and, in suitable atmospheric conditions, produced a concentrated cloud capable of overwhelming the gas mask defences. The disadvantages of cylinder releases were numerous. First and foremost, delivery was at the mercy of the wind. If the wind was fickle, as was the case at Loos, the gas could backfire, causing friendly casualties. Gas clouds gave plenty of warning, allowing the enemy time to protect themselves, though many soldiers found the sight of a creeping gas cloud unnerving. Also gas clouds had limited penetration, only capable of affecting the front - line trenches before dissipating.
Finally, the cylinders had to be emplaced at the very front of the trench system so that the gas was released directly over no man 's land. This meant that the cylinders had to be manhandled through communication trenches, often clogged and sodden, and stored at the front where there was always the risk that cylinders would be prematurely breached during a bombardment. A leaking cylinder could issue a telltale wisp of gas that, if spotted, would be sure to attract shellfire.
A British chlorine cylinder, known as an "oojah '', weighed 190 lb (86 kg), of which only 60 lb (27 kg) was chlorine gas, and required two men to carry. Phosgene gas was introduced later in a cylinder, known as a "mouse '', that only weighed 50 lb (23 kg).
Delivering gas via artillery shell overcame many of the risks of dealing with gas in cylinders. The Germans, for example, used 5.9 - inch (150 mm) artillery shells ("five - nines ''). Gas shells were independent of the wind and increased the effective range of gas, making anywhere within reach of the guns vulnerable. Gas shells could be delivered without warning, especially the clear, nearly odorless phosgene -- there are numerous accounts of gas shells, landing with a "plop '' rather than exploding, being initially dismissed as dud HE or shrapnel shells, giving the gas time to work before the soldiers were alerted and took precautions.
The main flaw associated with delivering gas via artillery was the difficulty of achieving a killing concentration. Each shell had a small gas payload and an area would have to be subjected to a saturation bombardment to produce a cloud to match cylinder delivery. Mustard gas, however, did not need to form a concentrated cloud and hence artillery was the ideal vehicle for delivery of this battlefield pollutant.
The solution to achieving a lethal concentration without releasing from cylinders was the "gas projector '', essentially a large - bore mortar that fired the entire cylinder as a missile. The British Livens projector (invented by Captain W.H. Livens in 1917) was a simple device; an 8 - inch (200 mm) diameter tube sunk into the ground at an angle, a propellant was ignited by an electrical signal, firing the cylinder containing 30 or 40 lb (14 or 18 kg) of gas up to 1,900 meters. By arranging a battery of these projectors and firing them simultaneously, a dense concentration of gas could be achieved. The Livens was first used at Arras on 4 April 1917. On 31 March 1918 the British conducted their largest ever "gas shoot '', firing 3,728 cylinders at Lens.
Over 16,000,000 acres (65,000 km) of France had to be cordoned off at the end of the war because of unexploded ordnance. About 20 % of the chemical shells were duds, and approximately 13 million of these munitions were left in place. This has been a serious problem in former battle areas from immediately after the end of the War until the present. Shells may be, for instance, uncovered when farmers plough their fields (termed the ' iron harvest '), and are also regularly discovered when public works or construction work is done.
An additional difficulty is the current stringency of environmental legislation. In the past, a common method of getting rid of unexploded chemical ammunition was to detonate or dump it at sea; this is currently prohibited in most countries.
The problems are especially acute in some northern regions of France. The French government no longer disposes of chemical weapons at sea. For this reason, piles of untreated chemical weapons accumulated. In 2001, it became evident that the pile stored at a depot in Vimy was unsafe; the inhabitants of the neighboring town were evacuated, and the pile moved, using refrigerated trucks and under heavy guard, to a military camp in Suippes. The capacity of the plant is meant to be 25 tons per year (extensible to 80 tons at the beginning), for a lifetime of 30 years.
Germany has to deal with unexploded ammunition and polluted lands resulting from the explosion of an ammunition train in 1919.
Aside from unexploded shells, there have been claims that poison residues have remained in the local environment for an extended period, though this is unconfirmed; well known but unverified anecdotes claim that as late as the 1960s trees in the area retained enough mustard gas residue to injure farmers or construction workers who were clearing them.
Soldiers who claimed to have been exposed to chemical warfare have often presented with unusual medical conditions which has led to much controversy. The lack of information has left doctors, patients, and their families in the dark in terms of prognosis and treatment. Nerve agents such as sarin, tabun, and soman are believed to have the most significant long - term health effects. Chronic fatigue and memory loss have been reported to last up to three years after exposure. In the years following World War One, there were many conferences held in attempts to abolish the use of chemical weapons all together, such as The Washington Conference (1921 -- 22), Geneva Conference (1923 -- 25) and the World Disarmament Conference (1933). Although the United States was an original signatory of the Geneva Protocol in 1925, the US Senate did not formally ratify it until 1975.
Although the health effects are generally chronic in nature, the exposures were generally acute. A positive correlation has been proven between exposure to mustard agents and skin cancers, other respiratory and skin conditions, leukemia, several eye conditions, bone marrow depression and subsequent immunosuppression, psychological disorders and sexual dysfunction. Chemicals used in the production of chemical weapons have also left residues in the soil where the weapons were used. The chemicals that have been detected can cause cancer and can affect the brain, blood, liver, kidneys and skin.
Despite the evidence in support of long - term health effects, there are studies that show just the opposite. Some US veterans who were closely affected by chemical weapons showed no neurological evidence in the following years. These same studies showed that one single contact with chemical weapons would be enough to cause long - term health effects.
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15. the first major military engagement of the american revolution took place near | Battles of Lexington and Concord - wikipedia
Strategic American victory
The Battles of Lexington and Concord were the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War. The battles were fought on April 19, 1775 in Middlesex County, Province of Massachusetts Bay, within the towns of Lexington, Concord, Lincoln, Menotomy (present - day Arlington), and Cambridge. They marked the outbreak of armed conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and its thirteen colonies in America.
In late 1774, Colonial leaders adopted the Suffolk Resolves in resistance to the alterations made to the Massachusetts colonial government by the British parliament following the Boston Tea Party. The colonial assembly responded by forming a Patriot provisional government known as the Massachusetts Provincial Congress and calling for local militias to train for possible hostilities. The Colonial government exercised effective control of the colony outside of British - controlled Boston. In response, the British government in February 1775 declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion.
About 700 British Army regulars in Boston, under Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith, were given secret orders to capture and destroy Colonial military supplies reportedly stored by the Massachusetts militia at Concord. Through effective intelligence gathering, Patriot leaders had received word weeks before the expedition that their supplies might be at risk and had moved most of them to other locations. On the night before the battle, warning of the British expedition had been rapidly sent from Boston to militias in the area by several riders, including Paul Revere, with information about British plans. The initial mode of the Army 's arrival by water was signaled from the Old North Church in Boston to Charleston using lanterns to communicate "one if by land, two if by sea ''.
The first shots were fired just as the sun was rising at Lexington. Eight militiamen were killed, including Ensign Robert Munroe, their ranking officer. The British suffered only one casualty. The militia were outnumbered and fell back, and the regulars proceeded on to Concord, where they broke apart into companies to search for the supplies. At the North Bridge in Concord, approximately 400 militiamen engaged 100 regulars from three companies of the King 's troops at about 11: 00 am, resulting in casualties on both sides. The outnumbered regulars fell back from the bridge and rejoined the main body of British forces in Concord.
The British forces began their return march to Boston after completing their search for military supplies, and more militiamen continued to arrive from neighboring towns. Gunfire erupted again between the two sides and continued throughout the day as the regulars marched back towards Boston. Upon returning to Lexington, Lt. Col. Smith 's expedition was rescued by reinforcements under Brigadier General Hugh Percy, a future duke of Northumberland known as Earl Percy. The combined force of about 1,700 men marched back to Boston under heavy fire in a tactical withdrawal and eventually reached the safety of Charlestown. The accumulated militias then blockaded the narrow land accesses to Charlestown and Boston, starting the Siege of Boston.
Ralph Waldo Emerson describes the first shot fired by the Patriots at the North Bridge in his "Concord Hymn '' as the "shot heard round the world ''.
The British Army 's infantry was nicknamed "redcoats '' and sometimes "devils '' by the colonists. They had occupied Boston since 1768 and had been augmented by naval forces and marines to enforce what the colonists called The Intolerable Acts, which had been passed by the British Parliament to punish the Province of Massachusetts Bay for the Boston Tea Party and other acts of defiance.
General Thomas Gage was the military governor of Massachusetts and commander - in - chief of the roughly 3,000 British military forces garrisoned in Boston. He had no control over Massachusetts outside of Boston, however, where implementation of the Acts had increased tensions between the Patriot Whig majority and the pro-British Tory minority. Gage 's plan was to avoid conflict by removing military supplies from Whig militias using small, secret, and rapid strikes. This struggle for supplies led to one British success and several Patriot successes in a series of nearly bloodless conflicts known as the Powder Alarms. Gage considered himself to be a friend of liberty and attempted to separate his duties as governor of the colony and as general of an occupying force. Edmund Burke described Gage 's conflicted relationship with Massachusetts by saying in Parliament, "An Englishman is the unfittest person on Earth to argue another Englishman into slavery. ''
The colonists had been forming militias since the very beginnings of Colonial settlement for the purpose of defense against Indian attacks. These forces also saw action in the French and Indian War between 1754 and 1763 when they fought alongside British regulars. Under the laws of each New England colony, all towns were obligated to form militia companies composed of all males 16 years of age and older (there were exemptions for some categories), and to ensure that the members were properly armed. The Massachusetts militias were formally under the jurisdiction of the provincial government, but militia companies throughout New England elected their own officers. Gage effectively dissolved the provincial government under the terms of the Massachusetts Government Act, and these existing connections were employed by the colonists under the Massachusetts Provincial Congress for the purpose of resistance to the military threat from Britain.
A February 1775 address to King George III, by both houses of Parliament, declared that a state of rebellion existed:
We... find that a part of your Majesty ' s subjects, in the Province of the Massachusetts Bay, have proceeded so far to resist the authority of the supreme Legislature, that a rebellion at this time actually exists within the said Province; and we see, with the utmost concern, that they have been countenanced and encouraged by unlawful combinations and engagements entered into by your Majesty 's subjects in several of the other Colonies, to the injury and oppression of many of their innocent fellow - subjects, resident within the Kingdom of Great Britain, and the rest of your Majesty ' s Dominions...
We... shall... pay attention and regard to any real grievances... laid before us; and whenever any of the Colonies shall make a proper application to us, we shall be ready to afford them every just and reasonable indulgence. At the same time we... beseech your Majesty that you will... enforce due obedience to the laws and authority of the supreme Legislature; and... it is our fixed resolution, at the hazard of our lives and properties, to stand by your Majesty against all rebellious attempts in the maintenance of the just rights of your Majesty, and the two Houses of Parliament.
On April 14, 1775, Gage received instructions from Secretary of State William Legge, Earl of Dartmouth, to disarm the rebels and to imprison the rebellion 's leaders, but Dartmouth gave Gage considerable discretion in his commands. Gage 's decision to act promptly may have been influenced by information he received on April 15, from a spy within the Provincial Congress, telling him that although the Congress was still divided on the need for armed resistance, delegates were being sent to the other New England colonies to see if they would cooperate in raising a New England army of 18,000 colonial soldiers.
On the morning of April 18, Gage ordered a mounted patrol of about 20 men under the command of Major Mitchell of the 5th Regiment of Foot into the surrounding country to intercept messengers who might be out on horseback. This patrol behaved differently from patrols sent out from Boston in the past, staying out after dark and asking travelers about the location of Samuel Adams and John Hancock. This had the unintended effect of alarming many residents and increasing their preparedness. The Lexington militia in particular began to muster early that evening, hours before receiving any word from Boston. A well - known story alleges that after nightfall one farmer, Josiah Nelson, mistook the British patrol for the colonists and asked them, "Have you heard anything about when the regulars are coming out? '' upon which he was slashed on his scalp with a sword. However, the story of this incident was not published until over a century later, which suggests that it may be little more than a family myth.
Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith received orders from Gage on the afternoon of April 18 with instructions that he was not to read them until his troops were underway. He was to proceed from Boston "with utmost expedition and secrecy to Concord, where you will seize and destroy... all Military stores... But you will take care that the soldiers do not plunder the inhabitants or hurt private property. '' Gage used his discretion and did not issue written orders for the arrest of rebel leaders, as he feared doing so might spark an uprising.
On March 30, 1775, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress issued the following resolution:
Whenever the army under command of General Gage, or any part thereof to the number of five hundred, shall march out of the town of Boston, with artillery and baggage, it ought to be deemed a design to carry into execution by force the late acts of Parliament, the attempting of which, by the resolve of the late honourable Continental Congress, ought to be opposed; and therefore the military force of the Province ought to be assembled, and an army of observation immediately formed, to act solely on the defensive so long as it can be justified on the principles of reason and self - preservation.
The rebellion 's leaders -- with the exception of Paul Revere and Joseph Warren -- had all left Boston by April 8. They had received word of Dartmouth 's secret instructions to General Gage from sources in London well before they reached Gage himself. Adams and Hancock had fled Boston to the home of one of Hancock 's relatives in Lexington, where they thought they would be safe from the immediate threat of arrest.
The Massachusetts militias had indeed been gathering a stock of weapons, powder, and supplies at Concord and much further west in Worcester. An expedition from Boston to Concord was widely anticipated. After a large contingent of regulars alarmed the countryside by an expedition from Boston to Watertown on March 30, The Pennsylvania Journal, a newspaper in Philadelphia, reported, "It was supposed they were going to Concord, where the Provincial Congress is now sitting. A quantity of provisions and warlike stores are lodged there... It is... said they are intending to go out again soon. ''
On April 8, Paul Revere rode to Concord to warn the inhabitants that the British appeared to be planning an expedition. The townspeople decided to remove the stores and distribute them among other towns nearby.
The colonists were also aware that April 19 would be the date of the expedition, despite Gage 's efforts to keep the details hidden from all the British rank and file and even from the officers who would command the mission. There is reasonable speculation, although not proven, that the confidential source of this intelligence was Margaret Gage, General Gage 's New Jersey - born wife, who had sympathies with the Colonial cause and a friendly relationship with Warren.
Between 9 and 10 pm on the night of April 18, 1775, Joseph Warren told Revere and William Dawes that the British troops were about to embark in boats from Boston bound for Cambridge and the road to Lexington and Concord. Warren 's intelligence suggested that the most likely objectives of the regulars ' movements later that night would be the capture of Adams and Hancock. They did not worry about the possibility of regulars marching to Concord, since the supplies at Concord were safe, but they did think their leaders in Lexington were unaware of the potential danger that night. Revere and Dawes were sent out to warn them and to alert colonial militias in nearby towns.
Dawes covered the southern land route by horseback across Boston Neck and over the Great Bridge to Lexington. Revere first gave instructions to send a signal to Charlestown using lanterns hung in the steeple of Boston 's Old North Church. He then traveled the northern water route, crossing the mouth of the Charles River by rowboat, slipping past the British warship HMS Somerset at anchor. Crossings were banned at that hour, but Revere safely landed in Charlestown and rode west to Lexington, warning almost every house along the route. Additional riders were sent north from Charlestown.
After they arrived in Lexington, Revere, Dawes, Hancock, and Adams discussed the situation with the militia assembling there. They believed that the forces leaving the city were too large for the sole task of arresting two men and that Concord was the main target. The Lexington men dispatched riders to the surrounding towns, and Revere and Dawes continued along the road to Concord accompanied by Samuel Prescott. In Lincoln, they ran into the British patrol led by Major Mitchell. Revere was captured, Dawes was thrown from his horse, and only Prescott escaped to reach Concord. Additional riders were sent out from Concord.
The ride of Revere, Dawes, and Prescott triggered a flexible system of "alarm and muster '' that had been carefully developed months before, in reaction to the colonists ' impotent response to the Powder Alarm. This system was an improved version of an old notification network for use in times of emergency. The colonists had periodically used it during the early years of Indian wars in the colony, before it fell into disuse in the French and Indian War. In addition to other express riders delivering messages, bells, drums, alarm guns, bonfires and a trumpet were used for rapid communication from town to town, notifying the rebels in dozens of eastern Massachusetts villages that they should muster their militias because over 500 regulars were leaving Boston. This system was so effective that people in towns 25 miles (40 km) from Boston were aware of the army 's movements while they were still unloading boats in Cambridge. These early warnings played a crucial role in assembling a sufficient number of colonial militia to inflict heavy damage on the British regulars later in the day. Adams and Hancock were eventually moved to safety, first to what is now Burlington and later to Billerica.
Around dusk, General Gage called a meeting of his senior officers at the Province House. He informed them that instructions from Lord Dartmouth had arrived, ordering him to take action against the colonials. He also told them that the senior colonel of his regiments, Lieutenant Colonel Smith, would command, with Major John Pitcairn as his executive officer. The meeting adjourned around 8: 30 pm, after which Earl Percy mingled with town folk on Boston Common. According to one account, the discussion among people there turned to the unusual movement of the British soldiers in the town. When Percy questioned one man further, the man replied, "Well, the regulars will miss their aim. ''
"What aim? '' asked Percy. "Why, the cannon at Concord '' was the reply. Upon hearing this, Percy quickly returned to Province House and relayed this information to General Gage. Stunned, Gage issued orders to prevent messengers from getting out of Boston, but these were too late to prevent Dawes and Revere from leaving.
The British regulars, around 700 infantry, were drawn from 11 of Gage 's 13 occupying infantry regiments. Major Pitcairn commanded ten elite light infantry companies, and Lieutenant Colonel Benjamin Bernard commanded 11 grenadier companies, under the overall command of Lieutenant Colonel Smith.
Of the troops assigned to the expedition, 350 were from grenadier companies drawn from the 4th (King 's Own), 5th, 10th, 18th (Royal Irish), 23rd, 38th, 43rd, 47th, 52nd and 59th Regiments of Foot, and the 1st Battalion of His Majesty 's Marine Forces. Protecting the grenadier companies were about 320 light infantry from the 4th, 5th, 10th, 23rd, 38th, 43rd, 47th, 52nd, and 59th Regiments, and the 1st Battalion of the Marines. Each company had its own lieutenant, but the majority of the captains commanding them were volunteers attached to them at the last minute, drawn from all the regiments stationed in Boston. This lack of familiarity between commander and company would cause problems during the battle.
The British began to awaken their troops at 9 pm on the night of April 18 and assembled them on the water 's edge on the western end of Boston Common by 10 pm. Colonel Smith was late in arriving, and there was no organized boat - loading operation, resulting in confusion at the staging area. The boats used were naval barges that were packed so tightly that there was no room to sit down. When they disembarked near Phipps Farm in Cambridge, it was into waist - deep water at midnight. After a lengthy halt to unload their gear, the regulars began their 17 miles (27 km) march to Concord at about 2 am. During the wait they were provided with extra ammunition, cold salt pork, and hard sea biscuits. They did not carry knapsacks, since they would not be encamped. They carried their haversacks (food bags), canteens, muskets, and accoutrements, and marched off in wet, muddy shoes and soggy uniforms. As they marched through Menotomy, sounds of the colonial alarms throughout the countryside caused the few officers who were aware of their mission to realize they had lost the element of surprise.
At about 3 am, Colonel Smith sent Major Pitcairn ahead with six companies of light infantry under orders to quick march to Concord. At about 4 am Smith made the wise but belated decision to send a messenger back to Boston asking for reinforcements.
Though often styled a battle, in reality the engagement at Lexington was a minor brush or skirmish. As the regulars ' advance guard under Pitcairn entered Lexington at sunrise on April 19, 1775, about 80 Lexington militiamen emerged from Buckman Tavern and stood in ranks on the village common watching them, and between 40 and 100 spectators watched from along the side of the road. Their leader was Captain John Parker, a veteran of the French and Indian War, who was suffering from tuberculosis and was at times difficult to hear. Of the militiamen who lined up, nine had the surname Harrington, seven Munroe (including the company 's orderly sergeant, William Munroe), four Parker, three Tidd, three Locke, and three Reed; fully one quarter of them were related to Captain Parker in some way. This group of militiamen was part of Lexington 's "training band '', a way of organizing local militias dating back to the Puritans, and not what was styled a minuteman company.
After having waited most of the night with no sign of any British troops (and wondering if Paul Revere 's warning was true), at about 4: 15 a.m., Parker got his confirmation. Thaddeus Bowman, the last scout that Parker had sent out, rode up at a gallop and told him that they were not only coming, but coming in force and they were close. Captain Parker was clearly aware that he was outmatched in the confrontation and was not prepared to sacrifice his men for no purpose. He knew that most of the colonists ' powder and military supplies at Concord had already been hidden. No war had been declared. (The Declaration of Independence was a year in the future.) He also knew the British had gone on such expeditions before in Massachusetts, found nothing, and marched back to Boston.
Parker had every reason to expect that to occur again. The Regulars would march to Concord, find nothing, and return to Boston, tired but empty - handed. He positioned his company carefully. He placed them in parade - ground formation, on Lexington Common. They were in plain sight (not hiding behind walls), but not blocking the road to Concord. They made a show of political and military determination, but no effort to prevent the march of the Regulars. Many years later, one of the participants recalled Parker 's words as being what is now engraved in stone at the site of the battle: "Stand your ground; do n't fire unless fired upon, but if they mean to have a war, let it begin here. '' According to Parker 's sworn deposition taken after the battle:
I... ordered our Militia to meet on the Common in said Lexington to consult what to do, and concluded not to be discovered, nor meddle or make with said Regular Troops (if they should approach) unless they should insult or molest us; and, upon their sudden Approach, I immediately ordered our Militia to disperse, and not to fire: -- Immediately said Troops made their appearance and rushed furiously, fired upon, and killed eight of our Party without receiving any Provocation therefor from us.
Rather than turn left towards Concord, Marine Lieutenant Jesse Adair, at the head of the advance guard, decided on his own to protect the flank of the British column by first turning right and then leading the companies onto the Common itself, in a confused effort to surround and disarm the militia. Major Pitcairn arrived from the rear of the advance force and led his three companies to the left and halted them. The remaining companies under Colonel Smith lay further down the road toward Boston.
A British officer (probably Pitcairn, but accounts are uncertain, as it may also have been Lieutenant William Sutherland) then rode forward, waving his sword, and called out for the assembled militia to disperse, and may also have ordered them to "lay down your arms, you damned rebels! '' Captain Parker told his men instead to disperse and go home, but, because of the confusion, the yelling all around, and due to the raspiness of Parker 's tubercular voice, some did not hear him, some left very slowly, and none laid down their arms. Both Parker and Pitcairn ordered their men to hold fire, but a shot was fired from an unknown source.
(A) t 5 o'clock we arrived (in Lexington), and saw a number of people, I believe between 200 and 300, formed in a common in the middle of town; we still continued advancing, keeping prepared against an attack through without intending to attack them; but on our coming near them they fired on us two shots, upon which our men without any orders, rushed upon them, fired and put them to flight; several of them were killed, we could not tell how many, because they were behind walls and into the woods. We had a man of the 10th light Infantry wounded, nobody else was hurt. We then formed on the Common, but with some difficulty, the men were so wild they could hear no orders; we waited a considerable time there, and at length proceeded our way to Concord.
According to one member of Parker 's militia, none of the Americans had discharged their muskets as they faced the oncoming British troops. The British did suffer one casualty, a slight wound, the particulars of which were corroborated by a deposition made by Corporal John Munroe. Munroe stated that:
After the first fire of the regulars, I thought, and so stated to Ebenezer Munroe... who stood next to me on the left, that they had fired nothing but powder; but on the second firing, Munroe stated they had fired something more than powder, for he had received a wound in his arm; and now, said he, to use his own words, ' I 'll give them the guts of my gun. ' We then both took aim at the main body of British troops the smoke preventing our seeing anything but the heads of some of their horses and discharged our pieces.
Some witnesses among the regulars reported the first shot was fired by a colonial onlooker from behind a hedge or around the corner of a tavern. Some observers reported a mounted British officer firing first. Both sides generally agreed that the initial shot did not come from the men on the ground immediately facing each other. Speculation arose later in Lexington that a man named Solomon Brown fired the first shot from inside the tavern or from behind a wall, but this has been discredited. Some witnesses (on each side) claimed that someone on the other side fired first; however, many more witnesses claimed to not know. Yet another theory is that the first shot was one fired by the British, that killed Asahel Porter, their prisoner who was running away (he had been told to walk away and he would be let go, though he panicked and began to run). Historian David Hackett Fischer has proposed that there may actually have been multiple near - simultaneous shots. Historian Mark Urban claims the British surged forward with bayonets ready in an undisciplined way, provoking a few scattered shots from the militia. In response the British troops, without orders, fired a devastating volley. This lack of discipline among the British troops had a key role in the escalation of violence.
Witnesses at the scene described several intermittent shots fired from both sides before the lines of regulars began to fire volleys without receiving orders to do so. A few of the militiamen believed at first that the regulars were only firing powder with no ball, but when they realized the truth, few if any of the militia managed to load and return fire. The rest ran for their lives.
We Nathaniel Mulliken, Philip Russell, (and 32 other men...) do testify and declare, that on the nineteenth in the morning, being informed that... a body of regulars were marching from Boston towards Concord... About five o'clock in the morning, hearing our drum beat, we proceeded towards the parade, and soon found that a large body of troops were marching towards us, some of our company were coming to the parade, and others had reached it, at which time, the company began to disperse, whilst our backs were turned on the troops, we were fired on by them, and a number of our men were instantly killed and wounded, not a gun was fired by any person in our company on the regulars to our knowledge before they fired on us, and continued firing until we had all made our escape.
The regulars then charged forward with bayonets. Captain Parker 's cousin Jonas was run through. Eight Lexington men were killed, and ten were wounded. The only British casualty was a soldier who was wounded in the thigh. The eight colonists killed were John Brown, Samuel Hadley, Caleb Harrington, Jonathon Harrington, Robert Munroe, Isaac Muzzey, Asahel Porter, and Jonas Parker. Jonathon Harrington, fatally wounded by a British musket ball, managed to crawl back to his home, and died on his own doorstep. One wounded man, Prince Estabrook, was a black slave who was serving in the militia.
The companies under Pitcairn 's command got beyond their officers ' control in part because they were unaware of the actual purpose of the day 's mission. They fired in different directions and prepared to enter private homes. Colonel Smith, who was just arriving with the remainder of the regulars, heard the musket fire and rode forward from the grenadier column to see the action. He quickly found a drummer and ordered him to beat assembly. The grenadiers arrived shortly thereafter, and once order was restored among the soldiers, the light infantry were permitted to fire a victory volley, after which the column was reformed and marched on toward Concord.
In response to the raised alarm, the militiamen of Concord and Lincoln had mustered in Concord. They received reports of firing at Lexington, and were not sure whether to wait until they could be reinforced by troops from towns nearby, or to stay and defend the town, or to move east and greet the British Army from superior terrain. A column of militia marched down the road toward Lexington to meet the British, traveling about 1.5 miles (2 km) until they met the approaching column of regulars. As the regulars numbered about 700 and the militia at this time only numbered about 250, the militia column turned around and marched back into Concord, preceding the regulars by a distance of about 500 yards (457 m). The militia retreated to a ridge overlooking the town, and their officers discussed what to do next. Caution prevailed, and Colonel James Barrett withdrew from the town of Concord and led the men across the North Bridge to a hill about a mile north of town, where they could continue to watch the troop movements of the British and the activities in the center of town. This step proved fortuitous, as the ranks of the militia continued to grow as minuteman companies arriving from the western towns joined them there.
When the British troops arrived in the village of Concord, Lt. Col. Smith divided them to carry out Gage 's orders. The 10th Regiment 's company of grenadiers secured South Bridge under Captain Mundy Pole, while seven companies of light infantry under Captain Parsons, numbering about 100, secured the North Bridge, where they were visible across the cleared fields to the assembling militia companies. Captain Parsons took four companies from the 5th, 23rd, 38th and 52nd Regiments up the road 2 miles (3.2 km) beyond the North Bridge to search Barrett 's Farm, where intelligence indicated supplies would be found. Two companies from the 4th and 10th Regiments were stationed to guard their return route, and one company from the 43rd remained guarding the bridge itself. These companies, which were under the relatively inexperienced command of Captain Walter Laurie, were aware that they were significantly outnumbered by the 400 - plus militiamen. The concerned Captain Laurie sent a messenger to Lt. Col. Smith requesting reinforcements.
Using detailed information provided by Loyalist spies, the grenadier companies searched the small town for military supplies. When they arrived at Ephraim Jones 's tavern, by the jail on the South Bridge road, they found the door barred shut, and Jones refused them entry. According to reports provided by local Loyalists, Pitcairn knew cannon had been buried on the property. Jones was ordered at gunpoint to show where the guns were buried. These turned out to be three massive pieces, firing 24 - pound shot, that were much too heavy to use defensively, but very effective against fortifications, with sufficient range to bombard the city of Boston from other parts of nearby mainland. The grenadiers smashed the trunnions of these three guns so they could not be mounted. They also burned some gun carriages found in the village meetinghouse, and when the fire spread to the meetinghouse itself, local resident Martha Moulton persuaded the soldiers to help in a bucket brigade to save the building. Nearly a hundred barrels of flour and salted food were thrown into the millpond, as were 550 pounds of musket balls. Of the damage done, only that done to the cannon was significant. All of the shot and much of the food was recovered after the British left. During the search, the regulars were generally scrupulous in their treatment of the locals, including paying for food and drink consumed. This excessive politeness was used to advantage by the locals, who were able to misdirect searches from several smaller caches of militia supplies.
Barrett 's Farm had been an arsenal weeks before, but few weapons remained now, and according to family legend, these were quickly buried in furrows to look like a crop had been planted. The troops sent there did not find any supplies of consequence.
Colonel Barrett 's troops, upon seeing smoke rising from the village square as the British burned cannon carriages, and seeing only a few light infantry companies directly below them, decided to march back toward the town from their vantage point on Punkatasset Hill to a lower, closer flat hilltop about 300 yards (274 m) from the North Bridge. As the militia advanced, the two British companies from the 4th and 10th Regiments that held the position near the road retreated to the bridge and yielded the hill to Barrett 's men.
Five full companies of Minutemen and five more of militia from Acton, Concord, Bedford and Lincoln occupied this hill as more groups of men streamed in, totaling at least 400 against Captain Laurie 's light infantry companies, a force totaling 90 -- 95 men. Barrett ordered the Massachusetts men to form one long line two abreast on the highway leading down to the bridge, and then he called for another consultation. While overlooking North Bridge from the top of the hill, Barrett, Lt. Col. John Robinson of Westford and the other Captains discussed possible courses of action. Captain Isaac Davis of Acton, whose troops had arrived late, declared his willingness to defend a town not their own by saying, "I 'm not afraid to go, and I have n't a man that 's afraid to go. ''
Barrett told the men to load their weapons but not to fire unless fired upon, and then ordered them to advance. Laurie ordered the British companies guarding the bridge to retreat across it. One officer then tried to pull up the loose planks of the bridge to impede the colonial advance, but Major Buttrick began to yell at the regulars to stop harming the bridge. The Minutemen and militia from Concord, Acton and a handful of Westford Minutemen, advanced in column formation, two by two, led by Major Buttrick, Lt. Col. Robinson, then Capt. Davis, on the light infantry, keeping to the road, since it was surrounded by the spring floodwaters of the Concord River.
Captain Laurie then made a poor tactical decision. Since his summons for help had not produced any results, he ordered his men to form positions for "street firing '' behind the bridge in a column running perpendicular to the river. This formation was appropriate for sending a large volume of fire into a narrow alley between the buildings of a city, but not for an open path behind a bridge. Confusion reigned as regulars retreating over the bridge tried to form up in the street - firing position of the other troops. Lieutenant Sutherland, who was in the rear of the formation, saw Laurie 's mistake and ordered flankers to be sent out. But as he was from a company different from the men under his command, only three soldiers obeyed him. The remainder tried as best they could in the confusion to follow the orders of the superior officer.
A shot rang out. It was likely a warning shot fired by a panicked, exhausted British soldier from the 43rd, according to Captain Laurie 's report to his commander after the fight. Two other regulars then fired immediately after that, shots splashing in the river, and then the narrow group up front, possibly thinking the order to fire had been given, fired a ragged volley before Laurie could stop them.
Two of the Acton Minutemen, Private Abner Hosmer and Captain Isaac Davis, who were at the head of the line marching to the bridge, were hit and killed instantly. Rev. Dr. Ripley recalled:
The Americans commenced their march in double file... In a minute or two, the Americans being in quick motion and within ten or fifteen rods of the bridge, a single gun was fired by a British soldier, which marked the way, passing under Col. Robinson 's arm and slightly wounding the side of Luther Blanchard, a fifer, in the Acton Company.
Four more men were wounded. Major Buttrick then yelled to the militia, "Fire, for God 's sake, fellow soldiers, fire! '' At this point the lines were separated by the Concord River and the bridge, and were only 50 yards (46 m) apart. The few front rows of colonists, bound by the road and blocked from forming a line of fire, managed to fire over each other 's heads and shoulders at the regulars massed across the bridge. Four of the eight British officers and sergeants, who were leading from the front of their troops, were wounded by the volley of musket fire. At least three privates (Thomas Smith, Patrick Gray, and James Hall, all from the 4th) were killed or mortally wounded, and nine were wounded. In 1824, Reverend and Minuteman Joseph Thaxter wrote:
I was an eyewitness to the following facts. The people of Westford and Acton, some few of Concord, were the first who faced the British at Concord bridge. The British had placed about ninety men as a guard at the North Bridge; we had then no certain information that any had been killed at Lexington, we saw the British making destruction in the town of Concord; it was proposed to advance to the bridge; on this Colonel Robinson, of Westford, together with Major Buttrick, took the lead; strict orders were given not to fire, unless the British fired first; when they advanced about halfway on the causeway the British fired one gun, a second, a third, and then the whole body; they killed Colonel Davis, of Acton, and a Mr. Hosmer. Our people then fired over one another 's heads, being in a long column, two and two; they killed two and wounded eleven. Lieutenant Hawkstone, said to be the greatest beauty of the British army, had his cheeks so badly wounded that it disfigured him much, of which he bitterly complained. On this, the British fled, and assembled on the hill, the north side of Concord, and dressed their wounded, and then began their retreat. As they descended the hill near the road that comes out from Bedford they were pursued; Colonel Bridge, with a few men from Bedford and Chelmsford, came up, and killed several men.
The regulars found themselves trapped in a situation where they were both outnumbered and outmaneuvered. Lacking effective leadership and terrified at the superior numbers of the enemy, with their spirit broken, and likely not having experienced combat before, they abandoned their wounded, and fled to the safety of the approaching grenadier companies coming from the town center, isolating Captain Parsons and the companies searching for arms at Barrett 's Farm.
The colonists were stunned by their success. No one had actually believed either side would shoot to kill the other. Some advanced; many more retreated; and some went home to see to the safety of their homes and families. Colonel Barrett eventually began to recover control. He moved some of the militia back to the hilltop 300 yards (274 m) away and sent Major Buttrick with others across the bridge to a defensive position on a hill behind a stone wall.
Lieutenant Colonel Smith heard the exchange of fire from his position in the town moments after he received the request for reinforcements from Laurie. He quickly assembled two companies of grenadiers to lead toward the North Bridge himself. As these troops marched, they met the shattered remnants of the three light infantry companies running towards them. Smith was concerned about the four companies that had been at Barrett 's, since their route to town was now unprotected. When he saw the Minutemen in the distance behind their wall, he halted his two companies and moved forward with only his officers to take a closer look. One of the Minutemen behind that wall observed, "If we had fired, I believe we could have killed almost every officer there was in the front, but we had no orders to fire and there was n't a gun fired. '' During a tense standoff lasting about 10 minutes, a mentally ill local man named Elias Brown wandered through both sides selling hard cider.
At this point, the detachment of regulars sent to Barrett 's farm marched back from their fruitless search of that area. They passed through the now mostly - deserted battlefield, and saw dead and wounded comrades lying on the bridge. There was one who looked to them as if he had been scalped, which angered and shocked the British soldiers. They crossed the bridge and returned to the town by 11: 30 a.m., under the watchful eyes of the colonists, who continued to maintain defensive positions. The regulars continued to search for and destroy colonial military supplies in the town, ate lunch, reassembled for marching, and left Concord after noon. This delay in departure gave colonial militiamen from outlying towns additional time to reach the road back to Boston.
Lieutenant Colonel Smith, concerned about the safety of his men, sent flankers to follow a ridge and protect his forces from the roughly 1,000 colonials now in the field as the British marched east out of Concord. This ridge ended near Meriam 's Corner, a crossroads about a mile (2 km) outside the village of Concord, where the main road came to a bridge across a small stream. To cross the narrow bridge, the British had to pull the flankers back into the main column and close ranks to a mere three soldiers abreast. Colonial militia companies arriving from the north and east had converged at this point, and presented a clear numerical advantage over the regulars. The British were now witnessing once again what General Gage had hoped to avoid by dispatching the expedition in secrecy and in the dark of night: the ability of the colonial militiamen to rise and converge by the thousands when British forces ventured out of Boston. As the last of the British column marched over the narrow bridge, the British rear guard wheeled and fired a volley at the colonial militiamen, who had been firing irregularly and ineffectively from a distance but now had closed to within musket range. The colonists returned fire, this time with deadly effect. Two regulars were killed and perhaps six wounded, with no colonial casualties. Smith sent out his flanking troops again after crossing the small bridge.
On Brooks Hill (also known as Hardy 's Hill) about 1 mile (1.6 km) past Meriam 's Corner, nearly 500 militiamen had assembled to the south of the road, awaiting opportunity to fire down upon the British column on the road below. Smith 's leading forces charged up the hill to drive them off, but the colonists did not withdraw, inflicting significant casualties on the attackers. Smith withdrew his men from Brooks Hill, and the column continued on to another small bridge into Lincoln, at Brooks Tavern, where more militia companies intensified the attack from the north side of the road.
The regulars soon reached a point in the road now referred to as the "Bloody Angle '' where the road rises and curves sharply to the left through a lightly - wooded area. At this place, the militia company from Woburn had positioned themselves on the southeast side of the bend in the road in a rocky, lightly - wooded field. Additional militia flowing parallel to the road from the engagement at Meriam 's Corner positioned themselves on the northwest side of the road, catching the British in a crossfire, while other militia companies on the road closed from behind to attack. Some 500 yards (460 m) further along, the road took another sharp curve, this time to the right, and again the British column was caught by another large force of militiamen firing from both sides. In passing through these two sharp curves, the British force lost thirty soldiers killed or wounded, and four colonial militia were also killed, including Captain Jonathan Wilson of Bedford, Captain Nathan Wyman of Billerica, Lt. John Bacon of Natick, and Daniel Thompson of Woburn. The British soldiers escaped by breaking into a trot, a pace that the colonials could not maintain through the woods and swampy terrain. Colonial forces on the road itself behind the British were too densely packed and disorganized to mount more than a harassing attack from the rear.
As militia forces from other towns continued to arrive, the colonial forces had risen to about 2,000 men. The road now straightened to the east, with cleared fields and orchards along the sides. Lt. Col. Smith sent out flankers again, who succeeded in trapping some militia from behind and inflicting casualties. British casualties were also mounting from these engagements and from persistent long - range fire from the militiamen, and the exhausted British were running out of ammunition.
When the British column neared the boundary between Lincoln and Lexington, it encountered another ambush from a hill overlooking the road, set by Captain John Parker 's Lexington militiamen, including some of them bandaged up from the encounter in Lexington earlier in the day. At this point, Lt. Col. Smith was wounded in the thigh and knocked from his horse. Major John Pitcairn assumed effective command of the column and sent light infantry companies up the hill to clear the militia forces.
The light infantry cleared two additional hills as the column continued east -- "The Bluff '' and "Fiske Hill '' -- and took still more casualties from ambushes set by fresh militia companies joining the battle. In one of the musket volleys from the colonial soldiers, Major Pitcairn 's horse bolted in fright, throwing Pitcairn to the ground and injuring his arm. Now both principal leaders of the expedition were injured or unhorsed, and their men were tired, thirsty, and exhausting their ammunition. A few surrendered or were captured; some now broke formation and ran forward toward Lexington. In the words of one British officer, "we began to run rather than retreat in order... We attempted to stop the men and form them two deep, but to no purpose, the confusion increased rather than lessened... the officers got to the front and presented their bayonets, and told the men if they advanced they should die. Upon this, they began to form up under heavy fire. ''
Only one British officer remained uninjured among the three companies at the head of the British column as it approach Lexington Center. He understood the column 's perilous situation: "There were very few men had any ammunition left, and so fatigued that we could not keep flanking parties out, so that we must soon have laid down our arms, or been picked off by the Rebels at their pleasure -- nearer to -- and we were not able to keep them off. '' He then heard cheering further ahead. A full brigade, about 1,000 men with artillery under the command of Earl Percy, had arrived to rescue them. It was about 2: 30 p.m., and the British column had now been on the march since 2 o'clock in the morning. Westford Minuteman, Rev. Joseph Thaxter, wrote of his account:
We pursued them and killed some; when they got to Lexington, they were so close pursued and fatigued, that they must have soon surrendered, had not Lord Percy met them with a large reinforcement and two field - pieces. They fired them, but the balls went high over our heads. But no cannon ever did more execution, such stories of their effects had been spread by the tories through our troops, that from this time more wont back than pursed. We pursued to Charlestown Common, and then retired to Cambridge. When the army collected at Cambridge, Colonel Prescott with his regiment of minute men, and John Robinson, his Lieutenant Colonel, were prompt at being at their post.
In their accounts afterward, British officers and soldiers alike noted their frustration that the colonial militiamen fired at them from behind trees and stone walls, rather than confronting them in large, linear formations in the style of European warfare. This image of the individual colonial farmer, musket in hand and fighting under his own command, has also been fostered in American myth: "Chasing the red - coats down the lane / Then crossing the fields to emerge again / Under the trees at the turn of the road, / And only pausing to fire and load. '' To the contrary, beginning at the North Bridge and throughout the British retreat, the colonial militias repeatedly operated as coordinated companies, even when dispersed to take advantage of cover. Reflecting on the British experience that day, Earl Percy understood the significance of the American tactics:
During the whole affair the Rebels attacked us in a very scattered, irregular manner, but with perseverance & resolution, nor did they ever dare to form into any regular body. Indeed, they knew too well what was proper, to do so. Whoever looks upon them as an irregular mob, will find himself much mistaken. They have men amongst them who know very well what they are about, having been employed as Rangers against the Indians & Canadians, & this country being much covered with wood, and hilly, is very advantageous for their method of fighting.
General Gage had anticipated that Lt. Col. Smith 's expedition might require reinforcement, so Gage drafted orders for reinforcing units to assemble in Boston at 4 a.m. But in his obsession for secrecy, Gage had sent only one copy of the orders to the adjutant of the 1st Brigade, whose servant then left the envelope on a table. Also at about 4 a.m., the British column was within three miles of Lexington, and Lt. Col. Smith now had clear indication that all element of surprise had been lost and that alarm was spreading throughout the countryside. So he sent a rider back to Boston with a request for reinforcements. At about 5 a.m., the rider reached Boston, and the 1st Brigade was ordered to assemble: the line infantry companies of the 4th, 23rd, and 47th Regiments, and a battalion of Royal Marines, under the command of Earl Percy. Unfortunately for the British, once again only one copy of the orders were sent to each commander, and the order for the Royal Marines was delivered to the desk of Major John Pitcairn, who was already on the Lexington Common with Smith 's column at that hour. After these delays, Percy 's brigade, about 1,000 strong, left Boston at about 8: 45 a.m., headed toward Lexington. Along the way, the story is told, they marched to the tune of "Yankee Doodle '' to taunt the inhabitants of the area. By the Battle of Bunker Hill less than two months later, the song would become a popular anthem for the colonial forces.
Percy took the land route across Boston Neck and over the Great Bridge, which some quick - thinking colonists had stripped of its planking to delay the British. His men then came upon an absent - minded tutor at Harvard College and asked him which road would take them to Lexington. The Harvard man, apparently oblivious to the reality of what was happening around him, showed him the proper road without thinking. (He was later compelled to leave the country for inadvertently supporting the enemy.) Percy 's troops arrived in Lexington at about 2: 00 p.m. They could hear gunfire in the distance as they set up their cannon and deployed lines of regulars on high ground with commanding views of the town. Colonel Smith 's men approached like a fleeing mob with the full complement of colonial militia in close formation pursuing them. Percy ordered his artillery to open fire at extreme range, dispersing the colonial militiamen. Smith 's men collapsed with exhaustion once they reached the safety of Percy 's lines.
Against the advice of his Master of Ordnance, Percy had left Boston without spare ammunition for his men or for the two artillery pieces they brought with them, thinking the extra wagons would slow him down. Each man in Percy 's brigade had only 36 rounds, and each artillery piece was supplied with only a few rounds carried in side - boxes. After Percy had left the city, Gage directed two ammunition wagons guarded by one officer and thirteen men to follow. This convoy was intercepted by a small party of older, veteran militiamen still on the "alarm list, '' who could not join their militia companies because they were well over 60 years of age. These men rose up in ambush and demanded the surrender of the wagons, but the regulars ignored them and drove their horses on. The old men opened fire, shot the lead horses, killed two sergeants, and wounded the officer. The British survivors ran, and six of them threw their weapons into a pond before they surrendered.
Percy assumed control of the combined forces of about 1,700 men and let them rest, eat, drink, and have their wounds tended at field headquarters (Munroe Tavern) before resuming the march. They set out from Lexington at about 3: 30 p.m., in a formation that emphasized defense along the sides and rear of the column. Wounded regulars rode on the cannon and were forced to hop off when they were fired at by gatherings of militia. Percy 's men were often surrounded, but they had the tactical advantage of interior lines. Percy could shift his units more easily to where they were needed, while the colonial militia were required to move around the outside of his formation. Percy placed Smith 's men in the middle of the column, while the 23rd Regiment 's line companies made up the column 's rear guard. Because of information provided by Smith and Pitcairn about how the Americans were attacking, Percy ordered the rear guard to be rotated every mile or so, to allow some of his troops to rest briefly. Flanking companies were sent to both sides of the road, and a powerful force of Marines acted as the vanguard to clear the road ahead.
During the respite at Lexington, Brigadier General William Heath arrived and took command of the militia. Earlier in the day, he had traveled first to Watertown to discuss tactics with Joseph Warren, who had left Boston that morning, and other members of the Massachusetts Committee of Safety. Heath and Warren reacted to Percy 's artillery and flankers by ordering the militiamen to avoid close formations that would attract cannon fire. Instead, they surrounded Percy 's marching square with a moving ring of skirmishers at a distance to inflict maximum casualties at minimum risk.
A few mounted militiamen on the road would dismount, fire muskets at the approaching regulars, then remount and gallop ahead to repeat the tactic. Unmounted militia would often fire from long range, in the hope of hitting somebody in the main column of soldiers on the road and surviving, since both British and colonials used muskets with an effective combat range of about 50 yards (46 m). Infantry units would apply pressure to the sides of the British column. When it moved out of range, those units would move around and forward to re-engage the column further down the road. Heath sent messengers out to intercept arriving militia units, directing them to appropriate places along the road to engage the regulars. Some towns sent supply wagons to assist in feeding and rearming the militia. Heath and Warren did lead skirmishers in small actions into battle themselves, but it was the presence of effective leadership that probably had the greatest impact on the success of these tactics. Percy wrote of the colonial tactics, "The rebels attacked us in a very scattered, irregular manner, but with perseverance and resolution, nor did they ever dare to form into any regular body. Indeed, they knew too well what was proper, to do so. Whoever looks upon them as an irregular mob, will find himself very much mistaken. ''
The fighting grew more intense as Percy 's forces crossed from Lexington into Menotomy. Fresh militia poured gunfire into the British ranks from a distance, and individual homeowners began to fight from their own property. Some homes were also used as sniper positions, turning the situation into a soldier 's nightmare: house - to - house fighting. Jason Russell pleaded for his friends to fight alongside him to defend his house by saying, "An Englishman 's home is his castle. '' He stayed and was killed in his doorway. His friends, depending on which account is to be believed, either hid in the cellar, or died in the house from bullets and bayonets after shooting at the soldiers who followed them in. The Jason Russell House still stands and contains bullet holes from this fight. A militia unit that attempted an ambush from Russell 's orchard was caught by flankers, and eleven men were killed, some allegedly after they had surrendered.
Percy lost control of his men, and British soldiers began to commit atrocities to repay for the supposed scalping at the North Bridge and for their own casualties at the hands of a distant, often unseen enemy. Based on the word of Pitcairn and other wounded officers from Smith 's command, Percy had learned that the Minutemen were using stone walls, trees and buildings in these more thickly settled towns closer to Boston to hide behind and shoot at the column. He ordered the flank companies to clear the colonial militiamen out of such places.
Many of the junior officers in the flank parties had difficulty stopping their exhausted, enraged men from killing everyone they found inside these buildings. For example, two innocent drunks who refused to hide in the basement of a tavern in Menotomy were killed only because they were suspected of being involved with the day 's events. Although many of the accounts of ransacking and burnings were exaggerated later by the colonists for propaganda value (and to get financial compensation from the colonial government), it is certainly true that taverns along the road were ransacked and the liquor stolen by the troops, who in some cases became drunk themselves. One church 's communion silver was stolen but was later recovered after it was sold in Boston. Aged Menotomy resident Samuel Whittemore killed three regulars before he was attacked by a British contingent and left for dead. (He recovered from his wounds and later died in 1793 at age 98.) All told, far more blood was shed in Menotomy and Cambridge than elsewhere that day. The colonists lost 25 men killed and nine wounded there, and the British lost 40 killed and 80 wounded, with the 47th Foot and the Marines suffering the highest casualties. Each was about half the day 's fatalities.
The British troops crossed the Menotomy River (today known as Alewife Brook) into Cambridge, and the fight grew more intense. Fresh militia arrived in close array instead of in a scattered formation, and Percy used his two artillery pieces and flankers at a crossroads called Watson 's Corner to inflict heavy damage on them.
Earlier in the day, Heath had ordered the Great Bridge to be dismantled. Percy 's brigade was about to approach the broken - down bridge and a riverbank filled with militia when Percy directed his troops down a narrow track (now Beech Street, near present - day Porter Square) and onto the road to Charlestown. The militia (now numbering about 4,000) were unprepared for this movement, and the circle of fire was broken. An American force moved to occupy Prospect Hill (in modern - day Somerville), which dominated the road, but Percy moved his cannon to the front and dispersed them with his last rounds of ammunition.
A large militia force arrived from Salem and Marblehead. They might have cut off Percy 's route to Charlestown, but these men halted on nearby Winter Hill and allowed the British to escape. Some accused the commander of this force, Colonel Timothy Pickering, of permitting the troops to pass because he still hoped to avoid war by preventing a total defeat of the regulars. Pickering later claimed that he had stopped on Heath 's orders, but Heath denied this. It was nearly dark when Pitcairn 's Marines defended a final attack on Percy 's rear as they entered Charlestown. The regulars took up strong positions on the hills of Charlestown. Some of them had been without sleep for two days and had marched 40 miles (64 km) in 21 hours, eight hours of which had been spent under fire. But now they held high ground protected by heavy guns from HMS Somerset. Gage quickly sent over line companies of two fresh regiments -- the 10th and 64th -- to occupy the high ground in Charlestown and build fortifications. Although they were begun, the fortifications were never completed and would later be a starting point for the militia works built two months later in June before the Battle of Bunker Hill. General Heath studied the position of the British Army and decided to withdraw the militia to Cambridge.
In the morning, Boston was surrounded by a huge militia army, numbering over 15,000, which had marched from throughout New England. Unlike the Powder Alarm, the rumors of spilled blood were true, and the Revolutionary War had begun.
Now under the leadership of General Artemas Ward, who arrived on the 20th and replaced Brigadier General William Heath, they formed a siege line extending from Chelsea, around the peninsulas of Boston and Charlestown, to Roxbury, effectively surrounding Boston on three sides. In the days immediately following, the size of the colonial forces grew, as militias from New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut arrived on the scene. The Second Continental Congress adopted these men into the beginnings of the Continental Army. Even now, after open warfare had started, Gage still refused to impose martial law in Boston. He persuaded the town 's selectmen to surrender all private weapons in return for promising that any inhabitant could leave town.
The battle was not a major one in terms of tactics or casualties. However, in terms of supporting the British political strategy behind the Intolerable Acts and the military strategy behind the Powder Alarms, the battle was a significant failure because the expedition contributed to the fighting it was intended to prevent, and because few weapons were actually seized.
The battle was followed by a war for British political opinion. Within four days of the battle, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress had collected scores of sworn testimonies from militiamen and from British prisoners. When word leaked out a week after the battle that Gage was sending his official description of events to London, the Provincial Congress sent a packet of these detailed depositions, signed by over 100 participants in the events, on a faster ship. The documents were presented to a sympathetic official and printed by the London newspapers two weeks before Gage 's report arrived. Gage 's official report was too vague on particulars to influence anyone 's opinion. George Germain, no friend of the colonists, wrote, "the Bostonians are in the right to make the King 's troops the aggressors and claim a victory. '' Politicians in London tended to blame Gage for the conflict instead of their own policies and instructions. The British troops in Boston variously blamed General Gage and Colonel Smith for the failures at Lexington and Concord.
The day after the battle, John Adams left his home in Braintree to ride along the battlefields. He became convinced that "the Die was cast, the Rubicon crossed. '' Thomas Paine in Philadelphia had previously thought of the argument between the colonies and the Home Country as "a kind of law - suit '', but after news of the battle reached him, he "rejected the hardened, sullen - tempered Pharaoh of England forever. '' George Washington received the news at Mount Vernon and wrote to a friend, "the once - happy and peaceful plains of America are either to be drenched in blood or inhabited by slaves. Sad alternative! But can a virtuous man hesitate in his choice? '' A group of hunters on the frontier named their campsite Lexington when they heard news of the battle in June. It eventually became the city of Lexington, Kentucky.
It was important to the early American government that an image of British fault and American innocence be maintained for this first battle of the war. The history of Patriot preparations, intelligence, warning signals, and uncertainty about the first shot was rarely discussed in the public sphere for decades. The story of the wounded British soldier at the North Bridge, hors de combat, struck down on the head by a Minuteman using a hatchet, the purported "scalping '', was strongly suppressed. Depositions mentioning some of these activities were not published and were returned to the participants (this notably happened to Paul Revere). Paintings portrayed the Lexington fight as an unjustified slaughter.
The issue of which side was to blame grew during the early nineteenth century. For example, older participants ' testimony in later life about Lexington and Concord differed greatly from their depositions taken under oath in 1775. All now said the British fired first at Lexington, whereas fifty or so years before, they were n't sure. All now said they fired back, but in 1775, they said few were able to. The "Battle '' took on an almost mythical quality in the American consciousness. Legend became more important than truth. A complete shift occurred, and the Patriots were portrayed as actively fighting for their cause, rather than as suffering innocents. Paintings of the Lexington skirmish began to portray the militia standing and fighting back in defiance.
Ralph Waldo Emerson immortalized the events at the North Bridge in his 1837 "Concord Hymn ''. The "Concord Hymn '' became important because it commemorated the beginning of the American Revolution, and that for much of the 19th century it was a means by which Americans learned about the Revolution, helping to forge the identity of the nation.
After 1860, several generations of schoolchildren memorized Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 's poem "Paul Revere 's Ride ''. Historically it is inaccurate (for example, Paul Revere never made it to Concord), but it captures the idea that an individual can change the course of history.
In the 20th century, popular and historical opinion varied about the events of the historic day, often reflecting the political mood of the time. Isolationist anti-war sentiments before the World Wars bred skepticism about the nature of Paul Revere 's contribution (if any) to the efforts to rouse the militia. Anglophilia in the United States after the turn of the twentieth century led to more balanced approaches to the history of the battle. During World War I, a film about Paul Revere 's ride was seized under the Espionage Act of 1917 for promoting discord between the United States and Britain.
During the Cold War, Revere was used not only as a patriotic symbol, but also as a capitalist one. In 1961, novelist Howard Fast published April Morning, an account of the battle from a fictional 15 - year - old 's perspective, and reading of the book has been frequently assigned in American secondary schools. A film version was produced for television in 1987, starring Chad Lowe and Tommy Lee Jones. In the 1990s, parallels were drawn between American tactics in the Vietnam War and those of the British Army at Lexington and Concord.
The site of the battle in Lexington is now known as the Lexington Battle Green, has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and is a National Historic Landmark. Several memorials commemorating the battle have been established there.
The lands surrounding the North Bridge in Concord, as well as approximately 5 miles (8.0 km) of the road along with surrounding lands and period buildings between Meriam 's Corner and western Lexington are part of Minuteman National Historical Park. There are walking trails with interpretive displays along routes that the colonists might have used that skirted the road, and the Park Service often has personnel (usually dressed in period dress) offering descriptions of the area and explanations of the events of the day. A bronze bas relief of Major Buttrick, designed by Daniel Chester French and executed by Edmond Thomas Quinn in 1915, is in the park, along with French 's Minute Man statue.
Four current units of the Massachusetts National Guard units (181st Infantry, 182nd Infantry, 101st Engineer Battalion, and 125th Quartermaster Company) are derived from American units that participated in the Battles of Lexington and Concord. There are only thirty current units of the U.S. Army with colonial roots.
Several ships of the United States Navy, including two World War II aircraft carriers, were named in honor of the Battle of Lexington.
Patriots ' Day is celebrated annually in honor of the battle in Massachusetts, Maine, and by the Wisconsin public schools, on the third Monday in April. Re-enactments of Paul Revere 's ride are staged, as are the battle on the Lexington Green, and ceremonies and firings are held at the North Bridge.
The Town of Concord invited 700 prominent U.S. citizens and leaders from the worlds of government, the military, the diplomatic corps, the arts, sciences, and humanities to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the battles. On April 19, 1975, as a crowd estimated at 110,000 gathered to view a parade and celebrate the Bicentennial in Concord, President Gerald Ford delivered a major speech near the North Bridge, which was televised to the nation.
Freedom was nourished in American soil because the principles of the Declaration of Independence flourished in our land. These principles, when enunciated 200 years ago, were a dream, not a reality. Today, they are real. Equality has matured in America. Our inalienable rights have become even more sacred. There is no government in our land without consent of the governed. Many other lands have freely accepted the principles of liberty and freedom in the Declaration of Independence and fashioned their own independent republics. It is these principles, freely taken and freely shared, that have revolutionized the world. The volley fired here at Concord two centuries ago, ' the shot heard round the world ', still echoes today on this anniversary.
President Ford laid a wreath at the base of The Minute Man statue and then respectfully observed as Sir Peter Ramsbotham, the British Ambassador to the United States, laid a wreath at the grave of British soldiers killed in the battle.
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list 5 places where we use inclined plane | Inclined plane - wikipedia
An inclined plane, also known as a ramp, is a flat supporting surface tilted at an angle, with one end higher than the other, used as an aid for raising or lowering a load. The inclined plane is one of the six classical simple machines defined by Renaissance scientists. Inclined planes are widely used to move heavy loads over vertical obstacles; examples vary from a ramp used to load goods into a truck, to a person walking up a pedestrian ramp, to an automobile or railroad train climbing a grade.
Moving an object up an inclined plane requires less force than lifting it straight up, at a cost of an increase in the distance moved. The mechanical advantage of an inclined plane, the factor by which the force is reduced, is equal to the ratio of the length of the sloped surface to the height it spans. Due to conservation of energy, the same amount of mechanical energy (work) is required to lift a given object by a given vertical distance, disregarding losses from friction, but the inclined plane allows the same work to be done with a smaller force exerted over a greater distance.
The angle of friction, also sometimes called the angle of repose, is the maximum angle at which a load can rest motionless on an inclined plane due to friction, without sliding down. This angle is equal to the arctangent of the coefficient of static friction μ between the surfaces.
Two other simple machines are often considered to be derived from the inclined plane. The wedge can be considered a moving inclined plane or two inclined planes connected at the base. The screw consists of a narrow inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder.
The term may also refer to a specific implementation; a straight ramp cut into a steep hillside for transporting goods up and down the hill. It may include cars on rails or pulled up by a cable system; a funicular or cable railway, such as the Johnstown Inclined Plane.
Inclined planes are widely used in the form of loading ramps to load and unload goods on trucks, ships and planes. Wheelchair ramps are used to allow people in wheelchairs to get over vertical obstacles without exceeding their strength. Escalators and slanted conveyor belts are also forms of inclined plane. In a funicular or cable railway a railroad car is pulled up a steep inclined plane using cables. Inclined planes also allow heavy fragile objects, including humans, to be safely lowered down a vertical distance by using the normal force of the plane to reduce the gravitational force. Aircraft evacuation slides allow people to rapidly and safely reach the ground from the height of a passenger airliner.
Other inclined planes are built into permanent structures. Roads for vehicles and railroads have inclined planes in the form of gradual slopes, ramps, and causeways to allow vehicles to surmount vertical obstacles such as hills without losing traction on the road surface. Similarly, pedestrian paths and sidewalks have gentle ramps to limit their slope, to ensure that pedestrians can keep traction. Inclined planes are also used as entertainment for people to slide down in a controlled way, in playground slides, water slides, ski slopes and skateboard parks.
As pointed out by Dijksterhuis, Stevin 's argument is not completely tight. The forces exerted by the hanging part of the chain need not be symmetrical because the hanging part need not retain its shape when let go. Even if the chain is released with a zero angular momentum, motion including oscillations is possible unless the chain is initially in its equilibrium configuration, a supposition which would make the argument circular.
Inclined planes have been used by people since prehistoric times to move heavy objects. The sloping roads and causeways built by ancient civilizations such as the Romans are examples of early inclined planes that have survived, and show that they understood the value of this device for moving things uphill. The heavy stones used in ancient stone structures such as Stonehenge are believed to have been moved and set in place using inclined planes made of earth, although it is hard to find evidence of such temporary building ramps. The Egyptian pyramids were constructed using inclined planes, Siege ramps enabled ancient armies to surmount fortress walls. The ancient Greeks constructed a paved ramp 6 km (3.7 miles) long, the Diolkos, to drag ships overland across the Isthmus of Corinth.
However the inclined plane was the last of the six classic simple machines to be recognised as a machine. This is probably because it is a passive, motionless device (the load is the moving part), and also because it is found in nature in the form of slopes and hills. Although they understood its use in lifting heavy objects, the ancient Greek philosophers who defined the other five simple machines did not include the inclined plane as a machine. This view persisted among a few later scientists; as late as 1826 Karl von Langsdorf wrote that an inclined plane "... is no more a machine than is the slope of a mountain. The problem of calculating the force required to push a weight up an inclined plane (its mechanical advantage) was attempted by Greek philosophers Heron of Alexandria (c. 10 - 60 CE) and Pappus of Alexandria (c. 290 - 350 CE), but they got it wrong.
It was n't until the Renaissance that the inclined plane was classed with the other simple machines. The first correct analysis of the inclined plane appeared in the work of enigmatic 13th century author Jordanus de Nemore, however his solution was apparently not communicated to other philosophers of the time. Girolamo Cardano (1570) proposed the incorrect solution that the input force is proportional to the angle of the plane. Then at the end of the 16th century, three correct solutions were published within ten years, by Michael Varro (1584), Simon Stevin (1586), and Galileo Galilee (1592). Although it was not the first, the derivation of Flemish engineer Simon Stevin is the most well - known, because of its originality and use of a string of beads (see box). In 1600, Italian scientist Galileo Galilei included the inclined plane in his analysis of simple machines in Le Meccaniche ("On Mechanics ''), showing its underlying similarity to the other machines as a force amplifier.
The first elementary rules of sliding friction on an inclined plane were discovered by Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519), but remained unpublished in his notebooks. They were rediscovered by Guillaume Amontons (1699) and were further developed by Charles - Augustin de Coulomb (1785). Leonhard Euler (1750) showed that the tangent of the angle of repose on an inclined plane is equal to the coefficient of friction.
The mechanical advantage of an inclined plane depends on its slope, meaning its gradient or steepness. The smaller the slope, the larger the mechanical advantage, and the smaller the force needed to raise a given weight. A plane 's slope s is equal to the difference in height between its two ends, or "rise '', divided by its horizontal length, or "run ''. It can also be expressed by the angle the plane makes with the horizontal, θ.
The mechanical advantage MA of a simple machine is defined as the ratio of the output force exerted on the load to the input force applied. For the inclined plane the output load force is just the gravitational force of the load object on the plane, its weight F. The input force is the force F exerted on the object, parallel to the plane, to move it up the plane. The mechanical advantage is
The MA of an ideal inclined plane without friction is sometimes called ideal mechanical advantage (IMA) while the MA when friction is included is called the actual mechanical advantage (AMA).
If there is no friction between the object being moved and the plane, the device is called an ideal inclined plane. This condition might be approached if the object is rolling, like a barrel, or supported on wheels or casters. Due to conservation of energy, for a frictionless inclined plane the work done on the load lifting it, W, is equal to the work done by the input force, W
Work is defined as the force multiplied by the displacement an object moves. The work done on the load is just equal to its weight multiplied by the vertical displacement it rises, which is the "rise '' of the inclined plane
The input work is equal to the force F on the object times the diagonal length of the inclined plane.
Substituting these values into the conservation of energy equation above and rearranging
To express the mechanical advantage by the angle θ of the plane, it can be seen from the diagram (above) that
So
So the mechanical advantage of a frictionless inclined plane is equal to the reciprocal of the sine of the slope angle. The input force F from this equation is the force needed to hold the load motionless on the inclined plane, or push it up at a constant velocity. If the input force is greater than this, the load will accelerate up the plane; if the force is less, it will accelerate down the plane.
Where there is friction between the plane and the load, as for example with a heavy box being slid up a ramp, some of the work applied by the input force is dissipated as heat by friction, W, so less work is done on the load.
Therefore, more input force is required, and the mechanical advantage is lower, than if friction were not present. With friction, the load will only move if the net force parallel to the surface is greater than the frictional force F opposing it. The maximum friction force is given by
where F is the normal force between the load and the plane, directed normal to the surface, and μ is the coefficient of static friction between the two surfaces, which varies with the material. When no input force is applied, if the inclination angle θ of the plane is less than some maximum value φ the component of gravitational force parallel to the plane will be too small to overcome friction, and the load will remain motionless. This angle is called the angle of repose and depends on the composition of the surfaces, but is independent of the load weight. It is shown below that the tangent of the angle of repose φ is equal to μ
With friction, there is always some range of input force F for which the load is stationary, neither sliding up or down the plane, whereas with a frictionless inclined plane there is only one particular value of input force for which the load is stationary.
A load resting on an inclined plane, when considered as a free body has three forces acting on it:
Using Newton 's second law of motion the load will be stationary or in steady motion if the sum of the forces on it is zero. Since the direction of the frictional force is opposite for the case of uphill and downhill motion, these two cases must be considered separately:
The equilibrium equations for forces parallel and perpendicular to the plane are
The equilibrium equations are
The mechanical advantage of an inclined plane is the ratio of the weight of the load on the ramp to the force required to pull it up the ramp. If energy is not dissipated or stored in the movement of the load, then this mechanical advantage can be computed from the dimensions of the ramp.
In order to show this, let the position r of a rail car on along the ramp with an angle, θ, above the horizontal be given by
where R is the distance along the ramp. The velocity of the car up the ramp is now
Because there are no losses, the power used by force F to move the load up the ramp equals the power out, which is the vertical lift of the weight W of the load.
The input power pulling the car up the ramp is given by
and the power out is
Equate the power in to the power out to obtain the mechanical advantage as
The mechanical advantage of an inclined can also be calculated from the ratio of length of the ramp L to its height H, because the sine of the angle of the ramp is given by
therefore,
Example: If the height of a ramp is H = 1 meter and its length is L = 5 meters, then the mechanical advantage is
which means that a 20 lb force will lift a 100 lb load.
The Liverpool Minard inclined plane has the dimensions 1804 meters by 37.50 meters, which provides a mechanical advantage of
so a 100 lb tension force on the cable will lift a 4810 lb load. The grade of this incline is 2 %, which means the angle θ is small enough that sinθ = tanθ.
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oldest financial institution in the united states of america | List of oldest banks in continuous operation - wikipedia
This list of the oldest banks includes financial institutions in continuous operation, operating with the same legal identity without interruption since their establishment until the present time.
While there are seven banks founded in the 17th century still remaining and 16 banks founded in the 18th century, the list is topped by the only two banks founded in the 15th and 16th centuries respectively, Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena and Berenberg Bank. Monte dei Paschi di Siena was founded as a mount of piety in 1472 and today is one of Italy 's largest retail banks. Berenberg Bank is the world 's oldest merchant bank and private bank and was founded in 1590, and is still owned by the descendants of its founders, the Berenberg family.
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what is the memory of an iphone 6s | IPhone 6S - Wikipedia
The iPhone 6S and iPhone 6S Plus (stylized and marketed as iPhone 6s and iPhone 6s Plus) are smartphones designed, developed and marketed by Apple Inc. They were announced on September 9, 2015, at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium in San Francisco by Apple CEO Tim Cook, with pre-orders beginning September 12 and official release on September 25, 2015. The iPhone 6S and 6S Plus were succeeded by the iPhone 7 and iPhone 7 Plus in September 2016.
The iPhone 6S has a similar design to the iPhone 6 but includes updated hardware, including a strengthened chassis and upgraded system - on - chip, a 12 - megapixel camera, improved fingerprint recognition sensor, LTE Advanced support, and "Hey Siri '' capabilities without needing to be plugged in. The iPhone 6S also introduces a new hardware feature known as "3D Touch '', which enables pressure - sensitive touch inputs.
iPhone 6S had a mostly positive reception. While performance and camera quality were praised by most reviewers, the addition of 3D Touch was liked by one critic for the potential of entirely new interface interactions, but disliked by another critic for not providing users with an expected intuitive response before actually using the feature. The battery life was criticized, and one reviewer asserted that the phone 's camera was not significantly better than the rest of the industry. The iPhone 6S set a new first - weekend sales record, selling 13 million models, up from 10 million for the iPhone 6 in the previous year. However, Apple saw its first - ever quarterly year - over-year decline in iPhone sales in the months after the launch, credited to a saturated smartphone market in Apple 's biggest countries and a lack of iPhone purchases in developing countries.
Before the official unveiling, several aspects of the iPhone 6S were rumored, including the base model having 16 gigabytes of storage, the pressure - sensitive display technology known as 3D Touch, and a new rose gold color option.
iPhone 6S and iPhone 6S Plus were officially unveiled on September 9, 2015, during a press event at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium in San Francisco. Pre-orders began September 12, with the official release on September 25.
On September 7, 2016, Apple announced the iPhone 7 and iPhone 7 Plus as successors to the iPhone 6S and 6S Plus.
On March 31, 2017, the iPhone 6S and 6S Plus were released in Indonesia alongside the iPhone 7 and 7 Plus, following Apple 's research and development investment in the country.
The iPhone 6S is nearly identical in design to the iPhone 6. In response to the "bendgate '' design flaws of the previous model, changes were made to improve the durability of the chassis: the 6S was constructed from a stronger, 7000 series aluminum alloy, "key points '' in the rear casing were strengthened, and touchscreen integrated circuits were re-located to the display assembly. Alongside the existing gold, silver, and space gray options, a new rose gold color option was also introduced.
The iPhone 6S is powered by the Apple A9 system - on - chip, which the company stated is up to 70 % faster than Apple A8, and has up to 90 % better graphics performance. The iPhone 6S has 2 GB of RAM, more than any previous iPhone, and also supports LTE Advanced. The Touch ID sensor on the 6S was also updated, with the new version having improved fingerprint scanning performance over the previous version.
While the capacities of their batteries are slightly smaller, Apple rates iPhone 6S and 6S Plus as having the same average battery life as their respective predecessors. The A9 system - on - chip was dual - sourced from TSMC and Samsung. Although it was speculated that the Samsung version had worse battery performance than the TSMC version, multiple independent tests have shown there is no appreciable difference between the two chips. Although the device is not promoted as such, the iPhone 6S has a degree of water resistance because of a change to its internal design, which places a silicone seal around components of the logic board to prevent them from being shorted by accidental exposure to water.
Their displays are the same sizes as those of the iPhone 6, coming in 4.7 - inch 750p and 5.5 - inch 1080p (Plus) sizes. The iPhone 6S features a technology known as 3D Touch; sensors are embedded in the screen 's backlight layer that measure the firmness of the user 's touch input by the distance between it and the cover glass, allowing the device to distinguish between normal and more forceful presses. 3D Touch is combined with a Taptic Engine vibrator to provide associated haptic feedback. Although similar, this is distinct from the Force Touch technology used on the Apple Watch and Retina MacBook, as it is more sensitive and can recognize more levels of touch pressure than Force Touch. Due to the hardware needed to implement 3D Touch, the iPhone 6S is heavier than its predecessor.
The iPhone 6S features a 12 - megapixel rear - facing camera, an upgrade from the 8 - megapixel unit on previous models, as well as a 5 - megapixel front - facing camera. It can record 4K video, as well as 1080p video at 60 and now 120 frames per second. The camera was well received by many critics of the phone. When the camera takes a 4K video recording it can use the storage on the phone rapidly. The 16 gigabyte version of the phone was only able to hold 40 min of video.
The iPhone 6S and 6S Plus were originally offered in models with 16, 64, and 128 GB of internal storage. Following the release of iPhone 7 in September 2016, the 16 and 64 GB models were dropped, and replaced by a new 32 GB option. For improved storage performance, iPhone 6S utilizes NVM Express (NVMe), resulting in a maximum average read speed of 1,840 megabytes per second.
The iPhone 6S originally ships with iOS 9; the operating system leverages the 3D Touch hardware to allow recognition of new gestures and commands, including "peeking '' at content with a light touch and "popping '' it into view by pressing harder, and accessing context menus with links to commonly used functions within apps with harder presses on home screen icons. The camera app 's "Retina Flash '' feature allows the display 's brightness to be used as a makeshift flash on images taken with the front camera, while "Live Photos '' captures a short video alongside each photo taken.
The iPhone 6s currently supports iOS 11 which was first released September 19, 2017, an Apple announced that the iPhone 6s family will receive the upcoming version of iOS, the iOS 12.
Nilay Patel of The Verge described the 6S, in particular the Plus model, as "right now the best phone on the market. (...) There just are n't other companies that can roll out a feature like 3D Touch and make it work in a way that suggests the creation of entirely new interface paradigms, and every other phone maker needs to figure out exactly why Apple 's cameras are so consistent before they can really compete. '' Samuel Gibbs of The Guardian commented that the phone "has the potential to be the best smaller smartphone on the market, but its short battery life is deeply frustrating '' and described the camera as "not leagues ahead of the competition anymore. '' Tom Salinger of The Register praised performance, noting that "we 're now using phones with the performance of current PCs '', but described 3D Touch as "just a glorified vibrator '' and "no good (...) you still do n't know quite what 's going to happen until you try it ''. Ryan Smith and Joshua Ho of AnandTech awarded the iPhone 6S and 6S Plus its Editors ' Choice Gold Award, based largely on the phone 's performance and the addition of 3D Touch.
On the Monday following the iPhone 6S 's launch weekend, Apple announced that they had sold 13 million models, a record - breaking number that exceeded the 10 million launch sales of the iPhone 6 in 2014. In the months following the launch, Apple saw its first - ever quarterly year - over-year decline in iPhone sales, attributed to a saturated smartphone market in Apple 's biggest sales countries and consumers in developing countries not buying iPhones.
In November 2016, Apple announced that a "very small number '' of iPhone 6S devices manufactured between September and October 2015 have faulty batteries that unexpectedly shut down. While Apple noted that the battery problems were "not a safety issue '', it announced a battery replacement program for affected devices. Customers with affected devices, which span "a limited serial number range '', were able to check their device 's serial number on Apple 's website, and, if affected, receive a battery replacement free of charge at Apple Stores or authorized Apple Service Providers.
In December 2016, Apple revealed new details about the issue, stating that the affected devices contained a "battery component that was exposed to controlled ambient air longer than it should have been before being assembled into battery packs ''. The statement also said that customers "outside of the affected range '' may also experience unexpected shutdowns, though clarifying that some shutdowns can occur under "normal conditions '' because the iPhone tries to "protect its electronics ''. Apple also said that an upcoming update to the iOS operating system would include additional diagnostic tools to help Apple find more information about different kinds of battery issues.
In February 2017, Apple released a statement to TechCrunch, saying that the iOS 10.2. 1 update, released on January 23, had reduced the occurrence of battery shutdowns by "more than 80 % '' on iPhone 6S devices.
On December 28, 2017, Apple decreased the price of an out - of - warranty battery replacement for iPhone 6 or later from $79 to $29, and promised an iOS update that would provide more information about an iPhone 's battery health which eventually turned out to be iOS 11.3.
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what song has the highest views on youtube | List of most - viewed YouTube videos - wikipedia
YouTube is an American video - sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California. Since its establishment in 2005, the website has featured a "most viewed '' section, which lists the most viewed videos on the site. Although the most viewed videos were initially viral videos, such as Evolution of Dance and Charlie Bit My Finger, the most viewed videos were increasingly related to music videos. In fact, since Lady Gaga 's "Bad Romance '', every video that has reached the top of the "most viewed YouTube videos '' list has been a music video. Although the most viewed videos are no longer listed on the site, reaching the top of the list is still considered a tremendous feat.
By June 21, 2015, only two videos, "Gangnam Style '' and "Baby '', had exceeded one billion views. However, three and a half months later, on October 7, ten videos had done so. As of December 2017, 87 videos on the list have exceeded one billion views, with 20 of them exceeding two billion views; three of which exceed three billion views and one of which exceeds four billion views. "Despacito '' became the first video to reach three billion views on August 4, 2017, followed by "See You Again '' on August 6, 2017, and then on November 25, 2017, "Gangnam Style '' became the third video to hit three billion views. "Despacito '' also became the first video to reach four billion views on October 11, 2017.
As of December 2017, the five fastest videos to reach the one billion view mark are "Hello '' (87 days), "Despacito '' (96 days), "Shape of You '' (97 days), "Mi Gente '' (102 days) and "Sorry '' (136 days).
The five fastest videos to reach two billion views are "Despacito '' (154 days), "Shape of You '' (187 days), "Chantaje '' (379 days), "Sorry '' (394 days) and "See You Again '' (515 days).
As of December 2017, Justin Bieber and Katy Perry each have four videos exceeding one billion views, while Taylor Swift, Calvin Harris, Shakira, Ariana Grande and Bruno Mars each have three, and Fifth Harmony, Psy, Adele, Ellie Goulding, The Weeknd, Ed Sheeran, Nicky Jam, Eminem, Maluma, J Balvin and Ricky Martin each have two. Swift, Perry and Sheeran are the only artists to have two videos exceeding two billion views.
The following table lists the top 100 most viewed videos on YouTube, with each total rounded to the nearest 10 million views, as well as the creator and date of publication to YouTube.
The following table lists the current top 5 most viewed YouTube videos uploaded in each year, with each total rounded to the nearest ten million views, as well as the uploader and date of publication to YouTube.
As of December 2017, Katy Perry has the most appearances on the list with five, while Taylor Swift and Adele have three. Only Linkin Park (2007), Gummibär / icanrockyourworld (2007) and Taylor Swift (2014) have two videos in the top 5 of a single year, with both the English and French versions of Gummibär 's The Gummy Bear Song being in the top five videos of 2007.
The following table lists the last 15 videos to become YouTube 's most viewed video, from October 2005 to the present.
* The approximate number of views each video had when it became YouTube 's most viewed video.
Timeline of Most Viewed Videos (Oct 2005 - Dec 2017)
No 1 Most Viewed Video (Oct 2005 - Jun 2006)
No 1 Most Viewed Video (Apr 2006 - Jan 2010)
No 1 Most Viewed Video (Oct 2009 - Jan 2013)
No 1 Most Viewed Video (Jan 2012 - Dec 2017)
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ten city that's the way love goes | That 's the Way Love is (Ten City song) - Wikipedia
"That 's the Way Love Is '' is a 1989 dance and soul single by Chicago - based dance trio, Ten City. The single reached number eight in the UK and number eighteen in Germany and was the group 's highest charting single on both the R&B and dance charts in the U.S. "That 's the Way Love Is '' reached number twelve on the U.S R&B Singles chart, and number one on the Dance Club Play chart. The single featured two main versions - on most releases, an acid house mix by Steve "Silk '' Hurley (variously titled either "Deep House Mix '' or "Acieeed Mix '') was the A-side, while a string - led mix by Timmy Regisford, named the "Underground Mix '', appeared on the B - side. Both mixes also had corresponding radio edits and dub versions.
Ten years later, former lead singer of Ten City, Byron Stingily, returned to the top of the dance chart with his own recording of the song.
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what are the 8 limbs of muay thai | Muay Thai - Wikipedia
Muay Thai (Thai: มวยไทย, RTGS: Muai Thai, pronounced (mūa̯j thāj) (listen)) or Thai boxing is a combat sport of Thailand that uses stand - up striking along with various clinching techniques. This physical and mental discipline which includes combat on shins is known as "the art of eight limbs '' because it is characterized by the combined use of fists, elbows, knees, shins, being associated with a good physical preparation that makes a full - contact fighter very efficient. Muay Thai became widespread internationally in the twentieth century, when practitioners defeated notable practitioners of other martial arts. The professional league is governed by The Professional Boxing Association of Thailand (P.A.T) sanctioned by The Sport Authority of Thailand (S.A.T.), and World Muaythai Federation (WMF) overseas.
It is similar to related styles in other parts of the Indian cultural sphere, namely Lethwei from Myanmar, Pradal Serey from Cambodia, Muay Lao from Laos, Tomoi from Malaysia.
The history of Muay Thai can also be traced to the middle of the 18th century. During the battles between the Burmese of the Konbaung Dynasty and Siam, the famous fighter Nai Khanomtom was captured in the year 1767. The Burmese knew of his expertise in hand - to - hand combat and gave him an opportunity to fight for his freedom. Soon after winning the match, he was freed by his captors and allowed to return to Siam. He was acknowledged as a hero, and his fighting style became known as Siamese - Style boxing, later to be known as Muay Thai. This fighting style was soon to be recognized as a national sport.
Muay boran, and therefore Muay Thai, was originally called by more generic names such as Toi muay or simply muay. As well as being a practical fighting technique for use in actual warfare, muay became a sport in which the opponents fought in front of spectators who went to watch for entertainment. These muay contests gradually became an integral part of local festivals and celebrations, especially those held at temples. Eventually, the previously bare - fisted fighters started wearing lengths of hemp rope around their hands and forearms. This type of match was called muay khat chueak (มวย คาด เชือก). Kickboxing was also a component of military training and gained prominence during the reign of King Naresuan in 1560 CE.
Muay Thai is referred to as the "Art of Eight Limbs '' or the "Science of Eight Limbs '', because it makes use of punches, kicks, elbows and knee strikes, thus using eight "points of contact '', as opposed to "two points '' (fists) in boxing and "four points '' (hands and feet) used in other more regulated combat sports, such as kickboxing and savate. A practitioner of muay Thai is known as a nak muay. Western practitioners are sometimes called Nak Muay Farang, meaning "foreign boxer. ''
The ascension of King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) to the throne in 1868 ushered in a golden age not only for muay but for the whole country of Thailand. Muay progressed greatly during the reign of Rama V as a direct result of the king 's personal interest in the sport. The country was at peace and muay functioned as a means of physical exercise, self - defense, attacking, recreation, and personal advancement.
1909 - 1910: King Chulalongkorn formalizes Muay (Boran) by awarding (in 1910) 3 muen to victors at the funeral fights for his son (in 1909). The region style: Lopburi, Korat, and Chaiya.
1913: British boxing introduced into the curriculum of the Suan Kulap College. The 1st descriptive use of the term "Muay Thai ''
1919: British boxing and Muay taught as one sport in the curriculum of the Suan Kulap College. Judo also offered.
1921: 1st permanent ring in Siam at Suan Kulap College. Used for both Muay and British Boxing.
1923: Suan Sanuk Stadium. First international style 3 - rope ring with red and blue padded corners, near Lumpinee Park. Muay and British Boxing.
King Rama VII (r. 1925 -- 35) pushed for codified rules for muay, and they were put into place. Thailand 's first boxing ring was built in 1921 at Suan Kularp. Referees were introduced and rounds were now timed by kick. Fighters at the Lumpinee Boxing Stadium began wearing modern gloves, as well as hard groin protectors, during training and in boxing matches against foreigners. Traditional rope - binding (Kaad Chuek) made the hands a hardened, dangerous striking tool. The use of knots in the rope over the knuckles made the strikes more abrasive and damaging for the opponent while protecting the hands of the fighter. This rope - binding was still used in fights between Thais but after the occurrence of a death in the ring, it was decided that fighters should wear gloves and cotton coverlets over the feet and ankles. It was also around this time that the term muay Thai became commonly used while the older form of the style came to be known as muay boran, which is now performed primarily as an exhibition art form.
In 1993, the International Federation of Muaythai Amateur, or IFMA was inaugurated. It became the governing body of amateur Muay Thai consisting of 128 member countries worldwide and is recognized by Olympic Council of Asia.
In 1995, World Muaythai Council, the oldest and largest professional sanctioning organizations of Muay Thai was set up by the Royal Thai Government and sanctioned by the Sports Authority of Thailand.
In 1995, the World Muay Thai Federation was founded via the merger of two existing organizations, and established in Bangkok becoming the federation governing international Muay Thai. as of August 2012, it had over 70 member countries. Its President is elected at the World Muay Thai Congress.
In 2006, Muay Thai was included in SportAccord with IFMA. One of the requirements of SportAccord was that no sport can have a name of a country in its name, as a result, an amendment was made in the IFMA constitution to change the name of the sport from ' Muay Thai ' to ' Muaythai ' -- written in one word in accordance with Olympic requirements.
In 2014 Muay Thai was included in the International World Games Association (IWGA) and will be represented in the official programme of The World Games 2017 in Wrocław, Poland.
In January 2015, Muay Thai was granted the Patronage of the International University Sports Federation (FISU) and on March the 16th to the 23rd, 2015 the first University World Muaythai Cup will be held in Bangkok.
Today, there are thousands of gyms spread out across the globe. The clothing which competitors typically wear is bright and flamboyant. Recently such designs have become quite popular globally and companies such as Infightstyle Inc., from Canada, have contributed to the popularization of the style throughout the world. It is expected that this style will become more and more mainstream as a cult style much like surfwear did in the late 90s.
According to Thai folklore at the time of the fall of the ancient Siamese capital of Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1767, the invading Burmese troops rounded up thousands of Siamese and took them to Burma as prisoners. Among them were a large number of Thai boxers, who were taken to the city of Ava.
In 1774, in the Burmese city of Rangoon, the Burmese King Hsinbyushin (known in Thai as "King Mangra '') decided to organize a seven - day, seven - night religious festival in honor of Buddha 's relics. The festivities included many forms of entertainment, such as the costume plays called likay, comedies and farces, and sword - fighting matches. At one point, King Hsinbyushin wanted to see how Muay Boran would compare to the Lethwei (Burmese Boxing). Nai Khanomtom was selected to fight against the Burmese champion. The boxing ring was set up in front of the throne and Nai Khanomtom did a traditional Wai Kru pre-fight dance, to pay his respects to his teachers and ancestors, as well as the spectators, dancing around his opponent. This amazed and perplexed the Burmese people, who thought it was black magic. When the fight began, Nai Khanomtom charged out, using punches, kicks, elbows, and knees to pummel his opponent until he collapsed.
However the Burmese referee said the Burmese champion was too distracted by the dance, and declared the knockout invalid. The King then asked if Nai Khanomtom would fight nine other Burmese champions to prove himself. He agreed and fought them all, one after the other with no rest periods in between. His last opponent was a great kickboxing teacher from Rakhine. Nai Khanomtom mangled him by his kicks and no one else dared to challenge him.
King Mangra was so impressed that he allegedly remarked, "Every part of the Siamese is blessed with venom. Even with his bare hands, he can fell nine or ten opponents. But his Lord was incompetent and lost the country to the enemy. If he had been any good, there was no way the City of Ayutthaya would ever have fallen. ''
King Mangra granted Nai Khanomtom freedom along with either riches or two beautiful Burmese wives. Nai Khanomtom chose the wives as he said that money was easier to find. He then departed with his wives for Siam. Other variations of this story had him also winning the release of his fellow Thai prisoners. His feat is celebrated every March 17 as Boxer 's Day or National Muay Boran Day in his honor and that of muay boran 's.
Today, some have wrongly attributed the legend of Nai Khanomtom to King Naresuan, who spent his youth as a royal hostage in Burma while Ayutthaya was a Burmese vassal. However, Nai Khanomtom and King Naresuan lived almost two centuries apart.
Formal muay Thai techniques are divided into two groups: mae mai or major techniques and luk mai or minor techniques. Muay Thai is often a fighting art of attrition, where opponents exchange blows with one another. This is certainly the case with traditional stylists in Thailand, but is a less popular form of fighting in the contemporary world fighting circuit where the Thai style of exchanging blow for blow is no longer favorable. Almost all techniques in Muay Thai use the entire body movement, rotating the hip with each kick, punch, elbow and block.
The punch techniques in muay Thai were originally quite limited being crosses and a long (or lazy) circular strike made with a straight (but not locked) arm and landing with the heel of the palm. Cross-fertilization with Western boxing and western martial arts mean the full range of western boxing punches are now used: lead jab, straight / cross, hook, uppercut, shovel and corkscrew punches and overhands as well as hammer fists and back fists.
As a tactic, body punching is used less in muay Thai than most other striking combat sports to avoid exposing the attacker 's head to counter strikes from knees or elbows. To utilize the range of targeting points, in keeping with the center line theory, the fighter can use either the Western or Thai stance which allows for either long range or short range attacks to be undertaken effectively without compromising guard.
The elbow can be used in several ways as a striking weapon: horizontal, diagonal - upwards, diagonal - downwards, uppercut, downward, backward - spinning and flying. From the side, it can be used as either a finishing move or as a way to cut the opponent 's eyebrow so that blood might block his vision. The diagonal elbows are faster than the other forms but are less powerful. The elbow strike is considered the most dangerous form of attack in the sport.
There is a distinct difference between a single elbow and a follow - up elbow. The single elbow is an move independent from any other, whereas a follow - up elbow is the second strike from the same arm, being a hook or straight punch first with an elbow follow - up. Such elbows, and most other elbow strikes, are used when the distance between fighters becomes too small and there is too little space to throw a hook at the opponent 's head.
Elbows can be used to great effect as blocks or defenses against, for example, spring knees, side body knees, body kicks or punches. When well connected, an elbow strike can cause serious damage to the opponent, including cuts or even a knockout.
The two most common kicks in muay Thai are known as the thip (literally "foot jab '') and the te chiang (kicking upwards in the shape of a triangle cutting under the arm and ribs) or roundhouse kick. The Thai roundhouse kick uses a rotational movement of the entire body and has been widely adopted by practitioners of other combat sports. It is done from a circular stance with the back leg just a little ways back (roughly shoulder width apart) in comparison to instinctive upper body fighting (boxing) where the legs must create a wider base. The roundhouse kick draws its power almost entirely from the rotational movement of the hips, counter-rotation of the shoulders and arms are also often used to add torque to the lower body and increase the power of the kick as well.
If a roundhouse kick is attempted by the opponent, the Thai boxer will normally check the kick, that is he will block the kick with the outside of his lower leg. Thai boxers are trained to always connect with the shin. The foot contains many fine bones and is much weaker. A fighter may end up hurting himself if he tries to strike with his foot or instep. Shins are trained by repeatedly striking firm objects, such as pads or heavy bags.
The foot - thrust or literally "foot jab '' is one of the techniques in muay Thai. It is mainly used as a defensive technique to control distance or block attacks. Foot - thrusts should be thrown quickly but with enough force to knock an opponent off balance.
In Western boxing the two fighters are separated when they clinch; in muay Thai, however, they are not. It is often in the clinch where knee and elbow techniques are used. To strike and bind the opponent for both offensive and defensive purposes, small amounts of stand - up grappling are used in the clinch. The front clinch should be performed with the palm of one hand on the back of the other. There are three reasons why the fingers must not be intertwined. 1) In the ring fighters are wearing boxing gloves and can not intertwine their fingers. 2) The Thai front clinch involves pressing the head of the opponent downwards, which is easier if the hands are locked behind the back of the head instead of behind the neck. Furthermore, the arms should be putting as much pressure on the neck as possible. 3) A fighter may incur an injury to one or more fingers if they are intertwined, and it becomes more difficult to release the grip in order to quickly elbow the opponent 's head.
A correct clinch also involves the fighter 's forearms pressing against the opponent 's collar bone while the hands are around the opponent 's head rather than the opponent 's neck. The general way to get out of a clinch is to push the opponent 's head backward or elbow them, as the clinch requires both participants to be very close to one another. Additionally, the non-dominant clincher can try to "swim '' their arm underneath and inside the opponent 's clinch, establishing the previously non-dominant clincher as the dominant clincher.
Muay Thai has several other variants of the clinch or chap kho (tɕàp khɔː), including:
Defenses in muay Thai are categorized in six groups:
Defensively, the concept of "wall of defense '' is used, in which shoulders, arms and legs are used to hinder the attacker from successfully executing techniques. Blocking is a critical element in muay Thai and compounds the level of conditioning a successful practitioner must possess. Low and mid body roundhouse kicks are normally blocked with the upper portion of a raised shin (this block is known as a ' check '). High body strikes are blocked ideally with the forearms and shoulder together, or if enough time is allowed for a parry, the glove (elusively), elbow, or shin will be used. Midsection roundhouse kicks can also be caught / trapped, allowing for a sweep or counter-attack to the remaining leg of the opponent. Punches are blocked with an ordinary boxing guard and techniques similar, if not identical, to basic boxing technique. A common means of blocking a punch is using the hand on the same side as the oncoming punch. For example, if an orthodox fighter throws a jab (being the left hand), the defender will make a slight tap to redirect the punch 's angle with the right hand. The deflection is always as small and precise as possible to avoid unnecessary energy expenditure and return the hand to the guard as quickly as possible. Hooks are often blocked with a motion sometimes described as "combing the hair '', that is, raising the elbow forward and effectively shielding the head with the forearm, flexed biceps and shoulder. More advanced muay Thai blocks are usually in the form of counter-strikes, using the opponents weight (as they strike) to amplify the damage that the countering opponent can deliver. This requires impeccable timing and thus can generally only be learned by many repetitions.
Like most competitive full contact fighting sports, muay Thai has a heavy focus on body conditioning. Muay Thai is specifically designed to promote the level of fitness and toughness required for ring competition. Training regimens include many staples of combat sport conditioning such as running, shadowboxing, rope jumping, body weight resistance exercises, medicine ball exercises, abdominal exercises, and in some cases weight training. Thai boxers rely heavily on kicks utilizing the shin bone. As such, practitioners of Muay Thai will repeatedly hit a dense heavy bag with their shins, conditioning it, hardening the bone through a process called cortical remodeling. Striking a sand filled bag will also have the same effect.
Training that is specific to a Thai fighter includes training with coaches on Thai Pads, focus mitts, heavy bag, and sparring. The daily training includes many rounds (3 -- 5 minute periods broken up by a short rest, often 1 -- 2 minutes) of these various methods of practice. Thai Pad training is a cornerstone of muay Thai conditioning which involves practicing punches, kicks, knees, and elbow strikes with a trainer wearing thick pads which cover the forearms and hands. These special pads (often referred to as Thai pads) are used to absorb the impact of the fighter 's strikes and allow the fighter to react to the attacks of the pad holder in a live situation. The trainer will often also wear a belly pad around the abdominal area so that the fighter can attack with straight kicks or knees to the body at any time during the round.
Focus mitts are specific to training a fighter 's hand speed, punch combinations, timing, punching power, defense, and counter-punching and may also be used to practice elbow strikes. Heavy bag training is a conditioning and power exercise that reinforces the techniques practiced on the pads. Sparring is a means to test technique, skills, range, strategy, and timing against a partner. Sparring is often a light to medium contact exercise because competitive fighters on a full schedule are not advised to risk injury by sparring hard. Specific tactics and strategies can be trained with sparring including in close fighting, clinching and kneeing only, cutting off the ring, or using reach and distance to keep an aggressive fighter away.
Due to the rigorous training regimen (some Thai boxers fight almost every other week) professional boxers in Thailand have relatively short careers in the ring. Many retire from competition to begin instructing the next generation of Thai fighters. Most professional Thai boxers come from the lower economic backgrounds, and the fight money (after the other parties get their cut) is sought as means of support for the fighters and their families. Very few higher economic strata Thais join the professional Muay Thai ranks; they usually either do not practice the sport or practice it only as amateur Muay Thai boxers.
The Mongkhon, or Mongkol (headband) and Pra Jiad (armbands) are often worn into the ring before the match begins. They originate back in times when Thailand was in a constant state of war, where young men would tear off pieces of a loved one 's clothing (often their mother 's sarong) and wear it to battle for good luck as well as to ward off harmful spirits. In modern times the Mongkol (lit. meaning holy spirit, luck, and protection) is worn as a tribute to the gym that the Muay Thai fighter is fighting out of. The Mongkol is traditionally presented by a trainer to the fighter once he feels that the fighter is ready to represent the gym 's name in the ring. Often after the fighter has finished the Wai Kru, the trainer will take the Mongkol off of his head and place it on their corner of the ring for luck.
Whether the fighter is a Buddhist or not, it is common for them to bring the Mongkol to a Buddhist monk who blesses it with good luck prior to stepping into the ring.
In 2016, 9,998 children under the age of 15 were registered with Board of Boxing under the Sport Authority of Thailand, according to Child Safety Promotion and Injury Prevention Research Centre (CSIP). 420 "young boxers registered with the '' board annually, between 2007 and 2015. Some estimates put the number of child boxers nationawide at between 200,000 - 300,000, some as young as four years old.
The Advanced Diagnostic Imaging Centre (AIMC) at Ramathibodi Hospital studied 300 child boxers aged under 15 with two to more than five years of experience, as well as 200 children who do not box. The findings show that child boxers not only sustain brain injuries, they also have a lower IQ, about 10 points lower than average levels. Moreover, IQ levels correlate with the length of their training.
Adisak Plitapolkarnpim, director of CSIP, was indirectly quoted (in 2016) as having said that Muay Thai practitioners "younger than 15 years old are being urged to avoid ' head contact ' to reduce the risk of brain injuries, while children aged under nine should be banned from the combat fight ''; furthermore the Boxing Act 's minimum age to compete professionally ", was largely being flouted; furthermore, indirectly quoted: "Boxers aged between 13 and 15 '' should still be permitted to compete, but "with light contact to the head and face ''; Directly quoted, he said that "Spectators and a change in the boxing rules can play a vital role in preventing child boxers from suffering brain injuries, abnormality in the brain structure, Parkinson 's disease and early - onset Alzheimer 's later in life ''; furthermore "Children aged between nine and 15 can take part in (Thai -) boxing, but direct head contact must not be allowed ''; furthermore, referring to "Findings (of 2014) on the Worst Forms of Child Labour '' as published by the United States Department of Labour 's Bureau of International Labour Affairs, he said that "We know Muay Thai paid fighters have been exploited in the past like child labourers and the matter still remains a serious concern ''.
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when was wouldn't it be nice released | Would n't it Be Nice - wikipedia
"Would n't It Be Nice '' is a song written by Brian Wilson, Tony Asher, and Mike Love for American rock band the Beach Boys. It was released as the opening track on their 1966 album Pet Sounds. The song was also released as a single two months after the album 's release with "God Only Knows '' as its B - side. In other countries, the sides were flipped, with "Would n't It Be Nice '' as the single 's B - side. Its lyrics describe a couple in love lamenting about being too young to run off to get married, fantasizing about how nice it would be if they were adults.
Like other tracks for Pet Sounds, Wilson constructed the song 's orchestral Wall of Sound arrangement using a variety of instruments not normally associated with popular music of its time, including accordions and a detuned twelve - string guitar. The music contains classical music devices that are unusual for a rock song, such as ritardando. After recording the instrumental track, the Beach Boys overdubbed their voices to Wilson 's exact specifications. Love was not originally listed as co-writer, and only received his credit after a 1990s court case.
In 2006, Pitchfork Media placed "Would n't It Be Nice '' at number 7 on its list of "The 200 Greatest Songs of the 1960s ''.
Tony Asher credits the song 's idea to Brian Wilson: "The innocence of the situation -- being too young to get married -- seemed to be immensely appealing to him. '' Wilson composed the music, while the lyrics were written almost entirely by Asher over the course of one or two days. Mike Love 's contribution was the ending couplet "Good night my baby / sleep tight my baby ''.
Love 's contributions are disputed by some. He has claimed that he revised or added other lyrics beyond the ending tag, while Asher asserted it was not possible due to Love 's absence during songwriting sessions. Since he was touring with the group in Japan while the Pet Sounds album was being composed, Love 's attorney proposed that it may have been possible that Brian consulted Love by telephone during occasional bathroom breaks. Asher, believing the argument was "so absurd, '' responded with incredulity. Love did not receive an official co-writing credit on the song until after 1994.
Earlier Beach Boys songs celebrated adolescent fun and teenage love; "Would n't It Be Nice '' subverts this convention in its very first lyric: "would n't it be nice if we were older ''. In the Endless Harmony documentary, Wilson described the song as "what children everywhere go through... would n't it be nice if we were older, or could run away and get married ''. Wilson added in 1996, "' Would n't It Be Nice ' was not a real long song, but it 's a very ' up ' song. It expresses the frustrations of youth, what you ca n't have, what you really want and you have to wait for it. '' The song expresses "the need to have the freedom to live with somebody, '' according to Brian. "The idea is, the more we talk about it, the more we want it, but let 's talk about it anyway. Let 's talk it over, let 's talk about what we might have if we really got down to it. '' Asher has said that Wilson was "constantly looking for topics that kids could relate to. Even though he was dealing in the most advanced score - charts and arrangements, he was still incredibly conscious of this commercial thing. This absolute need to relate. '' Music journalist Nick Kent responds:
To this effect, "Would n't It Be Nice '', the song that would lead off their finished creation, was little more than a sophisticated lay - off on the old "We 're too young to get married '' teen angst dialogue that Wilson had already zeroed in on in "We 'll Run Away '', the song he 'd written a year or so back with Gary Usher, not to mention his plaintively fulsome reinterpretation of the Four Teens ' vintage heartbreaker "I 'm So Young ''. But this time Brian Wilson was out to eclipse these previous sonic soap operas, to transform the subject 's sappy sentiments with a God - like grace so that the song would become a veritable pocket symphony: two minutes of limpid harps imitating a teenage heartstrings in a tug of love, growling horns, joyous little bells, cascading strings, harmonies so complex they seemed to have more in common with a Catholic Mass than any cocktail lounge acappella doo - wop -- in short, a fantasy island of the most exquisite musical longing imaginable.
"Would n't It Be Nice '' begins with an eight - beat introduction in the key of A major. Following a single drum hit, the song shifts to the remote flat submediant key of F. Classical composer John Adams called this key change "nothing new in the classical or jazz world, but appearing here in the context of a standard rock - and - roll song, it felt novel and fresh. More than any other songwriter of that era, Brian Wilson understood the value of harmonic surprise. '' The verse bass line was inspired by the Ronettes ' "Be My Baby '' (1963). Another section is bitonal through a bass line playing in D major. This feature was mistaken as an error by bassist Lyle Ritz, as he explains: "(The) rest of the band was in another key. I knew that was wrong. So during a break, I looked at everybody else 's music to see if it was a mistake. Because you ca n't do that. But he (Brian) pulled it off. '' The song uses a ritardando before its bridge, a device that does n't often appear in pop music, but does in classical music. When the bridge is entered, the song modulates down a minor third from F to D major; this same key change from F to D also occurs in "Let 's Go Away for Awhile '', another Wilson composition from Pet Sounds.
The instrumental track was recorded at Gold Star Studios on January 22, 1966. The session was engineered by Larry Levine and produced by Brian Wilson. It took 21 takes of recording the instrumental track before Brian deemed it the master. The musicians present on that day were a group of Los Angeles session players commonly referred to as The Wrecking Crew. Wilson says, "Listen for the rockin ' accordions and the ethereal guitars in the introduction. Tony and I had visualized a scene. We had a feeling in our hearts, like a vibration. We put it into music, and it found its way onto tape. We really felt good about that record. '' During the recording, the two guitarists who played the intro were plugged directly into the mixing board, and no one in the studio could hear them. Drummer Hal Blaine was required to wear a pair of over-the - ear headphones so that he could signal the rest of the band.
