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where was the first nam summit conference held | Non-Aligned Movement - Wikipedia
The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a group of states that are not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. As of 2012, the movement has 120 members.
It was established in 1961 in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. An initiative of Yugoslav president Josip Broz Tito led to the first Conference of Heads of State or Government of Non-Aligned Countries. The term non-aligned movement appears first in the fifth conference in 1976, where participating countries are denoted as "members of the movement ''.
The purpose of the organization has been enumerated as to ensure "the national independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity and security of non-aligned countries '' in their "struggle against imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism, racism, and all forms of foreign aggression, occupation, domination, interference or hegemony as well as against great power and bloc politics, '' by Fidel Castro in his Havana Declaration of 1979. The countries of the Non-Aligned Movement represent nearly two - thirds of the United Nations ' members and contain 55 % of the world population. Membership is particularly concentrated in countries considered to be developing or part of the Third World, though the Non-Aligned Movement also has a number of developed nations.
Although many of the Non-Aligned Movement 's members were actually quite closely aligned with one or another of the superpowers, the movement still maintained cohesion throughout the Cold War, even despite several conflicts between members which also threatened the movement. In the years since the Cold War 's end, it has focused on developing multilateral ties and connections as well as unity among the developing nations of the world, especially those within the Global South.
The founding fathers of the Non-Aligned Movement were Josip Broz Tito of Socialist Yugoslavia, Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Sukarno of Indonesia, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana. Their actions were known as ' The Initiative of Five '.
The Non-Aligned Movement as an organization was founded on the Brijuni islands in Yugoslavia in 1956, and was formalized by signing the Declaration of Brijuni on July 19th, 1956. The Declaration was signed by Yugoslavia 's president, Josip Broz Tito, India 's first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Egypt 's second president, Gamal Abdel Nasser. One of the quotations within the Declaration is "Peace can not be achieved with separation, but with the aspiration towards collective security in global terms and expansion of freedom, as well as terminating the domination of one country over another ''. According to Rejaul Karim Laskar, an ideologue of the Congress party which ruled India for most part of the Cold War years, the Non-Aligned Movement arose from the desire of Jawaharlal Nehru and other leaders of the newly independent countries of the third world to guard their independence "in face of complex international situation demanding allegiance to either two warring superpowers ''.
The Movement advocates a middle course for states in the developing world between the Western and Eastern Blocs during the Cold War. The phrase itself was first used to represent the doctrine by Indian diplomat V.K. Krishna Menon in 1953, at the United Nations.
But it soon after became the name to refer to the participants of the Conference of Heads of State or Government of Non-Aligned Countries first held in 1961. The term "non-alignment '' was established in 1953 at the United Nations. Nehru used the phrase in a 1954 speech in Colombo, Sri Lanka. In this speech, Nehru described the five pillars to be used as a guide for Sino - Indian relations called Panchsheel (five restraints); these principles would later serve as the basis of the Non-Aligned Movement. The five principles were:
A significant milestone in the development of the Non-Aligned Movement was the 1955 Bandung Conference, a conference of Asian and African states hosted by Indonesian president Sukarno, who gave a significant contribution to promote this movement. Bringing together Sukarno, U Nu, Nasser, Nehru, Tito, Nkrumah and Menon with the likes of Ho Chi Minh, Zhou Enlai, and Norodom Sihanouk, as well as U Thant and a young Indira Gandhi, the conference adopted a "declaration on promotion of world peace and cooperation '', which included Nehru 's five principles, and a collective pledge to remain neutral in the Cold War. Six years after Bandung, an initiative of Yugoslav president Josip Broz Tito led to the first Conference of Heads of State or Government of Non-Aligned Countries, which was held in September 1961 in Belgrade. The term non-aligned movement appears first in the fifth conference in 1976, where participating countries are denoted as members of the movement.
At the Lusaka Conference in September 1970, the member nations added as aims of the movement the peaceful resolution of disputes and the abstention from the big power military alliances and pacts. Another added aim was opposition to stationing of military bases in foreign countries.
Some members were involved in serious conflicts with other members (e.g. India and Pakistan, Iran and Iraq). The movement fractured from its own internal contradictions when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979. Although the Soviet allies supported the invasion, other members of the movement (particularly predominantly Muslim states) condemned it.
Because the Non-Aligned Movement was formed as an attempt to throw out the Cold War, it has struggled to find relevance since the Cold War ended. After the breakup of Yugoslavia, a founding member, its membership was suspended in 1992 at the regular Ministerial Meeting of the Movement, held in New York during the regular yearly session of the General Assembly of the United Nations. The successor states of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia have expressed little interest in membership, though Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina have observer status. In 2004, Malta and Cyprus ceased to be members and joined the European Union. Belarus is the only member of the Movement in Europe. Azerbaijan and Fiji are the most recent entrants, joining in 2011. The applications of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Costa Rica were rejected in 1995 and 1998, respectively.
Since the end of the Cold War, the Non-Aligned Movement has been forced to redefine itself and reinvent its purpose in the current world system. A major question has been whether many of its foundational ideologies, principally national independence, territorial integrity, and the struggle against colonialism and imperialism, can be applied to contemporary issues. The movement has emphasised its principles of multilateralism, equality, and mutual non-aggression in attempting to become a stronger voice for the global South, and an instrument that can be utilised to promote the needs of member nations at the international level and strengthen their political leverage when negotiating with developed nations. In its efforts to advance Southern interests, the movement has stressed the importance of cooperation and unity amongst member states, but as in the past, cohesion remains a problem since the size of the organisation and the divergence of agendas and allegiances present the ongoing potential for fragmentation. While agreement on basic principles has been smooth, taking definitive action vis - à - vis particular international issues has been rare, with the movement preferring to assert its criticism or support rather than pass hard - line resolutions.
The movement continues to see a role for itself, as in its view, the world 's poorest nations remain exploited and marginalised, no longer by opposing superpowers, but rather in a uni-polar world, and it is Western hegemony and neo-colonialism that the movement has really re-aligned itself against. It opposes foreign occupation, interference in internal affairs and aggressive unilateral measures, but it has also shifted to focus on the socio - economic challenges facing member states, especially the inequalities manifested by globalization and the implications of neo-liberal policies. The Non-Aligned Movement has identified economic underdevelopment, poverty, and social injustices as growing threats to peace and security.
The 16th NAM summit took place in Tehran, Iran, from 26 to 31 August 2012. According to Mehr News Agency, representatives from over 150 countries were scheduled to attend. Attendance at the highest level includes 27 presidents, 2 kings and emirs, 7 prime ministers, 9 vice presidents, 2 parliament spokesmen and 5 special envoys. At the summit, Iran took over from Egypt as Chair of the Non-Aligned Movement for the period 2012 to 2015.
The movement stems from a desire not to be aligned within a geopolitical / military structure and therefore itself does not have a very strict organizational structure. Some organizational basics were defined at the 1996 Cartagena Document on Methodology The Summit Conference of Heads of State or Government of Non-Aligned States is "the highest decision making authority ''. The chairmanship rotates between countries and changes at every summit of heads of state or government to the country organizing the summit.
Requirements for membership of the Non-Aligned Movement coincide with the key beliefs of the United Nations. The current requirements are that the candidate country has displayed practices in accordance with the ten "Bandung principles '' of 1955:
Secretaries General of the NAM had included such diverse figures as Suharto, militaristic anti-communist, and Nelson Mandela, a democratic socialist and famous anti-apartheid activist. Consisting of many governments with vastly different ideologies, the Non-Aligned Movement is unified by its declared commitment to world peace and security. At the seventh summit held in New Delhi in March 1983, the movement described itself as "history 's biggest peace movement ''. The movement places equal emphasis on disarmament. NAM 's commitment to peace pre-dates its formal institutionalisation in 1961. The Brioni meeting between heads of governments of India, Egypt and Yugoslavia in 1956 recognized that there exists a vital link between struggle for peace and endeavours for disarmament.
During the 1970s and early 1980s, the NAM also sponsored campaigns for restructuring commercial relations between developed and developing nations, namely the New International Economic Order (NIEO), and its cultural offspring, the New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO). The latter, on its own, sparked a Non-Aligned initiative on cooperation for communications, the Non-Aligned News Agencies Pool, created in 1975 and later converted into the NAM News Network in 2005.
The Non-Aligned Movement espouses policies and practices of cooperation, especially those that are multilateral and provide mutual benefit to all those involved. Many of the members of the Non-Aligned Movement are also members of the United Nations. Both organisations have a stated policy of peaceful cooperation, yet the successes the NAM has had with multilateral agreements tend to be ignored by the larger, western and developed nation dominated UN. African concerns about apartheid were linked with Arab - Asian concerns about Palestine and multilateral cooperation in these areas has enjoyed moderate success. The Non-Aligned Movement has played a major role in various ideological conflicts throughout its existence, including extreme opposition to apartheid governments and support of guerrilla movements in various locations, including Rhodesia and South Africa.
In recent years the organization has criticized certain aspects of US foreign policy. The 2003 invasion of Iraq and the War on Terrorism, its attempts to stifle Iran and North Korea 's nuclear plans, and its other actions have been denounced by some members of the Non-Aligned Movement as attempts to run roughshod over the sovereignty of smaller nations; at the most recent summit, Kim Yong - nam, the head of North Korea 's parliament, stated, "The United States is attempting to deprive other countries of even their legitimate right to peaceful nuclear activities. ''
Since 1961, the organization has supported the discussion of the case of Puerto Rico 's self - determination before the United Nations. A resolution on the matter was to be proposed on the XV Summit by the Hostosian National Independence Movement.
Since 1973, the group has supported the discussion of the case of Western Sahara 's self - determination before the United Nations. The movement reaffirmed in its last meeting (Sharm El Sheikh 2009) the support to the Self - determination of the Sahrawi people by choosing between any valid option, welcomed the direct conversations between the parties, and remembered the responsibility of the United Nations on the Sahrawi issue.
The movement is publicly committed to the tenets of sustainable development and the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals, but it believes that the international community has not created conditions conducive to development and has infringed upon the right to sovereign development by each member state. Issues such as globalization, the debt burden, unfair trade practices, the decline in foreign aid, donor conditionality, and the lack of democracy in international financial decision - making are cited as factors inhibiting development.
The movement has been outspoken in its criticism of current UN structures and power dynamics, stating that the organisation has been utilised by powerful states in ways that violate the movement 's principles. It has made a number of recommendations that it says would strengthen the representation and power of "non-aligned '' states. The proposed UN reforms are also aimed at improving the transparency and democracy of UN decision - making. The UN Security Council is the element it considers the most distorted, undemocratic, and in need of reshaping.
The movement has collaborated with other organisations of the developing world -- primarily the Group of 77 -- forming a number of joint committees and releasing statements and documents representing the shared interests of both groups. This dialogue and cooperation can be taken as an effort to increase the global awareness about the organisation and bolster its political clout.
The movement accepts the universality of human rights and social justice, but fiercely resists cultural homogenisation. In line with its views on sovereignty, the organisation appeals for the protection of cultural diversity, and the tolerance of the religious, socio - cultural, and historical particularities that define human rights in a specific region.
The conference of Heads of State or Government of the Non-Aligned Countries, often referred to as Non-Aligned Movement Summit is the main meeting within the movement and are held every few years:
A variety of ministerial meetings are held between the summit meetings. Some are specialist, such as the meeting on "Inter-Faith Dialogue and Co-operation for Peace '', held in Manila, the Philippines, 16 -- 18 March 2010. There is a general Conference of Foreign Ministers every three years. The most recent were in Bali, Indonesia, 23 -- 27 May 2011 and Algiers, Algeria, 26 -- 29 May 2014.
The Non-Aligned Movement celebrated its 50th anniversary in Belgrade on 5 -- 6 September 2011.
Between summits, the Non-Aligned Movement is run by the secretary general elected at the last summit meeting. The Coordinating Bureau, also based at the UN, is the main instrument for directing the work of the movement 's task forces, committees and working groups.
The following countries are members of the NAM, arranged by continent, showing their year of admission:
Currently every African country (except South Sudan and Western Sahara) is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement.
The following countries and organizations have observer status (2012):
There is no permanent guest status, but often several non-member countries are represented as guests at conferences. In addition, a large number of organisations, both from within the UN system and from outside, are always invited as guests.
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who played primrose in the darling buds of may | Abigail Rokison - wikipedia
Abigail Rokison - Woodall (née Rokison) is an author and academic specialising in William Shakespeare, as well as a former actress. She was Director of Studies in English and Drama at Homerton College, Cambridge until the end of 2012. She is now lecturer in Shakespeare and Theatre at the Shakespeare Institute, Stratford upon Avon. She previously played Primrose in The Darling Buds of May.
Her acting career covered both stage and screen, and included the role of Primrose Larkin in the ITV television comedy drama The Darling Buds of May, first broadcast between 1991 and 1993. She went on to earn a Diploma in Acting from the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art in 1996, followed by an undergraduate degree in Humanities with Literature from the Open University in 2001. Using the proceeds from a recent re-run of the Darling Buds series, Rokison was then able to earn a 2002 Master 's degree in Shakespearean studies from the joint programme between King 's College London and the Globe Theatre. From there she earned a PhD from Trinity Hall College, Cambridge University in 2007. Her PhD dissertation is described as a "new synthesis of academic and theatrical approaches to the Shakespearean text ''. Following her PhD, she remained in academia as Director of Studies in English and Drama at Homerton College, Cambridge, having joined the staff in 2006. Having been published by the Cambridge University Press in January 2010 as a hardback, her dissertation went on to receive the inaugural Shakespeare 's Globe Book Award in 2012, awarded to works which have made an "important contribution to the understanding of Shakespeare 's theatre, or his contemporaries ''. In 2013 she published her second book ' Shakespeare for Young People ' (Bloomsbury).
Abigail married actor Andrew Woodall in 2015.
Book chapters
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tala al badru alaina naat written in urdu | Tala ' al Badru ' Alaynā - wikipedia
Tala ' al - Badru ' Alaynā (Arabic: طلع البدر علينا) is a traditional Islamic poem known as nasheed that the Ansar (residents of Madinah) sang for Muhammad upon his arrival at Madinah, to welcome him after completing the Battle of Tabuk.
Some mistakenly say it was first sung as he sought refuge there after being forced to leave his hometown of Mecca. This is clearly not the case as the second line reads "From the valley of Wada '' (من ثنيات الوداع). The valley of wada was the place where people would walk with their loved ones who were travelling and say goodbye. It is located north of Madinah and Makkah is south and the Prophet arrived at Quba which is south, so it is geographically impossible that it was sung at the Hijrah. The stronger and correct opinion is that it was sung for Prophet Muhammad upon his arrival at Madinah, to welcome him after completing the Battle of Tabuk.
The song is currently over 1450 years old, and one of the oldest in the Islamic culture.
The poem is written in a variety of the Arabic metre known as ramal, and goes as follows (where -- is a long syllable, u is a short syllable, and x either long or short), from left to right:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UHdoAZXHbqw https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DUhrjm8kbQE&list=RDDUhrjm8kbQE
- Raef
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who is exulting in o captain my captain | O Captain! My Captain! - Wikipedia
"O Captain! My Captain! '' is an extended metaphor poem written in 1865 by Walt Whitman, about the death of American president Abraham Lincoln. The poem was first published in the pamphlet Sequel to Drum - Taps which assembled 18 poems regarding the American Civil War, including another Lincoln elegy, "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom 'd ''. It was included in Whitman 's comprehensive collection Leaves of Grass beginning with its fourth edition published in 1867. The poem emphasizes or shows grief and sorrow.
O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done; The ship has weather 'd every rack, the prize we sought is won; The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting, While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring:
O Captain! My Captain! rise up and hear the bells; Rise up -- for you the flag is flung -- for you the bugle trills; For you bouquets and ribbon 'd wreaths -- for you the shores a-crowding; For you they call, the swaying mass, their eager faces turning;
My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still; My father does not feel my arm, he has no pulse nor will; The ship is anchor 'd safe and sound, its voyage closed and done; From fearful trip, the victor ship, comes in with object won;
Walt Whitman composed the poem "O Captain! My Captain! '' after Abraham Lincoln 's assassination in 1865. The poem is classified as an elegy or mourning poem, and was written to honor Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of the United States. Walt Whitman was born in 1819 and died in 1892, and the American Civil War was the central event of his life. Whitman was a staunch Unionist during the Civil War. He was initially indifferent to Lincoln, but as the war pressed on, Whitman came to love the president, though the two men never met.
The fallen captain in the poem refers to Abraham Lincoln, captain of the ship that is the United States of America. The first line establishes the poem 's mood, one of relief that the Civil War has ended, "our fearful trip is done. '' The next line references the ship, America, and how it has "weathered every rack '', meaning America has braved the tough storm of the Civil War, and "the prize we sought '', the preservation of the Union, "is won ''. The following line expresses a mood of jubilation of the Union winning the war as it says "the people all exulting; '' however, the next line swiftly shifts the mood when it talks of the grimness of the ship, and the darker side of the war. Many lost their lives in the American Civil War, and although the prize that was sought was won, the hearts still ache amidst the exultation of the people. The repetition of heart in line five calls attention to the poet 's vast grief and heartache because the Captain has bled and lies still, cold, and dead (lines six through eight). This is no doubt referencing the assassination of Abraham Lincoln and Whitman 's sorrow for the death of his idol.
In the second stanza the speaker again calls out to the captain to "rise up and hear the bells, '' to join in the celebration of the end of the war. The next three lines tell the captain to "rise up '' and join in on the revelries because it is for him. He is the reason for their merriment: "for you the flag is flung -- for you the bugle trills; for you bouquets and ribbon 'd wreaths -- for you the shores a-crowding; for you they call, the swaying mass, their eager faces turning ''. Everyone is celebrating what Lincoln accomplished; the abolition of slavery and the unification of the people after a fearful war. Again the poet calls to the Captain as if he had never fallen. The poet does not wish to acknowledge the death of his beloved Captain, and he even asks if it is some dream (line 15) that the Captain has fallen "cold and dead ''.
The third stanza begins in a somber mood as the poet has finally accepted that the Captain is dead and gone. Here there is vivid and darker imagery such as "his lips are pale and still '' and the reader can picture the dead Captain lying there still and motionless with "no pulse nor will ''. In line 17, the poet calls out "My Captain, '' and in line 18, the poet refers to the Captain as "My father ''. This is referring to Lincoln as the father of the United States. Lines 19 and 20 are concluding statements that summarize the entire poem. The United States is "anchor 'd safe and sound ''. It is safe now from war with "its voyage closed and done, from fearful trip, the victor ship, comes in with object won ''. In line 21, the examples of apostrophe, ordering "shores to exult, '' and "bells to ring '' are again referring to how the nation is celebrating while "I with mournful tread, Walk the deck my Captain lies, Fallen cold and dead ''.
Throughout the paper there is a distinct rhyme scheme, which is unusual for Whitman. The rhyme scheme in "O Captain! My Captain! '' is AABCDEFE, GGHIJEKE, and LLMNOEPE for each stanza respectively. Two examples of alliteration are in line 10 "flag is flung '', as well as in line 19 "safe and sound ''. Repetition occurs many times in this poem, for example "O Captain! My Captain '', and "fallen cold and dead ''.
"O Captain! My Captain! '' became one of Whitman 's most famous poems, one that he would read at the end of his famous lecture about the Lincoln assassination. Whitman became so identified with the poem that late in life he remarked, "Damn My Captain... I 'm almost sorry I ever wrote the poem. ''
Walter Huston recited the poem, with special musical underscoring by Victor Young, on a 1947 Decca Records album titled Our Common Heritage. The recording was rebroadcast as part of a 1954 Memorial Day edition of the WNBC poetry radio program Anthology.
A musical version of the poem appears on Carolyn Hester 's 1965 live album At Town Hall.
In 1996, Israeli songwriter Naomi Shemer translated the poem to Hebrew and wrote music for it. This was done in addition to several prior translations in order to mark the anniversary of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin 's assassination which took place one year earlier, in 1995. The song is since commonly performed or played in Yitzhak Rabin memorial day services all around Israel.
"Passage '', a Z. Randall Stroope composition for SATB choir, has a similar message to "O Captain! My Captain! '' and actually quotes one section: "Captain my captain, rise up and hear the bells. Rise up, for you the flag is flung! For you bouquets and ribbon 'd wreaths ''.
After actor Robin Williams ' death in August 2014, fans of his work used social media to pay tribute to him with photo and video reenactments of the Dead Poets Society "O Captain! My Captain! '' scene.
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game of thrones season 7 ep 3 wik | The Spoils of War (Game of Thrones) - wikipedia
"The Spoils of War '' is the fourth episode of the seventh season of HBO 's fantasy television series Game of Thrones, and the 64th overall. It was written by series co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, and directed by Matt Shakman.
At Dragonstone, Daenerys Targaryen (Emilia Clarke) and Jon Snow (Kit Harington) observe cave drawings left by the Children of the Forest, indicating that the First Men and the Children fought together against the White Walkers. In King 's Landing, Cersei Lannister (Lena Headey) seeks further investment from the Iron Bank, after reassuring them that their debt will soon be paid. In the North, Arya Stark (Maisie Williams) returns to Winterfell, reunites with her siblings, Sansa (Sophie Turner) and Bran Stark (Isaac Hempstead Wright), and spars with Brienne of Tarth (Gwendoline Christie). On the road to King 's Landing, Jaime Lannister (Nikolaj Coster - Waldau), Bronn (Jerome Flynn), and the Lannister and Tarly armies are caught in an attack led by Daenerys, her dragon Drogon, and the Dothraki army. Bronn successfully hits Drogon with a scorpion bolt, causing Drogon to land. Jaime then charges and tries to attack Daenerys with a spear, but as he approaches, Drogon attempts to set him ablaze. Jaime is knocked out of the way by Bronn at the last moment, however, was pushed into the Blackwater Rush, where he begins sinking to the bottom of the river.
The title of the episode refers to the Tyrell gold and other resources in possession of the Lannisters after taking Highgarden. "The Spoils of War '' received universal acclaim from critics with one critic defining it as a "masterpiece '', who listed the concluding battle sequence between Daenerys and Jaime, Arya 's return to Winterfell and interaction with Brienne, and Daenerys and Jon 's conversation at Dragonstone as highlights of the episode. The episode set an industry record for the most stuntmen set on fire, with 73 "fire burns '', in addition to 20 people being set on fire for a single shot. In the United States, the episode achieved a viewership of 10.17 million in its initial broadcast, the 3rd highest in the series.
Cersei assures Tycho that the Crown 's debts to the Iron Bank will be fully repaid. They discuss the possibility of a new loan that would enable Qyburn to engage the mercenary Golden Company of Essos.
Littlefinger gives Bran the Valyrian steel dagger that was used in the attempt on Bran 's life. Littlefinger tries to get Bran to tell him of his experiences after fleeing Winterfell, and is disconcerted when Bran repeats to him Littlefinger 's earlier remark to Varys that "chaos is a ladder. '' Meera visits Bran to say farewell, as she wants to be with her family when the White Walkers attack. Bran is indifferent to her departure, and a dismayed Meera remarks figuratively that Bran died in the Three - Eyed Raven 's cave.
Arya arrives at Winterfell, and evades the guards to visit Ned 's tomb in the crypts, where Sansa finds her. Sansa takes Arya to see Bran in the godswood. Arya is taken aback to find that Bran knows of her kill list, and Bran gives her the Valyrian steel dagger. Podrick reassures Brienne that she has fulfilled her oath to Catelyn; Brienne insists she did almost nothing. Later, Brienne and Podrick spar and Arya asks to train with Brienne. They fight to a draw as Sansa and Littlefinger watch.
Jon shows Daenerys the vast dragonglass mine, in which Children of the Forest cave drawings depict the Children and the First Men fighting together against the White Walkers. Seemingly convinced that Jon is telling the truth, Daenerys vows to fight for the North, but only if Jon bends the knee. Jon remains resistant.
Tyrion and Varys report the pyrrhic victory at Casterly Rock and the loss of Highgarden; Daenerys questions Tyrion 's loyalties. Considering striking King 's Landing with her dragons, she asks Jon for advice. He notes that her followers believe she can change the world; but if she destroys a city, she will be just another tyrant.
Later, the Ironborn survivors return to Dragonstone. Jon accosts Theon, saying Theon 's role in saving Sansa is the only reason Jon does n't kill him. Theon asks for Daenerys 's help in rescuing Yara, but Daenerys is gone.
The bulk of the Lannister caravan approaches King 's Landing after the Tyrell gold has been brought inside the city. Jaime gives Bronn a large satchel of gold, but Bronn still wants the castle he was promised.
As the final caravans were being loaded by Randyll Tarly, Jaime and Bronn are startled to hear a faint sound of Dothraki horses. Riding Drogon, Daenerys leads a Dothraki attack that quickly overruns the caravan, with the food wagons being annihilated by Drogon 's flames. Failing to bring Drogon down, Jaime commands Bronn to find Qyburn 's scorpion. Abandoning the gold where he drops it, Bronn wounds Drogon with the Scorpion. Drogon destroys it, then lands; Daenerys dismounts to tend Drogon 's wound. Jaime -- horrified to see his army burnt to a crisp -- charges at her but Drogon breathes fire at him; Bronn tackles him off his horse, out of the flame 's path and into the Blackwater Rush, where Jaime begins to sink.
"The Spoils of War '' was written by the series ' creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. The episode is the series ' shortest episode to date. In the "Inside the Episode '' featurette published by HBO following the airing of the episode, David Benioff spoke about the inspiration for the return of Arya Stark to Winterfell, saying it was inspired by Odysseus ' return, who is also unrecognizable after making his journey. Benioff also stated that the important part of her return to Winterfell is her relationship to Sansa Stark, with Weiss following up by stating that the intention of the scene in the crypts where they are reunited was to "lay in the beginnings of the storyline where Sansa realizes what Arya is now. ''
Speaking about the revelation of the cave drawings with the Children of the Forest and the First Men, Benioff stated that the inspiration for the drawings were the cave paintings created by prehistoric men that were found in France, and that the scene was meant to be evocative in noting the thousands of years that have passed since the drawings were created.