The vocals were recorded over two sessions at Columbia engineered by Ralph Balantin. The first vocal session took place on March 10, which also saw vocal work on "I 'm Waiting for the Day '', "God Only Knows '' and "I Just Was n't Made for These Times ''. The next session around a month later on April 11 was most likely the session at which the lead vocal for the song was recorded. Vocals for "God Only Knows '' were also worked on at that particular session.
The backing vocal sessions were problematic, as Bruce Johnston recalled, "We re-recorded our vocals so many times, (but) the rhythm was never right. We would slave at Western for a few days, singing this thing, and (Brian would say), ' No, it 's not right, it 's not right. ' One time, he had a 4 - track Scully (tape recorder) sent to his home, but that did n't really work out. '' During sessions, Brian taught brother Dennis Wilson a recording technique involving cupping his hands over his mouth, elaborating: "Well, he had a lot of trouble singing on mike. He just did n't really know how to stay on mike. He was a very nervous boy. Very nervous person. So I taught him a trick, how to record and he said, ' Hey Brian. That works great. Thank you! ' And I said, ' It 's okay, Dennis: He was really happy. I showed him -- not how to sing, but I showed him a way to get the best out of himself -- just ' cup ' singing. ''
On July 18, "Would n't It Be Nice '' was released backed with "God Only Knows '' in the United States, which was the third single from the Pet Sounds album, released two months before. It entered the Billboard chart on July 30 and remained there for 11 weeks, peaking at number 8 in September 1966. The single also peaked at number 7 on the Cashbox chart and # 5 in Record World. It also peaked at number 4 on Canada 's RPM national chart. In Australia, the song was released in August 1966. It entered the charts on August 24 at number 39 and spent 17 weeks on the charts, peaking at number 2. In New Zealand, the single peaked at number 12.
In the United Kingdom, the song was released in July 1966 as the B - side of "God Only Knows '', which reached number 2. The song was reissued in November 1966 in the UK on the God Only Knows EP. In July 1976 It was reissued again in the UK as the B - side of the re-issued "Good Vibrations '' single. The single peaked at number 18.
Live versions appear on two of the band 's live albums. The 1970 release Live In London and the 1973 release The Beach Boys in Concert, the former was released as a single. On the 1986 Made in U.S.A. compilation, an alternate version with different vocals was used. That same version was also released on the 1989 Beach Boys album Still Cruisin '. In June 1990, a different recording of the song from 1966 that had appeared on the 1989 Still Cruisin ' album was released in the United Kingdom as a single with the B - side featuring a "Beach Boys Medley '' as well as the original recording of "I Get Around '', which had also been released on the Still Cruisin ' album.
The song appears on several occasions from different stages of the recording process and in different formats on The Pet Sounds Sessions box set, including the song in its original monophonic mix; the first ever original stereo mix of the song, which was remastered by Mark Linett; over seven minutes of highlights from the tracking date, which documents the progress of the recording of the instrumental track; the finished instrumental track; the stereo track with the background vocals; an a cappella mix of the song; and two alternate mixes of the song one of which has a slight difference lyrically. In it, the song begins with the line "would n't it be nice to live together, in the kind of world where we belong '', instead of the finished version of the song which opens with the line "would n't it be nice if we were older, then we would n't have to wait so long '' and follows with the aforementioned lyric. The 2001 stereo remix of the song restores Mike Love 's original bridge vocal, utilizing a mono mix, which causes slight phasing and sound quality issues.
The full recording of the instrumental track with all 21 takes can be heard on the bootleg Sea Of Tunes Unsurpassed Masters series Vol. 13 box set.
Per Alan Boyd and Craig Slowinski, except where otherwise noted.
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green colour of national flag is symbol of | Flag of Pakistan - wikipedia
The national flag of Pakistan (Urdu: قومی پرچم , Qaumī Pārc̱am) was adopted in its present form during a meeting of the Constituent Assembly on August 11, 1947, just four days before the country 's independence, when it became the official flag of the Dominion of Pakistan. It was afterwards retained by the current - day Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The flag is a green field with a white crescent moon and five - rayed star at its centre, and a vertical white stripe at the hoist side. Though the green colour is mandated only as ' dark green ', its official and most consistent representation is Pakistan green, which is shaded distinctively darker. The flag was designed by Amiruddin Kidwai, and is based on the All - India Muslim League flag.
The flag is referred to in the national anthem as the Flag of the Crescent and Star. It is flown on several important days of the year including Republic Day, Independence Day and Defence Day. It is often hoisted every morning at schools, offices and government buildings to the sound of the national anthem and lowered again before sunset. A notable flag raising and lowering ceremony is carried out each day with great pomp and enthusiasm at the Wagah Border attended by hundreds of spectators. A designer named Amiruddin Kidwai studied the League 's flag, as he tried to design a flag for a new, independent nation. Finally he arrived at a design, and he presented it to the leadership of the Muslim League who subsequently adopted his design as the flag of the Dominion of Pakistan on 11 August, 1947. The government of Pakistan has pronounced rules about the flying of the flag. It is to be displayed at full mast on 23 March of each year, marking the adoption of the Lahore Resolution in 1940 's and the Declaration of the Republic of Pakistan in 1956, and on 14 August in celebration of Independence Day, when Pakistan was carved out from British India as a home for Indian Muslims. The flag of Pakistan is also mentioned in Pakistan 's own national anthem in the third verse reading "پرچمِ ستاره و ہلال رہبرِ ترقّی و کمال '' which translates to "Flag with the Star and Crescent, the leader of progress and ascent ''.
Before the Second World War, Muslims and Hindus lived together under the British Raj. A number of the Muslims formed the All India Muslim League. After the Second World War, when the independence of Pakistan in 1947, the flag of the Muslim League served as the basis for the flag of Pakistan.
The green represents Islam and the majority Muslims in Pakistan and the white stripe represents religious minorities and minority religions. In the centre, the crescent and star symbolizes progress and light respectively. The flag symbolizes Pakistan 's commitment to Islam and the rights of religious minorities. It is based on the original flag of the Muslim League, which itself drew inspiration from the flag of the Sultanate of Delhi, the flag of Ottoman Empire and the Flag of the Mughal Empire.
The official design of the national flag was adopted by the Constituent Assembly together with a definition of the features and proportions.
According to the specifications it is a dark green rectangular flag in the proportion of length (A) and width (B) as 3: 2 with a white vertical bar at the mast, the green portion bearing a white crescent in the centre and a five - pointed white heraldic star. The width of the white portion (C) is one quarter the width of the flag (A), nearest the mast, so the green portion occupies the remaining three quarters (D). Draw a diagonal L3 from the top right hand corner to the bottom left corner of the green portion. On this diagonal establish two points P1 and P2. P1 is positioned at the centre of the green portion and P2 at the intersection of the diagonal L3 and an arc C4 created from the top right hand corner equal to 13 / 20 the height of the flag (E). With the centre at point P1 and a radius 3 / 10 the height of the flag describe the first circle C1 and with centre at point P2 and a radius 11 / 40 the height of the flag describe a second circle C2. The enclosures made by these two circles form the crescent. The dimensions of the five - pointed white heraldic star are determined by drawing a circle C3 with a radius 1 / 10 the height of the flag positioned between P2 and P3 on the diagonal L3. The circle surrounds the five points of the heraldic star and star lies with one point on the diagonal L3 at point P3 where the circle C1 intersects the diagonal L3. The flag is colored in Pakistan green having standard RGB values (red = 0, green = 102, blue = 0) or with hex triplet # 006600 or the HSV value = (h = 120, s = 100, v = 40). The left strip, the star and the crescent are painted in white. The flag is supported from left white side.
The Interior Ministry of Pakistan provides dimensions for flags in different circumstances:
The use of the national flag is regulated by the Pakistan Flag Rules, which were introduced in 2002 by Prime Minister Zafarullah Khan Jamali. The Rules are not available online but there have been instances of misuse such as officials using flags on their vehicles when they are not entitled to do so. The national flag is flown on the official residences and vehicles (cars, boats, planes) of the following public officials:
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what is the temp in iceland in july | Climate of Iceland - wikipedia
The climate of Iceland is subarctic (Köppen climate classification: Cfc) near the southern coastal area and tundra inland in the highlands. The island lies in the path of the North Atlantic Current, which makes its climate more temperate than would be expected for its latitude just south of the Arctic Circle. This effect is aided by the Irminger Current, which also helps to moderate the island 's temperature. The weather in Iceland can be notoriously variable.
The aurora borealis is often visible at night time during the winter. The midnight sun can be experienced in summer on the island of Grimsey off the north coast; the remainder of the country, since it lies just south of the polar circle, experiences a twilight period during which the sun sets briefly, but still has around 2 weeks of continuous daylight during the summer.
The Icelandic winter is relatively mild for its latitude. The southerly lowlands of the island average around 0 ° C (32 ° F) in winter, while the Highlands of Iceland tend to average around − 10 ° C (14 ° F). The lowest temperatures in the northern part of the island range from around − 25 to − 30 ° C (− 13 to − 22 ° F). The lowest temperature on record is − 39.7 ° C (− 39.5 ° F).
The average July temperature in the southern part of the island is 10 -- 13 ° C (50 -- 55 ° F). Warm summer days can reach 20 -- 25 ° C (68 -- 77 ° F). The highest temperature recorded was 30.5 ° C (86.9 ° F) at the Eastern fjords in 1939. Annual average sunshine hours in Reykjavík are around 1300, which is similar to towns in Scotland and Ireland.
The prevailing wind direction is easterly. Westerlies are very infrequent. Generally speaking, wind speeds tend to be higher in the highlands, but topographical features can aggravate winds and cause strong gusts in lowland areas. Wind speed in the lowlands reaches 18 m / s (40 mph) on 10 - 20 days per year but upwards of 50 days per year at places in the highlands. The strongest measured 10 minute sustained wind speed is 62.5 m / s (140 mph) and strongest gust 74.2 m / s (166 mph). Heavy dust storms can be generated by strong glacial winds, and can be very strong. Up to 10 t (9.8 long tons; 11.0 short tons) of material can be in motion per transect per hour. These storms are very frequent in the early summer in the arid highland areas north of the Vatnajökull glacier.
Thunderstorms are extremely rare in Iceland, with fewer than five storms per year in the southern part of the island. They are most common in early or late summertime. They can be caused by warm air masses coming up from the continent, or deep lows from the southwest in wintertime. Lightning can usually be observed in connection with ash plumes erupting from the island 's volcanoes.
There is a persistent area of low pressure near Iceland known as the Icelandic Low, found between Iceland and Greenland. This area affects the amount of air brought into the Arctic to the east, and the amount coming out of the Arctic to the west. It is part of a greater pressure system known as the North Atlantic Oscillation.
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tales from the darkside you broke your vow | Tales from the Darkside: the Movie - wikipedia
Tales from the Darkside: The Movie is a 1990 American horror anthology film directed by John Harrison, and based on the anthology television series Tales from the Darkside. The film depicts a kidnapped paperboy who tells three stories of horror to the suburban witch who is preparing to eat him, à la Hansel and Gretel.
The film is sometimes said to have been intended as Creepshow 3, a sequel to George A. Romero and Stephen King 's popular horror anthologies Creepshow and Creepshow 2. However, this is not supported by any real evidence. Tom Savini has been quoted as saying that this film is the real Creepshow 3, which could be how the rumor started, though he may just have been referring to the similar nature of the movies and the involvement of King and Romero. The story titled "Cat from Hell '' was originally going to appear in Creepshow 2, but was scrapped due to budgetary reasons.
The movie opens with Betty, an affluent suburban housewife and modern - day witch (Deborah Harry), planning a dinner party. The main dish is to be Timmy (Matthew Lawrence), a young boy whom she has captured and chained up in her pantry. To stall her from stuffing and roasting him, the boy tells her three horror stories from a book she gave him, titled Tales from the Darkside.
In the first segment, Michael McDowell adapts Arthur Conan Doyle 's short story "Lot No. 249 ''. A graduate student named Bellingham (played by Steve Buscemi) has been cheated by two classmates, Susan (Julianne Moore), and Lee (Robert Sedgwick), who framed him for theft to ruin his chances of winning a scholarship for which they were competing. As revenge, Bellingham reanimates a mummy and uses it to murder them both. Susan 's brother Andy (Christian Slater) kidnaps Bellingham, and burns the parchment and mummy. He considers killing Bellingham, but in the end can not bring himself to commit real murder. However, Bellingham brings Susan and Lee back from the dead (having switched the reanimation parchment with a similar one) and dispatches them to Andy 's dorm, where they greet the terrified Andy by saying that Bellingham sends his regards.
In the second tale, George A. Romero adapts a Stephen King short story of the same name. Drogan is a wealthy, wheelchair - bound old man (William Hickey) who brings in a hitman named Halston (David Johansen) for a bizarre hire: kill a black cat, which Drogan believes is murderously evil. Drogan explains that there were three other occupants of his house before the cat arrived: his sister, Amanda (Dolores Sutton), her friend Carolyn (Alice Drummond), and the family 's butler, Richard Gage (Mark Margolis). Drogan claims that one by one, the cat killed the other three, and that he is next. Drogan 's pharmaceutical company killed 5,000 cats while testing a new drug, and he is convinced that this black cat is here to exact cosmic revenge.
Halston does n't believe the story, but is more than willing to eliminate the cat since Drogan is offering $100,000. But when Drogan returns to the house to see if the deed is done, he finds that the cat has killed Halston by climbing down his throat. The cat emerges from the hitman 's corpse and jumps at Drogan, giving him a fatal heart attack.
The third and final segment is written by Michael McDowell and based on the Yuki - onna, a spirit or yōkai in Japanese folklore or more specifically Lafcadio Hearn 's version in Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things. A despondent artist named Preston (James Remar) witnesses a gruesome murder committed by a gargoyle - like monster. The monster agrees to spare Preston 's life as long as he swears never to speak of what he saw or describe the monster 's appearance to anyone. The monster vanishes, leaving Preston traumatized and confused, but bound by his oath never to talk about the incident.
After that night, Preston 's life takes many turns for the better. He meets a beautiful woman named Carola (Rae Dawn Chong), and they fall in love, marry, and have two children. Preston 's struggling art career becomes wildly successful, and life seems promising, but he is tormented by memories of his encounter with the monster, and his vow of silence weighs on him. One night he breaks down and tells Carola about the monster, even showing her a statue he sculpted of it. She appears upset and at first, Preston assumes she thinks he is lying. But then she lets out a heartbroken screech and reveals herself to be the very same creature he met that night.
With Preston 's promise broken, she can no longer remain human, and their children transform into monstrous forms as well. She kills Preston (though she says that she loved him), gathers their children and flies away. The final scene shows that the gargoyle and children have turned to stone upon a building ledge, staring down at Preston 's body with sorrowful expressions.
Betty remarks that Timmy saved the best story ("Lover 's Vow '') for last, but he says that the next one is best, and has a happy ending. She replies that it 's too late as she has to start cooking him, and that none of the stories in the book have happy endings. As Betty advances on Timmy, he narrates his own actions - throwing some marbles on the floor causing her to slip and fall on her butcher 's block, impaling herself on her own tools. Timmy releases himself and pushes her into her oven. The film ends with Timmy helping himself to a cookie and breaking the fourth wall by saying "Do n't you love happy endings? ''
Tales from the Darkside: The Movie was a modest box office success for Paramount. The film was released May 4, 1990 in the United States, opening in third place that weekend. It grossed a total of $16,324,573 domestically.
The film was given a rating of 35 % on the ratings aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes, based on 17 reviews, while receiving an overall grade of "C '' at Box Office Mojo.
Laurel Productions initially announced a sequel to the film in October 1990. A screenplay was written by the first film 's screenwriters Michael McDowell and George Romero, along with Gahan Wilson. Segments planned included an adaptation of Robert Bloch 's "Almost Human, '' alongside adaptations of Stephen King 's short stories "Pinfall '' (originally planned for Creepshow 2) and "Rainy Season. '' This sequel, however, never came to fruition.
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involvement of the us in the vietnam war | Role of the United States in the Vietnam war - Wikipedia
The role of the United States in the Vietnam War began after World War II and escalated into full commitment during the Vietnam War from 1955 to 1975.
Feb 1965 - Operation Rolling Thunder begins
In 1961 the new administration of President John F. Kennedy remained essentially committed to the bi-partisan, anti-communist foreign policies inherited from the administrations of Presidents Truman and Eisenhower. During 1961, his first year in office, Kennedy found himself faced with a three - part crisis: The failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion in Cuba; the construction of the Berlin Wall by the Soviets; and a negotiated settlement between the pro-Western government of Laos and the Pathet Lao communist movement. Fearing that another failure on the part of the U.S. to stop communist expansion would fatally damage U.S. credibility with its allies, Kennedy realized, "Now we have a problem in making our power credible... and Vietnam looks like the place. '' The commitment to defend South Vietnam was reaffirmed by Kennedy on May 11 in National Security Action Memorandum 52, which became known as "The Presidential Program for Vietnam ''. Its opening statement reads:
U.S. objectives and concept of operations (are) to prevent communist domination of South Vietnam; to create in that country a viable and increasingly democratic society, and to initiate, on an accelerated basis, a series of mutually supporting actions of a military, political, economic, psychological, and covert character designed to achieve this objective.
Kennedy was intrigued by the idea of utilizing United States Army Special Forces for counterinsurgency conflicts in Third World countries threatened by the new "wars of national liberation ''. Originally intended for use behind front lines after a conventional invasion of Europe, Kennedy believed that the guerrilla tactics employed by Special Forces would be effective in the "brush fire '' war in South Vietnam. He saw British success in using such forces during the Malayan Emergency as a strategic template. Thus in May 1961 Kennedy sent detachments of Green Berets to South Vietnam to train South Vietnamese soldiers in guerrilla warfare.
The Diệm regime had been initially able to cope with the insurgency of the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF, or derogatively, Viet Cong) in South Vietnam with the aid of U.S. matériel and advisers, and, by 1962, seemed to be gaining the upper hand. Senior U.S. military leaders received positive reports from the U.S. commander, General Paul D. Harkins of the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, or MACV. By the following year, however, cracks began to appear in the façade of success. In January a possible victory that was turned into a stunning defeat for government forces at the Battle of Ap Bac caused consternation among both the military advisers in the field and among politicians in Washington, D.C. JFK also indicated to Walter Cronkite that the war may be unwinnable, and that it was ultimately a Vietnamese war, not an American war.
Diệm was already growing unpopular with many of his countrymen because of his administration 's nepotism, corruption, and its apparent bias in favor of the Catholic minority -- of which Diệm was a part -- at the expense of the Buddhist majority. This contributed to the impression of Diệm 's rule as an extension of the French Colonial regime. Promised land reforms were not instituted, and Diệm 's strategic hamlet program for village self - defense (and government control) was a disaster. The Kennedy administration grew increasingly frustrated with Diệm. In 1963, a crackdown by Diệm 's forces was launched against Buddhist monks protesting discriminatory practices and demanding a political voice. Diệm 's repression of the protests sparked the so - called Buddhist Revolt, during which several monks committed self - immolation, which was covered in the world press. The communists took full advantage of the situation and fueled anti-Diệm sentiment to create further instability.
On July 27, 1964, 5,000 additional U.S. military advisers were ordered to the Republic of Vietnam (RVN or South Vietnam), bringing the total American troop level to 21,000. Shortly thereafter an incident occurred off the coast of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) that was destined to escalate the conflict to new levels and lead to the full scale Americanization of the war.
On the evening of August 2, 1964, the destroyer USS Maddox was conducting an electronic intelligence collection mission in international waters (even as claimed by North Vietnam) in the Gulf of Tonkin when it was attacked by three P - 4 torpedo boats of the North Vietnamese Navy. Reports later reached the Johnson administration saying that the Maddox was under attack. Two nights later, after being joined by the destroyer C. Turner Joy, the Maddox again reported that both vessels were under attack (this event, which took place under adverse weather conditions, in fact never occurred). Regardless, President Johnson addressed Congress asking for more political power to utilize American military forces in South Vietnam, using the attack on the Maddox as cause to get what he wanted.
There was rampant confusion in Washington, but the incident was seen by the administration as the perfect opportunity to present Congress with "a pre-dated declaration of war '' in order to strengthen weakening morale in South Vietnam through reprisal attacks by the U.S. on the North. Even before confirmation of the phantom attack had been received in Washington, President Johnson had decided that an attack could not go unanswered.
Just before midnight he appeared on television and announced that retaliatory air strikes were underway against North Vietnamese naval and port facilities. Neither Congress nor the American people learned the whole story about the events in the Gulf of Tonkin until the publication of the Pentagon Papers in 1969. It was on the basis of the administration 's assertions that the attacks were "unprovoked aggression '' on the part of North Vietnam, that the United States Congress approved the Southeast Asia Resolution (also known as the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution) on August 7. The law gave the President broad powers to conduct military operations without an actual declaration of war. The resolution passed unanimously in the House of Representatives and was opposed in the Senate by only two members.
National Security Council members, including United States Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, Secretary of State Dean Rusk, and General Maxwell Taylor, agreed on November 28 to recommend that Johnson adopt a plan for a two - stage escalation of the bombing of North Vietnam.
In February 1965, a U.S. air base at Pleiku, in the Central Highlands of South Vietnam, was attacked twice by the NLF, resulting in the deaths of over a dozen U.S. personnel. These guerrilla attacks prompted the administration to order retaliatory air strikes against North Vietnam.
Operation Rolling Thunder was the code name given to a sustained strategic bombing campaign targeted against the North by aircraft of the U.S. Air Force and Navy that was inaugurated on March 2, 1965. Its original purpose was to bolster the morale of the South Vietnamese and to serve as a signaling device to Hanoi. U.S. airpower would act as a method of "strategic persuasion '', deterring the North Vietnamese politically by the fear of continued or increased bombardment. Rolling Thunder gradually escalated in intensity, with aircraft striking only carefully selected targets. When that did not work, its goals were altered to destroying North Vietnam 's will to fight by destroying the nation 's industrial base, transportation network, and its (continually increasing) air defenses. After more than a million sorties were flown and three - quarters of a million tons of bombs were dropped, Rolling Thunder was ended on November 11, 1968.
Other aerial campaigns (Operation Barrel Roll, Operation Steel Tiger, Operation Tiger Hound, and Operation Commando Hunt) were directed to counter the flow of men and material down the PAVN logistical system that flowed from North Vietnam through southeastern Laos, and into South Vietnam known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
President Johnson had already appointed General William C. Westmoreland to succeed General Harkins as Commander of MACV in June 1964. Under Westmoreland, the expansion of American troop strength in South Vietnam took place. American forces rose from 16,000 during 1964 to more than 553,000 by 1969. With the U.S. decision to escalate its involvement, ANZUS Pact allies Australia and New Zealand agreed to contribute troops and matériel to the conflict. They were quickly joined by the Republic of Korea (second only to the Americans in troop strength), Thailand, and the Philippines. The U.S. paid for (through aid dollars) and logistically supplied all of the allied forces.
Meanwhile, political affairs in Saigon were finally settling down -- at least as far as the Americans were concerned. On February 14 the most recent military junta, the National Leadership Committee, installed Air Vice-Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ as prime minister. In 1966, the junta selected General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu to run for president with Ky on the ballot as the vice-presidential candidate in the 1967 election. Thieu and Ky were elected and remained in office for the duration of the war. In the presidential election of 1971, Thieu ran for the presidency unopposed. With the installation of the Thieu and Ky government (the Second Republic), the U.S. had a pliable, stable, and semi-legitimate government in Saigon with which to deal.
With the advent of Rolling Thunder, American airbases and facilities needed to be constructed and manned for the aerial effort. The defense of those bases would not be entrusted to the South Vietnamese. So, on March 8, 1965, 3,500 United States Marines came ashore at Da Nang as the first wave of U.S. combat troops into South Vietnam, adding to the 25,000 U.S. military advisers already in place. On May 5 the U.S. 173rd Airborne Brigade became the first U.S. Army ground unit committed to the conflict in South Vietnam. On August 18, Operation Starlite began as the first major U.S. ground operation, destroying an NLF stronghold in Quảng Ngãi Province. The NLF learned from their defeat and subsequently tried to avoid fighting an American - style ground war by reverting to small - unit guerrilla operations.
The North Vietnamese had already sent units of their regular army into southern Vietnam beginning in late 1964. Some officials in Hanoi had favored an immediate invasion of the South, and a plan was developed to use PAVN units to split southern Vietnam in half through the Central Highlands. The two imported adversaries first faced one another during Operation Silver Bayonet, better known as the Battle of the Ia Drang. During the savage fighting that took place, both sides learned important lessons. The North Vietnamese, who had taken horrendous casualties, began to adapt to the overwhelming American superiority in air mobility, supporting arms, and close air support by moving in as close as possible during confrontations, thereby negating the effects of the above. The Americans learned that PAVN (which was basically a light infantry force) was not a rag - tag band of guerrillas, but was instead a highly disciplined, proficient, and well motivated force.
On November 27, 1965, the Pentagon declared that if the major operations needed to neutralize North Vietnamese and NLF forces were to succeed, U.S. troop levels in South Vietnam would have to be increased from 120,000 to 400,000. In a series of meetings between Westmoreland and the President held in Honolulu in February 1966, Westmoreland argued that the U.S. presence had succeeded in preventing the immediate defeat of the South Vietnamese government but that more troops would be necessary if systematic offensive operations were to be conducted. The issue then became in what manner American forces would be used.
The nature of the American military 's strategic and tactical decisions made during this period would color the conduct and nature of the conflict for the duration of the American commitment. Classical military logic demanded that the U.S. attack the locus of PAVN / NLF in the North. If that country could not be invaded, then the enemy 's logistical system in Laos and Cambodia should be cut by ground forces, isolating the southern battlefield. However, political considerations limited U.S. military actions, mainly because of the memory of communist reactions during the Korean War. Ever present in the minds of diplomats, military officers, and politicians was the possibility of a spiraling escalation of the conflict into a superpower confrontation and the possibility of a nuclear exchange. Therefore, there would be no invasion of North Vietnam, the "neutrality '' of Laos and Cambodia would be respected, and Rolling Thunder would not resemble the bombing of Germany and Japan during the Second World War.
These limitations were not foisted upon the military as an afterthought. Before the first U.S. soldiers came ashore at Da Nang, the Pentagon was cognizant of all of the parameters that would be imposed by their civilian leaders, yet they still agreed that the mission could be accomplished within them. Westmoreland believed that he had found a strategy that would either defeat North Vietnam or force it into serious negotiations. Attrition was to be the key. The general held that larger offensive operations would grind down the communists and eventually lead to a "crossover point '' in PAVN / NLF casualties after which a decisive (or at least political) victory would be possible.
It is widely held that the average U.S. serviceman was nineteen years old, as evidenced by the casual reference in a pop song ("19 '' by Paul Hardcastle); the figure is cited by Lt. Col. Dave Grossman ret. of the Killology Research Group in his 1995 book On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society (p. 265). However, it is disputed by the Vietnam Helicopter Flight Crew Network Website, which claims the average age of MOS 11B personnel was 22. This compares with 26 years of age for those who participated in World War II. Soldiers served a one - year tour of duty. The average age of the U.S. military men who died in Vietnam was 22.8 years old.
The one - year tour of duty deprived units of experienced leadership. As one observer put it, "we were not in Vietnam for 10 years, but for one year 10 times. '' As a result, training programs were shortened. Some NCOs were referred to as "Shake ' N ' Bake '' to highlight their accelerated training. Unlike soldiers in World War II and Korea, there were no secure rear areas in which to get rest and relaxation. One unidentified soldier said to United Press International that there was nothing to do in Vietnam and therefore many of the men smoked marijuana. He said, "One of the biggest reasons that a lot of GIs do get high over here is there is nothing to do. This place is really a drag; it 's a bore over here. Like right now sitting around here, we are getting loaded. Whereas, it does n't really get you messed up; that 's I guess the main reason why we smoke it. ''
American forces would conduct operations against PAVN forces, pushing them further back into the countryside away from the heavily populated coastal lowlands. In the backcountry the U.S. could fully utilize its superiority in firepower and mobility to bleed the enemy in set - piece battles. The cleaning - out of the NLF and the pacification of the villages would be the responsibility of the South Vietnamese military. The adoption of this strategy, however, brought Westmoreland into direct conflict with his Marine Corps commander, General Lewis W. Walt, who had already recognized the security of the villages as the key to success. Walt had immediately commenced pacification efforts in his area of responsibility, but Westmoreland was unhappy, believing that the Marines were being underutilized and fighting the wrong enemy. In the end, MACV won out and Westmoreland 's search and destroy concept, predicated on the attrition of enemy forces, won the day.
Both sides chose similar strategies. PAVN, which had been operating a more conventional, large - unit war, switched back to small - unit operations in the face of U.S. military capabilities. The struggle moved to the villages, where the "hearts and minds '' of the South Vietnamese peasants, whose cooperation was absolutely necessary to military success, would be won or lost. The U.S. had given responsibility for this struggle to the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN), whose troops and commanders were notoriously unfit for the task.
For the American soldier, whose doctrine was one of absolute commitment to total victory, this strategy led to a frustrating small - unit war. Most of the combat was conducted by units smaller than battalion - size (the majority at the platoon level). Since the goal of the operations was to kill the enemy, terrain was not taken and held as in previous wars. Savage fighting and the retreat of the communists was immediately followed by the abandonment of the terrain just seized. Combined with this was the anger and frustration engendered among American troops by the effective tactics of the NLF, who conducted a war of sniping, booby traps, mines, and terror against the Americans.
As a result of the conference held in Honolulu, President Johnson authorized an increase in troop strength to 429,000 by August 1966. The large increase in troops enabled MACV to carry out numerous operations that grew in size and complexity during the next two years. For U.S. troops participating in these operations (Operation Masher / White Wing, Operation Attleboro, Operation Cedar Falls, Operation Junction City and dozens of others) the war boiled down to hard marching through some of the most difficult terrain on the planet and weather conditions that were alternately hot and dry, or cold and wet. It was the PAVN / NLF that actually controlled the pace of the war, fighting only when their commanders believed that they had the upper hand and then disappearing when the Americans and / or ARVN brought their superiority in numbers and firepower to bear. North Vietnam, utilizing the Ho Chi Minh and Sihanouk Trails, matched the U.S. at every point of the escalation, funneling manpower and supplies to the southern battlefields.
During the Vietnam War, the use of the helicopter, known as "Air Mobile '', was an essential tool for conducting the war. In fact, the whole conduct and strategy of the war depended on it. Vietnam was the first time the helicopter was used on a major scale, and in such important roles. Search and destroy missions, for example, would have been nearly impossible without it. Helicopters allowed American commanders to move large numbers of troops to virtually anywhere, regardless of the terrain or roads. Troops could also be easily resupplied in remote areas. The helicopter also provided another new and vital capability: medical evacuation. It could fly wounded soldiers to aid stations very quickly, usually within the critical first hour. This gave wounded soldiers a higher chance of survival in Vietnam than in any previous war. The helicopter was also adapted for many other roles in Vietnam, including ground attack, reconnaissance, and electronic warfare. Without the helicopter, the war would have been fought very differently.
By mid-1967, Westmoreland said that it was conceivable that U.S. forces could be phased out of the war within two years, turning over progressively more of the fighting to the ARVN. That fall, however, savage fighting broke out in the northern provinces. Beginning below the DMZ at Con Tien and then spreading west to the Laotian border near Dak To, large PAVN forces began to stand their ground and fight. This willingness of the communists to remain fixed in place inspired MACV to send reinforcements from other sectors of South Vietnam. The Border Battles had begun.
Most of the PAVN / NLF operational capability was possible only because of the unhindered movement of men along the Ho Chi Minh Trail. To threaten this flow of supplies, the Marine Corps established a combat base on the South Vietnamese side of the Laotian frontier, near the village of Khe Sanh. The U.S. used the base as a border surveillance position overlooking Route 9, the only east - west road that crossed the border in the province. Westmoreland also hoped to use the base as a jump - off point for any future incursion against the Trail system in Laos. During the spring of 1967, a series of small - unit actions near Khe Sanh prompted MACV to increase its forces. These small unit actions and increasing intelligence information indicated that the PAVN was building up significant forces just across the border.
Indeed, PAVN was doing just that. Two regular divisions (and later elements of a third) were moving toward Khe Sanh, eventually surrounding the base and cutting off its only road access. Westmoreland, contrary to the advice of his Marine commanders, reinforced the outpost. As far as he was concerned, if the communists were willing to mass their forces for destruction by American air power, so much the better. He described the ideal outcome as a "Dien Bien Phu in reverse ''. MACV then launched the largest concentrated aerial bombardment effort of the conflict (Operation Niagara) to defend Khe Sanh. Another massive aerial effort was undertaken to keep the beleaguered Marines supplied. There were many comparisons (by the media, Americans military and political officials, and the North Vietnamese) to the possibility of PAVN staging a repeat of its victory at Dien Bien Phu, but the differences outweighed the similarities in any comparison.
MACV used this opportunity to field its latest technology against the North Vietnamese. A sensor - driven, anti-infiltration system known as Operation Igloo White was in the process of being field tested in Laos as the siege of Khe Sanh began. Westmoreland ordered that it be employed to detect PAVN troop movements near the Marine base and the system worked well. By March, the long - awaited ground assault against the base had failed to materialize and communist forces began to melt back toward Laos. MACV (and future historians) were left with only questions. What was the goal of the PAVN? Was the siege a real attempt to stage another Dien Bien Phu? Or had the battles near the border (which eventually drew in half of MACV 's maneuver battalions) been a diversion, meant to pull forces away from the cities, where another PAVN offensive would soon commence?
General Westmoreland 's public reassurances that "the light at the end of the tunnel '' was near were countered when, on January 30, 1968, PAVN and NLF forces broke the truce that accompanied the Tết holiday and mounted their largest offensive thus far, in hopes of sparking a general uprising among the South Vietnamese. These forces, ranging in size from small groups to entire regiments, attacked nearly every city and major military installation in South Vietnam. The Americans and South Vietnamese, initially surprised by the scope and scale of the offensive, quickly responded and inflicted severe casualties on their enemies. The NLF was essentially eliminated as a fighting force and the places of the dead within its ranks were increasingly filled by North Vietnamese.
The PAVN / NLF attacks were speedily and bloodily repulsed in virtually all areas except Saigon, where the fighting lasted for three days, and in the old imperial capital of Huế, where it continued for a month. During the occupation of the historic city, 2,800 South Vietnamese were murdered by the NLF in the single worst massacre of the conflict. The hoped - for uprising never took place; indeed, the offensive drove some previously apathetic South Vietnamese to fight for the government. Another surprise for the communists was that the ARVN did not collapse under the onslaught, instead turning in a performance that pleased even its American patrons.
After the Tet Offensive, influential news magazines and newspapers, including the Wall Street Journal, Time and The New York Times, increasingly began to characterize the war as a stalemate. What shocked and dismayed the American public was the realization that either it had been lied to or that the American military command had been dangerously overoptimistic in its appraisal of the situation in Vietnam. The public could not understand how such an attack was possible after being told for several years that victory was just around the corner. The Tet Offensive came to embody the growing credibility gap at the heart of U.S. government statements. These realizations and changing attitudes forced the American public (and politicians) to face hard realities and to reexamine their position in Southeast Asia. The days of an open - ended commitment to the conflict were over.
The psychological impact of the Tet Offensive effectively ended the political career of Lyndon Johnson. On March 11, Senator Eugene McCarthy won 42 percent of the vote in the Democratic New Hampshire primary. Although Johnson was not on the ballot, commentators viewed this as a defeat for the President. Shortly thereafter, Senator Robert Kennedy announced his intention to seek the Democratic nomination for the 1968 presidential election. On March 31, in a speech that took America and the world by surprise, Johnson announced that "I shall not seek, and I will not accept the nomination of my party for another term as your President '' and pledged himself to devoting the rest of his term in office to the search for peace in Vietnam. Johnson announced that he was limiting bombing of North Vietnam to just north of the Demilitarized Zone and that U.S. representatives were prepared to meet with North Vietnamese counterparts in any suitable place "to discuss the means to bring this ugly war to an end ''. A few days later, much to Johnson 's surprise, North Vietnam agreed to contacts between the two sides. On May 13, what became known as the Paris peace talks began.
On March 16, 1968, three companies of Task Force Barker, part of the Americal Division, took part in a search and destroy operation near the village of My Lai, in Quảng Nam Province. One of those three companies, Charlie Company, under the command of Lieutenant William Calley, entered the hamlet of Son My and proceeded to round up, rape, torture and murder as many of the inhabitants as could be found. (Citation needed.) Although not all of the members of the company participated, a significant number of them, led by Calley, did. He personally ordered the executions of hundreds of villagers in large groups. The killings ended only when an American helicopter crew, headed by Warrant Officer Hugh Thompson, Jr., discovered Calley 's unit in the act and threatened to attack them with his aircraft 's weapons unless they stopped. One of the soldiers on the scene was Ron Haeberle, a photographer for the newspaper Stars and Stripes, who took unobtrusive official black - and - white photos of the operation through the lens of his military - issued camera and color shots of the massacre with his personal camera. Although the operation appeared suspicious to Calley 's superiors, it was forgotten.
In 1969, investigative journalist Seymour Hersh exposed the My Lai massacre in print, and the Haeberle photos were released to the world media. The Pentagon launched an investigation headed by General William R. Peers to look into the allegations. After a flurry of activity, the Peers Commission issued its report. It declared that "an atmosphere of atrocity '' surrounded the event, concluding that a massacre had taken place and the crime had been covered up by the commander of the Americal Division and his executive officer. Perhaps 400 Vietnamese civilians, mostly old men, women, and children had been killed by Charlie company. Several men were charged in the killings, but only Calley was convicted. He was given a life sentence by a court - martial in 1970, but after numerous appeals he was finally set free; he had served just over three years of house arrest.
Although My Lai generated a lot of civilian recriminations and bad publicity for the military, it was not the only massacre. The Vietnam War Crimes Working Group Files made public in 1994 by the "Freedom of Information Act '' reveal seven, albeit much smaller, massacres previously unacknowledged by the Pentagon, in which at least 137 civilians had died. (1) Cover - ups may have occurred in other cases, as detailed in the Pulitzer Prize - winning series of articles concerning the Tiger Force of the 101st Airborne Division by the Toledo Blade in 2003.
Richard Nixon had campaigned in the 1968 presidential election under the slogan that he would end the war in Vietnam and bring "peace with honor ''. However, there was no plan to do this, and the American commitment continued for another five years. The goal of the American military effort was to buy time, gradually building up the strength of the South Vietnamese armed forces, and re-equipping it with modern weapons so that they could defend their nation on their own. This policy became the cornerstone of the so - called Nixon Doctrine. As applied to Vietnam, it was labeled Vietnamization.
Nixon 's papers show that in 1968, as a presidential candidate, he ordered Anna Chennault, his liaison to the South Vietnam government, to persuade them to refuse a cease - fire being brokered by President Lyndon Johnson. This action violated the Logan Act, banning private citizens from intruding into official government negotiations with a foreign nation, and has been said to constitute treason.
Soon after Tet, General Westmoreland was promoted to Army Chief of Staff and he was replaced by his deputy, General Creighton W. Abrams. Because of the change in American strategy posed by Vietnamization, Abrams pursued a very different approach. The U.S. was gradually withdrawing from the conflict, and Abrams favored smaller - scale operations aimed at PAVN / NLF logistics, more openness with the media, less indiscriminate use of American firepower, elimination of the body count as the key indicator of battlefield success, and more meaningful cooperation with South Vietnamese forces.
Vietnamization of the war, however, created a dilemma for U.S. forces: the strategy required that U.S. troops fight long enough for the ARVN to improve enough to hold its own against Communist forces. Morale in the U.S. ranks rapidly declined during 1969 -- 1972, as evidenced by declining discipline, worsening drug use among soldiers, and increased "fraggings '' of U.S. officers by disgruntled troops.
One of Nixon 's main foreign policy goals had been the achievement of a breakthrough in U.S. relations with the People 's Republic of China and the Soviet Union. An avowed anti-communist since early in his political career, Nixon could make diplomatic overtures to the communists without being accused of being "soft on communism ''. The result of his overtures was an era of détente that led to nuclear arms reductions by the U.S. and Soviet Union and the beginning of a dialogue with China. In this context, Nixon viewed Vietnam as simply another limited conflict forming part of the larger tapestry of superpower relations; however, he was still determined to preserve South Vietnam until such time as he could not be blamed for what he saw as its inevitable collapse (or a "decent interval '', as it was known). To this end he and National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger employed Chinese and Soviet foreign policy gambits to successfully defuse some of the anti-war opposition at home and secured movement at the negotiations that had begun in Paris.
China and the Soviet Union had been the principal backers of North Vietnam 's effort through large - scale military and financial aid. The two communist superpowers had competed with one another to prove their "fraternal socialist links '' with the regime in Hanoi. The North Vietnamese had become adept at playing the two nations off against one another. Even with Nixon 's rapprochement, their support of North Vietnam increased significantly in the years leading up to the U.S. departure in 1973, enabling the North Vietnamese to mount full - scale conventional offensives against the South, complete with tanks, heavy artillery, and the most modern surface - to - air missiles.
The credibility of the U.S. government again suffered in 1971 when The New York Times, The Washington Post and other newspapers serially published The Pentagon Papers (actually U.S. - Vietnam Relations, 1945 -- 1967). This top - secret historical study of the American commitment in Vietnam, from the Franklin Roosevelt administration until 1967, had been contracted to the RAND Corporation by Secretary of Defense McNamara. The documents were leaked to the press by Daniel Ellsberg, a former State Department official who had worked on the study.
The Pentagon Papers laid out the missteps taken by four administrations in their Vietnam policies. For example, they revealed the Johnson administration 's obfuscations to Congress concerning the Gulf of Tonkin incidents that had led to direct U.S. intervention; they exposed the clandestine bombing of Laos that had begun in 1964; and they detailed the American government 's complicity in the death of Ngô Đình Diệm. The study presented a continuously pessimistic view of the likelihood of victory and generated fierce criticism of U.S. policies.
The importance of the actual content of the papers to U.S. policy - making was disputed, but the window that they provided into the flawed decision - making process at the highest levels of the U.S. government opened the issue for other questions. Their publication was a news event and the government 's legal (Nixon lost to the Supreme Court) and extra-legal efforts (the "Plumbers '' break - in at the office of Ellsberg 's psychiatrist committed to gain material to discredit him, was one of the first steps on the road to Watergate) carried out to prevent their publication -- mainly on national security grounds -- then went on to generate yet more criticism and suspicion of the government by the American public.
By 1969 the policy of non-alignment and neutrality had worn thin for Prince Sihanouk, ruler of Cambodia. Pressures from the right in Cambodia caused the prince to begin a shift away from the pro-left position he had assumed in 1965 -- 1966. He began to make overtures for normalized relations with the U.S. and created a Government of National Salvation with the assistance of the pro-American General Lon Nol. Seeing a shift in the prince 's position, President Nixon ordered the launching of a top - secret bombing campaign, targeted at the PAVN / NLF Base Areas and sanctuaries along Cambodia 's eastern border.
On March 18, 1970, Sihanouk, who was out of the country on a state visit, was deposed by a vote of the National Assembly and replaced by General Lon Nol. Cambodia 's ports were immediately closed to North Vietnamese military supplies, and the government demanded that PAVN / NLF forces be removed from the border areas within 72 hours. On March 29, 1970, the Vietnamese had taken matters into their own hands and launched an offensive against the Cambodian army. A force of North Vietnamese quickly overran large parts of eastern Cambodia reaching to within 15 miles (24 km) of Phnom Penh allowing their allies, the Chinese - supported Khmer Rouge to extend their power. Nixon ordered a military incursion into Cambodia by U.S. and ARVN troops in order to both destroy PAVN / NLF sanctuaries bordering South Vietnam and to buy time for the U.S. withdrawal. During the Cambodian Campaign, U.S. and ARVN forces discovered and removed or destroyed a huge logistical and intelligence haul in Cambodia.
The incursion also sparked large - scale demonstrations on and closures of American college campuses. The expansion of the conflict into Cambodia was seen as an expansion of the conflict into yet another country, nullifying Nixon 's promises of de-escalating the war. During the ensuing protests, four students were killed and a score were wounded by Ohio National Guardsmen during a demonstration at Kent State University. Two other students were killed at Jackson State University in Mississippi. In an effort to lessen opposition to the U.S. commitment, Nixon announced on October 12 that the U.S. would withdraw 40,000 more troops from Vietnam before Christmas.
Following the coup, Sihanouk arrived in Beijing, where he established and headed a government in exile, throwing his substantial personal support behind the Khmer Rouge, the North Vietnamese, and the Laotian Pathet Lao.
In 1971 the U.S. authorized the ARVN to carry out an offensive operation aimed at cutting the Ho Chi Minh Trail in southeastern Laos. Besides attacking the PAVN logistical system (which would buy time for the U.S. withdrawal) the incursion would be a significant test of Vietnamization. Backed by U.S. air and artillery support (American troops were forbidden to enter Laos), the ARVN moved across the border along Route 9, utilizing the abandoned Marine outpost of Khe Sanh as a jumping - off point. At first, the incursion went well, but unlike the Cambodian operation of 1970, the PAVN decided to stand and fight, finally mustering around 60,000 men on the battlefield.
The North Vietnamese first struck the flanks of the ARVN column, smashed its outposts, and then moved in on the main ARVN force. Unlike previous encounters during the conflict, the PAVN fielded armored formations, heavy artillery, and large amounts of the latest anti-aircraft artillery. After two months of savage fighting, the ARVN retreated back across the border, closely pursued by the North Vietnamese. One half of the invasion force was killed or captured during the operation, and Vietnamization was seen as a failure.
On August 18, Australia and New Zealand decided to withdraw their troops from the conflict. The total number of U.S. forces in South Vietnam dropped to 196,700 on October 29, 1971, the lowest level since January 1966. On November 12, 1971, Nixon set a February 1, 1972 deadline for the removal of another 45,000 troops.
Vietnamization received another severe test in the spring of 1972 when the North Vietnamese launched a massive conventional offensive across the Demilitarized Zone. Beginning on March 30, the Easter Offensive (known as the Nguyễn Huệ Offensive to the North Vietnamese) quickly overran the three northernmost provinces of South Vietnam, including the provincial capital of Quảng Trị City. PAVN forces then drove south toward Huế.
Early in April, PAVN opened two additional operations. The first, a three - division thrust supported by tanks and heavy artillery, advanced out of Cambodia on April 5. The North Vietnamese seized the town of Loc Ninh and advanced toward the provincial capital of An Lộc in Bình Long Province. The second new offensive, launched from the tri-border region into the Central Highlands, seized a complex of ARVN outposts near Dak To and then advanced toward Kon Tum, threatening to split South Vietnam in two.
The U.S. countered with a buildup of American airpower to support ARVN defensive operations and to conduct Operation Linebacker, the first offensive bombing of North Vietnam since Rolling Thunder had been terminated in 1968. The PAVN attacks against Huế, An Lộc, and Kon Tum were contained and the ARVN launched a counteroffensive in May to retake the lost northern provinces. On September 10, the South Vietnamese flag once again flew over the ruins of the Citadel of Quảng Trị City, but the ARVN offensive then ran out of steam, conceding the rest of the occupied territory to the North Vietnamese. South Vietnam had countered the heaviest attack since Tet, but it was very evident that it was totally dependent on U.S. airpower for its survival. Meanwhile, the withdrawal of American troops, who numbered less than 100,000 at the beginning of the year, was continued as scheduled. By June only six infantry battalions remained. On August 12, the last American ground combat division left the country. However, the U.S. continued to operate the base At Long Binh. Combat patrols continued there until November 11 when the U.S. handed over the base to the South Vietnamese. After this, only 24,000 American troops remained in Vietnam and President Nixon announced that they would stay there until all U.S. POW 's were freed.
At the beginning of the North Vietnamese invasion, the media, including conservative commentator William F. Buckley, predicted the downfall of the Republic of Vietnam; Buckley even called for the firing of General Creighton Abrams as an incompetent military leader. But the ARVN succeeded in defeating General Giap and his huge invading army. His forces were shattered at the Battle of An Lộc, where he threw several divisions at the entrenched South Vietnamese forces, ultimately losing over half of his army as casualties. General Giap 's loss and subsequent retreat was viewed as so great a failure by the North Vietnamese Communist Party that Giap was relieved of his command. Although ARVN troops withstood and repelled the massive PAVN attack at An Lộc, American air power seems to have been a key to the ARVN success, just as it had been a key factor in supporting U.S. ground forces when they operated in South Vietnam prior to 1972. Thus, the 1973 withdrawal of U.S. military support and passage of Congressional resolutions cutting off U.S. funding for combat activities in Indochina (H.R. 9055 and H.J. Res. 636) opened the way for the 1975 defeat of the Republic of Vietnam.
During the run - up to the 1972 presidential election, the war was once again a major issue. An antiwar Democrat, George McGovern, ran against President Nixon. The president ended Operation Linebacker on October 22 after the negotiating deadlock was broken and a tentative agreement had been hammered out by U.S. and North Vietnamese representatives at the peace negotiations in Paris. The head of the U.S. negotiating team, Henry Kissinger, declared that "peace is at hand '' shortly before election day, dealing a death blow to McGovern 's already doomed campaign. Kissinger had not, however, counted on the intransigence of South Vietnamese President Thieu, who refused to accept the agreement and demanded some 90 changes in its text. These the North Vietnamese refused to accept, and Nixon was not inclined to put too much pressure on Thieu just before the election, even though his victory was all but assured. The mood between the U.S. and North further turned sour when Hanoi went public with the details of the agreement. The Nixon Administration claimed that North Vietnamese negotiators had used the pronouncement as an opportunity to embarrass the President and to weaken the United States. White House Press Secretary Ron Ziegler told the press on November 30 that there would be no more public announcements concerning U.S. troop withdrawals from Vietnam since force levels were down to 27,000.
Because of Thieu 's unhappiness with the agreement, primarily the stipulation that North Vietnamese troops could remain "in place '' on South Vietnamese soil, the negotiations in Paris stalled as Hanoi refused to accept Thieu 's changes and retaliated with amendments of its own. To reassure Thieu of American resolve, Nixon ordered a massive bombing campaign against North Vietnam utilizing B - 52s and tactical aircraft in Operation Linebacker II, which began on December 18 with large raids against both Hanoi and the port of Haiphong. Nixon justified his actions by blaming the impasse in negotiations on the North Vietnamese, causing one commentator to describe his actions as "War by tantrum ''. Although this heavy bombing campaign caused protests, both domestically and internationally, and despite significant aircraft losses over North Vietnam, Nixon continued the operation until December 29. He also exerted pressure on Thieu to accept the terms of the agreement reached in October.
On January 15, 1973, citing progress in peace negotiations, Nixon announced the suspension of all offensive actions against North Vietnam, to be followed by a unilateral withdrawal of all U.S. troops. The Paris Peace Accords on "Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam '' were signed on January 27, officially ending direct U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War.
The agreement called for the withdrawal of all U.S. personnel and an exchange of prisoners of war. Within South Vietnam, a cease - fire was declared (to be overseen by a multi-national, 1,160 - man International Control Commission force) and both ARVN and PAVN / NLF forces would remain in control of the areas they then occupied, effectively partitioning South Vietnam. Both sides pledged to work toward a compromise political solution, possibly resulting in a coalition government. To maximize the area under their control, both sides in South Vietnam almost immediately engaged in land - grabbing military operations, which turned into flashpoints. The signing of the Accords was the main motivation for the awarding of the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize to Henry Kissinger and to leading North Vietnamese negotiator Le Duc Tho. A separate cease - fire had been installed in Laos in February. Five days before the signing of the agreement in Paris, President Lyndon Johnson, whose presidency had been tainted with the Vietnam issue, died.
The first U.S. prisoners of war were released by North Vietnam on February 11, and all U.S. military personnel were ordered to leave South Vietnam by March 29. As an inducement for Thieu 's government to sign the agreement, Nixon had promised that the U.S. would provide financial and limited military support (in the form of air strikes) so that the South would not be overrun. But Nixon was fighting for his political life in the growing Watergate scandal and facing an increasingly hostile Congress that withheld funding. The President was able to exert little influence on a hostile public long sick of the Vietnam War.
Thus, Nixon (or his successor Gerald Ford) was unable to fulfill his promises to Thieu. At the same time, aid to North Vietnam from the Soviet Union increased. With the U.S. no longer heavily involved, both the U.S. and the Soviet Union no longer saw the war as significant to their relations. The balance of power shifted decisively in North Vietnam 's favor, and the North subsequently launched a major military offensive, the Ho Chi Minh Campaign, against the South that culminated in the surrender of the Republic of Vietnam to PAVN forces on April 30, 1975.
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who has played the most afl games ever | List of VFL / AFL players to have played 300 games - Wikipedia
This is a list of players who have played 300 or more games in the Australian Football League (AFL), previously known as the Victorian Football League (VFL). This list includes only senior home - and - away matches and finals; representative games (i.e. State of Origin or International Rules), pre-season and Night Series games are excluded from the totals.
The AFL is the successor to the VFL, explaining the overwhelming representation of Victorian clubs. This list of players is often colloquially referred to as the 300 club.
Individuals who have participated as a player, coach and / or umpire in 300 senior games in league - sanctioned games -- including home - and - away, pre-season, state representative, and International rules games -- are awarded life membership of the AFL.
Current to the end of the 2017 AFL Season
This is a list of players who have held the record for total number of games played in the VFL / AFL at senior level, from 1897 starting with the first player to reach 100 games.
Current to Finals Week 1, 2016
List of player pairs playing 300 or more games together
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name of the cheshire cat in alice in wonderland | Cheshire Cat - wikipedia
The Cheshire Cat (/ ˈtʃɛʃər / or / ˈtʃɛʃɪər /) is a fictional cat popularised by Lewis Carroll in Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland and known for its distinctive mischievous grin. While most often celebrated in Alice - related contexts, the Cheshire Cat predates the 1865 novel and has transcended the context of literature and become enmeshed in popular culture, appearing in various forms of media, from political cartoons to television, as well as cross-disciplinary studies, from business to science. One of its distinguishing features is that from time to time its body disappears, the last thing visible being its iconic grin.
There are numerous theories about the origins of the phrase "grinning like a Cheshire Cat '' in English history.
This phrase owes its origin to the unhappy attempts of a sign painter of that country to represent a lion rampant, which was the crest of an influential family, on the sign - boards of many of the inns. The resemblance of these lions to cats caused them to be generally called by the more ignoble name. A similar case is to be found in the village of Charlton, between Pewsey and Devizes, Wiltshire. A public - house by the roadside is commonly known by the name of The Cat at Charlton. The sign of the house was originally a lion or tiger, or some such animal, the crest of the family of Sir Edward Poore.
A survey published in 2015 showed how highly fanciful were so many purported explanations seen on the internet. The expression was finally explained as an amalgam of the widely - used phrase ' grinning like a cat that got the (spilt) cream ' which could apply to any part of the country (although Cheshire was the pre-eminent milk, cheese and cream producing county for several centuries) with Cheshire 's unique political situation. On their own, either of these would have been something to grin about. Importantly, the county was described as a ' palatinate ' from the 1290s and was promoted to be Principality in 1397 following the support its men gave King Richard II. No other English county has been honoured in this way or was accorded such unusually wide privileges, including its own ' borderland ' laws and taxes, and a considerable measure of independence from national government into the sixteenth century. These privileges attracted many who (in the recent words of an eminent professor of medieval history) ' arrived as fugitives from justice and this seems to have become the principle motivation (for escaping to Cheshire from the Kings laws) as the Middle Ages wore on. ' Once safely across the border into the palatine 's jurisdiction, these transgressors could grin cheekily at any pursuing King 's Sheriffs - and ' disappear ' into the countryside. Certainly, dictionaries show the word ' caitiff ' derived from Old French or Anglo - Norman in terms such as ' cowardly or base villain ' or ' mean despicable fellow ', and with its diminutive ' cat ' meaning ' a ' sharp ' fellow ' - as utilize in today 's jazz idioms.
The Cheshire Cat is now largely identified with the character of the same name in Lewis Carroll 's novel Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland. Alice first encounters the Cheshire Cat at the Duchess 's house in her kitchen, and later on the branches of a tree, where it appears and disappears at will, and engages Alice in amusing but sometimes perplexing conversation. The cat sometimes raises philosophical points that annoy or baffle Alice; but appears to cheer her when it appears suddenly at the Queen of Hearts ' croquet field; and when sentenced to death, baffles everyone by having made its head appear without its body, sparking a debate between the executioner and the King and Queen of Hearts about whether a disembodied head can indeed be beheaded. At one point, the cat disappears gradually until nothing is left but its grin, prompting Alice to remark that "she has often seen a cat without a grin but never a grin without a cat ''.
According to recent analysis by scholar David Day, Lewis Carroll 's cat was Edward Bouverie Pusey, Oxford professor of Hebrew, and Carroll 's mentor.
The name Pusey was suggested by Alice 's deferential address of the cat as "Cheshire Puss ''. Pusey was an authority on the fathers of the Christian Church, and in Carroll 's time Pusey was known as the Patristic Catenary (or chain), after the chain of authority of Church patriarchs. As a mathematician, Carroll would have been well familiar with the other meaning of catenary: the curve of a horizontally - suspended chain, which suggests the shape of the cat 's grin.
RIDDLE: What kind of a cat can grin? ANSWER: A Catenary.
There are many other suggestions that Carroll found inspiration for the name and expression of the Cheshire Cat in the 16th century sandstone carving of a grinning cat, on the west face of St Wilfrid 's Church tower in Grappenhall, a village adjacent to his birthplace in Daresbury, Cheshire.
Lewis Carroll 's father, Reverend Charles Dodgson, was Rector of Croft and Archdeacon of Richmond in North Yorkshire, England, from 1843 to 1868; Carroll lived here from 1843 to 1850. Historians believe Lewis Carroll 's Cheshire Cat in the book Alice in Wonderland was inspired by a carving in Croft church.
Another possible inspiration was the British Shorthair: Carroll saw a representative British Shorthair illustrated on a label of Cheshire cheese. The Cat Fanciers ' Association profile reads: "When gracelessness is observed, the British Shorthair is duly embarrassed, quickly recovering with a ' Cheshire cat smile ' ''.
In 1992, members of the Lewis Carroll Society attributed it to a gargoyle found on a pillar in St Nicolas Church, Cranleigh, where Carroll used to travel frequently when he lived in Guildford (though this is doubtful as he moved to Guildford some three years after Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland had been published) and a carving in a church in the village of Croft - on - Tees, in the north east of England, where his father had been rector.
Carroll is believed to have visited St. Christopher 's church in Pott Shrigley, Cheshire, which has a stone sculpture most closely resembling the pictorial cat in the book. "St. Christopher 's Church, Pott Schrigley History ''. Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 10.
The Cheshire Cat character has been re-depicted by other creators and used as the inspiration for new characters, primarily in screen media (film, television, video games) and print media (literature, comics, art). Other non-media contexts that embrace the Cheshire Cat include music, business, and science.
Prior to 1951 when Walt Disney released an animated adaptation of the story (see below), there were few post-Alice allusions to the character. Martin Gardner, author of The Annotated Alice, wondered if T.S. Eliot had the Cheshire Cat in mind when writing Morning at the Window, but notes no other significant allusions in the pre-war period.
Images of and references to the Cheshire Cat cropped up with increasing frequency in the 1960s and 1970s, along with more frequent references to Carroll 's works in general. (See generally the lyrics to White Rabbit by the rock group Jefferson Airplane). The Cheshire Cat appeared on LSD blotters, as well as in song lyrics and popular fiction.
In the 1951 Disney animated film, Alice in Wonderland, the Cheshire Cat is depicted as an intelligent and mischievous character that sometimes helps Alice and sometimes gets her into trouble. He frequently sings the first verse of the Jabberwocky poem. The animated character was voiced by Sterling Holloway (Alice in Wonderland) and Jim Cummings (2004 -- present).
In the 1985 television adaptation of Carroll 's books, the Cheshire Cat is voiced by Telly Savalas. He sings a morose song called "There 's No Way Home, '' which simply drives Alice to try and find a way home even more.
In the 1999 television adaptation of Carroll 's books, the Cheshire Cat is voiced by Whoopi Goldberg. She acts as an ally and friend to Alice.
The Cheshire Cat appears in Walt Disney 's 2010 Alice in Wonderland, directed by Tim Burton. British actor Stephen Fry voices the character. In the movie, Cheshire (as he is often called; or sometimes "Chess '') binds the wound Alice suffered earlier by the Bandersnatch and guides her to Tarrant Hightopp, the Mad Hatter and Thackery Earwicket, the March Hare. He is blamed by the Hatter for desertion when the White Queen is deposed by the Red; but later impersonates the Hatter when the latter is sentenced to decapitation. Throughout his appearances, "Chess '' is able to make himself intangible or weightless, as well as invisible (and thus to survive decapitation), and is usually shown in mid-air, at shoulder - height to human - sized characters. In the video game adaptation of the movie, Chess is a playable character who can not only turn himself invisible, but other objects around him as well.
Each major film adaptation of Lewis Carroll 's tale represents the Cheshire Cat character and his traits uniquely.
In addition to the Cheshire Cat 's appearances in films central to its Lewis Carroll origins, the Cheshire Cat has been featured in other cinematic works. The late filmmaker Chris Marker gave his monumental documentary on the New Left movement of 1967 -- 1977, Le fond de l'air est rouge (1977), the English title Grin Without a Cat. Like the original, it signifies that revolution was in the air, but failed to take root. In the film, it is also stated: a spearhead without a spear, a grin without a catThe Cheshire Cat has been seen by television audiences in a broadcast spin - off. The Cheshire Cat appears in Once Upon a Time in Wonderland (a spin - off of Once Upon a Time) voiced by Keith David. While looking for the Mad Hatter 's house from the trees, Alice encounters the Cheshire Cat in giant form where the Red Queen had promised him that Alice would be good food for him. Both of them ended up engaging each other in combat until the Knave of Hearts arrived and threw a piece of one mushroom side into his mouth, which shrank him back to normal size as the Cheshire Cat leaves.
The Cheshire Cat appears as an avatar character in several the video games American McGee 's Alice (2000); and the sequel Alice: Madness Returns (2011), the Cheshire Cat is portrayed as an enigmatic, yet wise guide for Alice in the corrupted Wonderland. In keeping with the twisted tone of the game, the Cheshire Cat is mangy and emaciated in appearance. His voice was provided by Roger L. Jackson, who also voiced the Mad Hatter and The Jabberwock in the game.
Cheshire Cat is used as a metaphor to explain several scientific phenomena:
... (T) aken from Lewis Carroll, we liken this theory to the strategy used by the Cheshire Cat in Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland of making its body invisible to make the sentence "off with his head '' pronounced by the Queen of Hearts impossible to execute... CC dynamics, which rely to some extent on separation of the sexual processes of meiosis and fusion in time and / or space, release the host from short - term pathogen pressure, thus widening the scope for the host to evolve in other directions.
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when did the peanut buster parfait come out | Dairy Queen - wikipedia
Dairy Queen, often abbreviated DQ, is a chain of soft serve ice cream and fast - food restaurants owned by International Dairy Queen, Inc., a subsidiary of Berkshire Hathaway Inc. International Dairy Queen, Inc., also owns Orange Julius and Karmelkorn.
The first DQ restaurant was located in Joliet, Illinois. It was operated by Sherb Noble and opened for business on June 22, 1940. It served a variety of frozen products, such as soft serve ice cream.
The company 's corporate offices are located in the Minneapolis suburb of Edina, Minnesota.
The soft - serve formula was first developed in 1938 by Douds, Iowa - born John Fremont "J.F. '' "Grandpa '' McCullough and his son Alex. They convinced friend and loyal customer Sherb Noble to offer the product in his ice cream store in Kankakee, Illinois. On the first day of sales, Noble dished out more than 1,600 servings of the new dessert within two hours. Noble and the McCulloughs went on to open the first Dairy Queen store in 1940 in Joliet, Illinois. While this Dairy Queen has not been in operation since the 1950s, the building still stands at 501 N Chicago St. as a city - designated landmark.
Since 1940, the chain has used a franchise system to expand its operations globally. In the US, the state with the most Dairy Queen restaurants is Texas. Using the 2010 census, the state with the most Dairy Queen Restaurants per person is Minnesota.
International Dairy Queen, Inc. (IDQ) is the parent company of Dairy Queen. In the United States, it operates under American Dairy Queen Corp.
At the end of fiscal year 2014, Dairy Queen reported over 6,400 stores in more than 25 countries; about 4,500 of its stores (approximately 70 %) were located in the United States.
DQ was an early pioneer of food franchising, expanding its 10 stores in 1941 to 100 by 1947, 1,446 in 1950, and 2,600 in 1955. The first store in Canada opened in Climax, Saskatchewan, in 1953.
The red Dairy Queen symbol was introduced in 1958.
The company became International Dairy Queen, Inc. (IDQ) in 1962.
In 1987, IDQ bought the Orange Julius chain. IDQ was acquired by Berkshire Hathaway in 1998.
Dairy Queens were a fixture of social life in small towns of the Midwestern and Southern United States during the 1950s and 1960s. In that role, they have often come to be referenced as a symbol of life in small - town America, as in Walter Benjamin at the Dairy Queen: Reflections at Sixty and Beyond by Larry McMurtry, Dairy Queen Days by Robert Inman, and Chevrolet Summers, Dairy Queen Nights by Bob Greene.
The company 's stores are operated under several brands, all bearing the distinctive Dairy Queen logo and carrying the company 's signature soft - serve ice cream (along with the trademark "curl ''). In the 1970s, most restaurants were "Brazier '' locations with a second floor for storage, recognizable for their red mansard roofs.
As of the end of 2014, Dairy Queen had more than 6,400 stores in 27 countries, including more than 1,400 locations outside the United States and Canada.
The largest Dairy Queen in the United States is located in Bloomington, Illinois. The largest store in the world was built in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The busiest store in the world is located in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island.
While some stores serve a very abbreviated menu primarily featuring DQ frozen treats and may be open only during spring and summer, the majority of DQ restaurants also serve hot food and are open all year.
So - called "Limited Brazier '' locations may additionally offer hot dogs, barbecue beef (or pork) sandwiches, and in some cases french fries and chicken, but not hamburgers. Dairy Queen Full Brazier restaurants serve a normal fast - food menu featuring burgers, french fries, and grilled and crispy chicken in addition to frozen treats and hot dogs. Dairy Queen now offers happy hour. They offer certain items half off for a limited time.
In some locations built in the 1990s, the "Hot Eats, Cool Treats '' slogan can be seen printed on windows or near the roof of the building. One such example was a former Dairy Queen Brazier location in Woodinville, Washington, where the slogan was printed near the tops of the windows. This location was converted into a Grill & Chill store around late 2016 - 2017.
Also known as the "Treat Center '' concept, an enhanced version of the original stores also serves drinks and foods from the Orange Julius menu. This was the company 's preferred concept for new, small - scale locations, primarily in shopping mall food courts. Some early Treat Centers also included Karmelkorn. Since 2012, all Dairy Queen locations feature Orange Julius drinks. Except for the select few stores under private ownership.
The name "Brazier '' originated in 1957 when one of the company 's franchisees, Jim Cruikshank, set out to develop the standardized food system. When he witnessed flames rising from an open charcoal grill (a brazier) in a New York eatery, he knew he had found the Brazier concept.
The "Brazier '' name has been slowly phased out of signage and advertising since 1993, although it has not been removed from all existing signage, especially in many smaller towns and rural locations. Since the early 2000s, new or renovated locations which are similar to Brazier restaurants in terms of size and menu selection, but have been updated with the current logo and / or exterior, usually carry the name "DQ Restaurant '', although the website 's store locator still lists the stores that do not carry the "Grill & Chill '' name as "Dairy Queen Brazier '' and the smaller stores "Dairy Queen Ltd Brazier '' and "Dairy Queen Stores ''.
However, the company website still considers their burger and hot dog lines as "Brazier Foods '', according to the history section and some FAQ listed topics in the website.
DQ Grill & Chill locations feature hot food, treats, table delivery, and self - serve soft drinks. It is the new concept for new and renovated full - service restaurants. Stores are larger than older - style locations and feature a completely new store design. In most cases, they offer an expanded menu including breakfast, Grill Burgers, and grilled sandwiches, as well as limited table service (customers still place orders at the counter). They also contain self - serve soft drink fountains allowing free refills. Some of the older stores have upgraded to the new format. However, there are still older stores and stores that have not upgraded to the new format. In December 2001, Chattanooga, Tennessee was the site of the first two Dairy Queen Grill and Chill restaurants in the United States. The nation 's largest DQ Grill & Chill is located in Bloomington, Illinois.
Most locations in Texas, including those which otherwise resemble the Brazier or DQ Grill & Chill formats, use a separate hot food menu branded as Texas Country Foods. Among other differences, "Hungr - Buster '' burgers are available in place of the Brazier and GrillBurger offerings. Other food offerings not found outside Texas include the "Dude '' chicken - fried steak sandwich, steak finger country baskets, T - Brand tacos, and a one - half pound double meat hamburger, the "BeltBuster ''.
Texas is home to the largest number of Dairy Queens in the U.S. All Texas Dairy Queen restaurants are owned and operated by franchisees. The Texas Dairy Queen Operators ' Council (TDQOC) runs a separate marketing website from the national website. Bob Phillips, host of the popular Texas syndicated television series Texas Country Reporter, was for many years the DQ spokesman in Texas, as the restaurant was a co-sponsor of the program at the time.
The company 's products expanded to include malts and milkshakes in 1950, banana splits in 1951, Dilly Bars in 1955, Mr. Misty slush treats in 1961 (later renamed Misty Slush, then again to Arctic Rush; as of 2017, DQ again calls them Misty Slush, as seen on dairyqueen.com), Jets, Curly Tops, Freezes in 1964, and a range of hamburgers and other cooked foods under the Brazier banner in 1958. In 1971, the Peanut Buster Parfait, consisting of peanuts, hot fudge, and vanilla soft serve, was introduced. In 1995, the Chicken Strip Basket was introduced, consisting of chicken strips, Texas toast (only in the US), fries, and cream gravy (gravy in Canada). Other items include sundaes and the blended coffee drink, the MooLatte.
The majority of Dairy Queen locations serve Pepsi - Cola products, but unlike most other restaurants such contracts are not mandated onto the franchisee, and as a result, some locations serve Coca - Cola products instead. Wendy 's (until 1998), Subway (until 2003), Arby 's (until 2006; returned to Coke in 2018), IHOP (until 2012), and Applebee 's (until 2012) also allowed such leniency on beverage choice before signing exclusive soft drink deals with Coca - Cola and Pepsi - Cola, making Dairy Queen the last major restaurant chain without an exclusive soft drink contract.
A popular Dairy Queen item is the Blizzard, which is soft - serve mechanically blended with mix - in ingredients such as sundae toppings and / or pieces of cookies, brownies, or candy. It has been a staple on the menu since its introduction in 1985, a year in which Dairy Queen sold more than 100 million Blizzards. Popular flavors include Oreo Cookies, mint Oreo, chocolate chip cookie dough, M&M 's, Reese 's Peanut Butter Cups, Heath Bar (Skor in Canada), and Butterfinger (Crispy Crunch in Canada). Seasonal flavors are also available such as October 's pumpkin pie and June 's cotton candy. It has been argued that Dairy Queen drew its inspiration from the concrete served by the St. Louis - based Ted Drewes. On July 26, 2010, Dairy Queen introduced a new "mini '' size Blizzard, served in 6 oz. cups. During the 25th anniversary of the Blizzard, two special flavors were released: Strawberry Golden Oreo Blizzard and Buster Bar Blizzard. Salted Caramel Truffle was released in 2015 during the Blizzard 's 27th anniversary and Dairy Queen 's 75th anniversary, and is still on the menu today.
Blizzards derive their name from being so thoroughly cold that they can be held upside - down without any spillage. Employees will frequently demonstrate this to customers. There is a company policy that one Blizzard per order is to be flipped upside - down by the employee. If this does not occur, the customer may request a coupon for a free Blizzard to use on their next visit, though this is at the owner 's discretion.
Prior to the reintroduction of the Blizzard in 1985, Dairy Queen served conventional "thick '' milkshakes called "Blizzards '' in the 1960s. These were served in traditional flavors such as vanilla, chocolate, and strawberry, with or without added malt on request.
In addition, Dairy Queen offers a Blizzard Cake in flavors such as Oreo and Reese 's. Much like the restaurant 's conventional ice cream cake, this variation is aimed toward celebrations and birthdays.
In 1990, Dairy Queen began offering frozen yogurt as a lower - calorie alternative to its soft serve ice cream. According to a company representative, Dairy Queen 's regular soft serve has 35 calories per ounce and is 95 % fat - free, whereas the frozen yogurt was 25 calories per ounce. However, in 2001, the company phased out the frozen yogurt option in all its stores, citing a lack of demand.
In 2011, International Dairy Queen Inc. filed a request for a preliminary injunction to stop Yogubliz Inc, a small California - based frozen yogurt chain, from selling "Blizzberry '' and "Blizz Frozen Yogurt '', alleging that the names could confuse consumers due to their similarity to Dairy Queen 's Blizzard. U.S. District Judge R. Gary Klausner denied Dairy Queen 's request.
From 1979 until 1981, the restaurant chain used the slogan "It 's a real treat! ''. For many years, the franchise 's slogan was "We treat you right. '' During the early and mid-1990s, the slogans "Hot Eats, Cool Treats '' and "Think DQ '' came into use and preceded the aforementioned line in the Dairy Queen jingle. In recent years, it has been changed to "Meet Me at DQ '' and "DQ: Something Different. '' A recent tagline, featured in early 2011, was "So Good It 's RiDQulous, '' with Dairy Queen 's current logo infused in the word "ridiculous ''. Their newest tagline reads, "Because I 'm Not Fast Food, I Am Fan Food ''.
In Texas, at the end of advertisements, there is frequently a Texas flag waving, and the new DQ logo and slogan below saying, "Eat Like A Texan ''. Previous slogans included "The Texas Stop Sign '', "That 's what I like about Texas '', "For Hot Eats & Cool Treats, Think DQ '', "Nobody beats DQ Treats & Eats '', "DQ is Value Country '', and "This is DQ Country ''. These advertisements featured Texas Country Reporter host Bob Phillips as spokesperson since his program was mainly sponsored by Dairy Queen.
Dennis the Menace and other characters from the comic strip appeared in Dairy Queen marketing as a spokestoon from 1971 until December 2002, when he was dropped because Dairy Queen felt children could no longer relate to him. Similarly there 's a Dairy Queen Kids commercials in the 1990s. From January 2003 to July 2011, the advertising focused on a large mouth with its tongue licking its large lips, which morphs into the Dairy Queen logo. The mouth was dropped in 2011, after Grey New York produced outlandish spots featuring a dapper man, played by John Behlmann, sporting a moustache, performing crazy feats for Dairy Queen replacing it. After announcing tasty menu offers, he would do something outrageous, like blow bubbles with kittens in them, water ski while boxing, or break a piñata, out of which tumbles Olympic gymnastics great Mary Lou Retton. Later, the same firm made additional commercials based around odd situation titles with the DQ logo placed somewhere in them, like "Gary DQlones Himself '', "Now That 's A Lunchtime DQuandary! '', "After The DQonquest '' and "Well, This Is A Bit DQrazy! ''. All were narrated by a man with an English accent.
In 2015, Dairy Queen and model railroad company of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Wm. K. Walthers came out with a Walthers Cornerstone HO 1: 87 Scale models of a restaurant -- one from the 1950s with the original logo and one from 2007 -- present with the current logo. The models are both officially licensed replicas.
The original Dairy Queen logo was simply a stylized text sign with a soft serve cone at one end. In the late 1950s, the widely recognized red ellipse design was adopted. The initial shape was asymmetrical, with one of the side points having a greater extension than the other, especially when matched with the Brazier sign -- a similarly sized yellow ovoid, tucked diagonally below its companion. By the 1970s, both sides were more closely matched, becoming symmetrical with the 2006 update (see online images for comparison). Some of the new 1950s signs continued to display a soft serve cone jutting from the right side.
"Little Miss Dairy Queen '' began appearing in Pennsylvania signage in 1961. She had a Dutch bonnet, resembling the ellipse logo, with a pinafore apron over her dress and wooden shoes.
A yellow trapezoid Brazier sign, placed below the red Dairy Queen logo, was developed in the late 1960s. It matched the roofline of the new store design of the era.
Although it had been used interchangeably with the Dairy Queen name for many decades, "DQ '' became the company 's official name in 2001. The font remained the same as in the original signage introduced 60 years prior. Throughout this period, the company placed the registered mark symbol immediately to the right, on the bottom side of the logo. When the company modernized its signage and logos in late 2006, it modified the font and italicized the letters, as well as adding arced lines, an orange one to represent its hot foods above and a blue one below to represent its ice cream products. In the new design, the registered mark symbol was moved to be adjacent to the letter "Q ''. The first overhaul of its logo in almost 70 years, the company claimed that the new logo would show brand growth and reflect the "fun and enjoyment '' associated with its products. Advertising industry observers have noted that the new logo was an unneeded update of a known and trusted industry brand and that its new features were distracting.
The original signage is still in use in older locations or in locations that use a "retro '' design motif in the property 's design. One example was the sign used at the Dairy Queen in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, which was destroyed and replaced in 2013.
Prototype Dairy Queen logo from 1940 to 1958, still in use at a small number of locations
1958 - 2001, still in use on some signs, including Brazier locations
2001 - 2002, secondary logo from 1960 - 2002 on packaging, still in use on some signs
2002 -- present
Countries currently with Dairy Queen locations:
Countries formerly with Dairy Queen locations:
Countries upcoming with Dairy Queen locations:
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who played the lone ranger in the 1950s | The Lone Ranger (TV series) - wikipedia
The Lone Ranger is an American western drama television series that aired on the ABC Television network from 1949 to 1957, with Clayton Moore in the starring role. Jay Silverheels, a member of the Mohawk Aboriginal people in Canada, played The Lone Ranger 's Native American companion Tonto.
John Hart replaced Moore in the title role from 1952 to 1954 due to a contract dispute. Fred Foy, who had been both narrator and announcer of the radio series from 1948 until its ending, was the announcer. Gerald Mohr was originally employed as the narrator for the television series, but story narration was dropped after 16 episodes. The Lone Ranger was the highest - rated television program on ABC in the early 1950s and its first true "hit ''. The series finished # 7 in the Nielsen ratings for the 1950 - 1951 season, # 18 for 1951 - 1952 and # 29 for 1952 - 1953.
The fictional story line maintains that a patrol of six Texas Rangers is massacred, with only one member surviving. The "lone '' survivor thereafter disguises himself with a black mask and travels with Tonto throughout Texas and the American West to assist those challenged by the lawless elements. A silver mine supplies The Lone Ranger with the name of his horse as well as the funds required to finance his wandering life - style and the raw material for his signature bullets. At the end of most episodes, after the Lone Ranger and Tonto leave, someone asks the sheriff or other person of authority who the masked man was. The person then responds that it was the Lone Ranger, who is then heard yelling "Hi - Yo Silver, away! '' as he and Tonto ride away on their horses.
George W. Trendle retained the title of producer, although he recognized that his experience in radio was not adequate for producing the television series. For this, he hired veteran MGM film producer Jack Chertok. Chertok served as the producer for the first 182 episodes.
The first 78 episodes were produced and broadcast for 78 consecutive weeks without any breaks or reruns. Then the entire 78 episodes were shown again before any new episodes were produced. All were shot in Kanab, Utah and California. Much of the series was filmed on the former Iverson Movie Ranch in Chatsworth, California, including the iconic opening sequence to each episode, in which the cry of "Hi - yo Silver '' is heard before the Lone Ranger and Silver gallop to a distinctive rock and Silver rears up on his hind legs. The rock seen next to Silver is known as Lone Ranger Rock and remains in place today on the site of the former movie ranch.
When it came time to produce another batch of 52 episodes, there was a wage dispute with Clayton Moore (until his death, the actor insisted that the problem was creative differences), and John Hart was hired to play the role of the Lone Ranger. Once again, the 52 new episodes were aired in sequence followed by 52 weeks rerunning them. Despite expectations that the mask would make the switch workable, Hart was not accepted in the role, and his episodes were not seen again until the 1980s.
At the end of the fifth year of the television series, Trendle sold the Lone Ranger rights to Jack Wrather, who bought them on August 3, 1954. Wrather immediately rehired Clayton Moore to play the Lone Ranger, and another 52 episodes were produced. Once again, they were broadcast as a full year of new episodes followed by a full year of reruns.
The final season saw a number of changes, including an episode count of 39, which had become the industry standard. Wrather invested money from his own pocket to film in color, although ABC telecast only in black and white. Wrather also went outdoors for action footage. Otherwise, the series was mostly filmed on a studio sound stage. Another big change, not readily detectable by the viewers, was replacing Jack Chertok with producer Sherman A. Harris. By this time, Chertok had established his own television production company and was busy producing other programs.
Wrather decided not to negotiate further with the network and took the property to the big screen and cancelled television production. The last new episode of the color series was broadcast on June 6, 1957, and the series ended September 12, 1957, although ABC reaped the benefits of daytime reruns for several more years. Wrather 's company produced two modestly budgeted theatrical features, The Lone Ranger (1956) and The Lone Ranger and the Lost City of Gold (1958). The cast included former child actress Bonita Granville, who had married Wrather after his divorce from a daughter of former Texas Governor W. Lee O'Daniel.
On March 31, 2009, Mill Creek Entertainment released the box set Gun Justice featuring The Lone Ranger with other westerns, including Annie Oakley, The Adventures of Kit Carson, The Cisco Kid, Cowboy G - Men, Judge Roy Bean, The Gabby Hayes Show, and The Roy Rogers Show.
On November 11, 2009, Classic Media released The Lone Ranger: 75th Anniversary Edition to commemorate the show. On June 4, 2013, Classic Media released The Lone Ranger: Collector 's Edition, a 30 - disc set featuring all 221 episodes of the series on DVD for the very first time, though many of the episodes are the syndicated edits missing 2 -- 3 minutes.
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who did keith chegwin play in coronation street | Keith Chegwin - wikipedia
Keith Chegwin (17 January 1957 -- 11 December 2017) was an English television presenter and actor, appearing in several children 's entertainment shows in the 1970s and 1980s, including Multi-Coloured Swap Shop and Cheggers Plays Pop.
His early career saw him performing in such West End stage shows as Tom Brown 's School Days and Captain Pugwash. He also had a career as a singer, releasing singles on the Pye Records label and worked as a disc jockey for 194 Radio City in Liverpool. He spent four years at BBC Radio 1 on Tony Blackburn 's weekend morning show. In 2000, he presented the Channel 5 nudist game - show Naked Jungle, appearing naked except for a hat and later describing it as "the worst career move '' in his life.
Chegwin was known for his off - the - cuff ad - lib style of broadcasting and stated that no one had ever written a word for him. In 2012, he was scheduled to take part in the sixth series of Dancing on Ice, but he was forced to withdraw after breaking three ribs and fracturing his shoulder on the first day of training. In 2015, he was a housemate on Celebrity Big Brother Series 15 where he finished in 4th place.
He died on 11 December 2017 of lung disease idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.
Chegwin was born in Walton, Liverpool, on 17 January 1957. He entered an end - of - the - pier talent competition in Rhyl, North Wales, and later joined ' The Happy Wanderers ', a concert party that toured the pubs and clubs of the North West. He was then spotted by June Collins (mother of Phil Collins) of the Barbara Speake Stage School on Junior Showtime, a Yorkshire Television children 's talent series. She invited him to London to audition for the stage show Mame with Ginger Rogers. He attended stage school with his twin brother, Jeff. As part of a play he performed in at the school, Chegwin sang the first song that Phil Collins ever wrote.
While at school, Chegwin auditioned and gained roles on TV, film and stage. He appeared in Children 's Film Foundation productions, including as Egghead Wentworth in The Troublesome Double (1967) and Egghead 's Robot (1970). His most prestigious acting role was that of Fleance in Roman Polanski 's film Macbeth (1971), and had a small role in the film The Optimists of Nine Elms (1973).
In 1973, he also appeared in the pilot episode of Open All Hours and then had parts in The Liver Birds, The Adventures of Black Beauty, My Old Man, Village Hall, Z - Cars (both 1974), ITV 's The Wackers and The Tomorrow People serial Worlds Away (both 1975).
His last major acting role was the title role in the film Robin Hood Junior (1975), although he had two small roles with Tom Courtenay in the Chester Mystery Cycle (1976) and some years later in the film Whatever Happened to Harold Smith? (1999). He appeared in TV ads for products such as Pepsi and Cadbury Creme Eggs as well as for Ready Brek, Toffos and Tizer, and was also associated with the Freemans catalogue.
Chegwin performed in West End stage shows such as Tom Brown 's School Days with Russell Grant and Simon Le Bon; The Good Old Bad Old Days with Anthony Newley; and Captain Pugwash by John Kennett at the King 's Road Theatre in 1973. He had a career as a singer, releasing singles on the Cherub and Pye record labels, but turned down an offer to front the band Kenny (who had a number 19 hit in the UK Singles Chart with "The Bump ''). He also worked as a disc jockey for 194 Radio City in Liverpool, and worked at BBC Radio 1 on Tony Blackburn 's weekend morning show for four years.
In the mid 1970s, Chegwin moved away from acting, becoming a household name presenting programmes such as Multi-Coloured Swap Shop (1976 -- 82), Cheggers Plays Pop (1978 -- 86) and, in the 1980s, Saturday Superstore. As Brown Sauce, he and Swap Shop co-presenters Noel Edmonds and Maggie Philbin released the pop single "I Wanna Be a Winner '', which reached number 15 in January 1982, and a follow - up single as the Saucers called "Spring Has Sprung ''. On Swap Shop and Superstore, he was featured in outside broadcasts; on Swap Shop they were called Swaparama, appearing at outdoor venues around Britain, where he helped children swap their toys. On Superstore, Chegwin had a similar role.
Chegwin was known for his off - the - cuff ad - lib style of broadcasting. He stated that no one had ever written a word for him. Chegwin 's career waned in the late 1980s and 1990s, due to his alcoholism, as detailed, in his own words, in his semi autobiographical book, Shaken But Not Stirred. In 1990, he hosted the live nightly Sky talent programme Sky Star Search. Chegwin stopped drinking after his appearance on the Richard and Judy show This Morning on 5 November 1992. Chegwin 's career regained speed in 1993 when he presented the "Down Your Doorstep '' outside broadcast segment on The Big Breakfast. He subsequently hosted the show and, in 1999, went on to present a revived version of the 1970s gameshow It 's a Knockout on Channel 5. He also toured the country hosting Graham Fisher 's International Knockout for corporate and charity events.
In 2000 Chegwin presented his own internet TV show, where his daily audience for the seven - week trial reached over 250,000. Chegwin presented the Yorkshire Television - made Channel 5 nudist gameshow Naked Jungle, appearing naked except for a hat. He identified making the show as "the worst career move '' in his life.
Chegwin worked for seven years on GMTV. In 2006 he appeared as himself in an episode of Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant 's comedy series Extras. Chegwin frequently wrote jingles for the Chris Moyles Breakfast Show on BBC Radio 1. For seven years he ran his own web based bingo site Cheggersbingo.
In 2007 Chegwin voiced and starred in the quiz - based video game ' Chegger 's Party Quiz ', in which a CGI version of himself acts as a quizmaster. The game was developed by Oxygen Interactive and released on Nintendo Wii, PlayStation 2, and PC. The game was met with mixed reviews.
In November 2011 Chegwin played himself in the comedy horror film Kill Keith. He made an appearance in Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant 's comedy series Life 's Too Short with Shaun Williamson and Les Dennis. In August 2012, he was presented with a Lifetime Achievement Award at the National Reality TV Awards.
On 19 October 2013 he took part in a celebrity episode of The Chase. In September 2014 he was a contestant on BBC1 's Pointless Celebrities show.
In 2015 he took part in the fifteenth series of Celebrity Big Brother on Channel 5. On 6 February, he finished in fourth place. He took part in the 2015 series of Celebrity MasterChef, won by Kimberly Wyatt of the Pussycat Dolls. In the same year he made a cameo appearance as himself in BBC Two 's comedy - drama A Gert Lush Christmas where he is revealed to be a friend of Tony (Greg Davies). He also hosted the 2015 BAFTA television and film industry awards.
In later years Chegwin was a popular pantomime dame and in March 2016 appeared in the Easter pantomime tour of Beauty and the Beast.
Chegwin was originally set to take part in the seventh series of Dancing on Ice, but he was forced to withdraw after breaking three ribs and fracturing his shoulder on the first day of training with Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean. Chegwin joined the eighth series of Dancing on Ice partnered with Olga Sharutenko. Chegwin was eliminated on 17 February 2013. From October to January 2013, he played the part of Drosselmeyer in the ' Nutcracker On Ice ' with prestigious Imperial Ice Stars from Russia at the London Palladium.
From 1982 to 1993, Chegwin was married to presenter Maggie Philbin with whom he had a daughter, Rose. He later married Maria Anne Fielden; they had a son, Ted.
DJ Janice Long is his older sister. He also had a twin brother, Jeff, with whom he attended stage school. He was an uncle of Hugo Chegwin, a music producer and one of the creators and stars of BBC Three sitcom People Just Do Nothing. He regularly made public appearances around the UK and was involved in charity work.
Chegwin and his wife moved from Berkshire to a country home in the area between Whitchurch and Wem in Shropshire, partly because they wanted to be closer to family further north.
On 11 December 2017, Chegwin 's family announced that he had died after a long illness from the lung disease idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Chegwin died at his home in Shropshire having moved there earlier in 2017.
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when was the southern kingdom of israel taken captive | Assyrian captivity - wikipedia
The Assyrian captivity (or the Assyrian exile) is the period in the history of Ancient Israel and Judah during which several thousand Israelites of ancient Samaria were resettled as captives by Assyria. The Northern Kingdom of Israel was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian monarchs, Tiglath - Pileser III (Pul) and Shalmaneser V. The later Assyrian rulers Sargon II and his son and successor, Sennacherib, were responsible for finishing the twenty - year demise of Israel 's northern ten - tribe kingdom, although they did not overtake the Southern Kingdom. Jerusalem was besieged, but not taken. The tribes forcibly resettled by Assyria later became known as the Ten Lost Tribes.
The captivities began in approximately 740 BCE (or 733 / 2 BCE according to other sources).
And the God of Israel stirred up the spirit of Pul king of Assyria, and the spirit of Tilgathpilneser king of Assyria, and he carried them away, even the Reubenites, and the Gadites, and the half tribe of Manasseh, and brought them unto Halah, and Habor, and Hara, and to the river Gozan, unto this day. (1 Chronicles 5: 26)
In the days of Pekah king of Israel came Tiglathpileser king of Assyria, and he took Ijon, and Abelbethmaachah, and Janoah, and Kedesh, and Hazor, and Gilead, and Galilee, all the land of Naphtali, and carried them captive to Assyria. (2 Kings 15: 29)
In 722 BCE, nearly ten to twenty years after the initial deportations, the ruling city of the Northern Kingdom of Israel, Samaria, was finally taken by Sargon II after a three - year siege started by Shalmaneser V.
Against him came up Shalmaneser king of Assyria; and Hoshea became his servant, and gave him presents.
And the king of Assyria found conspiracy in Hoshea: for he had sent messengers to So king of Egypt, and brought no present to the king of Assyria, as he had done year by year: therefore the king of Assyria shut him up, and bound him in prison. Then the king of Assyria came up throughout all the land, and went up to Samaria, and besieged it three years.
And the king of Assyria did carry away Israel unto Assyria and put them in Halah and in Habor by the river of Gozan, and in the cities of the Medes: because they obeyed not the voice of the LORD their God, but transgressed his covenant, and all that Moses the servant of the LORD commanded and would not hear them, nor do them. (2 Kings 18: 11 -- 12)
The term "cities of the Medes '' mentioned above may be a corruption from an original text "Mountains of Media ''.
The Book of Kings states several times that the entire people of the Kingdom of Israel had been taken into exile by the Assyrians. Some believe that the Books of Chronicles information about the fate of the Northern Kingdom adds up differently. What is often cited is 2nd Chronicles, Chapter 15, which mentions that there had been people from the hill - country cities of Ephraim and Manasseh who were captured by the Judean king, Asa of Judah. And Asa, sojourning among the Judean kingdom population, returned practicing the Hebrew belief. However, this is a mis - characterization of the events. Since those scriptures clearly declare that it was at a time when the Northern Kingdom was still intact, this happened in an era before the Assyrian Captivity.
And when Asa heard these words, even the prophecy of Oded the prophet, he took courage, and put away the detestable things out of all the land of Judah and Benjamin, and out of the cities which he had taken from the hill - country of Ephraim; and he renewed the altar of the LORD, that was before the porch of the LORD.
And he gathered all Judah and Benjamin, and them that sojourned with them out of Ephraim and Manasseh, and out of Simeon; for they fell to him out of Israel in abundance, when they saw that the LORD his God was with him.
According to 2nd Chronicles, Chapter 30, there is evidence that at least some people of the Northern Kingdom of Israel were not exiled. These were invited by king Hezekiah to keep the Passover in a feast at Jerusalem with the Judean population. (The holiday was set one month forward from its original date.) Hezekiah sent his posts to spread the word among the remnant of the Northern kingdom; the posts were mocked during their visit to the country of Ephraim, Manasseh and Zebulun. However, some people of Asher and Manasseh and of Zebulun humbled themselves and came to Jerusalem. In a later part of the chapter, even people from the Tribe of Issachar and the strangers that "came out from the land of Israel '' were said to take part in the passover event. Biblical scholars such as Umberto Cassuto and Elia Samuele Artom claimed that Hezekiah might have annexed these territories, in which inhabitants of the Kingdom of Israel remained, into his own kingdom.
And Hezekiah sent to all Israel and Judah, and wrote letters also to Ephraim and Manasseh, that they should come to the house of the LORD at Jerusalem, to keep the passover unto the LORD, the God of Israel. (2 Chronicles 30: 1)
So they established a decree to make proclamation throughout all Israel, from Beer - sheba even to Dan, that they should come to keep the passover unto the LORD, the God of Israel, at Jerusalem; for they had not kept it in great numbers accordingly, as it is written.
So the posts went with the letters from the king and his princes throughout all Israel and Judah, according to the commandment of the king, saying: ' Ye children of Israel, turn back unto the LORD, the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Israel, that He may return to the remnant that are escaped out of the hand of the kings of Assyria. And be ye not like your fathers and like your brethren who acted treacherously against the LORD, the God of their fathers, so that He delivered them to desolation, as ye see. Now be ye not stiffnecked as your fathers were, but yield yourselves unto the LORD and enter into His sanctuary which He hath sanctified for ever; and serve the LORD your God that His fierce anger may turn away from you.
So the posts passed from city to city through the country of Ephraim and Manasseh, even unto Zebulun; but they laughed them to scorn, and mocked them. Nevertheless certain men of Asher and Manasseh and of Zebulun humbled themselves, and came to Jerusalem. (2 Chronicles 30: 11 -- 12)
For a multitude of the people, even many of Ephraim and Manasseh, Issachar and Zebulun, had not cleansed themselves, yet did they eat the passover otherwise than it is written. For Hezekiah had prayed for them, saying: ' The good LORD pardon... ' (2 Chronicles 30: 18)
And all the congregation of Judah, with the priests and the Levites, and all the congregation that came out of Israel, and the strangers that came out of the land of Israel, and that dwelt in Judah, rejoiced. So there was great joy in Jerusalem; for since the time of Solomon the son of David king of Israel there was not the like in Jerusalem. (2 Chronicles 30: 25 -- 26)
In 2nd Chronicles, Chapter 31, it is said that the remnant of the Kingdom of Israel returned to their homes, but not before destroying Ba'al and Ashera places of Idol worship left in "all Judah and Benjamin, in Ephraim also and Manasseh ''.
Now when all this was finished, all Israel that were present went out to the cities of Judah, and broke in pieces the pillars, and hewed down the Asherim, and broke down the high places and the altars out of all Judah and Benjamin, in Ephraim also and Manasseh, until they had destroyed them all. Then all the children of Israel returned, every man to his possession, into their own cities. (2 Chronicles 31: 1)
Assyrian cuneiform states that 27,290 captives were taken from Samaria, the capital of the Northern Kingdom of Israel, by the hand of Sargon II.
Sargon records his first campaign on the walls of the royal palace at Dur - Sharrukin (Khorsabad):
In my first year of reign * * * the people of Samaria * * * to the number of 27,290... I carried away.
Fifty chariots for my royal equipment I selected. The city I rebuilt. I made it greater than it was before.
The description of the final defeat of the Northern Kingdom of Israel above appears to be a minor event in Sargon 's legacy. Some historians attribute the ease of Israel 's defeat to the previous two decades of invasions, defeats, and deportations.
Some estimates assume a captivity numbering in the hundreds of thousands, minus those who died in defense of the kingdom and minus those who fled voluntarily before and during the invasions.
However, it has also been suggested that the numbers deported by the Assyrians were rather limited and the bulk of the population remained in situ. There is also evidence that significant numbers fled south to the Kingdom of Judah.
Unlike the Kingdom of Judah, which was able to return from its Babylonian captivity, the ten tribes of the Northern Kingdom never had a foreign edict granting permission to return and rebuild their homeland. Many centuries later, rabbis of the restored Kingdom of Judah were still debating the return of the lost ten tribes. However, Assyria had been conquered by Babylon, and Babylon had been conquered by the Medo - Persians.
According to the Books of Chronicles chapter 9 line 3, the Israelites, who took part in The Return to Zion, are stated to be from the Tribe of Judah alongside the Tribe of Simeon that was absorbed into it, the Tribe of Benjamin, the Tribe of Levi (Levites and Priests) alongside the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, which according to the Book of Kings 2 Chapter 7 were supposedly exiled by the Assyrians (The Biblical scholars Umberto Cassuto and Elia Samuele Artom claimed these two tribes ' names to be a reference to the remant of all Ten Tribes that was not exiled and absorbed into the Judean population).
And in Jerusalem dwelt of the children of Judah, and of the children of Benjamin, and of the children of Ephraim and Manasseh. This particular verse is often misconstrued, since the obvious declaration being made in 1 Chronicles 9: 1 are that of a genealogical reference. The clear indication is seen when directing the readers attention to 1 Chronicles 9: 2 when mentioning the Nethinims of which were a people conquered by Joshua (Joshua 9: 27. This thereby dictates that it 's referring to a completely different time and era, as further seen with the description in verse 2 where it indicates that the Israelites were gaining their land - designated possessions attributed to their God YHWH and his General in charge Joshua. (1 Chronicles 9: 3)
The scriptures of the titled "Old Testament '' are not accurately complete without the records of those Hebrew writers that penned them. This points to the complete records that declare the clarity of the Grecian conquests of the Judeans during and after the reign of Alexander, as indicated by the book of Maccabbees. The historical accuracy by the prophet Ezra is complete only when the details of the Apocrypha 's 1st and 2nd Esdras are referenced, since there is where the complete history of the dispersion of the Northern Kingdom tribes is seen, in 2 Esdras 13: 40 -- 48.
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best american short stories 2007 table of contents | The Best American Short Stories 2007 - wikipedia
The Best American Short Stories 2007, a volume in The Best American Short Stories series, was edited by Heidi Pitlor and by guest editor Stephen King.
Stephen King also selected "100 Other Distinguished Stories of 2006. '' These included short stories by many well - known writers including Francine Prose 's "An Open Letter to Doctor X '' from Virginia Quarterly Review, Jhumpa Lahiri 's "Once in a Lifetime '' from The New Yorker, Lorrie Moore 's "Paper Losses '' from The New Yorker and Jacob Appel 's "The Butcher 's Music '' from West Branch, as well as works by up - and - coming fiction writers such as David Kear, Matthew Pitt, Paula Nangle, Alison Clement and Justin Kramon.
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who does the voice for the hormone monster in big mouth | Big Mouth (tv series) - wikipedia
Big Mouth is an American adult animated sitcom created by Nick Kroll, Andrew Goldberg, Mark Levin, and Jennifer Flackett based on Kroll and Goldberg 's tweenage years growing up in the suburbs of New York, with Kroll voicing his fictional self. The first season consisting of ten episodes premiered on Netflix on September 29, 2017. On October 24, 2017, it was confirmed that a second season has been ordered to air in 2018.
The series follows 7th grade best friends Nick Birch and Andrew Glouberman as they navigate their way through puberty, masturbation, and sexual arousal. Acting as sex - based shoulder angels are the hormone monsters Maurice, who pesters Andrew and occasionally Nick and Jay, and Connie, who pesters Jessi and occasionally Missy. Throughout the series, the kids interact with people and objects who are personified in one way or another and offer helpful, albeit confusing, advice in their puberty - filled lives including the ghost of Duke Ellington, a French accented Statue of Liberty, a pillow capable of getting pregnant, and even Jessi 's own vagina.
Big Mouth has received critical acclaim since its official release. On Rotten Tomatoes, the series has an approval rating of 100 % based on 17 reviews, with the critical consensus reading, "Big Mouth 's simplistic animation and scatalogical humor belie its finely sketched characters and smart, empathetic approach to the messiness of adolescence. '' At Metacritic, the show currently holds a rating of 80 out of 100, based on 6 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Vox described the show as sharp, and as jarringly depicting the awkwardness of pubescence, postpubescence and prepubescence.
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lord help me see the things i cannot change | Serenity prayer - wikipedia
The Serenity Prayer is the common name for a prayer written by the American theologian Reinhold Niebuhr (1892 -- 1971). The best - known form is:
God, grant me the serenity to accept the things I can not change, Courage to change the things I can, And wisdom to know the difference.
Niebuhr, who first wrote the prayer for a sermon at Heath Evangelical Union Church in Heath, Massachusetts, used it widely in sermons as early as 1934 and first published it in 1951 in a magazine column. The prayer spread through Niebuhr 's sermons and church groups in the 1930s and 1940s and was adopted and popularized by Alcoholics Anonymous and other twelve - step programs.
The prayer has appeared in many versions. Reinhold Niebuhr 's versions of the prayer were always printed as a single prose sentence; printings that set out the prayer as three lines of verse modify the author 's original version. The most well - known form is a late version, as it includes a reference to grace not found before 1951:
God, give me grace to accept with serenity the things that can not be changed, Courage to change the things which should be changed, and the Wisdom to distinguish the one from the other. Living one day at a time, Enjoying one moment at a time, Accepting hardship as a pathway to peace, Taking, as Jesus did, This sinful world as it is, Not as I would have it, Trusting that You will make all things right, If I surrender to Your will, So that I may be reasonably happy in this life, And supremely happy with You forever in the next. Amen.
A version (apparently quoted from memory) appeared in the "Queries and Answers '' column in The New York Times Book Review, July 2, 1950, p. 23, asking for the author of the quotation. A reply in the same column in the issue for August 13, 1950, p. 19, attributed the prayer to Niebuhr, quoting it as follows:
O God and Heavenly Father, Grant to us the serenity of mind to accept that which can not be changed; courage to change that which can be changed, and wisdom to know the one from the other, through Jesus Christ our Lord, Amen.
Some twelve - step recovery programs use a slightly different version:
God grant me the serenity to accept the things I can not change, Courage to change the things I can, and the Wisdom to know the difference.
The earliest recorded reference to the prayer is a diary entry from 1932 by Winnifred Crane Wygal, a pupil and collaborator of Reinhold Niebuhr, quoting the prayer and attributing it to Niebuhr. Several versions of the prayer then appeared in newspaper articles in the early 1930s written by, or reporting on talks given by, Wygal. In 1940, Wygal included the following form of the prayer in a book on worship, attributing it to Niebuhr:
O God, give us the serenity to accept what can not be changed, the courage to change what can be changed, and the wisdom to know the one from the other.
Wygal was a longtime YWCA official and all early recorded usages were from women involved in volunteer or educational activities connected to the YWCA.
The earliest printed reference, in 1936, mentions that during a speech, a Miss Mildred Pinkerton "quotes the prayer, '' as if to indicate it was already in a circulation known to the reporter, or that Pinkerton relayed it as a quote, without mentioning its authorship. A 1937 Christian student publication attributed the prayer to Niebuhr in the following form, which matches the other earliest published forms in requesting "courage to change '' before petitioning for serenity:
Father, give us courage to change what must be altered, serenity to accept what can not be helped, and the insight to know the one from the other.