In writing the battle between the Lannister army, and Daenerys ' Dothraki and Drogon, Weiss stated that one of the most exciting elements of the fight involved the fact that two main characters were on opposite sides of the battlefield, and that it is "impossible to really want any one of them to win, and impossible to want any one of them to lose, '' according to Weiss. He also compared the introduction of a dragon in medieval warfare to using an F - 16 fighter aircraft in a medieval battle. According to Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, in an interview with Entertainment Weekly following the airing of the episode, the script stated that "One of our main characters is about to die. '' Coster - Waldau also stated about his character, "Jaime is such an idiot that he thinks for a second, ' If I can do this, I can win the whole thing in a ' Hail Mary. ' ''
In addition to the regular recurring guest cast, Major League Baseball player Noah Syndergaard, pitcher for the New York Mets, made a brief uncredited cameo appearance as a spear - throwing Lannister soldier during the battle between Lannister and Tarly forces and Daenerys Targaryen and the Dothraki. In an interview prior to the season conducted by Sports Illustrated, Syndergaard spoke about his appearance in the series by saying "It 's a dream come true. I think it 's the greatest TV show of all time, so just to be able to say I was in Game of Thrones is an unbelievable feeling. ''
"The Spoils of War '' was directed by Matt Shakman. This was Shakman 's directorial debut for the series, but he has previously served as a director for several other television series, including Fargo, The Good Wife, Mad Men and It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, among others. The battle sequence at the conclusion of the episode, which was referred to as the "Loot Train Attack '' during production, set an industry record for the most stuntmen set on fire, with real fire being used, rather than special effects, to simulate the dragon fire being emitted by Drogon. There were 73 "fire burns, '' in addition to 20 people being set on fire for a single shot. Filming of the attack sequence took approximately 18 main - unit days, five second - unit days, and several weeks for the effects - unit. In an interview with The Hollywood Reporter, Shakman spoke about the first time he read the script of the battle, saying "I was reading the script and this battle began and I kept turning pages and the battle kept going on page after page after page! The excitement, the stress and the fear all built at the same time, mirroring probably what was happening on screen. It was a huge opportunity and a challenge. I spent the better part of six months working on that one sequence. '' The "Loot Train Attack '' was filmed in Cáceres, Spain, and Emilia Clarke, who portrays Daenerys Targaryen, was filmed riding a motion base on a stage in Belfast in front of several green screens.
Shakman 's first step in directing the battle was choosing to focus on a specific perspective, with Shakman choosing Jaime as the main point of view, noting "To see it from a traditional fighter like Jaime to see what happens when you introduce something like napalm or the atom bomb into battle and all the sudden traditional fighting goes out the window. '' Shakman also noted that Tyrion was another important perspective for the battle, as he watches from afar, saying "We talked through every beat of what he was seeing, and then he imagined that in his mind and brought it to life. He 's the human intermediary there to see the battle through. '' Shakman filmed Peter Dinklage as Tyrion about a mile from the battlefield, and most of his shots involved "staring at lots of different tennis balls '' for eye line. Shakman drew inspiration for the direction of the sequence from Miguel Sapochnik, who directed the sixth season episode "Battle of the Bastards '', and Neil Marshall, who directed the second season episode "Blackwater '', as well as the battles in Apocalypse Now, Saving Private Ryan and Stagecoach. Shakman also revealed that he used the volcanic destruction of Pompeii as a reference, which led to the idea of some of the army being turned to ash.
For the beginning of the "Loot Train Attack, '' with the Dothraki approaching, Shakman stated that he wanted it to feel like a Western, saying in the interview, "I wanted that feeling of a Western -- this savage attack coming at this more formalized line of men, that tension of circling the wagons and trying to protect them from the chaos and the onslaught. '' Shakman worked with the horse mistress, Camilla Naprous, in order to show the Dothraki 's mastery at horse riding, which included standing on the horse 's saddles while shooting arrows. In order to accomplish this stunt, Naprous built what was referred to as a "metal shoe '' that allowed the stunt performers to stand on the horses. The sequence continues with Drogon attacking the Lannister and Tarly armies, with special effects supervisor Joe Bauer noting that the amount of shots of Emilia Clarke as Daenerys Targaryen riding Drogon increased significantly, with the entirety of the sixth season having eleven shots, while "The Spoils of War '' alone had over 80 shots. As the stunt performers were lit on fire, they were required to hold their breath until the fire was put out, and specific attention was given to stunt performers in the middle of the shot, as they faced the brunt of the heat from the fire. Shakman also spoke about the difficulty in shooting the dragon sequence and the safety of the performers, saying "The most difficult was safety because you 're dealing with fire, horses and actors -- and those things do n't do well in close proximity yet the nature of it was to create this Bosch - like nightmare where, as the scene progresses, it becomes increasingly like you 're in the pit of hell. That was difficult. ''
Robert McLachlan who served as cinematographer for the episode, and previously was cinematographer for episodes including "The Rains of Castamere '' and "The Dance of Dragons '' in the show 's third and fifth seasons respectively, was also interviewed about the process of creating the "Loot Train Attack. '' In an interview conducted by The Verge, McLachlan revealed that the production team received the script for the episode more than a year in advance. Several cameras were used to capture the "Loot Train Attack, '' including a small handheld camera known as an Osmo, which "allowed a horseman to get shots while riding a horse at a full gallop through the cavalry charge, '' as well as a "custom - built miniature helicopter drone '' for the "overhead dragon shots. '' A cable - cam was also used, which made several passes over the battlefield during the course of filming. Going into filming, one of McLachlan 's most desired effects was the amount of smoke on the battlefield, saying "we wanted to block the sun out so the shots would have some consistency. And I knew the fire and smoke would be incredibly beautiful. '' White smoke was used towards the beginning of filming, but as the battle went on, McLachlan decided to switch to black smoke, which was accomplished through burning diesel oil. This caused the crew to be required to wear masks and goggles, and raised concern for HBO 's safety officer, who eventually prohibited further use of the black smoke due to health and safety concerns. Additional smoke was added later by the special effects team.
The amount of extras that were utilized for filming the "Loot Train Attack '' began with more than 600 extras, and gradually decreased as the weeks of filming went on, with 400 extras returning the following week, and ultimately concluded with approximately 100 extras, according to McLachlan. McLachlan also discussed the "oner '' featuring Bronn, which he described as a single shot that "runs for as long as possible, '' revealing that the sequence was actually three shots that were stitched together by the special effects team, led by VFX supervisor Joe Bauer. He continued by revealing that the entire "oner '' Bronn sequence was accomplished in only three takes.
In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, Sophie Turner, who portrays Sansa Stark, spoke about filming the reunion scene with Maisie Williams, who portrays Arya Stark. Turner stated that the two kept laughing during the filming of the scene, and that they could n't "keep a straight face ''. She continued, "Our relationship is so close, but it 's only that fun side, never the business side. I was nervous. It just terrified me. It 's like performing for your mum. When somebody is watching you do n't do it quite as well. '' Williams also spoke about the scene, saying, "It was the weirdest thing when we shot our first scene together. We were both embarrassed to do our thing in front of each other. It took a few hours for us to get serious and actually do it. Later it was fine on set and we could concentrate, but it was so hard to get into character with Sophie in front of me. '' Shakman also spoke about the reunion in a separate interview, saying, "It was fun for them, it was fun for us to see them work together, and same with Isaac when they all got together. They 're all terrific, and they 're amazing actors, and it was fun to see them come together now as adults and navigate these much more complicated scenes than they had to do with each other years ago. ''
"The Spoils of War '' was viewed by 10.17 million total viewers on its initial viewing on HBO, which was significantly higher than the previous week 's rating of 9.25 million for the episode "The Queen 's Justice ''. This set a ratings record for Game of Thrones, as the highest rated episode of the series to that point, surpassing the seventh season premiere, which previously held the record. The episode also acquired a 4.6 rating in the 18 -- 49 demographic, making it the highest rated show on cable television of the night. In the United Kingdom, the episode was viewed by 3.015 million viewers on Sky Atlantic, making it the highest - rated broadcast that week on its channel. It also received 1.022 million timeshift viewers.
"The Spoils of War '' received widespread acclaim from critics, who listed the battle between Daenerys Targaryen and Jaime Lannister, Arya 's return to Winterfell and interaction with Brienne, and Daenerys and Jon Snow 's conversation at Dragonstone as high points of the episode. It has received a 98 % rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes from 43 reviews with an average score of 9.2 out of 10. The site 's consensus reads "'' The Spoils of War '' delivers arguably the greatest battle sequence of the series so far, in exciting, epic, fiery spectacle. '' The episode also currently holds a 9.9 out of 10 community rating on IMDb, making it one of the highest - rated episodes on the website.
Matt Fowler of IGN wrote in his review for the episode, "The past three Thrones episodes now have ended with big action set pieces, but the Dragon / Dothraki battle down in The Reach, in "The Spoils of War, '' was one of the most gripping and magnificent ones to date. It may even rival "Hardhome '' in terms of spectacle. '' He continued, "Game of Thrones pulled no punches and showed no quarter this week as we witnessed one of the fiercest and most engaging battles the show 's ever produced, featuring major fan - favorite characters on opposite sides of the fight. On top of that, Arya, after seven years, made her way home to Winterfell and managed to best Brienne of Tarth in a friendly training session. There are three Starks in Winterfell right now, but with Littlefinger there poisoning the well, things still are n't quite right. '' He gave the episode a 10 out of 10. Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club similarly praised the concluding battle sequence: "The Spoils Of War '' lives up to its title by reinforcing how much more fruitful war is as a storytelling mechanism at this point in the series ' life. '' He also compared the episode to the previous episode, "The Queen 's Justice '', which had two battles that largely took place off - screen, writing "Here, the battle is told through multiple perspectives, each vested with meaning and purpose: our point - of - view shifts between Dany and Drogon and Jaime and Bronn, before eventually adding Tyrion watching from afar, and the direction from first - time Thrones director Matt Shakman uses those POV very carefully. '' He concluded his review by saying "The Spoils Of War '' anchors itself on characters whose stories are far from over, and crafts a reunion and a battle sequence that end no stories and yet draw meaning from the fact that technically, at this point, any story could end at any moment. '' He gave the episode an A -. James Hibberd of Entertainment Weekly gave the episode an A, writing in his review, "All the leaks in the world could n't wreck "The Spoils of War ''. Game of Thrones ' shortest episode ever -- and part of the show 's fastest - paced season ever -- did n't feel rushed at all, and the story 's impact remained incredibly strong no matter what you knew ahead of time. ''
On August 4, 2017, it was reported that, two days before its original broadcast, the episode was leaked online from Star India, one of HBO 's international network partners. Four suspects were arrested over the leak in Mumbai. Three of them were employees of Prime Focus Technologies, an independent company that handles Star India 's data, while one was a former employee.
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what is the meaning of death of a salesman | Death of a Salesman - wikipedia
Death of a Salesman is a 1949 play written by American playwright Arthur Miller. It was the recipient of the 1949 Pulitzer Prize for Drama and Tony Award for Best Play. The play premiered on Broadway in February 1949, running for 742 performances, and has been revived on Broadway four times, winning three Tony Awards for Best Revival. It is widely considered to be one of the greatest plays of the 20th century.
Willy Loman returns home exhausted after a business trip he has cancelled. Worried over Willy 's state of mind and recent car accident, his wife Linda suggests that he ask his boss Howard Wagner to allow him to work in his home city so he will not have to travel. Willy complains to Linda that their son, Biff, has yet to make good on his life. Despite Biff 's promising showing as an athlete in high school, he failed in mathematics and was unable to enter a university.
Biff and his brother Happy, who is temporarily staying with Willy and Linda after Biff 's unexpected return from the West, reminisce about their childhood together. They discuss their father 's mental degeneration, which they have witnessed in the form of his constant indecisiveness and daydreaming about the boys ' high school years. Willy walks in, angry that the two boys have never amounted to anything. In an effort to pacify their father, Biff and Happy tell their father that Biff plans to make a business proposition the next day.
The next day, Willy goes to ask his boss, Howard, for a job in town while Biff goes to make a business proposition, but both fail. Willy gets angry and ends up getting fired when the boss tells him he needs a rest and can no longer represent the company. Biff waits hours to see a former employer who does not remember him and turns him down. Biff impulsively steals a fountain pen. Willy then goes to the office of his neighbor Charley, where he runs into Charley 's son Bernard (now a successful lawyer); Bernard tells him that Biff originally wanted to do well in summer school, but something happened in Boston when Biff went to visit his father that changed his mind. Charley gives the now - unemployed Willy money to pay his life - insurance premium; Willy shocks Charley by remarking that ultimately, a man is "worth more dead than alive. ''
Happy, Biff, and Willy meet for dinner at a restaurant, but Willy refuses to hear bad news from Biff. Happy tries to get Biff to lie to their father. Biff tries to tell him what happened as Willy gets angry and slips into a flashback of what happened in Boston the day Biff came to see him. Willy had been having an affair with a receptionist on one of his sales trips when Biff unexpectedly arrived at Willy 's hotel room. A shocked Biff angrily confronted his father, calling him a liar and a fraud. From that moment, Biff 's views of his father changed and set Biff adrift.
Biff leaves the restaurant in frustration, followed by Happy and two girls that Happy has picked up. They leave a confused and upset Willy behind in the restaurant. When they later return home, their mother angrily confronts them for abandoning their father while Willy remains outside, talking to himself. Biff tries unsuccessfully to reconcile with Willy, but the discussion quickly escalates into another argument. Biff conveys plainly to his father that he is not meant for anything great, insisting that both of them are simply ordinary men meant to lead ordinary lives. The feud reaches an apparent climax with Biff hugging Willy and crying as he tries to get Willy to let go of the unrealistic expectations. Rather than listen to what Biff actually says, Willy appears to believe his son has forgiven him and will follow in his footsteps, and after Linda goes upstairs to bed (despite her urging him to follow her), lapses one final time into a hallucination, thinking he sees his long - dead brother Ben, whom Willy idolized. In Willy 's mind, Ben approves of the scheme Willy has dreamed up to kill himself in order to give Biff his insurance policy money. Willy exits the house. Biff and Linda cry out in despair as the sound of Willy 's car blares up and fades out.
The final scene takes place at Willy 's funeral, which is attended only by his family, Bernard, and Charley. The ambiguities of mixed and unaddressed emotions persist, particularly over whether Willy 's choices or circumstances were obsolete. At the funeral Biff retains his belief that he does not want to become a businessman like his father. Happy, on the other hand, chooses to follow in his father 's footsteps, while Linda laments her husband 's decision just before her final payment on the house...
"... and there 'll be nobody home. We 're free and clear, Willy... we 're free... we 're free... ''
Death of a Salesman uses flashbacks to present Willy 's memory during the reality. The illusion not only "suggests the past, but also presents the lost pastoral life. '' Willy has dreamed of success his whole life and makes up lies about his and Biff 's success. The more he indulges in the illusion, the harder it is for him to face reality. Biff is the only one who realizes that the whole family lived in the lies and tries to face the truth.
The American Dream is the theme of the play, but everyone in the play has their own way to describe their American Dreams.
Willy Loman dreams of being a successful salesman like Dave Singleman, somebody who has both wealth and freedom. Willy believes that the key to success is being well - liked, and his frequent flashbacks show that he measures happiness in terms of wealth and popularity. One analyst of the play writes: "Society tries to teach that, if people are rich and well - liked, they will be happy. Because of this, Willy thought that money would make him happy. He never bothered to try to be happy with what he had... ''. Willy also believes that to attain success, one must have a suitable personality. According to another analyst, "He believes that salesmanship is based on ' sterling traits of character ' and ' a pleasing personality. ' But Willy does not have the requisite sterling traits of character; people simply do not like him as much as he thinks is necessary for success. ''
Ben symbolizes another kind of successful American Dream for Willy: to catch opportunity, to conquer nature, and to gain a fortune. His mantra goes: "Why, boys, when I was seventeen I walked into the jungle, and when I was twenty - one I walked out. (He laughs.) And by God I was rich. ''
After seeing his father 's real identity, Biff does not follow his father 's "dream '' because he knows that, as two analysts put it, "Willy does see his future but in a blind way. Meaning that he can and can not see at the same time, since his way of seeing or visualizing the future is completely wrong. ''
One thing that is apparent from the Death of a Salesman is the hard work and dedication of Charley and Bernard. Willy criticizes Charley and Bernard throughout the play, but it is not because he hates them. Rather, it 's argued that he is jealous of the successes they have enjoyed, which is outside his standards.
The models of business success provided in the play all argue against Willy 's "personality theory. '' One is Charley, Willy 's neighbor and apparently only friend. Charley has no time for Willy 's theories of business, but he provides for his family and is in a position to offer Willy a do - nothing job to keep him bringing home a salary. (Bloom 51)
Death of a Salesman first opened on February 10, 1949, to great success. Drama critic John Gassner wrote that "the ecstatic reception accorded Death of Salesman has been reverberating for some time wherever there is an ear for theatre, and it is undoubtedly the best American play since A Streetcar Named Desire. ''
The play reached London on July 28, 1949. London responses were mixed, but mostly favorable. The Times criticized it, saying that "the strongest play of New York theatrical season should be transferred to London in the deadest week of the year. '' However, the public understanding of the ideology of the play was different from that in America. Some people, such as Eric Keown, think of Death of a Salesman as "a potential tragedy deflected from its true course by Marxist sympathies. ''
The play was hailed as "the most important and successful night '' in Hebbel - Theater in Berlin. It was said that "it was impossible to get the audience to leave the theatre '' at the end of the performance. The Berlin production was more successful than New York, possibly due to better interpretation.
Compared to Tennessee Williams and Beckett, Arthur Miller and his Death of Salesman were less influential. Rajinder Paul said that "Death of a Salesman has only an indirect influence on Indian theatre practitions. '' However, it was translated and produced in Bengali as ' Pheriwalar Mrityu ' by the theater group Nandikar. Director Feroz Khan adapted the play in Hindi and English by the name "Salesman Ramlal '' played brilliantly by Satish Kaushik and with the role of his son portrayed by Kishore Kadam.
Death of a Salesman was welcomed in China. There, Arthur Miller directed the play himself. As Miller stated, "It depends on the father and the mother and the children. That 's what it 's about. The salesman part is what he does to stay alive. But he could be a peasant, he could be, whatever. '' Here, the play focuses on the family relationship. It is easier for the Chinese public to understand the relationship between father and son because "One thing about the play that is very Chinese is the way Willy tries to make his sons successful. '' The Chinese father always wants his sons to be ' dragons. '
The original Broadway production was produced by Kermit Bloomgarden and Walter Fried. The play opened at the Morosco Theatre on February 10, 1949, closing on November 18, 1950, after 742 performances. The play starred Lee J. Cobb as Willy Loman, Mildred Dunnock as Linda, Arthur Kennedy as Biff, Howard Smith as Charley and Cameron Mitchell as Happy. Albert Dekker and Gene Lockhart later played Willy Loman during the original Broadway run. It won the Tony Award for Best Play, Best Supporting or Featured Actor (Arthur Kennedy), Best Scenic Design (Jo Mielziner), Producer (Dramatic), Author (Arthur Miller), and Director (Elia Kazan), as well as the 1949 Pulitzer Prize for Drama and the New York Drama Critics ' Circle Award for Best Play. Jayne Mansfield performed in a production of the play in Dallas, Texas, in October 1953. Her performance in the play attracted Paramount Pictures to hire her for the studio 's film productions.
The play has been revived on Broadway four times:
It was also part of the inaugural season of the Guthrie Theater in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1963.
Christopher Lloyd portrayed Willy Loman in a 2010 production by the Weston Playhouse in Weston, Vermont, which toured several New England venues.
Antony Sher played Willy Loman in the first Royal Shakespeare Company production of the play directed by Gregory Doran in Stratford - upon - Avon in the spring of 2015, with Harriet Walter as Linda Loman. This production transferred to London 's West End, at the Noel Coward Theatre for ten weeks in the summer of 2015. This production was part of the centenary celebrations for playwright Arthur Miller.
2012 Broadway revival
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who knew how to get out of chakravyuh | Padmavyūha - wikipedia
The Padmavyūha (Sanskrit: पद्मव्यूह) or Chakravyūha (चक्रव्यूह) is a military formation depicted in the Hindu epic Mahabharata.
The Padmavyūha is a multi-tiered defensive formation that looks like a blooming lotus (पद्म padma) or disc (चक्र chakra) when viewed from above. The warriors at each interleaving position would be in an increasingly tough position to fight. The formation was used in the battle of Kurukshetra by Dronacharya, who became commander - in - chief of the Kaurava army after the fall of Bhishma Pitamaha.
The various vyūhas (military formations) were studied by the Kauravas and Pandavas alike. Most of them can be beaten using a counter-measure targeted specifically against that formation. It is important to observe that in the form of battle described in the Mahabharata, it was important to place powerful fighters in positions where they could inflict maximum damage to the opposing force, or defend their own side. As per this military strategy, a specific stationary object or a moving object or person could be captured, surrounded and fully secured during battle.
The formation begins with two soldiers on both sides, with other soldiers following them at a distance of three hands, drawing up seven circles and culminating in the end which is the place where the captured person or object is to be kept. In order to form the Chakravyuha, the commander has to identify soldiers who will form this formation. The number of soldiers to be deployed and the size of the Chakravyuha is calculated as per the resistance estimated. Once drawn, the foremost soldiers come on either side of the opponent to be captured, engage briefly and then advance. Their place is taken up by the next soldiers on either side, who again engage the opponent briefly and then advance. In this fashion, a number of soldiers pass the enemy and proceed in a circular pattern. By the time the rear of the formation arrives, the oblivious enemy is surrounded on all sides by seven tiers of soldiers. The last soldiers of the formation give the signal of completing the Chakravyuha. On the signal, every soldier who so far has been facing outwards turns inwards to face the opponent. It is only then that the captured enemy realizes his captivity. The army maintains the circular formation and can lead away the captive as well.
The Chakravyūha or Padmavyūha was a very special formation (vyuha), and knowledge of how to penetrate it was limited to only a handful of warriors on the Pandavas ' side, namely: Abhimanyu, Arjuna, Krishna and Pradyumna, of which only Abhimanyu was present when the Kauravas used it on the battlefield. In the Mahabharata it is mentioned that Abhimanyu learnt about the Chakravyūha while in his mother 's womb but he was not able to hear how to escape the formation. After Abhimanyu had penetrated the sixth tier of the formation, all the Kauravas ' commanders attacked him simultaneously, which was against the righteous rules of warfare Dharmayuddha, and gradually exhausted and killed him.
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pilla nuvvu leni jeevitham movie download in telugu | Pilla Nuvvu Leni Jeevitham - wikipedia
Pilla Nuvvu Leni Jeevitam (English: Girl, Life Without You) is a 2014 Telugu romantic - action - comedy film directed by A.S. Ravi Kumar Chowdary, jointly produced by Bunny Vas and Harishith on Geetha Arts and Sri Venkateswara Creations banner. Starring Sai Dharam Tej, Regina Cassandra, Jagapati Babu in the lead roles and music was composed by Anoop Rubens. The film is the first release of Sai Dharam Tej as hero. The title was taken from one song of a Gabbar Singh film. The movie opened to positive to mixed reviews from critics.
Sai Dharam Tej 's first debut was Rey as hero, produced and directed, by YVS Chowdary on his Bommarillu films banner. The film was launched at Ramanaidu Studios in Hyderabad on 17 October 2010 on the eve of Vijayadasami. The filming ended on 6 August 2013. Rey movie delayed due to financial issues and it released on 27 March 2015.
The story begins with a notorious politician Ganga Prasad (Sayaji Shinde) and a clean politician Prabhakar (Prakash Raj) vying for the CM 's seat. An investigative journalist Shafi (Shafi) breaks a story on Ganga Prasad and reveals that he has some important information on the candidate aspiring to the next CM. In comes Maisamma (Jagapati Babu), a contract killer, who is assigned the task of finishing off Shafi by the SP (Ahuti Prasad). Once he is done with Shafi, Maisamma is given another photograph as the next contract. Meanwhile, it 's time for the hero 's debut and enters Srinu (Sai Dharam Tej) from Palakollu. He finds his way to Maisamma through Yadigiri (Raghu Babu) to seek his help to get rid of a person. Of course, Maisamma is not convinced and refuses to take up the task. That 's when Srinu narrates how he fell in love with Shailaja (Regina Cassandra) and why he wants Maisamma to finish off a man. The scene shifts to an engineering college where both Srinu and Shailu are students and from here on the story takes a few surprise twists and turns. There ends the story.
Music composed by Anoop Rubens. The soundtrack of the film was released worldwide on 25 October 2014 on Aditya Music Company.
The movie satellite rights were picked up by Maa TV. The movie opened to positive reviews.
The film opened good response all over the world by collecting ₹ 2.32 crore (US $350,000) (Share) on its first day. The film collected ₹ 7.85 crore (US $1.2 million) (Share) in its first week. The film ended by collecting ₹ 10.75 crore (US $1.6 million) worldwide.
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where did standing for the national anthem originate | The Star - Spangled Banner - wikipedia
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' is the national anthem of the United States of America. The lyrics come from "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', a poem written on September 14, 1814, by the then 35 - year - old lawyer and amateur poet Francis Scott Key after witnessing the bombardment of Fort McHenry by British ships of the Royal Navy in Baltimore Harbor during the Battle of Baltimore in the War of 1812. Key was inspired by the large American flag, with 15 stars and 15 stripes, known as the Star - Spangled Banner, flying triumphantly above the fort during the American victory.
The poem was set to the tune of a popular British song written by John Stafford Smith for the Anacreontic Society, a men 's social club in London. "To Anacreon in Heaven '' (or "The Anacreontic Song ''), with various lyrics, was already popular in the United States. Set to Key 's poem and renamed "The Star - Spangled Banner '', it soon became a well - known American patriotic song. With a range of 19 semitones, it is known for being very difficult to sing. Although the poem has four stanzas, only the first is commonly sung today.
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' was recognized for official use by the United States Navy in 1889, and by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, and was made the national anthem by a congressional resolution on March 3, 1931 (46 Stat. 1508, codified at 36 U.S.C. § 301), which was signed by President Herbert Hoover.
Before 1931, other songs served as the hymns of American officialdom. "Hail, Columbia '' served this purpose at official functions for most of the 19th century. "My Country, ' Tis of Thee '', whose melody is identical to "God Save the Queen '', the British national anthem, also served as a de facto anthem. Following the War of 1812 and subsequent American wars, other songs emerged to compete for popularity at public events, among them "America the Beautiful ''.
On September 3, 1814, following the Burning of Washington and the Raid on Alexandria, Francis Scott Key and John Stuart Skinner set sail from Baltimore aboard the ship HMS Minden, flying a flag of truce on a mission approved by President James Madison. Their objective was to secure an exchange of prisoners, one of whom was Dr. William Beanes, the elderly and popular town physician of Upper Marlboro and a friend of Key 's who had been captured in his home. Beanes was accused of aiding the arrest of British soldiers. Key and Skinner boarded the British flagship HMS Tonnant on September 7 and spoke with Major General Robert Ross and Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane over dinner while the two officers discussed war plans. At first, Ross and Cochrane refused to release Beanes but relented after Key and Skinner showed them letters written by wounded British prisoners praising Beanes and other Americans for their kind treatment.
Because Key and Skinner had heard details of the plans for the attack on Baltimore, they were held captive until after the battle, first aboard HMS Surprise and later back on HMS Minden. After the bombardment, certain British gunboats attempted to slip past the fort and effect a landing in a cove to the west of it, but they were turned away by fire from nearby Fort Covington, the city 's last line of defense.
During the rainy night, Key had witnessed the bombardment and observed that the fort 's smaller "storm flag '' continued to fly, but once the shell and Congreve rocket barrage had stopped, he would not know how the battle had turned out until dawn. On the morning of September 14, the storm flag had been lowered and the larger flag had been raised.
During the bombardment, HMS Terror and HMS Meteor provided some of the "bombs bursting in air ''.
Key was inspired by the American victory and the sight of the large American flag flying triumphantly above the fort. This flag, with fifteen stars and fifteen stripes, had been made by Mary Young Pickersgill together with other workers in her home on Baltimore 's Pratt Street. The flag later came to be known as the Star - Spangled Banner and is today on display in the National Museum of American History, a treasure of the Smithsonian Institution. It was restored in 1914 by Amelia Fowler, and again in 1998 as part of an ongoing conservation program.
Aboard the ship the next day, Key wrote a poem on the back of a letter he had kept in his pocket. At twilight on September 16, he and Skinner were released in Baltimore. He completed the poem at the Indian Queen Hotel, where he was staying, and titled it "Defence of Fort M'Henry ''.
Much of the idea of the poem, including the flag imagery and some of the wording, is derived from an earlier song by Key, also set to the tune of "The Anacreontic Song ''. The song, known as "When the Warrior Returns '', was written in honor of Stephen Decatur and Charles Stewart on their return from the First Barbary War. Absent elaboration by Francis Scott Key prior to his death in 1843, some have speculated in modern times about the meaning of phrases or verses. According to British historian Robin Blackburn, the words "the hireling and slave '' allude to the thousands of ex-slaves in the British ranks organised as the Corps of Colonial Marines, who had been liberated by the British and demanded to be placed in the battle line "where they might expect to meet their former masters. '' Nevertheless, Professor Mark Clague, a professor of musicology at the University of Michigan, argues that the "middle two verses of Key 's lyric vilify the British enemy in the War of 1812 '' and "in no way glorifies or celebrates slavery. '' Clague writes that "For Key... the British mercenaries were scoundrels and the Colonial Marines were traitors who threatened to spark a national insurrection. '' This harshly anti-British nature of Verse 3 led to its omission in sheet music in World War I, when Britain and the U.S. were allies. Responding to the assertion of writer Jon Schwarz of The Intercept that the song is a "celebration of slavery, '' Clague said that: "The reference to slaves is about the use and in some sense the manipulation, of black Americans to fight for the British, with the promise of freedom. The American forces included African - Americans as well as whites. The term ' freemen, ' whose heroism is celebrated in the fourth stanza, would have encompassed both. ''
Others suggest that "Key may have intended the phrase as a reference to the British Navy 's practice of impressment (kidnapping sailors and forcing them to fight in defense of the crown), or as a semi-metaphorical slap at the British invading force as a whole (which included a large number of mercenaries). ''
Key gave the poem to his brother - in - law Judge Joseph H. Nicholson who saw that the words fit the popular melody "The Anacreontic Song '', by English composer John Stafford Smith. This was the official song of the Anacreontic Society, an 18th - century gentlemen 's club of amateur musicians in London. Nicholson took the poem to a printer in Baltimore, who anonymously made the first known broadside printing on September 17; of these, two known copies survive.
On September 20, both the Baltimore Patriot and The American printed the song, with the note "Tune: Anacreon in Heaven ''. The song quickly became popular, with seventeen newspapers from Georgia to New Hampshire printing it. Soon after, Thomas Carr of the Carr Music Store in Baltimore published the words and music together under the title "The Star Spangled Banner '', although it was originally called "Defence of Fort M'Henry ''. Thomas Carr 's arrangement introduced the raised fourth which became the standard deviation from "The Anacreontic Song ''. The song 's popularity increased and its first public performance took place in October when Baltimore actor Ferdinand Durang sang it at Captain McCauley 's tavern. Washington Irving, then editor of the Analectic Magazine in Philadelphia, reprinted the song in November 1814.
By the early 20th century, there were various versions of the song in popular use. Seeking a singular, standard version, President Woodrow Wilson tasked the U.S. Bureau of Education with providing that official version. In response, the Bureau enlisted the help of five musicians to agree upon an arrangement. Those musicians were Walter Damrosch, Will Earhart, Arnold J. Gantvoort, Oscar Sonneck and John Philip Sousa. The standardized version that was voted upon by these five musicians premiered at Carnegie Hall on December 5, 1917, in a program that included Edward Elgar 's Carillon and Gabriel Pierné 's The Children 's Crusade. The concert was put on by the Oratorio Society of New York and conducted by Walter Damrosch. An official handwritten version of the final votes of these five men has been found and shows all five men 's votes tallied, measure by measure.
The song gained popularity throughout the 19th century and bands played it during public events, such as July 4th celebrations.
A plaque displayed at Fort Meade, South Dakota, claims that the idea of making "The Star Spangled Banner '' the national anthem began on their parade ground in 1892. Colonel Caleb Carlton, Post Commander, established the tradition that the song be played "at retreat and at the close of parades and concerts. '' Carlton explained the custom to Governor Sheldon of South Dakota who "promised me that he would try to have the custom established among the state militia. '' Carlton wrote that after a similar discussion, Secretary of War, Daniel E. Lamont issued an order that it "be played at every Army post every evening at retreat. ''
In 1899, the US Navy officially adopted "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson ordered that "The Star - Spangled Banner '' be played at military and other appropriate occasions. The playing of the song two years later during the seventh - inning stretch of Game One of the 1918 World Series, and thereafter during each game of the series is often cited as the first instance that the anthem was played at a baseball game, though evidence shows that the "Star - Spangled Banner '' was performed as early as 1897 at opening day ceremonies in Philadelphia and then more regularly at the Polo Grounds in New York City beginning in 1898. In any case, the tradition of performing the national anthem before every baseball game began in World War II.
On April 10, 1918, John Charles Linthicum, U.S. Congressman from Maryland, introduced a bill to officially recognize "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem. The bill did not pass. On April 15, 1929, Linthicum introduced the bill again, his sixth time doing so. On November 3, 1929, Robert Ripley drew a panel in his syndicated cartoon, Ripley 's Believe it or Not!, saying "Believe It or Not, America has no national anthem ''.
In 1930, Veterans of Foreign Wars started a petition for the United States to officially recognize "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem. Five million people signed the petition. The petition was presented to the United States House Committee on the Judiciary on January 31, 1930. On the same day, Elsie Jorss - Reilley and Grace Evelyn Boudlin sang the song to the Committee to refute the perception that it was too high pitched for a typical person to sing. The Committee voted in favor of sending the bill to the House floor for a vote. The House of Representatives passed the bill later that year. The Senate passed the bill on March 3, 1931. President Herbert Hoover signed the bill on March 4, 1931, officially adopting "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem of the United States of America. As currently codified, the United States Code states that "(t) he composition consisting of the words and music known as the Star - Spangled Banner is the national anthem. ''
The song is notoriously difficult for nonprofessionals to sing because of its wide range -- a 12th. Humorist Richard Armour referred to the song 's difficulty in his book It All Started With Columbus.
In an attempt to take Baltimore, the British attacked Fort McHenry, which protected the harbor. Bombs were soon bursting in air, rockets were glaring, and all in all it was a moment of great historical interest. During the bombardment, a young lawyer named Francis Off Key (sic) wrote "The Star - Spangled Banner '', and when, by the dawn 's early light, the British heard it sung, they fled in terror.
Professional and amateur singers have been known to forget the words, which is one reason the song is sometimes pre-recorded and lip - synced. Other times the issue is avoided by having the performer (s) play the anthem instrumentally instead of singing it. The pre-recording of the anthem has become standard practice at some ballparks, such as Boston 's Fenway Park, according to the SABR publication The Fenway Project.
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' is traditionally played at the beginning of public sports events and orchestral concerts in the United States, as well as other public gatherings. The National Hockey League and Major League Soccer both require venues in both the U.S. and Canada to perform both the Canadian and American national anthems at games that involve teams from both countries (with the "away '' anthem being performed first). It is also usual for both American and Canadian anthems (done in the same way as the NHL and MLS) to be played at Major League Baseball and National Basketball Association games involving the Toronto Blue Jays and the Toronto Raptors (respectively), the only Canadian teams in those two major U.S. sports leagues, and in All Star Games on the MLB, NBA, and NHL. The Buffalo Sabres of the NHL, which play in a city on the Canada -- US border and have a substantial Canadian fan base, play both anthems before all home games regardless of where the visiting team is based.
Two especially unusual performances of the song took place in the immediate aftermath of the United States September 11 attacks. On September 12, 2001, the Queen broke with tradition and allowed the Band of the Coldstream Guards to perform the anthem at Buckingham Palace, London, at the ceremonial Changing of the Guard, as a gesture of support for Britain 's ally. The following day at a St. Paul 's Cathedral memorial service, the Queen joined in the singing of the anthem, an unprecedented occurrence.
The 200th anniversary of the "Star - Spangled Banner '' occurred in 2014 with various special events occurring throughout the United States. A particularly significant celebration occurred during the week of September 10 -- 16 in and around Baltimore, Maryland. Highlights included playing of a new arrangement of the anthem arranged by John Williams and participation of President Obama on Defender 's Day, September 12, 2014, at Fort McHenry. In addition, the anthem bicentennial included a youth music celebration including the presentation of the National Anthem Bicentennial Youth Challenge winning composition written by Noah Altshuler.
The first popular music performance of the anthem heard by the mainstream U.S. was by Puerto Rican singer and guitarist José Feliciano. He created a nationwide uproar when he strummed a slow, blues - style rendition of the song at Tiger Stadium in Detroit before game five of the 1968 World Series, between Detroit and St. Louis. This rendition started contemporary "Star - Spangled Banner '' controversies. The response from many in the Vietnam War - era U.S. was generally negative. Despite the controversy, Feliciano 's performance opened the door for the countless interpretations of the "Star - Spangled Banner '' heard in the years since. One week after Feliciano 's performance, the anthem was in the news again when American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos lifted controversial raised fists at the 1968 Olympics while the "Star - Spangled Banner '' played at a medal ceremony.
Marvin Gaye gave a soul - influenced performance at the 1983 NBA All - Star Game and Whitney Houston gave a soulful rendition before Super Bowl XXV in 1991, which was released as a single that charted at number 20 in 1991 and number 6 in 2001 (along with José Feliciano, the only times the anthem has been on the Billboard Hot 100). In 1993, Kiss did an instrumental rock version as the closing track on their album, Alive III. Another famous instrumental interpretation is Jimi Hendrix 's version, which was a set - list staple from autumn 1968 until his death in September 1970, including a famous rendition at the Woodstock music festival in 1969. Incorporating sonic effects to emphasize the "rockets ' red glare '', and "bombs bursting in air '', it became a late - 1960s emblem. Roseanne Barr gave a controversial performance of the anthem at a San Diego Padres baseball game at Jack Murphy Stadium on July 25, 1990. The comedian belted out a screechy rendition of the song, and afterward, she attempted a gesture of ballplayers by spitting and grabbing her crotch as if adjusting a protective cup. The performance offended some, including the sitting U.S. President, George H.W. Bush. Sufjan Stevens has frequently performed the "Star - Spangled Banner '' in live sets, replacing the optimism in the end of the first verse with a new coda that alludes to the divisive state of the nation today. David Lee Roth both referenced parts of the anthem and played part of a hard rock rendition of the anthem on his song, "Yankee Rose '' on his 1986 solo album, Eat ' Em and Smile. Steven Tyler also caused some controversy in 2001 (at the Indianapolis 500, to which he later issued a public apology) and again in 2012 (at the AFC Championship Game) with a cappella renditions of the song with changed lyrics. A version of Aerosmith 's Joe Perry and Brad Whitford playing part of the song can be heard at the end of their version of "Train Kept A-Rollin ' '' on the Rockin ' the Joint album. The band Boston gave an instrumental rock rendition of the anthem on their Greatest Hits album. The band Crush 40 made a version of the song as opening track from the album Thrill of the Feel (2000).
In March 2005, a government - sponsored program, the National Anthem Project, was launched after a Harris Interactive poll showed many adults knew neither the lyrics nor the history of the anthem.
O say can you see, by the dawn 's early light, What so proudly we hailed at the twilight 's last gleaming, Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight, O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming? And the rockets ' red glare, the bombs bursting in air, Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there; O say does that star - spangled banner yet wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep, Where the foe 's haughty host in dread silence reposes, What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep, As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses? Now it catches the gleam of the morning 's first beam, In full glory reflected now shines in the stream: ' Tis the star - spangled banner, O long may it wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. And where is that band who so vauntingly swore That the havoc of war and the battle 's confusion, A home and a country, should leave us no more? Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps ' pollution. No refuge could save the hireling and slave From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave: And the star - spangled banner in triumph doth wave, O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. O thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand Between their loved homes and the war 's desolation. Blest with vict'ry and peace, may the Heav'n rescued land Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation! Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just, And this be our motto: ' In God is our trust. ' And the star - spangled banner in triumph shall wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave!
In indignation over the start of the American Civil War, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. added a fifth stanza to the song in 1861, which appeared in songbooks of the era.
When our land is illumined with Liberty 's smile, If a foe from within strike a blow at her glory, Down, down with the traitor that dares to defile The flag of her stars and the page of her story! By the millions unchained who our birthright have gained, We will keep her bright blazon forever unstained! And the Star - Spangled Banner in triumph shall wave While the land of the free is the home of the brave.
In a version hand - written by Francis Scott Key in 1840, the third line reads "Whose bright stars and broad stripes, through the clouds of the fight ''.
Several films have their titles taken from the song 's lyrics. These include two films titled Dawn 's Early Light (2000 and 2005); two made - for - TV features titled By Dawn 's Early Light (1990 and 2000); two films titled So Proudly We Hail (1943 and 1990); a feature (1977) and a short (2005) titled Twilight 's Last Gleaming; and four films titled Home of the Brave (1949, 1986, 2004, and 2006). A 1936 short titled "The Song of a Nation '' from Warner Brothers shows a version of the origin of the song.
When the National Anthem was first recognized by law in 1931, there was no prescription as to behavior during its playing. On June 22, 1942, the law was revised indicating that those in uniform should salute during its playing, while others should simply stand at attention, men removing their hats. (The same code also required that women should place their hands over their hearts when the flag is displayed during the playing of the Anthem, but not if the flag was not present.) On December 23, 1942, the law was again revised instructing men and women to stand at attention and face in the direction of the music when it was played. That revision also directed men and women to place their hands over their hearts only if the flag was displayed. Those in uniform were required to salute. On July 7, 1976, the law was simplified. Men and women were instructed to stand with their hands over their hearts, men removing their hats, irrespective of whether or not the flag was displayed and those in uniform saluting. On August 12, 1998, the law was rewritten keeping the same instructions, but differentiating between "those in uniform '' and "members of the Armed Forces and veterans '' who were both instructed to salute during the playing whether or not the flag was displayed. Because of the changes in law over the years and confusion between instructions for the Pledge of Allegiance versus the National Anthem, throughout most of the 20th century many people simply stood at attention or with their hands folded in front of them during the playing of the Anthem, and when reciting the Pledge they would hold their hand (or hat) over their heart. After 9 / 11, the custom of placing the hand over the heart during the playing of the Anthem became nearly universal.
Since 1998, federal law (viz., the United States Code 36 U.S.C. § 301) states that during a rendition of the national anthem, when the flag is displayed, all present including those in uniform should stand at attention; Non-military service individuals should face the flag with the right hand over the heart; Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are present and not in uniform may render the military salute; Military service persons not in uniform should remove their headdress with their right hand and hold the headdress at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart; and Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are in uniform should give the military salute at the first note of the anthem and maintain that position until the last note. The law further provides that when the flag is not displayed, all present should face toward the music and act in the same manner they would if the flag were displayed. Military law requires all vehicles on the installation to stop when the song is played and all individuals outside to stand at attention and face the direction of the music and either salute, in uniform, or place the right hand over the heart, if out of uniform. The law was amended in 2008, and since allows military veterans to salute out of uniform, as well.
The text of 36 U.S.C. § 301 is suggestive and not regulatory in nature. Failure to follow the suggestions is not a violation of the law. This behavioral requirement for the national anthem is subject to the same First Amendment controversies that surround the Pledge of Allegiance. For example, Jehovah 's Witnesses do not sing the national anthem, though they are taught that standing is an "ethical decision '' that individual believers must make based on their "conscience. ''
The 1968 Olympics Black Power salute was a political demonstration conducted by African - American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos during their medal ceremony at the 1968 Summer Olympics in the Olympic Stadium in Mexico City. After having won gold and bronze medals respectively in the 200 - meter running event, they turned on the podium to face their flags, and to hear the American national anthem, "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. Each athlete raised a black - gloved fist, and kept them raised until the anthem had finished. In addition, Smith, Carlos, and Australian silver medalist Peter Norman all wore human rights badges on their jackets. In his autobiography, Silent Gesture, Smith stated that the gesture was not a "Black Power '' salute, but a "human rights salute ''. The event is regarded as one of the most overtly political statements in the history of the modern Olympic Games.
Politically motivated protests of the national anthem began in the National Football League (NFL) after San Francisco 49ers quarterback (QB) Colin Kaepernick sat during the anthem, as opposed to the tradition of standing, in response to police brutality in America, before his team 's third preseason game of 2016. Kaepernick also sat during the first two preseason games, but he went unnoticed.
In November 2017, the California Chapter of the NAACP called on Congress to remove The Star - Spangled Banner as the national anthem. Alice Huffman, California NAACP president said: "it 's racist; it does n't represent our community, it 's anti-black. '' The third stanza of the anthem, which is rarely sung and few know, contains the words, "No refuge could save the hireling and slave, From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave: '', which some interpret as racist. The organization was still seeking a representative to sponsor the legislation in Congress at the time of their announcement.
As a result of immigration to the United States and the incorporation of non-English speaking people into the country, the lyrics of the song have been translated into other languages. In 1861, it was translated into German. The Library of Congress also has record of a Spanish - language version from 1919. It has since been translated into Hebrew and Yiddish by Jewish immigrants, Latin American Spanish (with one version popularized during immigration reform protests in 2006), French by Acadians of Louisiana, Samoan, and Irish. The third verse of the anthem has also been translated into Latin.
With regard to the indigenous languages of North America, there are versions in Navajo and Cherokee.
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where is the dell technologies championship being held | Dell Technologies Championship - Wikipedia
The Dell Technologies Championship was a professional golf tournament on the PGA Tour in the northeast United States, held annually in late summer over the Labor Day weekend. The 2018 edition was the last time the event was staged as the FedEx Cup was reduced from four to three Playoff events in 2019.
Replacing the Air Canada Championship in British Columbia on the tour schedule, the tournament made its debut in 2003 as the Deutsche Bank Championship. It is held at the Tournament Players Club of Boston in Norton, Massachusetts, south - southwest of Boston. Unlike most PGA Tour events which are played Thursday through Sunday, this tournament is played Friday through Monday, with the final round on Labor Day.
It became part of the first - year FedEx Cup playoffs in 2007, with its purse increased to $7 million. The purse in 2018 was $9.0 million, with a winner 's share of $1.62 million. As the second of the four playoff events, its field was limited to the top 100 players on the FedEx Cup points list. Points were amassed during the PGA Tour 's regular season and the first playoff event, The Northern Trust, which takes place the previous week in the New York City area.
Dell Technologies took over as the title sponsor of the tournament in 2017; new subsidiary Dell EMC is headquartered in Massachusetts. Deutsche Bank sponsored the first 14 editions, through 2016.
The event was last managed by the PGA Tour; it was managed by the Tiger Woods Foundation from 2013 to 2016.
With the tournament 's offset scheduling, Friday to Monday, network coverage has been over the final two scheduled rounds, Sunday and Monday; cable channels carry the Friday and Saturday rounds. The first network partner was ABC Sports from 2003 to 2006, though the 2006 event was covered under the "ESPN on ABC '' banner. The event has been covered by NBC Sports from 2007 to 2018, though the 2011 and 2012 events were covered under the "Golf Channel on NBC '' banner.
Sudden - death playoff in 2011 was won on the second extra hole. Green highlight indicates scoring records
Coordinates: 41 ° 58 ′ 55 '' N 71 ° 13 ′ 23 '' W / 41.982 ° N 71.223 ° W / 41.982; - 71.223
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i cant help falling in love with you by ub40 | Ca n't Help Falling in Love - wikipedia
"Ca n't Help Falling in Love '' is a pop ballad based on "Plaisir d'amour '' which is sung by Montgomery Clift in the 1949 film "The Heiress '' starring Clift and Olivia de Havilland musical score provided by Aaron Copeland. Originally recorded by American singer Elvis Presley and published by Gladys Music, Presley 's publishing company. It was written by Hugo Peretti, Luigi Creatore, and George David Weiss. The melody is based on "Plaisir d'amour '', a popular romance by Jean - Paul - Égide Martini (1784). The song was featured in "The Heiress '' and Presley 's 1961 film, Blue Hawaii. During the following four decades, it was recorded by numerous other artists, including Tom Smothers, Swedish pop group A-Teens, and the British reggae group UB40, whose 1993 version topped the U.S. and UK charts.
Elvis Presley 's version of the song topped the British charts in 1962. The single is certified Platinum by the RIAA, for US sales in excess of one million copies. In the United States, the song peaked at No. 2 on the US Billboard Hot 100 behind Joey Dee and the Starliters ' "Peppermint Twist '' and went to No. 1 on the Adult Contemporary chart for six weeks.
During Presley 's late 1960s and 1970s live performances, the song was performed as the show 's finale. Most notably, it was also sung in the live segment of his 1968 NBC television special, and as the closer for his 1973 Global telecast, Aloha from Hawaii. A version with a faster arrangement was the closing number in Presley 's final TV special, Elvis in Concert. "Ca n't Help Falling in Love '' was also the last song he performed live, at his concert in Indianapolis at Market Square Arena on 26 June 1977.
In 2015, the song was included on the If I Can Dream album, on the occasion of the 80th anniversary of Presley 's birth. The version uses archival voice recordings of Presley and his singers, backed by new orchestral arrangements performed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra.
In 1993, British reggae band UB40 recorded the song as the first single from their 1993 album Promises and Lies. The song was released in May 1993, in the majority of countries worldwide. It eventually climbed to No. 1 on the US Billboard Hot 100 after debuting at No. 100, and remained there for seven weeks. It was also No. 1 in the United Kingdom, Austria, Netherlands, Sweden, Australia, and New Zealand.
The song appears on the soundtrack of the movie Sliver, the trailer for Fools Rush In, and an episode of Hindsight. In the US, and on the Sliver soundtrack, the song title was listed as "Ca n't Help Falling in Love, '' rather than what appeared on the record sleeve. The single version of the song also has a slightly different backing rhythm and melody.
The song and band also appear in the 1997 film Speed 2: Cruise Control.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
The song was the A-Teens 's first single from their first extended play Pop ' til You Drop!, as well as for the Lilo & Stitch movie soundtrack, which was originally scheduled to include several Presley tracks, the A-Teens picking it for inclusion in the soundtrack. It was later also featured as a bonus track on their third studio album, New Arrival for the European market. The video had thus tremendous exposure on several television channels, with the A-Teens eventually including the song in their third album. As a result, the song had two music videos, one to promote the Disney movie, the other for the album. It is also shown in the teen pop compilation album, Disney Girlz Rock.
The song reached No. 12 in Sweden, No. 16 in Argentina, and No. 41 in Australia.
The video was directed by Gregory Dark and filmed in Los Angeles, California. It had two different versions. The "Disney Version '', as the fans named it, features scenes of the movie, and also new scenes of the A-Teens with beach costumes. The "A-Teens Version '' of the video, features the A-Teens on the white background with different close - ups and choreography, and scenes with puppies and different costumes.
Tracks marked + are not A-Teens tracks.
European 2 - track CD single
European / Australian CD maxi
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jay z feat blackstreet the city is mine | The City is Mine - wikipedia
"The City Is Mine '' is the third single from rapper Jay - Z 's second album In My Lifetime, Vol. 1. It features vocals from Blackstreet and production from Blackstreet member Teddy Riley. Riley samples "You Gonna Make Me Love Somebody Else '' by The Jones Girls for the song 's beat, while Blackstreet interpolates "You Belong to the City '' by Glenn Frey and Jack Tempchin for the song 's chorus. In addition, a young Chad Hugo plays saxophone on this song. The first verse is dedicated to the memory of his friend, The Notorious B.I.G..
"The City Is Mine '' was a moderate commercial success reaching # 52 on the Billboard Hot 100 and # 38 on the UK Singles Chart. It was panned by critics for its commercial nature and poor interpolation of Glenn Frey and Jack Tempchin 's "You Belong to the City. ''. AllMusic 's John Bush considers the beat to be the "most commercial '' beat on In My Lifetime, Vol. 1 and the interpolation to be "unfortunate. '' Steve Juon of RapReviews.com describes that track as "some cotton candy sugary rap FLUFF '' and its interpolation as a mistake, but still considers the lyrics to be "vintage Jigga. ''
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ou think that everything in the world is relative | Many - worlds interpretation - wikipedia
The many - worlds interpretation is an interpretation of quantum mechanics that asserts the objective reality of the universal wavefunction and denies the actuality of wavefunction collapse. Many - worlds implies that all possible alternate histories and futures are real, each representing an actual "world '' (or "universe ''). In layman 's terms, the hypothesis states there is a very large -- perhaps infinite -- number of universes, and everything that could possibly have happened in our past, but did not, has occurred in the past of some other universe or universes. The theory is also referred to as MWI, the relative state formulation, the Everett interpretation, the theory of the universal wavefunction, many - universes interpretation, multi-history or just many - worlds.
The original relative state formulation is due to Hugh Everett in 1957. Later, this formulation was popularized and renamed many - worlds by Bryce Seligman DeWitt in the 1960s and 1970s. The decoherence approaches to interpreting quantum theory have been further explored and developed, becoming quite popular. MWI is one of many multiverse hypotheses in physics and philosophy. It is currently considered a mainstream interpretation along with the other decoherence interpretations, collapse theories (including the historical Copenhagen interpretation), and hidden variable theories such as the Bohmian mechanics.