Various other authors also cited Niebuhr as the source of the prayer from 1937 on. The Federal Council of Churches (NCC) included the prayer in a book for army chaplains and servicemen in 1944 and the USO circulated the prayer (with Niebuhr 's permission) to soldiers on printed cards during World War Two. In 1950, in response to questions about the already quite widely known prayer 's provenance, Niebuhr wrote that the prayer "may have been spooking around for years, even centuries, but I do n't think so. I honestly do believe that I wrote it myself. '' He confirmed this in 1967. His daughter, Elisabeth Sifton, thought that Niebuhr had first written it in 1943, while Niebuhr 's wife Ursula believed it had been written in 1941 or ' 42, adding that it may have been used in prayers as early as 1934.
The Serenity Prayer will be listed under Niebuhr 's name in the next edition of the Yale Book of Quotations, whose author Fred R. Shapiro had first raised doubts about, but was later instrumental in confirming Niebuhr 's authorship.
Numerous statements of more or less similar sentiments by other authors have been identified and it is likely that more will be found. The prayer has also been falsely attributed to a variety of other authors.
Epictetus wrote: "Make the best use of what is in your power, and take the rest as it happens. Some things are up to us (eph ' hêmin) and some things are not up to us. Our opinions are up to us, and our impulses, desires, aversions -- in short, whatever is our own doing. Our bodies are not up to us, nor are our possessions, our reputations, or our public offices, or, that is, whatever is not our own doing. ''
The 8th - century Indian Buddhist scholar Shantideva of the ancient Nalanda University suggested:
If there 's a remedy when trouble strikes, What reason is there for dejection? And if there is no help for it, What use is there in being glum?
The 11th - century Jewish philosopher Solomon ibn Gabirol wrote:
And they said: At the head of all understanding -- is realizing what is and what can not be, and the consoling of what is not in our power to change.
The philosopher W.W. Bartley juxtaposes without comment Niebuhr 's prayer with a Mother Goose rhyme (1695) expressing a similar sentiment:
For every ailment under the sun There is a remedy, or there is none; If there be one, try to find it; If there be none, never mind it.
Friedrich Schiller advocated the first part in 1801: "Blessed is he, who has learned to bear what he can not change, and to give up with dignity, what he can not save. ''
The prayer has been variously attributed (without evidence) to Thomas Aquinas, Cicero, Augustine, Boethius, Marcus Aurelius, Francis of Assisi, and Thomas More, among others.
Theodor Wilhelm, a professor of education at the University of Kiel, published a German version of the prayer under the pseudonym "Friedrich Oetinger ''. Wilhelm 's plagiarized version of the prayer became popular in West Germany, where it was widely but falsely attributed to the 18th - century philosopher Friedrich Christoph Oetinger.
The prayer became more widely known after being brought to the attention of Alcoholics Anonymous in 1941 by an early member, who came upon it in a caption in a "routine New York Herald Tribune obituary ''. AA 's co-founder and staff liked the prayer and had it printed in modified form and handed around. It has been part of Alcoholics Anonymous ever since, and has also been used in other twelve - step programs. "Never had we seen so much A.A. in so few words, '' noted founder Bill Wilson. Grapevine, The International Journal of Alcoholics Anonymous, identified Niebuhr as the author (January 1950, pp. 6 -- 7), and the AA web site continues to identify Niebuhr as the author.
The original text for this adapted prayer was:
Father, give us courage to change what must be altered, serenity to accept what can not be helped,
A slightly different version of the prayer has been widely adopted by twelve - step groups:
God grant us the serenity to accept the things we can not change, the courage to change the things we can,
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hank williams sr my bucket's got a hole in it | My Bucket 's Got a Hole in It - wikipedia
"My Bucket 's Got a Hole in It '' is a song widely attributed to Clarence Williams, who obtained a copyright in 1933. The song became popular performed by Hank Williams for MGM and reached # 4 on the country chart in 1949.
A rendering (1927) by Tom Gates and his Orchestra (on Gennett 6184) as "The Bucket 's Got A Hole In It '' gives writing credit to musicians Lee Blevins and Victor Sells. This version predates the C. Williams copyright. The original melody evolved from the second theme of "Long Lost Blues '' published in 1914 by J. Paul Wyer and H. Alf Kelley. The "Long Lost Blues '' theme was a variation of "Bucket 's Got a Hole in It '', a motif that appears in several versions of "Keep A-Knockin ''. This tune later became the basis for several versions of the song, "You Ca n't Come In '' recorded by multiple artists. However, "Bucket 's Got a Hole in It '' has also been attributed to Buddy Bolden, which would date it before 1906. As one critic noted, Hank Williams "could have been given this ditty to record, (but) he may have been familiar with this ditty from previous recordings or had heard it while growing up in Alabama. ''
Tom Gates and his Orchestra performed the earliest known recording of this song on July 25, 1927 (Gennett 6198 - A Champion 15307) in St. Paul, Minnesota as "The Bucket 's Got a Hole in It. '' Band members included the composers, Lee N. Blevins on trombone and Victor Sells on trumpet. Also playing were Earl Clark, Frank Cloustier (Piano, Director), Bob Gates, Tom Gates, Tracy "Pug '' Mama, Nevin Simmons (Alto Sax / Vocals), and Harold Stoddard. Even in this early recording, the melody had already been used by the New Orleans Rhythm Kings in their "She 's Crying For Me Blues '' (' 25 - Victor), also by Louis Dumaine 's Jazzola Eight in ' 27 as To - Wa - Bac - A-Wa - Yale Blues.
Washboard Sam, aka Robert Brown, released a version of this song on Bluebird B - 7906 known as "Bucket 's Got A Hole In It. '' This recording was made in 1937 as one of "several historic blues recording sessions (that) took place on the top floor of the Leland Hotel located in downtown Aurora, Illinois. Lester Melrose, a freelance A&R man, and record producer, put together those recording sessions for the Bluebird label. Melrose brought together a small group of artists from St. Louis, and some of Chicago 's finest blues artists of the time, and over the course of the next 20 months, recorded over 300 tracks. '' Featured in this series of recordings are the performers Tampa Red, Washboard Sam, Big Bill Broonzy, Walter Davis, John Lee "Sonny Boy '' Williamson, Big Joe Williams, Henry Townsend, Robert Lee McCoy, Speckled Red, Merlene Johnson, Addie "Sweet Peas '' Spivey, Bill "Jazz '' Gillum and One Arm Slim, amongst many others.
Williams likely first heard "My Bucket 's Got a Hole in It '' from Rufus Payne, nicknamed "Tee Tot, '' a black street singer who taught a young Hank to play blues guitar. In the essay to the 1990 Polygram box set Hank Williams: The Original Singles Collection, Colin Escott quotes Williams in an interview with Ralph Gleason in 1952: "I was shinin ' shoes and sellin ' newspapers and following this old Nigrah around to get him to teach me how to play the git - tar. I 'd give him 15 cents or whatever I could get ahold of for a lesson. '' Understandably, producer Fred Rose was wary of the song 's commercial potential; as country music historian Escott notes, "Fred Rose 's opposition to the song had a lot to do with the fact that it mentioned beer, and probably had something to do with the fact that Acuff - Rose did n't publish it. '' In addition, Williams originally had a couplet mentioning a Ford automobile ("Me an ' my baby, we got a Ford / Now we change the gears from the running board '') and Rose demanded that, if Williams did record it, the reference be dropped because if Hank endorsed Ford, "then deejays sponsored by GM, Chrysler, and Studebaker would n't spin his record. '' Williams recorded the song on August 30, 1949 at Herzog Studio in Cincinnati, Ohio (the same session that produced the B - side "I 'm So Lonesome I Could Cry ''). He is backed by members of the Pleasant Valley Boys - Zeke Turner (lead guitar), Jerry Byrd (steel guitar), and Louis Innis (rhythm guitar) - as well as Tommy Jackson (fiddle) and Ernie Newton (bass).
The song is significant for featuring the only guitar solo Williams ever recorded:
The blues influence is evident in other Williams songs, such as "Move It on Over, '' "Mind Your Own Business, '' and "Honky Tonk Blues, '' but "My Bucket 's Got a Hole in It '' remains the song that displays the influence most prominently.
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where did the term genie in a bottle come from | Jinn - wikipedia
Jinn (Arabic: الجن , al - jinn), also Romanized as djinn or Anglicized as genies (with the more broad meaning of spirits or demons, depending on source) are supernatural creatures in early pre-Islamic Arabian and later Islamic mythology and theology. Jinn are not a strictly Islamic concept, rather various pagan deities integrated into Islam, by degrading them to spirits. Since jinn are not inevitably evil (nor good), Islam was able to adapt spirits from other religions during its expansion.
Besides the jinn, Islam aknowldges the existence of demons (Shayāṭīn). The lines between demons and jinn are blurred, since malevolent jinn are also called shayāṭīn. However both Islam and Western scholarship, distinguishes between angels, jinn and demons (shayāṭīn) aa three different types of spiritual entities in Islamic traditions.
In an Islamic context, the term jinn is used for both a collective designation for any supernatural creature and also to refer to a specific type of supernatural creature.
Jinn is an Arabic collective noun deriving from the Semitic root JNN (Arabic: جَنّ / جُنّ , jann), whose primary meaning is "to hide '' or "to conceal ''. Some authors interpret the word to mean, literally, "beings that are concealed from the senses ''. Cognates include the Arabic majnūn ("possessed '', or generally "insane ''), jannah ("garden '', also "heaven ''), and janīn ("embryo ''). Jinn is properly treated as a plural, with the singular being jinnī.
The origin of the word Jinn remains uncertain. Some scholars relate the Arabic term jinn to the Latin genius, as a result of syncretism during the reign of the Roman empire under Tiberius Augustus, but this derivation is also disputed. Another suggestion holds that jinn may be derived from Aramaic "ginnaya '' (Classical Syriac: ܓܢܬܐ ) with the meaning of "tutelary deity '', or also "garden ''. Others claim a Persian origin of the word, in the form of the Avestic "Jaini '', a wicked (female) spirit. Jaini were among various creatures in the possibly even pre-Zoroastrian mythology of peoples of Iran.
The Anglicized form genie is a borrowing of the French génie, from the Latin genius, a guardian spirit of people and places in Roman religion. It first appeared in 18th - century translations of the Thousand and One Nights from the French, where it had been used owing to its rough similarity in sound and sense.
Jinn were worshipped by many Arabs during the Pre-Islamic period, but, unlike gods, jinn were not regarded as immortal. In ancient Arabia, the term jinn also applied to all kinds of supernatural entities among various religions and cults; thus, Zoroastrian, Christian, and Jewish angels and demons were also called "jinn ''.
The exact origins of belief in jinn are not entirely clear. Some scholars of the Middle East hold that they originated as malevolent spirits residing in deserts and unclean places, who often took the forms of animals; others hold that they were originally pagan nature deities who gradually became marginalized as other deities took greater importance. According to common Arabian belief, soothsayers, pre-Islamic philosophers, and poets were inspired by the jinn. However, jinn were also feared and thought to be responsible for causing various diseases and mental illnesses. Julius Wellhausen observed that such spirits were thought to inhabit desolate, dingy, and dark places and that they were feared. One had to protect oneself from them, but they were not the objects of a true cult.
In the Islamic sense, jinn is used in two different ways:
In Islamic tradition, Muhammad was sent as a prophet to both human and jinn communities, and that prophets and messengers were sent to both communities. Traditionally Surah 72 is held to tell about the revelation to Jinn and several stories mention one of Muhammad 's followers accompanied him, witnessing the revelation to the Jinn.
Another Islamic prophet, who is related to interactions with Jinn, is Solomon. In Quran, he is said to be a king in ancient Israel and was gifted by God to talk to animals and Jinn. God granted him authority over the rebellious Jinn or marid, thus Solomon forced them to build the First Temple. Beliefs regarding Solomon and his power over the Jinn were later extended in folklore and folktales.
Related to common traditions, the angels were created on Wednesday, the Jinn on Thursday and humans on Friday, but not the very next day, rather more than 1000 years later. The community of the Jinn race were like these of humans, but then corruption and injustice among them increased and all warnings sent by God were ignored. Consequently, God sent his angels to battle the infidel Jinn. Just a few survived, and were ousted to far islands or to the mountains. With the revelation of Islam, the Jinn were given a new chance to access salvation. But because of their anciennity, the jinn would attribute themselves to a superiority over humans and envy the them for their place and rank on earth.
In early Islamic development, the status of jinn were reduced from that of deities to minor spirits. To assert a strict monotheism and the Islamic concept of Tauhid, all affinities between the jinn and God were denied, thus jinn were placed parallel to humans, also subject to God 's judgment and able to attain Paradise or Hell. However, even though their status as tutelary deities was reduced, they were not consequently regarded as demons. In later revelations, the concept of demons and angels distinct from the pagan jinn were made. T. Fahd stated, the jinn were related to the pagan belief, while the demons and angels were borrowed from monotheistic concepts of angels and demons. In later revelations the demons and the jinn seems to be used interchangeably, here placing the jinn with the devil, against the angels and Muhammad.
When Islam spread outside of Arabia, belief in the jinn was assimilated with local belief about spirits and deities from Iran, Africa, Turkey and India. Persians, for example, identified the jinn in the Quran with the Daeva from Zoroastrian lore. Developed from various traditions and local folklore, but not mentioned in canonical Islamic scriptures, jinn were thought to be able to possess humans; Morocco especially has many possession traditions, including exorcism rituals. In Sindh the concept of the Jinni was introduced during the Abbasid Era and has become a common part of local folklore, also including stories of both male jinn called "jinn '' and female jinn called "Jiniri ''. Folk stories of female jinn include stories such as the Jejhal Jiniri. Although, due to the cultural influence, the concept of jinn may vary, all share some common features. The jinn are believed to live in societies resembling these of humans, practicing religion (including Islam, Christianity and Judaism), having emotions, needing to eat and drink, and can procreate and raise families. Additionally, they fear iron, generally appear in desolate or abandoned places, and are stronger and faster than humans. Generally, jinn are thought to eat bones and prefer rotten flesh over fresh flesh.
The composition and existence of jinn is the subject of various debates during the Middle Ages. According to Ashari, the existence of jinn can not be proven, because arguments concerning the existence of jinn are beyond human comprehension. Adepts of Ashʿari theology explained jinn are invisible to humans, because they lack the appropriate sense organs to envision them. Critics argued, if jinn exist, their bodies must either be ethereal or made of solid material; if they were composed of the former, they would not able to do hard work, like carrying heavy stones. If they were composed of the latter, they would be visible to any human with functional eyes. Critics therefore refused to believe in a literal reading on jinn in Islamic sacred texts, preferring to view them as "unruly men ''. On the other hand, advocates of belief in jinn assert that God 's creation can exceed the human mind; thus, jinn are beyond human understanding. Since they are mentioned in Islamic texts, scholars such as Ibn Taimiyya and Ibn Hazm prohibit the denial of jinn. They also refer to spirits and demons among the Christians, Zoroastrians and Jews to "prove '' their existence. Ibn Taymiyya believed the jinn to be generally "ignorant, untruthful, oppressive and treacherous ''. He held that the jinn account for much of the "magic '' that is perceived by humans, cooperating with magicians to lift items in the air, delivering hidden truths to fortune tellers, and mimicking the voices of deceased humans during seances.
Other critics, such as Jahiz and Mas'udi, stated that sightings of jinn are due to psychological causes. According to Mas'udi, the jinn as described by traditional scholars, are not a priori false, but improbable. Jahiz states in his work Kitab al - Hayawan that loneliness induces humans to mind - games and wishful thinking, causing waswās (whisperings in the mind, traditionally thought to be caused by Satan). If he is afraid, he may see things that are not real. These alleged appearances are told to other generations in bedtime stories and poems, and with children of the next generation growing up with such stories, when they are afraid or lonely, they remember these stories, encouraging their imaginations and causing another alleged sighting of jinn.
Later Sufi traditions related the meaning of jinn back to its origin "something that is concealed from sights '', thus they were related to the hidden realm, including angels from the heavenly realm and the jinn from a sublunary realm. Ibn Arabi stated: "Only this much is different: The spirits of the jinn are lower spirits, while the spirits of angels are heavenly spirits ''. The jinn share, due to their intermediary abode both angelic and human traits. According to some Sufi teachings, a jinn is like an "empty cup '', composed of its own ego and intention, and a reflection of its observer. Because jinn are closer to the material realm, it would be easier for human to contact a jinn, than an angel.
Jinn can be found in the One Thousand and One Nights story of "The Fisherman and the Jinni ''; more than three different types of jinn are described in the story of Ma'ruf the Cobbler; two jinn help young Aladdin in the story of Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp; as Ḥasan Badr al - Dīn weeps over the grave of his father until sleep overcomes him, and he is awoken by a large group of sympathetic jinn in the Tale of ' Alī Nūr al - Dīn and his son Badr ad - Dīn Ḥasan. In some stories, jinn are credited with the ability of instantaneous travel (from China to Morocco in a single instant); in others, they need to fly from one place to another, though quite fast (from Baghdad to Cairo in a few hours).
Affirmation on the existence of Jinn as sapient creatures living along with humans is still widespread in the Middle Eastern world and mental illnesses are often attributed to jinn possession.
However some modernist commentators, on the basis of the word 's meaning, reinterpretated references to jinn as microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses or undetectable uncivilized persons. Others try to reconcile the traditional perspective on jinn, with modern sciences. Fethullah Gülen, leader of Hizmet movement, had put forward the idea, that jinn may be the cause of schizophrenia and cancer and that the Quranic references to jinn on "smokeless fire '' could for that matter mean "energy ''. Others again refuse connections between illness and jinn, but still believe in their existence, due to their occurrences in the Quran.
Modern Salafi tenets of Islam, refuse reinterpretations of jinn and adhere to literalism, arguing the threat of jinn and their ability to possess humans, could be proven by Quran and Sunnah. Jinn are taken as serious danger by adherents of Salafism. Saudi Arabia, following the Wahhabism strant of Salafism, impose death penalty for dealing with jinn to prevent sorcery and witchcraft. Further, there is no distinction made between demons and indifferent spirits from other cultures, as Salafi scholars Umar Sulaiman Al - Ashqar stated, that demons are actually simply unbelieving jinn.
Sleep paralysis is conceptualized as a "Jinn attack '' by many sleep paralysis sufferers in Egypt as discovered by Cambridge neuroscientist Baland Jalal. A scientific study found that as many as 48 percent of those who experience sleep paralysis in Egypt believe it to be an assault by the Jinn. Almost all of these sleep paralysis sufferers (95 %) would recite verses from the Quran during sleep paralysis to prevent future "Jinn attacks ''. In addition, some (9 %) would increase their daily Islamic prayer (salah) to get rid of these attacks by Jinn. Sleep paralysis is generally associated with great fear in Egypt, especially if believed to be supernatural in origin.
The supernaturality of Jinn does not mean they are transcendent to nature, but that they appear so in relation to human 's perception of nature, due to their invisibility. They are "natural '' in the classical philosopical sense by consisting of an element, undergoing change and being bound in time and space. Thus they are not purely spiritual, but also physical in nature, being able to interact in a tactile manner with people and objects, and also subject to bodily desires like eating and sleeping. Unlike the Jinn in Islamic belief and folklore, Jinn in Middle Eastern folktales are often depicted as monstrous or magical creatures, and unlike the former, generally considered to be fictional.
The appearance of jinn can be divided into three major categories:
Jinn are assumed to be able to appear in shape of various animals such as skorpions, cats, owls and onagers. The dog is also often related to jinn, especially black dogs. However piebald dogs are rahter identified with hinn. Associations between dogs and jinn prevailed in Arabic - literature, but lost its meaning in Persian scriptures. Serpents are the animals most associated with jinn. Islamic traditions knows many narratitions concerning a serpent who was actually a jinni. However (except for the ' udhrut from Yemeni folklore) the jinn can not appear in form of wolves. The wolf is thought of as the natural predator of the jinn, who contrasts the jinn by his noble character and disables them to vanish.
The jinn are also related to the wind. They may appear in mists or sandstorms. Zubayr ibn al - Awam, who is held to have accompanied Muhammad during his lecture to the jinn, is said to view the jinn as shadowy ghosts with no individual structure. According to a narration Ghazali asked Ṭabasī, famous for jinn - incantations, to reveal the jinn to him. Accordingly Tabasi showed him the jinn, seeing them like they were "a shadow on the wall ''. After Ghazali requested to speak to them, Ṭabasī stated, that for now he could not see more. Although sandstorms are believed to be caused by jinn, others, such as Abu Yahya Zakariya ' ibn Muhammad al - Qazwini and Ghazali attribute them to natural causes. Otherwise sandstorms are thought to be caused by a battle between different groups of jinn.
A common characteristic of the jinn is their lack of individuality, but they may gain individuality by materializing in human forms such as Sakhr and severel jinn known from magical writings. But also in their anthropomorphed shape, they stay partly animalic and are not fully human. Therefore, individual jinn are commonly depicted as monstrous and anthropomorphized creatures with body parts from different animals or human with animalic traits. Commonly associated with jinn in humanform are the Si'lah and the Ghoul. However, they stay partly animalic, their bodies are depicted as fashioned out of two or more different species. Some of them may have the hands of cats, the head of birds or wings rise from their shoulders.
Witchcraft (sihr) is often associated with Jinn and Afarit around the Middle East. Therefore, a sorcerer may summon a Jinn and force him to perform orders. Summoned Jinn may be sent to the chosen victim to cause demonic possession. Such summonings were done by invocation, by aid of talismans or by satisfying the Jinn, thus to make a contract. Jinn are also regarded as assistants of soothsayers. Soothsayers reveal information from the past and present; the Jinn can be a source of this information because their lifespans exceed those of humans.
Ibn al - Nadim, in his Kitāb al - Fihrist, describes a book that lists 70 Jinn led by Fuqtus, including several Jinn appointed over each day of the week. Bayard Dodge, who translated al - Fihrist into English, notes that most of these names appear in the Testament of Solomon. A collection of late fourteenth - or early fifteenth - century magico - medical manuscripts from Ocaña, Spain describes a different set of 72 Jinn (termed "Tayaliq '') again under Fuqtus (here named "Fayqayțūš '' or Fiqitush), blaming them for various ailments. According to these manuscripts, each Jinni was brought before King Solomon and ordered to divulge their "corruption '' and "residence '' while the Jinn King Fiqitush gave Solomon a recipe for curing the ailments associated with each Jinni as they confessed their transgressions.
A disseminated treatise on the occult, written by al - Ṭabasī, called Shāmil, deals with subjugating demons and jinn by incantations, charms and the combination of written and recited formulae and to obtain supernatural powers through their aid. Al - Ṭabasī distinguished between licit and illicit magic, the later founded on disbelief, while the first on purity.
Seven kings of the Jinn are traditionally associated with days of the week.
During the Rwandan genocide, both Hutus and Tutsis avoided searching local Rwandan Muslim neighborhoods because they widely believed the myth that local Muslims and mosques were protected by the power of Islamic magic and the efficacious Jinn. In the Rwandan city of Cyangugu, arsonists ran away instead of destroying the mosque because they feared the wrath of the jinn, whom they believed were guarding the mosque.
Beliefs in entities similar to the jinn are found throughout pre-Islamic Middle Eastern cultures. The ancient Sumerians believed in Pazuzu, a wind demon, who was shown with "a rather canine face with abnormally bulging eyes, a scaly body, a snake - headed penis, the talons of a bird and usually wings. '' The ancient Babylonians believed in utukku, a class of demons which were believed to haunt remote wildernesses, graveyards, mountains, and the sea, all locations where jinn were later thought to reside. The Babylonians also believed in the Rabisu, a vampiric demon believed to leap out and attack travelers at unfrequented locations, similar to the post-Islamic ghūl, a specific kind of jinn whose name is etymologically related to that of the Sumerian galla, a class of Underworld demon.
Lamashtu, also known as Labartu, was a divine demoness said to devour human infants. Lamassu, also known as Shedu, were guardian spirits, sometimes with evil propensities. The Assyrians believed in the Alû, sometimes described as a wind demon residing in desolate ruins who would sneak into people 's houses at night and steal their sleep. In the ancient Syrian city of Palmyra, entities similar to jinn were known as ginnayê, an Aramaic name which may be etymologically derived from the name of the genii from Roman mythology. Like jinn among modern - day Bedouin, ginnayê were thought to resemble humans. They protected caravans, cattle, and villages in the desert and tutelary shrines were kept in their honor. They were frequently invoked in pairs.
Shedim, one of several supernatural creatures in early Jewish mythology, resemble the Islamic concept of Jinn. Both are said to be invisible to human eyes but are subject to bodily desires, like procreating and the need to eat, and both may be malevolent or benevolent. Like the Islamic notion of jinn as Pre-Adamites, Jewish lore also regard shedim as Pre-Adamites, replaced by human beings in some legends. Narrations regarding Asmodeus, an antagonist in the Solomon legends, appears both in Islamic lore and in the Talmud as the king either of the jinn or the shedim.
Similar to the Islamic idea of spiritual entities converting to one 's own religion can be found on Buddhism lore. Accordingly, Buddha preached among humans and Devas, spiritual entities who are like humans subject to the cycle of life, that resembles the Islamic notion of Jinn, who are also ontologically placed among humans in regard of their eschatological destiny.
Van Dyck 's Arabic translation of the Old Testament uses the alternative collective plural "jann '' (Arab: الجان); translation: al - jānn) to render the Hebrew word usually translated into English as "familiar spirit '' (אוב, Strong # 0178) in several places (Leviticus 19: 31, 20: 6, 1 Samuel 28: 3, 7, 9, 1 Chronicles 10: 13).
In Guanche mythology from Tenerife in the Canary Islands, there existed the belief in beings that were similar to genies, such as the maxios or dioses paredros ("attendant gods '', domestic and nature spirits) and tibicenas (evil genies), as well as the demon Guayota (aboriginal god of evil) that, like the Arabic Iblīs, is sometimes identified with a genie. The Guanches were the Berber natives of the Canary Islands before they were colonised and enslaved by the Europeans who claimed the island for themselves.
The jinn frequently occurs as a character or plot element in fiction. Two other classes of jinn, the ifrit and the marid, have been represented in fiction as well.
Genies appear in film in various forms, such as the genie freed by Abu, the eponymous character in the 1940 film Thief of Bagdad.
A Jinni makes a short appearance in the novel American Gods by Neil Gaiman, originally published in 2001. American Gods was also made into a TV series for the Starz television cable television network in 2017. The television adaptation also features a Jinni.
The protagonist of the Bartimaeus Sequence is a jinni, and the books have an established hierarchy that include other types of spirits: imps, foliots, djinn, afrits, and marids (to use the author 's own spelling). In this interpretation, jinn and all other spirits are not physical beings, but are instead from another dimension of chaos called "The Other Place ''. To exist on Earth at all, magicians must summon sprits and force them to take some kind of form, something so alien that it causes all spirits pain. As a result, magicians must put measures in place to force spirits to do what they want in a form of magical slavery.
In the popular American television series, "Supernatural '', the jinn (alternatively ' djinn ' or ' genies ') are used as a plot device and one of the supernatural beings that the main characters come in contact with. Mentioned in 7 episodes, 2.20 "What is and What Should Never Be '', 6.01 "Exile on Main St '', 6.10 "Caged Heat '', 7.22 "There Will Be Blood '', 8.20 "Pac - Man Fever '', 9.20 "Bloodlines '', and 13.16 "Scoobynatural ''.
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who survives the plane crash on grey's anatomy | Flight (Grey 's Anatomy) - wikipedia
"Flight '' is the twenty - fourth and final episode of the eighth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, and the show 's 172nd episode overall. It was written by series creator Shonda Rhimes, and directed by Rob Corn. The episode was originally broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States on May 17, 2012. In the episode, six doctors from Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital who are victims of an aviation accident fight to stay alive, but Dr. Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh) ultimately dies. Other storylines occur in Seattle where Dr. Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.) plans his annual dinner for the departing residents, Dr. Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) fires Dr. Teddy Altman (Kim Raver), and Dr. Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) gets engaged.
The episode marked Leigh 's and Raver 's final appearance to the series. Exterior filming of the accident took place at Big Bear Lake, California. Jason George reprised his role as a guest star, whereas James LeGros made his first appearance. The episode opened to mixed reviews from television critics, with some criticizing the death of Lexie, but praising Leigh 's performance, in addition to Ellen Pompeo (Dr. Meredith Grey) 's and Eric Dane (Dr. Mark Sloan) 's. "Flight '' earned Rhimes an NAACP Image Award nomination and it was also nominated under several categories of Entertainment Weekly 's finale awards. Upon its initial airing, the episode was viewed in the United States by 11.44 million people, garnered a 4.1 / 11 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic, ranking fourth for the night in terms of viewership, and registering as Thursday 's highest - rated drama.
After their plane crashes in the woods, Dr. Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Dr. Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh), Dr. Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), Dr. Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw), Dr. Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), and Dr. Mark Sloan (Eric Dane) desperately fight to stay alive. Meredith is relatively unscathed, while the rest have serious injuries: the pilot, Jerry (James LeGros), has a major spine injury, and Yang dislocates her arm. Robbins ' femur is broken and sticking through the skin, Sloan has serious internal injuries; though initially adrenaline keeps him on his feet. Shepherd is sucked out the side of the plane and awakens alone in the wood; his mangled hand having been pushed through the door of the plane. However, none are in as bad shape as Lexie, who is crushed under a piece of the plane. While Meredith searches for Shepherd, Yang and Sloan try to move the debris off Lexie. Eventually, the two realize that they can not save her, so Sloan holds her hand while she dies, telling her that he loves her. As Sloan tells her of the life the two were meant to have together, Lexie dies with a smile on her face just as Meredith and Yang are approaching.
Lexie 's death devastates Meredith, who is still desperately trying to find her husband. Eventually, she and Shepherd reunite and they fix his hand as best as they can. Meanwhile, back at Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital, no one is aware of what has happened to the other doctors. Dr. Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.) prepares the annual dinner for the departing residents, which Dr. Alex Karev (Justin Chambers), Dr. Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams), and Dr. April Kepner (Sarah Drew) are dreading. Avery makes the choice to take a job offer at Tulane Medical Center, and he and Kepner share a moment. Dr. Ben Warren (Jason George) and Dr. Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) decide to get married, even though Warren is going to start his surgical internship in Los Angeles. After realizing Dr. Teddy Altman (Kim Raver) was offered a chief position at United States Army Medical Command (MEDCOM) and is refusing to leave Seattle out of loyalty, Dr. Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd), the chief of surgery, fires her to free her from the hospital where her husband died. As the episode ends, Hunt picks up his messages to discover the surgical team never made it to Boise. The residents, finally excited to celebrate at Webber 's dinner, are left waiting for their stranded friends. The remaining crash survivors are left struggling to stay awake as their last match goes out. In the closing monologue, Meredith repeats the opening to the speech that Webber gave in the pilot episode of the series.
The episode was written by Shonda Rhimes, and directed by Rob Corn. Featured music included The Paper Kites ' "Featherstone '' and Feist 's ' Graveyard ". Filming took place in Big Bear Lake, California, a location previously used in the seventh season for Yang and Shepherd 's fishing trip. Commenting on the filming conditions, Leigh said: "It would rain and be sunny and hot. I never died before (on camera). That sounds funny saying that. I think everyone has an emotional wellspring and that happened to be a moment where I was sprung. Everybody was very accommodating -- the crew, cast. And I opted to stay underneath (the wreckage) for the most part over two days rather than trying to get in and out. ''
In regard to the episode, Rhimes commented before it originally aired that it was difficult to write, largely because of the death of a main character. She compared it to writing the season six finale, by explaining that the former was "more painful '' to write. After the episode aired, Rhimes repeated in a tweet that it was hard for her to write the finale, adding: "I did not enjoy it. It made me sick and it made me sad. '' Rhimes also explained the departure of Leigh, whose character died after the plane crash, by saying that the two came to an agreement on the decision to kill Lexie, after extensive discussion. Speaking of Raver 's departure whose character left Seattle Grace for MEDCOM, Rhimes elaborated that Raver was offered a contract renewal, but declined.
The episode received mixed reviews among television critics, and it outperformed the previous episode in terms of both viewership and ratings. "Flight '' was originally broadcast on May 17, 2012 in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC). The episode was watched in the United States by a total of 11.44 million people, a 16.5 % (1.62 million) increase from the previous episode "Migration '', which garnered 9.82 million viewers. In terms of viewership, "Flight '' ranked fourth for the night, behind the season finales of Fox 's American Idol, and CBS 's Person of Interest and The Mentalist. In terms of Grey 's Anatomy 's other season finales, the episode was the show 's second least - viewed finale, just behind the seventh season 's, which garnered 9.89 million viewers. The episode did not rank in the top three for viewership, but its 4.1 / 11 Nielsen rating ranked first in its 9: 00 Eastern time - slot and second for the night, registering the show as Thursday 's No. 1 drama, for both the rating and share percentages of the key 18 -- 49 demographic. Its rating lost to American Idol, but beat out CBS 's The Big Bang Theory, Person of Interest, and The Mentalist. In addition to its rating being in the top rankings for the night, it was an increase from the previous episode, which netted a 3.5 / 10 rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic. The episode also showed an increase in ratings in comparison to the previous year 's finale, which attained a 3.6 / 9 rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic.
Poptimal 's Tanya Lane wrote, "Wow... just wow. Grey 's Anatomy has once again managed to shock with its season finale. '' While she appreciated the "realism and authenticity that Grey 's is known for '', she found the episode was "almost too much '' as it was "extremely gory and difficult to watch, initially because of the grisly wounds '' but later because of the "heavy and emotional things that transpired ''. She thought Pompeo gave one of her best performances when her character learned that her sister was dead. Digital Spy 's Ben Lee found Leigh 's and Dane 's performances "phenomenal '' and added that he had probably never seen a better performance from Dane. He described the moment the two actors shared as "truly poignant ''. To him, Lexie 's death felt like a finale, which was thus too early. As for what was happening in Seattle Grace, he thought it was "a bit pointless '' and "uninteresting '' except Altman 's departure, which he deemed "the most significant moment at the hospital ''. Entertainment Weekly 's Tanner Stransky commented of Lexie 's death: "It was an intense death. I mean, how awful was it to watch one of Grey 's longest - running characters pass away so quickly -- and rather unceremoniously? I get that Ms. Rhimes had to do what she had to do -- and every show needs to be shaken up once in a while -- but I do n't love that Lexie was the one to die. Could it have been someone less important somehow? I guess it would have been too obvious to do Kepner. And you probably just do n't kill off a hottie like Mark Sloan, right? '' Stransky also complained about Robbins ' screams at the beginning of the episode, but enjoyed Bailey 's story.
In an Entertainment Weekly poll that judged all the television season finales of the year, Lexie 's death was voted the "Top Tissue Moment '', while Robbins ' injured leg and Shepherd 's mangled hand were voted the "Most Disturbing Image ''. The ending of the episode was also considered as the "Best Ending to an Otherwise So - So Season ''. Lexie 's death was also nominated under the "Best (Presumed) Death '' category, while the plane crash 's aftermath was nominated as the "Best Non-romantic Cliffhanger '', and the episode in entirety was nominated for the special award for "Biggest Regret That I Did n't See It, I Just Heard or Read About It ''. Entertainment Weekly later named the scene where Meredith is crying one of the best crying scenes of 2012. In TVLine 's review of 2012, Lexie 's death was runner - up for "Biggest Tearjerker ''. The episode is nominated at the NAACP Image Awards under the Outstanding Writing in a Dramatic Series category for Rhimes.
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who took the picture using x ray crystalography to show that dna was a double helix in structure | X-ray crystallography - wikipedia
X-ray crystallography is a technique used for determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline atoms cause a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions. By measuring the angles and intensities of these diffracted beams, a crystallographer can produce a three - dimensional picture of the density of electrons within the crystal. From this electron density, the mean positions of the atoms in the crystal can be determined, as well as their chemical bonds, their disorder, and various other information.
Since many materials can form crystals -- such as salts, metals, minerals, semiconductors, as well as various inorganic, organic, and biological molecules -- X-ray crystallography has been fundamental in the development of many scientific fields. In its first decades of use, this method determined the size of atoms, the lengths and types of chemical bonds, and the atomic - scale differences among various materials, especially minerals and alloys. The method also revealed the structure and function of many biological molecules, including vitamins, drugs, proteins and nucleic acids such as DNA. X-ray crystallography is still the chief method for characterizing the atomic structure of new materials and in discerning materials that appear similar by other experiments. X-ray crystal structures can also account for unusual electronic or elastic properties of a material, shed light on chemical interactions and processes, or serve as the basis for designing pharmaceuticals against diseases.
In a single - crystal X-ray diffraction measurement, a crystal is mounted on a goniometer. The goniometer is used to position the crystal at selected orientations. The crystal is illuminated with a finely focused monochromatic beam of X-rays, producing a diffraction pattern of regularly spaced spots known as reflections. The two - dimensional images taken at different orientations are converted into a three - dimensional model of the density of electrons within the crystal using the mathematical method of Fourier transforms, combined with chemical data known for the sample. Poor resolution (fuzziness) or even errors may result if the crystals are too small, or not uniform enough in their internal makeup.
X-ray crystallography is related to several other methods for determining atomic structures. Similar diffraction patterns can be produced by scattering electrons or neutrons, which are likewise interpreted by Fourier transformation. If single crystals of sufficient size can not be obtained, various other X-ray methods can be applied to obtain less detailed information; such methods include fiber diffraction, powder diffraction and (if the sample is not crystallized) small - angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). If the material under investigation is only available in the form of nanocrystalline powders or suffers from poor crystallinity, the methods of electron crystallography can be applied for determining the atomic structure.
For all above mentioned X-ray diffraction methods, the scattering is elastic; the scattered X-rays have the same wavelength as the incoming X-ray. By contrast, inelastic X-ray scattering methods are useful in studying excitations of the sample, rather than the distribution of its atoms.
Crystals, though long admired for their regularity and symmetry, were not investigated scientifically until the 17th century. Johannes Kepler hypothesized in his work Strena seu de Nive Sexangula (A New Year 's Gift of Hexagonal Snow) (1611) that the hexagonal symmetry of snowflake crystals was due to a regular packing of spherical water particles.
The Danish scientist Nicolas Steno (1669) pioneered experimental investigations of crystal symmetry. Steno showed that the angles between the faces are the same in every exemplar of a particular type of crystal, and René Just Haüy (1784) discovered that every face of a crystal can be described by simple stacking patterns of blocks of the same shape and size. Hence, William Hallowes Miller in 1839 was able to give each face a unique label of three small integers, the Miller indices which remain in use today for identifying crystal faces. Haüy 's study led to the correct idea that crystals are a regular three - dimensional array (a Bravais lattice) of atoms and molecules; a single unit cell is repeated indefinitely along three principal directions that are not necessarily perpendicular. In the 19th century, a complete catalog of the possible symmetries of a crystal was worked out by Johan Hessel, Auguste Bravais, Evgraf Fedorov, Arthur Schönflies and (belatedly) William Barlow (1894). From the available data and physical reasoning, Barlow proposed several crystal structures in the 1880s that were validated later by X-ray crystallography; however, the available data were too scarce in the 1880s to accept his models as conclusive.
Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays in 1895, just as the studies of crystal symmetry were being concluded. Physicists were initially uncertain of the nature of X-rays, but soon suspected (correctly) that they were waves of electromagnetic radiation, in other words, another form of light. At that time, the wave model of light -- specifically, the Maxwell theory of electromagnetic radiation -- was well accepted among scientists, and experiments by Charles Glover Barkla showed that X-rays exhibited phenomena associated with electromagnetic waves, including transverse polarization and spectral lines akin to those observed in the visible wavelengths. Single - slit experiments in the laboratory of Arnold Sommerfeld suggested that X-rays had a wavelength of about 1 angstrom. However, X-rays are composed of photons, and thus are not only waves of electromagnetic radiation but also exhibit particle - like properties. Albert Einstein introduced the photon concept in 1905, but it was not broadly accepted until 1922, when Arthur Compton confirmed it by the scattering of X-rays from electrons. Therefore, these particle - like properties of X-rays, such as their ionization of gases, caused William Henry Bragg to argue in 1907 that X-rays were not electromagnetic radiation. Nevertheless, Bragg 's view was not broadly accepted and the observation of X-ray diffraction by Max von Laue in 1912 confirmed for most scientists that X-rays were a form of electromagnetic radiation.
Crystals are regular arrays of atoms, and X-rays can be considered waves of electromagnetic radiation. Atoms scatter X-ray waves, primarily through the atoms ' electrons. Just as an ocean wave striking a lighthouse produces secondary circular waves emanating from the lighthouse, so an X-ray striking an electron produces secondary spherical waves emanating from the electron. This phenomenon is known as elastic scattering, and the electron (or lighthouse) is known as the scatterer. A regular array of scatterers produces a regular array of spherical waves. Although these waves cancel one another out in most directions through destructive interference, they add constructively in a few specific directions, determined by Bragg 's law:
Here d is the spacing between diffracting planes, θ (\ displaystyle \ theta) is the incident angle, n is any integer, and λ is the wavelength of the beam. These specific directions appear as spots on the diffraction pattern called reflections. Thus, X-ray diffraction results from an electromagnetic wave (the X-ray) impinging on a regular array of scatterers (the repeating arrangement of atoms within the crystal).
X-rays are used to produce the diffraction pattern because their wavelength λ is typically the same order of magnitude (1 -- 100 angstroms) as the spacing d between planes in the crystal. In principle, any wave impinging on a regular array of scatterers produces diffraction, as predicted first by Francesco Maria Grimaldi in 1665. To produce significant diffraction, the spacing between the scatterers and the wavelength of the impinging wave should be similar in size. For illustration, the diffraction of sunlight through a bird 's feather was first reported by James Gregory in the later 17th century. The first artificial diffraction gratings for visible light were constructed by David Rittenhouse in 1787, and Joseph von Fraunhofer in 1821. However, visible light has too long a wavelength (typically, 5500 angstroms) to observe diffraction from crystals. Prior to the first X-ray diffraction experiments, the spacings between lattice planes in a crystal were not known with certainty.
The idea that crystals could be used as a diffraction grating for X-rays arose in 1912 in a conversation between Paul Peter Ewald and Max von Laue in the English Garden in Munich. Ewald had proposed a resonator model of crystals for his thesis, but this model could not be validated using visible light, since the wavelength was much larger than the spacing between the resonators. Von Laue realized that electromagnetic radiation of a shorter wavelength was needed to observe such small spacings, and suggested that X-rays might have a wavelength comparable to the unit - cell spacing in crystals. Von Laue worked with two technicians, Walter Friedrich and his assistant Paul Knipping, to shine a beam of X-rays through a copper sulfate crystal and record its diffraction on a photographic plate. After being developed, the plate showed a large number of well - defined spots arranged in a pattern of intersecting circles around the spot produced by the central beam. Von Laue developed a law that connects the scattering angles and the size and orientation of the unit - cell spacings in the crystal, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1914.
As described in the mathematical derivation below, the X-ray scattering is determined by the density of electrons within the crystal. Since the energy of an X-ray is much greater than that of a valence electron, the scattering may be modeled as Thomson scattering, the interaction of an electromagnetic ray with a free electron. This model is generally adopted to describe the polarization of the scattered radiation.
The intensity of Thomson scattering for one particle with mass m and charge q is:
Hence the atomic nuclei, which are much heavier than an electron, contribute negligibly to the scattered X-rays.
After Von Laue 's pioneering research, the field developed rapidly, most notably by physicists William Lawrence Bragg and his father William Henry Bragg. In 1912 -- 1913, the younger Bragg developed Bragg 's law, which connects the observed scattering with reflections from evenly spaced planes within the crystal. The Braggs, father and son, shared the 1915 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work in crystallography. The earliest structures were generally simple and marked by one - dimensional symmetry. However, as computational and experimental methods improved over the next decades, it became feasible to deduce reliable atomic positions for more complicated two - and three - dimensional arrangements of atoms in the unit - cell.
The potential of X-ray crystallography for determining the structure of molecules and minerals -- then only known vaguely from chemical and hydrodynamic experiments -- was realized immediately. The earliest structures were simple inorganic crystals and minerals, but even these revealed fundamental laws of physics and chemistry. The first atomic - resolution structure to be "solved '' (i.e., determined) in 1914 was that of table salt. The distribution of electrons in the table - salt structure showed that crystals are not necessarily composed of covalently bonded molecules, and proved the existence of ionic compounds. The structure of diamond was solved in the same year, proving the tetrahedral arrangement of its chemical bonds and showing that the length of C -- C single bond was 1.52 angstroms. Other early structures included copper, calcium fluoride (CaF, also known as fluorite), calcite (CaCO) and pyrite (FeS) in 1914; spinel (MgAl O) in 1915; the rutile and anatase forms of titanium dioxide (TiO) in 1916; pyrochroite Mn (OH) and, by extension, brucite Mg (OH) in 1919;. Also in 1919 sodium nitrate (NaNO) and caesium dichloroiodide (CsICl) were determined by Ralph Walter Graystone Wyckoff, and the wurtzite (hexagonal ZnS) structure became known in 1920.
The structure of graphite was solved in 1916 by the related method of powder diffraction, which was developed by Peter Debye and Paul Scherrer and, independently, by Albert Hull in 1917. The structure of graphite was determined from single - crystal diffraction in 1924 by two groups independently. Hull also used the powder method to determine the structures of various metals, such as iron and magnesium.
In what has been called his scientific autobiography, The Development of X-ray Analysis, Sir William Lawrence Bragg mentioned that he believed the field of crystallography was particularly welcoming to women because the techno - aesthetics of the molecular structures resembled textiles and household objects. Bragg was known to compare crystal formation to "curtains, wallpapers, mosaics, and roses ''.
In 1951, the Festival Pattern Group at the Festival of Britain hosted a collaborative group of textile manufacturers and experienced crystallographers to design lace and prints based on the X-ray crystallography of insulin, china clay, and hemoglobin. One of the leading scientists of the project was Dr. Helen Megaw (1907 -- 2002), the Assistant Director of Research at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge at the time. Megaw is credited as one of the central figures who took inspiration from crystal diagrams and saw their potential in design. In 2008, the Wellcome Collection in London curated an exhibition on the Festival Pattern Group called "From Atom to Patterns ''.
X-ray crystallography has led to a better understanding of chemical bonds and non-covalent interactions. The initial studies revealed the typical radii of atoms, and confirmed many theoretical models of chemical bonding, such as the tetrahedral bonding of carbon in the diamond structure, the octahedral bonding of metals observed in ammonium hexachloroplatinate (IV), and the resonance observed in the planar carbonate group and in aromatic molecules. Kathleen Lonsdale 's 1928 structure of hexamethylbenzene established the hexagonal symmetry of benzene and showed a clear difference in bond length between the aliphatic C -- C bonds and aromatic C -- C bonds; this finding led to the idea of resonance between chemical bonds, which had profound consequences for the development of chemistry. Her conclusions were anticipated by William Henry Bragg, who published models of naphthalene and anthracene in 1921 based on other molecules, an early form of molecular replacement.
Also in the 1920s, Victor Moritz Goldschmidt and later Linus Pauling developed rules for eliminating chemically unlikely structures and for determining the relative sizes of atoms. These rules led to the structure of brookite (1928) and an understanding of the relative stability of the rutile, brookite and anatase forms of titanium dioxide.
The distance between two bonded atoms is a sensitive measure of the bond strength and its bond order; thus, X-ray crystallographic studies have led to the discovery of even more exotic types of bonding in inorganic chemistry, such as metal - metal double bonds, metal - metal quadruple bonds, and three - center, two - electron bonds. X-ray crystallography -- or, strictly speaking, an inelastic Compton scattering experiment -- has also provided evidence for the partly covalent character of hydrogen bonds. In the field of organometallic chemistry, the X-ray structure of ferrocene initiated scientific studies of sandwich compounds, while that of Zeise 's salt stimulated research into "back bonding '' and metal - pi complexes. Finally, X-ray crystallography had a pioneering role in the development of supramolecular chemistry, particularly in clarifying the structures of the crown ethers and the principles of host - guest chemistry.
In material sciences, many complicated inorganic and organometallic systems have been analyzed using single - crystal methods, such as fullerenes, metalloporphyrins, and other complicated compounds. Single - crystal diffraction is also used in the pharmaceutical industry, due to recent problems with polymorphs. The major factors affecting the quality of single - crystal structures are the crystal 's size and regularity; recrystallization is a commonly used technique to improve these factors in small - molecule crystals. The Cambridge Structural Database contains over 800,000 structures as of September 2016; over 99 % of these structures were determined by X-ray diffraction.
Since the 1920s, X-ray diffraction has been the principal method for determining the arrangement of atoms in minerals and metals. The application of X-ray crystallography to mineralogy began with the structure of garnet, which was determined in 1924 by Menzer. A systematic X-ray crystallographic study of the silicates was undertaken in the 1920s. This study showed that, as the Si / O ratio is altered, the silicate crystals exhibit significant changes in their atomic arrangements. Machatschki extended these insights to minerals in which aluminium substitutes for the silicon atoms of the silicates. The first application of X-ray crystallography to metallurgy likewise occurred in the mid-1920s. Most notably, Linus Pauling 's structure of the alloy Mg Sn led to his theory of the stability and structure of complex ionic crystals.
On October 17, 2012, the Curiosity rover on the planet Mars at "Rocknest '' performed the first X-ray diffraction analysis of Martian soil. The results from the rover 's CheMin analyzer revealed the presence of several minerals, including feldspar, pyroxenes and olivine, and suggested that the Martian soil in the sample was similar to the "weathered basaltic soils '' of Hawaiian volcanoes.
The first structure of an organic compound, hexamethylenetetramine, was solved in 1923. This was followed by several studies of long - chain fatty acids, which are an important component of biological membranes. In the 1930s, the structures of much larger molecules with two - dimensional complexity began to be solved. A significant advance was the structure of phthalocyanine, a large planar molecule that is closely related to porphyrin molecules important in biology, such as heme, corrin and chlorophyll.
X-ray crystallography of biological molecules took off with Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin, who solved the structures of cholesterol (1937), penicillin (1946) and vitamin B12 (1956), for which she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1964. In 1969, she succeeded in solving the structure of insulin, on which she worked for over thirty years.
Crystal structures of proteins (which are irregular and hundreds of times larger than cholesterol) began to be solved in the late 1950s, beginning with the structure of sperm whale myoglobin by Sir John Cowdery Kendrew, for which he shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Max Perutz in 1962. Since that success, 132055 X-ray crystal structures of proteins, nucleic acids and other biological molecules have been determined. For comparison, the nearest competing method in terms of structures analyzed is nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, which has resolved 11904 chemical structures. Moreover, crystallography can solve structures of arbitrarily large molecules, whereas solution - state NMR is restricted to relatively small ones (less than 70 k Da). X-ray crystallography is now used routinely by scientists to determine how a pharmaceutical drug interacts with its protein target and what changes might improve it. However, intrinsic membrane proteins remain challenging to crystallize because they require detergents or other means to solubilize them in isolation, and such detergents often interfere with crystallization. Such membrane proteins are a large component of the genome, and include many proteins of great physiological importance, such as ion channels and receptors. Helium cryogenics are used to prevent radiation damage in protein crystals.
On the other end of the size scale, even relatively small molecules may pose challenges for the resolving power of X-ray crystallography. The structure assigned in 1991 to the antibiotic isolated from a marine organism, diazonamide A (C H Cl N O, molar mass 765.65 g / mol), proved to be incorrect by the classical proof of structure: a synthetic sample was not identical to the natural product. The mistake was attributed to the inability of X-ray crystallography to distinguish between the correct - OH / > NH and the interchanged - NH / - O - groups in the incorrect structure. With advances in instrumentation, however, it is now routinely possible to distinguish between such similar groups using modern single - crystal X-ray diffractometers.
X-ray crystallography is a form of elastic scattering; the outgoing X-rays have the same energy, and thus same wavelength, as the incoming X-rays, only with altered direction. By contrast, inelastic scattering occurs when energy is transferred from the incoming X-ray to the crystal, e.g., by exciting an inner - shell electron to a higher energy level. Such inelastic scattering reduces the energy (or increases the wavelength) of the outgoing beam. Inelastic scattering is useful for probing such excitations of matter, but not in determining the distribution of scatterers within the matter, which is the goal of X-ray crystallography.
X-rays range in wavelength from 10 to 0.01 nanometers; a typical wavelength used for crystallography is 1 Å (0.1 nm), which is on the scale of covalent chemical bonds and the radius of a single atom. Longer - wavelength photons (such as ultraviolet radiation) would not have sufficient resolution to determine the atomic positions. At the other extreme, shorter - wavelength photons such as gamma rays are difficult to produce in large numbers, difficult to focus, and interact too strongly with matter, producing particle - antiparticle pairs. Therefore, X-rays are the "sweetspot '' for wavelength when determining atomic - resolution structures from the scattering of electromagnetic radiation.
Other forms of elastic X-ray scattering include powder diffraction, Small - Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS) and several types of X-ray fiber diffraction, which was used by Rosalind Franklin in determining the double - helix structure of DNA. In general, single - crystal X-ray diffraction offers more structural information than these other techniques; however, it requires a sufficiently large and regular crystal, which is not always available.
These scattering methods generally use monochromatic X-rays, which are restricted to a single wavelength with minor deviations. A broad spectrum of X-rays (that is, a blend of X-rays with different wavelengths) can also be used to carry out X-ray diffraction, a technique known as the Laue method. This is the method used in the original discovery of X-ray diffraction. Laue scattering provides much structural information with only a short exposure to the X-ray beam, and is therefore used in structural studies of very rapid events (Time resolved crystallography). However, it is not as well - suited as monochromatic scattering for determining the full atomic structure of a crystal and therefore works better with crystals with relatively simple atomic arrangements.
The Laue back reflection mode records X-rays scattered backwards from a broad spectrum source. This is useful if the sample is too thick for X-rays to transmit through it. The diffracting planes in the crystal are determined by knowing that the normal to the diffracting plane bisects the angle between the incident beam and the diffracted beam. A Greninger chart can be used to interpret the back reflection Laue photograph.
Other particles, such as electrons and neutrons, may be used to produce a diffraction pattern. Although electron, neutron, and X-ray scattering are based on different physical processes, the resulting diffraction patterns are analyzed using the same coherent diffraction imaging techniques.
As derived below, the electron density within the crystal and the diffraction patterns are related by a simple mathematical method, the Fourier transform, which allows the density to be calculated relatively easily from the patterns. However, this works only if the scattering is weak, i.e., if the scattered beams are much less intense than the incoming beam. Weakly scattered beams pass through the remainder of the crystal without undergoing a second scattering event. Such re-scattered waves are called "secondary scattering '' and hinder the analysis. Any sufficiently thick crystal will produce secondary scattering, but since X-rays interact relatively weakly with the electrons, this is generally not a significant concern. By contrast, electron beams may produce strong secondary scattering even for relatively thin crystals (> 100 nm). Since this thickness corresponds to the diameter of many viruses, a promising direction is the electron diffraction of isolated macromolecular assemblies, such as viral capsids and molecular machines, which may be carried out with a cryo - electron microscope. Moreover, the strong interaction of electrons with matter (about 1000 times stronger than for X-rays) allows determination of the atomic structure of extremely small volumes. The field of applications for electron crystallography ranges from bio molecules like membrane proteins over organic thin films to the complex structures of (nanocrystalline) intermetallic compounds and zeolites.
Neutron diffraction is an excellent method for structure determination, although it has been difficult to obtain intense, monochromatic beams of neutrons in sufficient quantities. Traditionally, nuclear reactors have been used, although sources producing neutrons by spallation are becoming increasingly available. Being uncharged, neutrons scatter much more readily from the atomic nuclei rather than from the electrons. Therefore, neutron scattering is very useful for observing the positions of light atoms with few electrons, especially hydrogen, which is essentially invisible in the X-ray diffraction. Neutron scattering also has the remarkable property that the solvent can be made invisible by adjusting the ratio of normal water, H O, and heavy water, D O.
The oldest and most precise method of X-ray crystallography is single - crystal X-ray diffraction, in which a beam of X-rays strikes a single crystal, producing scattered beams. When they land on a piece of film or other detector, these beams make a diffraction pattern of spots; the strengths and angles of these beams are recorded as the crystal is gradually rotated. Each spot is called a reflection, since it corresponds to the reflection of the X-rays from one set of evenly spaced planes within the crystal. For single crystals of sufficient purity and regularity, X-ray diffraction data can determine the mean chemical bond lengths and angles to within a few thousandths of an angstrom and to within a few tenths of a degree, respectively. The atoms in a crystal are not static, but oscillate about their mean positions, usually by less than a few tenths of an angstrom. X-ray crystallography allows measuring the size of these oscillations.
The technique of single - crystal X-ray crystallography has three basic steps. The first -- and often most difficult -- step is to obtain an adequate crystal of the material under study. The crystal should be sufficiently large (typically larger than 0.1 mm in all dimensions), pure in composition and regular in structure, with no significant internal imperfections such as cracks or twinning.
In the second step, the crystal is placed in an intense beam of X-rays, usually of a single wavelength (monochromatic X-rays), producing the regular pattern of reflections. As the crystal is gradually rotated, previous reflections disappear and new ones appear; the intensity of every spot is recorded at every orientation of the crystal. Multiple data sets may have to be collected, with each set covering slightly more than half a full rotation of the crystal and typically containing tens of thousands of reflections.
In the third step, these data are combined computationally with complementary chemical information to produce and refine a model of the arrangement of atoms within the crystal. The final, refined model of the atomic arrangement -- now called a crystal structure -- is usually stored in a public database.
As the crystal 's repeating unit, its unit cell, becomes larger and more complex, the atomic - level picture provided by X-ray crystallography becomes less well - resolved (more "fuzzy '') for a given number of observed reflections. Two limiting cases of X-ray crystallography -- "small - molecule '' (which includes continuous inorganic solids) and "macromolecular '' crystallography -- are often discerned. Small - molecule crystallography typically involves crystals with fewer than 100 atoms in their asymmetric unit; such crystal structures are usually so well resolved that the atoms can be discerned as isolated "blobs '' of electron density. By contrast, macromolecular crystallography often involves tens of thousands of atoms in the unit cell. Such crystal structures are generally less well - resolved (more "smeared out ''); the atoms and chemical bonds appear as tubes of electron density, rather than as isolated atoms. In general, small molecules are also easier to crystallize than macromolecules; however, X-ray crystallography has proven possible even for viruses with hundreds of thousands of atoms. Though normally X-ray crystallography can only be performed if the sample is in crystal form, new research has been done into sampling non-crystalline forms of samples.
Although crystallography can be used to characterize the disorder in an impure or irregular crystal, crystallography generally requires a pure crystal of high regularity to solve the structure of a complicated arrangement of atoms. Pure, regular crystals can sometimes be obtained from natural or synthetic materials, such as samples of metals, minerals or other macroscopic materials. The regularity of such crystals can sometimes be improved with macromolecular crystal annealing and other methods. However, in many cases, obtaining a diffraction - quality crystal is the chief barrier to solving its atomic - resolution structure.
Small - molecule and macromolecular crystallography differ in the range of possible techniques used to produce diffraction - quality crystals. Small molecules generally have few degrees of conformational freedom, and may be crystallized by a wide range of methods, such as chemical vapor deposition and recrystallization. By contrast, macromolecules generally have many degrees of freedom and their crystallization must be carried out so as to maintain a stable structure. For example, proteins and larger RNA molecules can not be crystallized if their tertiary structure has been unfolded; therefore, the range of crystallization conditions is restricted to solution conditions in which such molecules remain folded.
Protein crystals are almost always grown in solution. The most common approach is to lower the solubility of its component molecules very gradually; if this is done too quickly, the molecules will precipitate from solution, forming a useless dust or amorphous gel on the bottom of the container. Crystal growth in solution is characterized by two steps: nucleation of a microscopic crystallite (possibly having only 100 molecules), followed by growth of that crystallite, ideally to a diffraction - quality crystal. The solution conditions that favor the first step (nucleation) are not always the same conditions that favor the second step (subsequent growth). The crystallographer 's goal is to identify solution conditions that favor the development of a single, large crystal, since larger crystals offer improved resolution of the molecule. Consequently, the solution conditions should disfavor the first step (nucleation) but favor the second (growth), so that only one large crystal forms per droplet. If nucleation is favored too much, a shower of small crystallites will form in the droplet, rather than one large crystal; if favored too little, no crystal will form whatsoever. Other approaches involves, crystallizing proteins under oil, where aqueous protein solutions are dispensed under liquid oil, and water evaporates through the layer of oil. Different oils have different evaporation permeabilities, therefore yielding changes in concentration rates from different percipient / protein mixture. The technique relies on bringing the protein directly into the nucleation zone by mixing protein with the appropriate amount of percipient to prevent the diffusion of water out of the drop.
It is extremely difficult to predict good conditions for nucleation or growth of well - ordered crystals. In practice, favorable conditions are identified by screening; a very large batch of the molecules is prepared, and a wide variety of crystallization solutions are tested. Hundreds, even thousands, of solution conditions are generally tried before finding the successful one. The various conditions can use one or more physical mechanisms to lower the solubility of the molecule; for example, some may change the pH, some contain salts of the Hofmeister series or chemicals that lower the dielectric constant of the solution, and still others contain large polymers such as polyethylene glycol that drive the molecule out of solution by entropic effects. It is also common to try several temperatures for encouraging crystallization, or to gradually lower the temperature so that the solution becomes supersaturated. These methods require large amounts of the target molecule, as they use high concentration of the molecule (s) to be crystallized. Due to the difficulty in obtaining such large quantities (milligrams) of crystallization - grade protein, robots have been developed that are capable of accurately dispensing crystallization trial drops that are in the order of 100 nanoliters in volume. This means that 10-fold less protein is used per experiment when compared to crystallization trials set up by hand (in the order of 1 microliter).
Several factors are known to inhibit or mar crystallization. The growing crystals are generally held at a constant temperature and protected from shocks or vibrations that might disturb their crystallization. Impurities in the molecules or in the crystallization solutions are often inimical to crystallization. Conformational flexibility in the molecule also tends to make crystallization less likely, due to entropy. Ironically, molecules that tend to self - assemble into regular helices are often unwilling to assemble into crystals. Crystals can be marred by twinning, which can occur when a unit cell can pack equally favorably in multiple orientations; although recent advances in computational methods may allow solving the structure of some twinned crystals. Having failed to crystallize a target molecule, a crystallographer may try again with a slightly modified version of the molecule; even small changes in molecular properties can lead to large differences in crystallization behavior.
The crystal is mounted for measurements so that it may be held in the X-ray beam and rotated. There are several methods of mounting. In the past, crystals were loaded into glass capillaries with the crystallization solution (the mother liquor). Nowadays, crystals of small molecules are typically attached with oil or glue to a glass fiber or a loop, which is made of nylon or plastic and attached to a solid rod. Protein crystals are scooped up by a loop, then flash - frozen with liquid nitrogen. This freezing reduces the radiation damage of the X-rays, as well as the noise in the Bragg peaks due to thermal motion (the Debye - Waller effect). However, untreated protein crystals often crack if flash - frozen; therefore, they are generally pre-soaked in a cryoprotectant solution before freezing. Unfortunately, this pre-soak may itself cause the crystal to crack, ruining it for crystallography. Generally, successful cryo - conditions are identified by trial and error.
The capillary or loop is mounted on a goniometer, which allows it to be positioned accurately within the X-ray beam and rotated. Since both the crystal and the beam are often very small, the crystal must be centered within the beam to within ~ 25 micrometers accuracy, which is aided by a camera focused on the crystal. The most common type of goniometer is the "kappa goniometer '', which offers three angles of rotation: the ω angle, which rotates about an axis perpendicular to the beam; the κ angle, about an axis at ~ 50 ° to the ω axis; and, finally, the φ angle about the loop / capillary axis. When the κ angle is zero, the ω and φ axes are aligned. The κ rotation allows for convenient mounting of the crystal, since the arm in which the crystal is mounted may be swung out towards the crystallographer. The oscillations carried out during data collection (mentioned below) involve the ω axis only. An older type of goniometer is the four - circle goniometer, and its relatives such as the six - circle goniometer.
Small scale can be done on a local X-ray tube source, typically coupled with an image plate detector. These have the advantage of being (relatively) inexpensive and easy to maintain, and allow for quick screening and collection of samples. However, the wavelength light produced is limited by anode material, typically copper. Further, intensity is limited by the power applied and cooling capacity available to avoid melting the anode. In such systems, electrons are boiled off of a cathode and accelerated through a strong electric potential of ~ 50 kV; having reached a high speed, the electrons collide with a metal plate, emitting bremsstrahlung and some strong spectral lines corresponding to the excitation of inner - shell electrons of the metal. The most common metal used is copper, which can be kept cool easily, due to its high thermal conductivity, and which produces strong K and K lines. The K line is sometimes suppressed with a thin (~ 10 μm) nickel foil. The simplest and cheapest variety of sealed X-ray tube has a stationary anode (the Crookes tube) and run with ~ 2 kW of electron beam power. The more expensive variety has a rotating - anode type source that run with ~ 14 kW of e-beam power.
X-rays are generally filtered (by use of X-Ray Filters) to a single wavelength (made monochromatic) and collimated to a single direction before they are allowed to strike the crystal. The filtering not only simplifies the data analysis, but also removes radiation that degrades the crystal without contributing useful information. Collimation is done either with a collimator (basically, a long tube) or with a clever arrangement of gently curved mirrors. Mirror systems are preferred for small crystals (under 0.3 mm) or with large unit cells (over 150 Å).
Rotating anodes were used by Joanna (Joka) Maria Vandenberg in the first experiments that demonstrated the power of X rays for quick (in real time production) screening of large InGaAsP thin film wafers for quality control of quantum well lasers.
Synchrotron radiation are some of the brightest lights on earth. It is the single most powerful tool available to X-ray crystallographers. It is made of X-ray beams generated in large machines called synchrotrons. These machines accelerate electrically charged particles, often electrons, to nearly the speed of light and confine them in a (roughly) circular loop using magnetic fields.
Synchrotrons are generally national facilities, each with several dedicated beamlines where data is collected without interruption. Synchrotrons were originally designed for use by high - energy physicists studying subatomic particles and cosmic phenomena. The largest component of each synchrotron is its electron storage ring. This ring is actually not a perfect circle, but a many - sided polygon. At each corner of the polygon, or sector, precisely aligned magnets bend the electron stream. As the electrons ' path is bent, they emit bursts of energy in the form of X-rays.
Using synchrotron radiation frequently has specific requirements for X-ray crystallography. The intense ionizing radiation can cause radiation damage to samples, particularly macromolecular crystals. Cryo crystallography protects the sample from radiation damage, by freezing the crystal at liquid nitrogen temperatures (~ 100 K). However, synchrotron radiation frequently has the advantage of user selectable wavelengths, allowing for anomalous scattering experiments which maximizes anomalous signal. This is critical in experiments such as SAD and MAD.
Recently, free electron lasers have been developed for use in X-ray crystallography. These are the brightest X-ray sources currently available; with the X-rays coming in femtosecond bursts. The intensity of the source is such that atomic resolution diffraction patterns can be resolved for crystals otherwise too small for collection. However, the intense light source also destroys the sample, requiring multiple crystals to be shot. As each crystal is randomly oriented in the beam, hundreds of thousands of individual diffraction images must be collected in order to get a complete data - set. This method, serial femtosecond crystallography, has been used in solving the structure of a number of protein crystal structures, sometimes noting differences with equivalent structures collected from synchrotron sources.
When a crystal is mounted and exposed to an intense beam of X-rays, it scatters the X-rays into a pattern of spots or reflections that can be observed on a screen behind the crystal. A similar pattern may be seen by shining a laser pointer at a compact disc. The relative intensities of these spots provide the information to determine the arrangement of molecules within the crystal in atomic detail. The intensities of these reflections may be recorded with photographic film, an area detector or with a charge - coupled device (CCD) image sensor. The peaks at small angles correspond to low - resolution data, whereas those at high angles represent high - resolution data; thus, an upper limit on the eventual resolution of the structure can be determined from the first few images. Some measures of diffraction quality can be determined at this point, such as the mosaicity of the crystal and its overall disorder, as observed in the peak widths. Some pathologies of the crystal that would render it unfit for solving the structure can also be diagnosed quickly at this point.
One image of spots is insufficient to reconstruct the whole crystal; it represents only a small slice of the full Fourier transform. To collect all the necessary information, the crystal must be rotated step - by - step through 180 °, with an image recorded at every step; actually, slightly more than 180 ° is required to cover reciprocal space, due to the curvature of the Ewald sphere. However, if the crystal has a higher symmetry, a smaller angular range such as 90 ° or 45 ° may be recorded. The rotation axis should be changed at least once, to avoid developing a "blind spot '' in reciprocal space close to the rotation axis. It is customary to rock the crystal slightly (by 0.5 -- 2 °) to catch a broader region of reciprocal space.
Multiple data sets may be necessary for certain phasing methods. For example, MAD phasing requires that the scattering be recorded at least three (and usually four, for redundancy) wavelengths of the incoming X-ray radiation. A single crystal may degrade too much during the collection of one data set, owing to radiation damage; in such cases, data sets on multiple crystals must be taken.
The recorded series of two - dimensional diffraction patterns, each corresponding to a different crystal orientation, is converted into a three - dimensional model of the electron density; the conversion uses the mathematical technique of Fourier transforms, which is explained below. Each spot corresponds to a different type of variation in the electron density; the crystallographer must determine which variation corresponds to which spot (indexing), the relative strengths of the spots in different images (merging and scaling) and how the variations should be combined to yield the total electron density (phasing).
Data processing begins with indexing the reflections. This means identifying the dimensions of the unit cell and which image peak corresponds to which position in reciprocal space. A byproduct of indexing is to determine the symmetry of the crystal, i.e., its space group. Some space groups can be eliminated from the beginning. For example, reflection symmetries can not be observed in chiral molecules; thus, only 65 space groups of 230 possible are allowed for protein molecules which are almost always chiral. Indexing is generally accomplished using an autoindexing routine. Having assigned symmetry, the data is then integrated. This converts the hundreds of images containing the thousands of reflections into a single file, consisting of (at the very least) records of the Miller index of each reflection, and an intensity for each reflection (at this state the file often also includes error estimates and measures of partiality (what part of a given reflection was recorded on that image)).
A full data set may consist of hundreds of separate images taken at different orientations of the crystal. The first step is to merge and scale these various images, that is, to identify which peaks appear in two or more images (merging) and to scale the relative images so that they have a consistent intensity scale. Optimizing the intensity scale is critical because the relative intensity of the peaks is the key information from which the structure is determined. The repetitive technique of crystallographic data collection and the often high symmetry of crystalline materials cause the diffractometer to record many symmetry - equivalent reflections multiple times. This allows calculating the symmetry - related R - factor, a reliability index based upon how similar are the measured intensities of symmetry - equivalent reflections, thus assessing the quality of the data.
The data collected from a diffraction experiment is a reciprocal space representation of the crystal lattice. The position of each diffraction ' spot ' is governed by the size and shape of the unit cell, and the inherent symmetry within the crystal. The intensity of each diffraction ' spot ' is recorded, and this intensity is proportional to the square of the structure factor amplitude. The structure factor is a complex number containing information relating to both the amplitude and phase of a wave. In order to obtain an interpretable electron density map, both amplitude and phase must be known (an electron density map allows a crystallographer to build a starting model of the molecule). The phase can not be directly recorded during a diffraction experiment: this is known as the phase problem. Initial phase estimates can be obtained in a variety of ways:
Having obtained initial phases, an initial model can be built. This model can be used to refine the phases, leading to an improved model, and so on. Given a model of some atomic positions, these positions and their respective Debye - Waller factors (or B - factors, accounting for the thermal motion of the atom) can be refined to fit the observed diffraction data, ideally yielding a better set of phases. A new model can then be fit to the new electron density map and a further round of refinement is carried out. This continues until the correlation between the diffraction data and the model is maximized. The agreement is measured by an R - factor defined as
where F is the structure factor. A similar quality criterion is R, which is calculated from a subset (~ 10 %) of reflections that were not included in the structure refinement. Both R factors depend on the resolution of the data. As a rule of thumb, R should be approximately the resolution in angstroms divided by 10; thus, a data - set with 2 Å resolution should yield a final R ~ 0.2. Chemical bonding features such as stereochemistry, hydrogen bonding and distribution of bond lengths and angles are complementary measures of the model quality. Phase bias is a serious problem in such iterative model building. Omit maps are a common technique used to check for this.
It may not be possible to observe every atom in the asymmetric unit. In many cases, disorder smears the electron density map. Weakly scattering atoms such as hydrogen are routinely invisible. It is also possible for a single atom to appear multiple times in an electron density map, e.g., if a protein sidechain has multiple (< 4) allowed conformations. In still other cases, the crystallographer may detect that the covalent structure deduced for the molecule was incorrect, or changed. For example, proteins may be cleaved or undergo post-translational modifications that were not detected prior to the crystallization.
A common challenge in refinement of crystal structures results from crystallographic disorder. Disorder can take many forms but in general involves the coexistence of two or more species or conformations. Failure to recognize disorder results in flawed interpretation. Pitfalls from improper modeling of disorder are illustrated by the discounted hypothesis of bond stretch isomerism. Disorder is modelled with respect to the relative population of the components, often only two, and their identity. In structures of large molecules and ions, solvent and counterions are often disordered.
Once the model of a molecule 's structure has been finalized, it is often deposited in a crystallographic database such as the Cambridge Structural Database (for small molecules), the Inorganic Crystal Structure Database (ICSD) (for inorganic compounds) or the Protein Data Bank (for protein structures). Many structures obtained in private commercial ventures to crystallize medicinally relevant proteins are not deposited in public crystallographic databases.
The main goal of X-ray crystallography is to determine the density of electrons f (r) throughout the crystal, where r represents the three - dimensional position vector within the crystal. To do this, X-ray scattering is used to collect data about its Fourier transform F (q), which is inverted mathematically to obtain the density defined in real space, using the formula
where the integral is taken over all values of q. The three - dimensional real vector q represents a point in reciprocal space, that is, to a particular oscillation in the electron density as one moves in the direction in which q points. The length of q corresponds to 2 π (\ displaystyle \ pi) divided by the wavelength of the oscillation. The corresponding formula for a Fourier transform will be used below
where the integral is summed over all possible values of the position vector r within the crystal.
The Fourier transform F (q) is generally a complex number, and therefore has a magnitude F (q) and a phase φ (q) related by the equation
The intensities of the reflections observed in X-ray diffraction give us the magnitudes F (q) but not the phases φ (q). To obtain the phases, full sets of reflections are collected with known alterations to the scattering, either by modulating the wavelength past a certain absorption edge or by adding strongly scattering (i.e., electron - dense) metal atoms such as mercury. Combining the magnitudes and phases yields the full Fourier transform F (q), which may be inverted to obtain the electron density f (r).
Crystals are often idealized as being perfectly periodic. In that ideal case, the atoms are positioned on a perfect lattice, the electron density is perfectly periodic, and the Fourier transform F (q) is zero except when q belongs to the reciprocal lattice (the so - called Bragg peaks). In reality, however, crystals are not perfectly periodic; atoms vibrate about their mean position, and there may be disorder of various types, such as mosaicity, dislocations, various point defects, and heterogeneity in the conformation of crystallized molecules. Therefore, the Bragg peaks have a finite width and there may be significant diffuse scattering, a continuum of scattered X-rays that fall between the Bragg peaks.
An intuitive understanding of X-ray diffraction can be obtained from the Bragg model of diffraction. In this model, a given reflection is associated with a set of evenly spaced sheets running through the crystal, usually passing through the centers of the atoms of the crystal lattice. The orientation of a particular set of sheets is identified by its three Miller indices (h, k, l), and let their spacing be noted by d. William Lawrence Bragg proposed a model in which the incoming X-rays are scattered specularly (mirror - like) from each plane; from that assumption, X-rays scattered from adjacent planes will combine constructively (constructive interference) when the angle θ between the plane and the X-ray results in a path - length difference that is an integer multiple n of the X-ray wavelength λ.
A reflection is said to be indexed when its Miller indices (or, more correctly, its reciprocal lattice vector components) have been identified from the known wavelength and the scattering angle 2θ. Such indexing gives the unit - cell parameters, the lengths and angles of the unit - cell, as well as its space group. Since Bragg 's law does not interpret the relative intensities of the reflections, however, it is generally inadequate to solve for the arrangement of atoms within the unit - cell; for that, a Fourier transform method must be carried out.
The incoming X-ray beam has a polarization and should be represented as a vector wave; however, for simplicity, let it be represented here as a scalar wave. We also ignore the complication of the time dependence of the wave and just concentrate on the wave 's spatial dependence. Plane waves can be represented by a wave vector k, and so the strength of the incoming wave at time t = 0 is given by
At position r within the sample, let there be a density of scatterers f (r); these scatterers should produce a scattered spherical wave of amplitude proportional to the local amplitude of the incoming wave times the number of scatterers in a small volume dV about r
where S is the proportionality constant.
Let 's consider the fraction of scattered waves that leave with an outgoing wave - vector of k and strike the screen at r. Since no energy is lost (elastic, not inelastic scattering), the wavelengths are the same as are the magnitudes of the wave - vectors k = k. From the time that the photon is scattered at r until it is absorbed at r, the photon undergoes a change in phase
The net radiation arriving at r is the sum of all the scattered waves throughout the crystal
which may be written as a Fourier transform
where q = k -- k. The measured intensity of the reflection will be square of this amplitude
For every reflection corresponding to a point q in the reciprocal space, there is another reflection of the same intensity at the opposite point - q. This opposite reflection is known as the Friedel mate of the original reflection. This symmetry results from the mathematical fact that the density of electrons f (r) at a position r is always a real number. As noted above, f (r) is the inverse transform of its Fourier transform F (q); however, such an inverse transform is a complex number in general. To ensure that f (r) is real, the Fourier transform F (q) must be such that the Friedel mates F (− q) and F (q) are complex conjugates of one another. Thus, F (− q) has the same magnitude as F (q) but they have the opposite phase, i.e., φ (q) = − φ (q)
The equality of their magnitudes ensures that the Friedel mates have the same intensity F. This symmetry allows one to measure the full Fourier transform from only half the reciprocal space, e.g., by rotating the crystal slightly more than 180 ° instead of a full 360 ° revolution. In crystals with significant symmetry, even more reflections may have the same intensity (Bijvoet mates); in such cases, even less of the reciprocal space may need to be measured. In favorable cases of high symmetry, sometimes only 90 ° or even only 45 ° of data are required to completely explore the reciprocal space.
The Friedel - mate constraint can be derived from the definition of the inverse Fourier transform
Since Euler 's formula states that e = cos (x) + i sin (x), the inverse Fourier transform can be separated into a sum of a purely real part and a purely imaginary part
The function f (r) is real if and only if the second integral I is zero for all values of r. In turn, this is true if and only if the above constraint is satisfied
since I = − I implies that I = 0.
Each X-ray diffraction image represents only a slice, a spherical slice of reciprocal space, as may be seen by the Ewald sphere construction. Both k and k have the same length, due to the elastic scattering, since the wavelength has not changed. Therefore, they may be represented as two radial vectors in a sphere in reciprocal space, which shows the values of q that are sampled in a given diffraction image. Since there is a slight spread in the incoming wavelengths of the incoming X-ray beam, the values of F (q) can be measured only for q vectors located between the two spheres corresponding to those radii. Therefore, to obtain a full set of Fourier transform data, it is necessary to rotate the crystal through slightly more than 180 °, or sometimes less if sufficient symmetry is present. A full 360 ° rotation is not needed because of a symmetry intrinsic to the Fourier transforms of real functions (such as the electron density), but "slightly more '' than 180 ° is needed to cover all of reciprocal space within a given resolution because of the curvature of the Ewald sphere. In practice, the crystal is rocked by a small amount (0.25 - 1 °) to incorporate reflections near the boundaries of the spherical Ewald 's shells.
A well - known result of Fourier transforms is the autocorrelation theorem, which states that the autocorrelation c (r) of a function f (r)
has a Fourier transform C (q) that is the squared magnitude of F (q)
Therefore, the autocorrelation function c (r) of the electron density (also known as the Patterson function) can be computed directly from the reflection intensities, without computing the phases. In principle, this could be used to determine the crystal structure directly; however, it is difficult to realize in practice. The autocorrelation function corresponds to the distribution of vectors between atoms in the crystal; thus, a crystal of N atoms in its unit cell may have N (N - 1) peaks in its Patterson function. Given the inevitable errors in measuring the intensities, and the mathematical difficulties of reconstructing atomic positions from the interatomic vectors, this technique is rarely used to solve structures, except for the simplest crystals.
In principle, an atomic structure could be determined from applying X-ray scattering to non-crystalline samples, even to a single molecule. However, crystals offer a much stronger signal due to their periodicity. A crystalline sample is by definition periodic; a crystal is composed of many unit cells repeated indefinitely in three independent directions. Such periodic systems have a Fourier transform that is concentrated at periodically repeating points in reciprocal space known as Bragg peaks; the Bragg peaks correspond to the reflection spots observed in the diffraction image. Since the amplitude at these reflections grows linearly with the number N of scatterers, the observed intensity of these spots should grow quadratically, like N. In other words, using a crystal concentrates the weak scattering of the individual unit cells into a much more powerful, coherent reflection that can be observed above the noise. This is an example of constructive interference.
In a liquid, powder or amorphous sample, molecules within that sample are in random orientations. Such samples have a continuous Fourier spectrum that uniformly spreads its amplitude thereby reducing the measured signal intensity, as is observed in SAXS. More importantly, the orientational information is lost. Although theoretically possible, it is experimentally difficult to obtain atomic - resolution structures of complicated, asymmetric molecules from such rotationally averaged data. An intermediate case is fiber diffraction in which the subunits are arranged periodically in at least one dimension.
X-ray diffraction has a wide and various applications on the chemical, biochemical, physical, material and mineralogical sciences. Laue ` s said that ' has extended the power of on serving minute structure ten thousand times beyond that of the optical microscope. X-ray diffraction produced a microscope with atomic resolution which shows the atoms and their electron distribution. X-ray diffraction, electron diffraction, and neutron diffraction give information about the structure of matter, crystalline and non-crystalline, at the atomic and molecular level. In addition, they are attached to the properties of all materials, inorganic, organic or biological. Due to the diffraction importance and variety of application of diffraction by crystals, a large number of Nobel Prizes were presented to studies involving X-ray.
X-ray diffraction was used for the identification of antibiotic drugs such as: eight β - lactam (ampicillin sodium, penicillin G procaine, cefalexin, ampicillin trihydrate, benzathine penicillin, benzylpenicillin sodium, cefotaxime sodium, Ceftriaxone sodium), three tetracycline (doxycycline hydrochloride, oxytetracycline dehydrate, tetracycline hydrochloride) and two macrolide (azithromycin, erythromycin estolate) antibiotic drugs. Each of these drugs has a unique XRD pattern that makes their identification possible.
Forensic examination of any trace evidence is based upon Locard 's exchange principle. This states that every contact leaves a trace. In practice, even though a transfer of material has taken place, it may be impossible to detect, because the amount transferred is very small. Textile fibers are a mixture of crystalline and amorphous substances. Therefore, the measurement of the degree of crystalline gives useful data in the characterization of fibers using X-ray diffractometry. It has been reported that X-ray diffraction was used to identify of a "crystalline '' deposit which was found on a chair. The deposit was found to be amorphous, but the diffraction pattern present matched that of polymethylmethacrylate. Pyrolysis mass spectrometry later identified the deposit as polymethylcyanoacrylaon of Boin crystal parameters.
Hiller investigated the effects of heating and burning on bone mineral using X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques. The bone samples were heated in temperature of 500, 700, and 900 C ° for 15 and 45 min. The results show bone crystals began to change during the first 15 min of heating at 500 C0 and above. At higher temperatures, thickness and shape of crystals of bones appear stabilized, but when the samples were heated at lower temperature or for shorter period, XRD traces showed extreme changes in crystal parameters.
X-ray diffraction has been demonstrated as a method for investigating the complex structure of integrated circuits.
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who is the young actor in the fios commercial | Gaten Matarazzo - wikipedia
Gaten John Matarazzo III (/ ˈɡeɪtən ˌmætəˈræzoʊ /; born September 8, 2002) is an American actor. He began his career on the Broadway stage as Benjamin in Priscilla, Queen of the Desert, and as Gavroche in Les Misérables. He currently stars as Dustin Henderson in the Netflix science - fiction drama series Stranger Things.
Matarazzo was born in Little Egg Harbor Township, New Jersey. He has an older sister and a younger brother. Matarazzo has cleidocranial dysplasia (CCD), a trait he shares with his Stranger Things character. He uses dentures as a result of his condition, and uses his fame to raise awareness about it.
Matarazzo uses his platform to raise awareness of CCD and fundraise for CCD Smiles, an organization that helps cover costs of oral surgeries for those with cleidocranial dysostosis. Matarazzo has also started a line of T - shirts whose proceeds will go to CCD Smiles. On his social media sites, Matarazzo actively notifies his followers of how to donate to CCD Smiles and different events he will participate in. Recently, his sister also started a Facebook campaign to raise money for the organization.
Since 2017, Matarazzo has served as the spokesman for Verizon FiOS.
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when did the right to be forgotten start | Right to be forgotten - Wikipedia
The right to be forgotten is a concept that has been discussed and put into practice in both the European Union (EU), and Argentina since 2006. The issue has arisen from desires of individuals to "determine the development of their life in an autonomous way, without being perpetually or periodically stigmatized as a consequence of a specific action performed in the past. ''
There has been controversy about the practicality of establishing a right to be forgotten to the status of an international human right in respect to access to information, due in part to the vagueness of current rulings attempting to implement such a right. Furthermore, there are concerns about its impact on the right to freedom of expression, its interaction with the right to privacy, and whether creating a right to be forgotten would decrease the quality of the Internet through censorship and a rewriting of history,. Those in favour of the right to be forgotten cite its necessity due to issues such as revenge porn sites appearing in search engine listings for a person 's name, as well as instances of these results referencing petty crimes individuals may have committed many years ago. The central concern here being, these results can unduly play a prominent role in a person 's online presence almost indefinitely if not removed.
Europe 's data protection laws are intended to secure potentially damaging, private information about individuals. The notion of "the right to be forgotten '' is derived from numerous preexisting European ideas. There is a longstanding belief in the United Kingdom, specifically under the Rehabilitation of Offenders Act, that after a certain period of time, many criminal convictions are "spent '', meaning that information regarding said person should not be regarded when obtaining insurance or seeking employment. Similarly, France values this right - le droit d'oubli (the right to be forgotten). It was officially recognized in French Law in 2010. Views on the right to be forgotten differ greatly between America and EU countries. In America, transparency, the right of free speech according to the First Amendment, and the right to know have typically been favored over the obliteration of truthfully published information regarding individuals and corporations. The term "right to be forgotten '' is a relatively new idea, though on May 13, 2014 the European Court of Justice legally solidified that the "right to be forgotten '' is a human right when they ruled against Google in the Costeja case.
In 1995, the European Union adopted the European Data Protection Directive (Directive 95 / 46 / EC) to regulate the processing of personal data. This is now considered a component of human rights law. The new European Proposal for General Data Protection Regulation provides protection and exemption for companies listed as "media '' companies, like newspapers and other journalistic work. However, Google purposely opted out of being classified as a "media '' company and so is not protected. Judges in the European Union ruled that because the international corporation, Google, is a collector and processor of data it should be classified as a "data controller '' under the meaning of the EU data protection directive. These "data controllers '' are required under EU law to remove data that is "inadequate, irrelevant, or no longer relevant '', making this directive of global importance.
The right to be forgotten "reflects the claim of an individual to have certain data deleted so that third persons can no longer trace them. '' It has been defined as "the right to silence on past events in life that are no longer occurring. '' The right to be forgotten leads to allowing individuals to have information, videos or photographs about themselves deleted from certain internet records so that they can not be found by search engines. As of 2011 there are few protections against the harm that incidents such as revenge porn sharing, or pictures uploaded due to poor judgement, can do.
The right to be forgotten is distinct from the right to privacy, due to the distinction that the right to privacy constitutes information that is not publicly known, whereas the right to be forgotten involves removing information that was publicly known at a certain time and not allowing third parties to access the information.
Limitations of application in a jurisdiction include the inability to require removal of information held by companies outside the jurisdiction. There is no global framework to allow individuals control over their online image. However, Professor Viktor Mayer - Schönberger, an expert from Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford, said that Google can not escape compliance with the law of France implementing the decision of the European Court of Justice in 2014 on the right to be forgotten. Mayer - Schönberger said nations, including the US, had long maintained that their local laws have "extra-territorial effects ''.
In Article 12 of the Directive 95 / 46 / EC the EU gave a legal base to internet protection for individuals. In 2012 the European Commission disclosed a draft European Data Protection Regulation to supersede the directive, which includes specific protection in the right to be forgotten in Article 17.
To exercise the right to be forgotten and request removal from a search engine, one must complete a form through the search engine 's website. Google 's removal request process requires the applicant to identify their country of residence, personal information, a list of the URLs to be removed along with a short description of each one, and attachment of legal identification. The applicant receives an email from Google confirming the request but the request must be assessed before it is approved for removal. If the request is approved, searches using the individual 's name will no longer result in the content appearing in search results. The content remains online and is not erased. After a request is filled, their removals team reviews the request, weighing "the individual 's right to privacy against the public 's right to know '', deciding if the website is "inadequate, irrelevant or no longer relevant, or excessive in relation to the purposes for which they were processed ''. Google has formed an Advisory Council of various professors, lawyers, and government officials from around Europe to provide guidelines for these decisions. However, the review process is still a mystery to the general public. Guidelines set by EU regulators were not released until November 2014, but Google began to take action on this much sooner than that, allowing them to "shape interpretation to (their) own ends ''. In May 2015, eighty academics called for more transparency from Google, in an open letter.
The form asks people to select one of the twenty - eight countries that make up the European Union, as well as Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland. "The form allows an individual or someone representing an individual to put in a request '' for the removal of any URLs believed to be a violation of the individual 's privacy. Regardless of who is submitting the form, some form of photo identification of the person the form is being submitted for must be presented. The purpose of this is to provide proof that the person for whom the request is being made for does in fact approve.
The form allows people to submit the name they would like search results removed for. However, it only allows for the submission of one name, which some view as one of its flaws. For example, if someone known as both "Lawrence Smith '' and "Larry Smith '' were to submit a form for the removal of search results for his name, he would only be allowed to indicate one of these names on the form. Many people view it as inconvenient and believe it is a problem that Google should be able to easily fix.
If Google refuses a request to delink material, Europeans can appeal to their local data protection agency. As of May 2015, the British Data Protection Agency had treated 184 such complaints, and overturned Google 's decision in about a quarter of those. If Google objects to a Data Protection Agency decision, it can face legal action.
In July 2014, in the early stages of Google 's effort to comply with the court ruling, legal experts questioned whether Google 's widely publicised delistings of a number of news articles violated the UK and EU Data Protection Directive, since in implementing the Directive, Google is required to weigh the damage to the person making the request against any public interest in the information being available. Google indeed acknowledged that some of its search result removals, affecting articles that were of public interest, were incorrect, and reinstated the links a week later. Commentators like Charles Arthur, technology editor of The Guardian, and Andrew Orlowski of The Register noted that Google is not required to comply with removal requests at all, as it can refer requests to the information commissioner in the relevant country for a decision weighing the respective merits of public interest and individual rights.
Google notifies websites that have URLs delinked, and the BBC and other news organizations have published lists of delinked articles. Complainants have been named in news commentary regarding those delinkings. In August 2015 the British Data Protection Agency issued an enforcement action requiring Google to delink some of these more recent articles from searches for a complainant 's name, after Google refused to do so. Google complied with the request. Some academics have criticized news organizations and Google for their behavior.
As of May 2014, Google has removed 1,390,838 URLs. From a gathering of which websites had the most amount of links removed, Facebook won with a total of 11,973 URLs removed. YouTube had 5,999 removed, Google Groups had 7,246 removed, and Twitter had 4,588 removed. Though Facebook had the largest number of deleted URLs, there were other received requests that were not granted deletion. While Google does evaluate millions of URLs that have been requested to be removed, the ultimate decision must be made by a human "because the variables, including public interest claims, needs to be handled on a case - by - case basis ''. However, it is to be kept in mind that internet users can still find removed information somewhat easily, just not through European Google search engines.
In July 2015, Google accidentally revealed data on delinkings that "shows 95 % of Google privacy requests are from citizens out to protect personal and private information -- not criminals, politicians and public figures. ''
This data leak caused serious social consequences for Google as the public expressed their outrage and fear over the information that was recently made public. Though only 5 % of requests were made by criminals, politicians, and public figures, the content removed was what sparked the most fear. In particular, one request for data removal was from a British doctor requesting to have 50 links removed on past botched medical procedures. Google agreed to remove three search results containing his personal information. The public voiced their outrage stating that removing such information can be used for manipulation and could lead to innocent people making uninformed decisions. Google responded to the public outrage by saying that when removing content they consider both the right of the individual and public interest.
The European Union has been pushing for the delinkings requested by EU citizens to be implemented by Google not just in European versions of Google (as in google.co.uk, google.fr, etc.), but on google.com and other international subdomains. Regulators want delinkings to be implemented so that the law can not be circumvented in any way. Google has refused the French Data Protection Agency 's demand to apply the right internationally. Due in part to their refusal to comply with the recommendation of the privacy regulating board Google has become the subject of a four - year - long antitrust investigation by the European Commission. In September 2015, the French Data Protection Agency dismissed Google 's appeal.
As of September 2015, the most delinked site is www.facebook.com. Three of Google 's own sites, groups.google.com, plus.google.com and www.youtube.com are among the ten most delinked sites. In addition to Google, Yahoo and Bing have also put up forms for making delinking requests.
In May 2014, the European Court of Justice ruled against Google in Costeja, a case brought by a Spanish man, Mario Costeja González, who requested the removal of a link to a digitized 1998 article in La Vanguardia newspaper about an auction for his foreclosed home, for a debt that he had subsequently paid. He initially attempted to have the article removed by complaining to the Spanish Agency of data protection, which rejected the claim on the grounds that it was lawful and accurate, but accepted a complaint against Google and asked Google to remove the results. Google sued in the Spanish Audiencia Nacional (National High Court) which referred a series of questions to the European Court of Justice. The court ruled in Costeja that search engines are responsible for the content they point to and thus, Google was required to comply with EU data privacy laws. On its first day of compliance only (May 30, 2014), Google received 12,000 requests to have personal details removed from its search engine.
On October 27, 2009, lawyers for Wolfgang Werlé who -- together with Manfred Lauber -- was convicted of murdering Walter Sedlmayr sent the Wikimedia Foundation a cease and desist letter requesting that Werlé 's name be removed from the English language Wikipedia article Walter Sedlmayr, citing a 1973 Federal Constitutional Court decision that allows the suppression of a criminal 's name in news accounts once he is released from custody. Previously, Alexander H. Stopp, attorney for Werlé and Lauber, had won a default judgment in German court, on behalf of Lauber, against the Wikimedia Foundation. According to the Electronic Frontier Foundation, Werlé 's lawyers also challenged an Internet service provider in Austria which published the names of the convicted killers.
Wikimedia is based in the United States, where the First Amendment protects freedom of speech and freedom of the press. In Germany, the law seeks to protect the name and likenesses of private persons from unwanted publicity. On January 18, 2008, a court in Hamburg supported the personality rights of Werlé, which under German law includes removing his name from archive coverage of the case.
On November 12, 2009, The New York Times reported that Wolfgang Werlé had a case pending against the Wikimedia Foundation in a German court. The editors of the German - language Wikipedia article about Sedlmayr removed the names of the murderers, which have since then been restored to the article. The Guardian observed that the lawsuit has led to the Streisand effect, an upsurge in publicity for the case resulting from the legal action.
On December 15, 2009, the German Federal Court of Justice (Bundesgerichtshof) in Karlsruhe ruled that German websites do not have to check their archives in order to provide permanent protection of personality rights for convicted criminals. The case occurred after the names of the brothers were found on the website of Deutschlandradio, in an archive article dating from July 2000. The presiding judge Gregor Galke stated "This is not a blank check '', and pointed out that the right to rehabilitation of offenders had been taken into consideration.
Argentina has seen law suits by celebrities against Google and Yahoo! in which the plaintiffs demand the removal of certain search results, and require removal of links to photographs. One case, brought by artist Virginia da Cunha, involved photographs which had originally been taken with her permission and uploaded with her permission, however she alleged that the search results improperly associated her photographs with pornography. De Cunha 's case achieved initial success resulting in Argentine search engines not showing images of the particular celebrity, however this decision is on appeal.
Virginia Simari, the judge in favor of De Cunha, stated that people have the right to control their image and avert others from "capturing, reproducing, broadcasting, or publishing one 's image without permission. '' In addition, Simari used a treatise written by Julio César Rivera, a Buenos Aires lawyer, author, and law professor "the right to control one 's personal data includes the right to prevent others from using one 's image. '' Since the 1990s Argentina has also been a part of the habeas data movement in which they "adopted a constitutional provision that is part freedom - of - government - information law and part data privacy law. '' However, their version is known as amparo. Article 43 explains the version:
"Any person shall file this action to obtain information on the data about himself and their purpose, registered in public records or databases, or in private ones intended to supply information; and in case of false data or discrimination, this action may be filed to request the suppression, rectification, confidentiality or updating of said data. ''
Argentina 's efforts to protect their people 's right to be forgotten has been called ' the most complete ' because individuals are able to correct, delete, or update information about themselves. Overall, their information is bound to remain confidential.
Consideration of the right to be forgotten can be seen in US case law, specifically in Melvin v. Reid, and in Sidis v. FR Publishing Corp.
In Melvin v. Reid (1931), an ex-prostitute was charged with murder and then acquitted; she subsequently tried to assume a quiet and anonymous place in society. However, the 1925 film The Red Kimono revealed her history, and she sued the producer. The court reasoned that "any person living a life of rectitude has that right to happiness which includes a freedom from unnecessary attacks on his character, social standing or reputation. ''
However, in Sidis v. FR Publishing Corp. the plaintiff, William James Sidis, was a former child prodigy who wished to spend his adult life quietly, without recognition; however, this was disrupted by an article in The New Yorker. The court held here that there were limits to the right to control one 's life and facts about oneself, and held that there is social value in published facts, and that a person can not ignore their celebrity status merely because they want to.
There is opposition to further recognition of the right to be forgotten in the United States as commentators argue that it will contravene the right to freedom of speech and freedom of expression, or will constitute censorship, thus potentially breaching peoples ' constitutionally protected right to freedom of expression in the United States Constitution. These criticisms are consistent with the proposal that the only information that can be removed by user 's request is content that they themselves uploaded.
In a June 2014 opinion piece in Forbes, columnist Joseph Steinberg noted that "many privacy protections that Americans believe that they enjoy -- even some guaranteed by law -- have, in fact, been eroded or even obliterated by technological advances. '' Steinberg, in explaining the need for legislation guaranteeing the "right to be forgotten '', noted that existing laws that require adverse information to be removed from credit reports after a period of time, and that allow the sealing or expunging of criminals records, are effectively undermined by the ability of prospective lenders or employers to forever find the removed information in a matter of seconds by doing a Google search.
On March 11, 2015, Intelligence Squared US, an organization that stages Oxford - Style debates, held an event centered on the question, "Should the U.S. adopt the ' Right to be Forgotten ' online? '' The side against the motion won with a 56 % majority of the voting audience.
While opinions among experts are divided in the U.S., one survey indicated that 9 in 10 Americans want some form of the right to be forgotten. The consumer rights organization Consumer Watchdog has filed a complaint with the Federal Trade Commission for Americans to obtain the right as well.
In March 2017, New York senator Tony Avella and assemblyman David Weprin introduced a bill proposing that individuals be allowed to require search engines and online speakers to remove information that is "inaccurate '', "irrelevant '', "inadequate '', or "excessive '', that is "no longer material to current public debate or discourse '' and is causing demonstrable harm to the subject.
In April 2016, the Delhi High Court began to examine the issue after a Delhi banker requested to have his personal details removed from search results following a marital dispute. In this case, due to the dispute being settled, the banker 's request is valid. The High Court has asked for a reply from Google and other search engine companies by September 19, upon which the court will continue to investigate the issue.
In January 2017 the Karnataka High Court upheld the right to be forgotten, in a case involving a woman who originally went to court in order to get a marriage certificate annulled, claiming to have never been married to the man on the certificate. After the two parties came to an agreement, the woman 's father wanted her name to be removed from search engines regarding criminal cases in the high court. The Karnataka High Court approved the father 's request, stating that she had a right to be forgotten. According to the court, its ruling would align with western countries ' decisions, which typically approve of the right to be forgotten when dealing with cases "involving women in general and highly sensitive cases involving rape or affecting the modesty and reputation of the person concerned. '' The woman in this specific case was worried that the search results would affect her standing with her husband, as well as her reputation in society.
As of February 2017, the Delhi High Court is hearing a case involving a man requesting to have information regarding his mother and wife to be removed from a search engine. The man believes that having his name linked to the search is hindering his employment options. The Delhi High Court is still working on the case, along with the issue of whether or not a right to be forgotten should be a legal standard in India. Currently, there is no legal standard for the right to be forgotten, but if implemented, this would mean that citizens no longer need to file a case in order to request for information from search engines to be removed. This case could have significant impacts on the right to be forgotten and search engines in India.
In May 2016, South Korea 's Korea Communications Commission (KCC) announced citizens will be able to request search engines and website administrators to restrict their own postings from being publicly accessible. The KCC released "Guidelines on the Right to Request Access Restrictions on Personal Internet Postings '', which will take effect in June 2016, which will not apply to third party contents. To the extent that the right to be forgotten concerns a data subject 's right to limit the searchability of third party postings about him / her, the Guideline does not constitute a right to be forgotten. Also, as to the right to withdraw one 's own posting, critics have noted that people have been able to delete their own postings before the Guideline as long as they have retained their login credentials, and that people who have misplaced their login credentials were permitted to retrieve or receive new ones. The only services significantly affected by the Guideline are Wiki - type services where people 's contributions make logical sense only in response to or in conjunction with one another 's contributions and therefore the postings are made permanent part of the mass - created content, but KCC made sure that the Guideline applies to these services only when the posting identifies the authors.
The guidelines created by the KCC include that data subjects can remove content that includes the URL links, and any evidence consisting of personal information. The commission included different amendments to the guideline. This includes describing the Guidelines as a "minimum '' and "preliminary '' precaution regarding privacy rights in vague areas of existing laws. The guideline encompasses foreign Internet companies that provide translation services for South Korean consumers. In order to have a person 's information "forgotten '' he or she has to go through a three step process: the issue posted with the URL, proof of ownership of the post, grounds for the request. There are restrictions on each step. When posting the URL, the web operator has the right to preserve the posting issue. The second being that if the post is relevant to public interest, web operators will process this request on the terms of relevance.
A recent court judgement in South Africa forcing a former employee of a company to update his LinkedIn profile also exemplified the question, if companies should have control over what we do on social media. "This was highlighted by the high court in Pretoria yesterday in the case of a city estate agent who was ordered to correct his employment history on professional social media site LinkedIn. The court gave Willem van der Schyff five days within which to remove the details of former employer Daniel Crous Auctioneers from his LinkedIn profile, as it was misleading.
In May 2016, Chinese courts in Beijing determined citizens do not have the right to be forgotten when a judge ruled in favor of Baidu in a lawsuit over removing search results. It was the first of such cases to be heard in Chinese court. In the suit, Ren Jiayu sued Chinese search engine Baidu over search results that associated him with a previous employer, Wuxi Taoshi Biotechnology. Ren argued that by posting the search results, Baidu had infringed upon his right of name and right of reputation, both protected under Chinese law. Because of these protections, Ren believed he had a right to be forgotten by removing these search results. The court ruled against Ren, claiming his name is a collection of common characters and as a result the search results were derived from relevant words.
China has one of the longest histories as an entire nation, being over 2000 years of feudal society; their civil laws and personal rights have not been altered through legislative efforts. Nowhere in the country 's civil agreement does it discuss the concept of "privacy '', more specifically internet privacy, and the growing issue that citizens, "have the right to be forgotten '' on the internet. There is no data protection authority or a specific state agency set in place to monitor the protection of citizens personal data. In China today, data protection is aimed at simply the consumer, as an individual. In contrast to the EU 's right to privacy, which the individual is considered a "data subject '', with the right to be protected. Chinese legislation remains neutral, with slow progression towards the support of the "right to be forgotten ''. The topic has been debated for more than 10 years now, and continues to be a challenge. Small provisions have been implemented related to personal data processing, however they do not amount to a comprehensive data protection regime. There is no solid, common ground to be found on two fundamentally different systems: realistic, to Chinese laws that are already in place, and legalist, the steps it takes to change those laws, approaches that elicit a need for reification.