Before many - worlds, reality had always been viewed as a single unfolding history. Many - worlds, however, views reality as a many - branched tree, wherein every possible quantum outcome is realised. Many - worlds reconciles the observation of non-deterministic events, such as random radioactive decay, with the fully deterministic equations of quantum physics.
In many - worlds, the subjective appearance of wavefunction collapse is explained by the mechanism of quantum decoherence, and this is supposed to resolve all of the correlation paradoxes of quantum theory, such as the EPR paradox and Schrödinger 's cat, since every possible outcome of every event defines or exists in its own "history '' or "world ''.
In Dublin in 1952 Erwin Schrödinger gave a lecture in which at one point he jocularly warned his audience that what he was about to say might "seem lunatic ''. He went on to assert that when the equation that won him a Nobel prize seems to be describing several different histories, they are "not alternatives but all really happen simultaneously ''. This is the earliest known reference to the many - worlds.
Although several versions of many - worlds have been proposed since Hugh Everett 's original work, they all contain one key idea: the equations of physics that model the time evolution of systems without embedded observers are sufficient for modelling systems which do contain observers; in particular there is no observation - triggered wave function collapse which the Copenhagen interpretation proposes. Provided the theory is linear with respect to the wavefunction, the exact form of the quantum dynamics modelled, be it the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation, relativistic quantum field theory or some form of quantum gravity or string theory, does not alter the validity of MWI since MWI is a metatheory applicable to all linear quantum theories, and there is no experimental evidence for any non-linearity of the wavefunction in physics. MWI 's main conclusion is that the universe (or multiverse in this context) is composed of a quantum superposition of very many, possibly even non-denumerably infinitely many, increasingly divergent, non-communicating parallel universes or quantum worlds.
The idea of MWI originated in Everett 's Princeton Ph. D. thesis "The Theory of the Universal Wavefunction '', developed under his thesis advisor John Archibald Wheeler, a shorter summary of which was published in 1957 entitled "Relative State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics '' (Wheeler contributed the title "relative state ''; Everett originally called his approach the "Correlation Interpretation '', where "correlation '' refers to quantum entanglement). The phrase "many - worlds '' is due to Bryce DeWitt, who was responsible for the wider popularisation of Everett 's theory, which had been largely ignored for the first decade after publication. DeWitt 's phrase "many - worlds '' has become so much more popular than Everett 's "Universal Wavefunction '' or Everett -- Wheeler 's "Relative State Formulation '' that many forget that this is only a difference of terminology; the content of both of Everett 's papers and DeWitt 's popular article is the same.
The many - worlds interpretation shares many similarities with later, other "post-Everett '' interpretations of quantum mechanics which also use decoherence to explain the process of measurement or wavefunction collapse. MWI treats the other histories or worlds as real since it regards the universal wavefunction as the "basic physical entity '' or "the fundamental entity, obeying at all times a deterministic wave equation ''. The other decoherent interpretations, such as consistent histories, the Existential Interpretation etc., either regard the extra quantum worlds as metaphorical in some sense, or are agnostic about their reality; it is sometimes hard to distinguish between the different varieties. MWI is distinguished by two qualities: it assumes realism, which it assigns to the wavefunction, and it has the minimal formal structure possible, rejecting any hidden variables, quantum potential, any form of a collapse postulate (i.e., Copenhagenism) or mental postulates (such as the many - minds interpretation makes).
Decoherent interpretations of many - worlds using einselection to explain how a small number of classical pointer states can emerge from the enormous Hilbert space of superpositions have been proposed by Wojciech H. Zurek. "Under scrutiny of the environment, only pointer states remain unchanged. Other states decohere into mixtures of stable pointer states that can persist, and, in this sense, exist: They are einselected. '' These ideas complement MWI and bring the interpretation in line with our perception of reality.
Many - worlds is often referred to as a theory, rather than just an interpretation, by those who propose that many - worlds can make testable predictions (such as David Deutsch) or is falsifiable (such as Everett) or by those who propose that all the other, non-MW interpretations, are inconsistent, illogical or unscientific in their handling of measurements; Hugh Everett argued that his formulation was a metatheory, since it made statements about other interpretations of quantum theory; that it was the "only completely coherent approach to explaining both the contents of quantum mechanics and the appearance of the world. '' Deutsch is dismissive that many - worlds is an "interpretation '', saying that calling it an interpretation "is like talking about dinosaurs as an ' interpretation ' of fossil records. ''
As with the other interpretations of quantum mechanics, the many - worlds interpretation is motivated by behavior that can be illustrated by the double - slit experiment. When particles of light (or anything else) are passed through the double slit, a calculation assuming wave - like behavior of light can be used to identify where the particles are likely to be observed. Yet when the particles are observed in this experiment, they appear as particles (i.e., at definite places) and not as non-localized waves.
Some versions of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics proposed a process of "collapse '' in which an indeterminate quantum system would probabilistically collapse down onto, or select, just one determinate outcome to "explain '' this phenomenon of observation. Wavefunction collapse was widely regarded as artificial and ad hoc, so an alternative interpretation in which the behavior of measurement could be understood from more fundamental physical principles was considered desirable.
Everett 's Ph. D. work provided such an alternative interpretation. Everett stated that for a composite system -- for example a subject (the "observer '' or measuring apparatus) observing an object (the "observed '' system, such as a particle) -- the statement that either the observer or the observed has a well - defined state is meaningless; in modern parlance, the observer and the observed have become entangled; we can only specify the state of one relative to the other, i.e., the state of the observer and the observed are correlated after the observation is made. This led Everett to derive from the unitary, deterministic dynamics alone (i.e., without assuming wavefunction collapse) the notion of a relativity of states.
Everett noticed that the unitary, deterministic dynamics alone decreed that after an observation is made each element of the quantum superposition of the combined subject -- object wavefunction contains two "relative states '': a "collapsed '' object state and an associated observer who has observed the same collapsed outcome; what the observer sees and the state of the object have become correlated by the act of measurement or observation. The subsequent evolution of each pair of relative subject -- object states proceeds with complete indifference as to the presence or absence of the other elements, as if wavefunction collapse has occurred, which has the consequence that later observations are always consistent with the earlier observations. Thus the appearance of the object 's wavefunction 's collapse has emerged from the unitary, deterministic theory itself. (This answered Einstein 's early criticism of quantum theory, that the theory should define what is observed, not for the observables to define the theory). Since the wavefunction merely appears to have collapsed then, Everett reasoned, there was no need to actually assume that it had collapsed. And so, invoking Occam 's razor, he removed the postulate of wavefunction collapse from the theory.
According to Martin Gardner, the "other '' worlds of MWI have two different interpretations: real or unreal; he claims that Stephen Hawking and Steven Weinberg both favour the unreal interpretation. Gardner also claims that the nonreal interpretation is favoured by the majority of physicists, whereas the "realist '' view is only supported by MWI experts such as Deutsch and Bryce DeWitt. Hawking has said that "according to Feynman 's idea '', all the other histories are as "equally real '' as our own, and Martin Gardner reports Hawking saying that MWI is "trivially true ''. In a 1983 interview, Hawking also said he regarded the MWI as "self - evidently correct '' but was dismissive towards questions about the interpretation of quantum mechanics, saying, "When I hear of Schrödinger 's cat, I reach for my gun. '' In the same interview, he also said, "But, look: All that one does, really, is to calculate conditional probabilities -- in other words, the probability of A happening, given B. I think that that 's all the many worlds interpretation is. Some people overlay it with a lot of mysticism about the wave function splitting into different parts. But all that you 're calculating is conditional probabilities. '' Elsewhere Hawking contrasted his attitude towards the "reality '' of physical theories with that of his colleague Roger Penrose, saying, "He 's a Platonist and I 'm a positivist. He 's worried that Schrödinger 's cat is in a quantum state, where it is half alive and half dead. He feels that ca n't correspond to reality. But that does n't bother me. I do n't demand that a theory correspond to reality because I do n't know what it is. Reality is not a quality you can test with litmus paper. All I 'm concerned with is that the theory should predict the results of measurements. Quantum theory does this very successfully. '' For his own part, Penrose agrees with Hawking that QM applied to the universe implies MW, although he considers the current lack of a successful theory of quantum gravity negates the claimed universality of conventional QM.
Kim Joris Boström has proposed a non-relativistic quantum mechanical theory that combines elements of the de Broglie -- Bohm mechanics and that of Everett 's many - ' worlds '. In particular, the unreal MW interpretation of Hawking and Weinberg is similar to the Bohmian concept of unreal empty branch ' worlds ':
The second issue with Bohmian mechanics may at first sight appear rather harmless, but which on a closer look develops considerable destructive power: the issue of empty branches. These are the components of the post-measurement state that do not guide any particles because they do not have the actual configuration q in their support. At first sight, the empty branches do not appear problematic but on the contrary very helpful as they enable the theory to explain unique outcomes of measurements. Also, they seem to explain why there is an effective "collapse of the wavefunction '', as in ordinary quantum mechanics. On a closer view, though, one must admit that these empty branches do not actually disappear. As the wavefunction is taken to describe a really existing field, all their branches really exist and will evolve forever by the Schrödinger dynamics, no matter how many of them will become empty in the course of the evolution. Every branch of the global wavefunction potentially describes a complete world which is, according to Bohm 's ontology, only a possible world that would be the actual world if only it were filled with particles, and which is in every respect identical to a corresponding world in Everett 's theory. Only one branch at a time is occupied by particles, thereby representing the actual world, while all other branches, though really existing as part of a really existing wavefunction, are empty and thus contain some sort of "zombie worlds '' with planets, oceans, trees, cities, cars and people who talk like us and behave like us, but who do not actually exist. Now, if the Everettian theory may be accused of ontological extravagance, then Bohmian mechanics could be accused of ontological wastefulness. On top of the ontology of empty branches comes the additional ontology of particle positions that are, on account of the quantum equilibrium hypothesis, forever unknown to the observer. Yet, the actual configuration is never needed for the calculation of the statistical predictions in experimental reality, for these can be obtained by mere wavefunction algebra. From this perspective, Bohmian mechanics may appear as a wasteful and redundant theory. I think it is considerations like these that are the biggest obstacle in the way of a general acceptance of Bohmian mechanics.
Attempts have been made, by many - world advocates and others, over the years to derive the Born rule, rather than just conventionally assume it, so as to reproduce all the required statistical behaviour associated with quantum mechanics. There is no consensus on whether this has been successful.
Everett (1957) briefly derived the Born rule by showing that the Born rule was the only possible rule, and that its derivation was as justified as the procedure for defining probability in classical mechanics. Everett stopped doing research in theoretical physics shortly after obtaining his Ph. D., but his work on probability has been extended by a number of people. Andrew Gleason (1957) and James Hartle (1965) independently reproduced Everett 's work which was later extended. These results are closely related to Gleason 's theorem, a mathematical result according to which the Born probability measure is the only one on Hilbert space that can be constructed purely from the quantum state vector.
Bryce DeWitt and his doctoral student R. Neill Graham later provided alternative (and longer) derivations to Everett 's derivation of the Born rule. They demonstrated that the norm of the worlds where the usual statistical rules of quantum theory broke down vanished, in the limit where the number of measurements went to infinity.
A decision - theoretic derivation of the Born rule from Everettarian assumptions, was produced by David Deutsch (1999) and refined by Wallace (2002 -- 2009) and Saunders (2004). Deutsch 's derivation is a two - stage proof: first he shows that the number of orthonormal Everett - worlds after a branching is proportional to the conventional probability density. Then he uses game theory to show that these are all equally likely to be observed. The last step in particular has been criticised for circularity. Some other reviews have been positive, although the status of these arguments remains highly controversial; some theoretical physicists have taken them as supporting the case for parallel universes. In the New Scientist article, reviewing their presentation at a September 2007 conference, Andy Albrecht, a physicist at the University of California at Davis, is quoted as saying "This work will go down as one of the most important developments in the history of science. ''
The Born rule and the collapse of the wave function have been obtained in the framework of the relative - state formulation of quantum mechanics by Armando V.D.B. Assis. He has proved that the Born rule and the collapse of the wave function follow from a game - theoretical strategy, namely the Nash equilibrium within a von Neumann zero - sum game between nature and observer.
Wojciech H. Zurek (2005) has produced a derivation of the Born rule, where decoherence has replaced Deutsch 's informatic assumptions. Lutz Polley (2000) has produced Born rule derivations where the informatic assumptions are replaced by symmetry arguments.
Charles Sebens and Sean M. Carroll, building on work by Lev Vaidman, proposed a similar approach based on self - locating uncertainty. In this approach, decoherence creates multiple identical copies of observers, who can assign credences to being on different branches using the Born rule.
In Everett 's formulation, a measuring apparatus M and an object system S form a composite system, each of which prior to measurement exists in well - defined (but time - dependent) states. Measurement is regarded as causing M and S to interact. After S interacts with M, it is no longer possible to describe either system by an independent state. According to Everett, the only meaningful descriptions of each system are relative states: for example the relative state of S given the state of M or the relative state of M given the state of S. In DeWitt 's formulation, the state of S after a sequence of measurements is given by a quantum superposition of states, each one corresponding to an alternative measurement history of S.
For example, consider the smallest possible truly quantum system S, as shown in the illustration. This describes for instance, the spin - state of an electron. Considering a specific axis (say the z - axis) the north pole represents spin "up '' and the south pole, spin "down ''. The superposition states of the system are described by (the surface of) a sphere called the Bloch sphere. To perform a measurement on S, it is made to interact with another similar system M. After the interaction, the combined system is described by a state that ranges over a six - dimensional space (the reason for the number six is explained in the article on the Bloch sphere). This six - dimensional object can also be regarded as a quantum superposition of two "alternative histories '' of the original system S, one in which "up '' was observed and the other in which "down '' was observed. Each subsequent binary measurement (that is interaction with a system M) causes a similar split in the history tree. Thus after three measurements, the system can be regarded as a quantum superposition of 8 = 2 × 2 × 2 copies of the original system S.
The accepted terminology is somewhat misleading because it is incorrect to regard the universe as splitting at certain times; at any given instant there is one state in one universe.
In his 1957 doctoral dissertation, Everett proposed that rather than modeling an isolated quantum system subject to external observation, one could mathematically model an object as well as its observers as purely physical systems within the mathematical framework developed by Paul Dirac, von Neumann and others, discarding altogether the ad hoc mechanism of wave function collapse.
Since Everett 's original work, there have appeared a number of similar formalisms in the literature. One such is the relative state formulation. It makes two assumptions: first, the wavefunction is not simply a description of the object 's state, but that it actually is entirely equivalent to the object, a claim it has in common with some other interpretations. Secondly, observation or measurement has no special laws or mechanics, unlike in the Copenhagen interpretation which considers the wavefunction collapse as a special kind of event which occurs as a result of observation. Instead, measurement in the relative state formulation is the consequence of a configuration change in the memory of an observer described by the same basic wave physics as the object being modeled.
The many - worlds interpretation is DeWitt 's popularisation of Everett 's work, who had referred to the combined observer -- object system as being split by an observation, each split corresponding to the different or multiple possible outcomes of an observation. These splits generate a possible tree as shown in the graphic below. Subsequently, DeWitt introduced the term "world '' to describe a complete measurement history of an observer, which corresponds roughly to a single branch of that tree. Note that "splitting '' in this sense is hardly new or even quantum mechanical. The idea of a space of complete alternative histories had already been used in the theory of probability since the mid-1930s for instance to model Brownian motion.
Under the many - worlds interpretation, the Schrödinger equation, or relativistic analog, holds all the time everywhere. An observation or measurement is modeled by applying the wave equation to the entire system comprising the observer and the object. One consequence is that every observation can be thought of as causing the combined observer -- object 's wavefunction to change into a quantum superposition of two or more non-interacting branches, or split into many "worlds ''. Since many observation - like events have happened and are constantly happening, there are an enormous and growing number of simultaneously existing states.
If a system is composed of two or more subsystems, the system 's state will be a superposition of products of the subsystems ' states. Each product of subsystem states in the overall superposition evolves over time independently of other products. Once the subsystems interact, their states have become correlated or entangled and it is no longer possible to consider them independent of one another. In Everett 's terminology each subsystem state was now correlated with its relative state, since each subsystem must now be considered relative to the other subsystems with which it has interacted.
MWI removes the observer - dependent role in the quantum measurement process by replacing wavefunction collapse with quantum decoherence. Since the role of the observer lies at the heart of most if not all "quantum paradoxes, '' this automatically resolves a number of problems; see for example Schrödinger 's cat thought experiment, the EPR paradox, von Neumann 's "boundary problem '' and even wave - particle duality. Quantum cosmology also becomes intelligible, since there is no need anymore for an observer outside of the universe.
MWI is a realist, deterministic, arguably local theory, akin to classical physics (including the theory of relativity), at the expense of losing counterfactual definiteness. MWI achieves this by removing wavefunction collapse, which is indeterministic and non-local, from the deterministic and local equations of quantum theory.
MWI (or other, broader multiverse considerations) provides a context for the anthropic principle which may provide an explanation for the fine - tuned universe.
MWI, being a decoherent formulation, is axiomatically more streamlined than the Copenhagen and other collapse interpretations; and thus favoured under certain interpretations of Occam 's razor. Of course there are other decoherent interpretations that also possess this advantage with respect to the collapse interpretations.
One of the salient properties of the many - worlds interpretation is that it does not require an exceptional method of wave function collapse to explain it. "It seems that there is no experiment distinguishing the MWI from other no - collapse theories such as Bohmian mechanics or other variants of MWI... In most no - collapse interpretations, the evolution of the quantum state of the Universe is the same. Still, one might imagine that there is an experiment distinguishing the MWI from another no - collapse interpretation based on the difference in the correspondence between the formalism and the experience (the results of experiments). ''
However, in 1985, David Deutsch published three related thought experiments which could test the theory vs the Copenhagen interpretation. The experiments require macroscopic quantum state preparation and quantum erasure by a hypothetical quantum computer which is currently outside experimental possibility. Since then Lockwood (1989), Vaidman and others have made similar proposals. These proposals also require an advanced technology which is able to place a macroscopic object in a coherent superposition, another task which it is uncertain will ever be possible to perform. Many other controversial ideas have been put forward though, such as a recent claim that cosmological observations could test the theory, and another claim by Rainer Plaga (1997), published in Foundations of Physics, that communication might be possible between worlds.
In the Copenhagen interpretation, the mathematics of quantum mechanics allows one to predict probabilities for the occurrence of various events. When an event occurs, it becomes part of the definite reality, and alternative possibilities do not. There is no necessity to say anything definite about what is not observed.
Any event that changes the number of observers in the universe may have experimental consequences. Quantum tunnelling to a new vacuum state would reduce the number of observers to zero (i.e., kill all life). Some cosmologists argue that the universe is in a false vacuum state and that consequently the universe should have already experienced quantum tunnelling to a true vacuum state. This has not happened and is cited as evidence in favor of many - worlds. In some worlds, quantum tunnelling to a true vacuum state has happened but most other worlds escape this tunneling and remain viable. This can be thought of as a variation on quantum suicide.
The many - minds interpretation is a multi-world interpretation that defines the splitting of reality on the level of the observers ' minds. In this, it differs from Everett 's many - worlds interpretation, in which there is no special role for the observer 's mind.
The many - worlds interpretation is very vague about the ways to determine when splitting happens, and nowadays usually the criterion is that the two branches have decohered. However, present day understanding of decoherence does not allow a completely precise, self - contained way to say when the two branches have decohered / "do not interact '', and hence many - worlds interpretation remains arbitrary. This objection is saying that it is not clear what is precisely meant by branching, and point to the lack of self - contained criteria specifying branching.
MWI states that there is no special role, or need for precise definition of measurement in MWI, yet Everett uses the word "measurement '' repeatedly throughout its exposition.
The splitting of worlds forward in time, but not backwards in time (i.e., merging worlds), is time asymmetric and incompatible with the time symmetric nature of Schrödinger 's equation, or CPT invariance in general.
There is circularity in Everett 's measurement theory. Under the assumptions made by Everett, there are no ' good observations ' as defined by him, and since his analysis of the observational process depends on the latter, it is void of any meaning. The concept of a ' good observation ' is the projection postulate in disguise and Everett 's analysis simply derives this postulate by having assumed it, without any discussion.
Talk of probability in Everett presumes the existence of a preferred basis to identify measurement outcomes for the probabilities to range over. But the existence of a preferred basis can only be established by the process of decoherence, which is itself probabilistic or arbitrary.
We can not be sure that the universe is a quantum multiverse until we have a theory of everything and, in particular, a successful theory of quantum gravity. If the final theory of everything is non-linear with respect to wavefunctions then many - worlds would be invalid.
Conservation of energy is grossly violated if at every instant near - infinite amounts of new matter are generated to create the new universes.
Occam 's razor rules against a plethora of unobservable universes -- Occam would prefer just one universe; i.e., any non-MWI.
Unphysical universes: If a state is a superposition of two states Ψ A (\ displaystyle \ Psi _ (A)) and Ψ B (\ displaystyle \ Psi _ (B)), i.e., Ψ = (a Ψ A + b Ψ B) (\ displaystyle \ Psi = (a \ Psi _ (A) + b \ Psi _ (B))), i.e., weighted by coefficients a and b, then if b ≪ a (\ displaystyle b \ ll a), what principle allows a universe with vanishingly small probability b to be instantiated on an equal footing with the much more probable one with probability a? This seems to throw away the information in the probability amplitudes.
Violation of the principle of locality, which contradicts special relativity: MWI splitting is instant and total: this may conflict with relativity, since an alien in the Andromeda galaxy ca n't know I collapse an electron over here before she collapses hers there: the relativity of simultaneity says we ca n't say which electron collapsed first -- so which one splits off another universe first? This leads to a hopeless muddle with everyone splitting differently. Note: EPR is not a get - out here, as the alien 's and my electrons need never have been part of the same quantum, i.e., entangled.
There is a wide range of claims that are considered "many - worlds '' interpretations. It was often claimed by those who do not believe in MWI that Everett himself was not entirely clear as to what he believed; however, MWI adherents (such as DeWitt, Tegmark, Deutsch and others) believe they fully understand Everett 's meaning as implying the literal existence of the other worlds. Additionally, recent biographical sources make it clear that Everett believed in the literal reality of the other quantum worlds. Everett 's son reported that Hugh Everett "never wavered in his belief over his many - worlds theory ''. Also Everett was reported to believe "his many - worlds theory guaranteed him immortality ''.
One of MWI 's strongest advocates is David Deutsch. According to Deutsch, the single photon interference pattern observed in the double slit experiment can be explained by interference of photons in multiple universes. Viewed in this way, the single photon interference experiment is indistinguishable from the multiple photon interference experiment. In a more practical vein, in one of the earliest papers on quantum computing, he suggested that parallelism that results from the validity of MWI could lead to "a method by which certain probabilistic tasks can be performed faster by a universal quantum computer than by any classical restriction of it ''. Deutsch has also proposed that when reversible computers become conscious that MWI will be testable (at least against "naive '' Copenhagenism) via the reversible observation of spin.
Asher Peres was an outspoken critic of MWI. For example, a section in his 1993 textbook had the title Everett 's interpretation and other bizarre theories. Peres not only questioned whether MWI is really an "interpretation '', but rather, if any interpretations of quantum mechanics are needed at all. An interpretation can be regarded as a purely formal transformation, which adds nothing to the rules of the quantum mechanics. Peres seems to suggest that positing the existence of an infinite number of non-communicating parallel universes is highly suspect per those who interpret it as a violation of Occam 's razor, i.e., that it does not minimize the number of hypothesized entities. However, it is understood that the number of elementary particles are not a gross violation of Occam 's razor, one counts the types, not the tokens. Max Tegmark remarks that the alternative to many - worlds is "many words '', an allusion to the complexity of von Neumann 's collapse postulate. On the other hand, the same derogatory qualification "many words '' is often applied to MWI by its critics who see it as a word game which obfuscates rather than clarifies by confounding the von Neumann branching of possible worlds with the Schrödinger parallelism of many worlds in superposition.
MWI is considered by some to be unfalsifiable and hence unscientific because the multiple parallel universes are non-communicating, in the sense that no information can be passed between them. Others claim MWI is directly testable. Everett regarded MWI as falsifiable since any test that falsifies conventional quantum theory would also falsify MWI.
Advocates of MWI often cite a poll of 72 "leading cosmologists and other quantum field theorists '' conducted by the American political scientist David Raub in 1995 showing 58 % agreement with "Yes, I think MWI is true ''.
However; the poll is controversial. For example, Victor J. Stenger remarks that Murray Gell - Mann 's published work explicitly rejects the existence of simultaneous parallel universes. Collaborating with James Hartle, Gell - Mann is working toward the development a more "palatable '' post-Everett quantum mechanics. Stenger thinks it 's fair to say that most physicists dismiss the many - world interpretation as too extreme, while noting it "has merit in finding a place for the observer inside the system being analyzed and doing away with the troublesome notion of wave function collapse ''.
Max Tegmark also reports the result of a "highly unscientific '' poll taken at a 1997 quantum mechanics workshop. According to Tegmark, "The many worlds interpretation (MWI) scored second, comfortably ahead of the consistent histories and Bohm interpretations. '' Such polls have been taken at other conferences, for example, in response to Sean Carroll 's observation, "As crazy as it sounds, most working physicists buy into the many - worlds theory '' Michael Nielsen counters: "at a quantum computing conference at Cambridge in 1998, a many - worlder surveyed the audience of approximately 200 people... Many - worlds did just fine, garnering support on a level comparable to, but somewhat below, Copenhagen and decoherence. '' However, Nielsen notes that it seemed most attendees found it to be a waste of time: Asher Peres "got a huge and sustained round of applause... when he got up at the end of the polling and asked ' And who here believes the laws of physics are decided by a democratic vote? ' ''
A 2005 poll of fewer than 40 students and researchers taken after a course on the Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics at the Institute for Quantum Computing University of Waterloo found "Many Worlds (and decoherence) '' to be the least favored.
A 2011 poll of 33 participants at an Austrian conference found 6 endorsed MWI, 8 "Information - based / information - theoretical '', and 14 Copenhagen; the authors remark that the results are similar to the previous Tegmark 's 1998 poll.
Speculative physics deals with questions which are also discussed in science fiction.
Quantum suicide, as a thought experiment, was published independently by Hans Moravec in 1987 and Bruno Marchal in 1988 and was independently developed further by Max Tegmark in 1998. It attempts to distinguish between the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics and the Everett many - worlds interpretation by means of a variation of the Schrödinger 's cat thought experiment, from the cat 's point of view. Quantum immortality refers to the subjective experience of surviving quantum suicide regardless of the odds.
Another speculation is that the separate worlds remain weakly coupled (e.g., by gravity) permitting "communication between parallel universes ''. A possible test of this using quantum - optical equipment is described in a 1997 Foundations of Physics article by Rainer Plaga. It involves an isolated ion in an ion trap, a quantum measurement that would yield two parallel worlds (their difference just being in the detection of a single photon), and the excitation of the ion from only one of these worlds. If the excited ion can be detected from the other parallel universe, then this would constitute direct evidence in support of the many - worlds interpretation and would automatically exclude the orthodox, "logical '', and "many - histories '' interpretations. The reason the ion is isolated is to make it not participate immediately in the decoherence which insulates the parallel world branches, therefore allowing it to act as a gateway between the two worlds, and if the measure apparatus could perform the measurements quickly enough before the gateway ion is decoupled then the test would succeed (with electronic computers the necessary time window between the two worlds would be in a time scale of milliseconds or nanoseconds, and if the measurements are taken by humans then a few seconds would still be enough). R. Plaga shows that macroscopic decoherence timescales are a possibility. The proposed test is based on technical equipment described in a 1993 Physical Review article by Itano et al. and R. Plaga says that this level of technology is enough to realize the proposed inter-world communication experiment. The necessary technology for precision measurements of single ions already exists since the 1970s, and the ion recommended for excitation is Hg. The excitation methodology is described by Itano et al. and the time needed for it is given by the Rabi flopping formula.
Such a test as described by R. Plaga would mean that energy transfer is possible between parallel worlds. This does not violate the fundamental principles of physics because these require energy conservation only for the whole universe and not for the single parallel branches. Neither the excitation of the single ion (which is a degree of freedom of the proposed system) leads to decoherence, something which is proven by Welcher Weg detectors which can excite atoms without momentum transfer (which causes the loss of coherence).
The proposed test would allow for low - bandwidth inter-world communication, the limiting factors of bandwidth and time being dependent on the technology of the equipment. Because of the time needed to determine the state of the partially decohered isolated excited ion based on Itano et al. 's methodology, the ion would decohere by the time its state is determined during the experiment, so Plaga 's proposal would pass just enough information between the two worlds to confirm their parallel existence and nothing more. The author contemplates that with increased bandwidth, one could even transfer television imagery across the parallel worlds. For example, Itano et al. 's methodology could be improved (by lowering the time needed for state determination of the excited ion) if a more efficient process were found for the detection of fluorescence radiation using 194 nm photons.
A 1991 article by J. Polchinski also supports the view that inter-world communication is a theoretical possibility. Other authors in a 1994 preprint article also contemplated similar ideas.
The reason inter-world communication seems like a possibility is because decoherence which separates the parallel worlds is never fully complete, therefore weak influences from one parallel world to another can still pass between them, and these should be measurable with advanced technology. Deutsch proposed such an experiment in a 1985 International Journal of Theoretical Physics article, but the technology it requires involves human - level artificial intelligence.
Many mwi proponents assert that every physically possible event has to be represented in the multiversal stack, and by definition this would include highly unlikely scenarios and timelines. Bryce Seligman DeWitt has stated that "Everett / Wheeler / Graham do not in the end exclude any element of the superposition. All the worlds are there, even those in which everything goes wrong and all the statistical laws break down. '' Murray Gell - Man has stated that "Everything not forbidden is compulsory. '' (a quote reappropriated from T.H. White to describe the implications of the Totalitarian principle) Max Tegmark has affirmed in numerous statements that absurd / highly unlikely events are inevitable under the mwi interpretation. To quote Tegmark, "Things inconsistent with the laws of physics will never happen - everything else will... it 's important to keep track of the statistics, since even if everything conceivable happens somewhere, really freak events happen only exponentially rarely ''. Frank J. Tipler, although a strong advocate for the many - worlds interpretation, has expressed some skepticism regarding this aspect of the theory. In a 2015 interview he stated "We simply do n't know... it might be that the modulus over the wavefunction of that possibilty (i.e. an extremely absurd yet physically possible event) is zero in which case there is no such world... There are universes out there, which you could imagine which... would not be actualized. ''
The many - worlds interpretation has some similarity to modal realism in philosophy, which is the view that the possible worlds used to interpret modal claims exist and are of a kind with the actual world. Unlike the possible worlds of philosophy, however, in quantum mechanics counterfactual alternatives can influence the results of experiments, as in the Elitzur -- Vaidman bomb - testing problem or the Quantum Zeno effect. Also, while the worlds of the many - worlds interpretation all share the same physical laws, modal realism postulates a world for every way things could conceivably have been.
The many - worlds interpretation could be one possible way to resolve the paradoxes that one would expect to arise if time travel turns out to be permitted by physics (permitting closed timelike curves and thus violating causality). Entering the past would itself be a quantum event causing branching, and therefore the timeline accessed by the time traveller simply would be another timeline of many. In that sense, it would make the Novikov self - consistency principle unnecessary.
The many - worlds interpretation (and the somewhat related concept of possible worlds) has been associated to numerous themes in literature, art and science fiction.
Some of these stories or films violate fundamental principles of causality and relativity, since the information - theoretic structure of the path space of multiple universes (that is, information flow between different paths) is very likely complex.
Another kind of popular illustration of many - worlds splittings, which does not involve information flow between paths, or information flow backwards in time considers alternate outcomes of historical events. According to the many - worlds interpretation, all of the historical speculations entertained within the alternate history genre are realized in parallel universes.
The many - worlds interpretation of reality was anticipated with remarkable fidelity in Olaf Stapledon 's 1937 science fiction novel Star Maker, in a paragraph describing one of the many universes created by the Star Maker god of the title. "In one inconceivably complex cosmos, whenever a creature was faced with several possible courses of action, it took them all, thereby creating many distinct temporal dimensions and distinct histories of the cosmos. Since in every evolutionary sequence of the cosmos there were very many creatures, and each was constantly faced with many possible courses, and the combinations of all their courses were innumerable, an infinity of distinct universes exfoliated from every moment of every temporal sequence in this cosmos. ''
Star Trek uses many - worlds in many stories. In the Original Series, Spock and Kirk make a crossover into a mirror universe and encounter versions of themselves from the other universe. In an episode of the Next Generation, Worf crosses over into a parallel universe while piloting a shuttlecraft and manages to encounter several other universes. The TNG finale "All good things '' uses the concept heavily as Picard jumps between times. This is continued in Deep Space 9 with the episodes arching between the Terran empire and the Alliance, Sisko and Kira also find mirror versions of themselves and other characters who are currently dead in the central universe, or dead in the parallel universe.
A more recent iteration, Rick and Morty on the channel Adult Swim, uses the many - worlds interpretation as a basis for the occurrences in the show. The cartoon also makes an allusion to Schrödinger 's Cat in an episode in which they split their existence into two hypothetical, equally possible existences.
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boogie oogie oogie – a taste of honey | Boogie Oogie Oogie - wikipedia
"Boogie Oogie Oogie '' is a song by the American band A Taste of Honey from their 1978 self - titled debut album. Released as their debut single in the summer of 1978, the song became an extremely popular "crossover '' disco song. The lyrics urge listeners to "boogie oogie oogie till you just ca n't boogie no more ''.
It topped the American pop, soul and disco charts, and it eventually sold over two million copies and has become one of the most recognizable songs from the disco era.
In the late 1990s, the song was used in a national campaign advertisement by Burger King and was sampled by numerous rap acts. The song was also used in a campaign for Rold Gold Pretzels (featuring the actor Jason Alexander) in the mid-1990s.
The song was used in the first episode of season four of Nip / Tuck and in an episode of Lucy, the Daughter of the Devil and the first episode of season one of Narcos.
The song is used in the films At Close Range, Barcelona, Contact, Breast Men, Mystery Men, Screwed, Canvas, and The Nice Guys. Other television shows that feature the song include WKRP in Cincinnati, The King of Queens, Everybody Hates Chris, White Heat, Muppets Tonight and Scandal. It 's also featured in the video game Grand Theft Auto IV: The Ballad of Gay Tony.
7 '' vinyl single
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duration of voyage from africa to the americas | Middle Passage - wikipedia
The Middle Passage was the stage of the triangular trade in which millions of Africans were shipped to the New World as part of the Atlantic slave trade. Ships departed Europe for African markets with manufactured goods, which were traded for purchased or kidnapped Africans, who were transported across the Atlantic as slaves; the slaves were then sold or traded for raw materials, which would be transported back to Europe to complete the voyage. Voyages on the Middle Passage were large financial undertakings, generally organized by companies or groups of investors rather than individuals.
The "Middle Passage '' was considered a time of in - betweenness for those being traded from Africa to America. The close quarters and intentional division of pre-established African communities by the ship crew motivated captive Africans to forge bonds of kinship which then created forced transatlantic communities.
Traders from the Americas and Caribbean received the enslaved Africans. European powers such as Portugal, England, Spain, France, the Netherlands, Denmark -- Norway, Sweden, and Brandenburg, as well as traders from Brazil and North America, took part in this trade. The enslaved Africans came mostly from eight regions: Senegambia, Upper Guinea, Windward Coast, Gold Coast, Bight of Benin, Bight of Biafra, West Central Africa and Southeastern Africa.
An estimated 15 % of the Africans died at sea, with mortality rates considerably higher in Africa itself in the process of capturing and transporting indigenous people to the ships. The total number of African deaths directly attributable to the Middle Passage voyage is estimated at up to two million; a broader look at African deaths directly attributable to the institution of slavery from 1500 to 1900 suggests up to four million African deaths.
For two hundred years, 1440 -- 1640, Portuguese slavers had a near monopoly on the export of slaves from Africa. During the 18th century, when the slave trade transported about 6 million Africans, British slavers carried almost 2.5 million.
The duration of the transatlantic voyage varied widely, from one to six months depending on weather conditions. The journey became more efficient over the centuries; while an average transatlantic journey of the early 16th century lasted several months, by the 19th century the crossing often required fewer than six weeks.
It is believed that African kings, warlords and private kidnappers sold captives to Europeans who held several coastal forts. The captives were usually force - marched to these ports along the western coast of Africa, where they were held for sale to the European or American slave traders in the barracoons. Typical slave ships contained several hundred slaves with about 30 crew members.
The male captives were normally chained together in pairs to save space; right leg to the next man 's left leg -- while the women and children may have had somewhat more room. The chains or hand and leg cuffs were known as bilboes, which were among the many tools of the slave trade, and which were always in short supply. Bilboes were mainly used on men, and they consisted of two iron shackles locked on a post and were usually fastened around the ankles of two men. At best, captives were fed beans, corn, yams, rice, and palm oil. Slaves were fed one meal a day with water, if at all. When food was scarce, slaveholders would get priority over the slaves. Sometimes captives were allowed to move around during the day, but many ships kept the shackles on throughout the arduous journey. Aboard certain French ships, slaves were brought on deck to periodically receive fresh air. While female slaves were typically permitted to be on deck more frequently, male slaves would be watched closely to prevent revolt when above deck.
Slaves below the decks lived for months in conditions of squalor and indescribable horror. Disease spread and ill health was one of the biggest killers. Mortality rates were high, and death made these conditions below the decks even worse. Even though the corpses were thrown overboard, many crew members avoided going into the hold. The slaves who had already been ill ridden were not always found immediately. Many of the living slaves could have been shackled to someone that was dead for hours and sometimes days.
Most contemporary historians estimate that between 9.4 and 12 million Africans arrived in the New World. Disease and starvation due to the length of the passage were the main contributors to the death toll with amoebic dysentery and scurvy causing the majority of deaths. Additionally, outbreaks of smallpox, syphilis, measles, and other diseases spread rapidly in the close - quarter compartments.
The rate of death increased with the length of the voyage, since the incidence of dysentery and of scurvy increased with longer stints at sea as the quality and amount of food and water diminished. In addition to physical sickness, many slaves became too depressed to eat or function efficiently due to loss of freedom, family, security, and their own humanity.
The need for profits in the 18th century 's Atlantic market economy drove changes in ship designs and in managing human cargo, which included enslaved Africans and the mostly white crew. Improvements in air flow on board the ships helped to decrease the infamous mortality rate that these ships had become known for throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. The new designs that allowed ships to navigate faster and into rivers ' mouths ensured access to many more enslaving posts along the West African coast. The monetary value of enslaved Africans on any given American auction - block during the mid-18th century ranged between $800 and $1,200, which in modern times would be equivalent to $32,000 -- 48,000 apiece ($100 then is now worth $4,000 due to inflation). Therefore, ship captains and investors sought technologies that would protect their human cargo.
Throughout the height of the Atlantic slave trade (1570 -- 1808), slave ships were normally smaller than traditional cargo ships, with most slave ships weighing between 150 and 250 tons. This equated to about 350 to 450 enslaved Africans on each slave ship, or 1.5 to 2.4 per ton. The English ships of the time normally fell on the larger side of this spectrum and the French on the smaller side. Ships purposely designed to be smaller and more maneuverable were meant to navigate the African coastal rivers into farther inland ports; these ships therefore increased the effects of the slave trade on Africa. Additionally, the ships ' sizes increased slightly throughout the 1700s; however the number of enslaved Africans per ship remained the same. This reduction in the ratio of enslaved Africans to ship tonnage was designed to increase the amount of space per person and thus improve the survival chances of everyone on board. These ships also had temporary storage decks which were separated by an open latticework or grate bulkhead, Ship masters would presumably use these chambers to divide enslaved Africans and help prevent mutiny. Some ships developed by the turn of the 19th century even had ventilation ports built into the sides and between gun ports (with hatches to keep inclement weather out). These open deck designs increased airflow and thus helped improve survival rates, diminishing potential investment losses.
Another major factor in "cargo protection '' was the increase in knowledge of diseases and medicines (along with the inclusion of a variety of medicines on the ships). First the Dutch East India Company in the 18th century, followed by some other countries and companies in the late 18th early 19th centuries, realized that the inclusion of surgeons and other medical practitioners aboard their ships was an endeavor that proved too costly for the benefits. So instead of including medical personnel they just stocked the ships with a large variety of medicines; while this was better than no medicines, and given the fact that many crew members at least had some idea of how disease was spread, without the inclusion of medical personnel the mortality rate was still very high in the 18th century.
Slaves ' treatment was horrific because the captured African men and women were considered less than human; they were "cargo '', or "goods '', and treated as such; they were transported for marketing. Women with children were not as desirable for they took up too much space and toddlers were not wanted because of everyday maintenance. For example, the Zong, a British slaver, took too many slaves on a voyage to the New World in 1781. Overcrowding combined with malnutrition and disease killed several crew members and around 60 slaves. Bad weather made the Zong 's voyage slow and lack of drinking water became a concern. The crew decided to drown some slaves at sea, to conserve water and allow the owners to collect insurance for lost cargo. About 130 slaves were killed and a number chose to kill themselves in defiance, by jumping into the water willingly. The Zong incident became fuel for the abolitionist movement and a major court case, as the insurance company refused to compensate for the loss.
While slaves were generally kept fed and supplied with drink as healthy slaves were more valuable, if resources ran low on the long, unpredictable voyages, the crew received preferential treatment. Slave punishment and torture was very common, as on the voyage the crew had to turn independent people into obedient slaves. Whipping and use of the cat o ' nine tails were a common occurrence; sometimes slaves were beaten for "melancholy ''. Pregnant women on the ships who delivered their babies aboard risked the chance of their children being killed in order for the mothers to be sold. The worst punishments were for rebelling; in one instance a captain punished a failed rebellion by killing one involved slave immediately, and forcing two other slaves to eat his heart and liver.
As a way to counteract disease and suicide attempts, the crew would force the slaves onto the deck of the ship for exercise, usually resulting in beatings because the slaves would be unwilling to dance for them or interact. These beatings would often be severe and could result in the slave dying or becoming more susceptible to diseases.
Slaves resisted in a variety of ways. The two most common types of resistance were refusal to eat and suicide. Suicide was a frequent occurrence, often by refusal of food or medicine or jumping overboard, as well as by a variety of other opportunistic means. If a slave jumped overboard, they would often be left to drown or shot from the boat. Over the centuries, some African peoples, such as the Kru, came to be understood as holding substandard value as slaves, because they developed a reputation for being too proud for slavery, and for attempting suicide immediately upon losing their freedom.
Both suicide and self - starving were prevented as much as possible by slaver crews; slaves were often force - fed or tortured until they ate, though some still managed to starve themselves to death; slaves were kept away from means of suicide, and the sides of the deck were often netted. Slaves were still successful, especially at jumping overboard. Often when an uprising failed, the mutineers would jump en masse into the sea. Slaves generally believed that if they jumped overboard, they would be returned to their family and friends in their village or to their ancestors in the afterlife.
Suicide by jumping overboard was such a problem that captains had to address it directly in many cases. They used the sharks that followed the ships as a terror weapon. One captain, who had a rash of suicides on his ship, took a woman and lowered her into the water on a rope, and pulled her out as fast as possible. When she came in view, the sharks had already killed her -- and bitten off the lower half of her body.
In order to interact with each other on the voyage, slaves created a communication system unbeknownst to Europeans: They would construct choruses on the passages using their voices, bodies, and ships themselves; the hollow design of the ships allowed slaves to use them as percussive instruments and to amplify their songs. This combination of "instruments '' was both a way for slaves to communicate as well as create a new identity since Europeans attempted to strip them of that. Although most slaves were from various regions around Africa, their situation allowed them to come together and create a new culture and identity aboard the ships with a common language and method of communication:
(C) all and response soundings allowed men and women speaking different languages to communicate about the conditions of their captivity. In fact, on board the Hubridas, what began as murmurs and morphed into song erupted before long into the shouts and cries of coordinated revolt.
This communication was a direct subversion of European authority and allowed slaves to have a form of power and identity otherwise prohibited. Furthermore, such organization and coming together enabled revolts and uprisings to actually be coordinated and successful at times.
Aboard ships, the captives were not always willing to follow orders. Sometimes they reacted in violence. Slave ships were designed and operated to try to prevent the slaves from revolting. Resistance among the slaves usually ended in failure and participants in the rebellion were punished severely. About one out of ten ships experienced some sort of rebellion.
Ottobah Cugoano, who was taken from Africa as a slave when he was a child, later described an uprising aboard the ship on which he was transported to the West Indies:
When we found ourselves at last taken away, death was more preferable than life, and a plan was concerted amongst us, that we might burn and blow up the ship, and to perish all together in the flames.
The number of rebels varied widely; often the uprisings would end with the death of a few slaves and crew. Surviving rebels were punished or executed as examples to the other slaves on board.
Slaves also resisted through certain manifestations of their religions and mythology. They would appeal to their gods for protection and vengeance upon their captors, and would also try to curse and otherwise harm the crew using idols and fetishes. One crew found fetishes in their water supply, placed by slaves who believed they would kill all who drank from it.
While the owners and captains of slave ships could expect vast profits, the sailors were often badly paid and subject to brutal discipline. A crew mortality rate of around 20 % was expected during a voyage, with sailors dying as a result of disease, flogging or slave uprisings.
The sailors were often employed through coercion as they generally knew about and hated the slave trade. In port towns, recruiters and tavern owners would induce sailors to become very drunk (and indebted) and then offer to relieve their debt if they signed contracts with slave ships. If they did not, they would be imprisoned. Sailors in prison had a hard time getting jobs outside of the slave ship industry since most other maritime industries would not hire "jail - birds '', so they were forced to go to the slave ships anyway.
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who are the new judges on americas got talent | America 's Got Talent - Wikipedia
America 's Got Talent (sometimes abbreviated as AGT) is an American reality television series on the NBC television network, and part of the global Got Talent franchise. It is a talent show that features singers, dancers, magicians, comedians, and other performers of all ages competing for the advertised top prize of one million dollars. The show debuted in June 2006 for the summer television season. From season three (2008) onwards, the prize includes the one million dollars, payable in a financial annuity over 40 years, and a chance to headline a show on the Las Vegas Strip. Among its significant features is that it gives an opportunity to talented amateurs or unknown performers, with the results decided by an audience vote. The format is a popular one and has often been reworked for television in the United States and the United Kingdom.
This incarnation was created by Simon Cowell, and was originally due to be a 2005 British series called Paul O'Grady 's Got Talent but was postponed due to O'Grady's acrimonious split with broadcaster ITV (later launching as Britain 's Got Talent in 2007). Therefore, the U.S. version became the first full series of the franchise.
The original judging panel consisted of David Hasselhoff, Brandy Norwood, and Piers Morgan. Sharon Osbourne replaced Norwood in season two (2007), and Howie Mandel replaced Hasselhoff in season five (2010). Howard Stern replaced Morgan in season seven (2012). Mel B replaced Osbourne in season eight (2013), while Heidi Klum joined as a fourth judge. Simon Cowell replaced Stern in season eleven (2016). Regis Philbin was the original host (season one), followed by Jerry Springer for two seasons (2007 -- 2008), followed by Nick Cannon for eight seasons (2009 -- 2016). Supermodel and host Tyra Banks replaced Cannon for the twelfth season (2017).
On August 2, 2016, NBC renewed the series for a twelfth season, which premiered on May 30, 2017. The season concluded on September 20, 2017.
Starting with the tenth season, each of the main judges invited a guest judge to join the judging panel for one night during the Judge Cuts stage of the competition. The guest judges had the ability to employ the golden buzzer to bypass the other judges and advance an act to the live shows. The first guest judge, Neil Patrick Harris, appeared at the invitation of Howard Stern in episode eight of season ten, which aired on July 14, 2015. Michael Bublé appeared at the invitation of Heidi Klum in episode nine of season ten, which aired on July 21, 2015. Marlon Wayans appeared at the invitation of Howie Mandel in episode ten of season ten, which aired on July 28, 2015. Piers Morgan appeared at the invitation of Mel B in episode eleven of season ten, which aired on August 4, 2015. Beginning with the eleventh season the guest judges were announced without any indication if they were invited by one of the regular judges. This continued into the twelfth season when the guest judges were announced by NBC through various outlets.
The general selection process of the show begins with separate producers ' auditions held in various cities across the United States, some of which host only the producers ' auditions, and some of which also host judges ' auditions held in theaters. This round is held several months before the judges ' audition. Acts that have made it through the producers ' audition then audition in front of the judges and a live audience.
Following the producers ' auditions, acts audition in front of (as of 2013) four celebrity judges. These auditions are held in theaters in various cities nationally and are later televised. Judges may individually register their disapproval of an act by pressing a red buzzer, which lights up their corresponding X above the stage. Any performer who receives X 's (3 from season 1 - 7, or 4 from season 8 -) from the judges must stop performing and is eliminated. Since season three (2008), large audiences have also been a factor in the judging process, as their reaction to an act 's performance may swing or influence a judge 's vote. If an act receives three or more "yes '' votes, they advance to the next round of competition. However, in the majority of seasons, several acts do not perform in the second round and are immediately sent home by the judges without a second performance.
Introduced in season nine, the "Golden Buzzer '' is located on the center of the judges ' desk and may be used once per season by each judge. In season 9, a judge could press the golden buzzer to save an act from elimination, regardless of the number of X 's earned from the other judges. Starting in season 10 and onward, any act that receives a golden buzzer advances directly to the live show; and in season 11, the hosts also were given the power to use the golden buzzer. The golden buzzer is also used in the Judge Cuts format.
From season two (2007) to season eight (2013), Las Vegas Week has been an intermediary televised taped round between the auditions and the live shows. This round takes place in a notable venue on the Las Vegas Strip. Names for this round in previous seasons have included "Las Vegas Callbacks '' and "Vegas Verdicts ''. The Las Vegas round generally consists of acts performing a second time for the judges (except for season four in 2009), who then pick select acts to move on to the live shows. An act eliminated in Las Vegas Week is not completely excluded from the live show competition, as several seasons have featured contestants being brought back from this round as "wild card '' acts.
Prior to the inclusion of this round, the judges would have a list containing a number of acts which advanced past the auditions during each live show. The judges would then pick ten acts from that group each week, leaving several acts without the chance to perform.
In season nine (2014), acts went to New York instead of Las Vegas to determine a place in the live shows.
From season five (2010) to season seven (2012), acts who did not attend live auditions could instead submit a taped audition online via YouTube. Acts from the online auditions were then selected to compete in front of the judges and a live audience during the "live shows '' part of the season, prior to the semi-finals. The most successful act of the YouTube auditions was Jackie Evancho, who went on to place second in season five.
Before the inclusion of this round, the show had a separate audition episode in seasons three and four (2008 -- 2009) for contestants who posted videos on MySpace.
During the live shows, a group of acts ranging from only a Top 20 (season two), to as many as 60, compete for viewers ' and judges ' votes. In the first season, the judges could not end an act 's performance, but could either "check '' or "X '' the performance during their critique. Since season two (2007), judges have been able to end an act 's performance early, and the "check '' was removed. Generally, acts each perform first in a live round consisting of a series of quarterfinals. In seasons with YouTube auditions, the round of live judging of YouTube finalists takes place then, as part of these quarterfinals. Then there may be additional shows for "Wild Card '' acts -- acts that one or more of the judges select to be given one more chance for audience vote despite previous elimination. From these shows, the existing group is narrowed through votes by the public and / or the judges (depending on the season). Acts then move on to a semifinal round, and even further rounds (such as a "Top 8 '' or a "Top 10 '', depending on the season) through a series of weekly shows, which trim the number of acts down each time based on a public vote. In the majority of seasons, judges have had no vote from the semifinals. All these rounds culminate in a live final, which has consisted of anywhere from four to ten acts throughout the seasons. The act with the most votes is declared the winner, given $1 million, and, since season three (2008), a chance to headline a show on the Las Vegas Strip.
During seasons one through six (2006 -- 11), the live shows were filmed at Stage 36 of CBS Television City in Los Angeles. In season seven (2012), the live shows were held at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark. From seasons eight through ten (2013 -- 15), live performances were held at Radio City Music Hall in New York. From season eleven (2016) onwards the live shows are being held at the Dolby Theatre.
For seasons five through eight (2010 -- 13), the show also made the winner the headline act of a national tour with runners up following the final show, stopping in 25 cities. For season nine, however (2014), there was no tour; two shows were held in Las Vegas for the winner and some of the runner - up acts. (See # America 's Got Talent Live, below.)