The regulatory differences in the protection of personal data between countries has real impact on international relations. The right to be forgotten, specifically, is a matter of EU - US relations when applied to cross-border data flow, as it raises questions about territorial sovereignty. The structure of the Westphalian international system assumes that the reach of a country 's jurisdiction is limited to its geographic territory. However, online interactions are independent of geographic location and present across multiple locations, rendering the traditional concept of territorial sovereignty moot. Therefore, the EU and the United States are forced to confront their regulatory differences and negotiate on a set of regulations that apply to all foreign companies processing and handling data of European citizens and residents.
The regulatory differences on the right to be forgotten along with numerous other data protection rights have shaped discussions and negotiations on trans - Atlantic data privacy regulations. A case in point is the EU and the United States ' endeavors to develop the Safe Harbor agreement, a data transfer pact that enables the transfer of data between the EU and US companies in a manner consistent with the EU 's data protection schemes. Article 25 of the Data Protection Directive articulates that cross-border transfer of data can take place only if the "third country in question ensures an adequate level of protection, '' meaning that the country meets the EU 's minimum standards of data protection. The standards include, among many provisions, a component that protects the right to "opt out '' of further processing or transmission of personal data, under the assumption that data may not be further processed in ways inconsistent with the intent for which they were collected.
Given the inconsistencies between the EU and the United States on numerous digital privacy regulations, including the right to be forgotten, Article 25 poses a threat to trans - Atlantic data flows. Therefore, the EU and the United States entered into negotiations to mediate the differences through the Safe Harbor agreement, which as a result of debate and discussion between the two parties, requires companies to provide individuals with the choice or opportunity to "opt out '' and afford other protections.
Under the pressures of the mass surveillance carried out by the US government on European citizens ' data, the Safe Harbor agreement has been invalidated by the European Union Court of Justice in its Schrems case. The Safe Habor agreement has now been replaced by the Privacy Shield principles.
The 2012 draft European Data Protection Regulation Article 17 details the "right to be forgotten and to erasure ''. Under Article 17 individuals to whom the data appertains are granted the right to "obtain from the controller the erasure of personal data relating to them and the abstention from further dissemination of such data, especially in relation to personal data which are made available by the data subject while he or she was a child or where the data is no longer necessary for the purpose it was collected for, the subject withdraws consent, the storage period has expired, the data subject objects to the processing of personal data or the processing of data does not comply with other regulation ''.
The EU defines "data controllers '' as "people or bodies that collect and manage personal data ''. The EU General Data Protection Regulation requires data controllers who have been informed that an individual has requested the deletion of any links to or copies of information must "take all reasonable steps, including technical measures, in relation to data for the publication of which the controller is responsible, to inform third parties which are processing such data, that a data subject requests them to erase any links to, or copy or replication of that personal data. Where the controller has authorized a third party publication of personal data, the controller shall be considered responsible for that publication ''. In the situation that a data controller does not take all reasonable steps then they will be fined heavily.
The European Parliament was once "expected to adopt the proposals in first reading in the April 2013 Plenary session ''. The right to be forgotten was replaced by a more limited right to erasure in the version of the GDPR adopted by the European Parliament in March 2014. Article 17 provides that the data subject has the right to request erasure of personal data related to him on any one of a number of grounds including non-compliance with article 6.1 (lawfulness) that includes a case (f) where the legitimate interests of the controller is overridden by the interests or fundamental rights and freedoms of the data subject which require protection of personal data (see also Costeja).
The European Union is a highly influential group of states, and this movement towards the right to be forgotten in the EU is a step towards its global recognition as a right. To support this, in 2012 the Obama Administration released a "Privacy Bill of Rights '' to protect consumers online, and while this is not quite the strength of the EU law, it is a step towards recognition of the right to be forgotten.
Businesses which focus on protecting their client 's online reputation have jumped on the European Court ruling as a potentially profiting business. Private consulting firms now market "the right to be forgotten '' as an avenue to remove harmful information about their client. Google has no limit to the amount of requests that can be submitted on the removal of a particular link, so reputation consulting firms will send in dozens of requests on a single link written with different angles in an attempt to get harmful links removed. So far, the "right to be forgotten '' process has not been adjusted to address the involvement of reputation consulting firms.
Major criticisms stem from the idea that the right to be forgotten would restrict the right to freedom of speech. Many nations, and the United States in particular (with the First Amendment to the United States Constitution), have very strong domestic freedom of speech law, which would be challenging to reconcile with the right to be forgotten. Some academics see that only a limited form of the right to be forgotten would be reconcilable with US constitutional law; the right of an individual to delete data that he or she has personally submitted. In this limited form of the right individuals could not have material removed that has been uploaded by others, as demanding the removal of information could constitute censorship and a reduction in the freedom of expression in many countries. Sandra Coliver of the Open Society Justice Initiative argues that not all rights must be compatible and this conflict between the two rights is not detrimental to the survival of either.
The Proposed Data Protection Regulation is written broadly and this has caused concern. It has attracted criticism that its enactment would require data controlling companies to go to great lengths to identify third parties with the information and remove it. The Proposed Regulation has also attracted criticism due to the fact that this could produce a censoring effect in that companies, such as Facebook or Google, will wish to not be fined under the act, and will therefore be likely to delete wholesale information rather than facing the fine, which could produce a "serious chilling effect. '' In addition to this, there are concerns about the requirement to take down information that others have posted about an individual; the definition of personal data in Article 4 (2) includes "any information relating to '' the individual. This, critics have claimed, would require companies to take down any information relating to an individual, regardless of its source, which would amount to censorship, and result in the big data companies eradicating a lot of data to comply with this. Such removal can impact the accuracy and ability of businesses and individuals to carry out business intelligence, particularly due diligence to comply with antibribery, anticorruption, and know your customer laws. The right to be forgotten was invoked to remove from Google searches 120 reports about company directors published by Dato Capital, a Spanish company which compiles such reports about private company directors, consisting entirely of information they are required by law to disclose; Fortune magazine examined the 64 reports relating to UK directorships, finding that in 27 (42 %) the director was the only person named, in the remaining only the director and co-directors were named, and 23 (36 %) involve directorships started since 2012.
Other criticism revolves around the principle of accountability.
There are concerns that the Proposed Data Protection Act will result in Google and other Internet search engines not producing neutral search results, but rather producing biased and patchy results, and compromising the integrity of Internet - based information. To balance out this criticism, the Proposed Data Protection Regulation includes an exception "for the processing of personal data carried out solely for journalistic purposes or the purpose of artistic or literary expression in order to reconcile the right to the protection of personal data with the rules governing freedom of expression. '' Article 80 upholds freedom of speech, and while not lessening obligations on data providers and social media sites, nevertheless due to the wide meaning of "journalistic purposes '' allows more autonomy and reduces the amount of information that is necessary to be removed. When Google agreed to implement the ruling, European Commission Vice-President Viviane Reding said, "The Court also made clear that journalistic work must not be touched; it is to be protected. '' However, Google was criticized for taking down (under the Costeja precedent) a BBC News blog post about Stan O'Neal by economics editor Robert Peston (eventually, Peston reported that his blog post has remained findable in Google after all). Despite these criticisms and Google 's action, the company 's CEO, Larry Page worries that the ruling will be "used by other governments that are n't as forward and progressive as Europe to do bad things '', though has since distanced himself from that position. For example, pianist Dejan Lazic cited the Right To Be Forgotten in trying to remove a negative review about his performance from The Washington Post. He claimed that the critique was "defamatory, mean - spirited, opionated, offensive and simply irrelevant for the arts ''. and the St. Lawrence parish of the Roman Catholic church in Kutno, Poland asked Google to remove the Polish Wikipedia page about it, without any allegations mentioned therein as of that date.
Index on Censorship claimed that the Costeja ruling "allows individuals to complain to search engines about information they do not like with no legal oversight. This is akin to marching into a library and forcing it to pulp books. Although the ruling is intended for private individuals it opens the door to anyone who wants to whitewash their personal history... The Court 's decision is a retrograde move that misunderstands the role and responsibility of search engines and the wider internet. It should send chills down the spine of everyone in the European Union who believes in the crucial importance of free expression and freedom of information. ''
In 2014, the Gerry Hutch page on the English Wikipedia was among the first Wikipedia pages to be removed by several search engines ' query results in the European Union. The Daily Telegraph said, on 6 Aug 2014, that Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales "described the EU 's Right to be Forgotten as deeply immoral, as the organisation that operates the online encyclopedia warned the ruling will result in an internet riddled with memory holes ''. Other commentators have disagreed with Wales, pointing to problems such as Google including links to revenge porn sites in its search results, and have accused Google of orchestrating a publicity campaign to escape the burdensome obligation to comply with the law. Julia Powles, a law and technology researcher at the University of Cambridge, made a rebuttal to Wales ' and the Wikimedia Foundation concerns in an editorial published by Guardian, opining that "There is a public sphere of memory and truth, and there is a private one... Without the freedom to be private, we have precious little freedom at all. ''
In response to the criticism, the EU has released a factsheet to address what it considers myths about the right to be forgotten.
Other criticisms involving the Right to be Forgotten revolves around the policies for data removal regarding minors. The U.S. has laws in place that protect the privacy of minors. The California Minor Eraser Law is a law that allows California residents under the age of 18 to request to have information removed that they posted on an online server. The law "applies to websites, social media sites, mobile apps and other online services '' and follows "Europe 's recognition of the ' right to be forgotten ' ''. This law was put into effect on January 1, 2015 and remains in existence today. Online "Service '' operators that have services "directed toward minors '' must update their privacy policies to include the option to remove data if requested by a minor that is posted on a service.
In the UK, the recently published Tory Manifesto has included a pledge to allow social media platform users to remove outdated information that was posted when they were under the age of 18 in the United Kingdom general election, 2017. "A Tory victory on the 8th of June will lead to those youthful indiscretions on Facebook and Twitter being open to erasure. But there are also plans to fine social media firms for not moving at the speed of political opportunism over extreme content. '' The United Kingdom has not yet fully adopted the ruling of the European Court of Justice regarding the right to be forgotten and argued to keep it from going into EU law. However in the upcoming elections in the UK laws could be passed in favor of minors to remove embarrassing posts or photos on social media that could come back to affect job applications or public image.
Theresa May, the Prime Minister of the UK has been pushing to extend privacy rights for minors in allowing them to have a right to delete information. The intentions for this extension of privacy are based in the fact that social media sites store years of data that affect minors lives ' much later after the information is posted. May gave her stance on privacy when she said, "' The Internet has brought a wealth of opportunity but also significant new risks which have evolved faster than society 's response to them ' ''. The Conservative Party (UK) which is headed by May has pushed for policies that aggressively removes illegal material from the internet and fines firms that do not take action in removing said material.
Security researchers from CISPA, Saarland University and the University of Auckland proposed a framework, called Oblivion, to support the automation of the right to be forgotten in a scalable, provable and privacy - preserving manner. Oblivion is a program that helps to '' automate '' the process of attempting to verify someone 's personal information that could be found in a Google search result. '' Google gets many take - down requests at a high volume, so Oblivion is able to help with this problem. Researchers and authors behind Oblivion say that "it is essential to develop techniques that at least partly automate this process and are scalable to internet size. '' Oblivion helps the humans that operate the forms at Google ensure that ill - intending users can not "blacklist links to internet sources that do not affect them. '' For example, tests have proven that Oblivion handles requests at a rate of 278 per second. The software allows Google, the government, and the user to work together to get content removed quickly and for just cause. To ensure that the program works quickly, is secure for its users and is impervious to fake take - down requests, Oblivion uses a three - part system.
In the first part, Oblivion requires a user to submit identification about themselves -- not limited to "name, age, and nationality. '' Oblivion then enables a user to automatically find and tag his or her disseminated personal information using natural language processing and image recognition techniques and file a request in a privacy - preserving manner. Oblivion will scan the article for attributes that match information that has been submitted by the user. Second, Oblivion provides indexing systems with an automated and provable eligibility mechanism, asserting that the author of a request is indeed affected by an online resource. The author of a request is then issued an "ownership token '' that confirms the articles they submitted for evaluation include sensitive personal information. The automated eligibility proof ensures censorship - resistance so that only legitimately affected individuals can request the removal of corresponding links from search results. In the third and last phase, this "ownership token '' is submitted to Google, accompanied by the user 's concerns as to what information should be deleted. Google 's staff is then allowed to decide for themselves if they want to delete this information or not - but thanks to Oblivion, they know that the information in question is valid.
Researchers with Oblivion, however, have noted that it comes with some limitations. The software is lacking a human element, therefore it can not decide on its own "whether or not a piece of information is public interest and should therefore not be removed from Google search results. '' Researchers have conducted comprehensive evaluations, showing that Oblivion is suitable for large - scale deployment once it is fine - tuned.
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the wavelength of light in the x-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum is | Electromagnetic spectrum - wikipedia
The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies (the spectrum) of electromagnetic radiation and their respective wavelengths and photon energies.
The electromagnetic spectrum covers electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging from below one hertz to above 10 hertz, corresponding to wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atomic nucleus. This frequency range is divided into separate bands, and the electromagnetic waves within each frequency band are called by different names; beginning at the low frequency (long wavelength) end of the spectrum these are: radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays at the high - frequency (short wavelength) end. The electromagnetic waves in each of these bands have different characteristics, such as how they are produced, how they interact with matter, and their practical applications. The limit for long wavelengths is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length. Gamma rays, X-rays, and high ultraviolet are classified as ionizing radiation as their photons have enough energy to ionize atoms, causing chemical reactions. Exposure to these rays can be a health hazard, causing radiation sickness, DNA damage and cancer. Radiation of visible light wavelengths and lower are called nonionizing radiation as they can not cause these effects.
In most of the frequency bands above, a technique called spectroscopy can be used to physically separate waves of different frequencies, producing a spectrum showing the constituent frequencies. Spectroscopy is used to study the interactions of electromagnetic waves with matter. Other technological uses are described under electromagnetic radiation.
For most of history, visible light was the only known part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The ancient Greeks recognized that light traveled in straight lines and studied some of its properties, including reflection and refraction. The study of light continued, and during the 16th and 17th centuries conflicting theories regarded light as either a wave or a particle.
The first discovery of electromagnetic radiation other than visible light came in 1800, when William Herschel discovered infrared radiation. He was studying the temperature of different colors by moving a thermometer through light split by a prism. He noticed that the highest temperature was beyond red. He theorized that this temperature change was due to "calorific rays '' that were a type of light ray that could not be seen.
The next year, Johann Ritter, working at the other end of the spectrum, noticed what he called "chemical rays '' (invisible light rays that induced certain chemical reactions). These behaved similarly to visible violet light rays, but were beyond them in the spectrum. They were later renamed ultraviolet radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation was first linked to electromagnetism in 1845, when Michael Faraday noticed that the polarization of light traveling through a transparent material responded to a magnetic field (see Faraday effect). During the 1860s James Maxwell developed four partial differential equations for the electromagnetic field. Two of these equations predicted the possibility and behavior of waves in the field. Analyzing the speed of these theoretical waves, Maxwell realized that they must travel at a speed that was about the known speed of light. This startling coincidence in value led Maxwell to make the inference that light itself is a type of electromagnetic wave.
Maxwell 's equations predicted an infinite number of frequencies of electromagnetic waves, all traveling at the speed of light. This was the first indication of the existence of the entire electromagnetic spectrum.
Maxwell 's predicted waves included waves at very low frequencies compared to infrared, which in theory might be created by oscillating charges in an ordinary electrical circuit of a certain type. Attempting to prove Maxwell 's equations and detect such low frequency electromagnetic radiation, in 1886 the physicist Heinrich Hertz built an apparatus to generate and detect what are now called radio waves. Hertz found the waves and was able to infer (by measuring their wavelength and multiplying it by their frequency) that they traveled at the speed of light. Hertz also demonstrated that the new radiation could be both reflected and refracted by various dielectric media, in the same manner as light. For example, Hertz was able to focus the waves using a lens made of tree resin. In a later experiment, Hertz similarly produced and measured the properties of microwaves. These new types of waves paved the way for inventions such as the wireless telegraph and the radio.
In 1895 Wilhelm Röntgen noticed a new type of radiation emitted during an experiment with an evacuated tube subjected to a high voltage. He called these radiations x-rays and found that they were able to travel through parts of the human body but were reflected or stopped by denser matter such as bones. Before long, many uses were found for them in the field of medicine.
The last portion of the electromagnetic spectrum was filled in with the discovery of gamma rays. In 1900 Paul Villard was studying the radioactive emissions of radium when he identified a new type of radiation that he first thought consisted of particles similar to known alpha and beta particles, but with the power of being far more penetrating than either. However, in 1910, British physicist William Henry Bragg demonstrated that gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation, not particles, and in 1914, Ernest Rutherford (who had named them gamma rays in 1903 when he realized that they were fundamentally different from charged alpha and beta particles) and Edward Andrade measured their wavelengths, and found that gamma rays were similar to X-rays, but with shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies.
Electromagnetic waves are typically described by any of the following three physical properties: the frequency f, wavelength λ, or photon energy E. Frequencies observed in astronomy range from 7023239999999999999 ♠ 2.4 × 10 Hz (1 GeV gamma rays) down to the local plasma frequency of the ionized interstellar medium (~ 1 kHz). Wavelength is inversely proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma rays have very short wavelengths that are fractions of the size of atoms, whereas wavelengths on the opposite end of the spectrum can be as long as the universe. Photon energy is directly proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma ray photons have the highest energy (around a billion electron volts), while radio wave photons have very low energy (around a femtoelectronvolt). These relations are illustrated by the following equations:
where:
Whenever electromagnetic waves exist in a medium with matter, their wavelength is decreased. Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, no matter what medium they are traveling through, are usually quoted in terms of the vacuum wavelength, although this is not always explicitly stated.
Generally, electromagnetic radiation is classified by wavelength into radio wave, microwave, terahertz (or sub-millimeter) radiation, infrared, the visible region that is perceived as light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays. The behavior of EM radiation depends on its wavelength. When EM radiation interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior also depends on the amount of energy per quantum (photon) it carries.
Spectroscopy can detect a much wider region of the EM spectrum than the visible range of 400 nm to 700 nm. A common laboratory spectroscope can detect wavelengths from 2 nm to 2500 nm. Detailed information about the physical properties of objects, gases, or even stars can be obtained from this type of device. Spectroscopes are widely used in astrophysics. For example, many hydrogen atoms emit a radio wave photon that has a wavelength of 21.12 cm. Also, frequencies of 30 Hz and below can be produced by and are important in the study of certain stellar nebulae and frequencies as high as 7027290000000000000 ♠ 2.9 × 10 Hz have been detected from astrophysical sources.
Electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter in different ways across the spectrum. These types of interaction are so different that historically different names have been applied to different parts of the spectrum, as though these were different types of radiation. Thus, although these "different kinds '' of electromagnetic radiation form a quantitatively continuous spectrum of frequencies and wavelengths, the spectrum remains divided for practical reasons related to these qualitative interaction differences.
A discussion of the regions (or bands or types) of the electromagnetic spectrum is given below. Note that there are no precisely defined boundaries between the bands of the electromagnetic spectrum; rather they fade into each other like the bands in a rainbow (which is the sub-spectrum of visible light). Radiation of each frequency and wavelength (or in each band) has a mix of properties of the two regions of the spectrum that bound it. For example, red light resembles infrared radiation in that it can excite and add energy to some chemical bonds and indeed must do so to power the chemical mechanisms responsible for photosynthesis and the working of the visual system.
The types of electromagnetic radiation are broadly classified into the following classes:
This classification goes in the increasing order of wavelength, which is characteristic of the type of radiation. While, in general, the classification scheme is accurate, in reality there is often some overlap between neighboring types of electromagnetic energy. For example, SLF radio waves at 60 Hz may be received and studied by astronomers, or may be ducted along wires as electric power, although the latter is, in the strict sense, not electromagnetic radiation at all (see near and far field).
The distinction between X-rays and gamma rays is partly based on sources: the photons generated from nuclear decay or other nuclear and subnuclear / particle process, are always termed gamma rays, whereas X-rays are generated by electronic transitions involving highly energetic inner atomic electrons. In general, nuclear transitions are much more energetic than electronic transitions, so gamma - rays are more energetic than X-rays, but exceptions exist. By analogy to electronic transitions, muonic atom transitions are also said to produce X-rays, even though their energy may exceed 6 megaelectronvolts (0.96 pJ), whereas there are many (77 known to be less than 10 keV (1.6 fJ)) low - energy nuclear transitions (e.g., the 7.6 eV (1.22 aJ) nuclear transition of thorium - 229), and, despite being one million-fold less energetic than some muonic X-rays, the emitted photons are still called gamma rays due to their nuclear origin.
The convention that EM radiation that is known to come from the nucleus, is always called "gamma ray '' radiation is the only convention that is universally respected, however. Many astronomical gamma ray sources (such as gamma ray bursts) are known to be too energetic (in both intensity and wavelength) to be of nuclear origin. Quite often, in high energy physics and in medical radiotherapy, very high energy EMR (in the > 10 MeV region) -- which is of higher energy than any nuclear gamma ray -- is not called X-ray or gamma - ray, but instead by the generic term of "high energy photons. ''
The region of the spectrum where a particular observed electromagnetic radiation falls, is reference frame - dependent (due to the Doppler shift for light), so EM radiation that one observer would say is in one region of the spectrum could appear to an observer moving at a substantial fraction of the speed of light with respect to the first to be in another part of the spectrum. For example, consider the cosmic microwave background. It was produced, when matter and radiation decoupled, by the de-excitation of hydrogen atoms to the ground state. These photons were from Lyman series transitions, putting them in the ultraviolet (UV) part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Now this radiation has undergone enough cosmological red shift to put it into the microwave region of the spectrum for observers moving slowly (compared to the speed of light) with respect to the cosmos.
Radio waves are emitted and received by antennas, which consist of conductors such as metal rod resonators. In artificial generation of radio waves, an electronic device called a transmitter generates an AC electric current which is applied to an antenna. The oscillating electrons in the antenna generate oscillating electric and magnetic fields that radiate away from the antenna as radio waves. In reception of radio waves, the oscillating electric and magnetic fields of a radio wave couple to the electrons in an antenna, pushing them back and forth, creating oscillating currents which are applied to a radio receiver. Earth 's atmosphere is mainly transparent to radio waves, except for layers of charged particles in the ionosphere which can reflect certain frequencies.
Radio waves are extremely widely used to transmit information across distances in radio communication systems such as radio broadcasting, television, two way radios, mobile phones, communication satellites, and wireless networking. In a radio communication system, a radio frequency current is modulated with an information - bearing signal in a transmitter by varying either the amplitude, frequency or phase, and applied to an antenna. The radio waves carry the information across space to a receiver, where they are received by an antenna and the information extracted by demodulation in the receiver. Radio waves are also used for navigation in systems like Global Positioning System (GPS) and navigational beacons, and locating distant objects in radiolocation and radar. They are also used for remote control, and for industrial heating.
The use of the radio spectrum is strictly regulated by governments, coordinated by a body called the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) which allocates frequencies to different users for different uses.
Microwaves are radio waves of short wavelength, from about 10 centimeters to one millimeter, in the SHF and EHF frequency bands. Microwave energy is produced with klystron and magnetron tubes, and with solid state devices such as Gunn and IMPATT diodes. Although they are emitted and absorbed by short antennas, they are also absorbed by polar molecules, coupling to vibrational and rotational modes, resulting in bulk heating. Unlike higher frequency waves such as infrared and light which are absorbed mainly at surfaces, microwaves can penetrate into materials and deposit their energy below the surface. This effect is used to heat food in microwave ovens, and for industrial heating and medical diathermy. Microwaves are the main wavelengths used in radar, and are used for satellite communication, and wireless networking technologies such as Wifi, although this is at intensity levels unable to cause thermal heating. The copper cables (transmission lines) which are used to carry lower frequency radio waves to antennas have excessive power losses at microwave frequencies, and metal pipes called waveguides are used to carry them. Although at the low end of the band the atmosphere is mainly transparent, at the upper end of the band absorption of microwaves by atmospheric gasses limits practical propagation distances to a few kilometers.
Terahertz radiation is a region of the spectrum between far infrared and microwaves. Until recently, the range was rarely studied and few sources existed for microwave energy at the high end of the band (sub-millimeter waves or so - called terahertz waves), but applications such as imaging and communications are now appearing. Scientists are also looking to apply terahertz technology in the armed forces, where high - frequency waves might be directed at enemy troops to incapacitate their electronic equipment. Terahertz radiation is strongly absorbed by atmospheric gases, making this frequency range useless for long distance communication.
The infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum covers the range from roughly 300 GHz to 400 THz (1 mm - 750 nm). It can be divided into three parts:
Above infrared in frequency comes visible light. The Sun emits its peak power in the visible region, although integrating the entire emission power spectrum through all wavelengths shows that the Sun emits slightly more infrared than visible light. By definition, visible light is the part of the EM spectrum the human eye is the most sensitive to. Visible light (and near - infrared light) is typically absorbed and emitted by electrons in molecules and atoms that move from one energy level to another. This action allows the chemical mechanisms that underlie human vision and plant photosynthesis. The light that excites the human visual system is a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. A rainbow shows the optical (visible) part of the electromagnetic spectrum; infrared (if it could be seen) would be located just beyond the red side of the rainbow with ultraviolet appearing just beyond the violet end.
Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 380 nm and 760 nm (400 -- 790 terahertz) is detected by the human eye and perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths, especially near infrared (longer than 760 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 380 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light, especially when the visibility to humans is not relevant. White light is a combination of lights of different wavelengths in the visible spectrum. Passing white light through a prism splits it up into the several colors of light observed in the visible spectrum between 400 nm and 780 nm.
If radiation having a frequency in the visible region of the EM spectrum reflects off an object, say, a bowl of fruit, and then strikes the eyes, this results in visual perception of the scene. The brain 's visual system processes the multitude of reflected frequencies into different shades and hues, and through this insufficiently - understood psychophysical phenomenon, most people perceive a bowl of fruit.
At most wavelengths, however, the information carried by electromagnetic radiation is not directly detected by human senses. Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum, and technology can also manipulate a broad range of wavelengths. Optical fiber transmits light that, although not necessarily in the visible part of the spectrum (it is usually infrared), can carry information. The modulation is similar to that used with radio waves.
Next in frequency comes ultraviolet (UV). The wavelength of UV rays is shorter than the violet end of the visible spectrum but longer than the X-ray.
UV is the longest wavelength radiation whose photons are energetic enough to ionize atoms, separating electrons from them, and thus causing chemical reactions. Short wavelength UV and the shorter wavelength radiation above it (X-rays and gamma rays) are called ionizing radiation, and exposure to them can damage living tissue, making them a health hazard. UV can also cause many substances to glow with visible light; this is called fluorescence.
At the middle range of UV, UV rays can not ionize but can break chemical bonds, making molecules unusually reactive. Sunburn, for example, is caused by the disruptive effects of middle range UV radiation on skin cells, which is the main cause of skin cancer. UV rays in the middle range can irreparably damage the complex DNA molecules in the cells producing thymine dimers making it a very potent mutagen.
The Sun emits significant UV radiation (about 10 % of its total power), including extremely short wavelength UV that could potentially destroy most life on land (ocean water would provide some protection for life there). However, most of the Sun 's damaging UV wavelengths are absorbed by the atmosphere before they reach the surface. The higher energy (shortest wavelength) ranges of UV (called "vacuum UV '') are absorbed by nitrogen and, at longer wavelengths, by simple diatomic oxygen in the air. Most of the UV in the mid-range of energy is blocked by the ozone layer, which absorbs strongly in the important 200 -- 315 nm range, the lower energy part of which is too long for ordinary dioxygen in air to absorb. This leaves less than 3 % of sunlight at sea level in UV, with all of this remainder at the lower energies. The remainder is UV - A, along with some UV - B. The very lowest energy range of UV between 315 nm and visible light (called UV - A) is not blocked well by the atmosphere, but does not cause sunburn and does less biological damage. However, it is not harmless and does create oxygen radicals, mutations and skin damage. See ultraviolet for more information.
After UV come X-rays, which, like the upper ranges of UV are also ionizing. However, due to their higher energies, X-rays can also interact with matter by means of the Compton effect. Hard X-rays have shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays and as they can pass through many substances with little absorption, they can be used to ' see through ' objects with ' thicknesses ' less than that equivalent to a few meters of water. One notable use is diagnostic X-ray imaging in medicine (a process known as radiography). X-rays are useful as probes in high - energy physics. In astronomy, the accretion disks around neutron stars and black holes emit X-rays, enabling studies of these phenomena. X-rays are also emitted by the coronas of stars and are strongly emitted by some types of nebulae. However, X-ray telescopes must be placed outside the Earth 's atmosphere to see astronomical X-rays, since the great depth of the atmosphere of Earth is opaque to X-rays (with areal density of 1000 grams per cm), equivalent to 10 meters thickness of water. This is an amount sufficient to block almost all astronomical X-rays (and also astronomical gamma rays -- see below).
After hard X-rays come gamma rays, which were discovered by Paul Ulrich Villard in 1900. These are the most energetic photons, having no defined lower limit to their wavelength. In astronomy they are valuable for studying high - energy objects or regions, however as with X-rays this can only be done with telescopes outside the Earth 's atmosphere. Gamma rays are used experimentally by physicists for their penetrating ability and are produced by a number of radioisotopes. They are used for irradiation of foods and seeds for sterilization, and in medicine they are occasionally used in radiation cancer therapy. More commonly, gamma rays are used for diagnostic imaging in nuclear medicine, an example being PET scans. The wavelength of gamma rays can be measured with high accuracy through the effects of Compton scattering.
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what religion is most common in africa south of the sahara desert | Sub-Saharan Africa - wikipedia
Sub-Saharan Africa is, geographically, the area of the continent of Africa that lies south of the Sahara. According to the UN, it consists of all African countries that are fully or partially located south of the Sahara. It contrasts with North Africa, whose territories are part of the League of Arab states within the Arab world. Somalia, Djibouti, Comoros and Mauritania are geographically in Sub-Saharan Africa, but are likewise Arab states and part of the Arab world.
The Sahel is the transitional zone in between the Sahara and the tropical savanna of the Sudan region and farther south the forest - savanna mosaic of tropical Africa.
Since probably 3500 BCE, the Saharan and Sub-Saharan regions of Africa have been separated by the extremely harsh climate of the sparsely populated Sahara, forming an effective barrier interrupted by only the Nile in Sudan, though the Nile was blocked by the river 's cataracts. The Sahara pump theory explains how flora and fauna (including Homo sapiens) left Africa to penetrate the Middle East and beyond. African pluvial periods are associated with a "wet Sahara '' phase during which larger lakes and more rivers existed.
The use of the term has been criticized because it refers to the South only by cartography conventions and projects a connotation of inferiority; a vestige of colonialism, which some say, divided Africa into European terms of homogeneity.
Geographers historically divided the region into several distinct ethnographic sections based on each area 's respective inhabitants.
Commentators in Arabic in the medieval period used the general term bilâd as - sûdân ("Land of the Blacks '') for the vast Sudan region (an expression denoting West and Central Africa), or sometimes extending from the coast of West Africa to Western Sudan. Its equivalent in Southeast Africa was Zanj ("Country of the Blacks ''), which was situated in the vicinity of the Great Lakes region.
The geographers drew an explicit ethnographic distinction between the Sudan region and its analogue Zanj, from the area to their extreme east on the Red Sea coast in the Horn of Africa. In modern - day Ethiopia and Eritrea was Al - Habash or Abyssinia, which was inhabited by the Habash or Abyssinians, who were the forebears of the Habesha. In northern Somalia was Barbara or the Bilad al - Barbar ("Land of the Berbers ''), which was inhabited by the Eastern Baribah or Barbaroi, as the ancestors of the Somalis were referred to by medieval Arab and ancient Greek geographers, respectively.
Sub-Saharan Africa has a wide variety of climate zones or biomes. South Africa and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in particular are considered Megadiverse countries.
According to paleontology, early hominid skull anatomy was similar to that of their close cousins, the great African forest apes, gorilla and chimpanzee, but they had adopted a bipedal locomotion and freed hands, giving them a crucial advantage enabling them to live in both forested areas and on the open savanna at a time when Africa was drying up, with savanna encroaching on forested areas. This occurred 10 million to 5 million years ago.
By 3 million years ago several australopithecine hominid species had developed throughout southern, eastern and central Africa. They were tool users rather than tool manufacturers. The next major evolutionary step occurred around 2.3 million BCE, when primitive stone tools were used to scavenge the carcasses of animals killed by other predators, both for their meat and their marrow. In hunting, H. habilis was most likely not capable of competing with large predators and was more prey than hunter, although H. habilis probably did steal eggs from nests and may have been able to catch small game and weakened larger prey such as cubs and older animals. The tools were classed as Oldowan.
Roughly 1.8 million years ago, Homo ergaster first appeared in the fossil record in Africa. From Homo ergaster, Homo erectus (upright man) evolved 1.5 million years ago. Some of the earlier representatives of this species were small - brained and used primitive stone tools, much like H. habilis. The brain later grew in size, and H. erectus eventually developed a more complex stone tool technology called the Acheulean. Potentially the first hominid to engage in hunting, H. erectus mastered the art of making fire. They were the first hominids to leave Africa, going on to colonize the entire Old World, and perhaps later on giving rise to Homo floresiensis. Although some recent writers suggest that H. georgicus, a H. habilis descendant, was the first and most primitive hominid to ever live outside Africa, many scientists consider H. georgicus to be an early and primitive member of the H. erectus species.
The fossil record shows Homo sapiens living in southern and eastern Africa anywhere from 100,000 to 150,000 years ago. Between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago, their expansion out of Africa launched the colonization of the planet by modern humans. By 10,000 BCE, Homo sapiens had spread to all corners of the world. This dispersal of the human species is suggested by linguistic, cultural and genetic evidence.
After the Sahara became a desert, it did not present a totally impenetrable barrier for travelers between north and south because of the application of animal husbandry towards carrying water, food, and supplies across the desert. Prior to the introduction of the camel, the use of oxen, mule, and horses for desert crossing was common, and trade routes followed chains of oases that were strung across the desert. The trans - saharan trade was in full motion by 500 BCE with Carthage being a major economic force for its establishment. It is thought that the camel was first brought to Egypt after the Persian Empire conquered Egypt in 525 BCE, although large herds did not become common enough in North Africa for camels to be the pack animal of choice for the trans - saharan trade.
Archaeological finds in Central Africa provide evidence of human settlement that may date back over 10 000 years. According to Zangato and Holl, there is evidence of iron - smelting in the Central African Republic and Cameroon that may date back to 3000 to 2500 BCE. Extensive walled sites and settlements have recently been found in Zilum, Chad. The area is located approximately 60 km (37 mi) southwest of Lake Chad, and has been radiocarbon dated to the first millennium BCE.
Trade and improved agricultural techniques supported more sophisticated societies, leading to the early civilizations of Sao, Kanem, Bornu, Shilluk, Baguirmi, and Wadai.
Following the Bantu Migration into Central Africa, during the 14th century, the Luba Kingdom in southeast Congo came about under a king whose political authority derived from religious, spiritual legitimacy. The kingdom controlled agriculture and regional trade of salt and iron from the north and copper from the Zambian / Congo copper belt.
Rival kingship factions which split from the Luba Kingdom later moved among the Lunda people, marrying into its elite and laying the foundation of the Lunda Empire in the 16th century. The ruling dynasty centralised authority among the Lunda under the Mwata Yamyo or Mwaant Yaav. The Mwata Yamyo 's legitimacy, like the Luba king, came from being viewed as a spiritual religious guardian. This imperial cult or system of divine kings was spread to most of central Africa by rivals in kingship migrating and forming new states. Many new states received legitimacy by claiming descent from the Lunda dynasties.
The Kingdom of Kongo existed from the Atlantic west to the Kwango river to the east. During the 15th century, the Bakongo farming community was united with its capital at M'banza - Kongo, under the king title, Manikongo. Other significant states and peoples included the Kuba Kingdom, producers of the famous raffia cloth, the Eastern Lunda, Bemba, Burundi, Rwanda, and the Kingdom of Ndongo.
The Axumite Empire spanned the southern Sahara, south Arabia and the Sahel along the western shore of the Red Sea. Located in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, Aksum was deeply involved in the trade network between India and the Mediterranean. Growing from the proto - Aksumite Iron Age period circa the 4th century BCE, it rose to prominence by the 1st century CE. The Aksumites constructed monolithic stelae to cover the graves of their kings, such as King Ezana 's Stele. The later Zagwe dynasty, established in the 12th century, built churches out of solid rock. These rock - hewn structures include the Church of St. George at Lalibela.
In ancient Somalia, city - states flourished such as Opone, Mosyllon and Malao that competed with the Sabaeans, Parthians and Axumites for the wealthy Indo -- Greco -- Roman trade.
In the Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade including the Ajuran Sultanate, which excelled in hydraulic engineering and fortress building, the Sultanate of Adal, whose General Ahmed Gurey was the first African commander in history to use cannon warfare on the continent during Adal 's conquest of the Ethiopian Empire, and the Geledi Sultanate, whose military dominance forced governors of the Omani empire north of the city of Lamu to pay tribute to the Somali Sultan Ahmed Yusuf. In the late 19th century after the Berlin conference had ended, European empires sailed with their armies to the Horn of Africa. The imperial armies in Somalia alarmed the Dervish leader Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, who gathered Somali soldiers from across the Horn of Africa and began one of the longest anti-colonial wars known as the Somaliland Campaign.
Settlements of Bantu - speaking peoples, who were iron - using agriculturists and herdsmen, were already present south of the Limpopo River by the 4th or 5th century displacing and absorbing the original Khoisan speakers. They slowly moved south, and the earliest ironworks in modern - day KwaZulu - Natal Province are believed to date from around 1050. The southernmost group was the Xhosa people, whose language incorporates certain linguistic traits from the earlier Khoisan inhabitants. They reached the Fish River in today 's Eastern Cape Province.
Monomotapa was a medieval kingdom (c. 1250 -- 1629), which existed between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers of Southern Africa in the territory of modern - day Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Its old capital was located at Great Zimbabwe.
In 1487, Bartolomeu Dias became the first European to reach the southernmost tip of Africa. In 1652, a victualling station was established at the Cape of Good Hope by Jan van Riebeeck on behalf of the Dutch East India Company. For most of the 17th and 18th centuries, the slowly expanding settlement was a Dutch possession.
Great Britain seized the Cape of Good Hope area in 1795, ostensibly to prevent it from falling into the hands of the French but also to use Cape Town in particular as a stop on the route to Australia and India. It was later returned to the Dutch in 1803, but soon afterwards the Dutch East India Company declared bankruptcy, and the British annexed the Cape Colony in 1806.
The Zulu Kingdom was a Southern African tribal state in what is now KwaZulu - Natal in southeastern South Africa. The small kingdom gained world fame during and after the Anglo - Zulu War.
During the 1950s and early 1960s, most Sub-Saharan African nations achieved independence from colonial rule.
According to the theory of recent African origin of modern humans, the mainstream position held within the scientific community, all humans originate from either Southeast Africa or the Horn of Africa. During the first millennium CE, Nilotic and Bantu - speaking peoples moved into the region, and the latter now account for three - quarters of Kenya 's population.
On the coastal section of Southeast Africa, a mixed Bantu community developed through contact with Muslim Arab and Persian traders, leading to the development of the mixed Arab, Persian and African Swahili City States. The Swahili culture that emerged from these exchanges evinces many Arab and Islamic influences not seen in traditional Bantu culture, as do the many Afro - Arab members of the Bantu Swahili people. With its original speech community centered on the coastal parts of Tanzania (particularly Zanzibar) and Kenya -- a seaboard referred to as the Swahili Coast -- the Bantu Swahili language contains many Arabic loan - words as a consequence of these interactions.
The earliest Bantu inhabitants of the Southeast coast of Kenya and Tanzania encountered by these later Arab and Persian settlers have been variously identified with the trading settlements of Rhapta, Azania and Menouthias referenced in early Greek and Chinese writings from 50 CE to 500 CE, ultimately giving rise to the name for Tanzania. These early writings perhaps document the first wave of Bantu settlers to reach Southeast Africa during their migration.
Between the 14th and 15th centuries, large medieval Southeast African kingdoms and states emerged, such as the Buganda and Karagwe kingdoms of Uganda and Tanzania.
During the early 1960s, the Southeast African nations achieved independence from colonial rule.
Nubia in present - day Northern Sudan and Southern Egypt, was referred to as "Aethiopia '' ("land of the burnt face '') by the Greeks.
Nubia at her greatest phase is considered Sub-Saharan Africa 's oldest urban civilisation. Nubia was a major source of gold for the ancient world. Nubians built famous structures and numerous pyramids. Sudan, the site of ancient Nubia, has more pyramids than anywhere in the world.
The Bantu expansion is a major migration movement originating in West Africa around 2500 BCE, reaching East and Central Africa by 1000 BCE and Southern Africa by the early centuries CE.
The Nok culture is known from a type of terracotta figure found in Nigeria, dating to between 500 BCE and 200 CE.
There were a number of medieval empires of the southern Sahara and the Sahel, based on trans - Saharan trade, including the Ghana Empire and the Mali Empire, Songhai Empire, the Kanem Empire and the subsequent Bornu Empire. They built stone structures like in Tichit, but mainly constructed in adobe. The Great Mosque of Djenne is most reflective of Sahelian architecture and is the largest adobe building in the world.
In the forest zone, several states and empires emerged. The Ashanti Empire arose in the 16th century in modern - day Ghana and Ivory Coast. The Kingdom of Nri, was established by the Igbo in the 11th century. Nri was famous for having a priest - king who wielded no military power. Nri was a rare African state which was a haven for freed slaves and outcasts who sought refuge in their territory. Other major states included the kingdoms of Ifẹ and Oyo in the western block of Nigeria which became prominent about 700 -- 900 and 1400 respectively, and center of Yoruba culture. The Yoruba 's built massive mud walls around their cities, the most famous being Sungbo 's Eredo. Another prominent kingdom in southwestern Nigeria was the Kingdom of Benin 9th -- 11th century whose power lasted between the 15th and 19th century and was one of the greatest Empires of African history documented all over the world. Their dominance reached as far as the well - known city of Eko which was named Lagos by the Portuguese traders and other early European settlers. The Edo speaking people of Benin are known for their famous bronze casting and rich coral, wealth, ancient science and technology and the Walls of Benin, which is the largest man - made structure in the world.
In the 18th century, the Oyo and the Aro confederacy were responsible for most of the slaves exported from Nigeria, with Great Britain, France and Portugal shipping the majority of the slaves. Following the Napoleonic Wars, the British expanded trade with the Nigerian interior. In 1885, British claims to a West African sphere of influence received international recognition, and in the following year the Royal Niger Company was chartered under the leadership of Sir George Taubman Goldie. In 1900, the company 's territory came under the control of the British Government, which moved to consolidate its hold over the area of modern Nigeria. On 1 January 1901, Nigeria became a British protectorate, part of the British Empire, the foremost world power at the time.
By 1960, most of the region achieved independence from colonial rule.
According to the 2017 revision of the World Population Prospects, the population of sub-Saharan Africa was 995,694,907 in 2016. The current growth rate is 2.3 %. The UN predicts for the region a population between 1.5 and 2 billion by 2050 with a population density of 80 per km compared to 170 for Western Europe, 140 for Asia and 30 for the Americas.
Sub-Saharan African countries top the list of countries and territories by fertility rate with 40 of the highest 50, all with TFR greater than 4 in 2008. All are above the world average except South Africa and Seychelles. More than 40 % of the population in sub-Saharan countries is younger than 15 years old, as well as in Sudan, with the exception of South Africa.
GDP per Capita (2006 in dollars (US $)), Life (Exp.) (Life Expectancy 2006), Literacy (Male / Female 2006), Trans (Transparency 2009), HDI (Human Development Index), EODBR (Ease of Doing Business Rank June 2008 through May 2009), SAB (Starting a Business June 2008 through May 2009), PFI (Press Freedom Index 2009)
Sub-Saharan Africa displays the most linguistic diversity of any region in the world. This is apparent from the number of languages spoken. The region contains over 1,000 languages, which is around 1 / 6 of the world 's total.
With the exception of the extinct Sumerian (a language isolate) of Mesopotamia, Afro - Asiatic has the oldest documented history of any language family in the world. Egyptian was recorded as early as 3200 BCE. The Semitic branch was recorded as early as 2900 BCE in the form of the Akkadian language of Mesopotamia (Assyria and Babylonia) and circa 2500 BCE in the form of the Eblaite language of north eastern Syria.
The distribution of the Afroasiatic languages within Africa is principally concentrated in North Africa and the Horn of Africa. Languages belonging to the family 's Berber branch are mainly spoken in the north, with its speech area extending into the Sahel (northern Mauritania, northern Mali, northern Niger). The Cushitic branch of Afroasiatic is centered in the Horn, and is also spoken in the Nile Valley and parts of the African Great Lakes region. Additionally, the Semitic branch of the family, in the form of Arabic, is widely spoken in the parts of Africa that are within the Arab world. South Semitic languages are also spoken in parts of the Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea). The Chadic branch is distributed in Central and West Africa. Hausa, its most widely spoken language, serves as a lingua franca in West Africa (Niger, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Cameroon, and Chad).
The several families lumped under the term Khoi - San include languages indigenous to Southern Africa and Tanzania, though some, such as the Khoi languages, appear to have moved to their current locations not long before the Bantu expansion. In Southern Africa, their speakers are the Khoikhoi and San (Bushmen), in Southeast Africa, the Sandawe and Hadza.
The Niger -- Congo family is the largest in the world in terms of the number of languages (1,436) it contains. The vast majority of languages of this family are tonal such as Yoruba, and Igbo, However, others such as Fulani and Wolof are not. A major branch of Niger -- Congo languages is the Bantu family, which covers a greater geographic area than the rest of the family put together. Bantu speakers represent the majority of inhabitants in southern, central and southeastern Africa, though San, Pygmy, and Nilotic groups, respectively, can also be found in those regions. Bantu - speakers can also be found in parts of Central Africa such as the Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and southern Cameroon. Swahili, a Bantu language with many Arabic, Persian and other Middle Eastern and South Asian loan words, developed as a lingua franca for trade between the different peoples in southeastern Africa. In the Kalahari Desert of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as Bushmen (also "San '', closely related to, but distinct from "Hottentots '') have long been present. The San evince unique physical traits, and are the indigenous people of southern Africa. Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of Central Africa.
The Nilo - Saharan languages are concentrated in the upper parts of the Chari and Nile rivers of Central Africa and Southeast Africa. They are principally spoken by Nilotic peoples and are also spoken in Sudan among the Fur, Masalit, Nubian and Zaghawa peoples and in West and Central Africa among the Songhai, Zarma and Kanuri. The Old Nubian language is also a member of this family.
Major languages of Africa by region, family and number of primary language speakers in millions:
In the mid-2010s, private capital flows to Sub-Saharan Africa -- primarily from the BRIC 's, private - sector investment portfolios, and remittances -- began to exceed official development assistance.
As of 2011, Africa is one of the fastest developing regions in the world. Six of the world 's ten fastest - growing economies over the previous decade were situated below the Sahara, with the remaining four in East and Central Asia. Between 2011 and 2015, the economic growth rate of the average nation in Africa is expected to surpass that of the average nation in Asia. Sub-Saharan Africa is by then projected to contribute seven out of the ten fastest growing economies in the world. According to the World Bank, the economic growth rate in the region had risen to 4.7 % in 2013, with a rate of 5.2 % forecasted for 2014. This continued rise was attributed to increasing investment in infrastructure and resources as well as steady expenditure per household.
As of 2009, fifty percent of Africa is rural with no access to electricity. Africa generates 47 GW of electricity, less than 0.6 % of the global market share. Many countries are affected by power shortages.
Because of rising prices in commodities such as coal and oil, thermal sources of energy are proving to be too expensive for power generation. Sub-Saharan Africa is expected to build additional hydropower generation capacity of at least 20,165 MW by 2014. The region has the potential to generate 1,750 TWh of energy, of which only 7 % has been explored. The failure to exploit its full energy potential is largely due to significant underinvestment, as at least four times as much (approximately $23 billion a year) and what is currently spent is invested in operating high cost power systems and not on expanding the infrastructure.
African governments are taking advantage of the readily available water resources to broaden their energy mix. Hydro Turbine Markets in Sub-Saharan Africa generated revenues of $120.0 million in 2007 and is estimated to reach $425.0 million. Asian countries, notably China, India, and Japan, are playing an active role in power projects across the African continent. The majority of these power projects are hydro - based because of China 's vast experience in the construction of hydro - power projects and part of the Energy & Power Growth Partnership Services programme.
With electrification numbers, Sub-Saharan Africa with access to the Sahara and being in the tropical zones has massive potential for solar photovoltaic electrical potential. Six hundred million people could be served with electricity based on its photovoltaic potential. China is promising to train 10,000 technicians from Africa and other developing countries in the use of solar energy technologies over the next five years. Training African technicians to use solar power is part of the China - Africa science and technology cooperation agreement signed by Chinese science minister Xu Guanhua and African counterparts during premier Wen Jiabao 's visit to Ethiopia in December 2003.
The New Partnership for Africa 's Development (NEPAD) is developing an integrated, continent - wide energy strategy. This has been funded by, amongst others, the African Development Bank (AfDB) and the EU - Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund. These projects must be sustainable, involve a cross-border dimension and / or have a regional impact, involve public and private capital, contribute to poverty alleviation and economic development, involve at least one country in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Radio is the major source of information in Sub-Saharan Africa. Average coverage stands at more than a third of the population. Countries such as Gabon, Seychelles, and South Africa boast almost 100 % penetration. Only five countries -- Burundi, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia -- still have a penetration of less than 10 %. Broadband penetration outside of South Africa has been limited where it is exorbitantly expensive. Access to the internet via cell phones is on the rise.
Television is the second major source of information. Because of power shortages, the spread of television viewing has been limited. Eight percent have television, a total of 62 million. But those in the television industry view the region as an untapped green market. Digital television and pay for service are on the rise.
According to researchers at the Overseas Development Institute, the lack of infrastructure in many developing countries represents one of the most significant limitations to economic growth and achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Less than 40 % of rural Africans live within two kilometers of an all - season road, the lowest level of rural accessibility in the developing world. Spending on roads averages just below 2 % of GDP with varying degree among countries. This compares with 1 % of GDP that is typical in industrialised countries, and 2 -- 3 % of GDP found in fast - growing emerging economies. Although the level of effort is high relative to the size of Africa 's economies, it remains little in absolute terms, with low - income countries spending an average of about US $7 per capita per year. Infrastructure investments and maintenance can be very expensive, especially in such as areas as landlocked, rural and sparsely populated countries in Africa.
Infrastructure investments contributed to Africa 's growth, and increased investment is necessary to maintain growth and tackle poverty. The returns to investment in infrastructure are very significant, with on average 30 -- 40 % returns for telecommunications (ICT) investments, over 40 % for electricity generation and 80 % for roads.
In Africa, it is argued that in order to meet the MDGs by 2015 infrastructure investments would need to reach about 15 % of GDP (around $93 billion a year). Currently, the source of financing varies significantly across sectors. Some sectors are dominated by state spending, others by overseas development aid (ODA) and yet others by private investors. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the state spends around $9.4 billion out of a total of $24.9 billion. In irrigation, SSA states represent almost all spending; in transport and energy a majority of investment is state spending; in ICT and water supply and sanitation, the private sector represents the majority of capital expenditure. Overall, aid, the private sector and non-OECD financiers between them exceed state spending. The private sector spending alone equals state capital expenditure, though the majority is focused on ICT infrastructure investments. External financing increased from $7 billion (2002) to $27 billion (2009). China, in particular, has emerged as an important investor.
The region is a major exporter to the world of gold, uranium, chrome, vanadium, antimony, coltan, bauxite, iron ore, copper and manganese. South Africa is a major exporter of manganese as well as Chromium. A 2001 estimate is that 42 % of the world 's reserves of chromium may be found in South Africa. South Africa is the largest producer of platinum, with 80 % of the total world 's annual mine production and 88 % of the world 's platinum reserve. Sub-Saharan Africa produces 33 % of the world 's bauxite with Guinea as the major supplier. Zambia is a major producer of copper. Democratic Republic of Congo is a major source of coltan. Production from Congo is very small but has 80 % of proven reserves. Sub-saharan Africa is a major producer of gold, producing up to 30 % of global production. Major suppliers are South Africa, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Guinea, and Mali. South Africa had been first in the world in terms of gold production since 1905, but in 2007 it moved to second place, according to GFMS, the precious metals consultancy. Uranium is major commodity from the region. Significant suppliers are Niger, Namibia, and South Africa. Namibia was the number one supplier from Sub-Saharan Africa in 2008. The region produces 49 % of the world 's diamonds.
By 2015, it is estimated that 25 % of North American oil will be from Sub-Saharan Africa, ahead of the Middle East. Sub-Saharan Africa has been the focus of an intense race for oil by the West, China, India, and other emerging economies, even though it holds only 10 % of proven oil reserves, less than the Middle East. This race has been referred to as the second Scramble for Africa. All reasons for this global scramble come from the reserves ' economic benefits. Transportation cost is low and no pipelines have to be laid as in Central Asia. Almost all reserves are offshore, so political turmoil within the host country will not directly interfere with operations. Sub-Saharan oil is viscous, with a very low sulfur content. This quickens the refining process and effectively reduces costs. New sources of oil are being located in Sub-Saharan Africa more frequently than anywhere else. Of all new sources of oil, 1⁄3 are in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Sub-Saharan Africa has more variety of grains than anywhere in the world. Between 13,000 and 11,000 BCE wild grains began to be collected as a source of food in the cataract region of the Nile, south of Egypt. The collecting of wild grains as source of food spread to Syria, parts of Turkey, and Iran by the eleventh millennium BCE. By the tenth and ninth millennia southwest Asians domesticated their wild grains, wheat, and barley after the notion of collecting wild grains spread from the Nile.
Numerous crops have been domesticated in the region and spread to other parts of the world. These crops included sorghum, castor beans, coffee, cotton okra, black - eyed peas, watermelon, gourd, and pearl millet. Other domesticated crops included teff, enset, African rice, yams, kola nuts, oil palm, and raffia palm.
Domesticated animals include the guinea fowl and the donkey.
Agriculture represents 20 % to 30 % of GDP and 50 % of exports. In some cases, 60 % to 90 % of the labor force are employed in agriculture. Most agricultural activity is subsistence farming. This has made agricultural activity vulnerable to climate change and global warming. Biotechnology has been advocated to create high yield, pest and environmentally resistant crops in the hands of small farmers. The Bill and Melinda Gates foundation is a strong advocate and donor to this cause. Biotechnology and GM crops have met resistance both by natives and environmental groups.
Cash crops include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar, and tobacco.
The OECD says Africa has the potential to become an agricultural superbloc if it can unlock the wealth of the savannahs by allowing farmers to use their land as collateral for credit. There is such international interest in Sub-Saharan agriculture, that the World Bank increased its financing of African agricultural programs to $1.3 billion in the 2011 fiscal year. Recently, there has been a trend to purchase large tracts of land in Sub-Sahara for agricultural use by developing countries. Early in 2009, George Soros highlighted a new farmland buying frenzy caused by growing population, scarce water supplies and climate change. Chinese interests bought up large swathes of Senegal to supply it with sesame. Aggressive moves by China, South Korea and Gulf states to buy vast tracts of agricultural land in Sub-Saharan Africa could soon be limited by a new global international protocol.
Forty percent of African scientists live in OECD countries, predominantly in Europe, the United States and Canada. This has been described as an African brain drain. According to Naledi Pandor, the South African Minister of Science and Technology, even with the drain enrollments in Sub-Saharan African universities tripled between 1991 and 2005, expanding at an annual rate of 8.7 %, which is one of the highest regional growth rates in the world. In the last 10 to 15 years interest in pursuing university level degrees abroad has increased. In some OECD countries, like the United States, Sub-Saharan Africans are the most educated immigrant group.
According to the CIA, low global literacy rates are concentrated in Sub-Saharan Africa, West Asia and South Asia. However, the literacy rates in Sub-Saharan Africa vary significantly between countries. The highest registered literacy rate in the region is in Zimbabwe (90.7 %; 2003 est.), while the lowest literacy rate is in South Sudan (27 %).
Sub-Saharan African countries spent an average of 0.3 % of their GDP on science and technology on in 2007. This represents an increase from US $1.8 billion in 2002 to US $2.8 billion in 2007, a 50 % increase in spending.
In 1987, the Bamako Initiative conference organised by the World Health Organization was held in Bamako, the capital of Mali, and helped reshape the health policy of Sub-Saharan Africa. The new strategy dramatically increased accessibility through community - based healthcare reform, resulting in more efficient and equitable provision of services. A comprehensive approach strategy was extended to all areas of health care, with subsequent improvement in the health care indicators and improvement in health care efficiency and cost.
In 2011, Sub-Saharan Africa was home to 69 % of all people living with HIV / AIDS worldwide. In response, a number of initiatives have been launched to educate the public on HIV / AIDS. Among these are combination prevention programmes, considered to be the most effective initiative, the abstinence, be faithful, use a condom campaign, and the Desmond Tutu HIV Foundation 's outreach programs. According to a 2013 special report issued by the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV / AIDS (UNAIDS), the number of HIV positive people in Africa receiving anti-retroviral treatment in 2012 was over seven times the number receiving treatment in 2005, with an almost 1 million added in the last year alone. The number of AIDS - related deaths in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2011 was 33 percent less than the number in 2005. The number of new HIV infections in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2011 was 25 percent less than the number in 2001.
Malaria is an endemic illness in Sub-Saharan Africa, where the majority of malaria cases and deaths worldwide occur. Routine immunization has been introduced in order to prevent measles. Onchocerciasis ("river blindness ''), a common cause of blindness, is also endemic to parts of the region. More than 99 % of people affected by the illness worldwide live in 31 countries therein. In response, the African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control (APOC) was launched in 1995 with the aim of controlling the disease. Maternal mortality is another challenge, with more than half of maternal deaths in the world occurring in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, there has generally been progress here as well, as a number of countries in the region have halved their levels of maternal mortality since 1990. Additionally, the African Union in July 2003 ratified the Maputo Protocol, which pledges to prohibit female genital mutilation (FGM).
National health systems vary between countries. In Ghana, most health care is provided by the government and largely administered by the Ministry of Health and Ghana Health Services. The healthcare system has five levels of providers: health posts which are first level primary care for rural areas, health centers and clinics, district hospitals, regional hospitals and tertiary hospitals. These programs are funded by the government of Ghana, financial credits, Internally Generated Fund (IGF), and Donors - pooled Health Fund.
African countries below the Sahara are largely Christian, while those above the Sahara, in North Africa, are predominantly Islamic. There are also Muslim majorities in parts of the Horn of Africa (Djibouti and Somalia) and in the Sahel and Sudan regions (the Gambia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Mali, Niger and Senegal), as well as significant Muslim communities in Ethiopia and Eritrea, and on the Swahili Coast (Tanzania and Kenya). Mauritius is the only country in Africa to have a Hindu majority.
Traditional African religions can be broken down into linguistic cultural groups, with common themes. Among Niger -- Congo - speakers is a belief in a creator God; ancestor spirits; territorial spirits; evil caused by human ill will and neglecting ancestor spirits; priest of territorial spirits. New world religions such as Santería, Vodun, and Candomblé, would be derived from this world view. Among Nilo - Saharan speakers is the belief in Divinity; evil is caused by divine judgement and retribution; prophets as middlemen between Divinity and man. Among Afro - Asiatic - speakers is henotheism, the belief in one 's own gods but accepting the existence of other gods; evil here is caused by malevolent spirits. The Semitic Abrahamic religion of Judaism is comparable to the latter world view. San religion is non-theistic but a belief in a Spirit or Power of existence which can be tapped in a trance - dance; trance - healers.
Traditional religions in Sub-Saharan Africa often display complex ontology, cosmology and metaphysics. Mythologies, for example, demonstrated the difficulty fathers of creation had in bringing about order from chaos. Order is what is right and natural and any deviation is chaos. Cosmology and ontology is also neither simple or linear. It defines duality, the material and immaterial, male and female, heaven and earth. Common principles of being and becoming are widespread: Among the Dogon, the principle of Amma (being) and Nummo (becoming), and among the Bambara, Pemba (being) and Faro (becoming).
Sub-Saharan traditional divination systems display great sophistication. For example, the bamana sand divination uses well established symbolic codes that can be reproduced using four bits or marks. A binary system of one or two marks are combined. Random outcomes are generated using a fractal recursive process. It is analogous to a digital circuit but can be reproduced on any surface with one or two marks. This system is widespread in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Sub-Saharan Africa is diverse, with many communities and villages, each with their own beliefs and traditions. Traditional African Societies are communal, they believe that the needs of the many far out weigh an individual needs and achievements. Basically, an individual 's keep must be shared with other extended family members. Extended families are made up of various individuals and families who have shared responsibilities within the community. This extended family is one of the core aspects of every African community. "An African will refer to an older person as auntie or uncle. Siblings of parents will be called father or mother rather than uncle and aunt. Cousins will be called brother or sister ''. This system can be very difficult for outsiders to understand; however, it is no less important. "Also reflecting their communal ethic, Africans are reluctant to stand out in a crowd or to appear different from their neighbors or colleagues, a result of social pressure to avoid offense to group standards and traditions. '' Women also have a very important role in African culture because they take care of the house and children. Traditionally "men do the heavy work of clearing and plowing the land, women sow the seeds, tend the fields, harvest the crops, haul the water, and bear the major burden for growing the family 's food ''. Despite their work in the fields women are expected to be subservient to men in some African cultures. "When young women migrate to cities, this imbalance between the sexes, as well as financial need, often causes young women of lower economic status, who lack education and job training, to have sexual relationships with older men who are established in their work or profession and can afford to support a girlfriend or two ''.
Traditional Sub-Saharan African music is as diverse as the region 's various populations. The common perception of Sub-Saharan African music is that it is rhythmic music centered around the drums. It is partially true. A large part of Sub-Saharan music, mainly among speakers of Niger -- Congo and Nilo - Saharan languages, is rhythmic and centered around the drum. Sub-Saharan music is polyrhythmic, usually consisting of multiple rhythms in one composition. Dance involves moving multiple body parts. These aspect of Sub-Saharan music has been transferred to the new world by enslaved Sub-Saharan Africans and can be seen in its influence on music forms as Samba, Jazz, Rhythm and Blues, Rock & Roll, Salsa, Reggae and Rap music.
But Sub-Saharan music involves a lot of music with strings, horns, and very little poly - rhythms. Music from the eastern sahel and along the nile, among the Nilo - Saharan, made extensive use of strings and horns in ancient times. Among the Afro - Asiatics, we see extensive use of string instruments. Dancing involve swaying body movements and footwork. Among the San is extensive use of string instruments with emphasis on footwork.
Modern Sub-Saharan African music has been influence by music from the New World (Jazz, Salsa, Rhythm and Blues etc.) vice versa being influenced by enslaved Sub-Saharan Africans. Popular styles are Mbalax in Senegal and Gambia, Highlife in Ghana, Zoblazo in Ivory Coast, Makossa in Cameroon, Soukous in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kizomba in Angola, and Mbaqanga in South Africa. New World styles like Salsa, R&B / Rap, Reggae, and Zouk also have widespread popularity.
The oldest abstract art in the world is a shell necklace, dated to 82,000 years in the Cave of Pigeons in Taforalt, eastern Morocco. The second oldest abstract form of art and the oldest rock art is found in the Blombos Cave at the Cape in South Africa, dated 77,000 years. Sub-Saharan Africa has some of the oldest and most varied style of rock art in the world.
Although Sub-Saharan African art is very diverse there are some common themes. One is the use of the human figure. Second, there is a preference for sculpture. Sub-Saharan African art is meant to be experienced in three dimensions, not two. A house is meant to be experienced from all angles. Third, art is meant to be performed. Sub-Saharan Africans have specific name for masks. The name incorporates the sculpture, the dance, and the spirit that incorporates the mask. The name denotes all three elements. Fourth, art that serves a practical function, utilitarian. The artist and craftsman are not separate. A sculpture shaped like a hand can be used as a stool. Fifth, the use of fractals or non-linear scaling. The shape of the whole is the shape of the parts at different scales. Before the discovery of fractal geometry), Leopold Sedar Senghor, Senegal 's first president, referred to this as "dynamic symmetry. '' William Fagg, the British art historian, compared it to the logarithmic mapping of natural growth by biologist D'Arcy Thompson. Lastly, Sub-Saharan African art is visually abstract, instead of naturalistic. Sub-Saharan African art represents spiritual notions, social norms, ideas, values, etc. An artist might exaggerated the head of a sculpture in relations to the body not because he does not know anatomy but because he wants to illustrate that the head is the seat of knowledge and wisdom. The visual abstraction of African art was very influential in the works of modernist artist like Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and Jacques Lipchitz.
Sub-Saharan African cuisine like everything about Africa is very diverse. A lot of regional overlapping occurs, but there are dominant elements region by region.
West African cuisine can be described as starchy, flavorfully spicey. Dishes include fufu, kenkey, couscous, garri, foutou, and banku. Ingredients are of native starchy tubers, yams, cocoyams, and cassava. Grains include millet, sorghum, and rice, usually in the sahel, are incorporated. Oils include palm oil and shea butter (sahel). One finds recipes that mixes fish and meat. Beverages are palm wine (sweet or sour) and millet beer. Roasting, baking, boiling, frying, mashing, and spicing are all cooking techniques.
Southeast African cuisine especially those of the Swahilis reflects its Islamic, geographical Indian Ocean cultural links. Dishes include ugali, sukumi wiki, and halva. Spices such as curry, saffron, cloves, cinnamon, pomegranate juice, cardamon, ghee, and sage are used, especially among Muslims. Meat includes cattle, sheep, and goats, but is rarely eaten since its viewed as currency and wealth.
In the Horn of Africa, pork and non-fish seafood is avoided by Christians and Muslims. Dairy products and all meats are avoided during lent by Ethiopians. Maize (corn) is a major staple. Cornmeal is used to make ugali, a popular dish with different names. Teff is used to make injera or canjeero (Somali) bread. Other important foods include enset, noog, lentils, rice, banana, leafy greens, chiles, peppers, coconut milk and tomatoes. Beverages are coffee (domesticated in Ethiopia), chai tea, fermented beer from banana or millet. Cooking techniques include roasting and marinating.
Central African cuisine connects with all major regions of Sub-Saharan Africa: Its cuisine reflects that. Ugali and fufu are eaten in the region. Central African cuisine is very starchy and spicy hot. Dominant crops include plantains, cassava, peanuts, chillis, and okra. Meats include beef, chicken, and sometimes exotic meats called bush meat (antelope, warthog, crocodile). Widespread spicy hot fish cuisine is one of the differentiating aspects. Mushroom is sometimes used as a meat substitute.
Traditional Southern African cuisine surrounds meat. Traditional society typically focused on raising, sheep, goats, and especially cattle. Dishes include braai (barbecue meat), sadza, bogobe, pap (fermented cornmeal), milk products (buttermilk, yoghurt). Crops utilised are sorghum, maize (corn), pumpkin beans, leafy greens, and cabbage. Beverages include ting (fermented sorghum or maize), milk, chibuku (milky beer). Influences from the Indian and Malay community can be seen its use of curries, sambals, pickled fish, fish stews, chutney, and samosa. European influences can be seen in cuisines like biltong (dried beef strips), potjies (stews of maize, onions, tomatoes), French wines, and crueler or koeksister (sugar syrup cookie).
Like most of the world, Sub-Saharan Africans have adopted Western - style clothing. In some country like Zambia, used Western clothing has flooded markets, causing great angst in the retail community. Sub-Saharan Africa boasts its own traditional clothing style. Cotton seems to be the dominant material.
In East Africa, one finds extensive use of cotton clothing. Shemma, shama, and kuta are types of Ethiopian clothing. Kanga are Swahili cloth that comes in rectangular shapes, made of pure cotton, and put together to make clothing. Kitenges are similar to kangas and kikoy, but are of a thicker cloth, and have an edging only on a long side. Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and South Sudan are some of the African countries where kitenge is worn. In Malawi, Namibia and Zambia, kitenge is known as Chitenge. One of the unique materials, which is not a fiber and is used to make clothing is barkcloth, an innovation of the Baganda people of Uganda. It came from the Mutuba tree (Ficus natalensis). On Madagascar a type of draped cloth called lamba is worn.
In West Africa, again cotton is the material of choice. In the Sahel and other parts of West Africa the boubou and kaftan style of clothing are featured. Kente cloth is created by the Akan people of Ghana and Ivory Coast, from silk of the various moth species in West Africa. Kente comes from the Ashanti twi word kenten which means basket. It is sometimes used to make dashiki and kufi. Adire is a type of Yoruba cloth that is starch resistant. Raffia cloth and barkcloth are also utilised in the region.
In Central Africa, the Kuba people developed raffia cloth from the raffia plant fibers. It was widely used in the region. Barkcloth was also extensively used.
In Southern Africa one finds numerous uses of animal hide and skins for clothing. The Ndau in central Mozambique and the Shona mix hide with barkcloth and cotton cloth. Cotton cloth is referred to as machira. Xhosa, Tswana, Sotho, and Swazi also made extensive use of hides. Hides come from cattle, sheep, goat, and elephant. Leopard skins were coveted and were a symbol of kingship in Zulu society. Skins were tanned to form leather, dyed, and embedded with beads.
Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sub-Saharan men are its main patrons. Major competitions include the African Champions League, a competition for the best clubs on the continent and the Confederation Cup, a competition primarily for the national cup winner of each African country. The Africa Cup of Nations is a competition of 16 national teams from various African countries held every two years. South Africa hosted the 2010 FIFA World Cup, a first for a Sub-Saharan country. In 2010, Cameroon played in the World Cup for the sixth time, which is the current record for a Sub-Saharan team. In 1996 Nigeria won the Olympic gold for football. In 2000 Cameroon maintained the continent 's supremacy by winning the title too. Momentous achievements for Sub-Saharan African football. Famous Sub-Saharan football stars include Abedi Pele, Emmanuel Adebayor, George Weah, Michael Essien, Didier Drogba, Roger Milla, Nwankwo Kanu, Jay - Jay Okocha, Bruce Grobbelaar, Samuel Eto'o, Kolo Touré, Yaya Touré, Sadio Mané and Pierre - Emerick Aubameyang. The most talented Sub-Saharan African football players find themselves courted and sought after by European leagues. There are currently more than 1000 Africans playing for European clubs. Sub-Saharan Africans have found themselves the target of racism by European fans. FIFA has been trying hard to crack down on racist outburst during games.
Rugby is also popular in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Confederation of African Rugby governs rugby games in the region. South Africa is a major force in the game and won the Rugby World Cup in 1995 and in 2007. Africa is also allotted one guaranteed qualifying place in the Rugby World Cup.
Boxing is also a popular sport. Battling Siki the first world champion to come out of Sub-Saharan Africa. Countries such as Nigeria, Ghana and South Africa have produced numerous professional world champions such as Dick Tiger, Hogan Bassey, Gerrie Coetzee, Samuel Peter, Azumah Nelson and Jake Matlala.
Cricket has a following. The African Cricket Association is an international body which oversees cricket in African countries. South Africa and Zimbabwe have their own governing bodies. In 2003 the Cricket World Cup was held in South Africa, first time it was held in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Over the years, Ethiopia and Kenya have produced many notable long - distance athletes. Each country has federations that identify and cultivate top talent. Athletes from Ethiopia and Kenya hold, save for two exceptions, all the men 's outdoor records for Olympic distance events from 800m to the marathon. Famous runners include Haile Gebrselassie, Kenenisa Bekele, Paul Tergat, and John Cheruiyot Korir.
The development of tourism in this region has been identified as having the ability to create jobs and improve the economy. South Africa, Namibia, Mauritius, Botswana, Ghana, Cape Verde, Tanzania, and Kenya have been identified as having well developed tourism industries. Cape Town and the surrounding area is very popular with tourists.
Only seven African countries are not geopolitically a part of Sub-Saharan Africa: Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, Western Sahara (claimed by Morocco) and Sudan, they form the UN subregion of Northern Africa which also makes up the largest bloc of the Arab World. Nevertheless, some international organisations include Sudan as part of Sub-Saharan Africa. Although a long - standing member of the Arab League, Sudan has around 30 % non-Arab populations in the west (Darfur, Masalit, Zaghawa), far north (Nubian) and south (Kordofan, Nuba). Mauritania and Niger only include a band of the Sahel along their southern borders. All other African countries have at least significant portions of their territory within Sub-Saharan Africa.
Depending on classification Sudan is often not considered part of Sub-Saharan Africa, as it is considered part of North Africa.
"Arab States ''. UNESCO.
Infosamak. "Centre for Marketing, Information and Advisory Services for Fishery Products in the Arab Region ''. Infosamak.
Halim Barakat, The Arab World: Society, Culture, and State, (University of California Press: 1993), p. 80
Khair El - Din Haseeb et al., The Future of the Arab Nation: Challenges and Options, 1 edition (Routledge: 1991), p. 54
John Markakis, Resource conflict in the Horn of Africa, (Sage: 1998), p. 39
Ḥagai Erlikh, The struggle over Eritrea, 1962 -- 1978: war and revolution in the Horn of Africa, (Hoover Institution Press: 1983), p. 59
Randall Fegley, Eritrea, (Clio Press: 1995), p. mxxxviii
Michael Frishkopf, Music and Media in the Arab World, (American University in Cairo Press: 2010), p. 61
"Sahara 's Abrupt Desertification Started By Changes In Earth 's Orbit, Accelerated By Atmospheric And Vegetation Feedbacks ''. Science Daily. Science Daily. 12 July 1999.
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who have the hosts of family feud been | Family Feud - wikipedia
Family Feud is an American television game show created by Mark Goodson where two families compete to name the most popular responses to survey questions in order to win cash and prizes. It is considered a spin - off of Match Game, whose panel included original host Richard Dawson.
The program premiered on ABC on July 12, 1976, and ran as part of its daytime schedule until June 14, 1985. The program was re-launched by CBS on July 4, 1988, and ran until September 10, 1993. Three separate editions for syndication were also produced. The first aired from September 19, 1977, to September 6, 1985. The second aired from September 19, 1988, to September 8, 1995. The current syndicated series premiered on September 20, 1999.
The ABC network version of the show and the first syndicated series were hosted by Richard Dawson. Ray Combs hosted the CBS series and the first six seasons of the accompanying syndicated version, then was replaced by Dawson for the final season. The 1999 syndicated series has been hosted by Louie Anderson (1999 -- 2002), Richard Karn (2002 -- 06), John O'Hurley (2006 -- 10), and Steve Harvey (2010 -- present). Announcers for the series have included Gene Wood (1976 -- 85, 1988 -- 95), Burton Richardson (1999 -- 2010, syndication; 2015 -- present, ABC), Joey Fatone (2010 -- 15), and Rubin Ervin (2015 -- present).
The program has spawned multiple regional adaptations in over 50 international markets outside the United States. Within a year of its debut, the original version became the number one game show in daytime television; however, as viewing habits changed, the ratings declined. Harvey 's takeover in 2010 increased Nielsen ratings significantly and eventually placed the program among the top five most popular syndicated television shows in the country. In 2013, TV Guide ranked Family Feud third in its list of the 60 greatest game shows of all time.
Two family teams of five contestants each compete to win cash and prizes. The original version of the show began with the families being introduced, seated opposite each other as if posing for family portraits, after which the host interviewed them.
Unlike most game shows, there is no minimum age necessary to participate in Family Feud. Each round begins with a "face - off '' question that serves as a toss - up between two opposing contestants. The host asks a survey question that was previously posed to a group of 100 people (e.g., "Name the hour that you get up on Sunday mornings. ''). A certain number of answers are concealed on the board, ranked by popularity of the survey 's responses. Only answers said by at least two people can appear on the board. The first contestant to buzz - in gives an answer; if it is the most popular, his / her family immediately wins the face - off. Otherwise, the opponent responds and the family member providing the higher - ranked answer wins. Ties are broken in favor of the contestant who buzzes - in first. If neither contestant 's answer is on the board, the other eight contestants have a chance to respond, one at a time from alternating sides, until an answer is revealed. The family that wins the face - off may choose to play the question or pass control to their opponents (except on the Combs version, when the family who won the face - off automatically gained control of the question).
The family with control of the question then tries to win the round by guessing all of the remaining concealed answers, with each member giving one answer in sequence. Giving an answer not on the board, or failing to respond within the allotted time, earns one strike. If the family earns three strikes, their opponents are given one chance to "steal '' the points for the round by guessing any remaining concealed answer; failing to do so awards the points back to the family that originally had control. Any answers on the board that have not been guessed are then revealed.
While a family has control of a question, the members are not allowed to discuss possible answers with one another; each person must respond individually. However, the opposing family may confer in preparation for an attempt to steal, and their captain must respond for them when such an attempt is made.
Answers are worth one point for every person in the 100 - member survey who gave them. The winning family in each round scores the total points for all revealed answers to that question, including those given during the face - off but excluding the one used to steal (if applicable). The number of answers on the board decreases from round to round, and as the game progresses, certain rounds are played for double or triple point value. The first family to score 300 points wins the game and advances to the Fast Money bonus round for a chance to win a cash bonus. Until 1992, both teams received $1 per point scored.
Prior to 1999, the game continued as normal until one family reached the necessary total to win. Since then, if neither team reaches the goal after four rounds (or, from 1999 to 2002, if both teams were tied with the same score after the final round), one last question is played for triple value with only the # 1 answer displayed.
The goal of 300 points has been in place in the rules of almost every version of the show. However, when the program premiered in 1976, the goal was 200 points. For the 1984 -- 85 season of both the daytime and syndicated program, the goal was increased to 400 points. For several seasons after the 1999 return to syndication, there was no specific point goal. Instead, four rounds were played, with the last for triple points and only one strike. The family with the most points after the fourth round won the game.
Two members of the winning family play Fast Money for a chance to win a cash bonus. One contestant is onstage with the host, while the other is sequestered backstage so that he / she can not hear the first portion of the round. The first contestant is asked five rapid - fire survey questions and has a set time limit in which to answer them (originally 15 seconds, extended to 20 in 1994). The clock begins to run only after the first question is asked, and the first contestant may pass on a question and return to it after all five have been asked, if time remains.
After the first contestant has either answered all five questions or run out of time, the host reveals how many people in the survey matched each of his / her answers. The board is then cleared except for the total score, and the second contestant is then brought out to answer the same five questions. The same rules are followed, but the time limit is extended by five seconds (originally 20, then extended to 25); in addition, if the second contestant duplicates an answer given by the first, a buzzer sounds and he / she must give another answer. If the two contestants reach a combined total of 200 points or more, the family wins the bonus. If not, they are given $5 per point scored as a consolation prize.
The grand prize for winning Fast Money has varied. When the program aired in daytime, families played for $5,000. The grand prize for syndicated episodes was $10,000 for much of its existence. In 2001, the prize was doubled to $20,000 at the request of then - host Louie Anderson.
When Family Feud premiered on ABC, network rules dictated how much a family could win. Once any family reached $25,000, they were retired as champions. The accompanying syndicated series that premiered in 1977 featured two new families each episode because of tape bicycling (a practice then common in syndicated television).
The CBS daytime and syndicated versions which began airing in 1988 also featured returning champions, who could appear for a maximum of five days. For a brief period in the 1994 -- 95 season which aired in syndication, there were no returning champions. For these episodes, two new families competed in this first half of each episode. The second half featured former champion families who appeared on Family Feud between 1977 and 1985, with the winner of the first half of the show playing one of these families in the second half.
From 1999 to 2002, two new families appeared on each episode. The returning champions rule was reinstated with the same five - day limit starting with the 2002 -- 03 season. Starting with the 2009 -- 10 season, a family that wins five matches also wins a new car.
In June 1992, the CBS daytime edition of Feud expanded from thirty to sixty minutes and became known as Family Feud Challenge. As part of the change, a new round was added at the start of each game called "Bullseye ''. This round determined the potential Fast Money stake for each team. Each team was given a starting value for their bank and attempted to come up with the top answer to a survey question to add to it. The Bullseye round was added to the syndicated edition in September 1992.
The first two members of each family appeared at the face - off podium and were asked a question to which only the number - one answer was available. Giving the top answer added the value for that question to the family 's bank. The process then repeated with the four remaining members from each family. On the first half of the daytime version, families were staked with $2,500. The first question was worth $500, with each succeeding question worth $500 more than the previous, with the final question worth $2,500. This allowed for a potential maximum bank of $10,000. For the second half of the daytime version, and also on the syndicated version, all values were doubled, making the maximum potential bank $20,000. The team that eventually won the game played for their bank in Fast Money.
When Richard Dawson returned as host of the program in 1994, the round 's name was changed to the "Bankroll '' round. Although the goal remained of giving only the number - one answer, the format was modified to three questions from five, with only one member of each family participating for all three questions. The initial stake for each family remained the same ($2,500 in the first half of the hour and $5,000 in the second). However, the value for each question was $500, $1,500 and $2,500 in the first half, with values doubling for the second half. This meant a potential maximum bank of $7,000 in the first half and $14,000 in the second.
The Bullseye round temporarily returned during the 2009 -- 10 season. It was played similarly as the format used from 1992 to 1994 on the syndicated version, with five questions worth from $1,000 to $5,000. However, each family was given a $15,000 starting stake, which meant a potential maximum of a $30,000 bank.
The ABC and first syndicated versions of Family Feud were hosted by Richard Dawson. As writer David Marc put it, Dawson 's on - air personality "fell somewhere between the brainless sincerity of Wink Martindale and the raunchy cynicism of Chuck Barris ''. Dawson showed himself to have insistent affections for all of the female members of each family that competed on the show, regardless of age. Writers Tim Brooks, Jon Ellowitz, and Earle F. Marsh owed Family Feud 's popularity to Dawson 's "glib familiarity '' (he had previously played Newkirk on Hogan 's Heroes) and "ready wit '' (from his tenure as a panelist on Match Game). The show 's original announcer was Gene Wood, with Johnny Gilbert and Rod Roddy serving as occasional substitutes.
In 1988, Ray Combs took over Dawson 's role as host on CBS and in syndication with Wood returning as announcer and Roddy, Art James, and Charlie O'Donnell serving in that role when Wood was not available. Combs hosted the program until the daytime version 's cancellation in 1993 and the syndicated version until the end of the 1993 -- 94 season. Dawson returned to the show at the request of Mark Goodson Productions for the 1994 -- 95 season.
When Feud returned to syndication in 1999, it was initially hosted by Louie Anderson, with Burton Richardson as the new announcer. Richard Karn was selected to take over for Anderson when season four premiered in 2002, and when season eight premiered in 2006, Karn was replaced by John O'Hurley. In 2010, both O'Hurley and Richardson departed from the show; comedian Steve Harvey was named the new host for season twelve, and a pre-recorded track of former ' N Sync member Joey Fatone 's voice was used until 2015, when Rubin Ervin, who has been a member of the production staff as the warmup man for the audience since Harvey took over, became the announcer. (Richardson still announces for Celebrity Family Feud.)
The first four versions of the show were directed by Paul Alter and produced by Howard Felsher and Cathy Dawson. For the 1988 versions, Gary Dawson worked with the show as a third producer, and Alter was joined by two other directors, Marc Breslow and Andy Felsher. The 1999 version 's main staff include executive producer Gabrielle Johnston, supervising producers Kristin Bjorklund and Brian Hawley, and director Ken Fuchs; Johnston and Bjorklund previously worked as associate producers of the 1980s version. The show 's classic theme tune was written by an uncredited Walt Levinsky for Score Productions. The themes used from 1999 to 2008 were written by John Lewis Parker. The production rights to the show were originally owned by the production company Goodson shared with his partner Bill Todman, but were sold to their current holder, FremantleMedia, when it acquired all of Goodson and Todman 's works in 2002.
Mark Goodson created Family Feud during the increasing popularity of his earlier game show Match Game, which set daytime ratings records in 1976, and on which Dawson had previously appeared as one of its most popular panelists. Match Game aired on CBS, and by 1976, CBS vice president Fred Silverman (who had originally commissioned Match Game) had moved to a new position as President of ABC. The show premiered on ABC 's daytime lineup at 1: 30 p.m. (EST) on July 12, 1976, and although it was not an immediate hit, before long it became a ratings winner and eventually surpassed Match Game to become the No. 1 game show in daytime. Due to the expansion of All My Children to one hour in April 1977 (taking up the entire 1 pm. to 2 p.m. hour), the show moved to 11: 30 a.m., as the second part of an hour that had daytime reruns of Happy Days (later Laverne & Shirley) as its lead - in. When $20,000 Pyramid was cancelled in June 1980, it moved a half - hour back to 12 noon. It remained the most popular daytime game show until Merv Griffin 's game show Wheel of Fortune surpassed it in 1984. From 1978 until 1984, ABC periodically broadcast hour - long primetime "All - Star Specials '', in which celebrity casts from various primetime lineup TV series competed instead of ordinary families. The popularity of the program inspired Goodson to consider producing a nighttime edition, which launched in syndication on September 18, 1977. Like many other game shows at the time, the nighttime Feud aired once a week; it expanded to twice a week in January 1979, and finally to five nights a week (Monday through Friday) in the fall of 1980. However, the viewing habits of both daytime and syndicated audiences were changing. When Griffin launched Wheel 's syndicated version, starring Pat Sajak and Vanna White, in 1983, that show climbed the ratings to the point where it unseated Feud as the highest - rated syndicated show; the syndicated premiere of Wheel 's sister show Jeopardy! with Alex Trebek as host also siphoned ratings from Feud with its early success. With declining ratings, and as part of a scheduling reshuffle with two of ABC 's half - hour soaps, the show moved back to the 11: 30 a.m. timeslot in October 1984, as the second part of a one - hour game show block with Trivia Trap (later All - Star Blitz) as its lead in, hoping to make a dent in the ratings of The Price is Right.
Despite the ratings decline, there was some interest in keeping the show in production. In a 2011 interview, Dawson recalled a meeting with executives from Viacom Enterprises about keeping the show for one more season. Dawson was growing tired of the grueling taping schedule and initially wanted to stop altogether. After discussing the situation with ABC and Viacom, Dawson said that he would return for a final syndicated season of thirty - nine weeks of episodes but would not continue doing the daytime series. After this, Dawson did not hear from Viacom for approximately a week and once they contacted him again, Dawson was told that Viacom was no longer interested in continuing the syndicated Feud beyond the 1984 -- 85 season. Viacom made this official in January 1985 ahead of that year 's NATPE convention, and within a few weeks, ABC decided that it too would not renew Feud for the 1985 -- 86 season. The daytime version came to an end on June 14, 1985. The syndicated version aired its last new episode on May 17, 1985, and continued to air in reruns after that until September 6, 1985.
Family Feud moved to CBS with Combs hosting on July 4, 1988 at 10: 00 a.m. (EST), replacing The $25,000 Pyramid. Like its predecessor, this version also had an accompanying syndicated edition which launched in September of that year. It moved to 10: 30 a.m. in January 1991 to make room for a short - lived talk show starring Barbara DeAngelis. At that timeslot, it replaced the daytime Wheel of Fortune which moved back to NBC. In June 1992, the network version expanded from its original half - hour format to a full hour from 10 a.m. - 11 a.m., and was retitled The Family Feud Challenge; this new format featured three families per episode, which included two new families competing in the first half - hour for the right to play the returning champions in the second half. The Family Feud Challenge aired its final new episode on March 26, 1993, with reruns airing until September 10. The syndicated Feud, meanwhile, remained in production and entered its sixth season in the fall of 1993.
However, the ratings picture was not particularly good for the syndicated edition. For much of its run to this point, the syndicated Feud had to deal with stations dropping the series or moving it to undesirable time slots such as overnights. By 1992, the ratings had hit a low point and by the time the sixth season premiered, distributor All American Television was threatening to cancel the series unless ratings improved and changes were made. The responsibility for this fell on Jonathan Goodson, who had taken over his father 's company when Mark Goodson died in 1992. One of the options considered was a host change.
When the revival launched in 1988, Mark Goodson had not even considered former host Richard Dawson to return due to lingering bad feelings between Dawson and the production team. After hiring Ray Combs, Goodson threw his loyalties behind him and refused to consider changing hosts despite the slipping ratings. However, the younger Goodson did not have the ties to Combs that his father did and felt that a change would at least require consideration. After meeting with his staff, Goodson offered Dawson a contract to return as host of the syndicated Feud and the semi-retired Dawson agreed to return. Combs finished out the remainder of the season but, upset by the decision to replace him, he departed from the studio as soon as he signed off on the final episode of his tenure.
A revamped Family Feud returned for a seventh season in September 1994 with Dawson in his role as host. The show expanded from thirty to sixty minutes, reinstated the Family Feud Challenge format, and did various other things to try to improve the ratings of the show such as build a more modern - looking set, feature families that had previously been champions on the original Feud, and have more themed weeks. Although Dawson did bring a brief ratings surge when he came back, the show could not sustain it long term and Feud came to a conclusion at the end of the 1994 -- 95 season.
Family Feud returned in syndication on September 20, 1999, with comedian Louie Anderson as host. After Richard Karn took over the show, the format was changed to reintroduce returning champions, allowing them to appear for up to five days. However, even after Karn 's takeover, Anderson - hosted episodes continued in reruns that aired on PAX TV / Ion Television. In John O'Hurley's later days, the show 's Nielsen ratings were at 1.5 (putting it in danger of cancellation), but when comedian Steve Harvey took over, ratings increased by as much as 40 %, and within two short years, the show was rated at 4.0, and had become the fifth most popular syndicated program. Fox News ' Paulette Cohn argued that Harvey 's "relatability, '' or "understanding of what the people at home want to know, '' is what saved the show from cancellation; Harvey himself argued, "If someone said an answer that was so ridiculous, I knew that the people at home behind the camera had to be going, ' What did they just say? '... They gave this answer that does n't have a shot in hell of being up there. The fact that I recognize that, that 's comedic genius to me. I think that 's (made) the difference. ''
Since Harvey became host, Family Feud has regularly ranked among the top 10 highest - rated programs in all of daytime television programming and third among game shows (behind Wheel of Fortune and Jeopardy!); in February 2014, the show achieved a 6.0 share in the Nielsen ratings, with approximately 8.8 million viewers. In June 2015, Family Feud eclipsed Wheel of Fortune as the most - watched syndicated game show on television.
Reruns of the Dawson, Combs, and Anderson hosted episodes have been included among Buzzr 's acquisitions since its launch on June 1, 2015. On June 13, 2016, American episodes hosted by Harvey began airing on the UK digital terrestrial and satellite channel Challenge.
Production of Family Feud was shifted from Universal Orlando to Harvey 's hometown of Atlanta in 2011, primarily at the Atlanta Civic Center. Harvey was also originating a syndicated radio show from Atlanta, and the state of Georgia also issued tax credits for the production. In 2017, production moved to Los Angeles Center Studios in Los Angeles to accommodate Harvey 's new syndicated talk show Steve, returning production of the regular series back to Los Angeles for the first time since 2010.
Family Feud won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show in 1977, and the show has twice won the Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Game Show Host, once with Dawson (1978) and again with Harvey (2014) and (2017). Feud ranked number 3 on Game Show Network (GSN) 's 2006 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time, and also on TV Guide 's 2013 list of the 60 greatest game shows ever.
Tara Ariano and Sarah D. Bunting, founders of the website Television Without Pity, wrote that they hated the 1999 syndicated version, saying "Give us classic Feud every time '', citing both Dawson and Combs as hosts. Additionally, they called Anderson an "alleged sexual harasser and full - time sphere ''.
It was reported that the public responded negatively to several videos posted on the official Family Feud web site in September 2015 in which contestants on the current version gave sexually explicit answers to survey questions. Dan Gainor of the Media Research Center suggested that the responses are in line with sexual content becoming more commonplace on television.
The popularity of Family Feud in the United States has led it to become a worldwide franchise, with over 50 adaptations outside the United States. Countries that have aired their own versions of the show include Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Philippines, Poland, Russia, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and Vietnam, among others.
Since the show 's premiere in 1976, many home versions of Family Feud have been released in various formats. Milton Bradley, Pressman Games, and Endless Games have all released traditional board games based on the show, while Imagination Entertainment released the program in a DVD game format.
The game has been released in other formats by multiple companies; Coleco Adam released the first computer version of the show in 1983, and Sharedata followed in 1987 with versions for MS - DOS, Commodore 64, and Apple II computers. GameTek released versions for Nintendo Entertainment System, Super NES, Genesis, 3DO, and PC (on CD - ROM) between 1990 and 1995. Hasbro Interactive released a version in 2000 for the PC and PlayStation. In 2006, versions were released for PlayStation 2, Game Boy Advance, and PC. Seattle - based Mobliss Inc. also released a mobile version of Family Feud that was available on Sprint, Verizon, and Cingular. Glu Mobile later released a newer mobile version of Family Feud for other carriers.
Most recently, in conjunction with Ludia, Ubisoft has video games for multiple platforms. The first of these was entitled Family Feud: 2010 Edition and was released for the Wii, Nintendo DS, and PC in September 2009. Ubisoft then released Family Feud Decades the next year, which featured sets and survey questions from television versions of all four decades the show has been on air. A third game, entitled Family Feud: 2012 Edition was released for the Wii and Xbox 360 in 2011.
In addition to the home games, a DVD set titled All - Star Family Feud was released on January 8, 2008 and featured a total of 15 celebrity episodes from the original ABC / syndicated versions on its four discs. It was re-issued as The Best of All - Star Family Feud on February 2, 2010.
Schwartz, David; Ryan, Steve & Wostbrock, Fred (1999). The Encyclopedia of TV Game Shows (3rd ed.). New York: Facts on File. ISBN 0 - 8160 - 3846 - 5.
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who has the sole power to call for impeachment | Impeachment in the United States - wikipedia
Impeachment in the United States is the process by which the lower house of a legislature brings charges against a civil officer of government for crimes alleged to have been committed, analogous to the bringing of an indictment by a grand jury. At the federal level, this is at the discretion of the House of Representatives. Most impeachments have concerned alleged crimes committed while in office, though there have been a few cases in which officials have been impeached and subsequently convicted for crimes committed prior to taking office. The impeached official remains in office until a trial is held. That trial, and their removal from office if convicted, is separate from the act of impeachment itself. Analogous to a trial before a judge and jury, these proceedings are (where the legislature is bicameral) conducted by upper house of the legislature, which at the federal level is the Senate.
At the federal level, Article I, Section 2, Clause 5 of the Constitution grants to the House of Representatives "the sole power of impeachment '', and Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 grants to the Senate "the sole Power to try all Impeachments ''. In considering articles of impeachment, the House is obligated to base any charges on the constitutional standards specified in Article II, Section 4: "The President, Vice President, and all civil Officers of the United States shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other High Crimes and Misdemeanors ''. (Full text of clauses)
Impeachment can also occur at the state level. Each state 's legislature can impeach state officials, including the governor, in accordance with their respective state constitution.
The number of federal officials impeached by the House of Representatives includes two presidents: Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton; both were later acquitted by the Senate. Additionally, an impeachment process against Richard Nixon was commenced, but not completed, as he resigned from office before the full House voted on the articles of impeachment. To date, no president has been removed from office by impeachment and conviction.
Impeachment proceedings may be commenced by a member of the House of Representatives on his or her own initiative, either by presenting a list of the charges under oath or by asking for referral to the appropriate committee. The impeachment process may be initiated by non-members. For example, when the Judicial Conference of the United States suggests a federal judge be impeached, a charge of actions constituting grounds for impeachment may come from a special prosecutor, the President, or state or territorial legislature, grand jury, or by petition.
The type of impeachment resolution determines the committee to which it is referred. A resolution impeaching a particular individual is typically referred to the House Committee on the Judiciary. A resolution to authorize an investigation regarding impeachable conduct is referred to the House Committee on Rules, and then to the Judiciary Committee. The House Committee on the Judiciary, by majority vote, will determine whether grounds for impeachment exist. If the Committee finds grounds for impeachment, it will set forth specific allegations of misconduct in one or more articles of impeachment. The Impeachment Resolution, or Articles of Impeachment, are then reported to the full House with the committee 's recommendations.
The House debates the resolution and may at the conclusion consider the resolution as a whole or vote on each article of impeachment individually. A simple majority of those present and voting is required for each article for the resolution as a whole to pass. If the House votes to impeach, managers (typically referred to as "House managers '', with a "lead House manager '') are selected to present the case to the Senate. Recently, managers have been selected by resolution, while historically the House would occasionally elect the managers or pass a resolution allowing the appointment of managers at the discretion of the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives. These managers are roughly the equivalent of the prosecution or district attorney in a standard criminal trial.
Also, the House will adopt a resolution in order to notify the Senate of its action. After receiving the notice, the Senate will adopt an order notifying the House that it is ready to receive the managers. The House managers then appear before the bar of the Senate and exhibit the articles of impeachment. After the reading of the charges, the managers return and make a verbal report to the House.
The proceedings unfold in the form of a trial, with each side having the right to call witnesses and perform cross-examinations. The House members, who are given the collective title of managers during the course of the trial, present the prosecution case, and the impeached official has the right to mount a defense with his or her own attorneys as well. Senators must also take an oath or affirmation that they will perform their duties honestly and with due diligence. After hearing the charges, the Senate usually deliberates in private. The Constitution requires a two - thirds super majority to convict a person being impeached. The Senate enters judgment on its decision, whether that be to convict or acquit, and a copy of the judgment is filed with the Secretary of State. Upon conviction in the Senate, the official is automatically removed from office and may also be barred from holding future office. The trial is not an actual criminal proceeding and more closely resembles a civil service termination appeal in terms of the contemplated deprivation, therefore the removed official may still be liable to criminal prosecution under a subsequent criminal proceeding, which the Constitution specifically indicates. The President may not grant a pardon in the impeachment case, but may in any resulting Federal criminal case.
Beginning in the 1980s with Harry E. Claiborne, the Senate began using "Impeachment Trial Committees '' pursuant to Senate Rule XI. These committees presided over the evidentiary phase of the trials, hearing the evidence and supervising the examination and cross-examination of witnesses. The committees would then compile the evidentiary record and present it to the Senate; all senators would then have the opportunity to review the evidence before the chamber voted to convict or acquit. The purpose of the committees was to streamline impeachment trials, which otherwise would have taken up a great deal of the chamber 's time. Defendants challenged the use of these committees, claiming them to be a violation of their fair trial rights as this did not meet the constitutional requirement for their cases to be "tried by the Senate ''. Several impeached judges, including District Court Judge Walter Nixon, sought court intervention in their impeachment proceedings on these grounds. In Nixon v. United States (1993), the Supreme Court determined that the federal judiciary could not review such proceedings, as matters related to impeachment trials are political questions and could not be resolved in the courts.
In the United Kingdom, impeachment was a procedure whereby a member of the House of Commons could accuse someone of a crime. If the Commons voted for the impeachment, a trial would then be held in the House of Lords. Unlike a bill of attainder, a law declaring a person guilty of a crime, impeachments did not require royal assent, so they could be used to remove troublesome officers of the Crown even if the monarch was trying to protect them.
The monarch, however, was above the law and could not be impeached, or indeed judged guilty of any crime. When King Charles I was tried before the Rump Parliament of the New Model Army in 1649 he denied that they had any right to legally indict him, their king, whose power was given by God and the laws of the country, saying: "no earthly power can justly call me (who is your King) in question as a delinquent... no learned lawyer will affirm that an impeachment can lie against the King. '' While the House of Commons pronounced him guilty and ordered his execution anyway, the jurisdictional issue tainted the proceedings.
With this example in mind, the delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention chose to include an impeachment procedure in Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution which could be applied to any government official; they explicitly mentioned the President to ensure there would be no ambiguity. Opinions differed, however, as to the reasons Congress should be able to initiate an impeachment. Initial drafts listed only treason and bribery, but George Mason favored impeachment for "maladministration '' (incompetence). James Madison argued that impeachment should only be for criminal behavior, arguing that a maladministration standard would effectively mean that the President would serve at the pleasure of the Senate. Thus the delegates adopted a compromise version allowing impeachment for "treason, bribery and other high crimes and misdemeanors ''.
The precise meaning of the phrase "high crimes and misdemeanors '' is somewhat ambiguous; some scholars, such as Kevin Gutzman, argue that it can encompass even non-criminal abuses of power. Whatever its theoretical scope, however, Congress traditionally regards impeachment as a power to use only in extreme cases. The House of Representatives has actually initiated impeachment proceedings 62 times since 1789. Two cases did not come to trial because the individuals had left office.
Actual impeachments of 19 federal officers have taken place. Of these, 15 were federal judges: thirteen district court judges, one court of appeals judge (who also sat on the Commerce Court), and one Supreme Court Associate Justice. Of the other four, two were Presidents, one was a Cabinet secretary, and one was a U.S. Senator. Of the 19 impeached officials, eight were convicted. One, former judge Alcee Hastings, was elected as a member of the United States House of Representatives after being removed from office.
The 1797 impeachment of Senator William Blount of Tennessee stalled on the grounds that the Senate lacked jurisdiction over him. No other member of Congress has ever been impeached. The Constitution does give authority to the Senate and House, so that each body may expel its own members. (see List of United States senators expelled or censured and List of United States Representatives expelled, censured, or reprimanded). Expulsion removes the individual from functioning as a representative or senator because of their misbehavior, but unlike impeachment, expulsion can not result in barring an individual from holding future office.
While the actual impeachment of a federal public official is a rare event, demands for impeachment, especially of presidents, are common, going back to the administration of George Washington in the mid-1790s.
While almost all of them were for the most part frivolous and were buried as soon as they were introduced, several did have their intended effect. Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon and Supreme Court Justice Abe Fortas both resigned in response to the threat of impeachment hearings, and, most famously, President Richard Nixon resigned from office after the House Judiciary Committee had already reported articles of impeachment to the floor.
State legislatures can impeach state officials, including governors, in every State except Oregon. The court for the trial of impeachments may differ somewhat from the federal model -- in New York, for instance, the Assembly (lower house) impeaches, and the State Senate tries the case, but the members of the seven - judge New York State Court of Appeals (the state 's highest, constitutional court) sit with the senators as jurors as well. Impeachment and removal of governors has happened occasionally throughout the history of the United States, usually for corruption charges. A total of at least eleven U.S. state governors have faced an impeachment trial; a twelfth, Governor Lee Cruce of Oklahoma, escaped impeachment conviction by a single vote in 1912. Several others, most recently Missouri 's Eric Greitens, have resigned rather than face impeachment, when events seemed to make it inevitable. The most recent impeachment of a state governor occurred on January 14, 2009, when the Illinois House of Representatives voted 117 -- 1 to impeach Rod Blagojevich on corruption charges; he was subsequently removed from office and barred from holding future office by the Illinois Senate on January 29. He was the eighth U.S. state governor to be removed from office.
The procedure for impeachment, or removal, of local officials varies widely. For instance, in New York a mayor is removed directly by the governor "upon being heard '' on charges -- the law makes no further specification of what charges are necessary or what the governor must find in order to remove a mayor.
In 2018, the entire Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia was impeached, something that has been often threatened, but had never happened before.
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un convention against the recruitment use financing and training of mercenaries | United Nations mercenary convention - wikipedia
The United Nations Mercenary Convention, officially the International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries, is a 2001 United Nations treaty that prohibits the recruitment, training, use, and financing of mercenaries. At the 72nd plenary meeting on 4 December 1989, the United Nations General Assembly concluded the convention as its resolution 44 / 34. The convention entered into force on 20 October 2001 and has been ratified by 35 states.
Countries with large militaries that have not ratified the convention include China, France, India, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Article 1 of the Convention has the following definition of a mercenary:
1. A mercenary is any person who:
2. A mercenary is also any person who, in any other situation:
One time Judge Advocate Todds S. Milliard has argued that the convention and Article 47 of Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I) are designed to cover the activities of mercenaries in post colonial Africa, and do not address adequately the use of private military companies by sovereign states.
As of December 2016, the convention had been ratified by 35 states.