In May 2006, NBC announced the new show. The audition tour took place in June. Auditions were held in the following locations: Los Angeles, New York, and Chicago. Some early ads for the show implied that the winning act would also headline a show at a casino, possibly in Las Vegas; however, this was replaced with a million dollars due to concerns of minors playing in Las Vegas, should one become a champion. More than 12 million viewers watched the series premiere (which is more than American Idol got during its premiere in 2002). The two - hour broadcast was the night 's most - watched program on U.S. television and the highest - rated among viewers aged 18 to 49 (the prime - time audience that matters most to advertisers), Nielsen Media Research reported.
On the season finale, there was an unaired segment that was scheduled to appear after Aly & AJ. The segment featured Tom Green dressing in a parrot costume and squawking with a live parrot to communicate telepathically. Green then proceeded to fly up above the audience, shooting confetti streamers out of his costume onto the crowd below.
In season one, the show was hosted by Regis Philbin and judged by actor David Hasselhoff, singer Brandy Norwood, and journalist Piers Morgan.
The winner of the season was 11 - year - old singer Bianca Ryan, and the runners - up were clogging group All That and musical group The Millers.
After initially announcing in June 2006 that season two would premiere in January 2007 and would air at 8 pm on Sunday nights, with no separate results show, the network changed that, pushing the show back to the summer, where the first season had enjoyed great success. This move kept the show out of direct competition with American Idol, which had a similar premise and was more popular.
In AGT 's place, another reality - based talent show, Grease: You 're The One That I Want, began airing on Sunday nights in the same time slot on NBC beginning in January. In March, NBC announced that Philbin would not return as host of the show, and that Jerry Springer would succeed him as host, with Sharon Osbourne (formerly a judge on Cowell 's UK show The X Factor) succeeding Brandy Norwood as a judge.
The season finale was shown Tuesday, August 21, with the winner being Terry Fator, a singing impressionist ventriloquist. The runner - up was singer Cas Haley.
Season three premiered on June 17, 2008. Auditions took place in Charlotte, Nashville, Orlando, New York, Dallas, Los Angeles, Atlanta, and Chicago from January to April. A televised MySpace audition also took place.
Season three differed from the previous two in many ways. Auditions were held in well - known theaters across the nation, and a new title card was introduced, featuring the American flag as background. The X 's matched the ones on Britain 's Got Talent as did the judges ' table. Like the previous season, the Las Vegas callbacks continued, but there were forty acts selected to compete in the live rounds, instead of twenty. This season also contained several results episodes, but not on a regular basis. The show took a hiatus for two - and - a-half weeks for the 2008 Summer Olympics, but returned with the live rounds on August 26.
Neal E. Boyd, an opera singer, was named the winner on October 1. Eli Mattson, a singer and pianist, was runner - up.
Season four premiered on Tuesday, June 23, 2009. It was the first to be broadcast in high definition. Auditions for this season were held in more than nine major cities including New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Washington, D.C., Atlanta, Miami, Tacoma, Boston, and Houston. Los Angeles auditions kicked off the January 29 -- 31 tour at the Los Angeles Convention Center, followed by the February 7 -- 8 Atlanta auditions. New York and Miami auditions were held during March. Tacoma auditions were held April 25 and 26. In addition to live auditions and the ability to send in a home audition tape, season four offered the opportunity for acts to upload their video direct to NBC.com/agt with their registration. This year 's host was Nick Cannon. Jerry Springer said that he could not return as host due to other commitments.
The audition process in season four was the same as the previous season, but the ' Las Vegas Callbacks ' was renamed ' Vegas Verdicts '. This was the first season since season one where results episodes lasted one hour on a regular basis. The title card this year featured bands of the American flag and stars waving around the America 's Got Talent logo.
On September 16, country music singer Kevin Skinner was named the season 's winner. The grand prize was $1 million and a 10 - week headline show at the Planet Hollywood Resort and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip. The runner - up was Bárbara Padilla, an opera singer.
For season five, the network had considered moving the show to the fall, after rival series So You Think You Can Dance transferred from the summer to fall season in 2009. NBC ultimately decided to keep Talent a summer show.
Open auditions were held in the winter to early spring of 2010 in Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, New York, Orlando, and Portland (Oregon). Non-televised producers ' auditions were also held in Atlanta and Philadelphia. For the first time, online auditions were also held via YouTube.
David Hasselhoff left to host a new television show and was replaced by comedian and game show host Howie Mandel. This made Piers Morgan the only original judge left in the show. The show premiered Tuesday, June 1, 2010, at 8 pm ET. Afterward, Talent resumed the same time slot as the previous season.
On September 15, singer Michael Grimm was named the winner. He won a $1 million prize and a chance to perform at the Caesars Palace Casino and Resort on the Las Vegas Strip, as well as headline the 25 - city America 's Got Talent Live Tour along with runner - up Jackie Evancho, Fighting Gravity, Prince Poppycock, and the other top ten finalists.
Season six premiered on Tuesday, May 31, 2011, with a two - hour special. Piers Morgan and Sharon Osbourne continued as judges after taking jobs on Piers Morgan Tonight and The Talk, respectively. On The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on July 27, 2010, Morgan officially stated that he had signed a three - year contract to stay on Talent.
The show held televised auditions in Los Angeles, New York, Minneapolis, Atlanta, Seattle, and Houston. Non-televised producers ' auditions were also held in Denver and Chicago. Previews of auditions were shown during NBC 's The Voice premiere on April 26. Online auditions via YouTube were also held for the second time in the show 's run, beginning on May 4. Finalists for this audition circuit competed live on August 9.
On Wednesday, September 14, Landau Eugene Murphy, Jr., a Frank Sinatra - style singer, was named the winner. Dance group Silhouettes was runner - up.
Season seven premiered on May 14, 2012. The first round of auditions, which are judged by producers, were held in New York, Washington, D.C., Tampa, Charlotte, Austin, Anaheim, St. Louis, and San Francisco from October 2011 to February 2012. The show began its live theater performances at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark on February 27.
Piers Morgan did not return as a judge for season seven, due to his work hosting CNN 's Piers Morgan Tonight, and he was replaced by Howard Stern. Since Stern hosts his SiriusXM radio show in New York City, the live rounds of the show were moved to nearby Newark, New Jersey. In December 2011, Simon Cowell, the show 's executive producer, announced that the show would be receiving a "top - to - bottom makeover '', confirming that there would be new graphics, lighting, theme music, show intro, logo, and a larger live audience at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark. On July 2, at the first live performance show of the season, their new location and stage were unveiled in a two - and - a-half - hour live special. A new set was also unveiled with a revised judges ' desk and a refreshed design of the "X ''.
On August 6, Sharon Osbourne announced that she would leave America 's Got Talent after the current season, in response to allegations that her son Jack Osbourne was discriminated against by the producers of the upcoming NBC program Stars Earn Stripes.
On September 13, Olate Dogs were announced the winner of the season, becoming the show 's first completely non-singing act to win the competition and also the first non-solo act to win. Comedian Tom Cotter finished as the runner - up.
Season eight of AGT premiered on Tuesday, June 4, 2013. The new season was announced in a promotional video shown during a commercial break for season seven 's second live show. Sharon Osbourne initially stated that she would not return for the season, but later said that she was staying with the show "for now. '' Osbourne confirmed that she would be leaving the show after a feud with NBC on August 6, 2012.
On February 20, 2013, it was announced that one of the Spice Girls members, Mel B (Melanie Brown), would replace Sharon Osbourne as the third judge. Entertainment Weekly also reported at the same time that NBC was looking at a possible fourth judge to be added. On March 3, it was announced that supermodel Heidi Klum would be joining the show as the new fourth judge.
An Audition Cities poll for the season was announced on July 11, 2012. The first batch of Audition Cities were announced as Los Angeles, Seattle, Portland (Oregon), New Orleans, Birmingham, Memphis, Nashville, Savannah, Raleigh, Norfolk, San Antonio, New York, Columbus (Ohio), and Chicago. This season, the auditions traveled to more cities than ever before. America 's Got Talent moved its live shows to Radio City Music Hall in New York for season eight. Auditions in front of the judges and an audience began taping on March 4. The show traveled to New Orleans, New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Antonio.
On September 18, 2013, martial arts dancer / mime Kenichi Ebina was announced the winner of the season, the first dance act to win the competition. Stand - up comedian Taylor Williamson was the runner - up.
Season nine premiered on Tuesday, May 27, 2014, at 8 pm ET. The producers ' auditions began on October 26, 2013, in Miami. Other audition sites included Atlanta, Baltimore, Denver, Houston, Indianapolis, Los Angeles, and New York. Contestants could also submit a video of their audition online. Auditions in front of the judges were held February 20 -- 22 at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark, which also hosted the live shows during season seven. Judges ' auditions were held in New York City at Madison Square Garden from April 3 to 6 and in Los Angeles at the Dolby Theatre from April 21 to 26.
The live shows return to Radio City Music Hall on July 29. There was also a new twist in the show, where "Judgment Week '' was held in New York City instead of Las Vegas. Judgment Week was originally intended to be held in front of a live studio audience, but after three acts performed, the producers scrapped the live audience concept. This season also came with the addition of a "Golden Buzzer, '' which was unveiled on that same year 's Britain 's Got Talent. Each judge can press the buzzer only once each season that can save an act, typically used when there is a tie.
For this season, contestants were invited to submit a video of their performance to The Today Show website throughout June, and the top three entrants performed their acts on The Today Show on July 23, 2014. The performer with the most votes, Cornell Bhangra, filled the 48th spot in the quarterfinals.
On September 17, magician Mat Franco was announced the winner of the season, the first magic act to win the competition. Singer Emily West was the runner - up.
Season ten premiered on May 26, 2015. Producer auditions began on November 2, 2014, in Tampa. Other audition sites included Nashville, Richmond (Virginia), New York, Chicago, St. Louis, San Antonio, Albuquerque, San Francisco, Seattle, Boise, Las Vegas, and Los Angeles. Online submissions were also accepted.
Howard Stern rumored on his radio show on October 1, 2014, that he might not return, but announced on December 8 that he would return for the upcoming season. Nick Cannon returned for his seventh season as host. On February 9, 2015, Howie Mandel said he would return for season ten and Mel B announced the next day that she would be returning as well. It was revealed on February 11 that Heidi Klum would also be returning.
It was announced on December 4, 2014, that Cris Judd would be named as a dance scout. He previously worked on the show as a choreographer behind the scenes, and on the New Zealand version of Got Talent as a judge.
Auditions in front of the judges began on March 2, 2015, at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center. They continued at the Manhattan Center in New York City and the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles. A special "extreme '' audition session was held outside at the Fairplex in Pomona, California, where danger acts performed outside for the judges, who were seated at an outdoor stage.
During NBC 's summer press tour, it was announced that America 's Got Talent would be making their "Golden Buzzer '' more like Britain 's Got Talent where the contestant that gets the buzzer will be sent directly to the live shows. An official trailer for the season was released, which showed that Dunkin Donuts was the show 's official sponsor for the season, with their cups prominently placed on the judges ' desk. Dunkin replaced Snapple, which sponsored the show since season seven.
On June 24, Howard Stern announced on The Howard Stern Show that season ten would be his last season as judge. Stern said, "In all seriousness, I 've told you, I 'm just too f * cking busy... something 's got to give... NBC 's already asked me what my intentions are for next year, whether or not I 'd come back, I kind of have told them I think this is my last season. Not I think, this is my last season ''.
On September 16, Paul Zerdin was announced the winner of the season, making him the second ventriloquist to win. Comedian Drew Lynch was runner - up, and magician mentalist Oz Pearlman was in Third Place.
America 's Got Talent was renewed for an eleventh season on September 1, 2015. The season will have preliminary open call auditions in Detroit, New York, Phoenix, Salt Lake City, Las Vegas, San Jose, San Diego, Kansas City, Los Angeles, Atlanta, Orlando, and Dallas. As in years past, hopeful contestants may also submit auditions online.
On October 22, 2015, it was announced that creator Simon Cowell would replace Howard Stern as a judge for season 11. On January 12, 2016, it was announced that Mel B, Heidi Klum, and Howie Mandel would all return as judges, with Nick Cannon returning as host. The live shows will also move from New York back to Los Angeles, due to Howard Stern 's departure. The live shows will be held at the Dolby Theatre.
Auditions in front of the judges began on March 3, 2016 at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Pasadena, California. The season premiered on May 31, 2016.
On September 14, 12 - year - old singer - songwriter and ukulele player, Grace VanderWaal was announced as the winner making it the second time that a female act has won the show since Season 1, and the second child act to win the competition. Magician mentalists The Clairvoyants was runner - up, and magician Jon Dorenbos was in Third Place.
On August 2, 2016, it was announced that host Nick Cannon and all four judges would be returning for season 12. Later that year, on October 4, Simon Cowell signed a contract to remain as a judge through to 2019 (Season 14).
On February 13, 2017, Nick Cannon announced he would not return as host for the twelfth season, citing creative differences between him and executives at NBC. The resignation comes in the wake of news that the network considered firing Cannon after he made disparaging remarks about NBC in his recent Showtime comedy special, Stand Up, Do n't Shoot. Cannon, however, was technically under contract to host and could potentially have been sued by NBC for breach of contract, though this was ultimately considered unlikely. NBC executives did not accept his resignation and had expected Cannon to return, but ultimately began the search for a new host.
NBC announced supermodel Tyra Banks as the new host on March 12, 2017 after Cannon 's departure.
The season premiered on Tuesday, May 30, 2017.
On September 20, Darci Lynne Farmer won the twelfth season, becoming the third ventriloquist, third child act and the third female act to win the competition (second year in a row after VanderWaal 's win in 2016). Child singer Angelica Hale was announced as the runner - up, Ukrainian dance act Light Balance finished in third place, deaf musician Mandy Harvey finished in fourth place and dog act Sara & Hero finished in fifth place.
America 's Got Talent Live is a show on the Las Vegas Strip that features the winner of each season of America 's Got Talent as the main performance.
In 2009, America 's Got Talent Live appeared on the Las Vegas Strip appearing Wednesday through Sunday at the Planet Hollywood Resort and Casino in Las Vegas, in a limited ten - week run from October through January featuring winner Kevin Skinner, runner - up Barbara Padilla and fourth - place finisher The Texas Tenors. It featured the final ten acts which made it to the season four (2009) finale. Jerry Springer emceed, commuting weekly between Stamford, Connecticut, tapings of his self - named show and Las Vegas.
In 2010, on the first live show of season five, the winner headlined America 's Got Talent Live from Caesars Palace Casino and Resort on the Las Vegas Strip, which was part of a 25 - city tour that featured the season 's finalists. Jerry Springer returned as both host of the tour and the headline show.
In 2012, the tour returned, featuring winners Olate Dogs, Spencer Horsman, Joe Castillo, Lightwire Theater, David Garibaldi and his CMYK 's, Jarrett and Raja, Tom Cotter, and other fan favorites.
In 2013, after the success of the 2012 tour, another tour was scheduled, featuring season eight 's winner, Kenichi Ebina, and finalists Collins Key, Jimmy Rose, Taylor Williamson, Cami Bradley, The KriStef Brothers, and Tone the Chiefrocca. Tone hosted the tour.
In 2014, America 's Got Talent Live announced that performances in Las Vegas on September 26 and 27 would feature Taylor Williamson, the season eight (2013) runner - up, and the top finalists for season nine: Mat Franco, Emily West, Quintavious Johnson, AcroArmy, Emil and Dariel, Miguel Dakota, and Sons of Serendip.
In 2015, no tour was held. Instead, three shows were given at the Planet Hollywood Resort in Las Vegas featuring winner Paul Zerdin, runner - up Drew Lynch, and fan favorite Piff the Magic Dragon.
In 2016, four shows were given at the Planet Hollywood Resort in Las Vegas. They featured the top two finalists for season 11, Grace VanderWaal and The Clairvoyants, as well as finalist Tape Face.
In 2017, four shows are planned at the Planet Hollywood Resort in Las Vegas. They will feature winner Darci Lynne, runner - up Angelica Hale, third - placed Light Balance, and finalist Preacher Lawson.
NBC broadcast the two - hour America 's Got Talent Holiday Spectacular on December 19, 2016, hosted by Cannon with performances by Grace VanderWaal, Jackie Evancho, Andra Day, Penn & Teller, Pentatonix, Terry Fator, Mat Franco, Piff the Magic Dragon, Olate Dogs, Professor Splash, Jon Dorenbos and others, and featuring the Season 11 judges, including Klum, who sang a duet with Season 11 finalist Sal Valentinetti. The special drew 9.5 million viewers.
Since the show began, its ratings have been very high, ranging from 9 million viewers to as many as 16 million viewers, generally averaging around 11 million viewers. The show has also ranked high in the 18 -- 49 demographic, usually rating anywhere from as low as 1.6 to as high as 4.6 throughout its run. Audition shows and performance shows rate higher on average than results shows.
Although the show 's ratings have been high, the network usually keeps the show 's run limited to before the official start of the next television season in the third week of September with some reductions or expansions depending on Olympic years, where finale ratings are usually lower due to returning programming on other networks.
The highest rated season in overall viewers to date is season four (2009). The most - watched episode has been the finale of season five (2010), with 16.41 million viewers. The series premiere and an episode featuring the first part of Las Vegas Week in season six (2011) have each tied for highest rating among adults 18 -- 49, both having a 4.6 rating.
Sales numbers and rankings are U.S. sales only.
Many acts which have competed on America 's Got Talent, but were ultimately eliminated before the final round, have either previously competed on or went on to compete in a number of other reality shows, most notably American Idol and America 's Best Dance Crew.
The following America 's Got Talent (AGT) contestants also appeared on American Idol (AI):
The following America 's Got Talent (AGT) contestants also appeared on America 's Best Dance Crew (ABDC):
The following America 's Got Talent (AGT) contestants also appeared on these other shows:
In Indonesia, the eleventh season has currently been broadcast by NET. since October 22, 2016 every Saturday and Sunday at 10.00 PM WIB. But, since Monday, October 31, in addition to the weekend slot, the show has also been broadcast every Monday to Friday at 5.00 PM WIB as the replacement of the currently concluded TV drama, the second season of Kesempurnaan Cinta, which was concluded on Friday, October 28, 2016.
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what breed of dog was on my three sons | Briard - wikipedia
The Briard / briːɑːrd / is an ancient breed of large herding dog, originally from France. A Briard - type dog appears in Gaston Febus ' Livre de chasse ("Book of the Hunt ''), written in the late 14th century. According to legend, about the same time, a Briard fought a judicial duel with Robert Macaire to avenge its owner 's murder, Aubry of Montdidier. Charlemagne, Napoleon, Thomas Jefferson, and Lafayette are all said to have owned Briards. It became popular after the Paris dog show of 1863, after the breed had been fixed, with crosses with the Beauceron and the Barbet. During the First World War, the Briard was used, almost to the point of extinction, by the French army as a sentry, messenger, and to search for wounded soldiers. The Briard 's modern - day roles include police, military and search - and - rescue work, as well as companion dog.
They were originally bred to herd as well as guard flocks of sheep. And they were often left to their own devices in order to accomplish their assigned tasks. This makes the Briard different from those breeds that only guard and those that only herd. The breeds that just herd are often smaller in size, agile, and swift of foot. Those breeds that just guard are usually larger and heavier. Briards were used in all types of herding situations, having the ability to learn many commands and fulfill the jobs expected of them. The Briard was most commonly used as a farm dog in the more crowded farming valleys of France, where row crops were grown. Sheep were allowed to graze the grass strips between crops and Briards were responsible for keeping the sheep moving along these strips, and preventing the sheep from eating the crops. The Briard moved the sheep daily from the farm to the graze areas and back again at night. At the farm, the Briard was the shepherd 's partner, helping with livestock chores. The Briard was also used to move large flocks of sheep in areas of France that had wide grazing pastures and mountain pastures in summer. The Briards were usually worked beside one or two other breeds to keep the sheep from straying and herd the sheep to the proper areas. At night, they were alert and vigilant watchdogs, protecting the shepherds and flock from wolves and thieves.
The Briard can be tawny, black or gray however there are variations in each color. Briards stand 58 to 69 cm (22 to 27 inches) at the withers. Ear cropping has been common in the breed, although more breeders are leaving the ears in their natural state since ear cropping is becoming illegal in most European countries, including the Briard 's land of origin, France. When cropped, the ears should stand erect and parallel with the base being wide and tapering to a rounded point with hair covering the opening. Their long coat requires an extensive amount of grooming. The outer coat is coarse, hard and dry (making a dry rasping sound between the fingers). It lies down flat, falling naturally in long, slightly waving locks, having the sheen of good health. On the shoulders the length of the hair is generally six inches or more. The undercoat is fine and tight on all the body. The head is well covered with hair which lies down, forming a natural part in the center. The eyebrows do not lie flat but, instead, arch up and out in a curve that lightly veils the eyes. The hair is never so abundant that it masks the form of the head or completely covers the eyes. Briards come in a variety from different colors.
A black Briard.
A fawn Briard
Two Briards
Briard with dark ears
The breed characteristics of the Briard, are of a medium - sized, rugged, agile dog, having harsh coat and double dewclaws mounted low on each rear leg, resembling additional toes. Each double dew claw should have bone substance and nail, giving the appearance of a wider rear foot. Bred for centuries to herd, the additional digits on each rear foot give the Briard the ability of pivoting on one foot for quick turns and complete turn - arounds, which are necessary when herding and guarding their flocks. Throughout history, the Briard has retained an appropriate balance of size and build that is required for both herding and protection of their flocks. They are not too large to tire during herding yet large enough to fend off predators such as foxes and wolves.
The Briard is a very loyal and protective breed, and is sometimes called "a heart of gold wrapped in fur ''. Once they have bonded to their family members, they will be very protective. They can be aloof with strangers - new introductions should be on the dog 's terms, including furniture or the addition of a new baby into the household. They require showing that the new intrusion is friendly and free of conflict. They must be taught that it is a good thing and not harmful. They have proven to be a very good breed to have around children of all ages. Indeed, these dogs rapidly develop an affection to their owners. They are very emotional, capable of crying for a long time after their owners ' departure and celebrate their return in a very enthusiastic way.
It is also important that the Briard be introduced to several different individuals of all ages and in all types of situations. Socialization starting at a very young age is mandatory. Briards should be walked as often as possible, to many different places, and they will develop into a well rounded animal. Pet stores, city parks and malls are a good place to start.
The Briard has been bred for centuries to herd and to protect their flocks. To domesticated briards, their family is the flock and all strangers may appear to be predators. Letting them know that the public in general are friendly and not harmful will help them establish a lifelong socialization pattern which will result in an outgoing and happy dog. This socialization with the public in general will not diminish their capacity for protecting and guarding their family.
The Briard has a very good memory. Once a lesson is learned, good or bad, the knowledge will be retained for a long time to come. Sometimes they may appear to be strong minded and stubborn but these are a few of the Briard 's characteristics. They were bred for centuries to think for themselves and to act upon their conclusions, sometimes to the point of thinking what the "flock '' will do ahead of time.
These are some of the traits that the Briard has retained throughout history. Even if a Briard is a city dweller, they have a degree of herding ability within them. If ever, during their lifetime, they are introduced to sheep or cattle, they will automatically start doing what they were bred to do, herding. They will even herd humans by nibbling on their ankles or guiding with their heads and guide them to his master if ordered.
Briards have been used in a variety of service and therapy roles to help those with disabilities and comfort those in hospitals, schools and retirement communities. Briards are also being trained as autism service dogs and PTSD service dogs for both adults and children. With their keen intelligence, tactile coat interaction, and loyalty, they make a huge difference in the quality of life for those with disabilities or in recovery.
Briards can compete in dog agility trials, obedience, showmanship, flyball, Schutzhund, tracking, and herding events. Herding instincts and trainability can be measured at noncompetitive herding tests. Briards exhibiting basic herding instincts can be trained to compete in herding trials.
This breed is also commonly screened for congenital stationary night blindness (SNB) with a DNA test. SNB is inherited through recessive genes. Progressive retinal atrophy PRA, is a disease that causes nerve cells at the back of the eye to degenerate. The condition usually begins in older pets and can lead to blindness. Progressive retinal degeneration or atrophy (PRD / PRA) represents a group of inherited eye diseases characterized by abnormal development or premature degeneration of the retina. There are two types of photoreceptors in the retina and these are the light - sensitive rods and cones. They are responsible for detecting light and converting it into an electrical signal that travels to the brain. When the photoreceptor cells deteriorate, vision is lost because the animal has no way to generate an image from the light reaching the retina. Puppies are usually blind before one year of age. For the first time ever, animals (Briards) that were born blind gained the ability to see after undergoing gene therapy, according to research from the University of Florida, Cornell University and the University of Pennsylvania. UF researchers had established that the apparently harmless adeno - associated virus can carry healthy copies of a gene into the cells of the retina, which is composed of layers of light - sensitive nerve cells. The healthy gene 's mission: to produce a protein critical to translating light waves into nerve impulses that can be interpreted as images by the brain. The study was successful and the puppies could see in the eye that was treated. Officials from the Foundation Fighting Blindness, which supported the study with grant funds, said the success in reversing blindness in dogs is an important advance.
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who wrote the song not afraid by eminem | Not Afraid - wikipedia
"Not Afraid '' is a song by American rapper Eminem from his seventh studio album Recovery (2010). It was released as the album 's lead single on April 29, 2010, by Interscope Records. "Not Afraid '' was first revealed as a single by Eminem via Twitter, after which the song debuted on radio. To promote the single 's release, a freestyle rap, "Despicable '', was released on the Internet and received attention for its tone and lyrical content. "Not Afraid '' was written and produced by Eminem, Boi - 1da, Jordan Evans and Matthew Burnett; keyboardist Luis Resto was also attributed with songwriting credit. According to Eminem 's manager Paul Rosenberg and music critics, "Not Afraid '' carries a positive message and depicts Eminem 's change in direction from drugs and violence. The hip hop song features a choir that assists Eminem in a heavily layered chorus and vocals are sung over a guitar, synthesizer and piano; no Auto - Tune was used on the sung vocals, but many reverberation tools were.
"Not Afraid '' received mixed to positive reviews from music critics, who praised the song for being anthemic in nature and carrying a positive message. The song did, however, face criticism for its sudden change in theme from previous singles, and was considered to be less affecting than some of his other songs. Despite mixed reception, "Not Afraid '' became the 16th song in Billboard history to debut on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number one; it also debuted as a chart - topper in Canada. In June 2014 the song was certified 10 × Platinum by RIAA, making Eminem the first artist with digital diamond awards for two songs. "Not Afraid '' has earned Eminem MTV Video Music Awards, MTV Video Music Awards Japan, Grammy Awards, Billboard Music Awards and Detroit Music Awards.
The song was accompanied by a music video, which Rich Lee directed in May 2010. New York City and Newark, New Jersey were chosen as settings to shoot the video. Reviewers praised the video as it followed the lyrics and praised the video for such depictions. However, the product placement in the video by Nike shoes and Beats by Dr. Dre headphones was criticized. In 2010, Eminem performed "Not Afraid '' at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010 (E3 2010), Oxegen 2010, T in the Park 2010 and the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards. He has also performed the song at the Bonnaroo Music Festival, Lollapalooza and the V Festival. Rolling Stone ranked it the 24th best song of 2010.
In 2009, Eminem planned to release a sequel of his sixth studio album Relapse titled Relapse 2, but cancelled the project and released a completely different studio release titled Recovery. He said, "as I kept recording and working with new producers, the idea of a sequel to Relapse started to make less and less sense to me, and I wanted to make a completely new album. '' "Not Afraid '' was primarily produced by the Canadian hip hop musician Boi - 1da. According to Mike Strange, who recorded "Not Afraid '', he wanted to work with Boi - 1da after listening to his "Forever '', which he had produced for the rapper Drake. Boi - 1da sent Strange many tracks, to some of which Eminem wrote lyrics. These tracks were opened in Pro Tools, as Strange proceeded to record Eminem 's vocals. Recording sessions took place at Effigy Studios, in Ferndale, Michigan but Boi - 1da was absent during the sessions.
The original tracks sent to Strange included mostly drums and keyboard pads; they were placed under an inactive track titled "Orig beatz ''. The instrumentation included a Roland TR - 808 kick, a regular live kick, a hi - hat, a ride cymbal and a snare drum. Underneath the track, there were horn, orchestra hit and pads, including a Mellotron sound that plays the chord progression. Strange told Sound on Sound magazine, "I like to have the vocal tracks at the top of the Session, because in hip - hop they are the most important element. '' Two of Eminem 's were placed underneath his main vocal track, as one of them featured his introductory words. Each play of the chorus was an overdub and not copies of a sample; the only exception was the intro. The vocals for the bridge were overdubbed six times; Auto - Tune was not used at all in the song. The Detroit musician Luis Resto provided keyboard tracks on the bridge, including piano and guitar sound effects. Resto also added orchestration in the chorus and bridge of the song.
Strange arranged the Pro Tools session in a more traditional manner by laying out the drums, bass instruments, guitars, keyboards, main vocals and overdubs from left to right. While mixing, he began with drums, then the main vocals. He added the chorus and bridge, followed by other instrumentation. Strange mixed the track to satisfy Eminem, who, after entering the studio, made his own adjustments, providing additional production; by then, Resto 's tracks were added. Strange made adjustments to Boi - 1da 's tracks, using SSL equalization (EQ) and some compression. To keep the track in tune from pitch fluctuation, Strange used Trim and Auto - Tune on Resto 's TR - 808 kick. Strange arranged reverberation tools, including the Bricasti, Eventide 2016, the Lexicon 480, Lexicon PMC70, and the Yamaha SPX90.
The two rap tracks in the session used the Massenburg EQ plug - in, "the ' 9 ' send goes to the eighth - note delay track immediately above the two rap tracks '' and Digidesign Extra Long Delay. Strange also used compressors, including the Alta Moda Unicomp, which he felt works well on vocals, as well as the kick and snare drums. Boi - 1da 's track mostly used SSL and compression, but the bass used an API 550a. A Digidesign compressor limiter was set up on one of the horn sounds while the Massenburg EQ was used on an OB8 sound. Answering Eminem 's request, string overdubs were arranged and recorded by Jordan Evans and Matthew Burnett -- providing additional production -- and Robert Reyes recorded the choir 's vocals.
"Not Afraid '' is a hip hop song written and produced by Rick Crowe, Eminem, Evans and Burnett; Resto did additional writing. Boi - 1da provided drums; Evans and Burnett provided string sounds. The lyrics focus on a positive change from Eminem 's past experiences, including an end to drug abuse, feuds and violence. The Los Angeles Times noted that a person hearing this song for the first time may identify it as Christian hip hop. MTV News writer Shaheem Reid noted that "There are no jabs at pop - culture icons, no jovial goofballing. '' Led by a guitar, synthesizer and piano, "Not Afraid '' is published in the key of C minor and has a moderate tempo of 86 beats per minute, according to the sheet music published by Sony / ATV Music Publishing. A writer for MuchMusic website noted that Eminem chose to use his Marshall Mathers ego for the song, rather than Slim Shady. He follows a chord progression of Cm -- A ♭ -- E ♭ -- B ♭ in the chorus.
The song begins with a brief introduction in which Eminem says while the chorus plays underneath, "Yeh, it 's been a ride. I guess I had to go to that place to get to this one. '' When he begins the first verse, his lyrics threaten people who have looked down on him: "You can try to read my lyrics off of this paper before I lay ' em / But you wo n't take the sting out these words before I say ' em. '' On the second verse, Eminem says that he has indeed made mistakes, commenting on his Relapse album: "That last Relapse CD was ehh / Perhaps I ran them accents into the ground / Relax, I ai n't going to do that now. '' When he says "All I 'm trying to say is get back, click clack, pow '', a gunshot is heard. Approaching the end of the second verse, Eminem raps about his personal experiences: "But I think I 'm still trying to figure this crap out / Thought I had it mapped out, but I guess I did n't / It 's time to exercise these demons / These motherfuckers are doing jumping jacks now. '' After the chorus, Eminem sings a bridge and focuses on a positive change, as he says "I just ca n't keep living this way, so starting today I 'm breaking out of this cage. '' Before the final chorus, he says that he "shoots for the moon ''. The song features a choir composed of Kip Blackshire, Christal Garrick II, Terry Dexter, Rich King, Kristen Ashley Cole and Sly Jordan.
On April 26, 2010, Eminem posted a message through his Twitter account that read, "I 'm ' Not Afraid ' '', without any elaboration. Fans and news organizations were able to interpret the message and announced that Eminem 's first single from his seventh studio album, Recovery would be titled "Not Afraid ''. Radio personality Angela Yee, from radio station WWPR - FM, confirmed that the new single would debut on Eminem 's uncensored radio station, Shade 45. The singer 's manager, Paul Rosenberg, told Billboard that "It 's not a dark song, it 's an uplifting song. ''
The new single was initially slated to impact radio on April 30, 2010; however, the date was changed to one day earlier and the song eventually aired at 10 am ET, on Shade 45 's show The Morning After with Angela Yee. On May 5, 2010, the single was made available for digital download at online retailers through Aftermath Entertainment and Interscope Records. In the song, Eminem makes a reference to Relapse and spoke at Friday Night with Jonathan Ross about it: "... looking back on it now in retrospect, I feel like there was a lot of stuff on there that was humorous and shock value and I had to go back and listen to my older material and figure out why... Relapse did n't make me feel like (what) used to and kind of put the feeling back into what I do. ''
The song was featured in a trailer for the war film Act of Valor and is played during the ending credits to the film.
Two days before "Not Afraid '' 's slated release, Eminem released a freestyle rap video to promote the release of the album 's lead single. Titled "Despicable '', the vocals in the video are played over the instrumental versions of "Over '' by Canadian rapper Drake and "Beamer, Benz or Bentley '' by G - Unit member Lloyd Banks; the verse switches to the latter well into the two - minute song. Lyrics make a reference to football quarterback Ben Roethlisberger in the line "I 'd rather turn this club into a bar room brawl / Get as rowdy as Roethlisberger in a bathroom stall. '' These lyrics refers to sexual assault allegations in March 2011 at a nightclub in Milledgeville, Georgia, causing controversy. Other references include those to fictional comic book character Superman: "I give as much of a flying fuck as that Superman dude '' and to general popular culture: "Like a leaf suck in a vacuum, y'all / there ai n't nothing but a whole lotta sucking going on in rap. '' Eminem 's final lyric makes a reference to Looney Tunes character Daffy Duck.
Music critics commented on the freestyle rap. Ray Roa of music website Consequence of Sound noted Eminem 's obvious frustration in the song, saying that he "sounds pissed off as ever on a new freestyle ''. He also added, "The first minute and a half of the track is mellow by his standards, but when the beat switches to Banks ' track, Eminem goes apeshit. '' Melinda Newman of HitFix gave a positive review and wrote that the freestyle sounds like a "blast that sucks all the air out of room. It 's better than anything on Relapse, and the sheer dexterity of his rhyming skills is awe - inspiring. '' Thaindian News 's Madhuri Dey felt that "Eminem takes his usual route of taking a hit at some personality ''. Adam Downer of Sputnikmusic wrote positively: "Eminem spits with the crazed desperation we remember from the albums. ''
Reception of "Not Afraid '' was mixed to positive. Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone praised the song 's tone: "Over a dark, operatic beat. Eminem delivers rhymes that are typically acrobatic -- and typically heavy - handed. But the anger has a gathering quality. '' Dolan also praised the song 's inspirational theme. Henry Adaso of About.com gave a positive review on the song, noting "Boi - 1da 's bouncy charm '' and "heartwrenching lyrics from a master poet '' as good aspects of the song and noted no negative aspects. In Adaso 's guide review, he praised Boi - 1da 's production and Eminem 's affecting lyrics; he considered the former 's work "shimmering '' and Eminem 's "sensitive lyrics entwine on this knocker ''; overall, he gave the song four and a half stars out of a possible five. After the song 's release, AllHipHop called it "an anthem in nature and rebellious to the core. '' In her review of the Recovery, Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone noted that even if Eminem -- reaching his late 30s -- is becoming "a grumpy middle - aged man, at least he 's owning it ''. Winston Robbins of music website Consequence of Sound called "Not Afraid '' one of the songs on Recovery "with catchy hooks, choruses, and beats multiplied by the endless pool of wit and anger that Eminem possesses ''. In his album review, Thomas Nassiff wrote on behalf of AbsolutePunk; he noted the song for being radio - friendly and that it "does n't sacrifice anything to be friendly to the masses. '' Andy Gill of The Independent said that this is where "the only completely commendable sentiment on the entire album comes '' and called it a "proud rehab anthem ''. In his review for Recovery, Benjamin Meadows - Ingram of Spin magazine called "Not Afraid '' a "stadium - ready lead single ''; he went on to say, "Finally, Eminem addresses his personal and professional failings head - on, rather than hiding behind a joke or inside a nightmare. It 's a necessary first step in moving on. ''
The song also faced mixed and negative reviews. After "Not Afraid '' leaked onto the Internet on April 29, 2010, Simon Vozick - Levinson of Entertainment Weekly magazine commented on the song, noting both positive and negative characteristics; he first complimented Eminem 's change of lyrical theme, calling it anthemic in nature and noting its inspirational and powerful message. He compared the song 's theme to Eminem 's 2002 single "Sing for the Moment '' and his 2009 single, "Beautiful ''. Vozick - Levinson called Eminem 's rapping "wild '' but was dismissive of the production, saying, "The track behind ' Not Afraid ' has the same tinny, repetitive, wannabe - epic quality that 's annoyed me on Boi - 1da productions like ' Forever. ' '' Mayer Nissem of British site Digital Spy gave the song three stars out of a possible five, and wrote a mixed review; the reviewer first commented, "Thank heavens! -- Marshall Mathers III has opted against his usual trick of cobbling together a hook and some ' satire ' via two - year - old back issues of the Inquirer to trail it. '' However, Nissem criticized other aspects of the song, saying that Eminem 's "decision to chronicle... feels a little worthy and more than a touch dull. '' He felt that Eminem 's previous songs never bored the listener, unlike "Not Afraid ''. Jeff Weiss of the Los Angeles Times commented that "Not Afraid '' was an improvement from the lead singles of Encore (2004) and Relapse, "Just Lose It '' and "We Made You '', respectively, giving for a more serious and inspirational theme. However, Weiss misses the comic nature of Eminem 's classic singles, such as "My Name Is ''; instead, he felt that the song was composed of "vague self - help bromides and a bombastic but nondescript beat from... Boi - 1da. '' When discussing the chorus, Weiss commented that it "does n't make for very engaging listening. '' Finally, he discussed possible influences by American rapper T.I., but overall, he named it a disappointing lead single.
John Ulmer of website One Thirty BPM gave the song seven points out of a possible ten, and published a mixed review; he praised it for being a more serious track compared to previous lead singles "Just Lose It '' (2004) and "We Made You '' (2009) but criticized it for being less powerful compared to his 2002 hit single, "Lose Yourself '', and "Beautiful ''. According to Ulmer, "Upon first listen it 's a bit corny, but it 's appropriately anthemic, and not bad enough to deter from the strength of the overall track. '' He noted that although Eminem does not have as much of a frustrated voice as he does in "Despicable '', he admits that Relapse was a silly album. Pitchfork Media 's Jayson Greene wrote a rather negative review on Recovery and was very dismissive on the song: "Eminem spends nearly half of Recovery insisting he 's the best rapper alive, but for the first time in his career, he actually sounds clumsy. '' Kitty Empire of newspaper The Guardian also wrote negatively on the song in her album review, criticizing the song 's lyrics: "Rhyming ' through a storm ' with ' whatever weather / cold or warm ' in the chorus is unforgivable for a master rhymer. '' As part of his album review, Greg Kot of daily newspaper Chicago Tribune criticized Eminem 's lyrics and rhymes in "Not Afraid '', comparing them to his rhyming skills back when his 2002 hip hop drama film, 8 Mile, premiered: "Does n't he realize that 's the kind of cheese that the battle - rhyming Eminem of 8 Mile would 've mercilessly mocked? ''
According to Nielsen SoundScan, "Not Afraid '' sold 380,000 digital copies in its first week, giving Eminem the biggest sales week for a digital single between the beginning of 2010 and the date of the song 's release. Three songs received higher sales during their first week: Flo Rida 's "Right Round '', The Black Eyed Peas ' "Boom Boom Pow '' and Eminem 's "Crack a Bottle '', which were all 2009 singles. "Not Afraid '' proved to be successful when it debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number one, a feat only 15 songs had accomplished previously. The song was Eminem 's third number - one single on the Hot 100, coming after "Lose Yourself '' and "Crack a Bottle ''. "Not Afraid '' was also the first to debut at number one since October 17, 2009, when American recording artist Britney Spears 's "3 '' debuted atop the chart. It is the first hip hop single by a male to debut at number one since American rapper Sean Combs (known then as "Puff Daddy '') topped the chart in 1997, with "I 'll Be Missing You '', which features Faith Evans and band 112.
After entering the Digital Songs chart at number one, the song fell down to number four the next week, and to number six on the Hot 100, with sales of 202,000 digital copies. On June 14, 2010, "Not Afraid '' rose to number five again with sales of 157,000 copies. On July 14, 2010, it rose from 22 to 24 on the Hot 100; by then, the song was downloaded a total of 1,750,000 times. On July 25, 2010, the song crossed the two million mark, based on total sales. As of August 2013, the song has sold 5,000,000 digital copies. In June 2014 the song was certified 10 × Platinum by RIAA.
"Not Afraid '' debuted at number one on the Canadian Hot 100, remaining on the chart for 20 weeks.
In the United Kingdom, the song debuted and peaked at number five on the UK Singles Chart on May 30, 2010 - for the week ending date June 5, 2010. It dropped to number six the following week, to number ten on July 4, 2010 - for the week ending July 10, 2010 - and to number fourteen the week after. On August 1, 2010, the song dropped to number twenty and its last UK Singles Chart appearance would be on August 29, giving the song a total of fourteen weeks on the chart.
In New Zealand, "Not Afraid '' entered and peaked at number eight on the New Zealand Singles Chart on May 10, 2010. Lasting on the chart for a total of twenty - three weeks, the song would not make its last chart appearance in New Zealand until September 9, 2010, at number Thirty - four.
In Australia, the song entered at number sixteen on the Australian Singles Chart in its first week and reached its peak at number four the following week; its lowest and final chart position occurred during the song 's twenty - seventh week on the chart, at number forty - eight.
On the Ö3 Austria Top 40, Austria 's official singles chart, May 21, 2010 marked the song 's chart debut, at number 22. It reached its peak on August 13, at number five and would stay at that position for another week. Before re-entering on January 14, 2011 at number 72, the song made a last consecutive chart appearance on November 19, 2011 at number 52. The song dropped to the bottom of the chart (number 75) on January 21, 2011, before exiting it. In Italy, the song only charted for one week, at number three; the same occurred in France, on February 19, 2011, at number 97. "Not Afraid '' lasted 19 weeks on the Irish Singles Chart and made a final chart appearance on September 30, 2010, at number 36. Flanders ' chart, Ultratop 50, gave the song a debut position at number 13 on May 15, 2010; the song would not reach a higher position and would drop to number 49 in its 16th and final week. On Wallonia 's chart, Ultratop 50, the song debuted at number 14 and would not chart again until July 3, 2010, at number 40. Longer than on any other chart, "Not Afraid '' charted in Sweden for 43 consecutive weeks, debuting at number five and charting at number 49 in its final week.
-- Eminem, talking about the video 's concept in relation the song 's theme.
Before filming began, Eminem spoke to Paul Rosenberg on the telephone about his ideas for a music video of "Not Afraid ''; the two shared thoughts and started collaborating in May 2010. American director Richard "Rich '' Lee was hired to direct the video, which was shot on Market Street, in Newark, New Jersey as well as New York City. On the first day, Eminem filmed the opening scene on the rooftop of the Manhattan Municipal Building. Lee called the moment "sort of like a very internal feeling kind of video ''. In an interview, while the video was being shot, Eminem spoke about working with Lee "as pretty anti-climactic, for the most part, you know what I mean... It 's good working with him, you know, he 's about his business ''. The scene in which Eminem jumps from a cliff and dives, was done at Greenpoint Warehouse, in Brooklyn with Lee and video producer Justin Diener. Also working with Eminem on the video included Dennis Dennehy and Chris Clancy for marketing. The final scene filmed on the first day was where Eminem would try to escape from a dark basement on a set built by production designer Ethan Tobman; shooting in Newark also continued.
The second day of shooting focused on Eminem as he walked through Market Street in Newark. Eminem 's final shoot before wrapping up was a mirror scene, which included many glass mirrors, and a fake one among them, through which he would have to break through. On May 30, 2010, Eminem confirmed the video 's release date in a Twitter message: "For those ' patiently waiting, ' the NOT AFRAID video will premier Saturday 6 / 5. Details later... '' The day before the video 's premiere, a teaser trailer was uploaded onto video sharing site YouTube, which combines many clips from the full video. The music video was uploaded on video website VEVO on June 5, 2010 at 11: 30 am ET. VEVO stylized their logo with the E reversed, similar to Eminem 's logo. On June 7, the television premiere took place on MTV and VH1, and the former featured a primetime encore the day after.
As of April 2018, the music video has garnered over 1.0 billion views and 5.9 million likes on YouTube, ranking it among the most viewed and most liked YouTube videos of all time.
The music video opens with a scene in which Eminem stands on the rooftop of the Manhattan Municipal Building in New York, saying the introductory lyrics. The video cuts between scenes where he raps on the rooftop and another scene where Eminem is trapped inside a dark basement. Eminem moves closer towards the edge of the building until he leaves to go downstairs as the chorus begins. He starts walking down Market Street in Newark and jaywalks across the street, avoiding vehicles that pass by. Eminem sees distorted reflections of himself on the window of a car; he continues on, only to be surrounded by a series of mirrors. Confused, Eminem tries to escape, and towards the end of the second chorus, he breaks through a mirror to find himself in the middle of the street. Interspersing scenes show Eminem as he tries to break out of the basement. As the camera zooms out, the viewers see him on the edge of a destroyed street while a subway tunnel can be seen below the road.
Eminem then jumps off the edge and makes a steep dive, but flies straight up again; his speedy flight down Market Street causes sonic booms on vehicles nearby. Eventually, Eminem flies up, back to the rooftop of the Manhattan Municipal Building, in New York City, where the video began.
The video was received with generally positive reviews. Following the video 's VEVO release, Monica Herrera of Billboard named Eminem 's jumping sequence "a moment of triumph '' and compared his flying scene to Superman. She also noted similarities of the video 's events and the song 's lyrics, deeming them a powerful word to Eminem 's haters, where Eminem raps about destroying one 's balcony. Daniel Kreps from Rolling Stone felt that Eminem "similarly puts his redemption in the spotlight '' and notices courage. Kreps went on to compare Eminem 's flying scene to Canadian actor Keanu Reeves from the 1999 science fiction film The Matrix. In his review for Entertainment Weekly, Vozick - Levinson wrote: "We are to understand that he is once again at wit 's end with the world, full of barely contained energy that he 's not yet sure how to direct. '' Although he did n't feel that the video was Eminem 's best, Vozick - Levinson praised the video for its message in relation to the song 's vibe; he also made a comparison to Eminem 's music video for "The Way I Am '', as both videos involve Eminem as he jumps from a great height. Patrick D'Arcy of Spin thought that Eminem is "an satria unlikely motivational speaker, but an effective one. ''
On June 5, 2010, Eminem performed "Not Afraid '' on Friday Night with Jonathan Ross. In celebration of the then - upcoming release of Treyarch - developed shooter game Call of Duty: Black Ops, video game publisher Activision organized many artists to perform at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010 (E3 2010) -- which took place at the Staples Center in Los Angeles -- including Eminem. Joined by Blink - 182 drummer Travis Barker, Eminem performed songs from his album, including "Not Afraid '', "Love the Way You Lie '' and "Wo n't Back Down ''. At E3 2011, a choir, as well as hypeman Mr. Porter sung with Eminem during the chorus of "Not Afraid '', while his band played with an orchestra. The audience presumed the performance was over; however, Eminem shortly returned to the stage to end with "Lose Yourself ''. News distributor PR Newswire wrote, "Eminem ignited the crowd as he closed the all - star event ''. Matt Elias of MTV News also praised the show, and said that "Eminem performed an electrifying set..., crushing any doubts that he is truly back in the game ''. Antony Bruno of Billboard called the performance "a literal bang '' while Seve Appleford of Rolling Stone wrote, "The rapper marched along the catwalk with his usual intensity, previewing new songs from next week 's release Recovery. '' Activision reportedly spent six million dollars on party costs.
"Not Afraid '' was included on Eminem 's set list as the final song before Eminem 's "Lose Yourself '' encore in his performance at the T in the Park festival, which took place on July 10, 2010. This would be his first European concert in five years. Eminem wore black shorts and a hoodie. He commented on the weather, saying, "I know it 's muddy and sloppy and shit but this is fun '', and also thanked the crowd for supporting him. "Everybody who 's an Eminem fan, I just wan na say thank you so much for the support you 've shown over the years, for not giving up on me, '' he said, "I hope you enjoyed the show as much as we did tonight. Peace. '' At the end of the performance, Eminem said, "Edin - borg, did you enjoy yourself tonight? '' That evening, members of the audience accused Eminem of lip syncing, but others defended him of such accusations. The T in the Park performance of "Not Afraid '' is included as the second track on the "Love the Way You Lie '' CD single. Eminem performed "Not Afraid '' for a small audience in a small room at the beginning of the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards; he performed the song once again at the Los Angeles Nokia Theatre, the main site of the ceremony, and performed "Love the Way You Lie '' with Barbadian singer Rihanna. The audience voted his performance the best with 34 percent of all votes.
Eminem performed "Not Afraid '' alongside Porter at the 2011 Bonnaroo Music Festival. He arrived in a Bad Meets Evil T - shirt, camouflage shorts, a black hoodie and a black hat. His set list included other hits from previous years, including "Cleanin ' Out My Closet '', "The Real Slim Shady '', "Without Me '' and "Like Toy Soldiers ''; he also performed with Bad Meets Evil partner Royce da 5'9 '' for "Fast Lane '' and "Lighters ''. Almost 80,000 members of the audience chanted "Shady! '' for five minutes until Eminem returned to perform an encore with "Lose Yourself ''. Before performing "Not Afraid '', Eminem told the audience, "All jokes aside... Thank you for sticking by me and not giving up on me. '' At one point during the show, he told them, "Everybody here tonight, I just wan na say thank you for sticking by me and not giving up on me. '' News sources praised the performance; James Montgomery of MTV News wrote, "what stood out the most about Em 's performance was the sheer tenacity with which he attacked it. '' News agency Associated Press said that "Bonnaroo 's crowd may be a hippie enclave, but you would n't have known it Saturday night ''. HitFix blog 's Katie Hasty considered the "Not Afraid '' performance "triumphant, perhaps due to crowd buzz ''. Patrick Doyle of Rolling Stone wrote, "Eminem 's hour - and - a-half set was a triumph, with the rapper constantly bouncing across the stage, performing hit after hit with the energy of a prizefighter. ''
Eminem performed the song as part of a set list on the second day of Chicago 's Lollapalooza festival with Porter, in front of an audience of 90,000 people. The Hollywood Reporter 's Steve Baltin wrote, "given the infrequency with which he tours, it 's sometimes easy to forget just how dynamic a performer he is, but after a spectacular 90 - minute show, there was no denying the rapper 's power. '' Adam Graham of The Detroit News said that "Eminem delivered the goods to the huge throng of people ''. Gil Kaufman of MTV News felt that "Eminem came, saw and conquered his Lollapalooza debut. '' Eminem performed a 28 - song set list at Virgin Group 's V Festival (V2011) on August 20, 2011 and the following day, which included "Not Afraid '' as the final song before the encore of "Lose Yourself ''. The first day took place in Chelmsford, Essex and the second day took place in Staffordshire. Eminem reportedly earned a total of £ 2 million for his two performances. Chris Salmon of The Guardian called Eminem 's performance of "Not Afraid '' "majestic ''; he went on to writing that "It 's a set fit to close any festival, pop - centred or otherwise. '' BBC 's Chi Chi Izundu noted that Eminem 's performance was "fast - paced ''.
The credits for "Not Afraid '' are adapted from the liner notes of Recovery.
Personnel
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Since May 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on - demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads.
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bubble sort algorithm different from modified bubble sort algorithm | Bubble sort - wikipedia
Bubble sort, sometimes referred to as sinking sort, is a simple sorting algorithm that repeatedly steps through the list to be sorted, compares each pair of adjacent items and swaps them if they are in the wrong order. The pass through the list is repeated until no swaps are needed, which indicates that the list is sorted. The algorithm, which is a comparison sort, is named for the way smaller or larger elements "bubble '' to the top of the list. Although the algorithm is simple, it is too slow and impractical for most problems even when compared to insertion sort. It can be practical if the input is usually in sorted order but may occasionally have some out - of - order elements nearly in position.