Below are the states that have signed, ratified or acceded to the convention.
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after the civil war what did the republicans rename their party | National Union party (United States) - wikipedia
The National Union Party was the temporary name used by the Republican Party for the national ticket in the 1864 presidential election which was held during the Civil War. For the most part, state Republican parties did not change their name. The temporary name was used to attract War Democrats and border state, Unconditional Unionists and Unionist Party members who would not vote for the Republican Party. The party nominated incumbent President Abraham Lincoln and for Vice President Democrat Andrew Johnson, who were elected in an electoral landslide.
The National Union Party was created in 1864 prior to the end of the Civil War. A faction of anti-Lincoln Radical Republicans held the belief that Lincoln was incompetent and therefore could not be re-elected. A number of Radical Republicans formed a party called the Radical Democracy Party and a few hundred delegates in Cleveland starting on May 31, 1864, eventually nominating John C. Frémont, who had also been the Republicans ' first presidential standard - bearer during the 1856 presidential election.
Republicans loyal to Lincoln created a new name for their party in convention at Baltimore, Maryland during the first week in June 1864 in order to accommodate the War Democrats who supported the war and wished to separate themselves from the Copperheads. This is the main reason why War Democrat Andrew Johnson was selected to be the vice presidential nominee as then - current Vice President Hannibal Hamlin was not nominated. The National Unionists supporting the Lincoln -- Johnson ticket also hoped that the new party would stress the national character of the war.
The convention 's temporary chairman, Robert Jefferson Breckinridge of Kentucky, explained that he could support Lincoln on this new ticket for the following reason:
As a Union party I will follow you to the ends of the earth, and to the gates of death. But as an Abolition party, as a Republican party, as a Whig party, as a Democratic party, as an American (Know - Nothing) party, I will not follow you one foot.
The National Union Party adopted the following goals as its platform:
(P) ursuit of the war until the Confederacy surrendered unconditionally; a constitutional amendment for the abolition of slavery; aid to disabled Union veterans; continued European neutrality; enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine; encouragement of immigration; and construction of a transcontinental railroad. It also praised the use of black troops and Lincoln 's management of the war.
News of his nomination at the 1864 National Union Convention elicited Lincoln 's famous response on June 9, 1864:
I am very grateful for the renewed confidence which has been accorded to me, both by the convention and by the National (Union) League. I am not insensible at all to the personal compliment there is in this; yet I do not allow myself to believe that any but a small portion of it is to be appropriated as a personal compliment. The convention and the nation, I am assured, are alike animated by a higher view of the interests of the country for the present and the great future, and that part I am entitled to appropriate as a compliment is only that part which I may lay hold of as being the opinion of the convention and of the League, that I am not entirely unworthy to be entrusted with the place I have occupied for the last three years. I have not permitted myself, gentlemen, to conclude that I am the best man in the country; but I am reminded, in this connection, of a story of an old Dutch farmer, who remarked to a companion once that ' it was not best to swap horses when crossing streams. '
In August 1864, Lincoln wrote and signed a pledge that should he lose the election, he would nonetheless defeat the Confederacy by an all - out military effort before turning over the White House:
This morning, as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that this Administration will not be re-elected. Then it will be my duty to so co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he can not possibly save it afterward.
Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet, but asked them to sign the sealed envelope.
The complexion of the war changed as the election approached. Confederate Commander Robert E. Lee 's last victory in battle occurred June 3, 1864 at Cold Harbor. Union General Ulysses S. Grant 's aggressive tactics trapped Lee in the trenches defending Richmond. Admiral David Farragut successfully shut down Mobile Bay as a Confederate resource in the Battle of Mobile Bay on August 3 -- 23, 1864. Most decisive of all, Union General William Tecumseh Sherman captured Atlanta on September 1, 1864, convincing even the pessimists that the Confederacy was collapsing.
Frémont and his fellow Republicans hated their former ally Postmaster General Montgomery Blair. Frémont, aware that his candidacy could result in victory for the Democrats, made a deal to drop out of the presidential race in exchange for Blair 's removal from office. On September 22, 1864, Frémont dropped out of the race. On September 23, Lincoln asked for and received Blair 's resignation. The National Union ticket went on to win handily in the election of 1864, defeating the Democratic ticket of General George B. McClellan (whom Lincoln had previously relieved of his command) and George H. Pendleton.
In the 1864 congressional elections, the party won 42 Senate seats (out of 54 senators seated, not including vacancies due to the secession of Confederate states) and 149 seats (out of 193) in the House of Representatives. These candidates ran under various party names, including National Union, Republican and Unconditional Union, but were part of the overall Republican / National Union effort.
Upon Lincoln 's death in 1865, Andrew Johnson became the only other National Union President.
After the bitter break with the Republicans in Congress over Reconstruction policies, Johnson used federal patronage to build up a party of loyalists, but it proved to be unsuccessful. Johnson 's friends sponsored the 1866 National Union Convention in August 1866 in Philadelphia as part of his attempt at maintaining a coalition of supporters. The convention sought to bring together moderate and conservative Republicans and defecting Democrats and forge an unbeatable coalition behind President Johnson and his Reconstruction policy.
In the fall of 1866, Johnson embarked upon a speaking tour (known as the "Swing Around the Circle '') before the 1866 Congressional elections to attempt to garner support for his policies. His swing was heavily ridiculed and proved ineffective as more of his opponents were elected. Republican National Committee chairman Henry Jarvis Raymond (1864 -- 1866) lost the regard of the Republicans for his participation in the convention. The National Union movement became little more than the Democratic Party in a new form as Republicans left the movement and returned to the old party fold by the fall.
The last congressman to represent the National Union Party ended his affiliation with the party in March 1867. Johnson was impeached by the Republican - led House of Representatives in 1868 and was acquitted in the Senate by one vote. Upon the 1869 expiration of Johnson 's only term as President, the National Union Party came to an end. The platform adopted at the 1868 Republican National Convention strongly repudiated President Johnson while the platform adopted by the 1868 Democratic National Convention thanked Johnson. Johnson received dozens of votes on the first ballot of the Democratic convention, but the party ultimately nominated Horatio Seymour. Meanwhile, the mainline Republicans decided at their 1868 national convention to use the term the National Union Republican Convention. The 1868 National Union Republican delegates nominated Ulysses S. Grant for President and his running mate Schuyler Colfax for Vice President. In 1872, all reference to Union had disappeared. Historians regard the initial National Union coalition assembled in 1864 as part of the Republican Party lineage and heritage.
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when did the king james bible come out | King James Version - wikipedia
The King James Version (KJV), also known as the King James Bible (KJB) or simply the Authorized Version (AV), is an English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England begun in 1604 and completed in 1611. The books of the King James Version include the 39 books of the Old Testament, an intertestamental section containing 14 books of the Apocrypha (most of which correspond to books in the Vulgate Deuterocanon adhered to by Roman Catholics), and the 27 books of the New Testament.
It was first printed by the King 's Printer Robert Barker and was the third translation into English approved by the English Church authorities. The first had been the Great Bible, commissioned in the reign of King Henry VIII (1535), and the second had been the Bishops ' Bible of 1568. In January 1604, James VI and I convened the Hampton Court Conference, where a new English version was conceived in response to the problems of the earlier translations perceived by the Puritans, a faction of the Church of England. The translation is noted for its "majesty of style '', and has been described as one of the most important books in English culture and a driving force in the shaping of the English - speaking world.
James gave the translators instructions intended to ensure that the new version would conform to the ecclesiology and reflect the episcopal structure of the Church of England and its belief in an ordained clergy. The translation was done by 47 scholars, all of whom were members of the Church of England. In common with most other translations of the period, the New Testament was translated from Greek, the Old Testament from Hebrew and Aramaic, and the Apocrypha from Greek and Latin. In the Book of Common Prayer (1662), the text of the Authorized Version replaced the text of the Great Bible for Epistle and Gospel readings (but not for the Psalter, which substantially retained Coverdale 's Great Bible version) and as such was authorised by Act of Parliament.
By the first half of the 18th century, the Authorized Version had become effectively unchallenged as the English translation used in Anglican and English Protestant churches, except for the Psalms and some short passages in the Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England. Over the course of the 18th century, the Authorized Version supplanted the Latin Vulgate as the standard version of scripture for English - speaking scholars. With the development of stereotype printing at the beginning of the 19th century, this version of the Bible became the most widely printed book in history, almost all such printings presenting the standard text of 1769 extensively re-edited by Benjamin Blayney at Oxford, and nearly always omitting the books of the Apocrypha. Today the unqualified title "King James Version '' usually indicates that this Oxford standard text is meant.
The title of the first edition of the translation, in Early Modern English, was "THE HOLY BIBLE, Conteyning the Old Testament, AND THE NEW: Newly Translated out of the Originall tongues: & with the former Translations diligently compared and reuised, by his Maiesties speciall Comandement ''. The title page carries the words "Appointed to be read in Churches '', and F.F. Bruce suggests it was "probably authorised by order in council '' but no record of the authorisation survives "because the Privy Council registers from 1600 to 1613 were destroyed by fire in January 1618 / 19 ''.
For many years it was common not to give the translation any specific name. In his Leviathan of 1651, Thomas Hobbes referred to it as the English Translation made in the beginning of the Reign of King James. A 1761 "Brief Account of the various Translations of the Bible into English '' refers to the 1611 version merely as a new, compleat, and more accurate Translation, despite referring to the Great Bible by its name, and despite using the name "Rhemish Testament '' for the Douay - Rheims Bible version. Similarly, a "History of England '', whose fifth edition was published in 1775, writes merely that (a) new translation of the Bible, viz., that now in Use, was begun in 1607, and published in 1611.
King James 's Bible is used as the name for the 1611 translation (on a par with the "Genevan Bible '' or the "Rhemish Testament '') in Charles Butler 's Horae Biblicae (first published 1797). Other works from the early 19th century confirm the widespread use of this name on both sides of the Atlantic: it is found both in a "Historical sketch of the English translations of the Bible '' published in Massachusetts in 1815, and in an English publication from 1818, which explicitly states that the 1611 version is "generally known by the name of King James 's Bible ''. This name was also found as King James ' Bible (without the final "s ''): for example in a book review from 1811. The phrase "King James 's Bible '' is used as far back as 1715, although in this case it is not clear whether this is a name or merely a description.
The use of Authorized Version or Authorised Version, capitalized and used as a name, is found as early as 1814. For some time before this, descriptive phrases such as "our present, and only publicly authorised version '' (1783), "our Authorised version '' (1792), and "the authorized version '' (1801, uncapitalized) are found. The Oxford English Dictionary records a usage in 1824. In Britain, the 1611 translation is generally known as the "Authorised Version '' today.
As early as 1814, we find King James ' version, evidently a descriptive phrase, being used. "The King James Version '' is found, unequivocally used as a name, in a letter from 1855. The next year King James Bible, with no possessive, appears as a name in a Scottish source. In the United States, the "1611 translation '' (actually editions following the standard text of 1769, see below) is generally known as the King James Version today.
The followers of John Wycliffe undertook the first complete English translations of the Christian scriptures in the 14th century. These translations were banned in 1409 due to their association with the Lollards. The Wycliffe Bible pre-dated the printing press but was circulated very widely in manuscript form, often inscribed with a date earlier than 1409 to avoid the legal ban. As the text translated in the various versions of the Wycliffe Bible was the Latin Vulgate, and as it contained no heterodox readings, there was in practice no way by which the ecclesiastical authorities could distinguish the banned version; consequently many Catholic commentators of the 15th and 16th centuries (such as Thomas More) took these manuscript English Bibles to represent an anonymous earlier orthodox translation.
In 1525, William Tyndale, an English contemporary of Martin Luther, undertook a translation of the New Testament. Tyndale 's translation was the first printed Bible in English. Over the next ten years, Tyndale revised his New Testament in the light of rapidly advancing biblical scholarship, and embarked on a translation of the Old Testament. Despite some controversial translation choices, and in spite of Tyndale 's execution on charges of heresy for having made the translated bible, the merits of Tyndale 's work and prose style made his translation the ultimate basis for all subsequent renditions into Early Modern English. With these translations lightly edited and adapted by Myles Coverdale, in 1539, Tyndale 's New Testament and his incomplete work on the Old Testament became the basis for the Great Bible. This was the first "authorised version '' issued by the Church of England during the reign of King Henry VIII. When Mary I succeeded to the throne in 1553, she returned the Church of England to the communion of the Roman Catholic faith and many English religious reformers fled the country, some establishing an English - speaking colony at Geneva. Under the leadership of John Calvin, Geneva became the chief international centre of Reformed Protestantism and Latin biblical scholarship.
These English expatriates undertook a translation that became known as the Geneva Bible. This translation, dated to 1560, was a revision of Tyndale 's Bible and the Great Bible on the basis of the original languages. Soon after Elizabeth I took the throne in 1558, the flaws of both the Great Bible and the Geneva Bible (namely, that the Geneva Bible did not "conform to the ecclesiology and reflect the episcopal structure of the Church of England and its beliefs about an ordained clergy '') became painfully apparent. In 1568, the Church of England responded with the Bishops ' Bible, a revision of the Great Bible in the light of the Geneva version. While officially approved, this new version failed to displace the Geneva translation as the most popular English Bible of the age -- in part because the full Bible was only printed in lectern editions of prodigious size and at a cost of several pounds. Accordingly, Elizabethan lay people overwhelmingly read the Bible in the Geneva Version -- small editions were available at a relatively low cost. At the same time, there was a substantial clandestine importation of the rival Douay -- Rheims New Testament of 1582, undertaken by exiled Roman Catholics. This translation, though still derived from Tyndale, claimed to represent the text of the Latin Vulgate.
In May 1601, King James VI of Scotland attended the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland at St Columba 's Church in Burntisland, Fife, at which proposals were put forward for a new translation of the Bible into English. Two years later, he ascended to the throne of England as King James I of England.
The newly crowned King James convened the Hampton Court Conference in 1604. That gathering proposed a new English version in response to the perceived problems of earlier translations as detected by the Puritan faction of the Church of England. Here are three examples of problems the Puritans perceived with the Bishops and Great Bibles:
First, Galatians iv. 25 (from the Bishops ' Bible). The Greek word susoichei is not well translated as now it is, bordereth neither expressing the force of the word, nor the apostle 's sense, nor the situation of the place. Secondly, psalm cv. 28 (from the Great Bible), ' They were not obedient; ' the original being, ' They were not disobedient. ' Thirdly, psalm cvi. 30 (also from the Great Bible), ' Then stood up Phinees and prayed, ' the Hebrew hath, ' executed judgment. '
Instructions were given to the translators that were intended to limit the Puritan influence on this new translation. The Bishop of London added a qualification that the translators would add no marginal notes (which had been an issue in the Geneva Bible). King James cited two passages in the Geneva translation where he found the marginal notes offensive to the principles of divinely ordained royal supremacy: Exodus 1: 19, where the Geneva Bible notes had commended the example of civil disobedience to the Egyptian Pharaoh showed by the Hebrew midwives, and also II Chronicles 15: 16, where the Geneva Bible had criticized King Asa for not having executed his idolatrous ' mother ', Queen Maachah (Maachah had actually been Asa 's grandmother, but James considered the Geneva Bible reference as sanctioning the execution of his own mother Mary, Queen of Scots). Further, the King gave the translators instructions designed to guarantee that the new version would conform to the ecclesiology of the Church of England. Certain Greek and Hebrew words were to be translated in a manner that reflected the traditional usage of the church. For example, old ecclesiastical words such as the word "church '' were to be retained and not to be translated as "congregation ''. The new translation would reflect the episcopal structure of the Church of England and traditional beliefs about ordained clergy.
James ' instructions included several requirements that kept the new translation familiar to its listeners and readers. The text of the Bishops ' Bible would serve as the primary guide for the translators, and the familiar proper names of the biblical characters would all be retained. If the Bishops ' Bible was deemed problematic in any situation, the translators were permitted to consult other translations from a pre-approved list: the Tyndale Bible, the Coverdale Bible, Matthew 's Bible, the Great Bible, and the Geneva Bible. In addition, later scholars have detected an influence on the Authorized Version from the translations of Taverner 's Bible and the New Testament of the Douay -- Rheims Bible. It is for this reason that the flyleaf of most printings of the Authorized Version observes that the text had been "translated out of the original tongues, and with the former translations diligently compared and revised, by His Majesty 's special commandment. '' As the work proceeded, more detailed rules were adopted as to how variant and uncertain readings in the Hebrew and Greek source texts should be indicated, including the requirement that words supplied in English to ' complete the meaning ' of the originals should be printed in a different type face.
The task of translation was undertaken by 47 scholars, although 54 were originally approved. All were members of the Church of England and all except Sir Henry Savile were clergy. The scholars worked in six committees, two based in each of the University of Oxford, the University of Cambridge, and Westminster. The committees included scholars with Puritan sympathies, as well as High Churchmen. Forty unbound copies of the 1602 edition of the Bishops ' Bible were specially printed so that the agreed changes of each committee could be recorded in the margins. The committees worked on certain parts separately and the drafts produced by each committee were then compared and revised for harmony with each other. The scholars were not paid directly for their translation work, instead a circular letter was sent to bishops encouraging them to consider the translators for appointment to well - paid livings as these fell vacant. Several were supported by the various colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, while others were promoted to bishoprics, deaneries and prebends through royal patronage.
The committees started work towards the end of 1604. King James I of England, on 22 July 1604, sent a letter to Archbishop Bancroft asking him to contact all English churchmen requesting that they make donations to his project.
Right trusty and well beloved, we greet you well. Whereas we have appointed certain learned men, to the number of 4 and 50, for the translating of the Bible, and in this number, divers of them have either no ecclesiastical preferment at all, or else so very small, as the same is far unmeet for men of their deserts and yet we in ourself in any convenient time can not well remedy it, therefor we do hereby require you, that presently you write in our name as well to the Archbishop of York, as to the rest of the bishops of the province of Cant. (erbury) signifying unto them, that we do well and straitly charge everyone of them... that (all excuses set apart) when a prebend or parsonage... shall next upon any occasion happen to be void... we may commend for the same some such of the learned men, as we shall think fit to be preferred unto it... Given unto our signet at our palace of West. (minister) on 2 and 20 July, in the 2nd year of our reign of England, France, and of Ireland, and of Scotland xxxvii. ''
They had all completed their sections by 1608, the Apocrypha committee finishing first. From January 1609, a General Committee of Review met at Stationers ' Hall, London to review the completed marked texts from each of the six committees. The General Committee included John Bois, Andrew Downes and John Harmar, and others known only by their initials, including "AL '' (who may be Arthur Lake), and were paid for their attendance by the Stationers ' Company. John Bois prepared a note of their deliberations (in Latin) -- which has partly survived in two later transcripts. Also surviving of the translators ' working papers are a bound - together set of marked - up corrections to one of the forty Bishops ' Bibles -- covering the Old Testament and Gospels, and also a manuscript translation of the text of the Epistles, excepting those verses where no change was being recommended to the readings in the Bishops ' Bible. Archbishop Bancroft insisted on having a final say making fourteen further changes, of which one was the term "bishopricke '' at Acts 1: 20.
The original printing of the Authorized Version was published by Robert Barker, the King 's Printer, in 1611 as a complete folio Bible. It was sold looseleaf for ten shillings, or bound for twelve. Robert Barker 's father, Christopher, had, in 1589, been granted by Elizabeth I the title of royal Printer, with the perpetual Royal Privilege to print Bibles in England. Robert Barker invested very large sums in printing the new edition, and consequently ran into serious debt, such that he was compelled to sub-lease the privilege to two rival London printers, Bonham Norton and John Bill. It appears that it was initially intended that each printer would print a portion of the text, share printed sheets with the others, and split the proceeds. Bitter financial disputes broke out, as Barker accused Norton and Bill of concealing their profits, while Norton and Bill accused Barker of selling sheets properly due to them as partial Bibles for ready money. There followed decades of continual litigation, and consequent imprisonment for debt for members of the Barker and Norton printing dynasties, while each issued rival editions of the whole Bible. In 1629 the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge successfully managed to assert separate and prior royal licences for Bible printing, for their own university presses -- and Cambridge University took the opportunity to print revised editions of the Authorized Version in 1629, and 1638. The editors of these editions included John Bois and John Ward from the original translators. This did not, however, impede the commercial rivalries of the London printers, especially as the Barker family refused to allow any other printers access to the authoritative manuscript of the Authorized Version.
Two editions of the whole Bible are recognized as having been produced in 1611, which may be distinguished by their rendering of Ruth 3: 15; the first edition reading "he went into the city '', where the second reads "she went into the city. ''; these are known colloquially as the "He '' and "She '' Bibles.
The original printing was made before English spelling was standardized, and when printers, as a matter of course, expanded and contracted the spelling of the same words in different places, so as to achieve an even column of text. They set v for initial u and v, and u for u and v everywhere else. They used long s for non-final s. The glyph j occurs only after i, as in the final letter in a Roman numeral. Punctuation was relatively heavy, and differed from current practice. When space needed to be saved, the printers sometimes used ye for the, (replacing the Middle English thorn with the continental y), set ã for an or am (in the style of scribe 's shorthand), and set & for and. On the contrary, on a few occasions, they appear to have inserted these words when they thought a line needed to be padded. Later printings regularized these spellings; the punctuation has also been standardized, but still varies from current usage norms.
The first printing used a black letter typeface instead of a roman typeface, which itself made a political and a religious statement. Like the Great Bible and the Bishops ' Bible, the Authorized Version was "appointed to be read in churches ''. It was a large folio volume meant for public use, not private devotion; the weight of the type mirrored the weight of establishment authority behind it. However, smaller editions and roman - type editions followed rapidly, e.g. quarto roman - type editions of the Bible in 1612. This contrasted with the Geneva Bible, which was the first English Bible printed in a roman typeface (although black - letter editions, particularly in folio format, were issued later).
In contrast to the Geneva Bible and the Bishops ' Bible, which had both been extensively illustrated, there were no illustrations at all in the 1611 edition of the Authorized Version, the main form of decoration being the historiated initial letters provided for books and chapters -- together with the decorative title pages to the Bible itself, and to the New Testament.
In the Great Bible, readings derived from the Vulgate but not found in published Hebrew and Greek texts had been distinguished by being printed in smaller roman type. In the Geneva Bible, a distinct typeface had instead been applied to distinguish text supplied by translators, or thought needful for English grammar but not present in the Greek or Hebrew; and the original printing of the Authorized Version used roman type for this purposed, albeit sparsely and inconsistently. This results in perhaps the most significant difference between the original printed text of the King James Bible and the current text. When, from the later 17th century onwards, the Authorized Version began to be printed in roman type, the typeface for supplied words was changed to italics, this application being regularised and greatly expanded. This was intended to de-emphasise the words.
The original printing contained two prefatory texts; the first was a formal Epistle Dedicatory to "the most high and mighty Prince '' King James. Many British printings reproduce this, while most non-British printings do not.
The second preface was called Translators to the Reader, a long and learned essay that defends the undertaking of the new version. It observes the translators ' stated goal, that they, "never thought from the beginning that (they) should need to make a new translation, nor yet to make of a bad one a good one,... but to make a good one better, or out of many good ones, one principal good one, not justly to be excepted against; that hath been our endeavour, that our mark. '' They also give their opinion of previous English Bible translations, stating, "We do not deny, nay, we affirm and avow, that the very meanest translation of the Bible in English, set forth by men of our profession, (for we have seen none of theirs (Roman Catholics) of the whole Bible as yet) containeth the word of God, nay, is the word of God. '' As with the first preface, some British printings reproduce this, while most non-British printings do not. Almost every printing that includes the second preface also includes the first. The first printing contained a number of other apparatus, including a table for the reading of the Psalms at matins and evensong, and a calendar, an almanac, and a table of holy days and observances. Much of this material became obsolete with the adoption of the Gregorian Calendar by Britain and its colonies in 1752, and thus modern editions invariably omit it.
So as to make it easier to locate a particular passage, each chapter was headed by a brief precis of its contents with verse numbers. Later editors freely substituted their own chapter summaries, or omitted such material entirely. Pilcrow marks are used to indicate the beginnings of paragraphs except after the book of Acts.
The Authorized Version was meant to replace the Bishops ' Bible as the official version for readings in the Church of England. No record of its authorization exists; it was probably effected by an order of the Privy Council but the records for the years 1600 to 1613 were destroyed by fire in January 1618 / 19 and it is commonly known as the Authorized Version in the United Kingdom. The King 's Printer issued no further editions of the Bishops ' Bible, so necessarily the Authorized Version replaced it as the standard lectern Bible in parish church use in England.
In the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, the text of the Authorized Version finally supplanted that of the Great Bible in the Epistle and Gospel readings -- though the Prayer Book Psalter nevertheless continues in the Great Bible version.
The case was different in Scotland, where the Geneva Bible had long been the standard church bible. It was not until 1633 that a Scottish edition of the Authorized Version was printed -- in conjunction with the Scots coronation in that year of Charles I. The inclusion of illustrations in the edition raised accusations of Popery from opponents of the religious policies of Charles and William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury. However, official policy favoured the Authorized Version, and this favour returned during the Commonwealth -- as London printers succeeded in re-asserting their monopoly on Bible printing with support from Oliver Cromwell -- and the "New Translation '' was the only edition on the market. F.F. Bruce reports that the last recorded instance of a Scots parish continuing to use the "Old Translation '' (i.e. Geneva) as being in 1674.
The Authorized Version 's acceptance by the general public took longer. The Geneva Bible continued to be popular, and large numbers were imported from Amsterdam, where printing continued up to 1644 in editions carrying a false London imprint. However, few if any genuine Geneva editions appear to have been printed in London after 1616, and in 1637 Archbishop Laud prohibited their printing or importation. In the period of the English Civil War, soldiers of the New Model Army were issued a book of Geneva selections called "The Soldiers ' Bible ''. In the first half of the 17th century the Authorized Version is most commonly referred to as "The Bible without notes '', thereby distinguishing it from the Geneva "Bible with notes ''. There were several printings of the Authorized Version in Amsterdam -- one as late as 1715 which combined the Authorized Version translation text with the Geneva marginal notes; one such edition was printed in London in 1649. During the Commonwealth a commission was established by Parliament to recommend a revision of the Authorized Version with acceptably Protestant explanatory notes, but the project was abandoned when it became clear that these would nearly double the bulk of the Bible text. After the English Restoration, the Geneva Bible was held to be politically suspect and a reminder of the repudiated Puritan era. Furthermore, disputes over the lucrative rights to print the Authorized Version dragged on through the 17th century, so none of the printers involved saw any commercial advantage in marketing a rival translation. The Authorized Version became the only current version circulating among English - speaking people.
A small minority of critical scholars were slow to accept the latest translation. Hugh Broughton, the most highly regarded English Hebraist of his time (but who had been excluded from the panel of translators because of his utterly uncongenial temperament), issued in 1611 a total condemnation of the new version, criticizing especially the translators ' rejection of word - for - word equivalence and stated that "he would rather be torn in pieces by wild horses than that this abominable translation (KJV) should ever be foisted upon the English people ''. Walton 's London Polyglot of 1657 disregards the Authorized Version (and indeed the English language) entirely. Walton 's reference text throughout is the Vulgate. The Vulgate Latin is also found as the standard text of scripture in Thomas Hobbes 's Leviathan of 1651, indeed Hobbes gives Vulgate chapter and verse numbers (e.g., Job 41: 24, not Job 41: 33) for his head text. In Chapter 35: ' The Signification in Scripture of Kingdom of God ', Hobbes discusses Exodus 19: 5, first in his own translation of the ' Vulgar Latin ', and then subsequently as found in the versions he terms "... the English translation made in the beginning of the reign of King James '', and "The Geneva French '' (i.e. Olivétan). Hobbes advances detailed critical arguments why the Vulgate rendering is to be preferred. For most of the 17th century the assumption remained that, while it had been of vital importance to provide the scriptures in the vernacular for ordinary people, nevertheless for those with sufficient education to do so, Biblical study was best undertaken within the international common medium of Latin. It was only in 1700 that modern bilingual Bibles appeared in which the Authorized Version was compared with counterpart Dutch and French Protestant vernacular Bibles.
In consequence of the continual disputes over printing privileges, successive printings of the Authorized Version were notably less careful than the 1611 edition had been -- compositors freely varying spelling, capitalization and punctuation -- and also, over the years, introducing about 1,500 misprints (some of which, like the omission of "not '' from the commandment "Thou shalt not commit adultery '' in the "Wicked Bible '', became notorious). The two Cambridge editions of 1629 and 1638 attempted to restore the proper text -- while introducing over 200 revisions of the original translators ' work, chiefly by incorporating into the main text a more literal reading originally presented as a marginal note. A more thoroughly corrected edition was proposed following the Restoration, in conjunction with the revised 1662 Book of Common Prayer, but Parliament then decided against it.
By the first half of the 18th century, the Authorized Version was effectively unchallenged as the sole English translation in current use in Protestant churches, and was so dominant that the Roman Catholic Church in England issued in 1750 a revision of the 1610 Douay - Rheims Bible by Richard Challoner that was very much closer to the Authorized Version than to the original. However, general standards of spelling, punctuation, typesetting, capitalization and grammar had changed radically in the 100 years since the first edition of the Authorized Version, and all printers in the market were introducing continual piecemeal changes to their Bible texts to bring them into line with current practice -- and with public expectations of standardized spelling and grammatical construction.
Over the course of the 18th century, the Authorized Version supplanted the Hebrew, Greek and the Latin Vulgate as the standard version of scripture for English speaking scholars and divines, and indeed came to be regarded by some as an inspired text in itself -- so much so that any challenge to its readings or textual base came to be regarded by many as an assault on Holy Scripture. This has been contemptuously labelled "AVolatry '', a play on the name "Authorized Version '' (AV) and idolatry.
By the mid-18th century the wide variation in the various modernized printed texts of the Authorized Version, combined with the notorious accumulation of misprints, had reached the proportion of a scandal, and the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge both sought to produce an updated standard text. First of the two was the Cambridge edition of 1760, the culmination of 20 - years work by Francis Sawyer Parris, who died in May of that year. This 1760 edition was reprinted without change in 1762 and in John Baskerville 's fine folio edition of 1763. This was effectively superseded by the 1769 Oxford edition, edited by Benjamin Blayney, though with comparatively few changes from Parris 's edition; but which became the Oxford standard text, and is reproduced almost unchanged in most current printings. Parris and Blayney sought consistently to remove those elements of the 1611 and subsequent editions that they believed were due to the vagaries of printers, while incorporating most of the revised readings of the Cambridge editions of 1629 and 1638, and each also introducing a few improved readings of their own. They undertook the mammoth task of standardizing the wide variation in punctuation and spelling of the original, making many thousands of minor changes to the text. In addition, Blayney and Parris thoroughly revised and greatly extended the italicization of "supplied '' words not found in the original languages by cross-checking against the presumed source texts. Blayney seems to have worked from the 1550 Stephanus edition of the Textus Receptus, rather than the later editions of Beza that the translators of the 1611 New Testament had favoured; accordingly the current Oxford standard text alters around a dozen italicizations where Beza and Stephanus differ. Like the 1611 edition, the 1769 Oxford edition included the Apocrypha, although Blayney tended to remove cross-references to the Books of the Apocrypha from the margins of their Old and New Testaments wherever these had been provided by the original translators. Altogether, the standardization of spelling and punctuation caused Blayney 's 1769 text to differ from the 1611 text in around 24,000 places. Since that date, a few further changes have been introduced to the Oxford standard text. The Oxford University Press paperback edition of the "Authorized King James Version '' provides Oxford 's standard text, and also includes the prefatory section "The Translators to the Reader ''.
The 1611 and 1769 texts of the first three verses from I Corinthians 13 are given below.
(1611) 1. Though I speake with the tongues of men & of Angels, and haue not charity, I am become as sounding brasse or a tinkling cymbal. 2 And though I haue the gift of prophesie, and vnderstand all mysteries and all knowledge: and though I haue all faith, so that I could remooue mountaines, and haue no charitie, I am nothing. 3 And though I bestowe all my goods to feede the poore, and though I giue my body to bee burned, and haue not charitie, it profiteth me nothing.
(1769) 1. Though I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, and have not charity, I am become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal. 2 And though I have the gift of prophecy, and understand all mysteries, and all knowledge; and though I have all faith, so that I could remove mountains, and have not charity, I am nothing. 3 And though I bestow all my goods to feed the poor, and though I give my body to be burned, and have not charity, it profiteth me nothing.
There are a number of superficial edits in these three verses: 11 changes of spelling, 16 changes of typesetting (including the changed conventions for the use of u and v), three changes of punctuation, and one variant text -- where "not charity '' is substituted for "no charity '' in verse two, in the erroneous belief that the original reading was a misprint.
A particular verse for which Blayney 's 1769 text differs from Parris 's 1760 version is Matthew 5: 13, where Parris (1760) has
Ye are the salt of the earth: but if the salt have lost his savour, wherewith shall it be salted? it is thenceforth good for nothing but to be cast out, and to be troden under foot of men.
Blayney (1769) changes ' lost his savour ' to ' lost its savour ', and troden to trodden.
For a period, Cambridge continued to issue Bibles using the Parris text, but the market demand for absolute standardization was now such that they eventually adapted Blayney 's work, but omitted some of the idiosyncratic Oxford spellings. By the mid-19th century, almost all printings of the Authorized Version were derived from the 1769 Oxford text -- increasingly without Blayney 's variant notes and cross references, and commonly excluding the Apocrypha. One exception to this was a scrupulous original - spelling, page - for - page, and line - for - line reprint of the 1611 edition (including all chapter headings, marginalia, and original italicization, but with Roman type substituted for the black letter of the original), published by Oxford in 1833. Another important exception was the 1873 Cambridge Paragraph Bible, thoroughly revised, modernized and re-edited by F.H.A. Scrivener, who for the first time consistently identified the source texts underlying the 1611 translation and its marginal notes. Scrivener, like Blayney, opted to revise the translation where he considered the judgement of the 1611 translators had been faulty. In 2005, Cambridge University Press released its New Cambridge Paragraph Bible with Apocrypha, edited by David Norton, which followed in the spirit of Scrivener 's work, attempting to bring spelling to present - day standards. Norton also innovated with the introduction of quotation marks, while returning to a hypothetical 1611 text, so far as possible, to the wording used by its translators, especially in the light of the re-emphasis on some of their draft documents. This text has been issued in paperback by Penguin books.
From the early 19th century the Authorized Version has remained almost completely unchanged -- and since, due to advances in printing technology, it could now be produced in very large editions for mass sale, it established complete dominance in public and ecclesiastical use in the English - speaking Protestant world. Academic debate through that century, however, increasingly reflected concerns about the Authorized Version shared by some scholars: (a) that subsequent study in oriental languages suggested a need to revise the translation of the Hebrew Bible -- both in terms of specific vocabulary, and also in distinguishing descriptive terms from proper names; (b) that the Authorized Version was unsatisfactory in translating the same Greek words and phrases into different English, especially where parallel passages are found in the synoptic gospels; and (c) in the light of subsequent ancient manuscript discoveries, the New Testament translation base of the Greek Textus Receptus could no longer be considered to be the best representation of the original text.
Responding to these concerns, the Convocation of Canterbury resolved in 1870 to undertake a revision of the text of the Authorized Version, intending to retain the original text "except where in the judgement of competent scholars such a change is necessary ''. The resulting revision was issued as the Revised Version in 1881 (New Testament), 1885 (Old Testament) and 1894 (Apocrypha); but, although it sold widely, the revision did not find popular favour, and it was only reluctantly in 1899 that Convocation approved it for reading in churches.
By the early 20th century, editing had been completed in Cambridge 's text, with at least 6 new changes since 1769, and the reversing of at least 30 of the standard Oxford readings. The distinct Cambridge text was printed in the millions, and after the Second World War "the unchanging steadiness of the KJB was a huge asset. '' The Cambridge edition is preferred by scholars.
The Authorized Version maintained its effective dominance throughout the first half of the 20th century. New translations in the second half of the 20th century displaced its 250 years of dominance (roughly 1700 to 1950), but groups do exist -- sometimes termed the King James Only movement -- that distrust anything not in agreement with the Authorized Version.
F.H.A. Scrivener and D. Norton have both written in detail on editorial variations which have occurred through the history of the publishing of the Authorized Version from 1611 to 1769. In the 19th century, there were effectively three main guardians of the text. Norton identified five variations among the Oxford, Cambridge and London (Eyre and Spottiswoode) texts of 1857, such as the spelling of "farther '' or "further '' at Matthew 26: 39.
In the 20th century, variation between the editions was reduced to comparing the Cambridge to the Oxford. Distinctly identified Cambridge readings included "or Sheba '' (Joshua 19: 2), "sin '' (2 Chronicles 33: 19), "clifts '' (Job 30: 6), "vapour '' (Psalm 148: 8), "flieth '' (Nahum 3: 16), "further '' (Matthew 26: 39) and a number of other references. In effect the Cambridge was considered the current text in comparison to the Oxford. These are instances where both Oxford and Cambridge have now diverged from Blayney 's 1769 Edition. The distinctions between the Oxford and Cambridge editions have been a major point in the Bible version debate, and a potential theological issue, particularly in regard to the identification of the Pure Cambridge Edition.
Cambridge University Press introduced a change at 1 John 5: 8 in 1985, reversing its longstanding tradition of printing the word "spirit '' in lower case by using a capital letter "S ''. A Rev. Hardin of Bedford, Pennsylvania, wrote a letter to Cambridge inquiring about this verse, and subsequently received a reply from Dr. Cooper on June 3, 1985, admitting that it was a "matter of some embarrassment regarding the lower case ' s ' in Spirit ''.
Like Tyndale 's translation and the Geneva Bible, the Authorized Version was translated primarily from Greek, Hebrew and Aramaic texts, although with secondary reference both to the Latin Vulgate, and to more recent scholarly Latin versions; two books of the Apocrypha were translated from a Latin source. Following the example of the Geneva Bible, words implied but not actually in the original source were distinguished by being printed in distinct type (albeit inconsistently), but otherwise the translators explicitly rejected word - for - word equivalence. F.F Bruce gives an example from Romans Chapter 5:
2 By whom also wee have accesse by faith, into this grace wherein wee stand, and rejoyce in hope of the glory of God. 3 And not onely so, but we glory in tribulations also, knowing that tribulation worketh patience:
The English terms "rejoice '' and "glory '' stand for the same word in the Greek original. In Tyndale, Geneva and the Bishops ' Bibles, both instances are translated "rejoice ''. In the Douay -- Rheims New Testament, both are translated "glory ''. Only in the Authorized Version does the translation vary between the two verses.
In obedience to their instructions, the translators provided no marginal interpretation of the text, but in some 8,500 places a marginal note offers an alternative English wording. The majority of these notes offer a more literal rendering of the original (introduced as "Heb '', "Chal '', "Gr '' or "Lat ''), but others indicate a variant reading of the source text (introduced by "or ''). Some of the annotated variants derive from alternative editions in the original languages, or from variant forms quoted in the fathers. More commonly, though, they indicate a difference between the literal original language reading and that in the translators ' preferred recent Latin versions: Tremellius for the Old Testament, Junius for the Apocrypha, and Beza for the New Testament. At thirteen places in the New Testament (e.g. Luke 17: 36 and Acts 25: 6) a marginal note records a variant reading found in some Greek manuscript copies; in almost all cases reproducing a counterpart textual note at the same place in Beza 's editions. A few more extensive notes clarify Biblical names and units of measurement or currency. Modern reprintings rarely reproduce these annotated variants -- although they are to be found in the New Cambridge Paragraph Bible. In addition, there were originally some 9,000 scriptural cross-references, in which one text was related to another. Such cross-references had long been common in Latin Bibles, and most of those in the Authorized Version were copied unaltered from this Latin tradition. Consequently the early editions of the KJV retain many Vulgate verse references -- e.g. in the numbering of the Psalms. At the head of each chapter, the translators provided a short précis of its contents, with verse numbers; these are rarely included in complete form in modern editions.
Also in obedience to their instructions, the translators indicated ' supplied ' words in a different typeface; but there was no attempt to regularise the instances where this practice had been applied across the different companies; and especially in the New Testament, it was used much less frequently in the 1611 edition than would later be the case. In one verse, 1 John 2: 23, an entire clause was printed in roman type (as it had also been in the Great Bible and Bishop 's Bible); indicating a reading then primarily derived from the Vulgate, albeit one for which the later editions of Beza had provided a Greek text.
In the Old Testament the translators render the Tetragrammaton YHWH by "the LORD '' (in later editions in small capitals as LORD), or "the LORD God '' (for YHWH Elohim, יהוה אלהים), except in four places by "IEHOVAH '' (Exodus 6: 3, Psalm 83: 18, Isaiah 12: 2 and Isaiah 26: 4) and three times in a combination form. (Genesis 22: 14, Exodus 17: 15, Judges 6: 24) However, if the Tetragrammaton occurs with the Hebrew word adonai (Lord) then it is rendered not as the "Lord LORD '' but as the "Lord God ''. (Psalm 73: 28, etc.) In later editions as "Lord GOD '' with "GOD '' in small capitals indicating to the reader that God 's name appears in the original Hebrew.
For their Old Testament, the translators used a text originating in the editions of the Hebrew Rabbinic Bible by Daniel Bomberg (1524 / 5), but adjusted this to conform to the Greek LXX or Latin Vulgate in passages to which Christian tradition had attached a Christological interpretation. For example, the Septuagint reading "They pierced my hands and my feet '' was used in Psalm 22: 16 (vs. the Masoretes ' reading of the Hebrew "like lions my hands and feet ''). Otherwise, however, the Authorized Version is closer to the Hebrew tradition than any previous English translation -- especially in making use of the rabbinic commentaries, such as Kimhi, in elucidating obscure passages in the Masoretic Text; earlier versions had been more likely to adopt LXX or Vulgate readings in such places. Following the practice of the Geneva Bible, the books of 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras in the Old Testament were renamed ' Ezra ' and ' Nehemiah '; 3 Esdras and 4 Esdras in the Apocrypha being renamed ' 1 Esdras ' and ' 2 Esdras '.
For their New Testament, the translators chiefly used the 1598 and 1588 / 89 Greek editions of Theodore Beza, which also present Beza 's Latin version of the Greek and Stephanus 's edition of the Latin Vulgate. Both of these versions were extensively referred to, as the translators conducted all discussions amongst themselves in Latin. F.H.A. Scrivener identifies 190 readings where the Authorized Version translators depart from Beza 's Greek text, generally in maintaining the wording of the Bishop 's Bible and other earlier English translations. In about half of these instances, the Authorized Version translators appear to follow the earlier 1550 Greek Textus Receptus of Stephanus. For the other half, Scrivener was usually able to find corresponding Greek readings in the editions of Erasmus, or in the Complutensian Polyglot. However, in several dozen readings he notes that no printed Greek text corresponds to the English of the Authorized Version, which in these places derives directly from the Vulgate. For example, at John 10: 16, the Authorized Version reads "one fold '' (as did the Bishops ' Bible, and the 16th century vernacular versions produced in Geneva), following the Latin Vulgate "unum ovile '', whereas Tyndale had agreed more closely with the Greek, "one flocke '' (μία ποίμνη). The Authorized Version New Testament owes much more to the Vulgate than does the Old Testament; still, at least 80 % of the text is unaltered from Tyndale 's translation.
Unlike the rest of the Bible, the translators of the Apocrypha identified their source texts in their marginal notes. From these it can be determined that the books of the Apocrypha were translated from the Septuagint -- primarily, from the Greek Old Testament column in the Antwerp Polyglot -- but with extensive reference to the counterpart Latin Vulgate text, and to Junius 's Latin translation. The translators record references to the Sixtine Septuagint of 1587, which is substantially a printing of the Old Testament text from the Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209, and also to the 1518 Greek Septuagint edition of Aldus Manutius. They had, however, no Greek texts for 2 Esdras, or for the Prayer of Manasses, and Scrivener found that they here used an unidentified Latin manuscript.
The translators appear to have otherwise made no first - hand study of ancient manuscript sources, even those that -- like the Codex Bezae -- would have been readily available to them. In addition to all previous English versions (including, and contrary to their instructions, the Rheimish New Testament which in their preface they criticized); they made wide and eclectic use of all printed editions in the original languages then available, including the ancient Syriac New Testament printed with an interlinear Latin gloss in the Antwerp Polyglot of 1573. In the preface the translators acknowledge consulting translations and commentaries in Chaldee, Hebrew, Syrian, Greek, Latin, Spanish, French, Italian, and German.
The translators took the Bishop 's Bible as their source text, and where they departed from that in favour of another translation, this was most commonly the Geneva Bible. However, the degree to which readings from the Bishop 's Bible survived into final text of the King James Bible varies greatly from company to company, as did the propensity of the King James translators to coin phrases of their own. John Bois 's notes of the General Committee of Review show that they discussed readings derived from a wide variety of versions and patristic sources; including explicitly both Henry Savile 's 1610 edition of the works of John Chrysostom and the Rheims New Testament, which was the primary source for many of the literal alternative readings provided for the marginal notes.
A number of Bible verses in the King James Version of the New Testament are not found in more recent Bible translations, where these are based on modern critical texts. In the early seventeenth century, the source Greek texts of the New Testament used for the production of Protestant bible versions depended mainly on manuscripts of the late Byzantine text - type, and with minor variations contained what became known as the Textus Receptus. With the subsequent identification of much earlier manuscripts, most modern textual scholars value the evidence of manuscripts belonging to the Alexandrian family as better witnesses to the original text of the biblical authors, without giving it, or any family, automatic preference.
A primary concern of the translators was to produce an appropriate Bible, dignified and resonant in public reading. Although the Authorized Version 's written style is an important part of its influence on English, research has found only one verse -- Hebrews 13: 8 -- for which translators debated the wording 's literary merits. While they stated in the preface that they used stylistic variation, finding multiple English words or verbal forms in places where the original language employed repetition, in practice they also did the opposite; for example, 14 different Hebrew words were translated into the single English word "prince ''.
In a period of rapid linguistic change the translators avoided contemporary idioms, tending instead towards forms that were already slightly archaic, like verily and it came to pass. The pronouns thou / thee and ye / you are consistently used as singular and plural respectively, even though by this time you was often found as the singular in general English usage, especially when addressing a social superior (as is evidenced, for example, in Shakespeare). For the possessive of the third person pronoun, the word its, first recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary in 1598, is avoided. The older his is usually employed, as for example at Matthew 5: 13: "if the salt have lost his savour, wherewith shall it be salted? ''; in other places of it, thereof or bare it are found. Another sign of linguistic conservativism is the invariable use of - eth for the third person singular present form of the verb, as at Matthew 2: 13: "the Angel of the Lord appeareth to Joseph in a dreame ''. The rival ending - (e) s, as found in present - day English, was already widely used by this time (for example, it predominates over - eth in the plays of Shakespeare and Marlowe). Furthermore, the translators preferred which to who or whom as the relative pronoun for persons, as in Genesis 13: 5: "And Lot also which went with Abram, had flocks and heards, & tents '' although who (m) is also found.
The Authorized Version is notably more Latinate than previous English versions, especially the Geneva Bible. This results in part from the academic stylistic preferences of a number of the translators -- several of whom admitted to being more comfortable writing in Latin than in English -- but was also, in part, a consequence of the royal proscription against explanatory notes. Hence, where the Geneva Bible might use a common English word -- and gloss its particular application in a marginal note -- the Authorized Version tends rather to prefer a technical term, frequently in Anglicized Latin. Consequently, although the King had instructed the translators to use the Bishops ' Bible as a base text, the New Testament in particular owes much stylistically to the Catholic Rheims New Testament, whose translators had also been concerned to find English equivalents for Latin terminology. In addition, the translators of the New Testament books habitually quote Old Testament names in the renderings familiar from the Vulgate Latin rather than in forms closer to the original Hebrew (e.g. "Elias '' and "Jeremias '' for "Elijah '' and "Jeremiah '', respectively).
While the Authorized Version remains among the most widely sold, modern critical New Testament translations differ substantially from it in a number of passages, primarily because they rely on source manuscripts not then accessible to (or not then highly regarded by) early 17th - century Biblical scholarship. In the Old Testament, there are also many differences from modern translations that are based not on manuscript differences, but on a different understanding of Ancient Hebrew vocabulary or grammar by the translators. For example, in modern translations it is clear that Job 28: 1 -- 11 is referring throughout to mining operations, which is not at all apparent from the text of the Authorized Version.
The King James version contains several mistranslations; especially in the Old Testament where the knowledge of Hebrew and cognate languages was uncertain at the time. Most of these are minor and do not significantly change the meaning compared to the source material. Among the most commonly cited errors is in the Hebrew of Job and Deuteronomy, where רֶאֵם "Re'em '' with the probable meaning of "wild - ox, aurochs '', is translated in the KJV as "unicorn ''; following in this the Vulgate unicornis and several medieval rabbinic commentators. The translators of the KJV note the alternative rendering, "rhinocerots '' (sic) in the margin at Isaiah 34: 7. On a similar note Martin Luther 's German translation had also relied on the Vulgate Latin on this point, consistently translating רֶאֵם using the German word for unicorn, "Einhorn. '' Otherwise, the translators on several occasions mistakenly interpreted a Hebrew descriptive phrase as a proper name (or vice versa); as at 2 Samuel 1: 18 where ' the Book of Jasher ' סֵפֶר הַיׇּשׇׁר properly refers not to a work by an author of that name, but should rather be rendered as "the Book of the Upright. ''
Despite royal patronage and encouragement, there was never any overt mandate to use the new translation. It was not until 1661 that the Authorized Version replaced the Bishops Bible in the Epistle and Gospel lessons of the Book of Common Prayer, and it never did replace the older translation in the Psalter. In 1763 The Critical Review complained that "many false interpretations, ambiguous phrases, obsolete words and indelicate expressions... excite the derision of the scorner ''. Blayney 's 1769 version, with its revised spelling and punctuation, helped change the public perception of the Authorized Version to a masterpiece of the English language. By the 19th century, F.W. Faber could say of the translation, "It lives on the ear, like music that can never be forgotten, like the sound of church bells, which the convert hardly knows how he can forego. ''
The Authorized Version has been called "the most influential version of the most influential book in the world, in what is now its most influential language '', "the most important book in English religion and culture '', and "the most celebrated book in the English - speaking world ''. David Crystal has estimated that it is responsible for 257 idioms in English, examples include feet of clay and reap the whirlwind. Furthermore, prominent atheist figures such as the late Christopher Hitchens and Richard Dawkins have praised the King James Version as being "a giant step in the maturing of English literature '' and "a great work of literature '', respectively, with Dawkins then adding, "A native speaker of English who has never read a word of the King James Bible is verging on the barbarian ''.
Although the Authorized Version 's former monopoly in the English - speaking world has diminished -- for example, the Church of England recommends six other versions in addition to it -- it is still the most used translation in the United States, especially as the Scofield Reference Bible for Evangelicals. In addition, in the Orthodox Church in America, the King James Version is used liturgically, and was made "the ' official ' translation for a whole generation of American Orthodox ''. The later Service Book of the Antiochian Archdiocese, in vogue today, also uses the King James Version. The King James Version is also one of the versions authorized to be used in the services of the Episcopal Church and the Anglican Communion, as it is the historical Bible of this Church.
The Authorized Version is in the public domain in most of the world. However, in the United Kingdom, the right to print, publish and distribute it is a Royal prerogative and the Crown licenses publishers to reproduce it under letters patent. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland the letters patent are held by the Queen 's Printer, and in Scotland by the Scottish Bible Board. The office of Queen 's Printer has been associated with the right to reproduce the Bible for centuries, the earliest known reference coming in 1577. In the 18th century all surviving interests in the monopoly were bought out by John Baskett. The Baskett rights descended through a number of printers and, in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, the Queen 's Printer is now Cambridge University Press, who inherited the right when they took over the firm of Eyre & Spottiswoode in 1990.
Other royal charters of similar antiquity grant Cambridge University Press and Oxford University Press the right to produce the Authorized Version independently of the Queen 's Printer. In Scotland the Authorized Version is published by Collins under licence from the Scottish Bible Board. The terms of the letters patent prohibit any other than the holders, or those authorized by the holders, from printing, publishing or importing the Authorized Version into the United Kingdom. The protection that the Authorized Version, and also the Book of Common Prayer, enjoy is the last remnant of the time when the Crown held a monopoly over all printing and publishing in the United Kingdom. Almost all provisions granting copyright in perpetuity were abolished by the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, but because the Authorized Version is protected by royal prerogative rather than copyright, it will remain protected, as specified in CDPA s171 (1) (b).
Cambridge University Press permits the reproduction of at most 500 verses for "liturgical and non-commercial educational use '' if their prescribed acknowledgement is included, the quoted verses do not exceed 25 % of the publication quoting them and do not include a complete Bible book. For use beyond this, the Press is willing to consider permission requested on a case - by - case basis and in 2011 a spokesman said the Press generally does not charge a fee but tries to ensure that a reputable source text is used.
Translations of the books of the Biblical apocrypha were necessary for the King James version, as readings from these books were included in the daily Old Testament lectionary of the Book of Common Prayer. Protestant Bibles in the 16th century included the books of the Apocrypha -- generally, following the Luther Bible, in a separate section between the Old and New Testaments to indicate they were not considered part of the Old Testament text -- and there is evidence that these were widely read as popular literature, especially in Puritan circles; The Apocrypha of the King James Version has the same 14 books as had been found in the Apocrypha of the Bishop 's Bible; however, following the practice of the Geneva Bible, the first two books of the Apocrypha were renamed 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras, as compared to the names in the Thirty - nine Articles, with the corresponding Old Testament books being renamed Ezra and Nehemiah. Starting in 1630, volumes of the Geneva Bible were occasionally bound with the pages of the Apocrypha section excluded. In 1644 the Long Parliament forbade the reading of the Apocrypha in Church and in 1666 the first editions of the King James Bible without the Apocrypha were bound.
The standardization of the text of the Authorized Version after 1769 together with the technological development of stereotype printing made it possible to produce Bibles in large print - runs at very low unit prices. For commercial and charitable publishers, editions of the Authorized Version without the Apocrypha reduced the cost, while having increased market appeal to non-Anglican Protestant readers.
With the rise of the Bible societies, most editions have omitted the whole section of Apocryphal books. The British and Foreign Bible Society withdrew subsidies for bible printing and dissemination in 1826, under the following resolution:
That the funds of the Society be applied to the printing and circulation of the Canonical Books of Scripture, to the exclusion of those Books and parts of Books usually termed Apocryphal;
The American Bible Society adopted a similar policy. Both societies eventually reversed these policies in light of 20th century ecumenical efforts on translations, the ABS doing so in 1964 and the BFBS in 1966.
The King James Only movement advocates the superiority of the King James Version over all other English translations. Most adherents of the movement believe that the Textus Receptus is very close, if not identical, to the original autographs thereby making it the ideal Greek source for the translation. They argue that most modern English translations are based on a corrupted New Testament text that relies primarily on the Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus manuscripts.
Footnotes
Citations
Chronological order of publication (newest first)
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who did puss in boots grow up with at the orphanage | Puss in Boots (2011 film) - wikipedia
Puss in Boots is a 2011 American 3D computer - animated fantasy action comedy film produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by Paramount Pictures. It was directed by Chris Miller (who also directed 2007 's Shrek the Third) and written by Brian Lynch and Tom Wheeler. It stars Antonio Banderas, Salma Hayek, Zach Galifianakis, Billy Bob Thornton and Amy Sedaris. The film was released in theaters on October 28, 2011 in Digital 3D and IMAX 3D.
Although the character of Puss in Boots originated in a European fairy tale in 1697, the film is a spin - off prequel to the Shrek franchise. It follows the character Puss in Boots on his adventures before his first appearance in Shrek 2 in 2004. Accompanied by his friends, Humpty Dumpty and Kitty Softpaws, Puss is pitted against Jack and Jill, two murderous outlaws in ownership of legendary magical beans which lead to great fortune.
Puss in Boots grossed $554.9 million at the box office. It was nominated for Best Animated Feature at the 84th Academy Awards. A television series, titled The Adventures of Puss in Boots, premiered on Netflix in 2015. A sequel film, titled Puss in Boots 2: Nine Lives & 40 Thieves, was scheduled to be released in 2018, but removed from the DreamWorks schedule in early 2015.
Puss in Boots (Antonio Banderas) is a talking cat named for his signature pair of boots. Puss is a fugitive on the run from the law, looking to restore his lost honor. He learns that the outlaw couple Jack (Billy Bob Thornton) and Jill (Amy Sedaris) have the magic beans he 's been looking for most of his life, which can lead him to a giant 's castle holding valuable golden goose eggs. When Puss tries to steal them from the outlaws ' room, a female cat named Kitty Softpaws interrupts, and both fail. Kitty is allied with Humpty Alexander Dumpty, a talking egg and Puss ' long - estranged childhood friend from the orphanage where he was raised. Puss tells Kitty his origin story and of his feelings of betrayal for a youthful misadventure when Humpty tricked Puss into helping commit a bank robbery in his hometown of San Ricardo; Puss has been on the run ever since. Humpty eventually convinces Puss to join them in finding the beans and retrieving the golden eggs.
The trio steal the beans from Jack and Jill and plant them in the desert. Puss and Kitty 's relationship becomes romantic. The trio ride the beanstalk into the clouds to find the castle of the late giant, while avoiding the Great Terror, a giant goose that guards the Golden Goose. When they realize the golden eggs are too heavy to carry, they steal the Goose, which is just a gosling, and escape the castle. While celebrating their victory, the group is ambushed by Jack and Jill, who knock Puss unconscious.
When Puss wakes up, he tracks Jack and Jill to San Ricardo where he learns the entire heist was a plot by Humpty to lure him home to be arrested, as revenge for abandoning him to the authorities when Humpty 's youthful heist went bad. Jack, Jill, and Kitty were involved in the con. After pleas from Imelda, his adoptive mother, Puss turns himself in to the guards while Humpty donates many golden eggs to the town and becomes a hero.
While in prison, Puss meets the original Jack from "Jack and the Beanstalk '' who warns him that the Great Terror is in fact the Goose 's mother, and it will stop at nothing to get its child back. Realizing Humpty intended to destroy the town all along, Puss lets a repentant Kitty help him break out of prison and she also tells him she loves him. Tracking him down just as the Great Terror arrives, Puss convinces Humpty to help him fight off the Great Terror, saying he knows Humpty is a good person at heart. Using the Goose as bait, Puss and Humpty lure the Great Terror out of the town. During the chase, Jack and Jill betray Humpty and try to take the Goose, but get crushed by the Great Terror. Humpty and the Goose are knocked off a bridge with Puss holding onto them. Humpty knows Puss can not hold both of them, so he lets go, sacrificing himself to save the Goose and the town. Humpty 's shell cracks open to reveal he was a golden egg on the inside. The Great Terror then takes the Goose and Humpty back to the giant 's castle.
Puss ' efforts to save San Ricardo make him a hero among the townspeople and Imelda. In the epilogue, Jack and Jill are recovering from their injuries, Humpty is shown once again in his regular egg form, wearing a golden egg suit, as he rides the Great Terror into the clouds, and Puss and Kitty kiss.
The film had been in development since 2004, when Shrek 2 was released. As a Shrek 2 spin - off, it was initially planned for release in 2008 as a direct - to - video film, then titled Puss in Boots: The Story of an Ogre Killer. By October 2006, the film was re-slated as a theatrical release due to market conditions, and due to DreamWorks Animation 's realization that the Puss character deserved more.
In September 2010, Guillermo del Toro signed on as executive producer. Discussing del Toro, Miller stated: "We worked out a system for him to come in once every few months or whenever we had something new to show him. If we needed someone to bounce ideas off of, he was always there, and if we had a problem we were tackling, we 'd get Guillermo on the red phone -- our emergency phone -- and ask him advice on what we should do with a certain character or scene. It was like having our own film school. '' Miller stated that del Toro was particularly involved in Humpty 's character design. "Guillermo loved the dreamy quality of Humpty Dumpty. He suggested we push that further, make him more like da Vinci. '' It was del Toro 's idea to make Humpty "an ingenious freak of nature '' who builds contraptions such as a flying machine. Del Toro rewrote the ending to redeem the character and deepen his relationship with Puss -- an unconventional conclusion for a children 's film. He helped design the fantasy elements of the giant 's castle, as well as the architecture of the town, which he conceived as "an amalgam of Spain and Mexico ''.
Except for Puss, the film features new characters. Citing the co-writer, David H. Steinberg, "It does n't overlap with Shrek at all. Partly that was done to tell an original Puss story, but partly because we did n't know what Shrek 4 were going to do with the characters and we could n't write conflicting storylines. '' The film was teased in Shrek Forever After, when Shrek finally shuts the book titled "Shrek '', and puts it away next to a book titled "Puss in Boots ''.
Puss in Boots is the first DreamWorks Animation feature film that was partly made in India. A Bangalore studio owned by Technicolor, which had mainly worked on TV specials and DVD bonus material, spent six months animating three major scenes in the film. The outsourcing had financial advantages, with 40 % less labor costs than in the US, but the primary reason for outsourcing to India was lack of personnel, due to the studio producing as many as three films a year.
The release date was originally set for November 4, 2011, but was pushed a week earlier to October 28, 2011. Anne Globe, head of worldwide marketing for DreamWorks Animation, said the decision to move the film 's release date a week earlier was to attract parents and their children to see the film before other family - friendly movies were released in November 2011.
The film was renamed Cat in Boots in the United Arab Emirates for officially unknown reasons, but it is suspected for religious and cultural reasons. According to UAE 's The National Media Council, which is responsible for censorship, UAE did n't have any involvement in the rename and that "the decision to change the name had been made by the Hollywood studio and the movie distributors in the UAE. '' Consequently, since the film 's distributor was based in the UAE, the same print was syndicated to all theaters throughout the Middle East. However, the name change was limited to the film 's original theatrical run, as merchandise and later regional home media release retained the film 's original title.
Henry Jackman, the composer for Puss in Boots, utilized folk instruments of traditional Latin music. Inspired by Spanish composer Manuel de Falla, Jackman blended guitars and Latin percussion with an orchestral sound influenced by Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel. Mexican guitar duo Rodrigo y Gabriela contributed to Jackman 's score, and two of their songs, Diabolo Rojo and Hanuman were included in the soundtrack. Lady Gaga 's song "Americano '' was also featured in the film. The soundtrack for the film, featuring the original score by Jackman, was released on October 24, 2011, by Sony Classical.
Puss in Boots had its world premiere on October 16, 2011, aboard the Royal Caribbean International 's cruise ship Allure of the Seas, docked in Fort Lauderdale, Florida at the time. It was theatrically released in the United States on October 28, 2011. The film was digitally re-mastered into IMAX 3D, and was released in 268 North American IMAX theaters and at least 47 IMAX theaters outside North America.
Puss in Boots was released on DVD, Blu - ray and Blu - ray 3D on February 24, 2012. The movie was accompanied by a short animated film called Puss in Boots: The Three Diablos. As of July 2013, 7.2 million home entertainment units were sold worldwide.
Another featured extra short is "Klepto Kitty ''; a three - minute profile of Dusty the Klepto Kitty, a notorious cat in California who steals items from neighbors ' yards, some of it captured on a night vision kitty - cam, hung around Dusty 's neck by the Animal Planet network for their own documentary.
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 84 % based on reviews from 142, with an average rating of 6.8 out of 10. The website 's consensus is, "It is n't deep or groundbreaking, but what it lacks in profundity, Puss in Boots more than makes up for with an abundance of wit, visual sparkle, and effervescent charm. '' Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, gives the film a score of 65 % based on 24 reviews. CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was an "A - '' on an A+ to F scale.
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a positive review, saying "Puss in Boots is a perfectly diverting romp that happens to showcase some of the best 3D work yet from a mainstream animated feature. Colorful, clever enough, free of cloying showbiz in - jokes, action - packed without being ridiculous about it and even well choreographed. '' Peter Debruge of Variety gave the film a positive review, saying "Puss ' origin story could easily stand on its own -- a testament to clever writing on the part of its creative team and an irresistible central performance by Antonio Banderas. '' Christy Lemire of the Associated Press gave the film three out of four stars, saying "For quick, lively, family friendly entertainment, "Puss in Boots '' works just fine, even in 3 - D, which is integrated thoughtfully into the narrative and does n't just feel like a gimmick. '' Bill Goodykoontz of The Arizona Republic gave the film three and a half stars out of five, saying "As good as Banderas and Hayek are together, Galifianakis is better, making Humpty - Dumpty, of all people, one of the more intriguing animated characters to come along in a while. He 's a nice surprise. '' Moira MacDonald of The Seattle Times gave the film three out of four stars, saying "I left dreaming of a world in which cats could tango - and when 's the last time a movie did that? '' Marjorie Baumgarten of The Austin Chronicle gave the film three out of five stars, saying "The seductive interplay of Banderas and Hayek, the barely recognizable vocal contributions of Galifianakis, and the Southern backwoods speech of Thornton and Sedaris all keep us attuned to the events on the screen. ''
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a C, saying "In the Shrek films, the joke of Puss in Boots, with his trilled consonants and penchant for chest - puffing sword duels, is that no one this cuddly should try to be this dashing. But in Puss in Boots, that joke wears out its welcome in 15 minutes. '' Ty Burr of The Boston Globe gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Puss in Boots does n't break any new ground in the storytelling department, and its reliance on go - go - go state - of - the - art action sequences grows wearying by the end, but the movie has a devilish wit that works for parent and child alike. '' Elizabeth Weitzman of the New York Daily News gave the film four out of five stars, saying "It 's always a pleasure to find a family film that respects its audience all the way up the line. '' Colin Covert of the Star Tribune gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "Remember that toy where you yank a string and hear the sound of a barnyard animal? "Puss in Boots '' has about half as much entertainment value. '' Olly Richards of Empire gave the film three out of five stars, saying "Like most kittens, it 's not always perfectly behaved, but at least this new Puss adventure does n't have you reaching for the cinematic spray bottle. And thank goodness the spin - off does nothing to neuter the charismatic cat 's appeal. '' Stan Hall of The Oregonian gave the film a B, saying "Puss in Boots is n't particularly deep, nor does it take itself seriously -- it just wants to seek glory, win affection and cash in. Done, done and done. ''
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times gave the film four out of five stars, saying "Perhaps the most engaging thing about "Puss in Boots '' is that it never takes itself too seriously. '' Stephen Holden of The New York Times gave the film three and a half stars out of five, saying "It is a cheerfully chaotic jumble of fairy tale and nursery rhyme characters parachuted into a Spanish storybook setting. '' Lou Lumenick of the New York Post gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "Basically, this toon is a tired riff on Sergio Leone 's spaghetti Westerns, punctuated by more puns and cat jokes than you can shake a litter box at. '' Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film three out of four stars, saying "With his impeccable comic timing and lyrical Spanish accent, Banderas ' swashbuckling charmer is an undeniable treat. '' Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Puss in Boots '' proves there is at least one cat with multiple lives. The feature - length animated spinoff - a star turn for the popular "Shrek '' supporting character voiced by Antonio Banderas - is almost shockingly good. And not just because a lot of you will approach it with lowered expectations. '' Stephen Whitty of the Newark Star - Ledger gave the film three out of four stars, saying "An almost purr - fect little film that even a dog owner can enjoy. ''
Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal gave the film a positive review, saying "Puss made his debut in "Shrek 2, '' then did time in the two decreasingly funny sequels. Now he 's got a movie of his own, and not a moment too soon. '' Lisa Kennedy of The Denver Post gave the film three out of four stars, saying "It would overstate matters to say Puss in Boots leaves its cat holding the bag (we had to get that in). But it also leaves its hero awaiting a richer fable, one befitting his charms and his portrayer 's talents. '' Anna Smith of Time Out gave the film three out of five stars, saying "Puss in Boots is uneven, but when it 's on course, cat fans will be in heaven. '' Amy Biancolli of the Houston Chronicle gave the film three out of five stars, saying "Puss in Boots prances along on three basic truths. One, cats are funny. Two, vain Spanish cats in high - heeled musketeer boots are even funnier. Lastly, booted, vain Spanish cats voiced by a breathy Antonio Banderas are flat - out hilarious. '' Tasha Robinson of The A.V. Club gave the film a C+, saying "Puss In Boots makes a great theme - park ride, a thrill - a-minute feast for the eyes and the semicircular canals. But while the settings are impressively multidimensional, the characters are flatter than old - school cel drawings. ''
The film grossed $149,260,504 in North America, and $405,726,973 in other countries, for a worldwide total of $554,987,477. It is the eleventh highest - grossing film of 2011 and is also the third highest - grossing animated film that year behind Kung Fu Panda 2 ($665.7 million) and Cars 2 ($559.9 million).
In North America, the film topped the box office on its opening day with $9.6 million. On its opening weekend, the film made $34,077,439, topping Saw III 's record ($33.6 million) for the highest Halloween weekend opening ever. It retained first place during its second weekend, with $33,054,644, declining only 3 %.
Outside North America, on its opening weekend, it earned second place with $17.2 million. The film opened at # 1 in both the UK with a weekend gross of £ 1.98 million ($3.1 million), and Australia, with $2.98 million. It topped the box office outside North America on its seventh weekend with $47.1 million from 40 countries. It ranks as the ninth highest - grossing film of 2011 outside North America. Its highest - grossing country after North America was Russia and the CIS ($50.6 million), followed by Germany ($33.9 million) and France and the Maghreb region ($33.2 million).
In November 2012, executive producer Guillermo del Toro said that they already did a couple of script drafts for a sequel, and that the director Chris Miller wants to take Puss on an adventure to exotic places. In April 2014, Antonio Banderas, the voice of Puss, said that the work on the sequel had just begun. In June 2014, the movie was titled Puss in Boots 2: Nine Lives & 40 Thieves and was scheduled to be released on November 2, 2018. Two months later, it was moved back to December 21, 2018. In January 2015, Puss in Boots 2 was removed from the release schedule following corporate restructuring and DreamWorks Animation 's new policy to release two films a year. Two months later, Banderas said in an interview that the script was under restructuring, and that Shrek may appear in the film.
The film also spawned an animated series that premiered on Netflix on January 16, 2015.
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where is industrial and other economic activity concentrated in europe and why | Economy of Europe - wikipedia
The economy of Europe comprises more than 740 million people in 48 different countries. Like other continents, the wealth of Europe 's states varies, although the poorest are well above the poorest states of other continents in terms of GDP and living standards. The end of World War II brought European countries closer together, culminating in the formation of the European Union (EU) and in 1999, the introduction of a unified currency -- the euro. The difference in wealth across Europe can be seen roughly in former Cold War divide, with some countries breaching the divide (Greece, Portugal, Slovenia and the Czech Republic). Whilst most European states have GDP per capita higher than the world 's average and are very highly developed (Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, Andorra, Norway, Sweden, the Netherlands, Switzerland), some European economies, despite their position over the world 's average (except for Moldova) in the Human Development Index (Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Macedonia, Kosovo, Serbia, Belarus, Ukraine) are poorer.
Throughout this article "Europe '' and derivatives of the word are taken to include selected states whose territory is only partly in Europe -- such as Turkey (depending on a definition -- whole country or just Thrace), Azerbaijan (Caucasus), and the Russian Federation (its European part to Ural Mountains) -- and states that are geographically in Asia, bordering Europe and culturally adherent to the continent -- such as Armenia, Georgia, and Cyprus.
Europe in 2010 had a nominal GDP of $19.920 trillion (30.2 % of the world). Europe 's largest national economy is that of Germany, which ranks fourth globally in nominal GDP, and fifth in purchasing power parity (PPP) GDP; followed by the United Kingdom, ranking fifth globally in nominal GDP, followed by France, ranking sixth globally in nominal GDP, followed by Italy, which ranks seventh globally in nominal GDP, followed by Russia ranking tenth globally in nominal GDP then by Spain ranking thirteenth globally in nominal GDP. These 6 countries all rank in the world 's top 15, therefore European economies account for half of the 10 wealthiest ones.
The EU as a whole is the wealthiest and largest economy in the world, topping the US by more than 2,000 billion at a time of the financial crisis. In 2009 Europe remained the world 's wealthiest region. Its $33 trillion in assets under management represented more than one - third of the world 's wealth. Unlike North America ($29, 3 trillion) it was one of few regions where wealth surpassed its precrisis year - end peak.
Of the top 500 largest corporations measured by revenue (Fortune Global 500 in 2010), 184 have their headquarters in Europe. 161 are located in the EU, 15 in Switzerland, 6 in Russia, 1 in Turkey, 1 in Norway.
As noted in 2010 by the Spanish sociologist Manuel Castells, the average standard of living in Western Europe is very high: "The bulk of the population in Western Europe still enjoys the highest living standards in the world, and in the world 's history. ''
Prior to World War II, Europe 's major financial and industrial states were the United Kingdom, France and Germany. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain, had spread rapidly across Europe, and before long the entire continent was at a high level of industry. World War I had briefly led to the industries of some European states stalling, but in the run - up to World War II Europe had recovered well, and was competing with the ever - increasing economic might of the United States of America.
However, World War II caused the destruction of most of Europe 's industrial centres, and much of the continent 's infrastructure was laid to waste.
Following World War II, European Government was in tatters. Many non-Socialist European governments moved to link their economies, laying the foundation for what would become the European Union. This meant a huge increase in shared infrastructure and cross-border trade. Whilst these European states rapidly improved their economies, by the 1980s, the economy of the COMECON was struggling, mainly due to the massive cost of the Cold War. The GDP and the living standards of Central and Eastern European states were lower than in other parts of Europe.
The European Community grew from 6 original members following World War II, to 12 in this period.
Average living standards in Europe rose significantly during the post-war period, as characterised by these findings:
Per capita private consumption (PPSs) in 1980
Per capita personal disposable income (PPSs) in 1980
When the ' Eastern Bloc ' dissolved around 1991, these states struggled to adapt to free - market systems. There was, however, a huge variation in degrees of success, with Central European states such as the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia and Poland adapting reasonably quickly, whilst states that used to form the USSR such as Russia, Belarus and Ukraine struggled to reform their crumbling infrastructures.
Many developed European countries were quick to develop economic ties with fellow European states, where democracy was reintroduced. After the Revolutions of 1989, states in Central Europe and the Baltic states dealt with change, former Yugoslavian republics descended into war and Russia, Ukraine and Belarus are still struggling with their old systems.
Europe 's largest economy, Germany, struggled upon unification in 1991 with former communist German Democratic Republic, or East Germany, influenced by the Soviet Union. GDR, had much of its industrial infrastructure removed during the Cold War, and for many years unified Germany struggled to build infrastructure in the former East Germany up to the level of former West Germany.
Peace did not come to Yugoslavia for a decade, and by 2003, there were still many NATO and EU peacekeeping troops present in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, and Kosovo. War severely hampered economic growth, with only Slovenia making any real progress in the 1990s.
European economy was affected by September 11 Attacks in United States in 2001, Germany, Switzerland, France, and United Kingdom was hardest. But, in 2002 / 2003, the Economy began to recover from attacks in US.
The economy of Europe was by this time dominated by the EU, a huge economic and political organization with then 15 of Europe 's states as full members. EU membership was seen as something to aspire to, and the EU gave significant support and aid to those Central and Eastern European states willing to work towards achieving economies that met the entry criteria. During this time, 12 of the 15 members of the EU became part of the Eurozone, a currency union launched in 1999, whereby each member uses a shared currency, the Euro, which replaced their former national currencies. Three states chose to remain outside the Eurozone and continue with their own currencies, namely Denmark, Sweden and the United Kingdom.
In early 2004, 10 mostly former communist states joined the EU in its biggest ever expansion, enlarging the union to 25 members, with another eight making associated trade agreements. The acceding countries are bound to join the Eurozone and adopt the common currency Euro in the future. The process includes the European Exchange Rate Mechanism, of which some of these countries are already part.
Most European economies are in very good shape, and the continental economy reflects this. Conflict and unrest in some of the former Yugoslavia states and in the Caucasus states are hampering economic growth in those states, however.
In response to the massive EU growth, in 2005 the Russian - dominated Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) created a rival trade bloc to the EU, open to any previous USSR state, (including both the European and Asian states). 12 of the 15 signed up, with the three Baltic states deciding to align themselves with the EU. Despite this, the three Caucasus states have said in the past they would one day consider applying for EU membership, particularly Georgia. This is also true of Ukraine since the Orange Revolution.
Slovenia became the first formerly communist nation to adopt the EU currency, the euro, in 2007, followed by Malta and Cyprus in 2008, and Slovakia in 2009. In 2011, Estonia became the first republic from the former Soviet Union to adopt the euro, followed by Latvia in 2014, and Lithuania in 2015. Recently, Croatia became the 28th member of the European Union, which had entered on the 1st day of July 2013.
In 2008, the Global Financial Crisis, triggered by the housing bubble in the United States, caused a significant decline in the GDP of the majority of the European economies, which was a precedent to a far more broader and problematic Eurozone debt crisis, which threatened the collapse of economies in the south, particularly Italy, recently affected by the ongoing political crisis, and Portugal and Spain. Ireland and Greece are also hit hard, with Ireland exiting the crisis in mid-2013. Meanwhile, increased bailouts of the International Monetary Fund and European Central Bank alleviated somehow the situation in the debt - stricken nations, with Central and East European economies led by Germany escaping the worst of the 2010s debt crisis.
By the mid 2010s, 2014 -- 2015, Ireland was recovering at a steady pace having graduated from the bail out programme successfully. The Eurozone as a whole had become more stable, however problems in Greece and slow recovery in Italy and in Iberia (Spain and Portugal) continue in keeping growth in the Euro area to a minimum. Germany continues to lead Europe in stability and growth, while both the UK and Ireland are seeing strong growth of 3 -- 4 %. Unemployment in Ireland reducing at the fastest levels in Europe, expected to reach 8 % by 2016, down from double that in 2011. The Czech Republic and Germany have constantly the lowest unemployment rate in the EU. Growth outlook in general remains opimistic for Europe in the future. With positive growth expected across the Euro area. All though uncertainty still surrounds Greece and debt payments in the Greek state, at present things appear stable.
European countries with a long history of trade, a free market system, and a high level of development in the previous century are generally in the north and west of the continent. They tend to be wealthier and more stable than countries congregated in European east and south, even though the gap is converging, especially in Central and Eastern Europe, due to higher growth rates.
The poorest states are those that just emerged from communism, fascist dictatorships and civil wars, namely those of the former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, excluding Slovenia. Former Western Bloc itself presents some living standards and development differences, with the greatest contrast seen between Scandinavia (Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland) and Spain, Portugal, Italy and Greece.
Below is a map of European countries by gross national income per capita. High income in blue ($12,616 or more, as defined by the World Bank), upper middle income in green ($4,086 -- $12,615) and lower middle income ($1,036 -- $4,085) in yellow.
The European Union has the largest economy in the world. Trade within the Union accounts for more than one - third of the world total.
The European Union or EU is a supranational union of 28 European states, the most recent acceding member being Croatia, which became full member on 1 July 2013. It has many functions, the most important being the establishment and maintenance of a common single market, consisting of a customs union, a single currency (adopted by 18 of the 28 member states), a Common Agricultural Policy and a Common Fisheries Policy. The European Union also undertakes various initiatives to co-ordinate activities of the member states.
The union has evolved over time from a primarily economic union to an increasingly political one. This trend is highlighted by the increasing number of policy areas that fall within EU competence: political power has tended to shift upwards from the Member States to the EU.
The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) was established on 3 May 1960 as an alternative for European states that did not wish to join the European Union, creating a trade bloc with fewer central powers.
The EFTA member states as of 1992 were Austria, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. In 2014 only four ountries, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein, remained members of EFTA, as the other members have gradually left to join the EU.
The European Economic Area (EEA) came into being on 1 January 1994 following an agreement between the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and the European Union (EU). It was designed to enable EFTA countries to participate in the European Single Market without having to join the EU.
In a referendum, Switzerland (ever keen on neutrality) chose not to participate in the EEA (although it is linked to the European Union by bilateral agreements similar in content to the EEA agreement), so the current members are the EU states plus Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein.
A Joint Committee consisting of the non EU members plus the European Commission (representing the EU) has the function of extending relevant EU Law to the non EU members.
The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a confederation consisting of 9 of the 15 states of the former Soviet Union, (the exceptions being the three Baltic states, Georgia, Turkmenistan, and Ukraine (Turkmenistan and Ukraine are participating states in the CIS)). Although the CIS has few supranational powers, it is more than a purely symbolic organization and possesses co-ordinating powers in the realm of trade, finance, lawmaking and security. The most significant issue for the CIS is the establishment of a full - fledged free trade zone / economic union between the member states, to be launched in 2005. It has also promoted co-operation on democratization and cross-border crime prevention.
The Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) is a trade bloc of: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia and the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) on behalf of Kosovo.
The most common currency within Europe is the Euro (€), the currency of the European Union. To join, each new EU member must meet certain criteria, when these are met their own currencies will be replaced by the euro. Becoming a member of the EU involves a pledge to work towards Eurozone membership, (except in the cases of the United Kingdom and Denmark who have opt - outs). Currently, 17 of the 28 EU member states use the euro. Each EU member 's central bank is part of the European System of Central Banks, and in addition, those that use the euro are part of the European Union 's central bank, the European Central Bank.
There are some non-EU members who have elected to use the euro as their national currency, either with or without specific agreements with the EU to do so, (those with agreements with the EU may mint their own euro coins). The French overseas territories and departments of Mayotte and Réunion in the Indian Ocean, Guadeloupe and Martinique in the Caribbean and French Guiana in South America all use the euro, among many other islands in the Pacific, Caribbean and indeed around the globe that are ruled directly by European countries.
Some countries while maintaining their own national currency have pegged its value to the euro. In some of these countries, there is a fixed exchange rate between the national currency and the euro and in this case the currency is actually a submultiple of the euro. In other countries, the national currency 's value fluctuates within a band (generally 15 %) around a set rate. Currencies pegged to the euro include the currencies of Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Cape Verde. Denmark has a foreign exchange band tied to the euro.
The CIS is also planning to introduce a single currency among its members.
Below is a list of the central banks and currencies of Europe, with exchange rates between each currency and both the euro and US dollars as of 1 May 2010.
Table as of 21 November 2010.
As of May 1, 2010, five (5) European cities are ranking among the 10 largest financial centers in the world: London (1st), Paris (5th), Frankfurt (6th), Zurich (7th) and Geneva (8th).
There are many stock exchanges within Europe.
Europe 's agricultural sector is in general highly developed. The process of improving Central Europe 's agriculture is ongoing and is helped by the accession of Central European states to the EU. The agricultural sector in Europe is helped by the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), which provides farmers with a minimal price for their products and subsidizes their exports, which increases competitiveness for their products. This policy is highly controversial as it hampers free trade worldwide (protectionism sparks protectionism from other countries and trade blocs: the concept of trade wars) and is violating the concept of fair trade.
This means because of the protectionist nature of the CAP, agricultural products from developing countries are rendered incompetitive in both Europe (an important export market for developing countries) and on their home markets (as European agricultural products are dumped on developing countries ' markets with help from European agricultural subsidies). This controversy surrounds every system of agricultural subsidies (the United States ' policy of subsidizing farmers is also controversial). The CAP is also controversial because 40 % of the EU 's budget is spent on it, and because of the overproduction caused by it.
The Common Fisheries Policy is surrounded by an extensive system of rules (mainly consisting of quotas) to protect the environment from overfishing. Despite these rules, the cod is becoming increasingly rare in the North Sea resulting in drastic shortages in countries such as Canada and the United Kingdom. Strict fishing rules are the main reason for Norway and Iceland to stay out of the European Union (and out of the Common Fisheries Policy). Price guarantees and subsidizations of fishermen are implemented in the same way as agricultural subsidies are. Bluefin tuna is also a problem. Global stocks of the species are overfished with extinction in the wild a possibility in the near future. This also has the negative effect of threatening their traditional, natural predators.
Europe has a thriving manufacturing sector, with a large part of the world 's industrial production taking place in Europe. Most of the continent 's industries are concentrated in the ' Blue Banana ' (covering Southern England, the Benelux, western Germany, eastern France, Switzerland, and northern Italy). However, because of the higher wage level and hence production costs, Europe is suffering from deindustrialization and offshoring in the labour - intensive manufacturing sectors. This means that manufacturing has become less important and that jobs are moved to regions with cheaper labour costs (mainly China and Central and Eastern Europe).
Central Europe (Berlin, Saxony, the Czech Republic and Little Poland) was largely industrialised by 1850 but Eastern Europe (European Russia) begun industrialisation between 1890 -- 1900 and intensified it during the communist regime (as USSR) but it suffered from contraction in the 1990s when the inefficient heavy industry based manufacturing sector crippled after the collapse of communism and the introduction of the market economy.
In the 21st century the manufacturing sector in Central and Eastern Europe picked up because of the accession of ten formerly Communist European states to the EU and resulting accession to the European Common Market. This caused firms within the European Union to move jobs from their manufacturing sector to Central European countries such as Poland (see above), which sparked both Central and Eastern European industrial growth and employment.
According to Fortune Global 500, 195 of the top 500 companies are headquartered in Europe. The main products in European industry are bicycles, rail, machinery, marine, aerospace equipment, food, chemical and pharmaceutical goods, software and electronics.
Europe has a well - developed financial sector. Many European cities are financial centres with the City of London being the largest. The European financial sector is helped by the introduction of the euro as common currency. This has made it easier for European households and firms to invest in companies and deposit money on banks in other European countries. Exchange rate fluctuations are now non-existent in the Eurozone. The financial sector in Central and Eastern Europe is helped by economic growth in the region, European Regional Development Fund and the commitment of Central and Eastern European governments to achieve high standards.
European banks are amongst the largest and most profitable in the world (Barclays, BNP Paribas, Crédit Agricole, Société Générale, Royal Bank of Scotland, Deutsche Bank, UBS, National Trust, HSBC, Grupo Santander, BBVA, HBOS, UniCredit).
Transport in Europe provides for the movement needs of over 700 million people and associated freight. The political geography of Europe divides the continent into over 50 sovereign states and territories. This fragmentation, along with increased movement of people since the industrial revolution, has led to a high level of cooperation between European countries in developing and maintaining transport networks. Supranational and intergovernmental organisations such as the European Union (EU), Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe have led to the development of international standards and agreements that allow people and freight to cross the borders of Europe, largely with unique levels of freedom and ease.
Rail networks in Western and Central Europe are often well maintained and well developed, whilst Eastern, Northern and Southern Europe often have less coverage and / or infrastructure problems. Electrified railway networks operate at a plethora of different voltages AC and DC varying from 750 to 25,000 volts, and signalling systems vary from country to country, hindering cross-border traffic. EU rail subsidies amounted to € 73 billion in 2005.
Despite an extensive road and rail network, most long distance travel within Europe is by air. A large tourism industry also attracts many visitors to Europe, most of whom arrive into one of Europe 's many large international airports. London is the second busiest airport in the world by number of international passengers, only trailing Dubai. The advent of low cost carriers in recent years has led to a large increase in air travel within Europe. Air transportation is now often the cheapest way of travelling between cities. This increase in air travel has led to problems of airspace overcrowding and environmental concerns. The Single European Sky is one initiative aimed at solving these problems.
The bulk of the EU 's external trade is done with China, Mercosur and the United States, Japan, Russia and non-member European states.
EU members are represented by a single official at the WTO.
The EU is involved in a few minor trade disputes. It had a long running dispute with the USA of allegedly unfair subsidies the US government gives to several companies, such as Boeing. The EU has a long running ban prohibiting arms trade with the Chinese. The EU issued a brief accusing Microsoft of predatory and monopolistic practices.
Statistics:
General:
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when does the snow melt in the alps | Climate of the Alps - wikipedia
The climate of the Alps is the climate, or average weather conditions over a long period of time, of the exact middle Alpine region of Europe. As air rises from sea level to the upper regions of the atmosphere the temperature decreases. The effect of mountain topography on prevailing winds is to force warm air from the lower region into an upper zone where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of heat, often accompanied by the precipitation of moisture in the form of snow, rain or hail.
The position of the Alps in the central European continent profoundly affects the climate of all the surrounding regions. The accumulation of vast masses of snow, which have gradually been converted into permanent glaciers, maintains a gradation of very different climates within the narrow space that intervenes between the foot of the mountains and their upper ridges; it cools breezes that waft to the plains on either side, but its most important function is to regulate the water supply of the large region which is traversed by the streams of the Alps. Nearly all the moisture that is precipitated during fall, winter, and spring is stored in the form of snow and gradually diffused in the course of the succeeding summer; even in the hottest and driest seasons the reserves accumulated during a long preceding period of years in the form of glaciers are available to maintain the regular flow of the greater streams. Nor is this all; the lakes that fill several of the main valleys on the southern side of the Alps are somewhat above the level of the plains of Lombardy and Venetia, and afford an inexhaustible supply of water, which, from a remote period, has been used for that system of irrigation to which they owe their proverbial fertility.
Six regions or zones, which are best distinguished by their characteristic vegetation, are found in the Alps. It is an error to suppose that these are indicated by absolute height above sea level. Local conditions of exposure to the Sun, protection from cold winds, or the reverse, are of primary importance in determining the climate and the corresponding vegetation.
The Subalpine is the region which mainly determines the manner of life of the population of the Alps.
Roughly one quarter of the land lying between the summits of the Alps is available for cultivation. Of this low country, about one half may be vineyards and grain fields, while the remainder produces forage and grass. Of the high country, about half is utterly barren, consisting of snow fields, glaciers, bare rock, lakes and stream beds. The other half is divided between forest and pasture, and the product of this half largely supports the relatively large population. For a quarter of the year the flocks and herds are fed on the upper pastures, but the true limit of the wealth of a district is the number of animals that can be supported during the long winter, and while one part of the population is engaged in tending the beasts and in making cheese and butter, the remainder is busy cutting hay and storing up winter food for the cattle.
The larger villages are mostly in the mountain region, but in many parts of the Alps the villages stand in the subalpine region at elevations varying from 1200 m to 1700 -- 1800 m (4000 -- 6000 ft). The most characteristic feature of this region is the prevalence of coniferous trees that, where they have not been removed, form vast forests that cover a large part of the surface. These play a most important part in the natural economy of the country. They retain the soil by their roots, protect the valleys from destructive avalanches and mitigate the destructive effects of heavy rains. In valleys where they have been cut away, waters pour down the slopes unchecked; every tiny rivulet becomes a raging torrent that carries off the grassy slopes and devastates the floor of the valley, covering the soil with gravel and debris.
In the conifer forests of the Alps the prevailing species are the Norway spruce and the silver fir; on siliceous soil the European larch flourishes. The Scots pine is chiefly found at a lower level and rarely forms forests. The Swiss pine is found scattered at intervals throughout the Alps but is not common. The mountain pine is common at higher altitudes, often forming a distinct zone of Krummholz above the level of its congeners on the higher mountains. In the Northern Alps the pine forests rarely surpass 1800 m (6000 ft) elevation, but on the south side they commonly attain 2100 m (6900 ft), while European larch, Swiss pine and mountain pine often extend above that elevation.
The Alps are eponymous of the Alpine climate typical of the Alps between the tree line up to the permanent snow line, roughly between 1800 m and 2500 m. This alpine region contains the full beauty and variety of characteristic vegetation of the Alps.
The region contains many shrubs:
On the higher parts of lofty mountains in the Alps more snow falls in each year than melts. A portion of this is carried away by the wind before it is consolidated, but a large portion accumulates in hollows and depressions of the surface and is gradually converted into glacier ice which descends by slowly flowing into the deeper valleys where it help swell perennial streams.
Mountain snow does not lie in beds of uniform thickness and some parts are more exposed to the sun and warm air than others. Beds of snow commonly alternate with exposed slopes covered with brilliant vegetation without an obvious boundary of perpetual snow. A seemingly clear boundary seems visible when a high mountain chain is viewed from a distance: Similar conditions are repeated at many different points, so that the level at which large snow beds show themselves can be seen as approximately horizontal. But this is true only as far as the conditions are similar. On the opposite sides of the same chain the exposure to the sun or to warm winds may cause a wide difference in the level of permanent snow, though the increased fall of snow on the side exposed to moist winds may more than compensate for the sun 's rays.
Still, the "line of perpetual snow '' is not fixed. The occurrence of favorable meteorological conditions during several successive seasons may and does increase the extent of the snowfields and lower the limit of seemingly permanent snow, while the opposite may cause the limit to rise higher on the flanks of the mountains. Hence all attempts to fix accurately the level of perpetual snow in the Alps are fallacious. At best, local accuracy might be established for a particular district. In some parts of the Alps the limit is about 2400 m (7900 ft) elevation, while in others it can not be placed much below 2900 m (9500 ft). As very little snow remains on rocks angled more than 60 °, this is soon removed by the wind, some steep masses of rock remain bare even near the summits of the highest peaks, but as almost every spot offering the least hold for vegetation is covered with snow, few flowering plants are seen above 3550 m (11,000 ft).
There is reason to think, however, that it is the lack of soil rather than climatic conditions that checks the upward extension of the alpine flora. Increased direct effect of solar radiation compensates for the cold of the nights, and in the few spots where plants have been found flowering up to a height of 3650 m (12,000 ft), nothing has indicated that the processes of vegetation were arrested by the severe cold which they must sometimes endure. The climate of the glacial region has often been compared to that of the polar regions, but they are very different. Here, intense solar radiation by day, which raises the surface when dry to a temperature approaching 27 ° C (80 ° F), alternates with severe frost by night. There, the Sun, which never sets is only able to send feeble rays that maintain a low temperature, rarely rising more than a few degrees above the freezing point. Hence the upper region of the Alps sustains a far more varied and brilliant vegetation.
The great plain of upper Italy has a winter climate colder than that of the British Isles. The olive and the characteristic shrubs of the northern coasts of the Mediterranean do not thrive in the open air, but the valuable tree ripens its fruit in sheltered places at the foot of the mountains, and survives along the deeper valleys and the shores of the Italian lakes.
The evergreen oak grows wild on the rocks around the alpine lake, Lake Garda, and even lemons are cultivated on a large scale, with partial protection in winter. The olive has been known to survive severe cold when of short duration, but it can not be cultivated with success where frosts are prolonged or where the mean winter temperature falls below 5.5 ° C (42 ° F). To produce fruit requires at least 24 ° C (75 ° F) during the day through four or five months of the summer and autumn.
The grape vine is far more tolerant of cold than the olive, but to produce tolerable wine it demands, at the season of ripening, a degree of heat not much less than that needed by the more delicate tree. These conditions are satisfied in the deeper valleys of the Alps, even in the interior of the chain, and up to a considerable height on slopes exposed to the Sun. The protection afforded by winter snow enables the plant to resist severe and prolonged frosts that would be fatal in more exposed situations. Many wild plants characteristic of the warmer parts of middle Europe are seen to flourish along with the vine. A mean summer temperature of at least 20 ° C (68 ° F) is considered necessary to produce tolerable wine, but in ordinary seasons this is much exceeded in many of the great valleys of the Alps.
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who is the current inspector general of police of uganda | Kale Kayihura - wikipedia
General Edward Kalekezi Kayihura Muhwezi, commonly known as Kale Kayihura, is a Ugandan lawyer, military officer, farmer and former policeman. He was the Inspector General of Police (IGP) of the Uganda Police Force, the highest rank in that branch of Uganda 's government, from 2005 until 5th March 2018. He was succeeded by Martin Okoth Ochola in an unexpected reshuffle which also saw the Minister for security replaced.
Kale Kayihura Muhwezi was born in Kisoro District, Western Uganda, on 26 December 1955. He is the son of Johnson Komuluyange Kalekezi, one of the Ugandans who fought for the African Great Lakes nation 's independence, which occurred on 9 October 1962. His father died in an aeroplane crash in Kiev, Ukraine on 17 August 1960, when Kale Kayihura was only four years old. His mother is Catherine Mukarwamo, first - born child of Nyamihana, a former chief of Nyakabande Village. Nyamihana was also the father of Justice Joseph Mulenga Nyamihana, who served as President of the East African Court of Justice and died on 29 August 2012.
He went to Gayaza Primary School in Kisoro District. He later transferred to Buhinga Primary School in Kabarole District. He studied at Mutolere Secondary School, in Kisoro District, up to Senior Four, under the care of his maternal grandmother, the late Sofia Nyamihana. His brilliance in school caught the attention of his paternal uncle, the late Frank Gasasira, an accomplished civil servant at the time, who took over the responsibility of his education. In 1974, Kale Kayihura was enrolled in St. Mary 's College Kisubi for his Advanced Level education. He studied Drama, History, English Literature and Economics. He did well and was admitted to Makerere University to study for the Bachelor of Laws (LLB) degree He graduated in 1978 and proceeded to the London School of Economics from where he graduated with the degree of Master of Laws (LLM), in 1982, at age 26.
General Kayihura has attended a number of military courses including the following:
In 1982, following his graduation from the University of London, he joined the National Resistance Army, a rebel outfit that fought the regime of Milton Obote II and captured power in 1986. He has since grown in military rank and held multiple offices in the army and public service, including the following:
He formerly served as the Inspector General of Police (IGP) of the Uganda Police Force. He had served in that position since 2005 when he replaced General Edward Katumba Wamala as the IGP. He was the second Ugandan military officer to serve as the chief of the Uganda Police Force, in the history of the country. General Kayihura is still an active member of Uganda 's military and was previously the Head of the country 's Revenue Protection Services.
Kale Kayihura is largely perceived (amongst Uganda 's political circles and a large section of the population) as working for and promoting Museveni 's personal interests through squashing of Museveni 's political opponents. During the 2016 general elections, he was behind the implementation of the controversial Public Order Management Act (POMA) which largely targeted opposition politicians and their rights to assemble. He has, in most cases appeared to be ruthless while dealing with opposition political protests. Kayihura infamously admitted before the media that he had sanctioned the beatings of supporters of Dr. Kizza Besigye, a leading opposition figure and four - time presidential candidate in Uganda. However, he later backtracked on his earlier statements due to public pressure and promised that the culprits (who had participated in the beatings) would face disciplinary action. A team of private lawyers also separately filed a criminal case against Kale Kayihura and other senior commanders for their involvement in the July 2016 beatings. Criminal summonses were issued by the magistrate court for the IGP and seven other senior officers to appear in court to answer charges of torture but none of them showed up in court. These proceedings were later halted by the controversial Deputy Chief Justice Steven Kavuma.
On 4 March 2018, President Yoweri Museveni elevated Martin Okoth Ochola, previously the deputy police chief, to Inspector General of Police, on the same day General Elly Tumwine replaced Lieutenant General Henry Tumukunde as Security Minister. This followed widespread outcry from concerned citizens, regarding increased insecurity in the country, with the police cavorting with known criminal gangs. Kidnappings - for - ransom, wanton murders and robberies, including a rash of unexplained tourist deaths; all un-solved, which left the security apparatus clue-less.
He is married to Angella Kayihura, a Kenyan of Rwandese descent. She is the granddaughter of Rudahigwa, the last king of pre-independence Rwanda. The Kayihuras are the parents of two children. He is reported to own a mixed farm on 350 acres (140 ha) of land in Kabula, Lyantonde District, on which he owns about 500 goats.
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who won what battles in the civil war | List of American Civil War battles - wikipedia
The Battles of the American Civil War were fought between April 12, 1861 and May 12 -- 13, 1865 in 23 states (Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, Virginia, and West Virginia), the District of Columbia, as well as the following territories: Arizona Territory, Colorado Territory, Dakota Territory, Indian Territory (present - day Oklahoma), New Mexico Territory, and Washington Territory, and naval engagements. These battles would change the standing and historical memory of the United States. While the origins of the war are complex, principal among them were the issue of slavery, and the interpretations of the Constitution and the rules, rights, and qualifications that it embodied.
For lists of battles organized by campaign and theater, see:
Some battles have more than one name; e.g., the battles known in the North as Battle of Antietam and Second Battle of Bull Run were referred to as the Battles of Sharpsburg and Manassas by the South. This was because the North tended to name battles after landmarks (often rivers or bodies of water), whereas the South named battles after nearby towns. See Naming the American Civil War # Naming the battles and armies for more details.
The American Battlefield Protection Program (ABPP) was established within the United States National Park Service to classify the preservation status of historic battlefield land. In 1993, the Civil War Sites Advisory Commission (CWSAC) reported to Congress and the ABPP on their extensive analysis of significant battles and battlefields. Of the estimated 8,000 occasions in which hostilities occurred in the American Civil War, this table and related articles describe the 384 battles that were classified in CWSAC 's Report on the Nation 's Civil War Battlefields. In addition to the status of battlefield land preservation (not included in this table) CWSAC rated the military significance of the battles into four classes, as follows:
Other non-Indian wars battles and skirmishes not rated by CWSAC.
Other battles and skirmishes, not rated by CWSAC, of the American Indian Wars between either USA or CSA forces and the Apache, Arapaho, Cheyenne, Comanche, Dakota, Kiowa, Navajo, and Shoshone which occurred during the American Civil War -- including: the Apache Wars, Colorado War, Dakota War of 1862, Navajo Wars, and Texas -- Indian wars.
This is a chronological summary and record of every engagement between the troops of the Union and of the Confederacy, showing the total losses and casualties in each engagement. It was collated and compiled from the Official Records of the War Department.
This summary has been divided by year:
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where did the major battles take place in ww1 | Battle of Passchendaele - wikipedia
British Empire
Battles of Ypres, 1917
Associated articles
The Battle of Passchendaele (German: Flandernschlacht, French: Deuxième Bataille des Flandres), also known as the Third Battle of Ypres, was a campaign of the First World War, fought by the Allies against the German Empire. The battle took place on the Western Front, from July to November 1917, for control of the ridges south and east of the Belgian city of Ypres in West Flanders, as part of a strategy decided by the Allies at conferences in November 1916 and May 1917. Passchendaele lay on the last ridge east of Ypres, 5 mi (8.0 km) from a railway junction at Roulers, which was vital to the supply system of the German 4th Army. The next stage of the Allied plan was an advance to Thourout -- Couckelaere, to close the German - controlled railway running through Roulers and Thourout.
Further operations and a British supporting attack along the Belgian coast from Nieuwpoort, combined with Operation Hush (an amphibious landing), were to have reached Bruges and then the Dutch frontier. The resistance of the 4th Army, unusually wet weather, the onset of winter and the diversion of British and French resources to Italy, following the Austro - German victory at the Battle of Caporetto (24 October -- 19 November), enabled the Germans to avoid a general withdrawal, which had seemed inevitable in early October. The campaign ended in November, when the Canadian Corps captured Passchendaele, apart from local attacks in December and in early 1918. The Battle of the Lys and the Fifth Battle of Ypres were fought before the Allies occupied the Belgian coast and reached the Dutch frontier.
A campaign in Flanders was controversial in 1917 and has remained so. The British Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, opposed the offensive, as did General Ferdinand Foch the French Chief of the General Staff. Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig, commanding the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), did not receive approval for the Flanders operation from the War Cabinet until 25 July. Matters of dispute by the participants, writers and historians since the war, have included the wisdom of pursuing an offensive strategy in the wake of the Nivelle Offensive, rather than waiting for the arrival of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) in France.
The choice of Flanders over areas further south or the Italian front, the climate and weather in Flanders, the choice of General Hubert Gough and the Fifth Army to conduct the offensive, debates over the nature of the opening attack and between advocates of shallow and deeper objectives, have also been controversial. The passage of time between the Battle of Messines (7 -- 14 June) and the Battle of Pilckem Ridge (31 July, the opening move of the Third Battle of Ypres), the extent to which the internal troubles of the French armies motivated British persistence with the offensive, the effect of the weather, the decision to continue the offensive in October and the human cost of the campaign on the soldiers of the German and British armies, have also been argued over ever since.
Belgian independence had been recognised in the Treaty of London (1839), which created a sovereign and neutral state. The German invasion of Belgium on 4 August 1914, in violation of Article VII of the treaty, was the casus belli of the British government in declaring war on Germany. British military operations in Belgium began with the arrival of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) at Mons on 22 August. Operations in Flanders began during the Race to the Sea, reciprocal attempts by the French and German armies to turn their opponents ' northern flank through Picardy, Artois and Flanders. On 10 October, Lieutenant - General Erich von Falkenhayn, the Chief of Staff of the Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL, supreme army command), ordered an attack towards Dunkirk and Calais, followed by a turn south behind the Allied armies, to gain a decisive victory. On 16 October, the Belgians and some French reinforcements began the defence of western Belgium and the French Channel ports, at the Battle of the Yser. When the German offensive failed, Falkenhayn ordered the capture of Ypres to gain a local advantage. By 18 November, the First Battle of Ypres had also ended in failure, at a cost of 160,000 German casualties. In December 1914, the British Admiralty began discussions with the War Office, for a combined operation to re-occupy the Belgian coast but the British were obliged to conform to French strategy and participate in offensives further south.
Large British offensive operations in Flanders were not possible in 1915, due to a lack of resources. The Germans conducted their own Flanders offensive at the Second Battle of Ypres (22 April -- 15 May 1915), making the Ypres salient more costly to defend. Sir Douglas Haig succeeded Sir John French as Commander - in - Chief of the BEF on 19 December 1915. A week after his appointment, Haig met Vice-Admiral Sir Reginald Bacon, who emphasised the importance of obtaining control of the Belgian coast, to end the threat posed by German U-boats. Haig was sceptical of a coastal operation, believing that a landing from the sea would be far more difficult than anticipated and that an advance along the coast would require so much preparation, that the Germans would have ample warning. Haig preferred an advance from Ypres, to bypass the flooded area around the Yser and the coast, before attempting a coastal attack to clear the coast to the Dutch border.
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Minor operations took place in the Ypres salient in 1916, some being German initiatives to distract the Allies from the preparations for the offensive at Verdun and later attempts to divert Allied resources from the Battle of the Somme. Other operations were begun by the British to regain territory or to evict the Germans from ground overlooking their positions. Engagements took place on 12 February at Boesinghe and on 14 February at Hooge and Sanctuary Wood. There were actions from 14 -- 15 February and 1 -- 4 March at The Bluff, 27 March -- 16 April at the St Eloi Craters and the Battle of Mont Sorrel from 2 -- 13 June. In January 1917, the Second Army (General Herbert Plumer) with the II Anzac, IX, X and VIII corps, held the Western Front in Flanders from Laventie to Boesinghe, with eleven divisions and up to two in reserve. There was much trench mortaring, mining and raiding by both sides and from January to May, the Second Army had 20,000 casualties. In May, reinforcements began arriving to Flanders from the south; the II Corps headquarters and 17 divisions had arrived by the end of the month.
In January 1916, Plumer began to plan offensives against Messines Ridge, Lille and Houthulst Forest. General Henry Rawlinson was also ordered to plan an attack from the Ypres Salient on 4 February; planning continued but the Battle of Verdun and the Battle of the Somme took up the rest of the year. In November 1916, Haig, the French commander - in - chief Joseph Joffre and the other Allies met at Chantilly. The commanders agreed on a strategy of simultaneous attacks, to overwhelm the Central Powers on the Western, Eastern and Italian fronts, by the first fortnight of February 1917. A meeting in London of the Admiralty and the General Staff urged that the Flanders operation be undertaken in 1917 and Joffre replied on 8 December, agreeing to a Flanders campaign after the spring offensive. The plan for a year of attrition offensives on the Western Front, with the main effort to be made in the summer by the BEF, was scrapped by the new French Commander - in - Chief Robert Nivelle in favour of a return to a strategy of decisive battle.
Nivelle planned an operation in three parts, with preliminary offensives to pin German reserves by the British at Arras and the French between the Somme and the Oise, then a French breakthrough offensive on the Aisne, followed by pursuit and exploitation. The plan was welcomed by Haig but with some reservations, which he addressed on 6 January. Nivelle agreed to a proviso that if the first two parts of the operation failed to lead to a breakthrough, the operations would be stopped so that the British could move their forces north for the Flanders offensive, which Haig stressed was of great importance to the British government. On 23 January, Haig wrote that it would take six weeks to move British troops and equipment from the Arras front to Flanders and on 14 March, he noted that the attack on Messines Ridge could be made in May. On 21 March, he wrote to Nivelle that it would take two months to prepare the attacks from Messines to Steenstraat but that the Messines attack could be ready in 5 -- 6 weeks. The Nivelle Offensive took place from 9 April to 9 May and failed to achieve a breakthrough. On 16 May, Haig wrote that he had divided the Flanders operation into two phases, one to take Messines Ridge and the main attack several weeks later. British determination to clear the Belgian coast took on more urgency, after the Germans resumed unrestricted submarine warfare on 1 February 1917. On 1 May 1917, Haig wrote that the Nivelle Offensive had weakened the German army but that an attempt at a decisive blow would be premature. An offensive at Ypres would continue the wearing - out process, on a front where the Germans could not refuse to fight. Even a partial success would improve the tactical situation in the Ypres salient, reducing wastage, which was exceptional, even in quiet periods. In early May, Haig set the timetable for the Flanders offensive, with the preliminary attack on Messines Ridge to begin on 7 June.
The Russian army conducted the Kerensky Offensive in Galicia, to honour the agreement struck with the Allies at the Chantilly meeting of 15 to 16 November 1916. After a brief period of success from 1 to 19 July, the Russian offensive was contained by the German and Austro - Hungarian armies, which counter-attacked and forced the Russian armies to retreat. On the Baltic coast from 1 to 5 September 1917, the Germans attacked with their strategic reserve of six divisions and captured Riga. In Operation Albion (September -- October 1917), the Germans took the islands at the mouth of the Gulf of Riga. The British and French commanders on the Western Front had to reckon on the German western army (Westheer) being strengthened by reinforcements from the Ostheer on the Eastern Front by late 1917. Haig wished to exploit the diversion of German forces in Russia for as long as it continued and urged the British War Cabinet to commit the maximum amount of manpower and munitions to the battle in Flanders.
Ypres is overlooked by Kemmel Hill in the south - west and from the east by a line of low hills running south - west to north - east Wytschaete (Wijtschate) and Hill 60 are to the east of Verbrandenmolen, Hooge, Polygon Wood and Passchendaele (Passendale). The high point of the ridge is at Wytschaete, 7,000 yd (6,400 m) from Ypres, while at Hollebeke the ridge is 4,000 yd (3,700 m) distant and recedes to 7,000 yd (6,400 m) at Polygon Wood. Wytschaete is about 150 ft (46 m) above the plain; on the Ypres -- Menin road at Hooge, the elevation is about 100 ft (30 m) and 70 ft (21 m) at Passchendaele. The rises are slight, apart from the vicinity of Zonnebeke, which has a gradient of 1: 33. From Hooge and further east, the slope is 1: 60 and near Hollebeke, it is 1: 75; the heights are subtle and resemble a saucer lip around the city. The main ridge has spurs sloping east and one is particularly noticeable at Wytschaete, which runs 2 mi (3.2 km) south - east to Messines (Mesen) with a gentle slope on the east side and a 1: 10 decline westwards. Further south, is the muddy valley of the Douve river, Ploegsteert Wood (Plugstreet to the British) and Hill 63. West of Messines Ridge is the parallel Wulverghem (Spanbroekmolen) Spur and on the east side, the Oosttaverne Spur, which is also parallel to the main ridge. The general aspect south and east of Ypres, is one of low ridges and dips, gradually flattening northwards beyond Passchendaele, into a featureless plain.
Possession of the higher ground to the south and east of Ypres, gives an army ample scope for ground observation, enfilade fire and converging artillery bombardments. An occupier also has the advantage that artillery deployments and the movement of reinforcements, supplies and stores can be screened from view. The ridge had woods from Wytschaete to Zonnebeke giving good cover, some being of notable size, like Polygon Wood and those later named Battle Wood, Shrewsbury Forest and Sanctuary Wood. In 1914, the woods usually had undergrowth but by 1917, artillery bombardments had reduced the woods to tree stumps, shattered tree trunks tangled with barbed wire and more wire festooning the ground, which was full of shell - holes; fields in the gaps between the woods, were 800 -- 1,000 yd (730 -- 910 m) wide and devoid of cover. The main road to Ypres from Poperinge to Vlamertinge is in a defile, easily observed from the ridge. A century ago, roads in the area were unpaved, except for the main ones from Ypres, with occasional villages and houses dotted along them. The lowland west of the ridge, was a mixture of meadow and fields, with high hedgerows dotted with trees, cut by streams and a network of drainage ditches emptying into canals.
In Flanders, sands, gravels and marls predominate, covered by silts in places. The coastal strip is sandy but a short way into the hinterland, the ground rises towards the vale of Ypres, which before 1914 was a flourishing market garden. Ypres is 66 ft (20 m) above sea level; Bixschoote 4 mi (6.4 km) to the north is at 28 ft (8.5 m). To the east the land is at 66 -- 82 ft (20 -- 25 m) for several miles, with the Steenbeek river at 49 ft (15 m) near St Julien. There is a low ridge from Messines, 260 ft (80 m) at its highest point, running north - east past Clapham Junction at the west end of Gheluvelt plateau (2 ⁄ miles from Ypres at 213 ft (65 m) and Gheluvelt, above 160 ft (50 m) to Passchendaele, (5 ⁄ miles from Ypres at 160 ft (50 m) declining from there to a plain further north. Gradients vary from negligible, to 1: 60 at Hooge and 1: 33 at Zonnebeke.
Underneath the soil is London clay, sand and silt; according to the Commonwealth War Graves Commission categories of sand, sandy soils and well - balanced soils, Messines ridge is well - balanced soil and the ground around Ypres is sandy soil. The ground is drained by many streams, canals and ditches, which need regular maintenance. Since 1914 much of the drainage had been destroyed, though some parts were restored by land drainage companies from England. The British considered the area drier than Loos, Givenchy and Plugstreet Wood further south. A 1989 study of weather data recorded at Lille, 16 mi (26 km) from Ypres from 1867 -- 1916, showed that August was more often dry than wet, that there was a trend towards dry autumns (September -- November) and that average rainfall in October had decreased over the previous fifty years.
Preparations for operations in Flanders began in 1915, with the doubling of the Hazebrouck -- Ypres rail line and the building of a new line from Bergues to Proven, which was doubled in early 1917. Progress on roads, rail lines, railheads and spurs in the Second Army zone was continuous and by mid-1917, gave the area the most efficient supply system of the BEF. Several plans and memoranda for a Flanders offensive were produced between January 1916 and May 1917, in which the writers tried to relate the offensive resources available to the terrain and the likely German defence. In early 1916, the importance of the capture of the Gheluvelt plateau for an advance further north was emphasised by Haig and the army commanders. On 14 February 1917, Colonel C.N. Macmullen of GHQ proposed that the plateau be taken by a mass tank attack, reducing the need for artillery; in April a reconnaissance by Captain G. le Q Martel found that the area was unsuitable for tanks. On 9 February, General Rawlinson, commander of the Fourth Army, suggested that Messines Ridge could be taken in one day and that the capture of the Gheluvelt plateau should be fundamental to the attack further north. He suggested that the southern attack from St Yves to Mont Sorrel should come first and that Mont Sorrel to Steenstraat should be attacked within 48 -- 72 hours. After discussions with Rawlinson and Plumer and the incorporation of Haig 's changes, Macmullen submitted his memorandum on 14 February. With amendments the memorandum became the GHQ 1917 plan. A week after the Battle of Messines Ridge, Haig gave his objectives to his army commanders, wearing out the enemy, securing the Belgian coast and connecting with the Dutch frontier by capturing Passchendaele ridge, followed by an advance on Roulers and Operation Hush, an attack along the coast with a combined amphibious landing. If manpower and artillery were insufficient, only the first part of the plan might be fulfilled. On 30 April, Haig told Gough, the Fifth Army commander, that he would lead the Northern Operation and the coastal force, although Cabinet approval for the offensive was not granted until 21 June.
The 4th Army held a front of 25 mi (40 km) with three Gruppen, composed of a corps headquarters and a varying complement of divisions; Group Staden, based on the headquarters of the Guards Reserve Corps was added later. Group Dixmude held 12 mi (19 km) with four front divisions and two Eingreif divisions, Group Ypres held 6 mi (9.7 km) from Pilckem to Menin Road with three front divisions and two Eingreif divisions and Group Wijtschate held a similar length of front south of the Menin road, with three front divisions and three Eingreif divisions. The Eingreif divisions were stationed behind the Menin and Passchendaele ridges. About 5 mi (8.0 km) further back, were four more Eingreif divisions and 7 mi (11 km) beyond them, another two in OHL reserve.
The Germans were anxious that the British would attempt to exploit the victory of the Battle of Messines, with an advance to the Tower Hamlets spur beyond the north end of Messines Ridge. On 9 June, Crown Prince Rupprecht proposed a withdrawal to the Flandern line east of Messines. Construction of defences began but was terminated after Fritz von Loßberg was appointed Chief of Staff of the 4th Army. Loßberg rejected the proposed withdrawal to the Flandern line and ordered that the front line east of the Oosttaverne line be held rigidly. The Flandern Stellung (Flanders Position) along Passchendaele Ridge, in front of the Flandern line, would become Flandern I Stellung and a new position, Flandern II Stellung, would run west of Menin, northwards to Passchendaele. Construction of a Flandern III Stellung east of Menin northwards to Moorslede was also begun. From July 1917, the area east of Ypres was defended by the front position, the Albrecht Stellung (second position), Wilhelm Stellung (third position), Flandern I Stellung (fourth position), Flandern II Stellung (fifth position) and Flandern III Stellung, the sixth position (incomplete). Between the German defences lay villages such as Zonnebeke and Passchendaele, which were fortified and prepared for all - round defence.
On 25 June, Erich Ludendorff, the First Quartermaster General, suggested to Crown Prince Rupprecht that Group Ypres should withdraw to the Wilhelm Stellung, leaving only outposts in the Albrecht Stellung. On 30 June, the army group Chief of Staff, General von Kuhl, suggested a withdrawal to the Flandern I Stellung along Passchendaele ridge, meeting the old front line in the north near Langemarck and Armentières in the south. Such a withdrawal would avoid a hasty retreat from Pilckem Ridge and force the British into a time - consuming redeployment. Lossberg disagreed, believing that the British would launch a broad front offensive, that the ground east of the Sehnen line was easy to defend and that the Menin road ridge could be held if it was made the Schwerpunkt (point of main effort) of the German defensive system. Pilckem Ridge deprived the British of ground observation over the Steenbeek Valley, while the Germans could see the area from Passchendaele Ridge, allowing German infantry to be supported by observed artillery - fire. Lossberg 's judgement was accepted and no withdrawal was made.
The first stage in the British plan was a preparatory attack on the German positions south of Ypres at Messines Ridge. The Germans on the ridge had observation over Ypres and unless it was captured, observed enfilade artillery - fire could be fired against a British attack from the salient further north. Since mid-1915, the British had been mining under the German positions on the ridge and by June 1917, 21 mines had been filled with nearly 1,000,000 lb (450 t) of explosives. The Germans knew the British were mining and had taken counter-measures but they were surprised at the extent of the British effort. Two of the mines failed to detonate but 19 went off on 7 June, at 3: 10 a.m. British Summer Time. The final objectives were largely gained before dark and the British had fewer losses than the expected 50 percent in the initial attack. As the infantry advanced over the far edge of the ridge, German artillery and machine - guns east of the ridge opened fire and the British artillery was less able to suppress them. The attack removed the Germans from the dominating ground on the southern face of the Ypres salient, which the 4th Army had held since the First Battle of Ypres in 1914.
Haig selected Gough to command the offensive on 30 April and on 10 June, Gough took over the Ypres salient north of Messines Ridge. Gough planned an offensive based on the GHQ 1917 plan and the instructions he had received from Haig. Gough held meetings with his corps commanders on 6 and 16 June, where the third objective, which included the Wilhelm Stellung (third line), a second - day objective in earlier plans, was added to the two objectives due to be taken on the first day. A fourth objective was also given for the first day but was only to be attempted at the discretion of divisional and corps commanders, in places where the German defence had collapsed. The attack was not planned as a breakthrough operation, because Flandern I Stellung, the fourth German defensive position, lay 10,000 -- 12,000 yd (9,100 -- 11,000 m) behind the front line and was not an objective on the first day.
The Fifth Army plan was more ambitious than the plans devised by Rawlinson and Plumer, which had involved an advance of 1,000 -- 1,750 yd (910 -- 1,600 m) on the first day, by compressing their first three attacks into one day instead of three. Major - General John Davidson, Director of Operations at GHQ, wrote in a memorandum that there was "ambiguity as to what was meant by a step - by - step attack with limited objectives '' and suggested reverting to a 1,750 yd (1,600 m) advance on the first day to increase the concentration of British artillery. Gough stressed the need to plan to exploit an opportunity to take ground left temporarily undefended, which was more likely in the first attack, which would have the benefit of long preparation. This had not been done in earlier battles and vacant ground, there for the taking, had been re-occupied by the Germans. At the end of June, Haig added a division to II Corps (Lieutenant - General Claud Jacob) from the Second Army and next day, after meeting with Gough and General Herbert Plumer, the Second Army commander, Haig endorsed the Fifth Army plan.
The British attack began at 3: 50 a.m. on 31 July; the attack was to commence at dawn but a layer of unbroken low cloud, meant that it was still dark when the infantry advanced. The main attack, by II Corps across the Ghelveult Plateau to the south, confronted the principal German defensive concentration of artillery, ground - holding divisions (Stellungsdivisionen) and Eingreif divisions. The attack had most success on the northern flank, on the fronts of XIV Corps and the French First Army, both of which advanced 2,500 -- 3,000 yd (2,300 -- 2,700 m) to the line of the Steenbeek river. In the centre, XVIII Corps and XIX Corps pushed forward to the line of the Steenbeek (black line) to consolidate and sent fresh troops towards the green line and on the XIX Corps front to the red line, for an advance of about 4,000 yd (3,700 m). Group Ypres counter-attacked the flanks of the British break - in, supported by every artillery piece and aircraft, around noon. The Germans were able to drive the three British brigades back to the black line with 70 percent casualties; the counter-attack was stopped at the black line by mud, artillery and machine - gun fire.
After a rain delay from 2 August, II Corps attacked again on 10 August, to capture the rest of the black line (second objective) on the Gheluvelt plateau. The advance succeeded but German artillery - fire and infantry counter-attacks isolated the infantry of the 18th Division in Glencorse Wood. At about 7: 00 p.m., German infantry attacked behind a smokescreen and recaptured all but the north - west corner of the wood; only the 25th Division gains on Westhoek Ridge to the north were held. Albrecht von Thaer, a staff officer at Group Wytshchate, noted that casualties after 14 days in the line averaged 1,500 -- 2,000 men, compared to the Somme 1916 average of 4,000 men and that German troop morale was higher than in 1916.
Attacks to threaten Lens and Lille were to be made by the First Army in late June near Gavrelle and Oppy, along the Souchez river. The objective was to eliminate a German salient between Avion and the west end of Lens, by taking reservoir Hill (Hill 65) and Hill 70. The attacks were conducted earlier than planned to use heavy and siege artillery before it was transferred to Ypres, the Souchez operation being cut back and the attack on Hill 70 postponed. The Battle of Hill 70, 30 mi (48 km) south of Ypres, eventually took place from 15 to 25 August The Canadian Corps fought five divisions of the German 6th Army in the operation that had been postponed from July. The capture of Hill 70 was a costly success in which three Canadian divisions inflicted many casualties on the German divisions opposite and pinned down troops reserved for the relief of tired divisions in Flanders. Hermann von Kuhl, chief of staff of Army Group Crown Prince Rupprecht, wrote later that it was a costly defeat and wrecked the plan for relieving fought - out (exhausted) divisions in Flanders.
The Battle of Langemarck was fought from 16 -- 18 August; the Fifth Army headquarters was influenced by the effect that delay would have on Operation Hush, which needed the high tides due at the end of August or it would have to be postponed for a month. Gough intended that the rest of the green line, just beyond the Wilhelm Stellung (German third line), from Polygon Wood to Langemarck, was to be captured and the Steenbeek crossed further north. In the II Corps area, the disappointment of 10 August was repeated, with the infantry managing to advance, then being isolated by German artillery and forced back to their start line by German counter-attacks, except in the 25th Division area near Westhoek. Attempts by the German infantry to advance further were stopped by British artillery - fire with many losses. The advance further north in the XVIII Corps area retook and held the north end of St Julien and the area south - east of Langemarck, while XIV Corps captured Langemarck and the Wilhelm Stellung, north of the Ypres -- Staden railway near the Kortebeek stream. The French First Army conformed, pushing up to the Kortebeek and St Jansbeck stream west of the northern stretch of the Wilhelm Stellung, where it crossed to the east side of the Kortebeek.
On higher ground, the Germans continued to inflict many losses on the British divisions beyond Langemarck but on 19 August, after two fine dry days, XVIII Corps conducted a novel infantry, tank, aircraft and artillery operation and captured German strongpoints and pillboxes along the St Julien -- Poelcappelle road in front of the Wilhelm Stellung. On 22 August, more ground was gained by XIX and XVIII corps but they remained overlooked by the Germans. A II Corps attack on the Gheluvelt Plateau from 22 to 24 August, to capture Nonne Bosschen, Glencorse Wood and Inverness Copse, failed and was costly to both sides. Gough laid down a new infantry formation of skirmish lines to be followed by "worms '' on 24 August and Cavan noted that pillboxes should be attacked on a broad front, to engage them simultaneously. Another general offensive intended for 25 August, was delayed by the failure of the preliminary attacks and then postponed due to more bad weather. On 27 August, II Corps tried a combined tank and infantry attack but the tanks bogged and the attack failed; Haig called a halt to operations until the weather improved.
In Field Marshal Earl Haig (1929), Brigadier - General John Charteris, the BEF Chief of Intelligence from 1915 to 1918, wrote that
Careful investigation of records of more than eighty years showed that in Flanders the weather broke early each August with the regularity of the Indian monsoon: once the Autumn rains set in difficulties would be greatly enhanced... Unfortunately, there now set in the wettest August for thirty years.
the first part of which was quoted by Lloyd George (1934), Liddell Hart (1934) and Leon Wolff (1959); in a 1997 essay, John Hussey called the passage by Charteris "baffling ''. The BEF had set up a Meteorological Section under Ernest Gold in 1915, which by the end of 1917 had 16 officers and 82 men. The section predicted the warm weather and thunderstorms of 7 to 14 June and in a letter to the press of 17 January 1958, Gold wrote that the facts of Flanders climate contradicted the claim made by Charteris in 1929. In 1989, Philip Griffiths examined August weather in Flanders for the thirty years before 1916 and found that,
... there is no reason to suggest that the weather broke early in the month with any regularity.
From 1901 to 1916, records from a weather station at Cap Gris Nez showed that 65 percent of August days were dry and that from 1913 to 1916, there were 26, 23, 23 and 21 rainless days and monthly rainfall of 17, 28, 22 and 96 mm (0.67, 1.10, 0.87 and 3.78 in);
... during the summers preceding the Flanders campaign August days were more often dry than wet.
In August 1917, 127 mm (5.0 in), 84 mm (3.3 in) of rain falling on 1, 8, 14, 26 and 27 August; the weather was also overcast and windless, which much reduced evaporation. Divided into two ten - day and an eleven - day period, there were 53.6, 32.4 and 41.3 mm (2.11, 1.28 and 1.63 in) of rain that August In the 61 hours before 6: 00 p.m. on 31 July, 12.5 mm (0.49 in) of rain fell and from 6: 00 p.m. on 31 July to 6: 00 p.m. on 4 August, there was 63 mm (2.5 in) of rain. There were three dry days and 14 days with less than 1 mm (0.039 in) of rain during the month. Three days were sunless and one had six minutes of sun; over 27 days there were 178.1 hours of sunshine, an average of 6.6 hours per day. Hussey wrote that the weather in August 1917 was exceptionally bad and Haig had been justified in expecting little rain, which would be dried by sunshine and breezes.
Petain had committed the French Second Army to an attack at Verdun in mid-July, in support of the operations in Flanders. The attack was delayed, partly due to mutinies in the French army after the failure of the Nivelle Offensive, and also because of a German attack at Verdun from 28 -- 29 June, which captured some of the ground intended as a jumping - off point for the French attack. A French counter-attack on 17 July re-captured the ground, the Germans regained it on 1 August, then took ground on the east bank on 16 August. The battle began on 20 August and by 9 September, the French had taken 10,000 prisoners. Fighting continued sporadically into October, adding to the German difficulties on the Western Front and elsewhere. Ludendorff wrote
On the left bank, close to the Meuse, one division had failed... and yet both here and in Flanders everything possible had been done to avoid failure... The French army was once more capable of the offensive. It had quickly overcome its depression.
yet no German counter-attack was possible, because the local Eingreif divisions had been transferred to Flanders.
The 4th Army had held on to the Gheluvelt Plateau in August but its casualties worsened the German manpower shortage. Haig transferred the main offensive effort to the Second Army on 25 August and moved the northern boundary of the Second Army closer to the Ypres -- Roulers railway. More heavy artillery was sent to Flanders from the armies further south and placed opposite the Gheluvelt Plateau. Plumer continued the tactical development of the Fifth Army, during its slow and costly progress in August. After a pause of about three weeks, Plumer intended to capture the plateau in four steps, at six - day intervals to bring forward artillery and supplies. The Second Army attacks were to remain limited and infantry brigades re-organised to attack the first objective with a battalion each and the final one with two battalions, the opposite of the Fifth Army practice.
Plumer arranged for the medium and heavy artillery reinforcements reaching Flanders to be added to the creeping bombardment, which had been impossible with the amount of artillery available to the Fifth Army. The revised tactics were to ensure that more infantry attacked on narrower fronts, to a shallower depth than on of 31 July, like the Fifth Army attacks in August. The shorter and quicker advances were intended to be consolidated on tactically advantageous ground, especially reverse slopes, with the infantry still in contact with the artillery and aircraft, ready to repulse counter-attacks. The faster tempo of the operations was intended to add to German difficulties in replacing tired divisions through the railway bottlenecks behind the German front. The pause in British attacks misled the Germans and Thaer at Gruppe Wijtschate, wrote that it was almost boring. Kuhl doubted that the offensive had ended but by 13 September changed his mind; two divisions, thirteen heavy batteries and twelve field batteries of artillery, three fighter squadrons and four other air force units were transferred from the 4th Army.
After setting objectives 1 -- 2 mi (1.6 -- 3.2 km) distant on 31 July, the British attempted shorter advances of approximately 1,500 yd (1,400 m) in August but were unable to achieve these lesser objectives on the south side of the battlefield because the rain soaked ground and poor visibility was to the advantage of the defenders. After the dry spell in early September, British advances had been much quicker and the final objective was reached a few hours after dawn, which confounded the German counter-attack divisions. Having crossed 2 mi (3.2 km) of mud, the Eingreif divisions found the British already dug in, with the German forward battle zone and its weak garrison gone beyond recapture. In August, German front - line divisions had two regiments deployed in the front line, with the third regiment in reserve. The front battalions had needed to be relieved much more frequently than expected, due to the power of British attacks, constant artillery - fire and the weather. Replacement units became mixed up with ones holding the front and reserve regiments had failed to intervene quickly, leaving front battalions unsupported until Eingreif divisions arrived some hours later.
In July and August, German counter-attack (Eingreif) divisions had conducted an "advance to contact during mobile operations '', which had given the Germans several costly defensive successes. After the Battle of the Menin Road Ridge, German tactics were changed. After another defeat on 26 September, the German commanders made more tactical changes to counter the more conservative form of limited attacks adopted by the British. German counter-attacks in September had been "assaults on reinforced field positions '', due to the restrained nature of British infantry advances. The fine weather in early September had greatly eased British supply difficulties, especially in ammunition and the British made time to establish a defence in depth, protected by standing artillery barrages. The British attacks took place in dry, clear weather, with more aircraft over the battlefield for counter-attack reconnaissance, contact patrol and ground - attack operations. Systematic defensive artillery - fire was forfeited by the Germans, due to uncertainty over the position of their infantry, just when the British infantry benefited from the opposite. German counter-attacks were costly failures and on 28 September, Thaer wrote that the experience was "awful '' and that he did not know what to do.
Ludendorff ordered the Stellungsdivisionen to reinforce their front garrisons; all machine - guns, including those of the support and reserve battalions were sent into the forward zone, to form a cordon of four to eight guns every 250 yd (230 m). The Stellungsdivisionen were reinforced by the Stoss regiments of Eingreif divisions, which were moved into the artillery protective line behind the forward battle zone, to launch counter-attacks sooner. The other regiments of the Eingreif divisions were to be held back and used for a methodical counter-stroke a day or two after and spoiling attacks as the British reorganised. More tactical changes were ordered on 30 September, operations to increase British infantry losses were to continue and gas bombardments were to be increased, weather permitting. Every effort was to be made to induce the British to reinforce their forward positions with infantry, where the German artillery could bombard them. Between 26 September and 3 October, the Germans attacked at least 24 times and Operation High Storm Unternehmen Hohensturm, a Gegenangriff (methodical counter-attack), to recapture the area around Zonnebeke was planned for 4 October.
The British plan for the battle fought from 20 -- 25 September, included more emphasis on the use of heavy and medium artillery to destroy German concrete pill - boxes and machine - gun nests, which were more numerous in the battle zones being attacked and to engage in more counter-battery fire. The British had 575 heavy and medium and 720 field guns and howitzers, having more than doubled the quantity of artillery available at the Battle of Pilckem Ridge. Aircraft were to be used for systematic air observation of German troop movements, to avoid the failures of previous battles, where too few aircraft crews had been burdened with too many duties and had flown in bad weather.
On 20 September, the Allies attacked on a 14,500 yd (13,300 m) front and captured most of their objectives, to a depth of about 1,500 yd (1,400 m) by mid-morning. The Germans made many counter-attacks, beginning around 3: 00 p.m. until early evening, all of which failed to gain ground or made only a temporary penetration of the new British positions. The German defence had failed to stop a well - prepared attack made in good weather. Minor attacks took place after 20 September, as both sides jockeyed for position and reorganised their defences. A mutually - costly attack by the Germans on 25 September, recaptured pillboxes at the south western end of Polygon Wood. Next day, the German positions near the wood were swept away in the Battle of Polygon Wood.
Two regiments of the German 50th Reserve Division attacked on a 1,800 yd (1,600 m) front, either side of the Reutelbeek, supported by aircraft and 44 field and 20 heavy batteries of artillery, four times the usual amount for a division. The German infantry managed to advance on the flanks, for about 100 yd (91 m) near the Menin road and 600 yd (550 m) north of the Reutelbeek. The infantry were supported by artillery - observation and ground - attack aircraft and a box - barrage fired behind the British front - line, which isolated the British from reinforcements and ammunition. Return - fire from the 33rd Division and the 15th Australian Brigade of the 5th Australian Division along the southern edge of Polygon wood, forced the attackers under cover around some of the Wilhelm Stellung pillboxes, near Black Watch Corner, at the south - western edge of Polygon Wood. German attempts to reinforce the attacking troops failed, due to British artillery observers isolating the advanced German troops with artillery barrages.
Plumer ordered the attack on 26 September to go ahead but reduced the objectives of the 33rd Division. The 98th Brigade was to advance and cover the right flank of the 5th Australian Division and the 100th Brigade was to re-capture the lost ground further south. The 5th Australian Division advance the next day began with uncertainty as to the security of the right flank; the attack of the depleted 98th Brigade was delayed and only managed to reach Black Watch Corner, 1,000 yd (910 m) short of its objectives. Reinforcements moved into the 5th Australian Division area and attacked south - westwards at noon, as a frontal attack was made from Black Watch Corner without artillery support, because British troops were known to be holding out. The attack succeeded by 2: 00 p.m.; later in the afternoon, the 100th Brigade re-took the ground lost north of the Menin road. Casualties in the 33rd Division were so great that it was relieved on 27 September by the 23rd Division, which had only been withdrawn on the night of 24 / 25 September.
The Second Army altered its Corps frontages soon after the attack of 20 September, for the next effort (26 September -- 3 October) so that each attacking division could be concentrated on a 1,000 yd (910 m) front. Roads and light railways were extended to the new front line, to allow artillery and ammunition to be moved forward. The artillery of VIII Corps and IX Corps on the southern flank, simulated preparations for attacks on Zandvoorde and Warneton. At 5.50 a.m. on 26 September, five layers of barrage fired by British artillery and machine - guns began. Dust and smoke thickened the morning mist and the infantry advanced using compass bearings. Each of the three German ground - holding divisions attacked on 26 September, had an Eingreif division in support, twice the ratio of 20 September. No ground captured by the British was lost and German counter-attacks managed only to reach ground to which survivors of the front - line divisions had retired.
At 4: 00 a.m. on 30 September, a thick mist covered the ground and at 4: 30 a.m. German artillery began a bombardment between the Menin road and the Reutelbeek. At 5: 15 a.m., German troops emerged from the mist on an 800 yd (730 m) front. The attack was supported by flame - throwers and German infantry throwing smoke - and hand - grenades. The British replied with small - arms fire and bombs, forcing the Germans to retreat in confusion but a post was lost south of the Menin road, then retaken by an immediate counter-attack. SOS rockets were not seen in the mist and the British artillery remained silent. The Germans were repulsed again at 6: 00 a.m. but German artillery - fire continued during the day.
On 1 October, at 5: 00 a.m., a German hurricane bombardment began from the Reutelbeek north to Polygon Wood and Black Watch Corner; by coincidence a Second Army practice barrage began at 5: 15 a.m. The British front line was cut off and German infantry attacked in three waves at 5: 30 a.m. Two determined German attacks were repulsed south of Cameron Covert, then at 7: 00 p.m. German troops massed near the Menin road. The German attack was defeated by small - arms fire and the British artillery, whose observers had seen the SOS rockets. The British were forced out of Cameron Covert and counter-attacked but a German attack began at the same time and the British were repulsed. Another German attack failed and the German troops dug in behind some old German barbed wire; after dark, more German attacks around Cameron Covert failed. North of the covert near Polygon Wood, deep mud smothered German shells before they exploded but they still caused many casualties. Communication with the rear was lost and the Germans attacked all day but British SOS rockets remained visible and the attacks took no ground; after dark German attacks were repulsed by another three SOS barrages.
Unternehmen Hohensturm (Operation High Storm) was planned by Gruppe Ypres to recapture the Tokio Spur from Zonnebeke south to Molenaarelsthoek at the eastern edge of Polygon Wood on 3 October. The attacking infantry from the 45th Reserve and the 4th Guard divisions were commanded by Major Freiherr von Schleinitz in the north and Lieutenant - Colonel Rave in the south. After the costly failure of the Gegenangriff on 1 October, the attack was put back to 4 October, rehearsals taking place from 2 to 3 October. On the night of 3 / 4 October, the German commanders had doubts about the attack but decided to proceed with the Gegenangriff, warning the artillery to be ready to commence defensive bombardments. A contact patrol aircraft was arranged to fly over the area at 7: 30 a.m.
On 4 October, the British began the Battle of Broodseinde to complete the capture of the Gheluvelt Plateau and occupy Broodseinde Ridge. By coincidence, the Germans sought to recapture their defences around Zonnebeke with a methodical counter-attack (Gegenangriff) at the same time. The British attacked along a 14,000 yd (13,000 m) front and as the I Anzac Corps divisions began their advance towards Broodseinde Ridge, men were seen rising from shell - holes in no man 's land and more German troops were found concealed in shell - craters. Most of the German troops of the 45th Reserve Division were overrun or retreated through the British barrage, then the Australians attacked pillboxes one - by - one and captured the village of Zonnebeke north of the ridge. When the British barrage began on Broodseinde Ridge, the Keiberg Spur and Waterdamhoek, some of the German forward headquarters staffs only realised that they were under attack when British and Australian troops appeared.
As news arrived of the great success of the attack, the head of GHQ Intelligence went to the Second Army headquarters to discuss exploitation. Plumer declined the suggestion, as eight fresh German divisions were behind the battlefield, with another six beyond them. Later in the day, Plumer had second thoughts and ordered I Anzac Corps to push on to the Keiberg spur, with support from the II Anzac Corps. The II Anzac Corps commander wanted to advance north - east towards Passchendaele village but the I Anzac Corps commander preferred to wait until artillery had been brought up and supply routes improved. The X Corps commander proposed an attack northward from In de Ster into the southern flank of the Germans opposite I Anzac Corps. The 7th Division commander objected, due to uncertainty about the situation and the many casualties suffered by the 21st Division on the right flank and Plumer changed his mind again. During the morning, Gough had told the Fifth Army corps commanders to push on but when reports arrived of a repulse at 19 Metre Hill, the order was cancelled.
On 7 October, the 4th Army again dispersed its troops in the front defence zone. Reserve battalions moved back behind the artillery protective line and the Eingreif divisions were organised to intervene as swiftly as possible once an attack commenced, despite the risk of British artillery - fire. Counter-battery fire to suppress the British artillery was to be increased, to protect the Eingreif divisions as they advanced. All of the German divisions holding front zones were relieved and an extra division brought forward, because the British advances had lengthened the front line. Without the divisions necessary for a counter-offensive south of the Gheluvelt Plateau towards Kemmel Hill, Rupprecht began to plan for a slow withdrawal from the Ypres Salient, even at the risk of uncovering German positions further north and on the Belgian coast.
The French First Army and British Second and Fifth armies attacked on 9 October, on a 13,500 yd (12,300 m) front, from south of Broodseinde to St Jansbeek, to advance half of the distance from Broodseinde ridge to Passchendaele, on the main front, which led to many casualties on both sides. Advances in the north of the attack front were retained by British and French troops but most of the ground taken in front of Passchendaele and on the Becelaere and Gheluvelt spurs was lost to German counter-attacks. General William Birdwood later wrote that the return of heavy rain and mud sloughs was the main cause of the failure to hold captured ground. Kuhl concluded that the fighting strained German fighting power to the limit but that the German forces managed to prevent a breakthrough, although it was becoming much harder to replace losses.
The First Battle of Passchendaele on 12 October was another Allied attempt to gain ground around Passchendaele. Heavy rain and mud again made movement difficult and little artillery could be brought closer to the front. Allied troops were exhausted and morale had fallen. After a modest British advance, German counter-attacks recovered most of the ground lost opposite Passchendaele, except for an area on the right of the Wallemolen spur. North of Poelcappelle, the XIV Corps of the Fifth Army advanced along the Broembeek some way up the Watervlietbeek and the Stadenrevebeek streams and the Guards Division captured the west end of the Vijwegen spur, gaining observation over the south end of Houthulst Forest. There were 13,000 Allied casualties, including 2,735 New Zealanders, 845 of whom were dead or stranded in the mud of no - man 's - land; it was one of the worst days in New Zealand military history.
At a conference on 13 October, Haig and the army commanders agreed that attacks would stop until the weather improved and roads could be extended, to carry more artillery and ammunition forward. The offensive was to continue, to reach a suitable line for the winter and to keep German attention on Flanders, with a French attack due on 23 October and the Third Army operation south of Arras scheduled for mid-November. The battle was also costly for the Germans, who lost more than 1,000 prisoners. The German 195th Division at Passchendaele suffered 3,325 casualties from 9 to 12 October and had to be relieved by the 238th Division. Ludendorff became optimistic that Passchendaele Ridge could be held and ordered the 4th Army to stand fast. On 18 October, Kuhl advocated a retreat as far to the east as possible; Armin and Lossberg wanted to hold on, because the ground beyond the Passchendaele watershed was untenable, even in winter.
On 22 October the 18th (Eastern) Division of XVIII Corps attacked the east end of Poelcappelle as XIV Corps to the north attacked with the 34th Division between the Watervlietbeek and Broenbeek streams and the 35th Division northwards into Houthulst Forest. The attack was supported by a regiment of the French 1st Division on the left flank of the 35th Division and was intended to obstruct a possible German counter-attack on the left flank of the Canadian Corps as it attacked Passchendaele and the ridge. The artillery of the Second and Fifth armies conducted a bombardment to simulate a general attack as a deception. Poelcappelle was captured but the attack at the junction between the 34th and 35th divisions was repulsed. German counter-attacks pushed back the 35th Division in the centre but the French attack captured all its objectives. Attacking on ground cut up by bombardments and soaked by rain, the British had struggled to advance in places and lost the ability to move quickly to outflank pillboxes. The 35th Division reached the fringe of Houthulst Forest but was outflanked and pushed back in places. German counter-attacks made after 22 October, were at an equal disadvantage and were costly failures. The German 4th Army was prevented from transferring troops away from the Fifth Army and from concentrating its artillery - fire on the Canadians as they prepared for the Second Battle of Passchendaele (26 October -- 10 November 1917).
After numerous requests from Haig, Petain began the Battle of La Malmaison, a long - delayed French attack on the Chemin des Dames, by the Sixth Army (General Paul Maistre). The artillery preparation started on 17 October and on 23 October, the German defenders were swiftly defeated and the French advanced up to 3.7 mi (6.0 km), capturing the village and fort of La Malmaison, gaining control of the Chemin des Dames ridge. The Germans lost 38,000 men killed or missing and 12,000 prisoners, along with 200 guns and 720 machine - guns, against 14,000 French casualties, fewer than a third of the German total. The Germans had to withdraw from their remaining positions on the Chemin des Dames to the north of the Ailette Valley early in November. Haig was pleased with the French success but regretted the delay, which had lessened its effect on the Flanders operations.
The British Fifth Army undertook minor operations from 20 -- 22 October, to maintain pressure on the Germans and support the French attack at La Malmaison, while the Canadian Corps prepared for a series of attacks from 26 October -- 10 November. The four divisions of the Canadian Corps had been transferred to the Ypres Salient from Lens, to capture Passchendaele and the ridge. The Canadians relieved the II Anzac Corps on 18 October and found that the front line was mostly the same as that occupied by the 1st Canadian Division in April 1915. The Canadian operation was to be three limited attacks, on 26 October, 30 October and 6 November. On 26 October, the 3rd Canadian Division captured its objective at Wolf Copse, then swung back its northern flank to link with the adjacent division of the Fifth Army. The 4th Canadian Division captured its objectives but was forced slowly to retire from Decline Copse, against German counter-attacks and communication failures between the Canadian and Australian units to the south.
The second stage began on 30 October, to complete the previous stage and gain a base for the final assault on Passchendaele. The attackers on the southern flank quickly captured Crest Farm and sent patrols beyond the final objective into Passchendaele. The attack on the northern flank again met with exceptional German resistance. The 3rd Canadian Division captured Vapour Farm on the corps boundary, Furst Farm to the west of Meetcheele and the crossroads at Meetcheele but remained short of its objective. During a seven - day pause, the Second Army took over another section of the Fifth Army front adjoining the Canadian Corps. Three rainless days from 3 -- 5 November eased preparation for the next stage, which began on the morning of 6 November, with the 1st Canadian Division and the 2nd Canadian Division. In fewer than three hours, many units reached their final objectives and Passchendaele was captured. The Canadian Corps launched a final action on 10 November, to gain control of the remaining high ground north of the village near Hill 52.
On 18 November the VIII Corps on the right and II Corps on the left (northern) side of the Passchendaele Salient took over from the Canadian Corps. The area was subjected to constant German artillery bombardments and its vulnerability to attack led to a suggestion by Brigadier C.F. Aspinall, that either the British should retire to the west side of the Gheluvelt Plateau or advance to broaden the salient towards Westroosebeke. Expanding the salient would make the troops in it less vulnerable to German artillery - fire and provide a better jumping off line for a resumption of the offensive in the spring of 1918. The British attacked towards Westroozebeke on the night of 1 / 2 December but the plan to mislead the Germans by not bombarding the German defences until eight minutes after the infantry began their advance came undone. The noise of the British assembly and the difficulty of moving across muddy and waterlogged ground had also alerted the Germans. In the moonlight, the Germans had seen the British troops when they were still 200 yd (180 m) away. Some ground was captured and about 150 prisoners were taken but the attack on the redoubts failed and observation over the heads of the valleys on the east and north sides of the ridge was not achieved.
The attack on the Polderhoek Spur on 3 December 1917, was a local operation by the British Fourth Army (renamed from the Second Army on 8 November). Two battalions of the 2nd New Zealand Brigade of the New Zealand Division attacked the low ridge, from which German observers could view the area from Cameron Covert to the north and the Menin road to the south - west. A New Zealand advance of 600 yd (550 m) on a 400 yd (370 m) front, would shield the area north of the Reutelbeek stream from German observers on the Gheluvelt spur. Heavy artillery bombarded the ruins of Polderhoek Château and the pillboxes in the grounds to mislead the defenders and the attack was made in daylight as a ruse to surprise the Germans, who would be under cover sheltering from the routine bombardments. Smoke and gas bombardments on the Gheluvelt and Becelaere spurs on the flanks and the infantry attack began at the same time as the "routine '' bombardment. The ruse failed, some British artillery - fire dropped short on the New Zealanders and the Germans engaged the attackers with small - arms fire from Polderhoek Spur and Gheluvelt ridge. A strong west wind ruined the smoke screens and the British artillery failed to suppress the German machine - guns. New Zealand machine - gunners repulsed a counter-attack but the New Zealand infantry were 150 yd (140 m) short of the first objective; another attempt after dark was cancelled because of the full moon and the arrival of German reinforcements.
In a German General Staff publication, it was written that "Germany had been brought near to certain destruction (sicheren Untergang) by the Flanders battle of 1917 ''. In his Memoirs of 1938, Lloyd George wrote, "Passchendaele was indeed one of the greatest disasters of the war... No soldier of any intelligence now defends this senseless campaign... ''. In 1939, G.C. Wynne wrote that the British had eventually reached Passchendaele Ridge and captured Flandern I Stellung; beyond them were Flandern II and Flandern III (which was nearing completion). The German submarine bases on the coast had not been captured but the objective of diverting the Germans from the French further south, while they recovered from the Nivelle Offensive in April, had succeeded. In 1997, Griffith wrote that the bite and hold system kept moving until November, because the BEF had developed a workable system of offensive tactics, against which the Germans ultimately had no answer. A decade later, Sheldon wrote that relative casualty figures were irrelevant, because the German army could not afford great numbers of losses or to lose the initiative by being compelled to fight another defensive battle, on ground of the Allies ' choosing. The Third Battle of Ypres pinned the German army to Flanders and caused unsustainable casualties.
At a conference on 13 October, a scheme of the Third Army for an attack in mid-November was discussed. General Julian Byng, commander of the Third Army, wanted the operations at Ypres to continue, to hold German troops in Flanders. The Battle of Cambrai began on 20 November, when the British breached the first two parts of the Hindenburg Line, in the first successful mass use of tanks in a combined arms operation. The experience of the failure to contain the British attacks at Ypres and the drastic reduction in areas of the western front that could be considered "quiet '' after the tank and artillery surprise at Cambrai, left the OHL with little choice but to return to a strategy of decisive victory in 1918. On 24 October, the Austro - German 14th Army (General der Infanterie Otto von Below), attacked the Italian Second Army on the Isonzo, at the Battle of Caporetto and in 18 days, inflicted casualties of 650,000 men and 3,000 guns. In fear that Italy might be put out of the war, the French and British Governments offered reinforcements. British and French troops were swiftly moved from 10 November -- 12 December but the diversion of resources from the BEF forced Haig to conclude the Third Battle of Ypres short of Westrozebeke, the last substantial British attack being made on 10 November.
Various casualty figures have been published, sometimes with acrimony but the highest estimates for British and German casualties appear to be discredited. In the Official History, Brigadier - General J.E. Edmonds put British casualties at 244,897 and wrote that equivalent German figures were not available, estimating German losses at 400,000. Edmonds considered that 30 percent needed to be added to German figures to make them comparable to British casualty criteria. In 2007, Sheldon wrote that although German casualties from 1 June -- 10 November were 217,194, a figure available in Volume III of the Sanitätsbericht (1934), Edmonds may not have included them as they did not fit his case. Sheldon recorded 182,396 slightly wounded and sick soldiers not struck off unit strength, which if included would make 399,590 German losses. The British claim to have taken 24,065 prisoners has not been disputed. In 1940, C.R.M.F. Cruttwell recorded 300,000 British casualties and 400,000 German. Wolff in 1958 gave German casualties as 270,713 and 448,688 British. In 1959, Cyril Falls estimated 240,000 British, 8,525 French and 260,000 German casualties.
John Terraine followed Falls in 1963 but did not accept that German losses were as high as 400,000. A.J.P. Taylor in 1972, wrote that the Official History had performed a "conjuring trick '' on these figures and that no one believed these "farcical calculations ''. Taylor put British wounded and killed at 300,000 and German losses at 200,000. In 1977, Terraine argued that twenty percent needed to be added to the German figures for some lightly wounded men, who would have been included under British definitions of casualties, making German casualties 260,400. Terraine refuted Wolff (1958), who despite writing that 448,614 British casualties was the BEF total for the second half of 1917, neglected to deduct 75,681 casualties for the Battle of Cambrai, given in the Official Statistics from which he quoted or "normal wastage '', averaging 35,000 per month in "quiet '' periods. Prior and Wilson in 1997, gave British losses as 275,000 and German casualties at just under 200,000. Hagenlücke in 1997, gave c. 217,000 German casualties. Sheffield wrote in 2002, that Richard Holmes 's guess of 260,000 casualties on each side, seemed about right.
The area to the east and south of Passchendaele was held by posts, those to the east being fairly habitable, unlike the southern ones; from Passchendaele as far back as Potijze, the ground was far worse. Each brigade spent four days in the front line, four in support and four in reserve. The area was quiet apart from artillery - fire and in December the weather turned cold and snowy, which entailed a great effort to prevent trench foot. In January, spells of freezing cold were followed by warmer periods, one beginning on 15 January with torrential rain and gale - force winds, washing away plank roads and duckboard tracks. Conditions in the salient improved with the completion of transport routes and the refurbishment of German pillboxes. Both sides raided and the British used night machine - gun fire and artillery barrages to great effect. On the evening of 3 March 1918, two companies of the 8th Division raided Teal Cottage, supported by a smoke and shrapnel barrage, killed many of the garrison and took six prisoners for one man wounded. A German attack on 11 March was repulsed; after that the Germans made no more attacks, keeping up frequent artillery bombardments and machine - gun fire instead. When the German armies further south began the Spring Offensive on 21 March 1918, "good '' divisions in Flanders were sent south; the 29th Division was withdrawn on 9 April and transferred to the Lys.
On 23 March, Haig ordered Plumer to make contingency plans to shorten the line and release troops for the other armies. Worn - out divisions from the south had been sent to Flanders to recuperate closer to the coast. On 11 April, Plumer authorised a withdrawal of the southern flank of the Second Army. On 12 April, the VIII Corps HQ ordered the infantry retirement to begin that night and the 59th Division was replaced by part of the 41st Division and transferred south. The II Corps had begun to withdraw its artillery at the same time as VIII Corps on the night of 11 / 12 April and ordered the 36th and 30th divisions to conform to the VIII Corps retirement, which were completed by 13 April, without German interference. On 13 April, Plumer agreed to a retirement in the south side of the salient to a line from Mt Kemmel to Voormezeele (2.5 mi (4.0 km) south of Ypres), White Château (1 mi (1.6 km) east of Ypres) and Pilckem Ridge. The 4th Army diary recorded that the withdrawal was discovered at 4; 40 a.m. Next day, at the Battle of Merckem, the Germans attacked north - east of Ypres, from Houthulst Forest and captured Kippe but were forced out by Belgian counter-attacks, supported by the II Corps artillery. On the afternoon of 27 April, the south end of the Second Army outpost line was driven in near Voormezeele and another British outpost line was established north - east of the village.
The Menin Gate Memorial to the Missing commemorates those of all Commonwealth nations (except New Zealand) who died in the Ypres Salient and have no known grave. In the case of the United Kingdom only casualties before 16 August 1917 are commemorated on the memorial. United Kingdom and New Zealand servicemen who died after that date are named on the memorial at Tyne Cot Cemetery. There is a New Zealand Memorial marking where New Zealand troops fought at Gravenstafel Ridge on 4 October, located on Roeselarestraat. There are numerous tributes and memorials in Australia and New Zealand to Anzac soldiers who died in the battle, including plaques at the Christchurch and Dunedin railway stations. The Canadian Corps ' participation in the Second Battle of Passchendaele is commemorated with the Passchendaele Memorial at site of the Crest Farm on the south - west fringe of Passchendaele village.
One of the newest monuments to be dedicated to the fighting contribution of a group is the Celtic Cross memorial, commemorating the Scottish contribution to the fighting in Flanders during the Great War. This memorial is on Frezenberg Ridge where the 9th (Scottish) Division and the 15th (Scottish) Division fought during the Third Battle of Ypres. The monument was dedicated by Linda Fabiani, the Minister for Europe of the Scottish Parliament, during the late summer of 2007, the 90th anniversary of the battle. In July 2017 a two - day event was organised in Ypres to mark the centenary of the battle. Members of the British Royal family and Prime - Minister Theresa May joined the ceremonies, which started in the evening of 30 July with the service at Menin Gate, followed by ceremonies at the Market Square. On the following day, a ceremony was held at Tyne Cot cemetery, headed by the Prince of Wales.
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what episode of when calls the heart does jack get hurt | List of when Calls the Heart episodes - wikipedia
This is a list of episodes for When Calls the Heart, an American - Canadian television drama series, inspired by Janette Oke 's book of the same name from her Canadian West Series. Developed by Michael Landon Jr., the series began airing on the Hallmark Channel in the United States on January 11, 2014, and on April 16, 2014 on Super Channel in Canada.
On April 24, 2017, star Erin Krakow announced via the Hallmark Channel website that the show would return for a fifth season in 2018. The series has also been renewed for a sixth season. As of April 8, 2018, 48 episodes of When Calls the Heart have aired.
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how did the united states prepare a home mobilization for world war ii | United States home front during World war II - wikipedia
The home front of the United States in World War II supported the war effort in many ways, including a wide range of volunteer efforts and submitting to government - managed rationing and price controls. There was a general feeling of agreement that the sacrifices were for the national good "for the duration. ''
The labor market changed radically. Peacetime conflicts with respect to race and labor took on a special dimension because of the pressure for national unity. The Hollywood film industry was important for propaganda. Every aspect of life from politics to personal savings changed when put on a wartime footing. This was achieved by tens of millions of workers moving from low to high productivity jobs in industrial centers. Millions of students, retirees, housewives, and unemployed moved into the active labor force. Hours worked increased as leisure activities declined sharply.
Gasoline, meat, and clothing were tightly rationed. Most families were allocated 3 US gallons (11 l; 2.5 imp gal) of gasoline a week, which sharply curtailed driving for any purpose. Production of most durable goods, like cars, new housing, vacuum cleaners, and kitchen appliances, was banned until the war ended. In industrial areas housing was in short supply as people doubled up and lived in cramped quarters. Prices and wages were controlled. Americans saved a high portion of their incomes, which led to renewed growth after the war.
Federal tax policy was highly contentious during the war, with President Franklin D. Roosevelt battling a conservative Congress. However, both sides agreed on the need for high taxes (along with heavy borrowing) to pay for the war: top marginal tax rates ranged from 81 % - 94 % for the duration of the war, and the income level subject to the highest rate was lowered from $5,000,000 to $200,000. Roosevelt tried unsuccessfully, by executive order 9250, to impose a 100 % surtax on after - tax incomes over $25,000 (equal to roughly $353,558 today). However, Roosevelt did manage to impose this cap on executive pay in corporations with government contracts. Congress also enlarged the tax base by lowering the minimum income to pay taxes, and by reducing personal exemptions and deductions. By 1944 nearly every employed person was paying federal income taxes (compared to 10 % in 1940).
Many controls were put on the economy. The most important were price controls, imposed on most products and monitored by the Office of Price Administration. Wages were also controlled. Corporations dealt with numerous agencies, especially the War Production Board (WPB), and the War and Navy departments, which had the purchasing power and priorities that largely reshaped and expanded industrial production.
In 1942 a rationing system was begun to guarantee minimum amounts of necessities to everyone (especially poor people) and prevent inflation. Tires were the first item to be rationed in January 1942 because supplies of natural rubber were interrupted. Gasoline rationing proved an even better way to allocate scarce rubber. In June 1942 the Combined Food Board was set up to coordinate the worldwide supply of food to the Allies, with special attention to flows from the U.S. and Canada to Britain. By 1943 one needed government issued ration coupons to purchase coffee, sugar, meat, cheese, butter, lard, margarine, canned foods, dried fruits, jam, gasoline, bicycles, fuel oil, clothing, silk or nylon stockings, shoes, and many other items. Some items, like automobiles and home appliances, were no longer made. The rationing system did not apply to used goods like clothes or cars, but they became more expensive since they were not subject to price controls.
To get a classification and a book of rationing stamps, one had to appear before a local rationing board. Each person in a household received a ration book, including babies and children. When purchasing gasoline, a driver had to present a gas card along with a ration book and cash. Ration stamps were valid only for a set period to forestall hoarding. All forms of automobile racing were banned, including the Indianapolis 500 which was cancelled from 1942 to 1945. Sightseeing driving was banned.
Personal income was at an all - time high, and more dollars were chasing fewer goods to purchase. This was a recipe for economic disaster that was largely avoided because Americans -- cajoled daily by their government to do so -- were also saving money at an all - time high rate, mostly in War Bonds but also in private savings accounts and insurance policies. Consumer saving was strongly encouraged through investment in war bonds that would mature after the war. Most workers had an automatic payroll deduction; children collected savings stamps until they had enough to buy a bond. Bond rallies were held throughout the U.S. with famous celebrities, usually Hollywood film stars, to enhance the bond advertising effectiveness. Several stars were responsible for personal appearance tours that netted multiple millions of dollars in bond pledges -- an astonishing amount in 1943. The public paid 3⁄4 of the face value of a war bond, and received the full face value back after a set number of years. This shifted their consumption from the war to postwar, and allowed over 40 % of GDP to go to military spending, with moderate inflation. Americans were challenged to put "at least 10 % of every paycheck into Bonds ''. Compliance was very high, with entire factories of workers earning a special "Minuteman '' flag to fly over their plant if all workers belonged to the "Ten Percent Club ''. There were seven major War Loan drives, all of which exceeded their goals.
The unemployment problem ended with the mobilization for war. Out of a labor force of 54 million, unemployment fell in half from 7.7 million in spring 1940 (when the first accurate statistics were compiled) to 3.4 million in fall 1941 and fell in half again to 1.5 million in fall 1942, hitting an all - time low of 700,000 in fall 1944. There was a growing labor shortage in war centers, with sound trucks going street by street begging for people to apply for war jobs.
Greater wartime production created millions of new jobs, while the draft reduced the number of young men available for civilian jobs. So great was the demand for labor that millions of retired people, housewives, and students entered the labor force, lured by patriotism and wages. The shortage of grocery clerks caused retailers to convert from service at the counter to self - service. With new shorter women clerks replacing taller men, some stores lowered shelves to 5 feet 8 inches (1.73 m). Before the war most groceries, dry cleaners, drugstores, and department stores offered home delivery service. The labor shortage and gasoline and tire rationing caused most retailers to stop delivery. They found that requiring customers to buy their products in person increased sales.
Women also joined the workforce to replace men who had joined the forces, though in fewer numbers. Roosevelt stated that the efforts of civilians at home to support the war through personal sacrifice was as critical to winning the war as the efforts of the soldiers themselves. "Rosie the Riveter '' became the symbol of women laboring in manufacturing. The war effort brought about significant changes in the role of women in society as a whole. When the male breadwinner returned, wives could stop working. At the end of the war, most of the munitions - making jobs ended. Many factories were closed; others retooled for civilian production. In some jobs women were replaced by returning veterans who did not lose seniority because they were in service. However the number of women at work in 1946 was 87 % of the number in 1944, leaving 13 % who lost or quit their jobs. Many women working in machinery factories and more were taken out of the work force. Many of these former factory workers found other work at kitchens, being teachers, etc.
The table shows the development of the United States labor force by sex during the war years.
Women also took on new roles in sport and entertainment, which opened to them as more and more men were drafted. The All - American Girls Professional Baseball League (AAGPBL) was the creation of Chicago Cubs owner Philip Wrigley, who sought alternative ways to expand his baseball franchise as top male players left for military service. In 1943, he created an eight team League in small industrial cities around the Great Lakes; team names included the Kenosha Comets, the Rockford Peaches, and the Fort Wayne Daisies. Night games offered affordable, patriotic entertainment to working Americans who had flocked to wartime jobs in the Midwest hubs of Chicago and Detroit (although better paid than in the prewar Depression, most industrial war workers were on gas and tire rationing, limiting them to local recreation options.) The League provided a novelty entertainment of girls who played hardball as well as men, executing traditional baseball skills of sliding and double - plays while wearing short, feminine uniform skirts. Players as young as fifteen were recruited from farm families and urban industrial teams, chaperoned on the road and subject to strict rules of behavior that included mandatory makeup and feminine hair styling, no drinking or smoking, no swearing, no fraternization with men, and no wearing pants in public; moreover, the League only recruited white players. Fans supported the League to the extent that it continued well past the conclusion of the war, lasting through 1953. During the 1980s, the League was formally inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, New York, and became the subject of a popular mainstream film called A League of Their Own.
Labor shortages were felt in agriculture, even though most farmers were given an exemption and few were drafted. Large numbers volunteered or moved to cities for factory jobs. At the same time many agricultural commodities were in greater demand by the military and for the civilian populations of Allies. Production was encouraged and prices and markets were under tight federal control. Civilians were encouraged to create "victory gardens '', farms that were often started in backyards and lots. Children were encouraged to help with these farms, too.
The Bracero Program, a bi-national labor agreement between Mexico and the U.S., started in 1942. Some 290,000 braceros ("strong arms, '' in Spanish) were recruited and contracted to work in the agriculture fields. Half went to Texas, and 20 % to the Pacific Northwest.
Between 1942 and 1946 some 425,000 Italian and German prisoners of war were used as farm laborers, loggers, and cannery workers. In Michigan, for example, the POWs accounted for more than one - third of the state 's agricultural production and food processing in 1944.
To help with the need for a larger source of food, the nation looked to school - aged children to help on farms. Schools often had a victory garden in vacant parking lots and on roofs. Children would help on these farms to help with the war effort. The slogan, "Grow your own, can your own '', also influenced children to help at home.
With the war 's ever increasing need for able bodied men consuming America 's labor force in the early 1940s, industry turned to teen - aged boys and girls to fill in as replacements. Consequently, many states had to change their child - labor laws to allow these teenagers to work. The lures of patriotism, adulthood, and money led many youth to drop out of school and take a defense job. Between 1940 and 1944, the number of teenage workers increased by 1.9 million, and the number of students in public high schools dropped from 6.6 million in 1940 to 5.6 million in 1944, as a million students -- and many teachers -- took jobs.
The war mobilization changed the relationship of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) with both employers and the national government. Both the CIO and the larger American Federation of Labor (AFL) grew rapidly in the war years.
Nearly all the unions that belonged to the CIO were fully supportive of both the war effort and of the Roosevelt administration. However the United Mine Workers, who had taken an isolationist stand in the years leading up to the war and had opposed Roosevelt 's reelection in 1940, left the CIO in 1942. The major unions supported a wartime no - strike pledge that aimed to eliminate not only major strikes for new contracts, but also the innumerable small strikes called by shop stewards and local union leadership to protest particular grievances. In return for labor 's no - strike pledge, the government offered arbitration to determine the wages and other terms of new contracts. Those procedures produced modest wage increases during the first few years of the war but not enough to keep up with inflation, particularly when combined with the slowness of the arbitration machinery.
Even though the complaints from union members about the no - strike pledge became louder and more bitter, the CIO did not abandon it. The Mine Workers, by contrast, who did not belong to either the AFL or the CIO for much of the war, threatened numerous strikes including a successful twelve - day strike in 1943. The strikes and threats made mine leader John L. Lewis a much hated man and led to legislation hostile to unions.
All the major unions grew stronger during the war. The government put pressure on employers to recognize unions to avoid the sort of turbulent struggles over union recognition of the 1930s, while unions were generally able to obtain maintenance of membership clauses, a form of union security, through arbitration and negotiation. Employers gave workers new untaxed benefits (such as vacation time, pensions, and health insurance), which increased real incomes even when wage rates were frozen. The wage differential between higher skilled and less skilled workers narrowed, and with the enormous increase in overtime for blue collar wage workers (at time and a half pay), incomes in working class households shot up, while the salaried middle class lost ground.
The experience of bargaining on a national basis, while restraining local unions from striking, also tended to accelerate the trend toward bureaucracy within the larger CIO unions. Some, such as the Steelworkers, had always been centralized organizations in which authority for major decisions resided at the top. The UAW, by contrast, had always been a more grassroots organization, but it also started to try to rein in its maverick local leadership during these years. The CIO also had to confront deep racial divides in its own membership, particularly in the UAW plants in Detroit where white workers sometimes struck to protest the promotion of black workers to production jobs, but also in shipyards in Alabama, mass transit in Philadelphia, and steel plants in Baltimore. The CIO leadership, particularly those in further left unions such as the Packinghouse Workers, the UAW, the NMU, and the Transport Workers, undertook serious efforts to suppress hate strikes, to educate their membership, and to support the Roosevelt Administration 's tentative efforts to remedy racial discrimination in war industries through the Fair Employment Practices Commission. Those unions contrasted their relatively bold attack on the problem with the timidity and racism of the AFL.
The CIO unions were progressive in dealing with gender discrimination in wartime industry, which now employed many more women workers in nontraditional jobs. Unions that had represented large numbers of women workers before the war, such as the UE (electrical workers) and the Food and Tobacco Workers, had fairly good records of fighting discrimination against women. Most union leaders saw women as temporary wartime replacements for the men in the armed forces. It was important that the wages of these women be kept high so that the veterans would get high wages.
Early in the war, it became apparent that German U-boats were using the backlighting of coastal cities in the Eastern Seaboard and the South to destroy ships exiting harbors. It became the first duties of civilians recruited for local civilian defense to ensure that lights were either off or thick curtains drawn over all windows at night.
State Guards were reformed for internal security duties to replace the National Guardsmen who were federalized and sent overseas. The Civil Air Patrol was established, which enrolled civilian spotters in air reconnaissance, search - and - rescue, and transport. Its Coast Guard counterpart, the Coast Guard Auxiliary, used civilian boats and crews in similar rescue roles. Towers were built in coastal and border towns, and spotters were trained to recognize enemy aircraft. Blackouts were practiced in every city, even those far from the coast. All exterior lighting had to be extinguished, and black - out curtains placed over windows. The main purpose was to remind people that there was a war on and to provide activities that would engage the civil spirit of millions of people not otherwise involved in the war effort. In large part, this effort was successful, sometimes almost to a fault, such as the Plains states where many dedicated aircraft spotters took up their posts night after night watching the skies in an area of the country that no enemy aircraft of that time could possibly hope to reach.
The United Service Organizations (USO) was founded in 1941 in response to a request from President Franklin D. Roosevelt to provide morale and recreation services to uniformed military personnel. The USO brought together six civilian agencies: the Salvation Army, Young Men 's Christian Association, Young Women 's Christian Association, National Catholic Community Service, National Travelers Aid Association, and the National Jewish Welfare Board.
Women volunteered to work for the Red Cross, the USO and other agencies. Other women previously employed only in the home, or in traditionally female work, took jobs in factories that directly supported the war effort, or filled jobs vacated by men who had entered military service. Enrollment in high schools and colleges plunged as many high school and college students dropped out to take war jobs.
Various items, previously discarded, were saved after use for what was called "recycling '' years later. Families were requested to save fat drippings from cooking for use in soap making. Neighborhood "scrap drives '' collected scrap copper and brass for use in artillery shells. Milkweed was harvested by children ostensibly for lifejackets.
In 1940, Congress passed the first peace - time draft legislation. It was renewed (by one vote) in summer 1941. It involved questions as to who should control the draft, the size of the army, and the need for deferments. The system worked through local draft boards comprising community leaders who were given quotas and then decided how to fill them. There was very little draft resistance.
The nation went from a surplus manpower pool with high unemployment and relief in 1940 to a severe manpower shortage by 1943. Industry realized that the Army urgently desired production of essential war materials and foodstuffs more than soldiers. (Large numbers of soldiers were not used until the invasion of Europe in summer 1944.) In 1940 -- 43 the Army often transferred soldiers to civilian status in the Enlisted Reserve Corps in order to increase production. Those transferred would return to work in essential industry, although they could be recalled to active duty if the Army needed them. Others were discharged if their civilian work was deemed essential. There were instances of mass releases of men to increase production in various industries. Working men who had been classified 4F or otherwise ineligible for the draft took second jobs.
In the figure below an overview of the development of the United States labor force, the armed forces and unemployment during the war years.
One contentious issue involved the drafting of fathers, which was avoided as much as possible. The drafting of 18 - year - olds was desired by the military but vetoed by public opinion. Racial minorities were drafted at the same rate as Whites, and were paid the same, but blacks were kept in all - black units. The experience of World War I regarding men needed by industry was particularly unsatisfactory -- too many skilled mechanics and engineers became privates (there is a possibly apocryphal story of a banker assigned as a baker due to a clerical error, noted by historian Lee Kennett in his book "G.I. '') Farmers demanded and were generally given occupational deferments (many volunteered anyway, but those who stayed at home lost postwar veteran 's benefits.)
Later in the war, in light of the tremendous amount of manpower that would be necessary for the invasion of France in 1944, many earlier deferment categories became draft eligible.
The churches showed much less pacifism than in 1914. The Church of God, based in Anderson, Indiana, had a strong pacifist element, reaching a high point in the late 1930s. The Church regarded World War II as a just war because America was attacked. Likewise the Quakers generally regarded World War II as a just war and about 90 % served, although there were some conscientious objectors. The Mennonites and Brethren continued their pacifism, but the federal government was much less hostile than in the previous war. These churches helped their young men to both become conscientious objectors and to provide valuable service to the nation. Goshen College set up a training program for unpaid Civilian Public Service jobs. Although the young women pacifists were not liable to the draft, they volunteered for unpaid Civilian Public Service jobs to demonstrate their patriotism; many worked in mental hospitals. The Jehovah Witness denomination, however, refused to participate in any forms of service, and thousands of its young men refused to register and went to prison.
Civilian support for the war was widespread, with isolated cases of draft resistance. The F.B.I. was already tracking elements that were suspected of loyalty to Germany, Japan, or Italy, and many were arrested in the weeks after the attack on Pearl Harbor. 7,000 German and Italian aliens (who were not U.S. citizens) were moved back from the West Coast, along with some 100,000 of Japanese descent. Some enemy aliens were held without trial during the entire war. The U.S. citizens accused of supporting Germany were given public trials, and often were freed.
There was large - scale migration to industrial centers, especially on the West Coast. Millions of wives followed their husbands to military camps; for many families, especially from farms, the moves were permanent. One 1944 survey of migrants in Portland, Oregon and San Diego found that three quarters wanted to stay after the war. Many new military training bases were established or enlarged, especially in the South. Large numbers of African Americans left the cotton fields and headed for the cities. Housing was increasingly difficult to find in industrial centers, as there was no new non-military construction. Commuting by car was limited by gasoline rationing. People car pooled or took public transportation, which was seriously overcrowded. Trains were heavily booked, with uniformed military personnel taking priority, so people limited vacation and long - distance travel.
The large - scale movement of blacks from the rural South to defense centers in the North (and some in the South) led to small - scale local confrontations over jobs and housing shortages. Washington feared a major race war. The cities were relatively peaceful; much - feared large - scale race riots did not happen, but there was small - scale violence, as in the 1943 race riot in Detroit and the anti-Mexican Zoot Suit Riots in Los Angeles in 1943. The "zoot suit '' was a highly conspicuous costume worn by Mexican American teenagers in Los Angeles. As historian Roger Bruns notes, "the Zoot suit also represented a stark visual expression of culture for Mexican Americans, about making a statement -- a mark of defiance against the place in society in which they found themselves. '' They gained admiration from their in group, and "disgust and ridicule from others, especially the Anglos. ''
Standlee (2010) argues that during the war the traditional gender division of labor changed somewhat, as the "home '' or domestic female sphere expanded to include the "home front ''. Meanwhile, the public sphere -- the male domain -- was redefined as the international stage of military action.
Wartime mobilization drastically changed the sexual divisions of labor for women, as young - able bodied men were sent overseas and war time manufacturing production increased. Throughout the war, according to Susan Hartmann (1982), an estimated 6.5 million women entered the labor force. Women, many of whom were married, took a variety of paid jobs in a multitude of vocational jobs, many of which were previously exclusive to men. The greatest wartime gain in female employment was in the manufacturing industry, where more than 2.5 million additional women represented an increase of 140 percent by 1944. This was catalyzed by the "Rosie the Riveter '' phenomenon.
The composition of the marital status of women who went to work changed considerably over the course of the war. One in every ten married women entered the labor force during the war, and they represented more than three million of the new female workers, while 2.89 million were single and the rest widowed or divorced. For the first time in the nation 's history there were more married women than single women in the female labor force. In 1944, thirty - seven percent of all adult women were reported in the labor force, but nearly fifty percent of all women were actually employed at some time during that year at the height of wartime production. In the same year the unemployment rate hit an all - time historical low of 1.2 %.
According to Hartmann (1982), the women who sought employment, based on various surveys and public opinion reports at the time suggests that financial reasoning was the justification for entering the labor force; however, patriotic motives made up another large portion of women 's desires to enter. Women whose husbands were at war were more than twice as likely to seek jobs.
Fundamentally, women were thought to be taking work defined as "men 's work; '' however, the work women did was typically catered to specific skill sets management thought women could handle. Management would also advertise women 's work as an extension of domesticity. For example, in a Sperry Corporation recruitment pamphlet the company stated, "Note the similarity between squeezing orange juice and the operation of a small drill press. '' A Ford Motor Company at Willow Run bomber plant publication proclaimed, "The ladies have shown they can operate drill presses as well as egg beaters. '' One manager was even stated saying, "Why should men, who from childhood on never so much as sewed on buttons be expected to handle delicate instruments better than women who have plied embroidery needles, knitting needles and darning needs all their lives? '' In these instances, women were thought of and hired to do jobs management thought they could perform based on sex - typing.
Following the war, many women left their jobs voluntarily. One Twin Cities Army Ammunition Plant (formally Twin Cities Ordnance Plant) worker in New Brighton, Minnesota confessed, "I will gladly get back into the apron. I did not go into war work with the idea of working all my life. It was just to help out during the war. '' Other women were laid off by employers to make way for returning veterans who did not lose their seniority due to the war.
By the end of the war, many men who entered into the service did not return. This left women to take up sole responsibility of the household and provide economically for the family.
Nursing became a highly prestigious occupation for young women. A majority of female civilian nurses volunteered for the Army Nurse Corps or the Navy Nurse Corps. These women automatically became officers. Teenaged girls enlisted in the Cadet Nurse Corps. To cope with the growing shortage on the homefront, thousands of retired nurses volunteered to help out in local hospitals.
Women staffed millions of jobs in community service roles, such as nursing, the USO, and the Red Cross. Unorganized women were encouraged to collect and turn in materials that were needed by the war effort. Women collected fats rendered during cooking, children formed balls of aluminum foil they peeled from chewing gum wrappers and also created rubber band balls, which they contributed to the war effort. Hundreds of thousands of men joined civil defense units to prepare for disasters, such as enemy bombing.
The Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) mobilized 1,000 civilian women to fly new warplanes from the factories to airfields located on the east coast of the U.S. This was historically significant because flying a warplane had always been a male role. No American women flew warplanes in combat.
Marriage and motherhood came back as prosperity empowered couples who had postponed marriage. The birth rate started shooting up in 1941, paused in 1944 -- 45 as 12 million men were in uniform, then continued to soar until reaching a peak in the late 1950s. This was the "Baby Boom. ''
In a New Deal - like move, the federal government set up the "EMIC '' program that provided free prenatal and natal care for the wives of servicemen below the rank of sergeant.
Housing shortages, especially in the munitions centers, forced millions of couples to live with parents or in makeshift facilities. Little housing had been built in the Depression years, so the shortages grew steadily worse until about 1949, when a massive housing boom finally caught up with demand. (After 1944 much of the new housing was supported by the G.I. Bill.)
Federal law made it difficult to divorce absent servicemen, so the number of divorces peaked when they returned in 1946. In long - range terms, divorce rates changed little.
Juggling their roles as mothers due to the Baby Boom and the jobs they filled while the men were at war, women strained to complete all tasks set before them. The war caused cutbacks in automobile and bus service, and migration from farms and towns to munitions centers. Those housewives who worked found the dual role difficult to handle.
Stress came when sons, husbands, fathers, brothers, and fiancés were drafted and sent to faraway training camps, preparing for a war in which nobody knew how many would be killed. Millions of wives tried to relocate near their husbands ' training camps.
During World War II the trend in immigration policies were both more and less restrictive. The United States immigration policies focused more on national security and were driven by foreign policy imperatives. Legislation such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was finally repealed. This Act was the first law in the United States that excluded a specific group - the Chinese from migrating to the United States. But during World War II, with the Chinese as allies, the United States passed the Magnuson Act, also known as the Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943. There was also the Nationality Act of 1940, which clarified how to become and remain a citizen. Specifically, it allowed immigrants who were not citizens, like the Filipinos or those in the outside territories to gain citizenship by enlisting in the army. In contrast, the Japanese and Japanese - Americans were subject to internment in the U.S. There was also legislation like the Smith Act, also known as the Alien Registration Act of 1940, which required indicted communists, anarchists and fascists. Another program was the Bracero Program, which allowed over two decades, nearly 5 million Mexican workers to come and work in the United States.
After World War II, there was also the Truman Directive of 1945, which did not allow more people to migrate, but did use the immigration quotas to let in more displaced people after the war. There was also the War Brides Act of 1945, which allowed spouses of US soldiers to get an expedited path towards citizenship. In contrast, the 1952 Immigration and Nationality Act, also known as the McCarran - Walter Act, turned away migrants based not on their country of origin but rather whether they are moral or diseased.
In 1942 the War Department demanded that all enemy nationals be removed from war zones on the West Coast. The question became how to evacuate the estimated 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry living in California. Roosevelt looked at the secret evidence available to him: the Japanese in the Philippines had collaborated with the Japanese invasion troops; most of the adult Japanese in California had been strong supporters of Japan in the war against China. There was evidence of espionage compiled by code - breakers that decrypted messages to Japan from agents in North America and Hawaii before and after the attack on Pearl Harbor. These MAGIC cables were kept secret from all but those with the highest clearance, such as Roosevelt. On February 19, 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 which set up designated military areas "from which any or all persons may be excluded. '' The most controversial part of the order included American born children and youth who had dual U.S. and Japanese citizenship. Germans and Italians were not interned, as shown from the Korematsu v. United States case.
In February 1943, when activating the 442nd Regimental Combat Team -- a unit composed mostly of American - born American citizens of Japanese descent living in Hawaii -- Roosevelt said, "No loyal citizen of the United States should be denied the democratic right to exercise the responsibilities of his citizenship, regardless of his ancestry. The principle on which this country was founded and by which it has always been governed is that Americanism is a matter of the mind and heart; Americanism is not, and never was, a matter of race or ancestry. '' In 1944, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the legality of the executive order in the Korematsu v. United States case. The executive order remained in force until December when Roosevelt released the Japanese internees, except for those who announced their intention to return to Japan.
Fascist Italy was an official enemy, and citizens of Italy were also forced away from "strategic '' coastal areas in California. Altogether, 58,000 Italians were forced to relocate. They relocated on their own and were not put in camps. Known spokesmen for Benito Mussolini were arrested and held in prison. The restrictions were dropped in October 1942, and Italy switched sides in 1943 and became an American ally. In the east, however, the large Italian populations of the northeast, especially in munitions - producing centers such as Bridgeport and New Haven, faced no restrictions and contributed just as much to the war effort as other Americans.
The Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) was a federal executive order requiring companies with government contracts not to discriminate on the basis of race or religion. It assisted African Americans in obtaining jobs in industry. Under pressure from A. Philip Randolph 's growing March on Washington Movement, on June 25, 1941, President Roosevelt created the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) by signing Executive Order 8802. It said "there shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origin ''. In 1943 Roosevelt greatly strengthened FEPC with a new executive order, # 9346. It required that all government contracts have a non-discrimination clause. FEPC was the most significant breakthrough ever for Blacks and women on the job front. During the war the federal government operated airfields, shipyards, supply centers, ammunition plants, and other facilities that employed millions. FEPC rules applied and guaranteed equality of employment rights. These facilities shut down when the war ended. In the private sector the FEPC was generally successful in enforcing non-discrimination in the North, it did not attempt to challenge segregation in the South, and in the border region its intervention led to hate strikes by angry white workers.
The African American community in the United States resolved on a Double V campaign: victory over fascism abroad, and victory over discrimination at home. Large numbers migrated from poor Southern farms to munitions centers. Racial tensions were high in overcrowded cities like Chicago; Detroit and New York experienced race riots in 1943. Black newspapers created the Double V campaign to build black morale and head off radical action.
Most Black women had been farm laborers or domestics before the war. Despite discrimination and segregated facilities throughout the South, many left agricultural work, migrated north and west, and took blue - collar jobs in the cities. Working with the federal Fair Employment Practices Committee, the NAACP, and CIO unions, these Black women fought a "Double V '' campaign -- against the Axis abroad and against restrictive hiring practices at home. Their efforts redefined citizenship, equating their patriotism with war work, and seeking equal employment opportunities, government entitlements, and better working conditions as conditions appropriate for full citizens. In the South black women worked in segregated jobs; in the West and most of the North they were integrated, but wildcat strikes erupted in Detroit, Baltimore, and Evansville, Indiana where white migrants from the South refused to work alongside black women.
As propaganda has a tendency to do, media with a pro-American twist during the war tended to portray the Axis powers in an incredibly negative light.
Germans tended to be shown as being either weak or barbaric, but also stupid, and obsessed with Nazism and Nazi imagery. This could be seen in comic books such as Captain America No. 1, who cover features the superhero punching out Hitler, while a number of menacing and feral looking officers shoot at Captain America. This existed in cartoons as well. The Popeye cartoon, Seein ' Red, White, ' N ' Blue (aired on February 19, 1943), ends with a distinctly American Uncle Sam fist punching a sickly looking Hitler. Perhaps nowhere is this unattractive portrayal of Germans better known than in the somewhat controversial Donald Duck cartoon, Der Fuehrer 's Face (aired on January 1, 1943). Best known for portraying Donald Duck as a Nazi living in Germany, the cartoon also features caricatures of Benito Mussolini, Joseph Goebbels, Heinrich Himmler, and Herman Göring performing in an oompa - band marching past swastika clouds, bushes, windmills, fire hydrants, and telephone lines, among other things. Donald Duck, living in a house with a striking resemblance to Hitler, is shown to a swastika fence surrounding it, and swastika wallpaper, an alarm clock that gives the Nazi salute and with each number replaced by a swastika, a cuckoo clock with the same number pattern, and a Hitler cuckoo, and numerous pictures of Hitler and the other Axis leaders decorating the walls. Donald Duck then is forced to his job at a munitions factory (appropriately decorated with even more swastikas) where he must "work 48 hours a day for the Führer '' under heavy guard. While screwing in shells on a conveyor belt, pictures of Hitler occasionally pass him which he must salute, all while a loudspeaker extols the glory of Hitler: "Is this not wonderful? Is not the Führer glorious? ''
Even worse is the portrayal of the Japanese in American Propaganda. Though the way the Germans are shown to be might be considered offensive, the attacks are generally focused on Nazi officials such as Hitler, Himmler, Goebbels, and Göring. On the other hand, the Japanese are targeted on a much broader level. These range from showing the Japanese as being vicious and feral, as on the cover of Marvel Comic 's Mystery Comics no. 32, to using every horrific stereotype available. This is the case in the Loony Tune 's cartoon Tokio Jokio (aired May 13, 1943), in which the Japanese people are all shown to be incredibly stupid (such as one man using an incendiary bomb to roast a hot dog over), obsessed with being polite, cowardly, and physically short with buckteeth, big lips, squinty eyes, and glasses. The entire cartoon is also narrated in broken English, with the letter "R '' often replacing "L '' in pronunciation of words, a common stereotype. Slurs used against Japanese were common as well. In the Popeye cartoon Scrap the Japs (aired November 20, 1942), Popeye at one point exclaims "I never seen a Jap that was n't yella! '' In Nip the Nips, a Bugs Bunny cartoon first aired on April 22, 1944, Bugs passes out explosives disguised as ice cream to a number of Japanese soldiers, referring to them individually as, "bow legs, '' "monkey face, '' and "slanty eyes. '' Perhaps nowhere is the difference in portrayals more solidly seen than in Theodor Geisel 's comics created during the Second World War. Hitler may be seen as weak, cowardly, and ineffective, but Hideki Tojo and Emperor Hirohito are always shown to have the same physical stereotypes already discussed.
Roosevelt easily won the bitterly contested 1940 election, but the Conservative coalition maintained a tight grip on Congress regarding taxes and domestic issues. Wendell Willkie, the defeated GOP candidate in 1940, became a roving ambassador for Roosevelt. After Vice President Henry A. Wallace became emeshed in a series of squabbles with other high officials, Roosevelt stripped him of his administrative responsibilities and dropped him from the 1944 ticket. Roosevelt in cooperation with big city party leaders, replaced Wallace with Missouri Senator Harry S. Truman. Truman was best known for investigating waste, fraud and inefficiency in wartime programs. In very light turnout in 1942 the Republicans made major gains. In the 1944 election, Roosevelt defeated Tom Dewey in a race that attracted little attention.
Patriotism became the central theme of advertising throughout the war, as large scale campaigns were launched to sell war bonds, promote efficiency in factories, reduce ugly rumors, and maintain civilian morale. The war consolidated the advertising industry 's role in American society, deflecting earlier criticism. The media cooperated with the federal government in presenting the official view of the war. All movie scripts had to be pre-approved. For example, there were widespread rumors in the Army to the effect that people on the homefront were slacking off. A Private SNAFU film cartoon (released to soldiers only) belied that rumor. Tin Pan Alley produced patriotic songs to rally the people.
Posters helped to mobilize the nation. Inexpensive, accessible, and ever - present, the poster was an ideal agent for making war aims the personal mission of every citizen. Government agencies, businesses, and private organizations issued an array of poster images linking the military front with the home front -- calling upon every American to boost production at work and at home. Some resorted to extreme racial and ethnic caricatures of the enemy, sometimes as hopelessly bumbling cartoon characters, sometimes as evil, half - human creatures.
A strong aspect of American culture then as now was a fascination with celebrities, and the government used them in its eight war bond campaigns that called on people to save now (and redeem the bonds after the war, when houses, cars and appliances would again be available.) The War Bond drives helped finance the war. Americans were challenged to put at least 10 % of every paycheck into bonds. Compliance was high, with entire work places earning a special "Minuteman '' flag to fly over their plant if all workers belonged to the "Ten Percent Club ''.
Hollywood studios also went all - out for the war effort, as studios encouraged their stars (such as Clark Gable and James Stewart) to enlist. Hollywood had military units that made training films -- Ronald Reagan narrated many of them. Most of all Hollywood made hundreds of war movies that, in coordination with the Office of War Information (OWI), taught Americans what was happening and who the heroes and the villains were. Ninety million people went to the movies every week. Some of the most highly regarded films during this period included Casablanca, Mrs. Miniver, Going My Way, and Yankee Doodle Dandy. Even before active American involvement in the war, the popular Three Stooges comic trio were lampooning the Nazi German leadership, and Nazis in general, with a number of short subject films, starting with You Nazty Spy! in January 1940, nearly two years before the United States was drawn into World War II.
Cartoons and short subjects were a major sign of the times, as Warner Brothers Studios and Disney Studios gave unprecedented aid to the war effort by creating cartoons that were both patriotic and humorous, and also contributed to remind movie - goers of wartime activities such as rationing and scrap drives, war bond purchases, and the creation of victory gardens. Warner shorts such as Daffy - The Commando, Draftee Daffy, Herr Meets Hare, and Russian Rhapsody are particularly remembered for their biting wit and unflinching mockery of the enemy (particularly Adolf Hitler, Hideki Tōjō, and Hermann Göring). Their cartoons of Private Snafu, produced for the military as "training films '', served to remind many military men of the importance of following proper procedure during wartime, for their own safety. Hanna Barbara also contributed to the war effort with slyly pro US short cartoon The Yankee Doodle Mouse with "Lt. '' Jerry Mouse as the hero and Tom Cat as the "enemy ''.
To heighten the suspense, Hollywood needed to feature attacks on American soil, and obtained inspirations for dramatic stories from the Philippines. Indeed, the Philippines became a "homefront '' that showed the American way of life threatened by the Japanese enemy. Especially popular were the films Texas to Bataan (1942), Corregidor (1943), Bataan (1943), They Were Expendable (1945), and Back to Bataan (1945).
The OWI had to approve every film before they could be exported. To facilitate the process the OWI 's Bureau of Motion Pictures (BMP) worked with producers, directors and writers before the shooting started to make sure that the themes reflected patriotic values. While Hollywood had been generally nonpolitical before the war, the liberals who controlled OWI encouraged the expression of New Deal liberalism, bearing in mind the huge domestic audience, as well as an international audience that was equally large.
The Office of Censorship published a code of conduct for newspapers, magazines, and broadcasters. The office did not use government censors to preapprove all articles and radio programs. It relied on voluntary cooperation to avoid subjects, such as troop movements, weather forecasts, and the travels of the President, that might aid the enemy. Journalists did not have to publish positive propaganda, unlike during World War I.
One way to enlist everyone in the war effort was scrap collection (called "recycling '' decades later). Many everyday commodities were vital to the war effort, and drives were organized to recycle such products as rubber, tin, waste kitchen fats (a raw material for explosives), newspaper, lumber, steel, and many others. Popular phrases promoted by the government at the time were "Get into the scrap! '' and "Get some cash for your trash '' (a nominal sum was paid to the donor for many kinds of scrap items) and Thomas "Fats '' Waller even wrote and recorded a song with the latter title. Such commodities as rubber and tin remained highly important as recycled materials until the end of the war, while others, such as steel, were critically needed at first. War propaganda played a prominent role in many of these drives. Nebraska had perhaps the most extensive and well - organized drives; it was mobilized by the Omaha World Herald newspaper.
Although the Axis powers never launched a full - scale invasion on the U.S. mainland, there were attacks and acts of sabotage on U.S. soil.
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what is the meaning of 40 years in the bible | 40 (number) - wikipedia
40 (forty) is the natural number following 39 and preceding 41.
Though the word is related to "four '' (4), the spelling "forty '' replaced "fourty '' in the course of the 17th century and is now the standard form.
The number 40 is used in Jewish, Christian, Islamic, and other Middle Eastern traditions to represent a large, approximate number, similar to "umpteen ''.
Christianity similarly uses forty to designate important time periods.
In the Hindu system some of the popular fasting periods consist 40 days and is called the period One ' Mandl kal ' Kal means a period and Mandal kal means a period of 40 days. For example, the devotees of ' Swami Ayyappa ', the name of a Hindu God very popular in Kerala, India (Sabarimala Swami Ayyappan) strictly observed forty days fasting and visit (Only male devotees are permitted to enter into the God 's Temple) with their holy submittance or offerings on 41st or a convenient day after a minimum 40 days practice of fasting. The offering is called ' Kanikka '.
A large number of myths about Enki have been collected from many sites, stretching from Southern Iraq to the Levantine coast. He figures in the earliest extant cuneiform inscriptions throughout the region and was prominent from the third millennium down to Hellenistic times.
The exact meaning of his name is uncertain: the common translation is "Lord of the Earth '': the Sumerian en is translated as a title equivalent to "lord ''; it was originally a title given to the High Priest; ki means "earth ''; but there are theories that ki in this name has another origin, possibly kig of unknown meaning, or kur meaning "mound ''. The name Ea is allegedly Hurrian in origin while others claim that it is possibly of Semitic origin and may be a derivation from the West - Semitic root * hyy meaning "life '' in this case used for "spring '', "running water. '' In Sumerian E-A means "the house of water '', and it has been suggested that this was originally the name for the shrine to the God at Eridu.
Forty is also:
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can i put rec 90 in my car | Rec - 90 - wikipedia
REC - 90 is an ethanol - free, 90 octane unleaded gasoline blend designed for use in recreational / marine engines which can be damaged by the ethanol found in other gasoline blends. It is also usable in some aviation engines (1) and automotive engines, though it has not been thoroughly tested for cars and trucks.
Unlike most stations in the plains states which carry ethanol - free 87 octane unleaded alongside 10 % ethanol 87 octane unleaded, many states carry ethanol - free gasoline specifically marketed as recreational fuel designed for marine equipment and small engines.
As debate has ensued over ethanol blending in gasolines, ethanol - free has popped up in a number of states marketed as Rec - 90 Recreational Gasoline. Because there is no cheap oxygenate in Rec - 90 gasoline, Rec - 90 is almost always significantly more expensive per gallon than E10 "Regular Gasoline ''.
According to the crowd - sourced website e85prices.com, (2), there are several dozen stations known in the United States to carry ethanol - free fuel. The following is a table listing the number of known stations in each state to carry ethanol - free fuel.
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explain how parental treatment and the media influence the development of gender | Gender roles in childhood - wikipedia
Gender roles are the social and behavioral norms considered appropriate in social situations for people of different genders. An understanding of these roles is evident in children as young as age 4 and are extremely important for their social development. Gender roles are influenced by the media, family, environment, and society. A child 's understanding of gender roles impacts how they socialize with their peers and form relationships. Many young children have a firm sense of their gender identity, while some children can experience gender identity confusion. In addition to biological maturation, children develop within a set of gender - specific social and behavioral norms embedded in family structure, natural play patterns, close friendships, and the teeming social jungle of school life. The gender roles encountered in childhood play a large part in shaping an individual 's self - concept and influence the way he or she forms relationships later on in life.
Expectations for children 's future adult lives, like financial success or future care giving, may lead parents to encourage certain behaviors in children. However, most parental behaviors remain uninfluenced by the gender of the child, including speaking to, playing, teaching, and caretaking.
Family dynamics can especially influence gender specialization. Parents of sons are more likely to express conservative gender role views than parents of daughters, with fathers emphasizing the paternal breadwinning role for males. The effects of parental expectations of gender roles can especially be seen in the role children play in household duties. Girls generally do more housework than boys and the type of housework assigned to children largely depends on gender. Thus, household dynamics further advance gender role expectations on children.
Children 's toy preferences are significantly related to parental sex - typing, such as girls playing with dolls and boys participating in sports. While both fathers and mothers encourage traditional gender roles in their children, fathers tend to encourage these roles more frequently than mothers. Parents choose activities that they believe their children will enjoy and value. By choosing their children 's activities, parents are directly influencing their gender role views and preferences onto their children and shaping expectations.
Hines & Kaufman (1994) examined the toy preferences and behavior in girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a condition characterized by exposure to high levels of androgens in utero. The results suggested that CAH girls exhibited more masculine - typed behavior observable through toy choice as well as drawings and rough - and - tumble play. While a compelling result, parental expectations, in addition to biology, could play a large role in shaping behavioral outcomes. An early diagnosis might lead parents to expect, and therefore, condone, more masculine - typed behaviors, implicitly socializing the CAH girls to express themselves in certain ways. In normally developing girls, masculine behaviors may be discouraged, and parents may steer their daughters toward more traditionally feminine toys, colors, and preferences. This alternative social explanation complicates the interpretation of neat causality between hormones and behavior.
In early childhood, gender roles become apparent in patterns of play. Until 1983, these play differences were ignored in studies of the differences between boys and girls, but recent research has shed light on these sex differences.
Hardy et al (2009). addresses the differences among preschool boys and girls in their development of fundamental movements. This time period is especially crucial because if a child 's fundamental movement skills do not develop properly, then their future development will be drastically impacted. This study took 425 preschool children and asked them to perform specific fundamental movement skills such as locomotor and object control skills. After examining the children performing these movements, the researchers found that female preschoolers are generally better at locomotor movements, while male preschoolers are better at object control. These findings emphasize the need for a superior program in which boys and girls can work together and integrate their skills for a chance at greater development of future skills.
One of the earliest signs of gender differences in play patterns is the appearance of gender - segregated play groups and toy preferences. Boys tend to be more "rough and tumble '' in their play while girls shy away from this aggressive behavior, leading to the formation of separate play groups. Calvert 2013 In addition, boys tend to gravitate more towards toys such as trucks while girls tend to gravitate towards dolls, but these preferences are not absolutes. A study by Alexander, Wilcox, and Woods showed that female infants showed more visual interest in a doll over a toy truck while male infants showed more visual interest in a toy truck over a doll, but these differences were more pronounced in the females. This study suggests that preferences for feminine or masculine toys precede any sex differences in the perceptual features of such toys, leading to the assumption that gender - based toy preference is innate.
One of the most compelling theories in regards to biologically determined gender differences is the idea that male - preference and female - preference for toys are mediated by inequities in visual processing. The central claim is that males and females are preprogrammed to specialize in certain forms of perception: specifically, perception of motion and perception of form and color, respectively. Alexander (2003) makes a particularly strong case. The author suggests that inherent sex differences based on perceptual categories encourage children to seek out playmates of a similar play style, and ultimately predisposes them for later social and gender roles (Alexander, 2003). Human vision operates based on two anatomically grounded systems: the magnocellular pathway (M - cell) and the parvocellular pathway (P - cell). Both pathways are present in males and females, and M - cells are designed to recognize motion, while P - cells specialize in form and color perception (Alexander, 2003). Some research has suggested that sex - linked differences in M - cell versus P - cell dominance could be the underlying factor leading to differential toy preference in children, potentially validating the stereotype that boys prefer toy cars and balls (objects associated with motion) while girls prefer dolls and stuffed animals (objects characterized by distinct facial characteristics, form, and color).
Beyond hormonal explanations, Alexander (2003) also employs an evolutionary biology perspective to link contemporary toy preference to early selective pressures and the development of visual specialization. Specifically, male M - cell pathway dominance is connected back to motion mediated activities like hunting and the throwing of projectiles. Female P - cell dominance is tied to foraging for plants, a task requiring discrimination between colors and memory of form. Color is particularly important in foraging, as discrimination between colors aids in identifying a ripe piece of fruit from the greenery around it. As it were, the "green - red opponent system '' is thought to be X-chromosome linked and phylogenetically more recent, in contrast with the more rudimentary "yellow - blue '' system present to the same degree in both sexes (Alexander, 2003). According to the theory, this adaptation has persisted throughout human evolution, and may contribute to contemporary sexual - dimorphism in skill and preference. From this position, Alexander (2003) suggests the designation of pink as a girl color and blue as a boy color might not be completely arbitrary after all.
In a separate study by Gredlin and Bjorklund (2005), it was found that there are sex differences in object manipulation. An experiment was performed by putting a desirable toy in an out - of - reach place but also giving the child 5 different tools he / she could use to help retrieve this object. The children were put in these conditions and any decision they made was spontaneous and on their own; they were only given a hint after they had failed the task 5 times. The study 's results showed that 77 % of the boys used one of the tools to reach the toy, while only 31 % of the girls used one of the tools. This shows that boys are more likely to participate in object manipulation, and this may be because they spend more time in object - oriented play. The study also found that girls spend more time in social play. Evolution may play a role in this phenomenon; the differences in play styles between boys and girls manifest into adult behavior.
Another study by Alexander and Saenz found that two - year - old girls preferred toys that were typically associated with females over those associated with males, but again, two - year - old boys showed only a small preference for masculine toys over feminine toys. These two studies support the notion that toy preferences, while gender - based, are not a perfect indication of gender identity. Further, a study by Jadva, Hines, and Golombok showed that while male and female infants show more visual attention towards toys specific to their gender, there is no significant sex difference in color or shape preference at a young age, which suggests that, for example, a preference for the color pink in girls stems more from societal norms than from an innate capacity. Play differences are not concrete, as mentioned, as some play with "other - gendered '' toys is quite common. Ruble and Martin showed that there is often cross-gendered play in boys and girls, and this is typical of development. However, it is hypothesized that atypical gendered play patterns, such as a boy who plays almost exclusively with dolls and not typical masculine toys and who prefers to play with girls over boys, are an indication of later homosexuality.
In one study by Eric W. Lindsey and Jacquelyn Mize, context can have a big effect on the types of activities children will partake in. For example, this article outlines that if parents associate certain household tasks with gender unintentionally, the child can get an idea that certain things are "masculine '' and "feminine. '' This is illustrated in the article by an example of a father doing yardwork with his son instead of interior housework; this inherently gives the son the idea that these tasks are more "manly '' and is the man 's role to do in the house. This can effect gender roles in childhood.
Lobel & Menashri (1993) explores how the rigidity of gender schemas guides behavior. The population of interest consisted of preschool children selected from three different preschools in Tel - Aviv, Israel, and the study focused on the relationship between the children 's gender - typed toy choice, their frameworks regarding cross-gender behavior, and their concepts of gender constancy. During the procedure, two feminine and two masculine toys were presented to individual children: a visibly new doll, a tattered, old doll, a shiny new truck, and an old, faded truck. Based on a pretest, the dolls and trucks were clearly recognized as feminine and masculine, as well as attractive and unattractive based on their quality. All children preferred the new toy when presented with a pair of singularly gendered toys. Children were first given a toy preference test, then a gender constancy interview, and then a gender - role norms interview. The results indicate that children with a more flexible view on gender - role norms made fewer gender - typed choices than children with rigid norms. Similarly, for children with more flexible gender norms, attractiveness of the toy proved to be more strongly related to preference than the toy 's adherence to a traditional gender - role. This result begs the question: from where does this flexibility in gender behavior come? The authors favor the explanation that parental norms play a large role, but insist that further research must be done. Echoing Serbin et al. (2001), they also assert that a certain level of cognitive ability must be reached in order to demonstrate flexibility in gender roles, otherwise conceptions of fundamental gender constancy could become confused with external objects associated with a traditional gender role.
Besides play patterns being an indication of sexual orientation, the presence of homosexual or heterosexual relationships in the family may in turn influence play patterns in children. It has been suggested that children of same - sex couples are raised differently, resulting in gender roles different from those of heterosexual parents. This viewpoint is validated in a recent study by Goldberg, Kashy, and Smith, which showed that sons of lesbian mothers were less masculine in the way in which they played than those of gay fathers or heterosexual parents. While this study supports one viewpoint on the effects of same - sex parenting, further research to validate the long - term consequences of such parenting is necessary.
In a 2015 study, it was found that children over the age of two show a stronger preference for the color of an object, as opposed to what the object was. The child was more interested in toys that were gender - traditionally colored, regardless if that toy was a toy typical for their gender. Due to the separation of toys advertised, or colored, for certain genders, it can hinder cognitive and social skills. Boy oriented toys focus on spatial skills, and girl oriented toys focus on social or verbal skills. In solitary play, both girls and boys are more likely to play with gender typical toys, but as found by Signorella (2012), but in group play, gender neural activities were more likely.
Gender roles can also be seen in friendships and peer interactions at a young age. Studies have found that boys and girls interact with same - sex peers more frequently than with opposite - sex peers. One study found that during early childhood (3 - 5 year olds) boys affiliate more than girls with a familiar same - sex peer and that boys visited the peer more often than girls did and more boys than girls spent a significant amount of time with the peer. A different study found boys and girls were found to engage in highly similar frequencies of dyadic interaction. However, girls engaged in more extended dyadic interaction and boys in greater number of episodes. This study found this to be true at both 4 and 6 years, indicating that sex differences in patterns of dyadic interaction emerge before 5 years. In terms of group activity, boys were found to engage in more coordinated group activity after 5 years of age than before. This study provides evidence that groups interaction emerges at a specific time period in male peer culture.
Studies with preschool children yield large effects indicating that boys have more integrated social networks than girls in that their friends or playmates are more likely to be friends or playmates with one another. Likewise, a particular study looking at friendship patterns of youth in middle childhood and early adolescence at summer camp found a large effect for social network density favoring boys toward the end of summer camp, suggesting that over time, friends of boys but not girls are increasingly likely to become friends with one another.
In terms of behavioral patterns seen in friendships, no differences have been found in helping behavior in youngest middle childhood youth. Looking at the content of peer interaction, middle childhood youth girls have been found to spend more time in social conversation and self - disclosure than boys. Girls have also been found to respond in a more prosocial manner to hypothetical conflict situations in middle childhood and early adolescence. Studies of middle childhood typically reveal significant effects indicating that girls are more likely than boys to receive several types of provisions in their friendships, including higher levels of closeness, affection, nurturance, trust, validation, and acceptance. However, no differences have been found for friendship satisfaction.
A study looked at dyadic friendships, which is believed to be the preferred form of relationship for girls, and found that bonds between males are more durable than those between females. This study reports that beginning as early as 6 years old, external observers report fewer males ' than females ' same - sex friendships had ended.
By the time children are entering preschool or kindergarten, they have a general understanding of the two genders and have internalized some basic schemas regarding the roles and appearances of each. These schemas have been mostly furnished by parental interaction, media exposure, and underlying biological factors (e.g. inherent aggressiveness, sexual orientation), though some children may also learn from limited social interaction with individuals outside the family. However, these early conceptions of gender roles undergo radical change when the child enters school. Here, the child will encounter a wide variety of approaches to gender, assimilating new information into their existing structures and accommodating their own outlook to fit new individuals, institutional demands, and novel social situations. This process of socialization is differentiated between gender, and general trends in the social constructs of elementary age children reflect the organization of gender within the family and society at large. One way of evaluating gender roles in school children is to dissect the popularity hierarchies that they construct and inhabit. Many studies have done just this, and significant differences are evident between genders. Athletic prowess is by far the most significant factor in popularity among boys, and one study even reported that the most popular male at each school they observed was the best athlete. Those who are not athletically inclined can still attain moderate levels of popularity by merely adopting an interest in sports, while boys who are neither athletically inclined nor interested in sports are commonly harassed and victimized by their more popular peers. This might be seen as an extension of the rough and aggressive play that boys seek at a young age. Boys can also become popular by wearing "cool '' clothes and possessing trendy gadgets, although this is a much more important factor among girls. Socioeconomic status, which contributes greatly to a child 's ability to obtain cool products, is considered one of the most important factors in a girl 's popularity at school. Daughters of affluent parents are able to afford the expensive makeup and accessories that allow them to mimic societal standards of superficial beauty, making them more attractive to boys and more popular.
The role of academic achievement in determining popularity also differs considerably between gender; in the first few years of school, scholastic success correlates positively with the popularity of boys. However, as boys near adolescence, doing well in school is often viewed as a source of shame and an indication of femininity. Additionally, disregard for authority and an attitude of disobedience is common among popular boys. Among girls, academic achievement has little correlation with popularity at all. Girls are more likely to value effort over inherent ability, while the opposite is true for boys. Both genders place a value on social intelligence, with children more skilled at mature interaction with peers and adults generally being more popular.
The independent hierarchical popularity structures for boys and girls act as mechanisms that mediate the interaction of the two genders. At first, cross-gender interaction is discouraged as the boys and girls divide themselves and create mostly separate social spheres. Especially among boys, behavior and habits associated with the opposite gender are deemed undesirable and punishable traits. Although most young boys exhibit curiosity regarding the opposite sex while in a private setting, such curiosity displayed in public is socially unacceptable. Members of each gender strive to attain their actively constructed, somewhat shared, ideal of masculinity or femininity, at the same time harboring a secret interest in the mysteries of the opposite gender. As children mature and refine their ideas about what it means to be a man or a woman, it gradually becomes acceptable to approach individuals of the other sex. Cross gender relationships generally improve social status only to the extent that they are romantically oriented, as mere friendships that do not involve kissing or dating are often viewed with suspicion. Early on, interaction with the opposite gender is reserved for only the most popular boys and girls, and couples tend to match themselves roughly according to popularity through junior high and beyond.
Young children aged around four to five years old have been shown to possess very strong gender stereotypes. In addition to parents ' and teachers ' intentional efforts to shape gender roles, children also learn through mass media (television, books, radio, magazines, and newspaper), to which children are exposed to everyday. For preschool - aged children, an important source of such information is the picture books written specifically for their age group, which are often read and reread to them in their impressionable years. In a study done by Oskamp, Kaufman, and Wolterbeek, it was found that in picture books for the preschool audience, the male characters played the more active and explorative role and the female characters played the more passive and social role. Of course, these studies completely neglect the profound effects of genetics on imposing gender - specific behavior.
From birth, children are able to quickly learn that a great deal of their lives have to deal with masculinity and femininity. Even though many environmental factors influence construction of gender, nothing in biology labels behaviors as right or wrong, normal or abnormal. Though parents and teachers teach these lessons intentionally as well as unintentionally, young children also learn through television. As has been proven, a significant source of cultural gendered messages is television, perhaps most powerful for children who watch up to an average of four hours daily. With impressionable young minds, a wide variety of information can help shape these children 's views on male and female roles in society.
A study done by Powel and Abel analyzed how sex - role stereotypes in television programs such as Teletubbies and Barney are aimed at the preschool audience. In their analysis, Powel and Abel found that gendered messages and behavior is present in preschool television programming and this was found through eight different themes and out of the eight themes five of them, leadership, appearance, gendered roles, occupations, and play roles, were significantly gendered. In both Barney and Teletubbies, males served as the leaders and the director of action. The three youngest Teletubbies robotically followed around the oldest who happens to be male like. The pattern being set is that males lead and females follow. On the other hand, Barney is also the male leader but he leads the children as a caring, social values, "feminized '' male teacher. The reconfiguring of leadership as social and friendly leadership can be seen an alteration of a typical male teacher but the sex - stereotype of male being leaders is reinforced for the preschool aged children. Reconfiguring of the male characters was also prevalent for the four remaining themes that were gendered. The males in these shows were taller in stature, wore darker colored clothing but sometimes wore shorts and skirts. As for gendered roles, the males were generally more active while the females were more social and passive. Neither program showed men and women in non-stereotypical occupational roles, indicating that at an early age, children are exposed to gender - specific occupational expectations. In play roles when it was either time for story time or play time the females played the more passive roles such as setting up a picnic, while the males played the more active roles such as fox chasing. These findings help shed light on to the findings from a study carried out by Durkin and Nugent.
Durkin and Nugent examined four - and five - year - old children 's predictions concerning the sex of the persons carrying out a variety of common activities and occupations on television. The children 's responses revealed strong gender stereotyped expectations, and these were strongest in the case of masculine stereotyped activities. Also, they found that children 's estimates of their own future competence also indicated stereotypical beliefs, with the females more likely to reject masculine activities. Young children will indeed see stereotypical sex - role models of the feminine and masculine in the media that is geared towards them, but they will also see social skills being affirmed for both sexes. We can conclude that mass media have the power to confirm both stereotypes and non-traditional gendered behavior - though more for boys than girls.
The first major exposure to gender roles typically comes from a child 's parents. Children are often dressed in gender specific clothing and given gender specific toys from birth. Parents may encourage children to participate in sex - typed play, such as girls playing with dolls and boys playing with trucks. Parents may also model gender normative behavior, both unintentionally and intentionally. Parental disapproval for failing to comply with gender norms and parental approval for successful compliance with these norms can serve to solidify children 's understanding of gender roles.
The parental affect and level of disciple children receive may be related to their gender. In 2001, Claire Hughes found parents of young girls were more likely to have more positive overall affect and stronger discipline. Hughes also found parental warmth to be associated with the development of theory of mind for girls, but not for boys. Hughes suggested this may have to do with a greater tendency for girls to use understanding of mind to seek emotional support, empathize, and cooperate.
Children between the ages of 3 to 6 may have difference in their levels of interest in infants and practicing nurturance behaviors. Judith Blakemore found that when children were given opportunities to interact with infants, boys were less likely to show interest in the younger child. In general, children without younger sibling were more likely to show interest, which may be related to the novelty of an infant. Of children with younger siblings, the gender difference was strong, and may be related to the child having learned gender roles by viewing the upbringing of their siblings. No group showed less interest in the infants than the male children with siblings. Children with egalitarian parents tended to show the least gender differences in interest in the infants.
It is typical for children to have a gender identity that "matches '' their biological sex, however this is not always the case. Children can exhibit gender in a way that is incongruous with societal expectations of the gender assigned at birth, sometimes classified as gender identity disorder or gender dysphoria. While some children of preschool age with gender identity confusion or gender dysphoria insist that their gender identity is different from their assigned gender and their biological sex, others simply display gender nonconforming behavior, behavior typical of another gender, while maintaining their assigned gender. While many children 's cross-gender self - identification weakens and eventually dissipates by middle childhood, some children continue in a state of gender dysphoria.
In diagnosing gender dysphoria, pediatricians and psychologists examine many different attributes of the children, including identity statements (whether children state that they want to be a member of a different gender or they want to grow up as a member of a different gender), cross dressing (such as a societally - identified boy wearing skirts and hair barrettes, or a societally - identified girl refusing to wear a dress and desiring short hair), toy and role play, anatomic dysphoria (in societally - identified boys, this typically manifests as a disgust of the penis, whereas in societally - identified girls this typically manifests as a desire for a penis), and rough - and - tumble play (societally - identified girls typically involve in rough play, whereas societally - identified boys shy away and even fear rough - and - tumble play).
An assessment of gender identity disorder diagnosis in young children by Bartlett, Vasey, and Bukowski (2000) concluded that Gender Identity Disorder in young children should not be considered a mental disorder, mainly because of the logistics of the criteria in the DSM IV. The four main criteria, each of which has sub-criteria, are (A) cross-gender identification, (B) discomfort with biological sex or societally prescribed gender role, (C) of a discriminate biological sex, and (D) in a state of distress or disturbance as a result of cross-gender identity and discomfort with biological sex or societally prescribed gender role. Bartlett, Vasey, and Bukowski argue that to meet the requirements a child does not necessarily need to have a cross-gender identification, and because of flaws such as that in the criteria requirements to be diagnosed, the state of gender dysphoria or gender identity disorder in children should not be considered a mental disorder.
For families of children displaying characteristics of gender identity disorder, the American Academy of Pediatrics suggests talking with the children about why their behaviors may draw negative attention from peers and seeking further guidance from pediatrician. In addition, the child 's cross-gender identification should be considered in light of the family situation.
The social impacts of imposing gender roles on children become evident very early in life and usually follow the child as they continue their development. It is most observable when they interact with other members of their age group. A child 's peers serve as both an archetype and a sounding board for the proper way to express themselves. In her book Sex Differences in Social Behavior: A Social - role Interpretation, Alice Eagly affirms the idea that gender roles are a direct result of one 's social interactions. She calls social behavior "gender - stereotypic '' and says that most of the expectations of gender roles come from the stereotypes associated with them, such as a woman to be kind and compassionate and a man to be in control and independent. "This theory implicates conformity to gender - role expectations as a major source of the sexes ' differing behavior. '' As a child explores those things in life that they may enjoy, the acceptance or criticism or their peers is crucial in whether or not they will continue to perform an activity.
Children are especially apt at noticing when one of their peers violates their established gender role. As Fagot (1990) found, children had a pronounced response when one of their peers violated their established gender role. Same - sex peers acted as the distributors of both rewards for proper gender role behavior and punishments for improper gender role behavior. Boys who preferred to play with dolls rather than trucks were five to six times more likely to be harassed by their peers than those who conformed to the norm. Girls who preferred to play firefighter rather than nurse were ignored rather than criticized. Most importantly, Fagot 's study shows the effect of gender segregation on children; boys tended to respond more readily to feedback from other boys while girls likewise responded to feedback from other girls. By surrounding themselves with members of the same sex, children are placing themselves in a situation where they more readily accept and conform to accepted gender roles. A study by Bandura and Bussey shows that kids want to be like others of their sex. They begin labeling objects as "for girls '' or "for boys '' and conform to what is expected of them.
A study by Carol Martin (1990) shows that cross-sex behavior is generally discouraged in both sexes, though more so in males. Those that do exhibit cross-sex behavior are branded as either a sissy (a rather derogatory term used for boys exhibiting feminine characteristics) or a tomboy (a term for girls exhibiting male characteristics, though not as stigmatized as sissy). Gender roles place constraints upon what a child is allowed to do, based upon what their peers deem is acceptable.
As children grow older and are more able to grasp the concept of gender and gender roles, they begin to spend more time with children of the same sex, further exacerbating the proliferation of gender roles. Martin and Fabes observed that by the age of two, children were already beginning to show a preference for interacting with children of the same sex. By the time a child is three or four, the vast majority of their peer interactions are with members of the same sex. As Maccoby observed, by the age of four and a half, children spend three times as much time with same - sex play partners; by six and a half, that amount increases to eleven times. Martin and Fabes observed that as the children began to segregate themselves by gender, the activities they performed also aligned with their chosen play partners; boys tended to choose playmates who were more active and rowdy while girls chose playmates that were more calm and cooperative.
Children fall into these patterns with little guidance from either parents or teachers; they are instinctually drawn to members of the same sex and begin to adopt behavior that is considered gender appropriate. This phenomenon is known as self - socialization and drives the interaction between children throughout their young lives. This instinctive segregation encourages the gap between males and females and helps to reinforce gender roles as the child continues to grow.
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the lungs gi system and are most susceptible to damage as a result of shock | Blast injury - wikipedia
A blast injury is a complex type of physical trauma resulting from direct or indirect exposure to an explosion. Blast injuries occur with the detonation of high - order explosives as well as the deflagration of low order explosives. These injuries are compounded when the explosion occurs in a confined space.
Blast injuries are divided into four classes: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
Primary injuries are caused by blast overpressure waves, or shock waves. These are especially likely when a person is close to an exploding munition, such as a land mine. The ears are most often affected by the overpressure, followed by the lungs and the hollow organs of the gastrointestinal tract. Gastrointestinal injuries may present after a delay of hours or even days. Injury from blast overpressure is a pressure and time dependent function. By increasing the pressure or its duration, the severity of injury will also increase.
Extensive damage can also be inflicted upon the auditory system. The tympanic membrane (also known as the eardrum) may be perforated by the intensity of the pressure waves. Furthermore, the hair cells, the sound receptors found within the cochlea, can be permanently damaged and can result in a hearing loss of a mild to profound degree. Additionally, the intensity of the pressure changes from the blast can cause injury to the blood vessels and neural pathways within the auditory system. The combination of these effects can lead to hearing loss, tinnitus, headache, vertigo (dizziness), and difficulty processing sound.
In general, primary blast injuries are characterized by the absence of external injuries; thus internal injuries are frequently unrecognized and their severity underestimated. According to the latest experimental results, the extent and types of primary blast - induced injuries depend not only on the peak of the overpressure, but also other parameters such as number of overpressure peaks, time - lag between overpressure peaks, characteristics of the shear fronts between overpressure peaks, frequency resonance, and electromagnetic pulse, among others. There is general agreement that spalling, implosion, inertia, and pressure differentials are the main mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of primary blast injuries. Thus, the majority of prior research focused on the mechanisms of blast injuries within gas - containing organs and organ systems such as the lungs, while primary blast - induced traumatic brain injury has remained underestimated. Blast lung refers to severe pulmonary contusion, bleeding or swelling with damage to alveoli and blood vessels, or a combination of these. It is the most common cause of death among people who initially survive an explosion.
Secondary injuries are caused by fragmentation and other objects propelled by the explosion. These injuries may affect any part of the body and sometimes result in penetrating trauma with visible bleeding. At times the propelled object may become embedded in the body, obstructing the loss of blood to the outside. However, there may be extensive blood loss within the body cavities. Fragmentation wounds may be lethal and therefore many anti-personnel bombs are designed to generate fragments.
Most casualties are caused by secondary injuries as generally a larger geographic area is affected by this form of injury than the primary blast site as debris can easily be propelled for hundreds to thousands of meters. Some explosives, such as nail bombs, are deliberately designed to increase the likelihood of secondary injuries. In other instances, the target provides the raw material for the objects thrown into people, e.g., shattered glass from a blasted - out window or the glass facade of a building.
Displacement of air by the explosion creates a blast wind that can throw victims against solid objects. Injuries resulting from this type of traumatic impact are referred to as tertiary blast injuries. Tertiary injuries may present as some combination of blunt and penetrating trauma, including bone fractures and coup contre - coup injuries. Children are at particularly high risk of tertiary injury due to their relatively smaller body weight.
Quaternary injuries, or other miscellaneous named injuries, are all other injuries not included in the first three classes. These include flash burns, crush injuries, and respiratory injuries.
Traumatic amputations quickly result in death, unless there are available skilled medical personnel or others with adequate training nearby who are able to quickly respond, with the ability for rapid ground or air medical evacuation to an appropriate facility in time, and with tourniquets (for compression of bleeding sites) and other needed equipment (standard, or improvised; sterile, or not) also available, to treat the injuries. Because of this, injuries of this type are generally rare, though not unheard of, in survivors. Whether survivable or not, they are often accompanied by significant other injuries. The rate of eye injury may depend on the type of blast. Psychiatric injury, some of which may be caused by neurological damage incurred during the blast, is the most common quaternary injury, and post-traumatic stress disorder may affect people who are otherwise completely uninjured.
Blast injuries can result from various types of incidents ranging from industrial accidents to terrorist attacks. High - order explosives produce a supersonic overpressure shock wave, while low order explosives deflagrate and do not produce an overpressure wave. A blast wave generated by an explosion starts with a single pulse of increased air pressure, lasting a few milliseconds. The negative pressure (suction) of the blast wave follows immediately after the positive wave. The duration of the blast wave depends on the type of explosive material and the distance from the point of detonation. The blast wave progresses from the source of explosion as a sphere of compressed and rapidly expanding gases, which displaces an equal volume of air at a very high velocity. The velocity of the blast wave in air may be extremely high, depending on the type and amount of the explosive used. An individual in the path of an explosion will be subjected not only to excess barometric pressure, but to pressure from the high - velocity wind traveling directly behind the shock front of the blast wave. The magnitude of damage due to the blast wave is dependent on the peak of the initial positive pressure wave, the duration of the overpressure, the medium in which it explodes, the distance from the incident blast wave, and the degree of focusing due to a confined area or walls. For example, explosions near or within hard solid surfaces become amplified two to nine times due to shock wave reflection. As a result, individuals between the blast and a building generally suffer two to three times the degree of injury compared to those in open spaces.
Blast injuries can cause hidden sensory and brain damage, with potential neurological and neurosensory consequences. It is a complex clinical syndrome caused by the combination of all blast effects, i.e., primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary blast mechanisms. It is noteworthy that blast injuries usually manifest in a form of polytrauma, i.e. injury involving multiple organs or organ systems. Bleeding from injured organs such as lungs or bowel causes a lack of oxygen in all vital organs, including the brain. Damage of the lungs reduces the surface for oxygen uptake from the air, reducing the amount of the oxygen delivered to the brain. Tissue destruction initiates the synthesis and release of hormones or mediators into the blood which, when delivered to the brain, change its function. Irritation of the nerve endings in injured peripheral tissue or organs also contributes significantly to blast - induced neurotrauma.
Individuals exposed to blast frequently manifest loss of memory of events before and after explosion, confusion, headache, impaired sense of reality, and reduced decision - making ability. Patients with brain injuries acquired in explosions often develop sudden, unexpected brain swelling and cerebral vasospasm despite continuous monitoring. However, the first symptoms of blast - induced neurotrauma (BINT) may occur months or even years after the initial event, and are therefore categorized as secondary brain injuries. The broad variety of symptoms includes weight loss, hormone imbalance, chronic fatigue, headache, and problems in memory, speech and balance. These changes are often debilitating, interfering with daily activities. Because BINT in blast victims is underestimated, valuable time is often lost for preventive therapy and / or timely rehabilitation.
Explosions in confined spaces or which cause structural collapse usually produce more deaths and injuries. Confined spaces include mines, buildings and large vehicles. For a rough estimate of the total casualties from an event, double the number that present in the first hour. Less injured patients often arrive first, as they take themselves to the nearest hospital. The most severely injured arrive later, via emergency services ("upside - down '' triage). If there is a structural collapse, there will be more serious injuries that arrive more slowly.
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who is the author of the book of jubilees | Book of Jubilees - wikipedia
The Book of Jubilees, sometimes called Lesser Genesis (Leptogenesis), is an ancient Jewish religious work of 50 chapters, considered canonical by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church as well as Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews), where it is known as the Book of Division (Ge'ez: መጽሃፈ ኩፋሌ Mets'hafe Kufale). Jubilees is considered one of the pseudepigrapha by Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox Churches.
It was well known to Early Christians, as evidenced by the writings of Epiphanius, Justin Martyr, Origen, Diodorus of Tarsus, Isidore of Alexandria, Isidore of Seville, Eutychius of Alexandria, John Malalas, George Syncellus, and George Kedrenos. The text was also utilized by the community that originally collected the Dead Sea Scrolls. No complete Hebrew, Greek or Latin version is known to have survived.
The Book of Jubilees claims to present "the history of the division of the days of the Law, of the events of the years, the year - weeks, and the jubilees of the world '' as revealed to Moses (in addition to the Torah or "Instruction '') by angels while he was on Mount Sinai for forty days and forty nights. The chronology given in Jubilees is based on multiples of seven; the jubilees are periods of 49 years, seven "year - weeks '', into which all of time has been divided.
Until the discovery of extensive fragments among the Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS), the only surviving manuscripts of Jubilees were four complete Ge'ez texts dating to the 15th and 16th centuries, and several quotations by the Church fathers such as Epiphanius, Justin Martyr, Origen as well as Diodorus of Tarsus, Isidore of Alexandria, Isidore of Seville, Eutychius of Alexandria, John Malalas, George Syncellus, and George Kedrenos. There is also a preserved fragment of a Latin translation of the Greek that contains about a quarter of the whole work. The Ethiopic texts, now numbering twenty - seven, are the primary basis for translations into English. Passages in the texts of Jubilees that are directly parallel to verses in Genesis do not directly reproduce either of the two surviving manuscript traditions. Consequently, even before the Qumran discoveries, R.H. Charles had deduced that the Hebrew original had used an otherwise unrecorded text for Genesis and for the early chapters of Exodus, one independent either of the Masoretic text or of the Hebrew text that was the basis for the Septuagint. According to one historian, the variation among parallel manuscript traditions that are exhibited by the Septuagint compared with the Masoretic text, and which are embodied in the further variants among the Dead Sea Scrolls, demonstrates that even canonical Hebrew texts did not possess any single "authorized '' manuscript tradition in the first centuries BC. However, others write about the existence of three main textual manuscript traditions (namely the Babylonian, Samarian and Pre-Masoretic "proto '' textual traditions). Although the Pre-Masoretic text may have indeed been authoritative back then, arguments can be made for and against this concept.
Between 1947 and 1956 approximately 15 Jubilees scrolls were found in five caves at Qumran, all written in Hebrew. The large quantity of manuscripts (more than for any biblical books except for Psalms, Deuteronomy, Isaiah, Exodus, and Genesis, in descending order) indicates that Jubilees was widely used at Qumran. A comparison of the Qumran texts with the Ethiopic version, performed by James VanderKam, found that the Ethiopic was in most respects an accurate and literalistic translation.
The first biblical scholar to propose an origin for Jubilees was Robert Henry Charles (1855 -- 1931). Charles proposed the author of Jubilees may have been a Pharisee and that Jubilees was the product of the midrash which had already been worked on in the Tanakh / Old Testament Books of Chronicles. However, with the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS) at Qumran in 1947, Charles ' Pharisaic hypothesis of the origin of Jubilees has been almost completely abandoned.
The dating of Jubilees has been problematic for biblical scholars. While the oldest extant copies of Jubilees can be assigned on the basis of the handwriting to about 100 BC, there is much evidence to suggest Jubilees was written prior to this date.
But Jubilees could not have been written very long prior. Jubilees at 4: 17 - 25 records that Enoch "saw in a vision what has happened and what will occur '' and the book contains many points of information otherwise found earliest in the Enochian "Animal Apocalypse '' (1 Enoch chapters 83 - 90), such as Enoch 's wife being Edna. The Animal Apocalypse pretends to predict the Maccabean Revolt and is commonly dated to that time. The direction of dependence has been controversial, but the consensus since 2008 has been that the Animal Apocalypse was first and Jubilees after.
As a result, general reference works such as the Oxford Annotated Bible and the Mercer Bible Dictionary conclude the work can be dated to 160 -- 150 BC.
The Hasmoneans adopted Jubilees immediately, and it became a source for the Aramaic Levi Document. Jubilees remained a point of reference for priestly circles (although they disputed its calendric proposal), and the Temple Scroll and "Epistle of Enoch '' (1 Enoch 91: 1 -- 10, 92: 3 -- 93: 10, 91: 11 -- 92: 2, 93: 11 -- 105: 3) are based on Jubilees. It is the source for certain of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, for instance that of Reuben.
There is no official record of it in Pharisaic or Rabbinic sources, and it was among several books that the Sanhedrin and Rabbi Akiva left out of the canon they established in the late first century. Sub rosa, many of the traditions which Jubilees includes for the first time are echoed in later Jewish sources, including some 12th - century midrashim which may have had access to a Hebrew copy. The sole exception within Judaism, the Beta Israel Jews formerly of Ethiopia, regard the Ge'ez text as canonical.
Some Early Church Fathers evidently held the book of Jubilees was in high regard, and sometimes quoted it at length.
The Book of Jubilees had great influence on the formation of Islam. In the Book of Jubilees there is the very same concept of revelation as in Islam: God 's words and commandments are eternally written on celestial tablets. An angel reveals their content to a prophet (2, 1; 32, 21 f.). Abaham 's role in the Book of Jubilees corresponds to Abraham 's role in the Quran in more than one way. The interpretation of biblical figures as prophets, is also rooted in the Book of Jubilees. Also numerology, the emphasis on angels, and the symbolism of anniversaries found their way into Islam, such as the fact that many important events in the prophet 's biography as presented by Ibn Ishaq happen on the same date.
Jubilees covers much of the same ground as Genesis, but often with additional detail, and addressing Moses in the second person as the entire history of creation, and of Israel up to that point, is recounted in divisions of 49 years each, or "Jubilees ''. The elapsed time from the creation, up to Moses receiving the scriptures upon Sinai during the Exodus, is calculated as fifty Jubilees, less the 40 years still to be spent wandering in the desert before entering Canaan -- or 2,410 years.
Four classes of angels are mentioned: angels of the presence, angels of sanctifications, guardian angels over individuals, and angels presiding over the phenomena of nature. Enoch was the first man initiated by the angels in the art of writing, and wrote down, accordingly, all the secrets of astronomy, of chronology, and of the world 's epochs. As regards demonology, the writer 's position is largely that of the deuterocanonical writings from both New and Old Testament times.
The Book of Jubilees narrates the genesis of angels on the first day of Creation and the story of how a group of fallen angels mated with mortal females, giving rise to a race of giants known as the Nephilim, and then to their descendants, the Elioud. The Ethiopian version states that the "angels '' were in fact the disobedient offspring of Seth (Deqiqa Set), while the "mortal females '' were daughters of Cain. This is also the view held by Simeon bar Yochai, Clementine literature, Sextus Julius Africanus, Ephrem the Syrian, Augustine of Hippo, and John Chrysostom among many other early authorities. Their hybrid children, the Nephilim in existence during the time of Noah, were wiped out by the great flood. However, Jubilees also states that God granted ten percent of the disembodied spirits of the Nephilim to try to lead mankind astray after the flood.
Jubilees makes an incestuous reference regarding the son of Adam and Eve, Cain, and his wife. In chapter iv (1 -- 12) (Cain and Abel), it mentions that Cain took his sister Awan to be his wife and Enoch was their child. It also mentions that Seth (the third son of Adam and Eve) married his sister Azura.
According to this book, Hebrew is the language of Heaven, and was originally spoken by all creatures in the Garden, animals and man; however, the animals lost their power of speech when Adam and Eve were expelled. Following the Deluge, the earth was apportioned into three divisions for the three sons of Noah, and his sixteen grandsons. After the destruction of the Tower of Babel, their families were scattered to their respective allotments, and Hebrew was forgotten, until Abraham was taught it by the angels.
Jubilees also contains a few scattered allusions to the Messianic kingdom. Robert Henry Charles wrote in 1913: "This kingdom was to be ruled over by a Messiah sprung, not from Levi -- that is, from the Maccabean family -- as some of his contemporaries expected -- but from Judah. This kingdom would be gradually realized on earth, and the transformation of physical nature would go hand in hand with the ethical transformation of man until there was a new heaven and a new earth. Thus, finally, all sin and pain would disappear and men would live to the age of 1,000 years in happiness and peace, and after death enjoy a blessed immortality in the spirit world. ''
Jubilees insists (in Chapter 6) on a 364 - day year made up of four quarters of 13 weeks each, rather than a year of 12 lunar months, which it says is off by 10 days per year. It also insists on a "Double Sabbath '' each year being counted as only one day to arrive at this computation.
Jubilees 7: 20 -- 29 is possibly an early reference to the Noahide laws.
Jubilees bases its take on Enoch on the "Book of Watchers '', 1 Enoch 1 -- 36.
Its sequence of events leading to the Flood match those of the "Dream Visions '', 1 Enoch 83 -- 90.
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when did the emperor lose power in japan | Emperor of Japan - wikipedia
The Emperor of Japan is the head of the Imperial Family and the head of state of Japan. Under the 1947 constitution, he is defined as "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people. '' Historically, he was also the highest authority of the Shinto religion. In Japanese, the Emperor is called Tennō (天皇), literally "heavenly sovereign ''. In English, the use of the term Mikado (帝 or 御門) for the Emperor was once common, but is now considered obsolete.
Currently, the Emperor of Japan is the only head of state in the world with the English title of "Emperor ''. The Imperial House of Japan is the oldest continuing monarchical house in the world. The historical origins of the Emperors lie in the late Kofun period of the 3rd -- 7th centuries AD, but according to the traditional account of the Kojiki (finished 712) and Nihon Shoki (finished 720), Japan was founded in 660 BC by Emperor Jimmu, who was said to be a direct descendant of the sun - goddess Amaterasu. The current Emperor is Akihito. He acceded to the Chrysanthemum Throne upon the death of his father, Emperor Shōwa (Hirohito), in 1989. The Japanese government announced in December 2017 that Akihito will abdicate on 30 April 2019.
The role of the Emperor of Japan has historically alternated between a largely ceremonial symbolic role and that of an actual imperial ruler. Since the establishment of the first shogunate in 1199, the Emperors of Japan have rarely taken on a role as supreme battlefield commander, unlike many Western monarchs. Japanese Emperors have nearly always been controlled by external political forces, to varying degrees. In fact, between 1192 and 1867, the shōguns, or their shikken regents in Kamakura (1203 -- 1333), were the de facto rulers of Japan, although they were nominally appointed by the Emperor. After the Meiji Restoration in 1867, the Emperor was the embodiment of all sovereign power in the realm, as enshrined in the Meiji Constitution of 1889. Since the enactment of the 1947 Constitution, he has been a ceremonial head of state without even nominal political powers.
Since the mid-nineteenth century, the Imperial Palace has been called Kyūjō (宮城), later Kōkyo (皇居), and is on the former site of Edo Castle in the heart of Tokyo (the current capital of Japan). Earlier, Emperors resided in Kyoto (the ancient capital) for nearly eleven centuries. The Emperor 's Birthday (December 23) is a national holiday.
Unlike most constitutional monarchs, the Emperor is not even the nominal chief executive. Article 65 explicitly vests executive power in the Cabinet, of which the Prime Minister is the leader. The Emperor is also not the commander - in - chief of the Japan Self - Defense Forces. The Japan Self - Defense Forces Act of 1954 also explicitly vests this role with the Prime Minister.
The Emperor 's powers are limited only to important ceremonial functions. Article 4 of the Constitution stipulates that the Emperor "shall perform only such acts in matters of state as are provided for in the Constitution and he shall not have powers related to government. '' It also stipulates that "the advice and approval of the Cabinet shall be required for all acts of the Emperor in matters of state '' (Article 3). Article 4 also states that these duties can be delegated by the Emperor as provided for by law.
While the Emperor formally appoints the Prime Minister to office, Article 6 of the Constitution requires him to appoint the candidate "as designated by the Diet '', without giving the Emperor the right to decline appointment.
Article 6 of the Constitution delegates the Emperor the following ceremonial roles:
The Emperor 's other duties are laid down in article 7 of the Constitution, where it is stated that "the Emperor, with the advice and approval of the Cabinet, shall perform the following acts in matters of state on behalf of the people. '' In practice, all of these duties are exercised only in accordance with the binding instructions of the Cabinet:
Regular ceremonies of the Emperor with a constitutional basis are the Imperial Investitures (Shinninshiki) in the Tokyo Imperial Palace and the Speech from the Throne ceremony in the House of Councillors in the National Diet Building. The latter ceremony opens ordinary and extra sessions of the Diet. Ordinary sessions are opened each January and also after new elections to the House of Representatives. Extra sessions usually convene in the autumn and are opened then.
Although the Emperor has been a symbol of continuity with the past, the degree of power exercised by the Emperor has varied considerably throughout Japanese history. In the early 7th century, the Emperor had begun to be called the "Son of Heaven '' (天子, tenshi, or 天子 様 tenshi - sama).
The title of Emperor was borrowed from China, being derived from Chinese characters and was retroactively applied to the legendary Japanese rulers who reigned before the 7th -- 8th centuries AD.
According to the traditional account of the Nihon Shoki, Japan was founded by Emperor Jimmu in 660 BC. Modern historians agree that the Emperors before the possible late 3rd century AD ruler known traditionally as Emperor Ōjin are legendary. Emperor Ankō of the 5th century AD, traditionally the 20th emperor, is the earliest generally agreed upon historical ruler of all or a part of Japan. The reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 -- 571 AD), the 29th emperor, is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates; however, the conventionally accepted names and dates of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as "traditional '' until the reign of Emperor Kanmu (737 -- 806), the 50th sovereign of the Yamato dynasty.
Archaeological information about the earliest historical rulers of Japan may lie within the ancient tombs known as kofun, constructed between the early 3rd century and the early 7th century AD. However, since the Meiji period, the Imperial Household Agency has refused to open the kofun to the public nor to archaeologists, citing their desire not to disturb the spirits of the past Emperors. In December 2006, the Imperial Household Agency reversed its position and decided to allow researchers to enter some of the kofun with no restrictions.
There have been six non-imperial families who have controlled Japanese emperors: the Soga (530s -- 645), the Fujiwara (850s -- 1070), the Taira (1159 - 1180s), the Minamoto (and Kamakura bakufu) (1192 -- 1333), the Ashikaga (1336 -- 1565), and the Tokugawa (1603 -- 1867). However, every shogun from the Minamoto, Ashikaga, and Tokugawa families had to be officially recognized by the Emperors, who were still the source of sovereignty, although they could not exercise their powers independently from the Shogunate.
The growth of the samurai class from the 10th century gradually weakened the power of the imperial family over the realm, leading to a time of instability. Emperors have been known to come into conflict with the reigning shogun from time to time. Some instances, such as Emperor Go - Toba 's 1221 rebellion against the Kamakura shogunate and the 1336 Kenmu Restoration under Emperor Go - Daigo, show the power struggle between the imperial court and the military governments of Japan.
Until recent centuries, Japan 's territory did not include several remote regions of its modern - day territory. The name "Nippon '' came into use only many centuries after the start of the current imperial line. Centralized government only began to appear shortly before and during the time of Prince Shōtoku (572 -- 622). The Emperor was more like a revered embodiment of divine harmony than the head of an actual governing administration. In Japan, it has always been easy for ambitious lords to hold actual power, as such positions have not been inherently contradictory to the Emperor 's position. The parliamentary government today continues a similar coexistence with the Emperor as have various shoguns, regents, warlords, guardians, etc.
Historically the titles of Tennō in Japanese have never included territorial designations as is the case with many European monarchs. The position of Emperor is a territory - independent phenomenon -- the Emperor is the Emperor, even if he has followers only in one province (as was the case sometimes with the southern and northern courts).
From 1192 to 1867, sovereignty of the state was exercised by the shōguns, or their shikken regents (1203 -- 1333), whose authority was conferred by Imperial warrant. When Portuguese explorers first came into contact with the Japanese (see Nanban period), they described Japanese conditions in analogy, likening the Emperor with great symbolic authority but little political power, to the Pope, and the shōgun to secular European rulers (e.g., the Holy Roman Emperor). In keeping with the analogy, they even used the term "Emperor '' in reference to the shōguns and their regents, e.g. in the case of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, whom missionaries called "Emperor Taico - sama '' (from Taikō and the honorific sama).
After the United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry 's Black Ships forcibly opened Japan to foreign trade, and the shogunate proved incapable of hindering the "barbarian '' interlopers, the Emperor Kōmei began to assert himself politically. By the early 1860s, the relationship between the imperial court and the Shogunate was changing radically. Disaffected domains and rōnin began to rally to the call of sonnō jōi ("revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians ''). The domains of Satsuma and Chōshū, historic enemies of the Tokugawa, used this turmoil to unite their forces and won an important military victory outside of Kyoto against Tokugawa forces.
In 1868, imperial "restoration '' was declared, and the Shogunate was dissolved. A new constitution described the Emperor as "the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty '', whose rights included to sanction and promulgate laws, to execute them and to exercise "supreme command of the Army and the Navy ''. The liaison conference created in 1893 also made the Emperor the leader of the Imperial General Headquarters.
The role of the Emperor as head of the State Shinto religion was exploited during the war, creating an Imperial cult that led to kamikaze bombers and other fanaticism. This in turn led to the requirement in the Potsdam Declaration for the elimination "for all time (of) the authority and influence of those who have deceived and misled the people of Japan into embarking on world conquest ''. In State Shinto, the Emperor was believed to be a Arahitogami (a living god). Following Japan 's surrender, the Allies issued the Shinto Directive separating church and state within Japan.
The constitution provides for a parliamentary system of government and guarantees certain fundamental rights. Under its terms, the Emperor of Japan is "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people '' and exercises a purely ceremonial role without the possession of sovereignty.
The constitution, also known as the "Constitution of Japan '' (日本 国 憲法, Nihonkoku - Kenpō, formerly written 日本 國 憲法 (same pronunciation)), "Postwar Constitution '' (戦後 憲法, Sengo - Kenpō) or the "Peace Constitution '' (平和 憲法, Heiwa - Kenpō), was drawn up under the Allied occupation that followed World War II and was intended to replace Japan 's previous militaristic and quasi-absolute monarchy system with a form of liberal democracy. Currently, it is a rigid document and no subsequent amendment has been made to it since its adoption.
In Japanese mythology, according to Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, the Emperor and his family are said to be direct descendants of the sun - goddess Amaterasu. During World War II, the role of the Emperor as head of the Shinto religion was exploited, which resulted in the creation of State Shinto and an Imperial cult. Following the end of the Second World War, the Allies issued the Shinto Directive which abolished the state support for the Shinto religion, leading to the Humanity Declaration of the incumbent Emperor which refuted the idea that the Emperor is a living divine being, and dismissed the importance of "myths and legends '' for the Emperor 's status. However, the Emperors have continued to perform many traditional ceremonies privately.
The Emperors traditionally had an education officer. In recent times, Emperor Taishō had Count Nogi Maresuke, Emperor Shōwa had Marshal - Admiral Marquis Tōgō Heihachirō, and Emperor Akihito had Elizabeth Gray Vining as well as Shinzō Koizumi as their tutors.
There are two Japanese words equivalent to the English word "Emperor '': tennō (天皇, "heavenly sovereign ''), which is used exclusively to refer to the Emperor of Japan, and kōtei (皇帝, the title used for all other foreign Emperors), which is used primarily to describe non-Japanese Emperors. Sumeramikoto ("the Imperial person '') was also used in Old Japanese. The term tennō was used by the Emperors up until the Middle Ages; then, following a period of disuse, it was used again from the 19th century. In English, the term mikado (御門 or 帝), literally meaning "the honorable gate '' (i.e. the gate of the imperial palace, which indicates the person who lives in and possesses the palace), was once used (as in The Mikado, a 19th - century operetta), but this term is now obsolete. (Compare Sublime Porte, an old term for the Ottoman government.)
Traditionally, the Japanese considered it disrespectful to call any person by his given name, and more so for a person of noble rank. This convention is only slightly relaxed in the modern age and it is still inadvisable among friends to use the given name, use of the family name being the common form of address. In the case of the imperial family, it is considered extremely inappropriate to use the given name. Since Emperor Meiji, it has been customary to have one era per Emperor and to rename each Emperor after his death using the name of the era over which he presided. Before Emperor Meiji, the names of the eras were changed more frequently, and the posthumous names of the Emperors were chosen differently.
Outside Japan, the previous Emperor is usually called Hirohito in English, although he was never referred to as Hirohito in Japan, and was renamed Shōwa Tennō after his death, which is the only name that Japanese speakers currently use when referring to him.
The current Emperor on the throne is typically referred to as Tennō Heika (天皇 陛下, "His (Imperial) Majesty the Emperor ''), Kinjō Heika (今 上 陛下, "His Current Majesty '') or simply Tennō, when speaking Japanese. The current Emperor will be renamed Daijō Tennō (太 上 天皇, Retired Emperor), often shortened to Jōkō (上皇), upon his planned retirement on 30 April 2019, and renamed Heisei Tennō (平成 天皇) after his death and will then be referred to exclusively by that name in Japanese. In Japanese culture, it is considered a major faux pas to refer to a living Emperor by his posthumous name, although the posthumous name is the same as the era, which is used in official documents.
Originally, the ruler of Japan was known as either 大和 大王 / 大 君 (Yamato - ōkimi, Grand King of Yamato), 倭 王 / 倭国 王 (Wa - ō / Wakoku - ō, King of Wa, used externally) or 治 天下 大王 (Ame - no - shita shiroshimesu ōkimi or Sumera no mikoto, Grand King who rules all under heaven, used internally) in Japanese and Chinese sources before the 7th century. The oldest documented use of the word "Tennō '' is on a wooden slat, or mokkan, that was unearthed in Asuka - mura, Nara Prefecture in 1998 and dated back to the reign of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.
Throughout history, Japanese Emperors and noblemen appointed the position of chief wife, rather than just keeping a harem or an assortment of female attendants.
The Japanese imperial dynasty consistently practiced official polygamy, a practice that only ended in the Taishō period (1912 -- 1926). Besides the Empress, the Emperor could take, and nearly always took, several secondary consorts ("concubines '') of various hierarchical degrees. Concubines were allowed also to other dynasts (Shinnōke, Ōke). After a decree by Emperor Ichijō, some Emperors even had two empresses simultaneously (kōgō and chūgū are the two separate titles for that situation). With the help of all this polygamy, the imperial clan thus was capable of producing more offspring. (Sons by secondary consorts were usually recognized as imperial princes, too, and could be recognized as heir to the throne if the empress did not give birth to an heir.)
Of the eight female Tennō (reigning empresses) of Japan, none married or gave birth after ascending the throne. Some of them, being widows, had produced children before their reigns.
In the succession, children of the empress were preferred over sons of secondary consorts. Thus it was significant which quarters had preferential opportunities in providing chief wives to imperial princes, i.e. supplying future empresses.
Apparently, the oldest tradition of official marriages within the imperial dynasty were marriages between dynasty members, even half - siblings or uncle and niece. Such marriages were deemed to preserve better the imperial blood or were aimed at producing children symbolic of a reconciliation between two branches of the imperial dynasty. Daughters of others remained concubines, until Emperor Shōmu (701 -- 706) -- in what was specifically reported as the first elevation of its kind -- elevated his Fujiwara consort Empress Kōmyō to chief wife.
Japanese monarchs have been, as much as others elsewhere, dependent on making alliances with powerful chiefs and other monarchs. Many such alliances were sealed by marriages. The specific feature in Japan has been the fact that these marriages have been soon incorporated as elements of tradition which controlled the marriages of later generations, though the original practical alliance had lost its real meaning. A repeated pattern has been an imperial son - in - law under the influence of his powerful non-imperial father - in - law.
Beginning from the 7th and 8th centuries, Emperors primarily took women of the Fujiwara clan as their highest wives -- the most probable mothers of future monarchs. This was cloaked as a tradition of marriage between heirs of two kami (Shinto deities): descendants of Amaterasu with descendants of the family kami of the Fujiwara. (Originally, the Fujiwara were descended from relatively minor nobility, thus their kami is an unremarkable one in the Japanese myth world.) To produce imperial children, heirs of the nation, with two - side descent from the two kami, was regarded as desirable -- or at least it suited powerful Fujiwara lords, who thus received preference in the imperial marriage market. The reality behind such marriages was an alliance between an imperial prince and a Fujiwara lord, his father - in - law or grandfather, the latter with his resources supporting the prince to the throne and most often controlling the government. These arrangements created the tradition of regents (Sesshō and Kampaku), with these positions held only by a Fujiwara sekke lord.
Earlier, the Emperors had married women from families of the government - holding Soga lords, and women of the imperial clan itself, i.e. various - degree cousins and often even their own sisters (half - sisters). Several imperials of the 5th and 6th centuries such as Prince Shōtoku were children of half - sibling couples. These marriages often were alliance or succession devices: the Soga lord ensured his domination of a prince who would be put on the throne as a puppet; or a prince ensured the combination of two imperial descents, to strengthen his own and his children 's claim to the throne. Marriages were also a means to seal a reconciliation between two imperial branches.
After a couple of centuries, Emperors could no longer take anyone from outside such families as primary wife, no matter what the expediency of such a marriage and power or wealth brought by such might have been. Only very rarely did a prince ascend the throne whose mother was not descended from the approved families. The earlier necessity and expediency had mutated into a strict tradition that did not allow for current expediency or necessity, but only dictated that daughters of a restricted circle of families were eligible brides, because they had produced eligible brides for centuries. Tradition had become more forceful than law.
Fujiwara women were often Empresses, and concubines came from less exalted noble families. In the last thousand years, sons of an imperial male and a Fujiwara woman have been preferred in the succession.
The five Fujiwara families, Ichijō, Kujō, Nijō, Konoe, and Takatsukasa, were the primary source of imperial brides from the 8th century to the 19th century, even more often than daughters of the imperial clan itself. Fujiwara daughters were thus the usual empresses and mothers of Emperors.
This restriction on brides for the Emperor and crown prince was made explicit in the Meiji - era Imperial House Law of 1889. A clause stipulated that daughters of Sekke (the five main branches of the higher Fujiwara) and daughters of the imperial clan itself were primarily acceptable brides.
The law was repealed in the aftermath of World War II. The present Emperor, Akihito, became the first crown prince for over a thousand years to marry a consort from outside the previously eligible circle.
During the Kofun period, so - called "archaic funerals '' were held for the dead Emperors, but only the funerary rites from the end of the period, which the chronicles describe in more detail, are known. They were centered around the rite of the mogari (殯), a provisional depository between death and permanent burial.
Empress Jitō was the first Japanese imperial personage to be cremated (in 703). After that, with a few exceptions, all Emperors were cremated up to the Edo period. For the next 350 years, in - ground burial became the favoured funeral custom. In 2013, the Imperial Household Agency announced that Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko would be cremated after they die.
Until 1912, the Emperors of Japan were usually buried in Kyoto. From the Taishō Emperor onward, the Emperors have been buried at the Musashi Imperial Graveyard in Tokyo.
The Japanese imperial dynasty bases its position in the expression that it has "reigned since time immemorial '' (万世 一 系 bansei ikkei). It is true that its origins are buried in the mists of time: there are no records of any Emperor who was not said to have been a descendant of other, yet earlier Emperors. There is suspicion that Emperor Keitai (c. 500 AD) may have been an unrelated outsider, though the sources state that he was a male - line descendant of Emperor Ōjin. However, his descendants, including his successors, were according to records descended from at least one and probably several imperial princesses of the older lineage. The tradition built by those legends has chosen to recognize just the putative male ancestry as valid for legitimizing his succession, not giving any weight to ties through the said princesses.
Millennia ago, the Japanese imperial family developed its own peculiar system of hereditary succession. It has been non-primogenitural, more or less agnatic, based mostly on rotation. Today, Japan uses strict agnatic primogeniture, which was adopted from Prussia, by which Japan was greatly influenced in the 1870s.
The controlling principles and their interaction were apparently very complex and sophisticated, leading to even idiosyncratic outcomes. Some chief principles apparent in the succession have been:
Historically, the succession to the Chrysanthemum Throne has always passed to descendants in male line from the imperial lineage. Generally, they have been males, though of the over one hundred monarchs there have been nine women (one pre-historical and eight historical) as Emperor on eleven occasions.
Over a thousand years ago, a tradition started that an Emperor should ascend relatively young. A dynast who had passed his toddler years was regarded suitable and old enough. Reaching the age of legal majority was not a requirement. Thus, a multitude of Japanese Emperors have ascended as children, as young as 6 or 8 years old. The high - priestly duties were deemed possible for a walking child. A reign of around ten years was regarded a sufficient service. Being a child was apparently a fine property, to better endure tedious duties and to tolerate subjugation to political power - brokers, as well as sometimes to cloak the truly powerful members of the imperial dynasty. Almost all Japanese empresses and dozens of Emperors abdicated, and lived the rest of their lives in pampered retirement, wielding influence behind the scenes. Several Emperors abdicated to their entitled retirement while still in their teens. These traditions show in Japanese folklore, theater, literature, and other forms of culture, where the Emperor is usually described or depicted as an adolescent.
Before the Meiji Restoration, Japan had eleven reigns of reigning empresses, all of them daughters of the male line of the Imperial House. None ascended purely as a wife or as a widow of an Emperor. Imperial daughters and granddaughters, however, usually ascended the throne as a sort of a "stop gap '' measure -- if a suitable male was not available or some imperial branches were in rivalry so that a compromise was needed. Over half of Japanese empresses and many Emperors abdicated once a suitable male descendant was considered to be old enough to rule (just past toddlerhood, in some cases). Four empresses, Empress Suiko, Empress Kōgyoku (also Empress Saimei), and Empress Jitō, as well as the mythical Empress Jingū, were widows of deceased Emperors and princesses of the blood imperial in their own right. One, Empress Genmei, was the widow of a crown prince and a princess of the blood imperial. The other four, Empress Genshō, Empress Kōken (also Empress Shōtoku), Empress Meishō, and Empress Go - Sakuramachi, were unwed daughters of previous Emperors. None of these empresses married or gave birth after ascending the throne.
Article 2 of the Meiji Constitution (the Constitution of the Empire of Japan) stated, "The Imperial Throne shall be succeeded to by imperial male descendants, according to the provisions of the Imperial House Law. '' The 1889 Imperial Household Law fixed the succession on male descendants of the imperial line, and specifically excluded female descendants from the succession. In the event of a complete failure of the main line, the throne would pass to the nearest collateral branch, again in the male line. If the Empress did not give birth to an heir, the Emperor could take a concubine, and the son he had by that concubine would be recognized as heir to the throne. This law, which was promulgated on the same day as the Meiji Constitution, enjoyed co-equal status with that constitution.
Article 2 of the Constitution of Japan, promulgated in 1947 by influence of the U.S. occupation administration, provides that "The Imperial Throne shall be dynastic and succeeded to in accordance with the Imperial Household Law passed by the Diet. '' The Imperial Household Law of 1947, enacted by the ninety - second and last session of the Imperial Diet, retained the exclusion on female dynasts found in the 1889 law. The government of Prime Minister Yoshida Shigeru hastily cobbled together the legislation to bring the Imperial Household in compliance with the American - written Constitution of Japan that went into effect in May 1947. In an effort to control the size of the imperial family, the law stipulates that only legitimate male descendants in the male line can be dynasts; that imperial princesses lose their status as Imperial Family members if they marry outside the Imperial Family; and that the Emperor and other members of the Imperial Family may not adopt children. It also prevented branches, other than the branch descending from Taishō, from being imperial princes any longer.
Succession is now regulated by laws passed by the National Diet. The current law excludes women from the succession. A change to this law had been considered until Princess Kiko gave birth to a son.
Until the birth of Prince Hisahito, son of Prince Akishino, on September 6, 2006, there was a potential succession problem, since Prince Akishino was the only male child to be born into the imperial family since 1965. Following the birth of Princess Aiko, there was public debate about amending the current Imperial Household Law to allow women to succeed to the throne. In January 2005, Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi appointed a special panel composed of judges, university professors, and civil servants to study changes to the Imperial Household Law and to make recommendations to the government.
The panel dealing with the succession issue recommended on October 25, 2005, amending the law to allow females of the male line of imperial descent to ascend the Japanese throne. On January 20, 2006, Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi devoted part of his annual keynote speech to the controversy, pledging to submit a bill allowing women to ascend the throne to ensure that the succession continues in the future in a stable manner. Shortly after the announcement that Princess Kiko was pregnant with her third child, Koizumi suspended such plans. Her son, Prince Hisahito, is the third in line to the throne under the current law of succession. On January 3, 2007, Prime Minister Shinzō Abe announced that he would drop the proposal to alter the Imperial Household Law.
Until World War II, the Japanese monarchy was thought to be among the wealthiest in the world. Before 1911, no distinction was made between the imperial crown estates and the Emperor 's personal properties, which were considerable. The Imperial Property Law, which came into effect in January 1911, established two categories of imperial properties: the hereditary or crown estates and the personal ("ordinary '') properties of the imperial family. The Imperial Household Minister was given the responsibility for observing any judicial proceedings concerning imperial holdings. Under the terms of the law, imperial properties were only taxable in cases where no conflict with the Imperial House Law existed; however, crown estates could only be used for public or imperially - sanctioned undertakings. Personal properties of certain members of the imperial family, in addition to properties held for imperial family members who were minors, were exempted from taxation. Those family members included the Empress Dowager, the Empress, the Crown Prince and Crown Princess, the Imperial Grandson and the consort of the Imperial Grandson. As a result of the poor economic conditions in Japan, 289,259.25 acres of crown lands (about 26 % of the total landholdings) were either sold or transferred to government and private - sector interests in 1921. In 1930, the Nagoya Detached Palace (Nagoya Castle) was donated to the city of Nagoya, with six other imperial villas being either sold or donated at the same time. In 1939, Nijō Castle, the former Kyoto residence of the Tokugawa shoguns and an imperial palace since the Meiji Restoration, was likewise donated to the city of Kyoto.
At the end of 1935, according to official government figures, the Imperial Court owned roughly 3,111,965 acres of landed estates, the bulk of which (2,599,548 acres) were the Emperor 's private lands, with the total acreage of the crown estates amounting to some 512,161 acres; those landholdings comprised palace complexes, forest and farm lands and other residential and commercial properties. The total value of the imperial properties was then estimated at ¥ 650 million, or roughly US $195 million at prevailing exchange rates. This was in addition to the Emperor 's personal fortune, which itself amounted to hundreds of millions of yen and included numerous family heirlooms and furnishings, purebred livestock and investments in major Japanese firms, such as the Bank of Japan, other major Japanese banks, the Imperial Hotel and Nippon Yusen.
Following Japan 's defeat in the Second World War, all of the collateral branches of the imperial family were abolished under the Allied occupation of the country and the subsequent constitutional reforms, forcing those families to sell their assets to private or government owners. Staff numbers in the imperial households were slashed from a peak of roughly 6000 to about 1000. The imperial estates and the Emperor 's personal fortune (then estimated at US $17.15 million, or roughly US $625 million in 2017 terms) were transferred to either state or private ownership, excepting 6,810 acres of landholdings. Since the 1947 constitutional reforms, the imperial family has been supported by an official civil list sanctioned by the Japanese government. The largest imperial divestments were the former imperial Kiso and Amagi forest lands in Gifu and Shizuoka prefectures, grazing lands for livestock in Hokkaido and a stock farm in the Chiba region, all of which were transferred to the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Imperial property holdings have been further reduced since 1947 after several handovers to the government. Today, the primary imperial properties include the two Imperial Palaces at Tokyo and Kyoto, imperial villas at Hayama and at Nasu and a number of imperial farms and game preserves.
As of 2017, Akihito, the present Emperor, has an estimated net worth of US $40 million. The exact wealth and expenditures of the Emperor and the imperial family have remained a subject of speculation, and were largely withheld from the public until 2003, when Mori Yohei, a former royal correspondent for the Mainichi Shimbun, obtained access to 200 documents through a recently passed public information law. Mori 's findings, which he published in a book, revealed details of the imperial family 's US $240 million civil list (in 2003 values). Among other details, the book revealed the royal family employed a staff of over 1,000 people.
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what is the meaning of prince of cambridge | Duke of Cambridge - wikipedia
Duke of Cambridge, one of several royal dukedoms in the United Kingdom, is a hereditary title of specific rank of nobility in the British Royal Family. The title (named after the city of Cambridge in England) is hereditary among male agnatic descendants of the titleholder by primogeniture, and has been conferred upon members of the British royal family several times. The wife of the titleholder is usually called Duchess of Cambridge.
The title goes back to the 17th century, and superseded an earlier title of Earl of Cambridge. The title became extinct several times, before being revived after a hiatus of over a hundred years in 2011, when it was bestowed upon Prince William on 29 April 2011 upon his marriage on the same day to Catherine Middleton.
The title was first granted to Charles (1660 -- 1661), the first son of the Duke of York (later King James II), though he was never formally created Duke of Cambridge because he had died at the age of six months. The first officially recognised creation of the dukedom was in the Peerage of England in 1664, when James Stuart, second son of the Duke of York, was granted the title, but he died early in 1667 at the age of three, and the title again became extinct. The title was then granted later that year to the third son of the Duke of York, Edgar, but he then died in 1671 at the age of three, and the title again became extinct. The Duke of York 's eldest son by his second wife, Charles, was also styled Duke of Cambridge in 1677, but died when about a month old, not having lived long enough to be formally created duke.
The title was recreated in 1706 and granted to George Augustus, son of the Elector of Hanover (later King George I). When George Augustus ascended to the throne as King George II in 1727, the dukedom merged with the crown.
The title was again recreated and given, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, to Prince Adolphus, the seventh son of King George III. The title was inherited in 1850 by his only son, Prince George. George had three sons, but they were barred from inheriting the title as his marriage was in violation of the Royal Marriages Act 1772, so that upon his death in 1904, the title again became extinct.
During the period leading up to the 1999 wedding of Prince Edward, the youngest son of Queen Elizabeth II, experts speculated that the dukedom of Cambridge or Sussex were the most likely to be granted to him, and The Sunday Telegraph later reported that Prince Edward was at one point set to be titled Duke of Cambridge. Instead, Prince Edward was created Earl of Wessex, and it was announced that he would eventually be created the next Duke of Edinburgh after his father.
On 29 April 2011, the day of his wedding, it was announced that Prince William was to be created Duke of Cambridge, Earl of Strathearn and Baron Carrickfergus. The letters patent granting these titles received the great seal on 26 May 2011.
If Prince William dies before becoming king, then his sons are eligible to inherit the dukedom:
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the president of india appoints the judges of high courts | Indian High Courts Act 1861 - wikipedia
The Indian High Courts Act of 1861 (24 & 25 Vict. c. 104) was an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom to authorize the Crown to create High Courts in the Indian colony. Queen Victoria created the High Courts in Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay by Letters Patent in 1865. These High Courts would become the precursors to the High Courts in the modern day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. The Act was passed after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and consolidated the parallel legal system of the Crown and the East India Company.
The Act abolished the Supreme Courts at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay; the Sadar Diwani Adalat and the Sadar Nizamat Adalat at Calcutta; Sadar Adalat and Faujdari Adalat at Madras; Sadar Diwani Adalat and Faujdari Adalat at Bombay (§ 8).
Each High Court could consist of a chief justice and up to 15 judges. Under § 3 of the Act, judges could be selected from barristers (with 5 years of experience), civil servants (with 10 years of experience including 3 years as a zillah judge), judges of small cause courts or sudder ameen (with 5 years of experience), or pleaders of lander courts or High Courts (with 05 years of experience).
The High Court of a State is the highest court of the State and all other courts of the State work under it. Normally there is one High Court in every State but there can be only one High Court for two or more States as well, according to the constitution. There is one High Court at Chandigarh for Punjab, Haryana and Union Territory of Chandigarh. Similarly there is one High Court at Guwahati which serves Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Nagaland.
Composition:
In every High Court, there is a Chief Justice and many other judges whose number is defined by the President of India.
Appointment of the Judges: The Chief Justice of a High Court is appointed by the President with the consultation of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and the Governor of the State. The other judges are appointed by the will of President, Governor and the Chief Justice of High Court.
Qualifications for the Judges
(a) He should be a citizen of India.
(b) He should have been (I) a judge for 10 years of Subordinate court under the Judicial Service of the State or (ii) an Advocate for 10 years in a High Courts in India (Article 217).
Tenure: Originally the age of the retirement of the judges of the High Courts was fixed at 60 but it was raised to 62 in 1963 according to the 15th amendment of the Constitution.
Removal of the Judges: A judge may leave his office by resigning. He will send his letter of resignation to the President. His office would be considered to have been vacated if he is appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court or is transferred to some other High Court. A judge of a High Court may also be removed like a judge of the Supreme Court. A judge of High Court may be removed by the President if the Parliament passes a motion against him by an absolute majority and 2 / 3rd majority of the members present and voting, both the Houses sitting separately.
Salary:
The pay of the Chief Justice of a High Court is rupees 90,000 / - per month and that of the other judges is rupees 85,000 / - per month.
Powers and Functions
Original Jurisdiction:
The original jurisdiction of the High Court is restricted.
(a) Every High Court under Article 226 is empowered to issue writs, orders, directions including writs in the nature of Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Quo - warranto and Certiorari or any of them to any person or authority with in its territory for the enforcement of the Fundamental Rights and for any other purpose.
(b) The original jurisdiction of High Court extends to matters of admiralty, matrimonial, contempt of court and cases ordered to be transferred to High Court by lower court.
(c) The High Courts of Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai have original jurisdiction on hearing straightway cases involving the Christians and Parsies.
(d) The High Courts of Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai exercise original civil jurisdiction when the amount involved is more than two thousand rupees.
Appellate Jurisdiction:
The appellate jurisdiction of the High Courts extends so:
(a) The High Court can hear appeals in civil cases if the amount involved in the case is at least Rs. 5000.
(b) The High Court in criminal cases hears the appeal in which the accused has been sentenced to four years imprisonment by the Sessions Judge. v
(c) The death sentence awarded by Sessions Judge is subject to approval by the High Court.
(d) The High Court hear the cases involving interpretation of the Constitution or Law.
(e) The High Court hears the cases on income tax, sales tax etc.
Power of Judicial Review:
The States High Courts like the Supreme Court has the power of Judicial Review. A High Court has the power to strike down any law of the State or any order of the executive if it violates any provision of the constitution or curtails or takes any of the Fundamental Rights of the people.
Administrative and Supervisory Power:
The State High Court performs many administrative functions within its Territorial Jurisdiction. It exercises the power of superintendence and control over all courts and tribunals throughout the territory except the military tribunals.
Under § 5 of the Act, judges served at the pleasure of Her Majesty. The chief justice had precedence over judges, whereas judges had seniority based on appointment. Under § 14, the chief justice had the power to form divisions of two or more judges to hear cases.
Under § 9 of the Act, each High Court had "all such powers and authority for and in relation to the administration of justice '' including original and appellate jurisdiction over civil, criminal, admiralty, vice-admiralty, testamentary, intestate, and matrimonial matters.
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when was breakfast at tiffany's song released | Breakfast at Tiffany 's (song) - Wikipedia
"Breakfast at Tiffany 's '' is a 1995 song recorded by American alternative rock band Deep Blue Something. Originally appearing on the album 11th Song, it was later re-recorded and released on their album Home. It was the band 's only hit, peaking at number five on the Billboard Hot 100. Outside the United States, the song topped the charts in the United Kingdom, and peaked within the top ten of the charts in Australia, Belgium (Flanders), Canada, Germany, the Republic of Ireland and Sweden.
Todd Pipes said in a Q magazine about the promotion of "Breakfast at Tiffany 's '', "As the song had ' breakfast ' in the title, radio stations thought it would be genius to have us on at breakfast time. We 'd be up till 3 am and they 'd wonder why we were pissed off playing at 6 am. '' Follow - up singles failed to match the success of "Breakfast at Tiffany 's '', hence the reason for the band 's classification as a one - hit wonder.
"Breakfast at Tiffany 's '' is sung from the point of view of a man whose girlfriend is on the verge of breaking up with him because the two have nothing in common. Desperate to find something, the man brings up the Audrey Hepburn film Breakfast at Tiffany 's, and his girlfriend recalls that they "both kinda liked it. '' He argues that this should serve as enough motivation for them to work out their problems based on the notion that love will always find a way to make things work.
The film Roman Holiday inspired the lyrics of the song, but songwriter Todd Pipes thought that one of Hepburn 's other films would make a better song title.
Brian Wahlert called Breakfast at Tiffany 's "a cute, catchy song that should fit in well on adult contemporary, Top - 40 and alternative radio '' with memorable melody that makes it "a perfect single, along with the mildly repetitive, conversational lyrics of the chorus and the bright, acoustic guitar ''. However, Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly was unimpressed. He called it "possibly the year 's most innocuous single, ' Breakfast at Tiffany 's ' is distressingly prosaic pop from a wimpy - sounding Texas quartet ''; he added that it lacked any "musical piquancy ''. The Houston Press listed the song as the second worst by an artist from Texas, after Vanilla Ice 's "Ice Ice Baby ''.
VH1 and Blender ranked the song # 6 on their list of the "50 Most Awesomely Bad Songs Ever ''.
The music video features the band members arriving to a breakfast table and being served by butlers, beside the curb in front of Tiffany & Co. in Midtown Manhattan. At the end of the video a young woman dressed like Holly Golightly (Audrey Hepburn 's character from the film) walks past on the sidewalk, and takes off her sunglasses.
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prince song i want to be your lover | I Wanna Be Your Lover - wikipedia
"I Wanna Be Your Lover '' is a song by American recording artist Prince. It was released on August 24, 1979 as the lead single from his second album, Prince. The song was Prince 's first major hit single in the United States, reaching number eleven on the Billboard Hot 100 and peaking at number one on the Billboard Hot Soul Singles chart for two weeks.
"I Wanna Be Your Lover '' was written after Warner Bros. requested a follow - up to Prince 's debut album For You, which had underperformed commercially and neither of its singles crossed over to the pop charts. In response, Prince recorded "I Wanna Be Your Lover. '' Musically, it is a funk song sung exclusively in falsetto, detailing Prince 's love for a woman and how he would treat her better than the men she is with, and frustration that she thinks of him as "a child ''. The single edit stops after 2: 57, but the album version goes off on a jam of keyboards and synthesizers, including a Polymoog, played by Prince. It was later revealed that the song concerned a crush Prince had at the time on pianist and singer Patrice Rushen.
Prince promoted the song by lip - syncing it with his band on The Midnight Special and American Bandstand, where he gave host Dick Clark an awkward interview, answering his questions with one - word answers. Prince claimed to be 19 but was 21 at the time. Clark later said, "That was one of the most difficult interviews I 've ever conducted, and I 've done 10,000 musician interviews. ''
The song was also Prince 's debut single released in the UK; it was successful, reaching No. 41 on the UK Singles Chart. However, when Prince tried to promote it with shows in London, he was forced to cancel due to poor attendance. It would n't be until Purple Rain (1984) that Prince would break big in Europe.
The song additionally reached No. 2 on the Hot Dance Club Play chart and No. 2 in New Zealand.
Prince included a sample of this song in the opening of his 1992 hit single "My Name is Prince ''.
There are two versions of the music video of the hit single. The main version has Prince in an unbuttoned leopard shirt and jeans singing alone in a black background with only a mic, notably with straight / wavy hair and a departure from his afro from a year before. Various shots show him playing the instruments by himself.
The other version, which has not aired and was not featured on The Hits Collection compilation shows Prince and his band members performing the song in a painted room. The video was pulled due to skimpy clothing and a sexually suggestive theme (Prince was clad in blue stockings and a tan shirt, and frequently throughout the performance kisses his female keyboardist). The video is widely sought after by collectors.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
List of number - one R&B singles of 1979 (U.S.)
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who was the first indian to be awarded the oscar for lifetime achievements in cinema | List of Awards and nominations received by Amitabh Bachchan - Wikipedia
Amitabh Harivansh Bachchan (IPA: (əmɪˈtaːbɦ ˈbəttʃən); born 11 October 1942) is an Indian film actor. He first gained popularity in the early 1970s for movies like Zanjeer and Deewar, and was dubbed India 's first "angry young man '' for his on - screen roles in Bollywood. Referred to as the "Shahenshah of Bollywood '', "Star of the Millennium '' or "Big B '', he has since appeared in over 180 Indian films in a career spanning more than four decades. Bachchan is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential actors in the history of Indian cinema. So total was his dominance of the movie scene in the 1970s and 1980s that the French director François Truffaut called him a "one - man industry. ''
Bachchan has won numerous accolades in his career, including four National Film Awards as Best Actor and many awards at international film festivals and award ceremonies. He has won fifteen Filmfare Awards and is the most - nominated performer in any major acting category at Filmfare, with 41 nominations overall.
Apart from National Film Awards, Filmfare Awards and other competitive awards which Bachchan won for his performances throughout the years, he has been awarded several honours for his achievements in the Indian film industry. In 1991, he became the first artist to receive the, which was established in the name of Raj Kapoor. Bachchan was crowned as Superstar of the Millennium in 2000 at the Filmfare Awards. The Government of India awarded him with the Padma Shri in 1984, the Padma Bhushan in 2001 and the Padma Vibhushan in 2015. France 's highest civilian honour, the Knight of the Legion of Honour, was conferred upon him by the French Government in 2007 for his "exceptional career in the world of cinema and beyond ''. In 2011, actor Dilip Kumar blogged that Black should have been nominated for an Oscar. Kumar added: "If any Indian actor, in my personal opinion, deserves the world 's most coveted award, it is you. ''
In 1999, Bachchan was voted the "Greatest Star of stage or screen of the Millennium '' in a BBC Your Millennium online poll. In 2001, he was honoured with the Actor of the Century award at the Alexandria International Film Festival in Egypt in recognition of his contribution to the world of cinema. Many other honours for his achievements were conferred upon him at several International Film at the 2010 Asian Film Awards.
In 2003, he was conferred with the Honorary Citizenship of the French town of Deauville. In October 2003, he was conferred with the Medal of Honour of Morocco, given to him by King Mohammed at the Marrakech International Film Festival. In October 2003, TIME magazine dubbed Bachchan as "the Undisputed Godfather of Bollywood ''. In April 2005, The Walter Reade Theater of Lincoln Center in New York honored Amitabh Bachchan with a special tribute, retrospective -- titled "Amitabh Bachchan: The Biggest Film Star in the World ''. In March 2010, he has been named the list of CNN 's "top 25 Asian actors of all time ''.
In June 2000, he became the first living Asian to have been modelled in wax at London 's Madame Tussauds Wax Museum. Another statue was installed in New York in 2009, Hong Kong in 2011, Bangkok in 2011, Washington, DC in 2012 and Delhi in 2017.
He was honoured with an Honorary Doctorate by the University of Jhansi, India, in 2004, the University of Delhi in 2006, the De Montfort University in Leicester, UK, in 2006, the Leeds Metropolitan University in Yorkshire, UK, in 2007, the Queensland University of Technology in Brisbane, Australia, in 2011, the Jodhpur National University in 2013. and the Academy of Arts (Egypt), Egypt, in 2015. In 2017, he was honored with the "Indian Film Personality of the Year consisting of a Silver Peacock Medal, a certificate and a Cash Prize.
The National Film Awards is the most prominent film award ceremonies in India. Established in 1954, it is administered by the International Film Festival of India and the Indian government 's Directorate of Film Festivals. The awards are presented by the President of India. Due to their national scale, they are considered to be the equivalent of the Academy Awards. Bachchan has received four awards (a record) in the Best Actor category.
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how many episodes are in ahs season 3 | List of American Horror Story episodes - wikipedia
American Horror Story is an American anthology horror television series created and produced by Ryan Murphy and Brad Falchuk which premiered on October 5, 2011 on FX. Described as an anthology series, each season is conceived as a mostly self - contained miniseries, following a disparate set of characters and settings, and a storyline with its own "beginning, middle, and end. ''
In October 2016, the series was renewed for a seventh season titled Cult, which premiered on September 5, 2017 on FX. In January 2017, the series was renewed for an eighth and ninth season. As of November 14, 2017, 84 episodes of American Horror Story have aired, concluding the seventh season.
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who sings the song stroke me stroke me | The Stroke - wikipedia
"The Stroke '' is a song written and recorded by American rock artist Billy Squier. It was released in 1981 as the debut single from his Triple Platinum album Do n't Say No.
This was Squier 's first single to chart, reaching No. 17 on the US Billboard Hot 100. It was a bigger hit on rock radio, reaching No. 3 on the Top Tracks chart. It also reached the UK Singles Chart, rising to No. 52. It was named the 59th best hard rock song of all time ' by VH1.
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where is german commonly spoken in north america | German language in the United States - wikipedia
Over 50 million Americans claim German ancestry, which makes them the largest single ethnic group in the United States. Around 1.06 million people in the United States speak the German language. It is the second most spoken language in North Dakota. In 16 states, it is the most spoken language other than English and Spanish.
German became the second most widely spoken language in the U.S. starting with mass emigration to Pennsylvania from the German Palatinate and adjacent areas starting in the 1680s, all through the 1700s and to the early 20th century. It was spoken by millions of immigrants from Germany, Switzerland, and the Austro - Hungarian and Russian Empires, and their descendants. Many newspapers, churches and schools operated in German as did many businesses. The use of the language was strongly suppressed by social and legal means during World War I, and German declined as a result, limiting the widespread use of the language mainly to Amish and Old Order Mennonite communities. After the First World War, German lost its position as the second most widely spoken language in the United States.
Around 1800, two German - language Methodist churches were founded, the "Vereinigten Brüder in Christo '' and the "Evangelische Gemeinschaft ''. Both used Methodist hymnals in German and published German newspapers, of which one existed until 1937. From the middle of the 19th century English was used as a second language in the churches, but there were regions in which German was the main church language into the 20th century. In 1937 both churches fused and joined the United Methodist Church in 1968.
The first German newspaper in the U.S. was der Hochdeutsch - Pennsylvanische Geschicht - Schreiber, oder Sammlung Wichtiger Nachrichten aus dem Natur - und Kirchen - Reich ("the High German - Pennsylvanian story - writer, or collection of important news from the realms of nature and the church ''), later known as die Germantauner Zeitung. It was a German - language paper, Der Pennsylvanische Staatsbote that on July 5, 1776, was the first paper to report the American Declaration of Independence, and it did so in German translation. English readers would have to wait a day later to read the English text in the Pennsylvania Evening Post.
In the 19th century the German press increased in importance and the number of dailies exploded. In 1909 a report stated "every American city or town with a large German population possesses one or more German newspapers. In New York City there are twelve or more... the best... being... the New Yorker Staats - Zeitung. The Illinois Staats - Zeitung has nearly as large a circulation, and the Milwaukee Germania claims the largest circulation of all. The Milwaukee Herold comes not far behind. Philadelphia has its Demokrat, Baltimore its Correspondent, Cincinnati its Volksblatt, St. Louis... its... Die Westliche Post and Der Anzeiger des Westens. '' It also reported that compared to 17,194 English papers in the U.S. in 1900, there were 613 German ones. The next largest language group, the Scandinavian, had only 115.
With repression of the German language during World War I, the German press in America was reduced drastically.
When the U.S. joined in World War I, an anti-German hysteria quickly spread in American society. German - Americans, especially immigrants, were blamed for military acts of the German Empire, and even speaking German was seen as unpatriotic. Many German - American families anglicized their names (e.g. from Schmidt to Smith, Schneider to Taylor, Müller to Miller), and German nearly disappeared in public. Many states forbade the use of German in public and the teaching of German in schools.
An extensive campaign forbade all things German, such as performing the music of German composers at symphony concerts. Language was the focus of legislation at state and local levels. It took many forms, from requiring associations to have charters written in English to banning speaking German within city limits. Some states banned the teaching of all foreign languages, though most only banned German. A bill was introduced in October 1918 to create a national Department of Education, intended to restrict federal funds to states that enforced English - only education. The Lutheran Church was divided by an internal battle over conducting services and religious instruction in German.
On April 9, 1919, Nebraska enacted a statute called "An act relating to the teaching of foreign languages in the state of Nebraska, '' commonly known as the Siman Act. It provided that "No person, individually or as a teacher, shall, in any private, denominational, parochial or public school, teach any subject to any person in any language other than the English language. '' It forbade foreign instruction to children who had not completed the eighth grade. A total ban on teaching German in both public and private schools was imposed for a time in at least fourteen states, including California, Indiana, Wisconsin, Ohio, Iowa and Nebraska. California 's ban lasted into the mid-1920s. German was banned again in California churches in 1941. The Supreme Court case in Meyer v. Nebraska ruled that these laws were unconstitutional, but German never recovered its position as the second language in the United States. Pennsylvania 's legislature passed a German - language ban, but it was vetoed by the governor.
Much of the animosity against German had to do with the Socialist, pacifist and isolationist tendencies of many German - Americans.
Alsatian, (German: Elsässisch), is a Low Alemannic German dialect spoken by Old Order Amish in Allen County, Indiana and their daughter settlements. These Amish immigrated to the US in the mid 1800. There are fewer speakers of Alsatian in Indiana than of Bernese German. Even though there are several thousands speakers. There are also speakers of Bernese German and Pennsylvania German living in the community. Most speakers of Alsatian also speak or at least understand Pennsylvania German. Speakers of Alsatian in Indiana are thus exposed to five languages or dialects: Alsatian, Bernese German, Pennsylvania German, Standard German and English.
Amana German, West Central German dialect, is still spoken by several hundred people in seven villages in the Amana Colonies in Iowa, which were founded by Inspirationalists of German origin. Amana is derived from Hessian dialects.
Bernese German, (Standard German: Berndeutsch, Alemannic German: Bärndütsch) is a sub dialect of High Alemannic German which is spoken by Old Order Amish in Adams County, Indiana and their daughter settlements. There are several thousand speakers of the dialect in the USA.
Hutterite communities in the United States and Canada speak Hutterite German, an Austro - Bavarian dialect. Hutterite is spoken in the U.S. states of Washington, Montana, North and South Dakota, and Minnesota; and in the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba.
There is also a significant population of Amish and Old Order Mennonites located in rural areas of Elkhart County and LaGrange County, Indiana, who speak Pennsylvania Dutch. A much smaller community of Pennsylvania Dutch - speaking Amish is found in Parke County, in western Indiana. Many English words have become mixed with this dialect and it is quite different from Standard German (Hochdeutsch), but quite similar to the dialect of the Palatinate region.
Usually, Pennsylvania Dutch (often just "Dutch '' or "Deitsch '') is spoken at home, but English is used when interacting with the general population. The Amish and Old Order Mennonites of northern Indiana often differentiate between themselves and the general population by referring to them, respectively, as the "Amish '' and the "English '', noting the difference in language. Pennsylvania "Dutch '' is sometimes used in worship services, though this is more common among the Amish than the Mennonites. More mainstream (city) Mennonites may have a working knowledge of the language, but it is not frequently used in conversation or in worship services.
Old Order Amish, Old Order Mennonites and other Pennsylvania Germans speak a dialect of German known as Pennsylvania German (widely called Pennsylvania Dutch, where Dutch is used in its archaic sense, thus not limited to Dutch but including all variants of German). It is a remnant of what was once a much larger German - speaking area in eastern Pennsylvania. Most of the "Pennsylvania Dutch '' originate from the Palatinate area of Germany and their language is based on the dialect of that region. While the language is stable among the Old Orders and the number of speakers growing due to the high birth rate among the Old Orders, it is quickly declining among the non-plain Pennsylvania Germans (also called Fancy Dutch).
Plautdietsch, a Low German dialect, is spoken by "Russian '' Mennonites, who immigrated mostly to Kansas in the mid 1870. These Mennonites tended to slowly assimilate into the mainstream society over several Generations, but Plautdietsch speaking Mennonite immigrants mainly from Mexico, where there is no assimilation, invigorated Plautdietsch in Kansas. Plautdietsch speaking Mennonite migrants from Mexico formed a new settlement in Seminole, Texas in 1977. In 2016 there were about 6,000 Plautdietsch speakers around Seminole.
A dialect called Texas German based in the Texas Hill Country around the town of Fredericksburg still exists, but has been dying out since the end of World War II. Following the introduction of English - only schooling during both world wars, Texas German speakers drifted towards English and few passed the language to their descendants.
An urban legend, sometimes called the Muhlenberg legend after Frederick Muhlenberg, states that English only narrowly defeated German as the U.S. official language. In reality, the proposal involved a requirement that government documents be translated into German. The United States has no statutory official language; English has been used on a de facto basis, owing to its status as the country 's predominant language.
In Pennsylvania, which had a large German - American population, German was long allowed as the language of instruction in schools, and state documents were available in German until 1950. As a result of anti-German sentiment during World War I, the fluency decreased from one generation to the next and only a small fraction of Pennsylvanians of German descent are fluent in the German language.
The ties between Germany and the United States having been historically strong has brought about a number of important literary authors. In modern German literature, this topic has been addressed frequently by the Boston - born author of German and English lyrical poetry, Paul - Henri Campbell.
According to a government - financed survey, German was taught in 24 % of American schools in 1997, and only 14 % in 2008.
German is third in popularity after Spanish and French in terms of the number of colleges and universities offering instruction in the language.
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who represents me in the new york state senate | New York State Senate - wikipedia
Majority caucus
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The New York State Senate is considered the upper house in the New York State Legislature. It has 63 members each elected to two - year terms. There are no limits on the number of terms one may serve. The New York Constitution provides for a varying number of members in the Senate, elected from single - member constituencies equal in population. The current format for apportionment has followed the Supreme Court decision in Baker v. Carr, decided in 1964.
Democrats won 32 of 62 seats in New York 's upper chamber in the 2008 General Election on November 4, capturing the majority for the first time in more than four decades. Previously, the Republicans had held the chamber for all but one year from 1939 to 2008, even as New York turned almost solidly Democratic at all levels.
However, a power struggle emerged before the new term began. Four Democratic senators -- Rubén Díaz, Sr. (Bronx), Carl Kruger (Brooklyn), Pedro Espada, Jr. (Bronx), and Hiram Monserrate (Queens) -- immediately refused to caucus with their party. The self - named "Gang of Four '' refused to back Malcolm Smith (Queens) as the chamber 's majority leader and sought concessions. Monserrate soon reached an agreement with Smith that reportedly included the chairmanship of the Consumer Affairs Committee. The remaining "Gang of Three '' reached an initial compromise in early December that collapsed within a week, but was ultimately resolved with Smith becoming majority leader until early June 2009, when two Democrats joined with Republicans to elect a new leadership for the New York State Senate, reaching a power - sharing deal under which Republicans became, again, technically the majority party.
Though there were 32 Democrats and 30 Republicans in the Senate, on June 8, 2009, then - Senators Hiram Monserrate and Pedro Espada, Jr. -- who were part of what was described by the Associated Press as a "parliamentary coup '' -- allegedly voted with the 30 Republican members to install Senator Dean Skelos (R - Rockville Centre) as the new majority leader of the Senate, replacing Malcolm Smith.
The move came after Republican whip Tom Libous introduced a surprise resolution to vacate the chair and replace Smith as temporary president and majority leader. In an effort to stop the vote, Democratic whip Jeff Klein (Bronx) unilaterally moved to recess, and Smith had the lights and Internet cut off. However, they were unable to stop the session. All 30 Republicans plus two Democrats, Monserrate and Espada, voted in favor of the resolution. In accordance with a prearranged deal, Espada was elected temporary president and acting lieutenant governor while Skelos was elected majority leader. Both Monserrate and Espada were members of the original "Gang of Four '' (the other two being Díaz, Sr. and Kruger), a group of Democratic senators that threatened to defect to the Republican caucus to prevent Smith from taking control of the chamber in January 2009. Monserrate had backed out of the Gang at the time, being the first of the four to back Smith.
The apparent Republican seizure of power was tenuous in any event. Smith claimed the vote was illegal because of Klein 's motion to adjourn; parliamentary procedure stipulates that a vote to adjourn takes precedence over all other business. However, Smith, Klein, and most of the Democrats walked out before an actual vote to adjourn could be taken. Smith has also claimed that it is illegal to oust the majority leader in the middle of a two - year term, and as such, leaders can only be replaced at the beginning of a term, except in the case of death or resignation. Smith still asserted he was majority leader and would challenge the vote in court. He locked the doors of the state senate chambers in an effort to prevent any further legislative action. The Espada - Skelos coalition majority, which also courted as many as ten more Democrats, announced plans to hold sessions in the "Well '' of the legislative office building until chamber doors are reopened. By the time of the scheduled session on June 10 at 3: 00 p.m., at the request of Governor David Paterson, the keys to the senate chamber were turned over to the coalition; Smith has claimed that the coalition stole the key. The scheduled session was eventually postponed.
Both Monserrate and Espada faced accusations of unethical or criminal conduct. Monserrate was indicted for felony assault in March and would have automatically lost his seat if convicted. New York, like most states, has a provision in its state constitution which bars convicted felons from holding office. (Monseratte would be acquitted of the felonies, but was convicted on misdemeanors.) Espada was the target of a state investigation into whether he funded his campaign with money siphoned from a nonprofit health care agency he controls. The Bronx County District Attorney 's office was also investigating charges that Espada actually resided in Mamaroneck, Westchester County rather than the north Bronx district he represented.
As a result of the coup, Senate Democrats voted for John Sampson (D - Brooklyn) to replace Smith as Democratic Leader. This led Monserrate to declare that he would once again caucus with the Democrats, which led to a 31 -- 31 split.
On July 9, 2009, a source stated that Espada would be rejoining the Senate Democratic Conference after reaching a deal to have Smith be pro tem president until a "transition period '' during which Senator Sampson would ascend to the Senate 's Temporary Presidency. The term expired with Smith still as Temporary President. Democrats orchestrated the removal of both Espada and Monserrate from their ranks; the Senate voted to expel Monserrate, while Espada was defeated in a primary election that had the state party back his primary opponent, Gustavo Rivera.
The Republicans regained control of the Senate after the 2010 elections, with a 32 -- 30 majority. Just before the new chamber convened in January 2011, four Democrats, led by former Democratic whip Klein, broke away from the main Democratic Conference to form an Independent Democratic Conference (IDC). Klein said that he and his three colleagues could no longer support Sampson 's leadership.
Following the 2010 census, New York redistricted the Senate, expanding it from 62 to 63 seats effective in January 2013. When all election night results were tabulated on November 6, 2012, it appeared that Democrats would hold 33 seats for a three - seat majority -- just their third Senate majority since World War II. However, Senator Simcha Felder of Brooklyn, elected as a Democrat, chose to conference with the Republicans. It was later announced, on December 4, 2012, that the Republican Party came to a power - sharing deal with the four - member Independent Democratic Conference, which had previously defected from the Democratic leadership. Under the agreement, Senators Skelos and Klein would alternate daily as temporary president of the Senate. Also as part of the change, former Democratic Senate Majority Leader Malcolm Smith joined the Independent Democrats, only to be expelled from the conference in April 2013 due to a scandal in which Smith attempted to bribe the Republican Party chairs in New York City for a Wilson Pakula to run in the upcoming New York City mayoral election. Previous Senate Minority Leader John L. Sampson was expelled from his conference on May 6, 2013, following his arrest.
District 46 was embroiled in a recount when the new Senate was sworn in and the then - leading candidate George Amedore (GOP) became a New York state senator. After the recount was completed, he lost by 18 votes, making him the shortest - serving senator in modern New York history and the loser of the state 's second - closest Senate race, to Democratic opponent Cecilia Tkaczyk. Amedore would eventually win a rematch with Tkaczyk in 2014 and be elected to a full term.
In 2014, the Independent Democratic Conference announced that they would end their political alliance with the Republicans and create a new one with the Senate Democratic Conference, citing a need "to fight for the core Democratic policies that are left undone. '' On November 5, 2014, Rubén Díaz, Sr. announced his intention to leave the Democratic Caucus and ally himself with, but not formally join, the Republicans. However, as of December 2016, Sen. Diaz remains a member of the Senate Democratic Conference. As of January 5, 2017, the IDC has continued its relationship with the Senate Republicans.
On May 4, 2015, Attorney for the Southern District of New York Preet Bharara, announced the arrest of Senate Majority Leader Dean Skelos, along with his son, and Assembly Speaker Sheldon Silver. Within days Skelos announced he was stepping down as leader of the Republican Caucus and as Majority Leader. Senator John Flanagan, of Suffolk County, became the new Majority Leader, and the first Majority Leader from Suffolk County. After his conviction in December 2015, his seat was declared vacant with a special election to be held on the presidential primary of 2016. The special election was won by Democrat Todd Kaminsky, resulting in the Democratic Party having a numerical 32 - 31 advantage over the Republicans in the State Senate. Despite this, Senator Felder and the members of the IDC chose to remain in coalition with the Republican majority.
Late in 2016, Senator Jesse Hamilton announced his intention to join the IDC if re-elected when the Senate reconvenes in January 2017. Hamilton, in his first election in 2014, was aided by the Independent Democrats, which had resulted in speculation he would eventually join the caucus. In late January 2017, Senator Jose Peralta announced he was joining the IDC.
On November 8, 2016 after all election results were announced the Republicans initially held on to all of their seats, and actually picked up an upstate seat. Two races on Long Island were initially close enough for absentee and court challenges, leading to initial uncertainty on control of the state senate. Within days however, Felder announced he would caucus with the GOP, ensuring that the Republicans would retain the Senate. A few weeks later it was announced that Senator Michael Venditto had lost re-election, giving the Democrats a numerical majority, as in 2012. Liberal groups in New York State, including the Working Families Party, called on the governor to intervene and force the IDC and mainline Democratic Conference to unite to make New York a united one - party government in opposition to President - elect Donald Trump 's incoming administration. Klein criticized those groups along with Minority Leader Andrea Stewart - Cousins for lack of outreach as well as for calling on the governor to intervene in a separate branch of government. On January 2, 2017 Majority Leader Flanagan and Senator Klein announced the continuation of their coalition, now with almost a two - thirds majority in the Senate. Klein, in his statement to the press, stated that the coalition allows for bipartisan legislation getting passed and pragmatic progressive ideas to be brought to the table.
The Senate was dominated by the Republican Party for much of the 20th century. Since World War II, the Democrats have only controlled the upper house twice. The first time came in 1965, after the 1964 Presidential Election only for them to lose it in special elections that year. The second time again came to power following the 2008 elections on the coattails of the victory of President Barack Obama. In mid-2009, dissatisfaction by some Democrats in the State Senate along with billionaire Tom Golisano, over the leadership of Senate Majority Leader Malcolm Smith resulted in 2 Democratic Senators joining with the entire Republican caucus to install Senator Dean Skelos as Majority Leader and Temporary President. Over the month of June and July the Senate was mired in a leadership crisis that ended with the breakaway Democrats rejoining the caucus in late July. The Democrats maintained their majority throughout the remainder of the 2009 -- 2010 session. Following state elections in 2010, Republicans were able to gain the two seats necessary to again reclaim the majority.
The Senate 's apportionment has traditionally favored Upstate due to the state constitution 's original method of giving each county, even sparsely populated ones, at least one senator (a practice that mirrored the United States Senate 's approach to give each state the same number of senators). This changed with Baker v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964), in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a "one man, one vote '' system of state legislative apportionment is constitutionally required. Since then, in redistricting, the Senate has traditionally overrepresented upstate in exchange for the Assembly overrepresenting downstate (each legislative district is allowed up to 5 % deviation from the average district population; the state legislature systemically uses this leeway to create less populous Senate districts upstate and more populous ones downstate, and vice versa in the Assembly).
When the Democrats won the majority in 2008, they only held five seats upstate and two on Long Island. As of the start of the 2017 session, enrolled Democrats hold all but two seats in New York City, but only three north of Westchester County and only two of the nine Long Island seats. Within the enrolled Democrats, six of the New York City - based Democrats are members of the Independent Democratic Conference and one caucuses with the Republicans. Two of the three Upstate Democrats are in the Democratic Conference while the remaining one caucuses with the Independent Democrats.
The Senate is headed by its President, a post held ex officio by the Lieutenant Governor. The Senate President has a casting vote in the event of a tie, but otherwise may not vote. More often, the Senate is presided over by the Temporary President, a post which is normally also held by the Majority Leader. After the 2008 elections, the Senate had a Democratic majority for the first time since 1965. They lost that majority on November 2, 2010, when Republican Jack Martins defeated Democratic Senator Craig Johnson and former Senator, now Republican Congressman Lee Zeldin, defeated Democrat Brian Foley. Following the defections of Jeffrey Klein, David Valesky and Diane Savino from the Democratic caucus, the trio joined freshman David Carlucci in a newly formed Independent Conference; this conference serves as "crossbenchers '' separate from the Democratic and Republican conferences.
The Senate has one additional officer outside those who are elected by the people: the Secretary of the Senate is a post that is chosen by a majority vote of the senators, and does not have voting power (he / she is allowed, though officially discouraged, from discussing and negotiating legislative matters). The Secretary of the Senate is responsible for administering the Senate 's office space, overseeing the handling of bills and the oversight of the sergeants - at - arms and the stenographer. The position is currently held by Frank Patience, who was elected to a two - year position in January 2011.
* Elected in a special election
As of January 2015 (committee leaders are Republican unless otherwise noted):
Upstate New York and Long Island
New York City, Nassau County, and Westchester County
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i will love you and pet you and call you george | Of Mice and Men in popular culture - wikipedia
Of Mice and Men is a novella by John Steinbeck, which tells the story of George and Lennie, two displaced migrant workers in California during the Great Depression (1929 -- 1939). The story is set on a ranch a few miles from Soledad in the Salinas Valley. Since its initial publication in 1937, it has been frequently referenced in popular culture.
Homages to the characters Lennie and George have been especially popular in American cartoons and animated films. The New York Times reviewed the 1939 film based on the novella thusly:
Theatrical cartoon shorts of the 1940s and 1950s, particularly the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies cartoons released by Warner Bros., are awash with Of Mice and Men parodies. The reference most often appears in the form of one character asking another, à la Lennie, "Which way did he go, George; which way did he go? '', such as the episodes Hiawatha 's Rabbit Hunt or Falling Hare. The other popular reference draws on Lennie 's love of soft furry animals and his underestimation of his strength. In The Abominable Snow Rabbit (1961), the abominable snowman grabs Bugs Bunny and Daffy Duck saying, "I will name him George, and I will hug him, and pet him, and squeeze him '' with Mel Blanc doing an unmistakable imitation of Lon Chaney, Jr. 's Lennie.
Tex Avery, who worked as a director on Warner - released cartoons during the 1930s and early 1940s, started the Of Mice and Men trend with Of Fox and Hounds (1940) and Lonesome Lenny (1946) featuring Screwy Squirrel. The formula was so successful that it was used again and again in subsequent shorts, notably Robert McKimson 's Hoppy Go Lucky (1952), Cat - Tails for Two (1953) and Chuck Jones ' The Abominable Snow Rabbit (1961). Many more serious animated features use George and Lennie - type characters to serve as comic relief.
Other examples in animation include:
http://comicbook.com/blog/2014/03/16/the-walking-deads-the-grove-is-steinbecks-of-mice-and-men-with-the-undead/
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xerophthalmia in human beings is caused due to deficiency of vitamin | Xerophthalmia - wikipedia
Xerophthalmia (from Ancient Greek xērós (ξηρός) meaning dry and ophthalmos (οφθαλμός) meaning eye) is a medical condition in which the eye fails to produce tears. It may be caused by vitamin A deficiency, which is sometimes used to describe that condition, although there may be other causes.
Xerophthalmia caused by a severe vitamin A deficiency is described by pathologic dryness of the conjunctiva and cornea. The conjunctiva becomes dry, thick and wrinkled. If untreated, it can lead to corneal ulceration and ultimately to blindness as a result of corneal damage.
Xerophthalmia usually implies a destructive dryness of the conjunctival epithelium due to dietary vitamin A deficiency -- a rare condition in developed countries, but still causing much damage in developing countries. Other forms of dry eye are associated with aging, poor lid closure, scarring from a previous injury, or autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and Sjögren 's syndrome, and these can all cause chronic conjunctivitis. Radioiodine therapy can also induce xerophthalmia, often transiently, although in some patients late onset or persistent xerophthalmia has been observed.
The damage to the cornea in vitamin A associated xerophthalmia is quite different from damage to the retina at the back of the globe, a type of damage which can also be due to lack of vitamin A, but which is caused by lack of other forms of vitamin A which work in the visual system. Xerophthalmia from hypovitaminosis A is specifically due to lack of the hormone - like vitamin A metabolite retinoic acid, since (along with certain growth - stunting effects) the condition can be reversed in vitamin A deficient rats by retinoic acid supplementation (however the retinal damage continues). Since retinoic acid can not be reduced to retinal or retinol, these effects on the cornea must be specific to retinoic acid. This is in keeping with retinoic acid 's known requirement for good health in epithelial cells, such as those in the cornea.
The condition is not congenital and develops over the course of a few months as the lacrimal glands fail to produce tears. Other conditions involved in the progression already stated include the appearance of Bitot 's spots, which are clumps of keratin debris that build up inside the conjunctiva and night blindness, which precedes corneal ulceration and total blindness.
WHO CLASSIFICATION:
XN - Night blindness
X1A - Conjunctival xerosis
X1B - Bitot spots
X2 - Corneal xerosis
X3A - Corneal ulceration / keratomalacia, involving less than one - third of the cornea
X3B - Corneal ulceration / keratomalacia, involving more than one - third of the cornea
XS - Corneal scar due to xerophthalmia
XF - Xerophthalmic fundus
Prophylaxis consists of periodic administration of Vitamin A supplements. WHO recommended schedule, which is universally recommended is as follows:
Treatment can occur in two ways: treating symptoms and treating the deficiency. Treatment of symptoms usually includes the use of artificial tears in the form of eye drops, increasing the humidity of the environment with humidifiers, and wearing wraparound glasses when outdoors. Treatment of the deficiency can be accomplished with a Vitamin A or multivitamin supplement or by eating foods rich in Vitamin A. Treatment with supplements and / or diet can be successful until the disease progresses as far as corneal ulceration, at which point only an extreme surgery can offer a chance of returning sight.
Xerophthalmia usually affects children under nine years old and "accounts for 20,000 -- 100,000 new cases of childhood blindness each year in the developing countries. '' The disease is largely found in developing countries like many of those in Africa and Southern Asia.
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birds that can be found in the philippines | List of birds of the Philippines - Wikipedia
This is a list of the bird species recorded in the Philippines. The avifauna of the Philippines include a total of 657 species, of which 214 are endemic, five have been introduced by humans and 52 are rare or accidental. Of these, 68 species are globally threatened.
This list 's taxonomic treatment (designation and sequence of orders, families and species) and nomenclature (common and scientific names) follow the conventions of The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World, 6th edition. The family accounts at the beginning of each heading reflect this taxonomy, as do the species counts found in each family account. Introduced and accidental species are included in the total counts for the Philippines.
The following tags have been used to highlight several categories. The commonly occurring native species do not fall into any of these categories.
Non-passerines: Grebes Northern storm petrels Shearwaters and petrels Boobies and gannets Cormorants Darters Frigatebirds Bitterns, herons and egrets Ibises and spoonbills Storks Ducks, geese and swans Osprey Hawks, kites and eagles Caracaras and falcons Megapodes Pheasants and partridges Cranes Rails, crakes, gallinules and coots Buttonquails Jacanas Painted - snipe Avocets and stilts Thick - knees Pratincoles and coursers Plovers and lapwings Sandpipers and allies Skuas and jaegers Gulls, terns, and skimmers Pigeons and doves Cockatoos Parrots and allies Cuckoos and anis Barn owls Typical owls Frogmouths Nightjars Swifts Treeswifts Trogons Kingfishers Bee - eaters Typical rollers Hoopoes Hornbills Barbets Woodpeckers and allies
Passerines: Broadbills Pittas Larks Swallows and martins Wagtails and pipits Cuckooshrikes Bulbuls Leafbirds Ioras Thrushes and allies Cisticolas and allies Cettid warblers Locustellid warblers Acrocephalid warblers Phylloscopid warblers Old World flycatchers Fantails Fairy flycatchers Monarch flycatchers Whistlers and allies Babblers Ground babblers White - eyes Thornbills and allies Chickadees and titmice Nuthatches Sunbirds and spiderhunters Flowerpeckers Old World orioles Fairy - bluebirds Shrikes Drongos Woodswallows Crows, jays, ravens and magpies Starlings Waxbills and allies Buntings, sparrows, seedeaters and allies Siskins, crossbills and allies Sparrows
See also References
Order: Podicipediformes Family: Podicipedidae
Grebes are small to medium - large freshwater diving birds. They have lobed toes and are excellent swimmers and divers. However, they have their feet placed far back on the body, making them quite ungainly on land. There is 1 species which has been recorded in the Philippines.
Order: Procellariiformes Family: Hydrobatidae
Order: Procellariiformes Family: Procellariidae
The procellariids are the main group of medium - sized "true petrels '', characterized by united nostrils with medium septum and a long outer functional primary.
Order: Suliformes Family: Sulidae
The sulids comprise the gannets and boobies. Both groups are medium to large coastal seabirds that plunge - dive for fish.
Order: Suliformes Family: Phalacrocoracidae
Phalacrocoracidae is a family of medium to large coastal, fish - eating seabirds that includes cormorants and shags. Plumage coloration varies, with the majority having mainly dark plumage, some species being black - and - white and a few being colorful.
Order: Suliformes Family: Anhingidae
Darters are often called "snake - birds '' because of their long thin neck, which gives a snake - like appearance when they swim with their bodies submerged. The males have black and dark - brown plumage, an erectile crest on the nape and a larger bill than the female. The females have much paler plumage especially on the neck and underparts. The darters have completely webbed feet and their legs are short and set far back on the body. Their plumage is somewhat permeable, like that of cormorants, and they spread their wings to dry after diving.
Order: Suliformes Family: Fregatidae
Frigatebirds are large seabirds usually found over tropical oceans. They are large, black - and - white or completely black, with long wings and deeply forked tails. The males have colored inflatable throat pouches. They do not swim or walk and can not take off from a flat surface. Having the largest wingspan - to - body - weight ratio of any bird, they are essentially aerial, able to stay aloft for more than a week.
Order: Pelecaniformes Family: Ardeidae
The family Ardeidae contains the bitterns, herons and egrets. Herons and egrets are medium to large wading birds with long necks and legs. Bitterns tend to be shorter necked and more wary. Members of Ardeidae fly with their necks retracted, unlike other long - necked birds such as storks, ibises and spoonbills.
Order: Pelecaniformes Family: Threskiornithidae
Threskiornithidae is a family of large terrestrial and wading birds which includes the ibises and spoonbills. They have long, broad wings with 11 primary and about 20 secondary feathers. They are strong fliers and despite their size and weight, very capable soarers.
Order: Ciconiiformes Family: Ciconiidae
Storks are large, long - legged, long - necked, wading birds with long, stout bills. Storks are mute, but bill - clattering is an important mode of communication at the nest. Their nests can be large and may be reused for many years. Many species are migratory.
Order: Anseriformes Family: Anatidae
Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck - like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These birds are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, flattened bills, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to an oily coating.
Order: Accipitriformes Family: Pandionidae
The family Pandionidae contains only one species, the osprey. The osprey is a medium - large raptor which is a specialist fish - eater with a worldwide distribution.
Order: Accipitriformes Family: Accipitridae
Accipitridae is a family of birds of prey, which includes hawks, eagles, kites, harriers and Old World vultures. These birds have powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons and keen eyesight.
Order: Falconiformes Family: Falconidae
Falconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey. They differ from hawks, eagles and kites in that they kill with their beaks instead of their talons. There are 62 species worldwide and five species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Galliformes Family: Megapodiidae
The Megapodiidae are stocky, medium - large chicken - like birds with small heads and large feet. All but the malleefowl occupy jungle habitats and most have brown or black coloring. There are 21 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in the Philippines.
Order: Galliformes Family: Phasianidae
The Phasianidae are a family of terrestrial birds which consists of quails, partridges, snowcocks, francolins, spurfowls, tragopans, monals, pheasants, peafowls and jungle fowls. In general, they are plump (although they vary in size) and have broad, relatively short wings. There are 156 species worldwide and 6 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Gruiformes Family: Gruidae
Cranes are large, long - legged and long - necked birds. Unlike the similar - looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back. Most have elaborate and noisy courting displays or "dances ''. There are 15 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in the Philippines.
Order: Gruiformes Family: Rallidae
Rallidae is a large family of small to medium - sized birds which includes the rails, crakes, coots and gallinules. Typically they inhabit dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps or rivers. In general they are shy and secretive birds, making them difficult to observe. Most species have strong legs and long toes which are well adapted to soft uneven surfaces. They tend to have short, rounded wings and to be weak fliers.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Turnicidae
The buttonquails are small, drab, running birds which resemble the true quails. The female is the brighter of the sexes and initiates courtship. The male incubates the eggs and tends the young.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Jacanidae
The jacanas are a group of tropical waders in the family Jacanidae. They are found throughout the tropics. They are identifiable by their huge feet and claws which enable them to walk on floating vegetation in the shallow lakes that are their preferred habitat. There 8 species worldwide and 2 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Rostratulidae
Painted - snipe are short - legged, long - billed birds similar in shape to the true snipes, but more brightly colored.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Recurvirostridae
Recurvirostridae is a family of large wading birds, which includes the avocets and stilts. The avocets have long legs and long up - curved bills. The stilts have extremely long legs and long, thin, straight bills. There are 9 species worldwide and 3 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Burhinidae
The thick - knees are a group of largely tropical waders in the family Burhinidae. They are found worldwide within the tropical zone, with some species also breeding in temperate Europe and Australia. They are medium to large waders with strong black or yellow - black bills, large yellow eyes and cryptic plumage. Despite being classed as waders, most species have a preference for arid or semi-arid habitats.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Glareolidae
Glareolidae is a family of wading birds comprising the pratincoles, which have short legs, long pointed wings and long forked tails, and the coursers, which have long legs, short wings and long, pointed bills which curve downwards. There are 17 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in the Philippines.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Charadriidae
The family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels and lapwings. They are small to medium - sized birds with compact bodies, short, thick necks and long, usually pointed, wings. They are found in open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water. There are 66 species worldwide and 10 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Scolopacidae
Scolopacidae is a large diverse family of small to medium - sized shorebirds including the sandpipers, curlews, godwits, shanks, tattlers, woodcocks, snipes, dowitchers and phalaropes. The majority of these species eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or soil. Variation in length of legs and bills enables multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Stercorariidae
The family Stercorariidae are, in general, medium to large birds, typically with gray or brown plumage, often with white markings on the wings. They nest on the ground in temperate and arctic regions and are long - distance migrants. There are 7 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in the Philippines.
Order: Charadriiformes Family: Laridae
Laridae is a family of medium to large seabirds, the gulls, terns, and skimmers. Gulls are typically gray or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They have stout, longish bills and webbed feet. Terns are a group of generally medium to large seabirds typically with gray or white plumage, often with black markings on the head. Most terns hunt fish by diving but some pick insects off the surface of fresh water. Terns are generally long - lived birds, with several species known to live in excess of 30 years.
Order: Columbiformes Family: Columbidae
Pigeons and doves are stout - bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere.
Order: Psittaciformes Family: Cacatuidae
The cockatoos share many features with other parrots including the characteristic curved beak shape and a zygodactyl foot, with two forward toes and two backwards toes. They differ, however in a number of characteristics, including the often spectacular movable headcrest. There are 21 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in the Philippines.
Order: Psittaciformes Family: Psittaculidae
Order: Cuculiformes Family: Cuculidae
The family Cuculidae includes cuckoos, roadrunners and anis. These birds are of variable size with slender bodies, long tails and strong legs. The Old World cuckoos are brood parasites.
Order: Strigiformes Family: Tytonidae
Barn owls are medium to large owls with large heads and characteristic heart - shaped faces. They have long strong legs with powerful talons.
Order: Strigiformes Family: Strigidae
The typical owls are small to large solitary nocturnal birds of prey. They have large forward - facing eyes and ears, a hawk - like beak and a conspicuous circle of feathers around each eye called a facial disk.
Order: Caprimulgiformes Family: Podargidae
The frogmouths are a group of nocturnal birds related to the nightjars. They are named for their large flattened hooked bill and huge frog - like gape, which they use to take insects. There are 3 species which have been recorded in the Philippines.
Order: Caprimulgiformes Family: Caprimulgidae
Nightjars are medium - sized nocturnal birds that usually nest on the ground. They have long wings, short legs and very short bills. Most have small feet, of little use for walking, and long pointed wings. Their soft plumage is camouflaged to resemble bark or leaves.
Order: Apodiformes Family: Apodidae
Swifts are small birds which spend the majority of their lives flying. These birds have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces. Many swifts have long swept - back wings which resemble a crescent or boomerang. There are 18 species which have been recorded in the Philippines.
Order: Apodiformes Family: Hemiprocnidae
The treeswifts, also called crested swifts, are closely related to the true swifts. They differ from the other swifts in that they have crests, long forked tails and softer plumage. There are 4 species worldwide and 2 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Trogoniformes Family: Trogonidae
The family Trogonidae includes trogons and quetzals. Found in tropical woodlands worldwide, they feed on insects and fruit, and their broad bills and weak legs reflect their diet and arboreal habits. Although their flight is fast, they are reluctant to fly any distance. Trogons have soft, often colorful, feathers with distinctive male and female plumage. There are 33 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in the Philippines.
Order: Coraciiformes Family: Alcedinidae
Order: Coraciiformes Family: Meropidae
The bee - eaters are a group of near passerine birds in the family Meropidae. Most species are found in Africa but others occur in southern Europe, Madagascar, Australia and New Guinea. They are characterized by richly colored plumage, slender bodies and usually elongated central tail feathers. All are colorful and have long downturned bills and pointed wings, which give them a swallow - like appearance when seen from afar. There are 26 species worldwide and 3 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Coraciiformes Family: Coraciidae
Rollers resemble crows in size and build, but are more closely related to the kingfishers and bee - eaters. They share the colorful appearance of those groups with blues and browns predominating. The two inner front toes are connected, but the outer toe is not. There are 12 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in the Philippines.
Order: Coraciiformes Family: Upupidae
Hoopoes have black, white and orangey - pink coloring with a large erectile crest on their head. There are 2 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in the Philippines.
Order: Coraciiformes Family: Bucerotidae
Hornbills are a group of birds whose bill is shaped like a cow 's horn, but without a twist, sometimes with a casque on the upper mandible. Frequently, the bill is brightly colored. There are 10 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Piciformes Family: Megalaimidae
The barbets are plump birds, with short necks and large heads. They get their name from the bristles which fringe their heavy bills. Most species are brightly coloured.
Order: Piciformes Family: Picidae
Woodpeckers are small to medium - sized birds with chisel - like beaks, short legs, stiff tails and long tongues used for capturing insects. Some species have feet with two toes pointing forward and two backward, while several species have only three toes. Many woodpeckers have the habit of tapping noisily on tree trunks with their beaks.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Eurylaimidae
The broadbills are small, brightly colored birds, which feed on fruit and also take insects in flycatcher fashion, snapping their broad bills. Their habitat is canopies of wet forests. There are 15 species worldwide and 2 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Pittidae
Pittas are medium - sized by passerine standards and are stocky, with fairly long, strong legs, short tails and stout bills. Many are brightly colored. They spend the majority of their time on wet forest floors, eating snails, insects and similar invertebrates.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Alaudidae
Larks are small terrestrial birds with often extravagant songs and display flights. Most larks are fairly dull in appearance. Their food is insects and seeds. There are 91 species worldwide and 2 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Hirundinidae
The family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings and a short bill with a wide gape. The feet are adapted to perching rather than walking, and the front toes are partially joined at the base.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Motacillidae
Motacillidae is a family of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They include the wagtails, longclaws and pipits. They are slender, ground feeding insectivores of open country. There are 54 species worldwide and 9 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Campephagidae
The cuckooshrikes are small to medium - sized passerine birds. They are predominantly grayish with white and black, although some species are brightly colored.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Pycnonotidae
Bulbuls are medium - sized songbirds. Some are colorful with yellow, red or orange vents, cheeks, throats or supercilia, but most are drab, with uniform olive - brown to black plumage. Some species have distinct crests. There are 130 species worldwide and 15 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Chloropseidae
The leafbirds are small, bulbul - like birds. The males are brightly plumaged, usually in greens and yellows. There are 8 species worldwide and 2 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Aegithinidae
The ioras are bulbul - like birds of open forest or thorn scrub, but whereas that group tends to be drab in coloration, ioras are sexually dimorphic, with the males being brightly plumaged in yellows and greens. There are 4 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Turdidae
The thrushes are a group of passerine birds that occur mainly in the Old World. They are plump, soft plumaged, small to medium - sized insectivores or sometimes omnivores, often feeding on the ground. Many have attractive songs.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Cisticolidae
The Cisticolidae are warblers found mainly in warmer southern regions of the Old World. They are generally very small birds of drab brown or gray appearance found in open country such as grassland or scrub.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Cettiidae
Order: Passeriformes Family: Locustellidae
Order: Passeriformes Family: Acrocephalidae
Order: Passeriformes Family: Phylloscopidae
Order: Passeriformes Family: Muscicapidae
Old World flycatchers are a large group of small passerine birds native to the Old World. They are mainly small arboreal insectivores. The appearance of these birds is highly varied, but they mostly have weak songs and harsh calls.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Rhipiduridae
The fantails are small insectivorous birds which are specialist aerial feeders. There are 7 species which have been recorded in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Stenostiridae
Order: Passeriformes Family: Monarchidae
The monarch flycatchers are small to medium - sized insectivorous passerines which hunt by flycatching. There are 99 species worldwide and 6 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Pachycephalidae
The family Pachycephalidae includes the whistlers, shrike - thrushes, shrike - tits, pitohuis and crested bellbird. There are 57 species worldwide and 4 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Timaliidae
The babblers, or timaliids, are somewhat diverse in size and coloration, but are characterized by soft fluffy plumage.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Pellorneidae
Order: Passeriformes Family: Zosteropidae
The white - eyes are small and mostly undistinguished, their plumage above being generally some dull color like greenish - olive, but some species have a white or bright yellow throat, breast or lower parts, and several have buff flanks. As their name suggests, many species have a white ring around each eye. There are 96 species worldwide and 18 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Acanthizidae
Thornbills are small passerine birds, similar in habits to the tits. There are 65 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Paridae
The Paridae are mainly small stocky woodland species with short stout bills. Some have crests. They are adaptable birds, with a mixed diet including seeds and insects. There are 59 species worldwide and 3 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Sittidae
Nuthatches are small woodland birds. They have the unusual ability to climb down trees head first, unlike other birds which can only go upwards. Nuthatches have big heads, short tails and powerful bills and feet. There are 24 species worldwide and 2 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Nectariniidae
The sunbirds and spiderhunters are very small passerine birds which feed largely on nectar, although they will also take insects, especially when feeding young. Flight is fast and direct on their short wings. Most species can take nectar by hovering like a hummingbird, but usually perch to feed.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Dicaeidae
The flowerpeckers are very small, stout, often brightly colored birds, with short tails, short thick curved bills and tubular tongues. There are 44 species worldwide and 15 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Oriolidae
The Old World orioles are colorful passerine birds. They are not related to the New World orioles. There are 29 species worldwide and 5 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Irenidae
The fairy - bluebirds are bulbul - like birds of open forest or thorn scrub. The males are dark - blue and the females a duller green. There are 2 species worldwide and 2 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Laniidae
Shrikes are passerine birds known for their habit of catching other birds and small animals and impaling the uneaten portions of their bodies on thorns. A typical shrike 's beak is hooked, like a bird of prey. There are 31 species worldwide and 4 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Dicruridae
The drongos are mostly black or dark gray in color, sometimes with metallic tints. They have long forked tails, and some Asian species have elaborate tail decorations. They have short legs and sit very upright when perched, like a shrike. They flycatch or take prey from the ground.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Artamidae
The woodswallows are soft - plumaged, somber - colored passerine birds. They are smooth, agile flyers with moderately large, semi-triangular wings. There are 11 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Corvidae
The family Corvidae includes crows, ravens, jays, choughs, magpies, treepies, nutcrackers and ground jays. Corvids are above average in size among the Passeriformes, and some of the larger species show high levels of intelligence. There are 120 species worldwide and 2 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Sturnidae
Starlings are small to medium - sized passerine birds. Their flight is strong and direct and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country. They eat insects and fruit. Plumage is typically dark with a metallic sheen.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Estrildidae
The estrildid finches are small passerine birds of the Old World tropics and Australasia. They are gregarious and often colonial seed eaters with short thick but pointed bills. They are all similar in structure and habits, but have wide variation in plumage colors and patterns. There are 141 species worldwide and 10 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Emberizidae
The emberizids are a large family of passerine birds. They are seed - eating birds with distinctively shaped bills. In Europe, most species are called buntings. In North America, most of the species in this family are known as sparrows, but these birds are not closely related to the Old World sparrows which are in the family Passeridae. Many emberizid species have distinctive head patterns. There are 275 species worldwide and 3 species which occur in the Philippines.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Fringillidae
Finches are seed - eating passerine birds, that are small to moderately large and have a strong beak, usually conical and in some species very large. All have twelve tail feathers and nine primaries. These birds have a bouncing flight with alternating bouts of flapping and gliding on closed wings, and most sing well.
Order: Passeriformes Family: Passeridae
Sparrows are small passerine birds. In general, sparrows tend to be small, plump, brown or gray birds with short tails and short powerful beaks. Sparrows are seed eaters, but they also consume small insects. There are 35 species worldwide and 2 species which occurs in the Philippines.
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who played selena's mom in the movie | Constance Marie - Wikipedia
Constance Marie Lopez (born September 9, 1965) known professionally as Constance Marie, is an American actress. She is known for her role as Angie Lopez in George Lopez (2002 -- 2007) and her role as Marcela Quintanilla (mother of Selena) in the 1997 film Selena. She portrayed Regina Vasquez in the ABC Family / Freeform drama series Switched at Birth (2011 -- 2017).
At the age of 19, Marie appeared as a dancer in the musical Cosmopolis by composer Ryuichi Sakamoto in Japan. When she returned to Los Angeles, she was spotted in a club by a dance choreographer for David Bowie and she was hired for the Glass Spider Tour in 1987.
Her acting career began when she was in her teens. She landed a spot in the 1988 film Salsa. Other credits include Early Edition, Dirty Dancing, Selena, Spin City and Ally McBeal. Marie was chosen for the role of Angie Lopez in the ABC comedy series George Lopez. In 2001, Marie starred in the comedy - drama film Tortilla Soup. She also appeared in the PBS drama series American Family.
In October 2007, she launched her own clothing line, "The Constance Marie Collection ''. The same year, she appeared in an ad for PETA, encouraging people to spay and neuter their pets.
Marie had a starring role on the ABC Family / Freeform drama series Switched at Birth, playing the birth mother of one of the girls and legal mother of the other.
Marie was in a 15 - year relationship with yoga instructor Kent Katich, which ended in September 2015. They have a daughter, Luna Marie, born in February 2009. Marie is a longtime vegetarian and raised her child as a vegetarian.
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what is grade 3 equivalent to in the uk | Third grade - wikipedia
Third grade (called Year 4 in the UK) is the fourth year of primary education in most countries. It is the third school year of primary school. Students are usually 8 -- 9 years old, depending on when their birthday occurs. In some school districts, it is the final year of elementary school.
Grade 3 students learn how to work on projects on their own and with others. This may start as early as second and first grade as well. Social skills, empathy and leadership are considered by some educators to be as important to develop as the academic skills of reading, writing and arithmetic.
In Brazil, children begin their first year of elementary school at age 6 or 7 depending on their birthdate. Therefore, the 3rd year of elementary school is typically for students of 8 -- 9 years of age.
At the same age, Scottish and Welsh pupils are in their fourth year of compulsory education. In Northern Ireland pupils are in their fifth year of compulsory education.
In England, the year of school that is the same age as 3rd Grade is Year 4, which is the fourth year of compulsory education. Most children start one year earlier however, in the Reception class.
In Canada, the year is called Grade 3, and the pupils are known as "3rd grade ''.
In France, children aged 8 join CE2 ("Cours élémentaire deuxième année ''), the third school year of primary school. It was formerly called "neuvième '' (ninth year before Terminale, the "baccalauréat '' year).
In India children enter Class 3 or 4 at ages 8 to 9.
In the Republic of Ireland, the equivalent is Third Class or Rang a trí (for 9 - 10 year olds) which is the fifth year of Primary School.
In New Zealand, this level of class is called Standard 2 or Year 4. Children generally start this level between the ages of eight and nine.
In Portugal, the third grade (terceiro ano, 3. o ano) is the third year of the four - year 1. o Ciclo do Ensino Básico that includes also the first grade, the second grade and the fourth grade.
In Spain for children from 8 to 9 years old is also the third year of primary education (el año tercero de la educación primaria). Also, primary education is subdivided in 3 stages, two years each one. This is the first year in the second stage.
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being as in love with you as i am meaning | Angels (the xx song) - wikipedia
"Angels '' is a song by English indie pop group The xx, released as a digital download on 17 July 2012 by Young Turks. It was the lead single for their 2012 album Coexist. The song was written by guitarist Romy Madley Croft, bassist Oliver Sim, and percussionist Jamie xx, who also produced it.
The xx premiered the song on 14 May 2012 at their first live show since touring in 2010. Upon its release, "Angels '' received positive reviews from music critics, who commended Croft 's performance and the song 's minimalist musical style. The song was remixed by electronic musician Four Tet, whose version was aired on BBC Radio on 19 September.
"Angels '' was recorded during the sessions for Coexist at The xx 's recording studio in London. Its demo was originally recorded solely by Romy Madley Croft, who wrote the song 's lyrics. Jamie xx said of the song 's recording in an interview for Spin, "It took a while to work out how to arrange it for the band. The demo was quite perfect, but it was just Romy. It took the entire length of the recording process to get it right. ''
"Angels '' is a sparsely - produced, gentle ballad about the idea of being in love. It has a measured pace and features slight vocals and whispered cadences by Croft, background baritone bass, subtle drum thuds, and coiling guitar lines. Pitchfork Media 's Larry Fitzmaurice observes on the song "lots of hollow space surrounding (that) add (s) intimacy. '' "Angels '' opens with echoey guitar and Romy 's vocals, which are at the front of the mix. Eerie snare rolls appear within a minute of the song, but quickly fade away. Arnold Pan of PopMatters writes that, in the context of Coexist, the song has its "own sense of development '' and "resolution ''. Oliver Sim said of this moment of tension in the song, "Early on, Jamie said something about the album being inspired by dance music, so everyone 's expecting a house beat to drop halfway through -- which is hilarious because this is not a dance record. ''
Croft 's transparent lyrics express lovesick emotion, adoration, and private knowledge acquired from intimacy: "You move through the room / Like breathing was easy / If someone believed me / They would be as in love with you as I am ''. They also compare a relationship that ended prematurely to "dreaming of angels, and leaving without them ''. Her repetition of "love '' in the song 's chorus expresses the depth and intensity of the narrator 's feeling. Priya Elan of NME opines that she repeats the word "like she 's been sucker - punched by the sheer intensity of her heart - shaped feeling. She 's revelling in the joy of it, but also realising the utter failure of the simple four - letter word to express the depth of what she 's experiencing. '' Croft said that the song is "very positive lyrically '' and that its album "goes through a few different stages, and this would be the lightest. '' Puja Patel of Spin characterizes its subject matter as "loverlorn '' and observes a balance "between honest (y), gut - wrenching desire and stalker - like idolization ''.
The xx premiered the song at Electrowerkz in Islington, London on 14 May 2012, their first live show since 2010. They subsequently performed "Angels '' on Conan on 24 July.
Pitchfork Media 's Larry Fitzmaurice noted the song 's "percussive touch '' as an indication that "the xx are changing... slowly and subtly, two characteristics that 's always been part of their central appeal. '' Siân Rowe of NME called it "a heart - meltingly perfect follow - on from their debut '', and the magazine 's Priya Elan dubbed it "the boldest Valentine the band have ever recorded. '' Michael Cragg of The Guardian commented that "their ability to make minimalism seem warm and comforting (is) still intact. '' Allmusic 's Heather Phares called the song a "lovely album opener '' and wrote that the band 's "elegantly serpentine guitars -- which recalled the Cure and Durutti Column on xx... are now entirely their own ''. The Quietus critiqued that "it feels a bit more confident; where Oliver Sim and Madley - Croft 's wordplay on their debut was tentative, there 's a newfound directness ''. Brendan Frank of Beats Per Minute commended Croft for "delivering a simple love note to an anonymous recipient, '' adding that "she does a magnificent job of carrying the piece on her own. '' Stephen Thompson of NPR called "Angels '' a "gentle love song made all the more disarming for its simplicity, '' writing that it "ratchets up the tension using the fewest possible ingredients. '' In Australia, the song was voted by members of the public to number 19 on Triple J Hottest 100 of 2012.
In 2012, British band Bastille covered "Angels '' alongside TLC 's "No Scrubs '' in a mash - up entitled "No Angels ''. The mash - up featured as one of eleven tracks on the band 's second mixtape, Other People 's Heartache, Pt. 2. Lou Rhodes performed an acoustic cover of the song in 2014.
Credits adapted from Coexist liner notes.
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which witch is the bad witch in oz | Wicked Witch of the West - wikipedia
The Wicked Witch of the West is a fictional character created by L. Frank Baum as the most significant antagonist in his classic children 's novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900). In Baum 's subsequent Oz novels, it is the Nome King who is the principal villain; the Wicked Witch of the West is rarely even referred to again after her death in the first book.
The witch 's most popular depiction was in the classic 1939 film based on Baum 's novel, where she was portrayed by Margaret Hamilton. Hamilton 's characterization introduced green skin and this has been continued in later literary and dramatic representations, including Gregory Maguire 's revisionist Oz novel Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West (1995) and its musical stage adaptation Wicked (2003), the 2013 film Oz the Great and Powerful, and the television series Once Upon a Time and Emerald City.
The Wicked Witch of the West is the malevolent ruler of the Winkie Country. Her castle is described as beautiful instead of being the sinister fortress shown in the movie. In all versions, she is seriously aquaphobic. The Wicked Witch of the West was not related to the Wicked Witch of the East, but leagued together with her, the Wicked Witch of the South and Mombi to conquer the Land of Oz and divide it among themselves, as recounted in L. Frank Baum 's Dorothy and the Wizard in Oz. She shows no interest in the death of the Eastern Witch, and all she cares about is obtaining the Silver Shoes which will increase her power. W.W. Denslow 's illustrations for The Wonderful Wizard of Oz depict her as a paunched old hag with three pigtails and an eye - patch. L. Frank Baum himself specified that she only had one eye, but that it "was as powerful as a telescope '', enabling the witch to see what was happening in her kingdom from her castle windows. Other illustrators, such as Paul Granger, placed her eye in the center of her forehead, as a cyclops. Usually, she is shown wearing an eye patch, however some illustrations show her with two eyes. Possibly to suggest that the witch actually has two eyes, but has no vision in one of them.
Most of her power resides in the creatures she controls. She has a pack of wolves, a swarm of bees, a flock of crows and an army of Winkies. She possesses the enchanted Golden Cap, which compels the winged monkeys to obey her on three occasions. First, the witch commanded the creatures to help her enslave the Winkies and to seize control of the western part of the Land of Oz. Second, she made the winged monkeys drive Oz out of the Winkie Country, when he attempted to overthrow her.
When Dorothy Gale and her companions were sent by the Wizard to destroy her, the Witch attacked them with a pack of 40 great wolves, a flock of 40 crows, a swarm of black bees, and a group of Winkie slaves. Each of these attempts were thwarted, but the protagonists are eventually subdued by the Witch 's third and final permitted use of the Winged Monkeys. Nevertheless, the old witch can not kill Dorothy because the girl is protected by the Good Witch of the North 's kiss. She therefore settles for enslaving Dorothy, and tries to force the Cowardly Lion into submission by starving him, though Dorothy sneaks him food. Upon seeing the Silver Shoes on the girl 's feet, the Wicked Witch decides to steal them, and thereby acquire even more power.
When she succeeds in acquiring one silver shoe by making Dorothy trip over an invisible bar, the little girl angrily throws a bucket of water onto the Wicked Witch. This causes the old witch to melt away. The Wicked Witch 's dryness was enumerated in some clues before this. Furthermore, when Toto had bitten her, she had not bled; her wickedness had dried her up long ago. Unfortunately, L. Frank Baum did not explain precisely why water had this effect on her, nor did he ever imply that all evil witches could be likewise destroyed. However, the wicked witch Mombi is similarly disposed of in The Lost King of Oz and the wicked witch Singra is clearly afraid of the same fate in the early chapters of The Wicked Witch of Oz. The most likely explanation of Baum making water the Achilles ' heel of these witches is the long held belief amongst major religions that water is effective for purifying the soul and combating evil.
The Witch did not carry a broom in the novel, but rather an umbrella, which she uses on one occasion to strike Dorothy 's dog Toto. Her nature is a volatile and yet somewhat cowardly one. Despite her immense power, she avoids face - to - face contact with her enemies, and is frightened of Dorothy at first when she sees the girl wearing the Silver Shoes. She is also afraid of the dark in Baum 's original story for reasons never revealed. For that reason, the Witch never tried to steal the Silver Shoes while Dorothy was sleeping. Despite her fear of water and the dark, the Wicked Witch of the West was one of the most powerful witches in all of Oz. In ensuing Oz books, her power is described as having been so great that even Glinda the Good Witch of the South feared her.
The 1910 silent film The Wonderful Wizard of Oz features a character similar to the Wicked Witch of the West, identified in intertitles as "Momba the Witch '' (Compare the character Mombi from The Marvelous Land of Oz). In the film, Momba has an unspecified hold over the Wizard, who promises his crown to anyone who can release him from Momba 's power. Momba captures Dorothy and her companions, evoking the events in Baum 's original novel, and is destroyed when Dorothy throws a bucket of water over her.
Mombi 's likeness and costume in the 1914 silent film, His Majesty, the Scarecrow of Oz is based on Denslow 's illustrations of the Wicked Witch of the West.
In the 1939 version of The Wizard of Oz, Margaret Hamilton plays the Wicked Witch of the West as a green - skinned witch dressed in a long black dress with a black pointed hat. She does not wear an eye - patch like in the novel. This representation of the Wicked Witch has become a standard for what witches resemble and an archetype of human wickedness. While this relationship is not mentioned in Baum 's books, in the movie, the Witch is the sister of the Wicked Witch of the East. The movie makes her even more of a primary antagonist, and consequently she appears in the film much earlier (and more often), than in Baum 's original novel. She demands the Munchkins reveal who killed her sister, not long after Dorothy 's arrival in Oz. She is described by Glinda the Good Witch of the North, not the South as in the book, as "worse than the other one ''. She actively seeks revenge against Dorothy for killing her sister, even though it was "accidental ''. However, as soon as the Witch is reminded of the ruby slippers, all interest in her sister 's death vanishes and all she cares about are obtaining "her '' slippers, which will enable her to conquer Oz. She is more menacing than her literary counterpart, making Dorothy too afraid to ever lose her temper with the Witch. She makes sure that Dorothy knows her power when Dorothy meets the Scarecrow by throwing a ball of fire at them. Before Dorothy and her friends get to the city, the Witch casts a sleeping spell over a field of poppies through which the group must pass. Glinda remotely counteracts the spell with a snowfall. The Wicked Witch then flies on her broom over the Emerald City, demanding that the citizens of the Emerald City surrender Dorothy to her, and the Wizard demands the destruction of the Witch, with her broom as proof, in exchange for granting the wishes of Dorothy and her companions. Unlike Baum 's original depiction, the Wicked Witch sends the Winged Monkeys as the first wave of attack. The Golden Cap is not mentioned but, after the failure of her poppy spell, the Witch does hold and then angrily cast away a costume piece that could be considered the cap (It greatly resembles the Cap in depicted in W.W. Denslow 's original illustrations for The Wonderful Wizard of Oz) and was mentioned as her "wishing cap '' in the original shooting script. She is killed when Dorothy throws a bucket of water on her, in attempt to put out a fire the witch bestowed on the Scarecrow. In the novel, Dorothy simply throws it on her in a fit of anger. There is no prior mention of the Wicked Witch 's vulnerability to water in the movie, save for a split - second before the water actually douses her when she screams "Do n't touch that water! '' (this line does not appear in the film 's shooting script). After the Wicked Witch of the West is dead, her soldiers are glad to be free of her power, and quote "Hail to Dorothy! The Wicked Witch is dead! '' The character ranks No. 4 in the American Film Institute 's list of the 50 Best Movie Villains of All Time, making her the highest ranking female villain, as well as placing 90th on Empire magazine 's 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time.
Hamilton 's other role in this film is the Witch 's Kansas sepia tone sequence character, Miss Almira Gulch, newly created for the film by screenwriter Noel Langley. She arrives on her bicycle at the farm and says to Uncle Henry, "Mr. Gale! I 'd like to speak with you and your wife right away ''. Since Dorothy 's last name is also Gale, this implies that Henry is her blood - uncle, and Aunt Em is his wife. Em tells her off, saying to her: "Almira Gulch, just because you own half the county does n't mean that you have the power to run the rest of us. For 23 years I 've been dying to tell you what I thought of you! And now... well, being a Christian woman, I ca n't say it! '' (Baum 's character never mentions anything about religion beyond the implications of Sunday - best clothing.) Dorothy, in her dream sequence on the way to Oz sees her again outside the window in the tornado. At that moment, Miss Gulch transforms into the Wicked Witch of the West, flying on a broom.
On a 1976 episode of the American television program, Sesame Street, the Witch, once again played by Hamilton herself, drops her broom and falls onto the street. In order to get the broom back, she must prove that she can be nice. Everyone is scared of her, except for Oscar the Grouch and Big Bird. After she proves that she is nice, Big Bird is upset when the time comes for her to leave. She reassures him that one day she 'll return. The episode was poorly received by parents of frightened young children, and was never aired again. The fate of the footage is unknown, but it can be assumed that it is still stashed away in Sesame Workshop 's vault. Hamilton also played this witch in The Paul Lynde Halloween Special (1976), and reprised her role several times on stage, most notably at the St. Louis Municipal Opera.
Hamilton also appeared as herself on Mister Rogers ' Neighborhood. In this appearance, she demonstrated how her costume and acting skills made her appear to be the Witch, and assured her young viewers that there was nothing about her to be feared, because her portrayal in the film was only make - believe.
The story line of the stage adaptation "goes far afield '' from the 1996 novel. As Winnie Holzman observed in an interview with Playbill, "It was (Maguire 's) brilliant idea to take this hated figure and tell things from her point of view, and to have the two witches be roommates in college, but the way in which their friendship develops -- and really the whole plot -- is different onstage. '' Schwartz justified the deviation, saying "Primarily we were interested in the relationship between Galinda -- who becomes Glinda -- and Elphaba... the friendship of these two women and how their characters lead them to completely different destinies. '' In addition to this change in focus, other major plot modifications include Fiyero 's appearance as the scarecrow, Elphaba 's survival at the end, Nessarose using a wheelchair instead of being born without arms, Boq having a continuing love interest for Glinda - and eventually becoming the Tin Woodman instead of Nick Chopper, the complete cutting of Elphaba 's years in the Vinkus, the deletion of Liir 's birth, Fiyero not having a wife and children, and Doctor Dillamond not being murdered.
Mila Kunis portrays the Wicked Witch of the West, who is named Theodora, in the 2013 Disney film Oz the Great and Powerful. In this version, she is portrayed as a ' good witch ', also being the younger sister of Evanora (Rachel Weisz), who is at war with Glinda (Michelle Williams) for control of Oz; she wants nothing more than for peace to come back to their land. She falls in love with Oscar Diggs (James Franco), but her feelings for him are one - sided; Theodora wanted to be Oscar 's queen when he ruled Oz. After Oscar goes to meet with Glinda, Evanora tricks Theodora into thinking Oscar had betrayed her, offering her a magic apple that will help her forget her disappointment. Theodora immediately takes a bite from it, but afterwards Evanora reveals that she was the evil Witch all along, however Theodora is too late to realize this. Before she can do anything, she starts feeling great pain as the apple was tainted with a potion that removes all the good in her heart making her so evil that even her sister fears her. Her skin turns green as a side effect of the potion, while her nose becomes crooked due to her falling on it. Though Evanora offers to cover it up with an enchantment, Theodora embraces her new appearance and helps her sister attempt to kill Glinda, get revenge on Oscar, and take control of Oz. However, she and Evanora are defeated by Oscar 's illusions. Theodora is forced to flee the city on her broom, but she threatens to return. Oscar tells her he knows her wickedness is n't her doing and if she ever finds the goodness within her, she is welcome to return. However, she refuses and flies off to the West, vowing revenge.
The Wicked Witch appears as the main antagonist of the second half of Season Three of Once Upon a Time played by Rebecca Mader. This version goes by the name of Zelena (which means "green '' in some Slavic languages). Zelena is discovered to be the daughter of the Queen of Hearts / the Miller 's Daughter (Barbara Hershey / Rose McGowan), making her the older, long - lost half - sister of Regina the Evil Queen (Lana Parrilla). Zelena visited Rumplestiltskin (Robert Carlyle) and learned from him how to control her own powerful magic. Her storyline revolves around her efforts to create a time - travel spell that will allow her to go back and prevent the Evil Queen 's birth before she can unwittingly ruin Zelena 's life, and thus Zelena would be raised as royalty. But despite Zelena 's efforts to sabotage Emma Swan (supposedly the only wielder of light magic powerful enough to oppose her) she is defeated when the Evil Queen masters light magic in time to oppose her (although her time - travel spell is completed, it only takes effect after her presumed death, transporting Emma and Captain Hook (Colin O'Donoghue) back to before the original curse was cast). She was later thought to have been killed by Rumpelstiltskin.
It was later discovered that Zelena 's soul actually went back in time, where she managed to revive herself and assumed Maid Marian 's (Christie Laing) place after killing her in the past and taking her appearance; to allow the heroes to take her back to the present, where she poses as Marian without Robin Hood (Sean Maguire) knowing. This way, she can resume making Regina Mills suffer by complicating her romantic relationship with the believed widower Robin. Zelena also copies the other villains ' idea to try to force the Author to write them happy lives at the expense of the heroes. Zelena swaps out the Elixir of the Wounded Heart and when Mr. Gold is dying, saves his life with it, but only after he agrees to drop his grudge against her and begins helping her. Regina learns this and rushes to New York with Emma. Upon arriving there with Lily, Emma and Regina confront Robin Hood and Zelena where Regina tells her what actually happened to Maid Marian. Even though Robin Hood is now aware of what happened to Maid Marian, he could n't leave Zelena because she is pregnant. Zelena is taken back to Storybrooke and locked in the hospital basement. Regina almost has the Author write Zelena and the pregnancy out of existence and memory. Regina changes her mind after she realizes it is something their mother would do, and she can choose to be happy with Robin and the rest of her family, raising the baby herself after the birth, while Zelena has extremely restricted visitation rights. When the Author warps reality to serve his own purposes, the roles of heroes and villains are switched. In the alternate Enchanted Forest Zelena is the fiancé of Robin Hood and their marriage will make all the changes permanent. When Regina is slashed almost fatally by Rumpelstiltskin, Zelena complains she is bleeding on her wedding dress and taking the attention away from her on her wedding day. She begins turning green again and runs off. When reality is returned to normal she is still pregnant in the hospital.
Zelena travels with the heroes to Camelot in search of Emma, after becoming the Dark One. She is told to pretend to be Regina 's mute handmaiden (Regina having taken her voice). In Camelot, Zelena is threatened by Regina that her baby will be taken by Regina once it has been born. She takes this as a strategy to kidnap Mary Margaret (Ginnifer Goodwin) as the rest of the group tries to sneak into Camelot (having been thrown out) and regains her magic with King Arthur 's (Liam Garrigan) help. She enchants the main hilt of Excalibur to bind Merlin 's (Elliot Knight) soul, allowing its holder to control him. Zelena, Arthur and Merlin hold Emma 's friends captive with the Protheum flame and the Dark One Dagger as ransom. Before she can do anything, she is tricked by Emma and tied by magic around a tree. After a battle between Merlin and Emma, Zelena transports herself and Arthur back to Camelot. Arthur and her plan to take a magical helm from the kingdom of DunBroch. After many failed attempts to reach the helm, including a battle between Arthur, Zelena and Red Riding Hood (Meghan Ory), Mulan (Jamie Chung) and Merida (Amy Manson, she transports herself back to Camelot, where Emma casts the Dark Curse, ripping everyone back to Storybrooke without their memories of ever stepping foot in Camelot.
Zelena awakens in Granny 's Diner and is almost immediately put back in her cell. Zelena is met by the Dark Swan (name for Emma as the Dark One) and is told she will need an ally in the town after people learn the truth. Zelena eats darkly enchanted onion rings (made by Emma) and as a result, her pregnancy is sped up from two months to nine. She gives birth to a baby girl and is taken away by Emma into her basement with Hook at her side. She is freed from her cuff once again and leaves Hook in Emma 's house, wanting to get answers. Zelena steps back inside after Emma finds him. She brings in an enchanted dreamcatcher, which holds the memories of Hook becoming a Dark One (in Emma 's fault) in order to save him. Zelena learns that Robin and Regina are allowing her to see her baby, as long as one of them is with her. This is when she shares a bonding moment with her child. During the Dark Siege of Storybrooke, Zelena plans to take Regina 's place in Storybrooke including her office. After claiming full custody of her baby, Zelena is transported by Regina (and the Apprentice 's Wand) back to Oz, and she claimed they will see each other again.
Regina reunites with Zelena in the underworld where it is revealed that Zelena and Hades have a romantic history. The sisters eventually become close as she tries to change for her daughter. She shares True Love 's Kiss with Hades, which allows him to go to Storybrooke and the two go together with the baby as she believes Hades has changed. However, Hades kills Robin Hood, proving his evil to Zelena who kills him with the Olympian Crystal. She names the baby Robyn after her father. In season 6, Zelena and Regina get into a fight where Regina reveals that she blames Zelena for Robin 's death; Regina 's dark half, the Evil Queen has now become a human manifestation and she and Zelena work together until the Queen tries to kill her. Regina saves Zelena from the Evil Queen but does not forgive her for Robin 's death.
The Witch of the West appears as one of the main characters in the first season of Emerald City, portrayed by Ana Ularu. Here she is one of the last Cardinal Witches of Oz and the "Mistress of the Western Fields, Vessel of Truth and Solace '', along with her sisters Glinda of the North and the Witch of the East. West seemingly obeys the Wizard of Oz 's law against magic, owns a brothel in the Emerald City and is a poppy opium addict, deteriorating her magical skill. She is very emotional, especially when compared to the reserved behavior of Glinda 's. Despite claiming to hate magic because it could not save her mother and sister witches during the Beast Forever 's last attack, she resorts to it quickly when in pursuit of Dorothy after she accidentally killed East.
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when does new episode of boruto come out | Boruto: Naruto Next Generations - wikipedia
Boruto: Naruto Next Generations (Japanese: BORUTO - ボルト - NARUTO NEXT GENERATIONS), also known simply as Boruto, is a Japanese manga series written by Ukyō Kodachi and illustrated by Mikio Ikemoto. Serialized in Shueisha 's shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump, Boruto is a spin - off and a sequel to Masashi Kishimoto 's Naruto which follows the exploits of Naruto Uzumaki 's son Boruto Uzumaki and his ninja team. An anime television series adaptation directed by Noriyuki Abe started airing on TV Tokyo on April 5, 2017. Unlike the manga that started as a retelling of the film Boruto: Naruto the Movie, the Boruto anime acts like a prequel, before Boruto and his friends became ninjas in a later arc.
Critical reception to the series has been largely positive, with most critics liking the traits of the main characters, most notably Boruto, who, while resembling his father Naruto, still plays pranks and bonds with his peers. Pierrot 's anime prequel also earned praise for its use of both new and returning characters. Shueisha has shipped a million units of the manga series as of January 2017.
Years before the destruction of the ninja village Konohagakure, teenage fighter Boruto Uzumaki feels angered by its latest leader, who is his father, Naruto Uzumaki; he has become the Seventh Hokage and oversees a new generation in the Ninja World following his marriage with Hinata Uzumaki. Boruto has become a part of a ninja team led by Naruto 's protégé Konohamaru Sarutobi, along with Sasuke Uchiha and Sakura Uchiha 's daughter Sarada Uchiha and Orochimaru 's artificial son Mitsuki. Boruto meets Sasuke when he returns to the village to warn Naruto of an impending threat. Boruto convinces Sasuke to train him for the upcoming Chunin Exam to impress his father. During the exam, Momoshiki Ōtsutsuki and Kinshiki Ōtsutsuki, the threat whom Sasuke spoke of, appear and abduct Naruto so that they can use Kurama, a creature sealed inside his body, to revitalize the dying Shinju from the dimension where they came from.
Boruto joins Sasuke and the five Kages, the leaders of each ninja village. When they travel to the other dimension in order to save Naruto, Momoshiki turns Kinshiki into a chakra fruit and ingests it in order to become stronger. Aided by Naruto and Sasuke, Boruto is able to defeat Momoshiki. Though dying, noting his killer 's untapped potential, Momoshiki lives long enough to have a private discussion with Boruto and warns him that he will face much tribulation later on in his life. After recovering from his fight, Boruto decides he will become a vigilante like Sasuke in the future while entrusting Sarada with following her dream of becoming the Hokage. As Sasuke interrogates a criminal who knows of Boruto 's mark, he reveals to Naruto and his underlings that there is a group called "Kara '' (殻, lit. The Husk) searching for people with marks.
In contrast to the Boruto manga where the main cast start as ninjas, the anime first presents how Boruto joins the ninja academy and forms friendships. One day, a mark appears within Boruto 's right eye, which allows him to see contaminated energy in certain people who start going berserk, attacking other people. With the help of Mitsuki, Boruto manages to find the person responsible for contaminating people 's chakra. The anime then enters into another story arc, where Sarada leaves the village in order to find her father, Sasuke, to confirm whether Sakura is her biological mother or not. She and her friend Chocho Akimichi end up joining forces with Naruto, Sasuke and Sakura in order to defeat Shin Uchiha and his clones, who want to kill Sasuke. The following story arc involves the children from Konohagakure going on a trip to Kirigakure. There, Boruto befriends a ninja named Kagura, who is forced to become part of a rebellion against Konoha. Following this story arc, Boruto and his friends graduate from the academy. Boruto, Sarada and Mitsuki form the new Team 7 under Konohamaru 's leadership. Additionally, the anime will retell the events from the film Boruto: Naruto the Movie, but with additional content.
When the Naruto manga ended in 2014, the company Shueisha asked Masashi Kishimoto to start a sequel. However, Kishimoto rejected the idea and proposed artist Mikio Ikemoto, who had been working as an assistant for Kishimoto ever since Naruto 's early chapters, to draw it based on the experience Ikemoto had. A countdown website was used under the name of "Next Generation '' in order to promote the new manga. In December 2015, the Boruto: Naruto Next Generations 's serialization was announced. Kishimoto said that he wanted Boruto to surpass his own work. The writer of Boruto, Ukyō Kodachi, wrote Gaara 's light novel, Gaara Hiden, and assisted Kishimoto in writing the script of the film Boruto: Naruto the Movie. Besides writing for the series, Kodachi supervises the story of the anime as well. However, for episodes 8 and 9, Kishimoto also acted as the supervisor of the anime.
Kishimoto advised Ikemoto not to imitate his own art style and instead make his own. While noting long - time fans might be disappointed with the fact that Kishimoto is not drawing Boruto, Ikemoto stated he would do his best in the making of the manga. Ikemoto mentioned he remained optimistic about his art style. Kishimoto also revises the manga 's scenario. While feeling honored to create the art for Boruto, Ikemoto stated he feels grateful that the series is released monthly rather than weekly due to the stress the latter could bring because of the required amount of nearly 20 pages per chapter. However, Ikemoto still finds the monthly serialization challenging. Regular chapters of Boruto tend to surpass 40 pages, with an entire week required to create the thumbnails and 20 days to produce the pages while the rest of the time is used for coloring or giving the chapters other touches.
Despite having a lighter tone than Naruto, the series begins by hinting at a dark future. This set - up was purposed by Kishimoto in order to give the manga a bigger impact and a different approach than the one from the Boruto movie. In this scenario, Ikemoto drew an older Boruto, but he believes that once the manga reaches this point, the design might change. Kodachi drew parallels between Boruto and the post-Cold War era, stating that while the new characters are living in a time of peace, something complicated might bring the world back to chaos.
Even though Kishimoto is not writing the series, he created multiple characters for the staff to use. While not specifying if Naruto or another important character would die, Kishimoto commented that he would find a situation like this interesting and stated that the authors have freedom when it comes to writing the story.
Written by Ukyō Kodachi and illustrated by Mikio Ikemoto, Boruto: Naruto Next Generations was launched in the 23rd issue of Shueisha 's manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump on May 9, 2016. Original series creator Masashi Kishimoto currently supervises the series illustrated by his former chief assistant and written by his co-writer of the Boruto: Naruto the Movie screenplay. A spin - off manga titled Boruto: Saikyo Dash Generations (BORUTO - ボルト - SAIKYO DASH GENERATIONS) was written by Kenji Taira and has been serialized in Saikyō Jump since the May 2017 issue.
These chapters have yet to be published in a tankōbon volume. They were originally serialized in Japanese in issues of Weekly Shōnen Jump.
At the Naruto and Boruto stage event at Jump Festa on December 17, 2016, it was announced that the manga series would be receiving an anime project, which was later confirmed to be an anime television series adaptation that would feature an original story. The anime series, supervised by series creator Ukyō Kodachi, would be co-directed by Noriyuki Abe and Hiroyuki Yamashita, with series composition by Makoto Uezu, animation produced by Pierrot, character designs by Tetsuya Nishio and Hirofumi Suzuki, and music co-composed by Yasuharu Takanashi and YAIBA. The series premiered on TV Tokyo on April 5, 2017. Viz Media has licensed the series in North America. From episodes 1 to 26, the first opening theme is "Baton Road '' by KANA - BOON. From episode 27 onwards, the second opening theme is "OVER '' by Little Glee Monster. From episodes 1 to 13, the first ending theme is "Dreamy Journey '' by The Peggies. From episodes 14 to 26, the second ending theme is "Sayonara Moon Town '' by Scenario Art. From episode 27 onwards, the third ending theme is "I Continue Walking '' by Melofloat.
A novel entitled The New Konoha Ninja Flying In the Blue Sky! (青天 を 翔る 新た な 木の葉 たち! Se, iten o Kakeru Aratana Konoha - tachi!) was released on May 2, 2017. A second one was released on July 4, 2017, under the title A Call From the Shadows! (影 から の 呼び声!, Kage Kara no Yobigoe!). The third novel, Those Who Illuminate the Night of Shinobi! (忍 の 夜 を 照らす 者!, Shinobi no Yoru O Terasu Mono!), was released on September 4, 2017.
The manga has been generally well received in Japan, with the compilations appearing as top sellers multiple times. It also has one million copies in print as of January 2017. The manga 's first volume has also sold well in North America.
Rebecca Silverman from Anime News Network admitted Boruto appealed to her despite never having gotten into the Naruto manga. She praised how the writers managed to deal with the protagonist 's angst without coming across as "teen whining '' as well as how Sasuke Uchiha decides to train him. Amy McNulty from ANN found it appealing to fans of the original Naruto series, stating that while Mitsuki does not have a large role in the story, his side story helps to expand his origins. Nik Freeman, another writer from the same site, criticized Boruto 's lack of development while comparing him with his introduction in Naruto 's finale, and that there were multiple differences between the reasons why both the young Naruto and Boruto vandalized their city. Nevertheless, Freeman liked Mitsuki 's backstory as he did not feel it rehashed stories from the past. Reviewing the first chapter online, Chris Beveridge from the Fandom Post was more negative, complaining about the large focus on Naruto and Boruto 's poor relationship and the rehash elements of Boruto: Naruto the Movie while also criticizing the adaptation of Kishimoto 's artwork. Nevertheless, he praised the relationship between Naruto and Sasuke as well as the foreshadowing of an older Boruto fight. Melina Dargis from the same site reviewed the first volume, commenting that she was looking forward to the development of the characters despite having already watched the Boruto movie and was also pleased by seeing Mitsuki 's role in his own side story. Leroy Douresseaux from Comic Book Bin recommended it to Naruto fans, explaining how the new authors managed to use the first volume to establish the protagonists ' personalities. Melina Dargis from the Fandom Post was impressed by the apparent message of the series as she found it was trying to connect to modern audiences with its themes such as parental issues and the use of technology, in contrast to Naruto. Leroy Douresseaux liked how Boruto 's character had already started developing by the second volume of the series as it helped readers appreciate him more.
The anime was popular with Japanese readers of Charapedia who voted it the ninth best anime show of Spring 2017. IGN writer Sam Stewart enjoyed the focus on the new generation of ninjas and the differences between them and the previous generation. He also praised the return of other characters like Toneri as well as famous "Eye Techniques ''. Crunchyroll 's Brand Manager, Victoria Holden, joined once to discuss whether Next Generations could live up to the success of the old series while still reviewing previous episodes of the series. Stewart enjoyed the characterization of both Shikadai Nara and Metal Lee, seeing their relationship and accidental fight as interesting to watch, and he liked that Next Generations managed to improve itself with each episode. Beveridge enjoyed the series ' first episode, remarking that he felt Boruto 's characterization was superior to the one from the manga. In a more comical article, Geek.com writer Tim Tomas compared Boruto with the series The Legend of Korra as, while sharing themes with its prequels, they were still different. Sarah Nelkin considered Boruto as a more lighthearted version of the Naruto series, but Amy McNulty acclaimed its 13th episode for the focus on a subplot that had been developing ever since the first episode and how the revelations from it made the series darker. Stewart agreed with McNulty, commenting on how the developers reached the climax of the anime 's first story arc. The characterization of the revealed villain further impressed the reviewer. Allega Frank from Polygon noted that during the start of both the manga and the anime, multiple fans were worried in regards to a flashforward; in this sequence, an older Boruto is facing an enemy named Kawaki who implies Naruto might be dead, so his fate left them worried.
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who plays on little house on the prairie | List of Little House on the Prairie characters - wikipedia
There are many Little House on the Prairie characters, appearing in various forms of media in the Little House on the Prairie media franchise.
Based on the data from: The Genealogy of Almanzo and Laura Ingalls Wilder
NOTE: A second daughter of Ruby Ingalls Card, Lettie Letishia Card Anderson, is listed as being born in 1888, seven years after Ruby 's death. How this is possible is unknown.
(Laura 's maternal great - great - grandparents) Allan Alexander Morse and Margaret Drummond * These are fictional names. Real names unknown.
(Laura 's maternal great - grandparents) Lewis Tucker (1779 -- 1870) and Martha Gráinne Morse (1772 -- 1862) William Quiner (1773 -- 1831) and Margaret Doer (1774 -- 1839) (Laura 's maternal grandparents) Charlotte Tucker and Henry Quiner
Henry Quiner died in October 1844 in the sinking of a trading ship on the Great Lakes. Charlotte Tucker Quiner remarried, to Frederic Holbrook, and they had one child
Charlotte Wallis Tucker was born on May 25, 1809 in Roxbury, Massachusetts (a suburb of Boston). She died September 20, 1884 in Rome, Wisconsin. Her mostly fictionalised story was described in the four - book series The Charlotte Years by Melissa Wiley. Charlotte was maternal grandmother to Laura Ingalls Wilder.
As a young woman, Charlotte married Henry Newton Quiner from Connecticut. She was the first woman in her family to travel west, living in Ohio and Indiana before settling in the frontier town of Brookfield, Wisconsin.
Martha Morse was born on January 2, 1782 in Scotland, where her father was a wealthy landowners in the Scottish Highlands. Her mostly fictionalised story was told in the four - book series The Martha Years, by Melissa Wiley. Martha was Charlotte Tucker 's mother and great - grandmother to Laura Ingalls Wilder.
Martha married Lewis Tucker, a blacksmith 's son. Lewis and Martha travelled to the United States and began their new life near Boston, Massachusetts, becoming the first of Laura 's ancestors to immigrate to America.
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what is the fips code for wayne county michigan | List of counties in Michigan - wikipedia
There are 83 counties in the U.S. state of Michigan. The boundaries of these counties have not changed substantially since 1897. However, throughout the 19th century, the state legislature frequently adjusted county boundaries. County creation was intended to fulfill the goal of establishing government over unorganized territory, but a more important goal was encouraging settlement by surveying the land and dividing it into salable sections.
The creation of counties generally occurred in two stages. First the boundaries of a county were declared and given a name. The county appeared on maps, even though this may have been the entire extent of a county 's tangible existence for several years. During this period, the as - yet -- unorganized county was attached to another already organized county for administrative purposes. The legislature frequently changed the administrative attachment of these unorganized counties. Residents of such an attached county could petition the legislature for organization, which was the granting of full legal recognition to the county.
There are many cities and villages that span county boundaries in Michigan, including its capital, Lansing. For a few years during the early 1970s, split cities briefly had authority to petition to change the county boundaries to accord with the city boundaries. The only city to take advantage of this brief opportunity was New Baltimore (previously split between Macomb County and St. Clair County; now completely in Macomb). This transfer of territory from St. Clair to Macomb was the only county boundary change in Michigan since the early 20th century.
The state constitution of 1850 permitted an incorporated city with a population of at least 20,000 to be organized into a separate county of its own. The Constitution of 1908 retained this provision, but raised the population threshold to 100,000. No city was ever organized into an independent county in this fashion and when a new Constitution took effect in 1963, the provision was removed.
Michigan 's boundary with Illinois is formed by Lake Michigan, and three counties have water boundaries with Illinois: Berrien County, Van Buren County, and Allegan County. Michigan also has a boundary with Minnesota, which is formed by Lake Superior. The water boundary in this instance is formed by two counties: Ontonagon County and Keweenaw County.
Nine counties have names invented by the ethnologist Henry Schoolcraft, usually adapted from parts of Native American words, but sometimes having parts from Greek, Arabic and Latin roots. Schoolcraft 's made - up words have disputed sources. While he was a devotee of Native American words and culture, some of his words may have originated with tribes from other areas of the country, such as New York or the Northeast, where many settlers to Michigan came from. Real Native words were eradicated, and he substituted made - up words, sometimes with a kernel of Indian language or sound in them.
A second group of four counties were renamed for Irish locales (counties Antrim, Clare, Roscommon and Wexford), apparently because it was close to the heart for certain Michigan legislators or their constituents.
Ten counties, the so - called "cabinet counties '', were named for persons who served in Andrew Jackson 's presidential administration, which was tied to Michigan 's anticipated ascendancy to statehood. Eight were named in 1829. Livingston County was named in 1833. Cass County was also named in 1829, but Governor Lewis Cass did not become a member of Jackson 's Cabinet until 1831.
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who played bailey on sweet life on deck | Debby Ryan - wikipedia
Deborah Ann Ryan (born May 13, 1993) is an American actress and singer. Ryan started acting in professional theatres at the age of seven; in 2007 she appeared in the Barney & Friends straight - to - DVD film Barney: Let 's Go to the Firehouse and then was discovered in a nationwide search by Disney. She is also known for appearing in the 2008 feature film The Longshots as Edith. In 2009, she guest starred in an episode of Wizards of Waverly Place in "Wizards on Deck with Hannah Montana '' as Bailey Pickett along with her other cast mates from The Suite Life on Deck. Then, in 2010, she starred in the film 16 Wishes, which was the most watched cable program on the day of its premiere on the Disney Channel. 16 Wishes introduced Ryan to new audiences; the movie received high viewership in the adults demographic (18 -- 34). Soon after that, Ryan starred in the independent theatrical film, What If..., which premiered on August 20, 2010.
From 2011 -- 2015 Ryan starred as the titular nanny on the Disney Channel originally series Jessie; she also directed an episode of the series that aired on May 15, 2015. She starred in the 2012 Disney Channel Original Movie Radio Rebel, in which she portrayed Tara Adams, a shy high school student who adopts the radio persona of Radio Rebel.
In 2013, she formed the band The Never Ending. Beginning in July 2015, Ryan performed with The Never Ending as an opening act on the North American leg of Fifth Harmony 's Reflection Tour.
Ryan was born in Huntsville, Alabama. Her father was in the military, so she moved to numerous places in Europe. She lived in Germany until she was 10 and can speak both English and German. She started performing in professional theaters at the age of seven on an American base in Germany. She returned to the United States in 2003 and was raised in Texas. In a 2009 People Magazine interview, she described herself as a "nerd '' in school. She was bullied in middle school for being a mascot and a member of the school 's chess club.
Ryan began appearing in various television commercials in her early teenage years. In 2006 she made her television debut on the show Barney and Friends. Ryan 's first film role was in 2007 as a guest character in Barney: Let 's Go to the Firehouse, she played the role of a teenager. She appeared in several commercials for iDog and various board games; she was in an iDog Dance commercial in 2008. Ryan also had a major role in the Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer feature film The Longshots as Edith. Ryan played one of the main characters, Bailey Pickett, on the Disney Channel Original Series, The Suite Life on Deck, which is a sequel to the hit Disney Channel series, The Suite Life of Zack & Cody. The series 's pilot aired on September 26, 2008 in the United States and it became the most watched series premiere in Canada on the Family channel. The character is a very intelligent girl who boarded the ship to leave the fictional town of Kettlecorn, Kansas, where she lived on a farm, because she hated the fact that the town is so small. The series was 2008 's number one top scripted television series for teens, beating the veteran series Hannah Montana and Wizards of Waverly Place in the ratings. The series was also 2009 's top rated scripted series, outpacing other teenage shows.
In 2009, Ryan landed a starring role in the independent feature film, What If..., alongside Kevin Sorbo and Kristy Swanson. The film was shot in Grand Rapids and Manistee, Michigan in July 2009 and was released in theaters on August 20, 2010. The film is produced by Pure Flix Entertainment and centers on a Christian family. In October 2009, Ryan hosted the first Tween Girl Summit Music Festival. "Tween girls are drawn to talented performers who emanate the joy of life, and we are so happy to have teen favorite Debby Ryan as the first host of The Tween Summit Music Festival, '' said Denise Restauri, founder of The Tween Summit, AllyKatzz.com and AK Tweens. Ryan was set to headline the "Terrific Teen Tour '', a concert series which co-headlined Mitchel Musso, Jasmine Richards and Savannah Outen, that would start on July 9, 2009 and end on July 14 but the tour was canceled owing to schedule conflicts. The tour would have been Ryan 's debut as a live musician. In 2010, she starred in the young adult film 16 Wishes. In addition, the movie introduced Ryan to new audiences, such as the contemporary adult audience since the movie received high viewership in the adults demographic. Ryan noted that to prepare for her role in 16 Wishes, she watched numerous Brat Pack movies.
On March 25, 2011 Ryan starred in The Suite Life Movie, based on the show she had starred in. On March 29, she released the promotional single "Made of Matches '', theme of Discovery Family television show R.L. Stine 's The Haunting Hour # Made of Matches. The Suite Life of Zack & Cody finished its run on May 6, 2011. On July 6, she released her debut solo single, the alternative hip hop song We Ended Right, featuring Chad Hively & Chase Ryan. The song was released from her own label, the Ryan River Studio, founded with her brother, Chase Ryan. Also in 2011, it was announced that Ryan landed her own Disney Channel series called Jessie, which debuted in September 2011. The show follows a girl who moves from Texas to New York City to become a star but becomes a nanny instead for a family with four children. Jessie is a show she also helped create, relating that she wanted her character to relate to herself. Ryan directed the season three episode "Coffee Talk, '' making her the youngest female to ever direct a Disney Channel production. Additionally, in a shift towards a more mature role, she guest starred in an episode of the show Private Practice as a recovering drug addict.
On February 17, 2012, she starred in another Disney Channel movie entitled Radio Rebel as Tara, a very shy teenage who dreads speaking to anyone in the school, but in the privacy of her bedroom, she incorporates the most famous radialist of internet under the nicknake ' Radio Rebel '. She released the cover version of "We Got the Beat '', by The Go - Go 's, as promotional single for the film on February 21. On August 31, 2012 she voiced the character Spike in the Tinker Bell film Secret of the Wings. Also in 2012, she formed the indie band The Never Ending with the guitarist Kyle Moore and the drummer Johnny Franco. Ryan commented that her musical style includes folk, indie pop and country. She cited as musical influences for their debut work some artistas as The Lumineers, Mumford & Sons, April Smith and the Great Picture Show and Tom Petty. In 2013, Ryan starred in the film Kristin 's Christmas Past as Haddie. She recorded an appearance in the film Muppets Most Wanted, released in March 21, 2014, as Savana, but the scene was deleted. After, the scenes was later reinstated in the Blu - ray release 's extended version. On June 1, Ryan and The Never Ending released the debut single, "Mulholland Drive '', with a premiere in the Billboard website. The debut EP One was released on June 24, featuring album art from a circus - theme. She also appeared in the show TV series Mighty Med as Jade and was guest mentor in the fifth season of Fashion Police. On April 17, 2015, an episode of Girl Meets World premiered featuring Ryan as Aubrey Macavoy. On June 23, 2015, The Never Ending debuted their new single, titled "Secondhand ''.
In 2016 Ryan was cast of the NBC police series The Mysteries of Laura in season two as Lucy Diamond, Laura 's drugged and trouble - making younger paternal half - sister and the half - aunt of Nicholas and Harrison. At the same time, Ryan was confirmed in the cast of comedy series Sing It!. The show debuted on May 25, 2016 at YouTube Red, a paid service of streaming original series and movies, similar to Netflix. Ryan played Holli Holiday, a famous and egocentric singer, who uses the fictional talent show Sing It! to self - promote. The character was inspired by Paula Abdul. On August 22 Ryan was confirmed in the VH1 drama series Daytime Divas, based on the book Satan 's Sisters by former The View - host Star Jones. The series will be debut in 2017. She will play Maddie Finn, an ex-host of The Lunch Hour and rival of Kibby, who wants to return to the show. In June 2017, Ryan announced via her Instagram that Netflix had ordered Insatiable to series, after previously being passed on by The CW.
Ryan is a Christian. She plays several instruments, including the guitar, piano, and keyboard. Ryan was in a relationship with Twenty One Pilots drummer Josh Dun from May 2013 to September 2014. In a March 10, 2015 Teen Vogue interview, she revealed that her relationship with Dun was good but she had been in an abusive relationship with someone else. She described that relationship as professional rather than romantic, but said "it was such emotional manipulation to the point where it became physical. '' In the interview, she stated that she decided to partner with Mary Kay and Love is Respect for their anti-domestic - violence campaign "Do n't Look Away. '' Ryan is quoted as saying, "The second someone puts their hand on you, a boundary has been crossed. ''
In April 2016, Ryan was arrested for driving under the influence. Initially, she was charged with felony DUI, but it was later reduced to two misdemeanors. She was released after posting $100,000 bail. On June 30, 2016, under a plea agreement, she pled no contest to reckless driving and was sentenced to three years of probation, community service, and a DUI program.
In a 2009 People Magazine interview, Ryan stated that her Suite Life co-star, Brenda Song, is her acting idol. In a March 2009 interview, Ryan revealed she also looks up to Meryl Streep, calling Streep "so profoundly thought - provoking and life - changing ''. She has said that her other role models include Anne Hathaway, Rachel McAdams, and Tobey Maguire. When asked about musical tastes, she said, "I love jazz! I love singing it. I also love country! My brother loves rock; he also has this chill Jason Mraz - like style. So basically, my answer is: jazz - country - rock - alternative? I have no idea! But I honestly would love to make country music ''.
Ryan is involved in Disney 's Friends for Change. She was featured in a commercial on Disney Channel. The charity helps explain how kids can help preserve the planet and invites them to go to the Friends for Change website to register and pledge, offering them the chance to help choose how Disney will invest $1 million in environmental programs. Ryan will be taking part in Disney 's Friends for Change Games, which will feature over 30 Disney Channel and Disney XD stars competing in fun and physical challenges inspired by good actions for the environment. The stars will be broken up into teams and each team will play on behalf of an environmental charity. Ryan had been taking part as Captain of the Blue Team playing to benefit Ocean Conservancy.
In May 2012, Ryan traveled to Udaipur, India, as part of Disney 's Friends for Change 's partnership with international charity Free The Children. The trip was hosted by Me to We, a social enterprise and partner of Free The Children. During her visit she volunteered to help build a new school in Lai Gow and met with local community members to learn about their culture. Her experience was filmed and aired between programs on Disney Channel starting on June 28, 2012.
In July 2012, Ryan started work on a clothing line for 2013. She said she was in the beginning stages of building herself a fashion brand and revealed that she has been looking into designers and interviewing brands she might like to work with.
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where does fate extra last encore fit in | Fate / Extra Last Encore - wikipedia
Fate / Extra Last Encore (フェイト / エクストラ ラスト アンコール, Feito / Ekusutora Rasuto Ankōru) is an anime adaptation of the Fate / Extra video game. It is animated by Shaft and began airing in January 28, 2018.
The series premiered January 28, 2018 on Tokyo MX, with further broadcasts on Gunma TV, Tochigi TV, BS11, and MBS. The opening theme is "Bright Burning Shout '' by Takanori Nishikawa, while the ending theme is "Tsuki to Hanataba '' (月 と 花束, Moon and Bouquet) by Sayuri.
An adaptation of Fate / Extra was first announced on March 22, 2016 at the Fate Project panel. The anime 's title was announced as Fate / Extra Last Encore with a 2017 release date. Shaft, known for their work on Puella Magi Madoka Magica and Monogatari were revealed to be handling the animation with Kinoko Nasu, creator of both Fate / stay night and Fate / Extra returning as the writer. In December 31, Type - Moon released further information regarding the anime 's crew, Akiyuki Shinbo who had previously worked with Shaft on Madoka Magica would be directing the anime, Masaaki Takiyama is designing the characters and Satoru Kōsaki will compose the music. In March 2017, a new visual art was revealed, showing the game 's male protagonist with Saber. On July 30, it was confirmed that Atsushi Abe and Sakura Tange would be voicing Hakuno Kishinami and Saber, respectively.
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when was electricity first used in american homes | History of electric power transmission - Wikipedia
The history of the technology of moving electricity far from where it was generated dates from the late 19th century. This includes movement of electricity in bulk (formally referred to as "transmission ''), and the delivery of electricity ("distribution '') to individual customers. The distinction between the two terms did not exist in early years and were used interchangeably.
Prior to electricity, various systems have been used for transmission of power across large distances. Chief among them were telodynamic (cable in motion), pneumatic (pressurized air), and hydraulic (pressurized fluid) transmission. Cable cars were the most frequent example of telodynamic transmission, whose lines could extend for several miles for a single section. Pneumatic transmission was used for city power transmission systems in Paris, Birmingham, Rixdorf, Offenbach, Dresden and Buenos Aires at the beginning of the twentieth century. Cities in the 19th century also used hydraulic transmission using high pressure water mains to deliver power to factory motors. London 's system delivered 7000 hp (5 megawatts) over a 180 - mile (290 km) network of pipes carrying water at 800 psi. These systems were replaced by cheaper and more versatile electrical systems, but by the end of the 19th century, city planners and financiers were well aware of the benefits, economics, and process of establishing power transmission systems.
In the early days of electric power usage, widespread transmission of electric power had two obstacles. First, devices requiring different voltages required specialized generators with their own separate lines. Street lights, electric motors in factories, power for streetcars and lights in homes are examples of the diversity of devices with voltages requiring separate systems. Secondly, generators had to be relatively near their loads (a mile or less for low voltage devices). It was known that long distance transmission was possible the higher the voltage was raised, so both problems could be solved if transforming voltages could be cheaply performed from a single universal power line.
Much of early electricity was direct current, which could not easily be increased or decreased in voltage either for long - distance transmission or for sharing a common line to be used with multiple types of electric devices. Companies simply ran different lines for the different classes of loads their inventions required, for example, Charles Brush 's New York arc lamp systems required up to 10 kV for many lamps in a series circuit, Edison 's incandescent lights used 110 V, streetcars built by Siemens or Sprague required large motors in the 500 volt range, whereas industrial motors in factories used still other voltages. Due to this specialization of lines, and because transmission was so inefficient, it seemed at the time that the industry would develop into what is now known as a distributed generation system with large numbers of small generators located near their loads.
High voltage was of interest to early researchers working on the problem of transmission over distance. They knew from elementary electricity principle that the same amount of power could be transferred on a cable by doubling the voltage and halving the current. Due to Joule 's Law, they also knew that the capacity of a wire is proportional to the square of the current traveling on it, regardless the voltage, and so by doubling the voltage, the same cable would be capable of transmitting the same amount of power four times the distance.
At the Paris Exposition of 1878, electric arc lighting had been installed along the Avenue de l'Opera and the Place de l'Opera, using electric Yablochkov arc lamps, powered by Zénobe Gramme alternating current dynamos. Yablochkov candles required high voltage, and it was not long before experimenters reported that the arc lamps could be powered on a 7 - mile (11 km) circuit. Within a decade scores of cities would have lighting systems using a central power plant that provided electricity to multiple customers via electrical transmission lines. These systems were in direct competition with the dominant gaslight utilities of the period.
The idea of investing in a central plant and a network to deliver energy produced to customers who pay a recurring fee for service was familiar business model for investors: it was identical to the lucrative gaslight business, or the hydraulic and pneumatic power transmission systems. The only difference was the commodity being delivered was electricity, not gas, and the "pipes '' used for delivering were more flexible.
The California Electric Company (now PG&E) in San Francisco in 1879 used two direct current generators from Charles Brush 's company to supply multiple customers with power for their arc lamps. This San Francisco system was the first case of a utility selling electricity from a central plant to multiple customers via transmission lines. CEC soon opened a second plant with 4 additional generators. Service charges for light from sundown to midnight was $10 per lamp per week.
In December 1880, Brush Electric Company set up a central station to supply a 2 - mile (3.2 km) length of Broadway with arc lighting. By the end of 1881, New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Montreal, Buffalo, San Francisco, Cleveland and other cities had Brush arc lamp systems, producing public light well into the 20th century. By 1893 there were 1500 arc lamps illuminating New York streets.
Extremely bright arc lights were too bright, and with the high voltages and sparking / fire hazard, too dangerous to use indoors. In 1878 inventor Thomas Edison saw a market for a system that could bring electric lighting directly into a customer 's business or home, a niche not served by arc lighting systems. After devising a commercially viable incandescent light bulb in 1879, Edison went on to develop the first large scale investor - owned electric illumination "utility '' in lower Manhattan, eventually serving one square mile with 6 "jumbo dynamos '' housed at Pearl Street Station. When service began in September 1882, there were 85 customers with 400 light bulbs. Each dynamo produced 100 kW2 -- enough for 1200 incandescent lights, and transmission was at 110 V via underground conduits. The system cost $300,000 to build with installation of the 100,000 feet (30,000 m) of underground conduits one of the most expensive parts of the project. Operating expenses exceeded income in the first two years and fire destroyed the plant in 1890. Further, Edison had a three wire system so that either 110 V or 220 V could be supplied to power some motors.
Availability of large amounts of power from diverse locations would become possible after Charles Parsons ' production of turbogenerators beginning 1889. Turbogenerator output quickly jumped from 100 kW to 25 megawatts in two decades. Prior to efficient turbogenerators, hydroelectric projects were a significant source of large amounts of power requiring transmission infrastructure.
When George Westinghouse became interested in electricity, he quickly and correctly concluded that Edison 's low voltages were too inefficient to be scaled up for transmission needed for large systems. He further understood that long - distance transmission needed high voltage and that inexpensive conversion technology only existed for alternating current. Transformers would play the decisive role in the victory of alternating current over direct current for transmission and distribution systems. In 1876, Pavel Yablochkov patented his mechanism of using induction coils to serve as a step up transformer prior to the Paris Exposition demonstrating his arc lamps. In 1881, Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs developed a more efficient device which they dubbed the secondary generator, namely an early transformer provided with 1: 1 turn ratio and open magnetic circuit.
The birth of the first transformer
The first demonstrative long distance (34 km, i.e. 21 mi) AC line was built for the 1884 International Exhibition of Turin, Italy. It was powered by a 2 - kV, 130 - Hz Siemens & Halske alternator and featured several Gaulard secondary generators with their primary windings connected in series, which fed incandescent lamps. The system proved the feasibility of AC electric power transmission on long distances. After this success, between 1884 and 1885, Hungarian engineers Zipernowsky, Bláthy, and Déri from the Ganz company in Budapest created the efficient "Z.B.D. '' closed - core coils, as well as the modern electric distribution system. The three had discovered that all former coreless or open - core devices were incapable of regulating voltage, and were therefore impractical. Their joint patent described two versions of a design with no poles: the "closed - core transformer '' and the "shell - core transformer ''. Ottó Bláthy suggested the use of closed - cores, Károly Zipernowsky the use of shunt connections, and Miksa Déri performed the experiments.
In the closed - core transformer the iron core is a closed ring around which the two coils are wound. In the shell type transformer, the windings are passed through the core. In both designs, the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary windings travels almost entirely within the iron core, with no intentional path through air. The core consists of iron strands or sheets. These revolutionary design elements would finally make it technically and economically feasible to provide electric power for lighting in homes, businesses and public spaces. Zipernowsky, Bláthy and Déri also discovered the transformer formula, Vs / Vp = Ns / Np. Electrical and electronic systems the world over rely on the principles of the original Ganz transformers. The inventors are also credited with the first use of the word "transformer '' to describe a device for altering the EMF of an electric current.
A very first operative AC line was put into service in 1885 in via dei Cerchi, Rome, Italy, for public lighting. It was powered by two Siemens & Halske alternators rated 30 hp (22 kW), 2 kV at 120 Hz and used 200 series - connected Gaulard 2 - kV / 20 - V step - down transformers provided with a closed magnetic circuit, one for each lamp. Few months later it was followed by the first British AC system, which was put into service at the Grosvenor Gallery, London. It also featured Siemens alternators and 2.4 - kV / 100 - V step - down transformers, one per user, with shunt - connected primaries.
The concept that is the basis of modern transmission using inexpensive step up and step down transformers was first implemented by Westinghouse, William Stanley, Jr. and Franklin Leonard Pope in 1886 in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, resorting also to European technology. In 1888 Westinghouse also licensed Nikola Tesla 's induction motor patent giving AC a much needed usable motor. This system was developed into the modern 3 - phase system by Mikhail Dolivo - Dobrovolsky and Allgemeine Elektricitäts - Gesellschaft and Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown in Europe, starting in 1889. The simplicity of polyphase generators and motors meant that besides their efficiency they could be manufactured cheaply, compactly and would require little attention to maintain. Simple economics would drive the expensive, bulky and mechanically complex DC dynamos to their ultimate extinction. As it turned out, the deciding factor in the War of Currents was the availability of low cost step up and step down transformers that meant that all customers regardless of their specialized voltage requirements could be served at minimal cost of conversion. This "universal system '' is today regarded as one of the most influential innovations for the use of electricity.
The case for alternating current was not clear at the turn of the century and high voltage direct current transmission systems were successfully installed without the benefit of transformers. Rene Thury, who had spent six months at Edison 's Menlo Park facility, understood his problem with transmission and was convinced that moving electricity over great distances was possible using direct current. He was familiar with the work of Marcel Deprez, who did early work on high voltage transmission after being inspired by the capability of arc lamp generators to support lights over great distances. Deprez avoided transformers by placing generators and loads in series as arc lamp systems of Charles F. Brush did. Thury developed this idea into the first commercial system for high - voltage DC transmission. Like Brush 's dynamos, current is kept constant, and when increasing load demands more pressure, voltage is increased. The Thury System was successfully used on several DC transmission projects from Hydro generators. The first in 1885 was a low voltage system in Bözingen, and the first high voltage system went into service in 1889 in Genoa, Italy, by the Acquedotto de Ferrari - Galliera company. This system transmitted 630 kW at 14 kV DC over a circuit 120 km long. The largest Thury System was the Lyon Moutiers project that was 230 km in length, eventually delivering 20 megawatts, at 125 kV.
Ultimately, the versatility of the Thury system was hampered by the fragility of series distribution, and the lack of a reliable DC conversion technology that would not show up until the 1940s with improvements in mercury arc valves. The AC "universal system '' won by force of numbers, proliferating systems with transformers both to couple generators to high - voltage transmission lines, and to connect transmission to local distribution circuits. By a suitable choice of utility frequency, both lighting and motor loads could be served. Rotary converters and later mercury - arc valves and other rectifier equipment allowed DC load to be served by local conversion where needed. Even generating stations and loads using different frequencies could also be interconnected using rotary converters. By using common generating plants for every type of load, important economies of scale were achieved, lower overall capital investment was required, load factor on each plant was increased allowing for higher efficiency, allowing for a lower cost of energy to the consumer and increased overall use of electric power.
By allowing multiple generating plants to be interconnected over a wide area, electricity production cost was reduced. The most efficient available plants could be used to supply the varying loads during the day. Reliability was improved and capital investment cost was reduced, since stand - by generating capacity could be shared over many more customers and a wider geographic area. Remote and low - cost sources of energy, such as hydroelectric power or mine - mouth coal, could be exploited to lower energy production cost.
The first transmission of three - phase alternating current using high voltage took place in 1891 during the international electricity exhibition in Frankfurt. A 15 kV transmission line connected Lauffen on the Neckar and Frankfurt am Main, on a 175 km long distance.
Initially transmission lines were supported by porcelain pin - and - sleeve insulators similar to those used for telegraphs and telephone lines. However, these had a practical limit of 40 kV. In 1907, the invention of the disc insulator by Harold W. Buck of the Niagara Falls Power Corporation and Edward M. Hewlett of General Electric allowed practical insulators of any length to be constructed for higher voltages.
The first large scale hydroelectric generators in the USA were installed in 1895 at Niagara Falls and provided electricity to Buffalo, New York, via power transmission lines. A statue of Nikola Tesla stands at, Goat Island Niagara Falls New York, today in tribute to his contributions.
Voltages used for electric power transmission increased throughout the 20th century. The first "high voltage '' AC power station, rated 4 - MW 10 - kV 85 - Hz, was put into service in 1889 by Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti at Deptford, London. The first electric power transmission line in North America operated at 4000 V. It went online on June 3, 1889, with the lines between the generating station at Willamette Falls in Oregon City, Oregon, and Chapman Square in downtown Portland, Oregon stretching about 13 miles. By 1914 fifty - five transmission systems operating at more than 70,000 V were in service, and the highest voltage then used was 150 kV. The first three - phase alternating current power transmission at 110 kV took place in 1907 between Croton and Grand Rapids, Michigan. Voltages of 100 kV and more were not established technology until around 5 years later, with for example the first 110 kV line in Europe between Lauchhammer and Riesa, Germany, in 1912.
In the early 1920s the Pit River -- Cottonwood -- Vaca - Dixon line was built for 220 kV transporting power from hydroelectric plants in the Sierra Nevada to the San Francisco Bay Area, at the same time the Big Creek -- Los Angeles lines were upgraded to the same voltage. Both of those systems entered commercial service in 1923. On April 17, 1929 the first 220 kV line in Germany was completed, running from Brauweiler near Cologne, over Kelsterbach near Frankfurt, Rheinau near Mannheim, Ludwigsburg -- Hoheneck near Austria. This line comprises the North - South interconnect, at the time one of the world 's largest power systems. The masts of this line were designed for eventual upgrade to 380 kV. However the first transmission at 380 kV in Germany was on October 5, 1957 between the substations in Rommerskirchen and Ludwigsburg -- Hoheneck.
The world 's first 380 kV power line was built in Sweden, the 952 km Harsprånget -- Hallsberg line in 1952. In 1965, the first extra-high - voltage transmission at 735 kV took place on a Hydro - Québec transmission line. In 1982 the first transmission at 1200 kV was in the Soviet Union.
The rapid industrialization in the 20th century made electrical transmission lines and grids a critical part of the economic infrastructure in most industrialized nations. Interconnection of local generation plants and small distribution networks was greatly spurred by the requirements of World War I, where large electrical generating plants were built by governments to provide power to munitions factories; later these plants were connected to supply civil load through long - distance transmission.
Small municipal electrical utilities did not necessarily desire to reduce the cost of each unit of electricity sold; to some extent, especially during the period 1880 -- 1890, electrical lighting was considered a luxury product and electric power was not substituted for steam power. Engineers such as Samuel Insull in the United States and Sebastian Z. De Ferranti in the United Kingdom were instrumental in overcoming technical, economic, regulatory and political difficulties in development of long - distance electric power transmission. By introduction of electric power transmission networks, in the city of London the cost of a kilowatt - hour was reduced to one - third in a ten - year period.
In 1926 electrical networks in the United Kingdom began to be interconnected in the National Grid, initially operating at 132 kV.
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different types of self help groups in india | Self - help group (Finance) - wikipedia
A self - help group (SHG) is a village - based financial intermediary committee usually composed of 10 -- 20 local women or men. A mixed group is generally not preferred. Most self - help groups are located in India, though SHGs can be found in other countries, especially in South Asia and Southeast Asia.
Members also make small regular savings contributions over a few months until there is enough money in the group to begin lending. Funds may then be lent back to the members or to others in the village for any purpose. In India, many SHGs are ' linked ' to banks for the delivery of micro-credit.
An SHG may be registered or unregistered. It typically comprises a group of micro entrepreneurs having homogeneous social and economic backgrounds, all voluntarily coming together to save regular small sums of money, mutually agreeing to contribute to a common fund and to meet their emergency needs on the basis of mutual help. They pool their resources to become financially stable, taking loans from the money collected by that group and by making everybody in that group self - employed. The group members use collective wisdom and peer pressure to ensure proper end - use of credit and timely repayment. This system eliminates the need for collateral and is closely related to that of solidarity lending, widely used by microfinance institutions. To make the bookkeeping simple, flat interest rates are used for most loan calculations.
Self - help groups are started by - governmental organizations (GO) that generally have broad anti-poverty agendas. Self - help groups are seen as instruments for goals including empowering women, developing leadership abilities among poor and the needy people, increasing school enrollments and improving nutrition and the use of birth control. In countries like India, SHGs bridge the gap between high - caste & low - caste members.
Financial intermediation is generally seen more as an entry point to these other goals, rather than as a primary objective. This can hinder their development as sources of village capital, as well as their efforts to aggregate locally controlled pools of capital through federation, as was historically accomplished by credit unions.
Many self - help groups, especially in India, under NABARD 's ' SHG Bank Linkage ' program, borrow from banks once they have accumulated a base of their own capital. This model has attracted attention as a possible way of delivering micro-finance services to poor populations that have been difficult to reach directly through banks or other institutions. "By aggregating their individual savings into a single deposit, self - help groups minimize the bank 's transaction costs and generate an attractive volume of deposits. Through self - help groups the bank can serve small rural depositors while paying them a market rate of interest. ''
NABARD estimates that there are 2.2 million SHGs in India, representing 33 million members, that have taken loans from banks under its linkage program to date. This does not include SHGs that have not borrowed. "The SHG Banking Linkage Programme since its beginning has been predominant in certain states, showing spatial preferences especially for the southern region -- Andhra - Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. These states accounted for 57 % of the SHG credits linked during the financial year 2005 -- 2006. ''
Ghosh, S. (2014) ' Citizenship in Practice: Poverty Reduction and Self Help Groups ', Journal of Asian and African Studies, Vol. 49 (4), pp. 442 -- 456. DOI: 10.1177 / 0021909613488351 (Online).
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what part of the kidney does aldosterone work on | Aldosterone - wikipedia
Aldosterone, the main mineralocorticoid hormone, is a steroid hormone produced by the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex in the adrenal gland. It is essential for sodium conservation in the kidney, salivary glands, sweat glands and colon. It plays a central role in the homeostatic regulation of blood pressure, plasma sodium (Na), and potassium (K) levels. It does so mainly by acting on the mineralocorticoid receptors in the distal tubules and collecting ducts of the nephron. It influences the reabsorption of sodium and excretion of potassium (from and into the tubular fluids, respectively) of the kidney, thereby indirectly influencing water retention or loss, blood pressure and blood volume. When dysregulated, aldosterone is pathogenic and contributes to the development and progression of cardiovascular and renal disease. Aldosterone has exactly the opposite function of the atrial natriuretic hormone secreted by the heart.
Aldosterone is part of the renin -- angiotensin -- aldosterone system. It has a plasma half - life of under 20 minutes. Drugs that interfere with the secretion or action of aldosterone are in use as antihypertensives, like lisinopril, which lowers blood pressure by blocking the angiotensin - converting enzyme (ACE), leading to lower aldosterone secretion. The net effect of these drugs is to reduce sodium and water retention but increase retention of potassium. In other words, these drugs stimulate the excretion of sodium and water in urine, while they block the excretion of potassium.
Another example is spironolactone, a potassium - sparing diuretic of the steroidal spirolactone group, which decreases blood pressure by releasing fluid from the body while retaining potassium.
Aldosterone was first isolated by Simpson and Tait in 1953.
The corticosteroids are synthesized from cholesterol within the zona glomerulosa of adrenal cortex. Most steroidogenic reactions are catalysed by enzymes of the cytochrome P450 family. They are located within the mitochondria and require adrenodoxin as a cofactor (except 21 - hydroxylase and 17α - hydroxylase).
Aldosterone and corticosterone share the first part of their biosynthetic pathways. The last parts are mediated either by the aldosterone synthase (for aldosterone) or by the 11β - hydroxylase (for corticosterone). These enzymes are nearly identical (they share 11β - hydroxylation and 18 - hydroxylation functions), but aldosterone synthase is also able to perform an 18 - oxidation. Moreover, aldosterone synthase is found within the zona glomerulosa at the outer edge of the adrenal cortex; 11β - hydroxylase is found in the zona glomerulosa and zona fasciculata.
Note: aldosterone synthase is absent in other sections of the adrenal gland.
Aldosterone synthesis is stimulated by several factors:
The secretion of aldosterone has a diurnal rhythm.
Aldosterone is the primary of several endogenous members of the class of mineralocorticoids in humans. Deoxycorticosterone is another important member of this class. Aldosterone tends to promote Na and water retention, and lower plasma K concentration by the following mechanisms:
Aldosterone is responsible for the reabsorption of about 2 % of filtered sodium in the kidneys, which is nearly equal to the entire sodium content in human blood under normal glomerular filtration rates.
Aldosterone, probably acting through mineralocorticoid receptors, may positively influence neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus.
Steroid receptors are intracellular. The aldosterone mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) complex binds on the DNA to specific hormone response element, which leads to gene specific transcription. Some of the transcribed genes are crucial for transepithelial sodium transport, including the three subunits of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC), the Na / K pumps and their regulatory proteins serum and glucocorticoid - induced kinase, and channel - inducing factor, respectively.
The MR is stimulated by both aldosterone and cortisol, but a mechanism protects the body from excess aldosterone receptor stimulation by glucocorticoids (such as cortisol), which happen to be present at much higher concentrations than mineralocorticoids in the healthy individual. The mechanism consists of an enzyme called 11 β - hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11β - HSD). This enzyme co-localizes with intracellular adrenal steroid receptors and converts cortisol into cortisone, a relatively inactive metabolite with little affinity for the MR. Liquorice, which contains glycyrrhetinic acid, can inhibit 11β - HSD and lead to a mineralocorticoid excess syndrome.
Angiotensin is involved in regulating aldosterone and is the core regulation. Angiotensin II acts synergistically with potassium, and the potassium feedback is virtually inoperative when no angiotensin II is present. A small portion of the regulation resulting from angiotensin II must take place indirectly from decreased blood flow through the liver due to constriction of capillaries. When the blood flow decreases so does the destruction of aldosterone by liver enzymes.
Although sustained production of aldosterone requires persistent calcium entry through low - voltage - activated Ca channels, isolated zona glomerulosa cells are considered nonexcitable, with recorded membrane voltages that are too hyperpolarized to permit Ca channels entry. However, mouse zona glomerulosa cells within adrenal slices spontaneously generate membrane potential oscillations of low periodicity; this innate electrical excitability of zona glomerulosa cells provides a platform for the production of a recurrent Ca channels signal that can be controlled by angiotensin II and extracellular potassium, the 2 major regulators of aldosterone production. Voltage - gated Ca channels have been detected in the zona glomerulosa of the human adrenal, which suggests that Ca channel blockers may directly influence the adrenocortical biosynthesis of aldosterone in vivo.
The amount of aldosterone secreted is a direct function of the serum potassium as probably determined by sensors in the carotid artery.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), a pituitary peptide, also has some stimulating effect on aldosterone, probably by stimulating the formation of deoxycorticosterone, a precursor of aldosterone. Aldosterone is increased by blood loss, pregnancy, and possibly by further circumstances such as physical exertion, endotoxin shock, and burns.
The aldosterone production is also affected to one extent or another by nervous control, which integrates the inverse of carotid artery pressure, pain, posture, and probably emotion (anxiety, fear, and hostility) (including surgical stress). Anxiety increases aldosterone, which must have evolved because of the time delay involved in migration of aldosterone into the cell nucleus. Thus, there is an advantage to an animal 's anticipating a future need from interaction with a predator, since too high a serum content of potassium has very adverse effects on nervous transmission.
Pressure - sensitive baroreceptors are found in the vessel walls of nearly all large arteries in the thorax and neck, but are particularly plentiful in the sinuses of the carotid arteries and in the arch of the aorta. These specialized receptors are sensitive to changes in mean arterial pressure. An increase in sensed pressure results in an increased rate of firing by the baroreceptors and a negative feedback response, lowering systemic arterial pressure. Aldosterone release causes sodium and water retention, which causes increased blood volume, and a subsequent increase in blood pressure, which is sensed by the baroreceptors. To maintain normal homeostasis these receptors also detect low blood pressure or low blood volume, causing aldosterone to be released. This results in sodium retention in the kidney, leading to water retention and increased blood volume.
Aldosterone is a function of the inverse of the sodium intake as sensed via osmotic pressure. The slope of the response of aldosterone to serum potassium is almost independent of sodium intake. Aldosterone is increased at low sodium intakes, but the rate of increase of plasma aldosterone as potassium rises in the serum is not much lower at high sodium intakes than it is at low. Thus, the potassium is strongly regulated at all sodium intakes by aldosterone when the supply of potassium is adequate, which it usually is in primitive diets.
Feedback by aldosterone concentration itself is of a nonmorphological character (that is, other than changes in the cells ' number or structure) and is poor, so the electrolyte feedbacks predominate, short term.
Hyperaldosteronism is abnormally increased levels of aldosterone, while hypoaldosteronism is abnormally decreased levels of aldosterone.
A measurement of aldosterone in blood may be termed a plasma aldosterone concentration (PAC), which may be compared to plasma renin activity (PRA) as an aldosterone - to - renin ratio.
Primary aldosteronism, also known as primary hyperaldosteronism, is characterized by the overproduction of aldosterone by the adrenal glands, when not a result of excessive renin secretion. It leads to arterial hypertension (high blood pressure) associated with hypokalemia, usually a diagnostic clue. Secondary hyperaldosteronism, on the other hand, is due to overactivity of the renin -- angiotensin system.
Conn 's syndrome is primary hyperaldosteronism caused by an aldosterone - producing adenoma.
Depending on cause and other factors, hyperaldosteronism can be treated by surgery and / or medically, such as by aldosterone antagonists.
An ACTH stimulation test for aldosterone can help in determining the cause of hypoaldosteronism, with a low aldosterone response indicating a primary hypoaldosteronism of the adrenals, while a large response indicating a secondary hypoaldosteronism.
Corticosteroid biosynthetic pathway in rat
Corticosterone
Body water: Intracellular fluid / Cytosol
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who loves you pretty baby who's gonna help you through the night | Who Loves You (song) - wikipedia
"Who Loves You '' is the title song of a 1975 album by The Four Seasons. It was composed by Bob Gaudio and Judy Parker and produced by Gaudio. It reached number 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 in November 1975.
After their release from Philips, the group signed with Motown and released one album and three singles for the organization in 1972 and 1973. All Motown recordings failed to chart in the U.S. and the company dropped the band. In August, "Who Loves You '' entered the Hot 100 as Frankie Valli 's "Swearin ' to God '' was sliding off the chart.
(* - Canadian RPM chart data incomplete for late 1975)
There were three versions of "Who Loves You '' released in the United States: the one on the Who Loves You album is four minutes, 20 seconds long and begins with a short percussion section before the start of the vocals. The A-side of the single has a 4 - minute 4 second version which starts with an unusual "fade - in '' beginning, starting with the first word of the lyrics; the B - side (labeled "Who Loves You (disco version) '') is the same as the A-side, with the instrumental break done twice and the song ending sooner.
Although the Four Seasons ' trademark falsetto is present on "Who Loves You '', Valli 's vocal performance on the recording is limited to singing lead on the verses.
For a record from a group so long without any hit records, "Who Loves You '' was a tremendous success. Released in August 1975, the single spent 20 weeks on the Hot 100 (longer than any Four Seasons single before) and managed to stay on the chart until the beginning of 1976.
This song is edited heavily and included as the closing number for the musical Jersey Boys. The second verse and instrumental break is completely omitted, and instead of the fade out, a loud, high - pitched ending chord is sung by the full company. However, the Original Broadway Cast Recording includes the instrumental break.
Often used as bumper music by late night radio talk show host Art Bell when he hosted Coast to Coast AM in the 1990s.
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when is the first game of the 2018 nba season | 2017 -- 18 NBA season - wikipedia
The 2017 -- 18 NBA season is the 72nd season of the National Basketball Association (NBA). The regular season began on October 17, 2017, earlier than previous seasons to reduce the number of "back - to - back '' games teams are scheduled to play, with the 2017 runners - up Cleveland Cavaliers hosting a game against the Boston Celtics at Quicken Loans Arena in Cleveland, Ohio. Christmas games will be played on December 25. The 2018 NBA All - Star Game will be played on February 18, 2018, at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, California. The regular season will end on April 11, 2018 and the playoffs will begin on April 14, 2018.
Free agency negotiations began on July 1. Players began signing on July 6, after the July moratorium ended.
For the first time since the inauguration of the BAA, there will be no coaching changes entering training camp. In fact, the 536 days had from Dave Joerger being fired as coach of the Memphis Grizzlies to the day the Phoenix Suns fired Earl Watson as head coach would be the longest period in NBA history without any coaching changes occur.
The preseason began on September 30 and ended on October 13.
The Golden State Warriors and Minnesota Timberwolves played two preseason games in China, at Shenzhen on October 5 and Shanghai on October 8. Minnesota won the first game 111 -- 97, while Golden State emerged victorious in the second one, 142 -- 110.
The regular season began on October 17, 2017. Christmas Day games will be played on December 25, 2017. The regular season will end on April 11, 2018.
Notes
On August 9, 2017, the NBA announced that the Brooklyn Nets would play two regular season games at Mexico City Arena in Mexico City, Mexico. On December 7, 2017, the Nets would play against the Oklahoma City Thunder and on December 9, 2017, they would match up against the Miami Heat.
On August 10, 2017, the NBA announced that the Philadelphia 76ers would play the Boston Celtics at The O2 Arena in London, United Kingdom on January 11, 2018.
The following players were named the Eastern and Western Conference Players of the Week.
The following players were named the Eastern and Western Conference Players of the Month.
The following players were named the Eastern and Western Conference Rookies of the Month.
The following coaches were named the Eastern and Western Conference Coaches of the Month.
This is the second season of the current nine - year contracts with ABC, ESPN, TNT, and NBA TV.
Advertisements begin to appear on league uniforms starting this season. As of October 25, 2017, eighteen teams have confirmed to sign uniform sponsorship deals:
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magnetic reversals (i.e. the cause of marine magnetic anomalies) are caused by | Magnetic anomaly - wikipedia
In geophysics, a magnetic anomaly is a local variation in the Earth 's magnetic field resulting from variations in the chemistry or magnetism of the rocks. Mapping of variation over an area is valuable in detecting structures obscured by overlying material. The magnetic variation in successive bands of ocean floor parallel with mid-ocean ridges is important evidence supporting the theory of seafloor spreading, central to plate tectonics.
Magnetic anomalies are generally a small fraction of the magnetic field. The total field ranges from 25,000 to 65,000 nanoteslas (nT). To measure anomalies, magnetometers need a sensitivity of 10 nT or less. There are three main types of magnetometer used to measure magnetic anomalies:
In ground - based surveys, measurements are made at a series of stations, typically 15 to 60 m apart. Usually a proton precession magnetometer is used and it is often mounted on a pole. Raising the magnetometer reduces the influence of small ferrous objects that were discarded by humans. To further reduce unwanted signals, they do not carry objects such as keys, knives or compasses. In addition, objects such as motor vehicles, railway lines, and barbed wire fences are avoided. If some such contaminant is overlooked, it often shows up as a sharp spike in the anomaly, so such features are treated with suspicion. The main application for ground - based surveys is detailed search for minerals.
Airborne magnetic surveys are often used in oil surveys to provide preliminary information for seismic surveys. In some countries such as Canada, government agencies have made systematic surveys of large areas. The survey generally involves making a series of parallel runs at a constant height and intervals of anywhere from a hundred meters to several kilometers. These are crossed by occasional tie lines, perpendicular to the main survey, to check for errors. The plane is a source of magnetism, so sensors are either mounted on a boom (as in the figure) or towed behind on a cable. Aeromagnetic surveys have a lower spatial resolution of ground surveys, but this can be an advantage for a regional survey of deeper rocks.
In shipborne surveys, a magnetometer is towed a few hundred meters behind a ship in a device called a fish. The sensor is kept at a constant depth of about 15 m. Otherwise, the procedure is similar to that used in aeromagnetic surveys.
American and Russian satellites began measuring the Earth 's field in the 1960s. In the fall of 1979, Magsat was launched and jointly operated by NASA and USGS until the spring of 1980. It had a cesium vapor scalar magnetometer and a fluxgate vector magnetometer. CHAMP, a German satellite, made precise gravity and magnetic measurements from 2001 to 2010. A Danish satellite, Ørsted, was launched in 1999 and is still in operation, while the Swarm mission of the European Space Agency involves a "constellation '' of three satellites that were launched in November, 2013.
There are two main corrections that are needed for magnetic measurements. The first is remove short - term variations in the field from external sources. There are diurnal variations that have a period of 24 hours and magnitudes of up to 30 nT, probably from the action of the solar wind on the ionosphere. In addition, magnetic storms can have peak magnitudes of 1000 nT and can last for several days. Their contribution can be measured by returning to a base station repeatedly or by having another magnetometer that periodically measures the field at a fixed location.
The anomaly is the local contribution to the magnetic field, so the main geomagnetic field must be subtracted from it. Usually the International Geomagnetic Reference Field is used for this purpose. This is a large - scale, time - averaged mathematical model of the Earth 's field based on measurements from satellites, magnetic observatories and other surveys.
Some corrections that are needed for gravity anomalies are less important for magnetic anomalies. For example, the vertical gradient of the magnetic field is 0.03 nT / m or less, so an elevation correction is generally not needed.
The magnetization in the surveyed rock is a vector sum of induced and remanent magnetization:
The induced magnetization of many minerals is the product of the ambient magnetic field and their magnetic susceptibility χ:
Some susceptibilities are given in the table.
Minerals that are diamagnetic or paramagnetic only have an induced magnetization. Ferromagnetic minerals such as magnetite also can carry a remanent magnetization or remanence. This remanence can last for millions of years, so it may be in a completely different direction from the present Earth 's field. If a remanence is present, it is difficult to separate from the induced magnetization unless samples of the rock are measured. The ratio of the magnitudes, Q = M / M, is called the Koenigsberger ratio.
Magnetic surveys over the oceans have revealed a characteristic pattern of anomalies around mid-ocean ridges. They involve a series of positive and negative anomalies in the intensity of the magnetic field, forming stripes running parallel to each ridge. They are often symmetric about the axis of the ridge. The stripes are generally tens of kilometers wide, and the anomalies are a few hundred nanoteslas. The source of these anomalies is primarily permanent magnetization carried by titanomagnetite minerals in basalt and gabbros. They are magnetized when ocean crust is formed at the ridge. As magma rises to the surface and cools, the rock acquires a thermoremanent magnetization in the direction of the field. Then the rock is carried away from the ridge by the motions of the tectonic plates. Every few hundred thousand years, the direction of the magnetic field reverses. Thus, the pattern of stripes is a global phenomenon and can be used to calculate the velocity of seafloor spreading.
In the Space Odyssey series by Arthur C. Clarke, a series of monoliths are left by extraterrestrials for humans to find them. One near the crater Tycho is found by its unnaturally powerful magnetic field and named Tycho Magnetic Anomaly 1 (TMA - 1). One orbiting Jupiter is named TMA - 2, and one in the Olduvai Gorge is found in 2513 and retroactively named TMA - 0 because it was first encountered by primitive humans.
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what does the jumping person mean on sims | HUD (video gaming) - wikipedia
In video gaming, the HUD (head - up display) or Status Bar is the method by which information is visually relayed to the player as part of a game 's user interface. It takes its name from the head - up displays used in modern aircraft.
The HUD is frequently used to simultaneously display several pieces of information including the main character 's health, items, and an indication of game progression (such as score or level).
While the information that is displayed on the HUD depends greatly on the game, there are many features that players recognize across many games. Most of them are static onscreen so that they stay visible during gameplay. Common features include:
There are also trends common among genres and platforms. Many online games show player names and a chat text box for talking to the other players. RTS games tend to have complex user interfaces, with context - sensitive panels and a full - overview mini-map with fog of war.
Typically this information is represented numerically, with the health level being a number from 0 -- 100 (percent): 100 representing full health and 0 representing empty, no health or death. However, many other methods of visual representation can be used. For instance, certain games employ a "health bar '' which empties as the player becomes hurt such as Tekken, Street Fighter, and many others.
Armour levels are also commonly monitored, either through a separate readout, or as part of the health system. For example, Halo uses one recharging shield bar, acting as the health level. When this is depleted the player can only take a few more hits before his or her death. The same goes in Destroy All Humans!, but in the form of Crypto 's shields. Traditionally, games used lives to represent health. Every time the main character was injured he would lose one of his limited lives. Another way to display the life in the HUD is demonstrated in Gears of War, where the characters life is displayed only when he is taking damage, in which case a red cog known as the Crimson Omen appears in the center of the screen. The more visible the Crimson Omen is, the more damage the player has sustained and the closer he is to death. This health system is known as the ' Red Ring ' system.
There is also a lot of variance with regards to the display of other information. Some games permanently display all the weapons a character is currently carrying, others rely on a pull up weapon selector. Inventory or storage space may also be permanently overlaid over the screen, or accessed via a menu. Alternatively, only a limited number of items stored in the inventory might be displayed at once, with the rest being rotated into view using the (and) keys.
In order to maintain the suspension of disbelief, some games make the HUD look like a real HUD within the context of the game 's world. Many first - person vehicle simulation games use this technique, showing instruments and displays that the driver of the vehicle would be expected to see. The displays in the helmet in the first - person adventure game Metroid Prime or Star Wars: Republic Commando also mimic the player 's point of view. A similar method is used in Tom Clancy 's Ghost Recon Advanced Warfighter and Crysis. In some of these circumstances where the player and character within the game are meant to see the same ' HUD ' information, Halo for example, the term HMD (Helmet Mounted Display) would technically be more accurate. This is not to be confused with Head - Up Display.
Some games provide the player with an option to hide part or all of the HUD. This is usually used to create cleaner looking screenshots and videos, which can be essential to producing machinima. Certain games like Pac - Man World and Super Mario Galaxy 2 even keep the HUD elements off - screen without any option. When this method is used, they will only appear when affected. In some games, they can temporarily be displayed all at once with the press of a button. In games where that method is not used, the only way to display them at once is by pausing the game.
A few games give players extensive control over their HUD, such as customizing position, size, color, and opacity. World of Warcraft is notable for allowing players to significantly modify and enhance the user interface through Lua scripting.
Despite the modern dominance of 3D graphics in games, HUDs are frequently rendered with a 2D look, often using sprites.
Sometimes, for the sake of realism, information normally displayed in the HUD is instead disguised as part of the scenery or part of the vehicle in which the player is traveling. For example, when the player is driving a car that can sustain a certain number of hits, a smoke trail might appear when the car can take only two more hits, fire might appear from the car to indicate that the next hit will be fatal. Wounds and bloodstains may sometimes appear on injured characters who may also limp, stagger, slouch over or breathe heavily to indicate they are injured, a notable example being Resident Evil 2.
In rare cases, no HUD is used at all, leaving the player to interpret the auditory and visual cues in the gameworld. The elimination of elements has hardly become a trend in game development, but can be witnessed in several titles as of late. Some examples of games with little to no HUD include Astroneer, Silent Hill 2, Jurassic Park: Trespasser, Ico, The Getaway, Fable III, Another World, Mirror 's Edge, King Kong, Dead Space, Call of Cthulhu: Dark Corners of the Earth, Resident Evil, and Tomb Raider (2013).
Prolonged display (that stays on the screen in a fixed position, remaining static) of HUD elements on certain CRT - based screens may cause permanent damage in the form of burning into the inner coating of the television sets, which is impossible to repair. Players who pause their games for long hours without turning off their television or putting it on standby risk harming their TV sets. Plasma TV screens are also at risk, although the effects are usually not as permanent.
The Sega Dreamcast, released in 1998, uses a VMU on many games as a HUD. A notable example is Resident Evil 2, Resident Evil 3: Nemesis and Resident Evil Code: Veronica all using the VMU to show a mini version of the HUD, which displays the protagonists health and ammo. This feature was resurrected with the introduction of the Nintendo Wii U, which uses the Wii U GamePad for some games as a HUD.
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