Bubble sort has a worst - case and average complexity of О (n), where n is the number of items being sorted. Most practical sorting algorithms have substantially better worst - case or average complexity, often O (n log n). Even other О (n) sorting algorithms, such as insertion sort, generally run faster than bubble sort, and are no more complex. Therefore, bubble sort is not a practical sorting algorithm.
The only significant advantage that bubble sort has over most other algorithms, even quicksort, but not insertion sort, is that the ability to detect that the list is sorted efficiently is built into the algorithm. When the list is already sorted (best - case), the complexity of bubble sort is only O (n). By contrast, most other algorithms, even those with better average - case complexity, perform their entire sorting process on the set and thus are more complex. However, not only does insertion sort share this advantage, but it also performs better on a list that is substantially sorted (having a small number of inversions).
Bubble sort should be avoided in the case of large collections. It will not be efficient in the case of a reverse - ordered collection.
The distance and direction that elements must move during the sort determine bubble sort 's performance because elements move in different directions at different speeds. An element that must move toward the end of the list can move quickly because it can take part in successive swaps. For example, the largest element in the list will win every swap, so it moves to its sorted position on the first pass even if it starts near the beginning. On the other hand, an element that must move toward the beginning of the list can not move faster than one step per pass, so elements move toward the beginning very slowly. If the smallest element is at the end of the list, it will take n − 1 passes to move it to the beginning. This has led to these types of elements being named rabbits and turtles, respectively, after the characters in Aesop 's fable of The Tortoise and the Hare.
Various efforts have been made to eliminate turtles to improve upon the speed of bubble sort. Cocktail sort is a bi-directional bubble sort that goes from beginning to end, and then reverses itself, going end to beginning. It can move turtles fairly well, but it retains O (n) worst - case complexity. Comb sort compares elements separated by large gaps, and can move turtles extremely quickly before proceeding to smaller and smaller gaps to smooth out the list. Its average speed is comparable to faster algorithms like quicksort.
Let us take the array of numbers "5 1 4 2 8 '', and sort the array from lowest number to greatest number using bubble sort. In each step, elements written in bold are being compared. Three passes will be required.
(5 1 4 2 8) → (\ displaystyle \ to) (1 5 4 2 8), Here, algorithm compares the first two elements, and swaps since 5 > 1. (1 5 4 2 8) → (\ displaystyle \ to) (1 4 5 2 8), Swap since 5 > 4 (1 4 5 2 8) → (\ displaystyle \ to) (1 4 2 5 8), Swap since 5 > 2 (1 4 2 5 8) → (\ displaystyle \ to) (1 4 2 5 8), Now, since these elements are already in order (8 > 5), algorithm does not swap them.
(1 4 2 5 8) → (\ displaystyle \ to) (1 4 2 5 8) (1 4 2 5 8) → (\ displaystyle \ to) (1 2 4 5 8), Swap since 4 > 2 (1 2 4 5 8) → (\ displaystyle \ to) (1 2 4 5 8) (1 2 4 5 8) → (\ displaystyle \ to) (1 2 4 5 8) Now, the array is already sorted, but the algorithm does not know if it is completed. The algorithm needs one whole pass without any swap to know it is sorted.
(1 2 4 5 8) → (\ displaystyle \ to) (1 2 4 5 8) (1 2 4 5 8) → (\ displaystyle \ to) (1 2 4 5 8) (1 2 4 5 8) → (\ displaystyle \ to) (1 2 4 5 8) (1 2 4 5 8) → (\ displaystyle \ to) (1 2 4 5 8)
The algorithm can be expressed as (0 - based array):
The bubble sort algorithm can be easily optimized by observing that the n - th pass finds the n - th largest element and puts it into its final place. So, the inner loop can avoid looking at the last n − 1 items when running for the n - th time:
More generally, it can happen that more than one element is placed in their final position on a single pass. In particular, after every pass, all elements after the last swap are sorted, and do not need to be checked again. This allows us to skip over a lot of the elements, resulting in about a worst case 50 % improvement in comparison count (though no improvement in swap counts), and adds very little complexity because the new code subsumes the "swapped '' variable:
To accomplish this in pseudocode we write the following:
Alternate modifications, such as the cocktail shaker sort attempt to improve on the bubble sort performance while keeping the same idea of repeatedly comparing and swapping adjacent items.
Although bubble sort is one of the simplest sorting algorithms to understand and implement, its O (n) complexity means that its efficiency decreases dramatically on lists of more than a small number of elements. Even among simple O (n) sorting algorithms, algorithms like insertion sort are usually considerably more efficient.
Due to its simplicity, bubble sort is often used to introduce the concept of an algorithm, or a sorting algorithm, to introductory computer science students. However, some researchers such as Owen Astrachan have gone to great lengths to disparage bubble sort and its continued popularity in computer science education, recommending that it no longer even be taught.
The Jargon File, which famously calls bogosort "the archetypical (sic) perversely awful algorithm '', also calls bubble sort "the generic bad algorithm ''. Donald Knuth, in The Art of Computer Programming, concluded that "the bubble sort seems to have nothing to recommend it, except a catchy name and the fact that it leads to some interesting theoretical problems '', some of which he then discusses.
Bubble sort is asymptotically equivalent in running time to insertion sort in the worst case, but the two algorithms differ greatly in the number of swaps necessary. Experimental results such as those of Astrachan have also shown that insertion sort performs considerably better even on random lists. For these reasons many modern algorithm textbooks avoid using the bubble sort algorithm in favor of insertion sort.
Bubble sort also interacts poorly with modern CPU hardware. It produces at least twice as many writes as insertion sort, twice as many cache misses, and asymptotically more branch mispredictions. Experiments by Astrachan sorting strings in Java show bubble sort to be roughly one - fifth as fast as an insertion sort and 70 % as fast as a selection sort.
In computer graphics bubble sort is popular for its capability to detect a very small error (like swap of just two elements) in almost - sorted arrays and fix it with just linear complexity (2n). For example, it is used in a polygon filling algorithm, where bounding lines are sorted by their x coordinate at a specific scan line (a line parallel to the x axis) and with incrementing y their order changes (two elements are swapped) only at intersections of two lines. Bubble sort is a stable sort algorithm, like insertion sort.
Bubble sort has been occasionally referred to as a "sinking sort ''.
For example, in Donald Knuth 's The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 3: Sorting and Searching he states in section 5.2. 1 ' Sorting by Insertion ', that (the value) "settles to its proper level '' and that this method of sorting has sometimes been called the sifting or sinking technique.
This debate is perpetuated by the ease with which one may consider this algorithm from two different but equally valid perspectives:
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where is air vented from a hydronic heating system | Hydronics - Wikipedia
Hydronics is the use of a liquid heat - transfer medium in heating and cooling systems. The working fluid is typically water, glycol, or mineral oil. Some of the oldest and most common examples are steam and hot - water radiators. Historically, in large - scale commercial buildings such as high - rise and campus facilities, a hydronic system may include both a chilled and a heated water loop, to provide for both heating and air conditioning. Chillers and cooling towers are used either separately or together as means to provide water cooling, while boilers heat water. A recent innovation is the chiller boiler system, which provides an efficient form of HVAC for homes and smaller commercial spaces.
Many larger cities have a district heating system that provides, through underground piping, publicly available high temperature hot water and chilled water. A building in the service district may be connected to these on payment of a service fee.
Hydronic systems are of two basic types:
Hydronic systems are classified in five ways:
Hydronic systems may be divided into several general piping arrangement categories:
In the oldest modern hydronic heating technology, a single - pipe steam system delivers steam to the radiators where the steam gives up its heat and is condensed back to water. The radiators and steam supply pipes are pitched so that gravity eventually takes this condensate back down through the steam supply piping to the boiler where it can once again be turned into steam and returned to the radiators.
Despite its name, a radiator does not primarily heat a room by radiation. If positioned correctly a radiator will create an air convection current in the room, which will provide the main heat transfer mechanism. It is generally agreed that for the best results a steam radiator should be no more than one to two inches from a wall.
Single - pipe systems are limited in both their ability to deliver high volumes of steam (that is, heat) and the ability to control the flow of steam to individual radiators (because closing off the steam supply traps condensate in the radiators). Because of these limitations, single - pipe systems are no longer preferred.
These systems depend on the proper operation of thermostatic air - venting valves located on radiators throughout the heated area. When the system is not in use, these valves are open to the atmosphere, and radiators and pipes contain air. When a heating cycle begins, the boiler produces steam, which expands and displaces the air in the system. The air exits the system through the air - venting valves on the radiators and on the steam pipes themselves. The thermostatic valves close when they become hot; in the most common kind, the vapor pressure of a small amount of alcohol in the valve exerts the force to actuate the valve and prevent steam from leaving the radiator. When the valve cools, air enters the system to replace the condensing steam.
Some more modern valves can be adjusted to allow for more rapid or slower venting. In general, valves nearest to the boiler should vent the slowest, and valves furthest from the boiler should vent the fastest. Ideally, steam should reach each valve and close each and every valve at the same time, so that the system can work at maximal efficiency; this condition is known as a "balanced '' system.
In two - pipe steam systems, there is a return path for the condensate and it may involve pumps as well as gravity - induced flow. The flow of steam to individual radiators can be modulated using manual or automatic valves.
The return piping, as the name suggests, takes the most direct path back to the boiler.
Low cost of return piping in most (but not all) applications, and the supply and return piping are separated.
This system can be difficult to balance due to the supply line being a different length than the return; the further the heat transfer device is from the boiler, the more pronounced the pressure difference. Because of this, it is always recommended to: minimize the distribution piping pressure drops; use a pump with a flat head characteristic, include balancing and flow - measuring devices at each terminal or branch circuit; and use control valves with a high head loss at the terminals.
The two - pipe reverse return configuration which is sometimes called ' the three - pipe system ' is different to the two - pipe system in the way that water returns to the boiler. In a two - pipe system, once the water has left the first radiator, it returns to the boiler to be reheated, and so with the second and third etc. With the two - pipe reverse return, the return pipe travels to the last radiator in the system before returning to the boiler to be reheated.
The advantage with the two - pipe reverse return system is that the pipe run to each radiator is about the same, this ensures that the frictional resistance to the flow of water in each radiator is the same. This allows easy balancing of the system.
The installer or repair person can not trust that every system is self - balancing without properly testing it.
Very large scale systems can be built using the two - pipe principle. For example, rather than heating individual radiators, the water may be used in the reheat coils of large air handlers to heat an entire floor of a building.
Modern systems almost always use heated water rather than steam. This opens the system to the possibility of also using chilled water to provide air conditioning.
In homes, the water loop may be as simple as a single pipe that "loops '' the flow through every radiator in a zone. In such a system, flow to the individual radiators can not be modulated as all of the water is flowing through every radiator in the zone. Slightly more complicated systems use a "main '' pipe that flows uninterrupted around the zone; the individual radiators tap off a small portion of the flow in the main pipe. In these systems, individual radiators can be modulated. Alternatively, a number of loops with several radiators can be installed, the flow in each loop or zone controlled by a zone valve connected to a thermostat.
In most water systems, the water is circulated by means of one or more circulator pumps. This is in marked contrast to steam systems where the inherent pressure of the steam is sufficient to distribute the steam to remote points in the system. A system may be broken up into individual heating zones using either multiple circulator pumps or a single pump and electrically operated zone valves.
There have been considerable improvements in the efficiency and therefore the operating costs of a hydronic heating system with the introduction of insulating products.
Radiator Panel system pipes are covered with a fire rated, flexible and lightweight elastomeric rubber material designed for thermal insulation. Slab Heating efficiency is improved with the installation of a thermal barrier made of foam. There are now many product offerings on the market with different energy ratings and installation methods.
Most hydronic systems require balancing. This involves measuring and setting the flow to achieve an optimal distribution of energy in the system. In a balanced system every radiator gets just enough hot water to allow it to heat up fully.
Domestic (home) systems may use ordinary tap water, but sophisticated commercial systems often add various chemicals to the system water. For example, these added chemicals may:
All hydronic systems must have a means to eliminate air from the system. A properly designed, air - free system should continue to function normally for many years.
Air causes irritating system noises, as well as interrupting proper heat transfer to and from the circulating fluids. In addition, unless reduced below an acceptable level, the oxygen dissolved in water causes corrosion. This corrosion can cause rust and scale to build up on the piping. Over time these particles can become loose and travel around the pipes, reducing or even blocking the flow as well as damaging pump seals and other components.
Water - loop systems can also experience air problems. Air found within hydronic water - loop systems may be classified into three forms:
Various devices such as manual and automatic air vents are used to address free air which floats up to the high points throughout the system. Automatic air vents contain a valve that is operated by a float. When air is present, the float drops, allowing the valve to open and bleed air out. When water reaches (fills) the valve, the float lifts, blocking the water from escaping. Small (domestic) versions of these valves in older systems are sometimes fitted with a Schrader - type air valve fitting, and any trapped, now - compressed air can be bled from the valve by manually depressing the valve stem until water rather than air begins to emerge.
Entrained air is air bubbles that travel around in the piping at the same velocity as the water. Air "scoops '' are one example of products which attempt to remove this type of air.
Dissolved air is also present in the system water and the amount is determined principally by the temperature and pressure (see Henry 's Law) of the incoming water. On average, tap water contains between 8 - 10 % dissolved air by volume.
Removal of dissolved, free and entrained air can only be achieved with a high - efficiency air elimination device that includes a coalescing medium that continually scrubs the air out of the system. Tangential or centrifugal style air separator devices are limited to removal of free and entrained air only.
Water expands as it heats and contracts as it cools. A water - loop hydronic system must have one or more expansion tanks in the system to accommodate this varying volume of the working fluid. These tanks often use a rubber diaphragm pressurised with compressed air. The expansion tank accommodates the expanded water by further air compression and helps maintain a roughly constant pressure in the system across the expected change in fluid volume. Simple cisterns open to atmospheric pressure are also used.
Hydronic systems are usually connected to a water supply (such as the public water supply). An automatic valve regulates the amount of water in the system and also prevents backflow of system water (and any water treatment chemicals) into the water supply.
Excessive heat or pressure may cause the system to fail. At least one combination over-temperature and over-pressure relief valve is always fitted to the system to allow the steam or water to vent to the atmosphere in case of the failure of some mechanism (such as the boiler temperature control) rather than allowing the catastrophic bursting of the piping, radiators, or boiler. The relief valve usually has a manual operating handle to allow testing and the flushing of contaminants (such as grit) that may cause the valve to leak under otherwise - normal operating conditions.
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other than taste and texture how is guinness beer different from other beers | Guinness - wikipedia
Guinness (/ ˈɡɪnɪs /) is an Irish dry stout that originated in the brewery of Arthur Guinness (1725 -- 1803) at St. James 's Gate brewery in the capital city of Dublin, Ireland. Guinness, produced by the Diageo beverages company, is one of the most successful beer brands worldwide. It is brewed in almost 50 countries and is available in over 120. Annual sales total of Guinness in 2011 was 850 million litres (220,000,000 US gal).
Guinness features a burnt flavour that is derived from malted barley and roasted unmalted barley. The use of roasted barley is a relatively modern development, not becoming part of the grist until the mid-20th century. For many years, a portion of aged brew was blended with freshly brewed beer to give a sharp lactic acid flavour. Although Guinness 's palate still features a characteristic "tang '', the company has refused to confirm whether this type of blending still occurs. The draught beer 's thick, creamy head comes from mixing the beer with nitrogen and carbon dioxide when poured. It is popular with the Irish, both in Ireland and abroad. In spite of declining consumption since 2001, it is still the best - selling alcoholic drink in Ireland where Guinness & Co. Brewery makes almost € 2 billion worth of the beverage annually.
The company was started in 1759 in Dublin, but had to move its headquarters to London at the beginning of the Anglo - Irish Trade War in 1932. In 1997, Guinness plc merged with Grand Metropolitan to form the multinational alcoholic drinks producer Diageo.
Arthur Guinness started brewing ales in 1759 at the St. James 's Gate Brewery, Dublin. On 31 December 1759, he signed a 9,000 year lease at £ 45 per annum for the unused brewery. Ten years later, on 19 May 1769, Guinness first exported his ale: he shipped six - and - a-half barrels to Great Britain.
There have been claims that Arthur Price, a Welshman, took the original recipe with him to Ireland where he hired a servant, Richard Guinness, whose son later opened the brewery.
"Stout '' originally referred to a beer 's strength, but eventually shifted meaning toward body and colour.
Arthur Guinness started selling the dark beer porter in 1778. The first Guinness beers to use the term were Single Stout and Double Stout in the 1840s. Throughout the bulk of its history, Guinness produced ' only three variations of a single beer type: porter or single stout, double or extra and foreign stout for export '. Porter was also referred to as "plain '', as mentioned in the famous refrain of Flann O'Brien 's poem "The Workman 's Friend '': "A pint of plain is your only man. ''
Already one of the top - three British and Irish brewers, Guinness 's sales soared from 350,000 barrels in 1868 to 779,000 barrels in 1876. In October 1886 Guinness became a public company, and was averaging sales of 1,138,000 barrels a year. This was despite the brewery 's refusal to either advertise or offer its beer at a discount. Even though Guinness owned no public houses, the company was valued at £ 6 million and shares were twenty times oversubscribed, with share prices rising to a 60 percent premium on the first day of trading.
The breweries pioneered several quality control efforts. The brewery hired the statistician William Sealy Gosset in 1899, who achieved lasting fame under the pseudonym "Student '' for techniques developed for Guinness, particularly Student 's t - distribution and the even more commonly known Student 's t - test.
By 1900 the brewery was operating unparalleled welfare schemes for its 5,000 employees. By 1907 the welfare schemes were costing the brewery £ 40,000 a year, which was one - fifth of the total wages bill. The improvements were suggested and supervised by Sir John Lumsden. By 1914, Guinness was producing 2,652,000 barrels of beer a year, which was more than double that of its nearest competitor Bass, and was supplying more than 10 percent of the total UK beer market. In the 1930s, Guinness became the seventh largest company in the world. Before 1939, if a Guinness brewer wished to marry a Catholic, his resignation was requested. According to Thomas Molloy, writing in the Irish Independent, "It had no qualms about selling drink to Catholics but it did everything it could to avoid employing them until the 1960s. ''
Guinness thought they brewed their last porter in 1973. In the 1970s, following declining sales, the decision was taken to make Guinness Extra Stout more "drinkable ''. The gravity was subsequently reduced, and the brand was relaunched in 1981. Pale malt was used for the first time, and isomerized hop extract began to be used. In 2014, two new porters were introduced: West Indies Porter and Dublin Porter.
Guinness acquired the Distillers Company in 1986. This led to a scandal and criminal trial concerning the artificial inflation of the Guinness share price during the takeover bid engineered by the chairman, Ernest Saunders. A subsequent £ 5.2 million success fee paid to an American lawyer and Guinness director, Tom Ward, was the subject of the case Guinness plc v Saunders, in which the House of Lords declared that the payment had been invalid.
In the 1980s, as the IRA 's bombing campaign spread to London and the rest of Britain, Guinness considered scrapping the harp as its logo.
The company merged with Grand Metropolitan in 1997 to form Diageo PLC. Due to controversy over the merger, the company was maintained as a separate entity within Diageo and has retained the rights to the product and all associated trademarks of Guinness.
The Guinness brewery in Park Royal, London closed in 2005. The production of all Guinness sold in the UK and Ireland was moved to St. James 's Gate Brewery, Dublin.
Guinness has also been referred to as "the black stuff ''. Guinness had a fleet of ships, barges and yachts. The Irish Sunday Independent newspaper reported on 17 June 2007 that Diageo intended to close the historic St James 's Gate plant in Dublin and move to a greenfield site on the outskirts of the city. This news caused some controversy when it was announced.
The following day, the Irish Daily Mail ran a follow - up story with a double page spread complete with images and a history of the plant since 1759. Initially, Diageo said that talk of a move was pure speculation but in the face of mounting speculation in the wake of the Sunday Independent article, the company confirmed that it is undertaking a "significant review of its operations ''. This review is largely due to the efforts of the company 's ongoing drive to reduce the environmental impact of brewing at the St James 's Gate plant.
On 23 November 2007, an article appeared in the Evening Herald, a Dublin newspaper, stating that Dublin City Council, in the best interests of the city of Dublin, had put forward a motion to prevent planning permission ever being granted for development of the site thus making it very difficult for Diageo to sell off the site for residential development.
On 9 May 2008, Diageo announced that the St James 's Gate brewery will remain open and undergo renovations, but that breweries in Kilkenny and Dundalk will be closed by 2013 when a new larger brewery is opened near Dublin. The result will be a loss of roughly 250 jobs across the entire Diageo / Guinness workforce in Ireland. Two days later, the Sunday Independent again reported that Diageo chiefs had met with Tánaiste Mary Coughlan, the deputy leader of the Government of Ireland, about moving operations to Ireland from the UK to benefit from its lower corporation tax rates. Several UK firms have made the move to pay Ireland 's 12.5 percent rate rather than the UK 's 28 percent rate. Diageo released a statement to the London stock exchange denying the report. Despite the merger that created Diageo plc in 1997, Guinness has retained its right to the Guinness brand and associated trademarks and thus continues to trade under the traditional Guinness name despite trading under the corporation name Diageo for a brief period in 1997.
In November 2015 it was announced that Guinness are planning to make their beer suitable for consumption by vegetarians and vegans by the end of 2016 through the introduction of a new filtration process at their existing Guinness Brewery that avoids the need to use Isinglass from fish bladders to filter out yeast particles. Update: On the company 's faq - page they say: "Our new filtration process has removed the use of isinglass as a means of filtration and vegans can now enjoy a pint of Guinness. All Guinness Draught in keg format is brewed without using isinglass. Full distribution of bottle and can formats will be in place by the end of 2017, so until then, our advice to vegans is to consume the product from the keg format only for now. ''
Guinness stout is made from water, barley, roast malt extract, hops, and brewer 's yeast. A portion of the barley is roasted to give Guinness its dark colour and characteristic taste. It is pasteurised and filtered. Making the product requires knowledge in the sciences of microbiology, mycology, bacteriology, and thermodynamics. Despite its reputation as a "meal in a glass '', Guinness only contains 198 kcal (838 kilojoules) per imperial pint (1460 kJ / l), slightly fewer than skimmed milk, orange juice, and most other non-light beers.
Until the late 1950s Guinness was still racked into wooden casks. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Guinness ceased brewing cask - conditioned beers and developed a keg brewing system with aluminium kegs replacing the wooden casks; these were nicknamed "iron lungs ''. The production of Guinness, as with many beers, also involves the use of isinglass made from fish. Isinglass is used as a fining agent for settling out suspended matter in the vat. The isinglass is retained in the floor of the vat but it is possible that minute quantities might be carried over into the beer.
Arguably its biggest change to date, in 1959 Guinness changed its whole composition by introducing nitrogen. The introduction of nitrogen changed the fundamental texture and flavour of Guinness of the past as nitrogen bubbles are much smaller than CO, giving a "creamier '' and "smoother '' consistency over a sharper and traditional CO taste. This arguably pivotal moment in Guinness ' 258 - year history started in 1959 when Michael Ash -- a mathematician turned brewer -- after an extensive four - year journey of experimentation, discovered the mechanism to make this possible. As a result of this, when a pint of Guinness is poured today, you now see the classic "surge and settle '' effect (nitrogen bubbles cascading down the side of the pint glass) which is ultimately the extensive work and genius of Michael Ash.
Nitrogen is less soluble than carbon dioxide, which allows the beer to be put under high pressure without making it fizzy. High pressure of the dissolved gas is required to enable very small bubbles to be formed by forcing the draught beer through fine holes in a plate in the tap, which causes the characteristic "surge '' (the widget in cans and bottles achieves the same effect). This "widget '' is a small plastic ball containing the nitrogen with also just a little beer itself. The perceived smoothness of draught Guinness is due to its low level of carbon dioxide and the creaminess of the head caused by the very fine bubbles that arise from the use of nitrogen and the dispensing method described above. "Foreign Extra Stout '' contains more carbon dioxide, causing a more acidic taste.
Contemporary Guinness Draught and Extra Stout are weaker than they were in the 19th century, when they had an original gravity of over 1.070. Foreign Extra Stout and Special Export Stout, with abv of 7.5 % and 9 % respectively, are perhaps closest to the original in character.
Although Guinness may appear to be black, it is officially a very dark shade of ruby.
The most recent change in alcohol content from the Import Stout to the Extra Stout was due to a change in distribution through North America and the Canadian market. Consumer complaints have had an impact on recent distribution and bottle changes.
Studies claim that Guinness can be beneficial to the heart. Researchers found that "' antioxidant compounds ' in the Guinness, similar to those found in certain fruits and vegetables, are responsible for the health benefits because they slow down the deposit of harmful cholesterol on the artery walls. ''
Guinness ran an advertising campaign in the 1920s which stemmed from market research -- when people told the company that they felt good after their pint, the slogan was born -- "Guinness is Good for You ''. Advertising for alcoholic drinks that implies improved physical performance or enhanced personal qualities is now prohibited in Ireland. Diageo, the company that now manufactures Guinness, says: "We never make any medical claims for our drinks. ''
Guinness stout is available in a number of variants and strengths, which include:
In October 2005, Guinness announced the Brewhouse Series, a limited - edition collection of draught stouts available for roughly six months each. There were three beers in the series.
Despite an announcement in June 2007 that the fourth Brewhouse stout would be launched in October that year, no new beer appeared and, at the end of 2007, the Brewhouse series appeared to have been quietly cancelled.
In March 2006, Guinness introduced the "surger '' in Britain. The surger is a plate - like electrical device meant for the home. It sends ultrasonic waves through a Guinness - filled pint glass to recreate the beer 's "surge and settle '' effect. The device works in conjunction with special cans of surger - ready Guinness. Guinness tried out a primitive version of this system in 1977 in New York. The idea was abandoned until 2003, when it began testing the surger in Japanese bars, most of which are too small to accommodate traditional keg - and - tap systems. Since then, the surger has been introduced to bars in Paris. Surgers are also in use in Australia, Singapore and Greece. The surger for the US market was announced on 14 November 2007; plans were to make the unit available to bars only.
Withdrawn Guinness variants include Guinness 's Brite Lager, Guinness 's Brite Ale, Guinness Light, Guinness XXX Extra Strong Stout, Guinness Cream Stout, Guinness Gold, Guinness Pilsner, Guinness Breó (a slightly citrusy wheat beer), Guinness Shandy, and Guinness Special Light.
Breó (meaning ' glow ' in Irish) was a wheat beer; it cost around IR £ 5 million to develop.
For a short time in the late 1990s, Guinness produced the "St James 's Gate '' range of craft - style beers, available in a small number of Dublin pubs. The beers were: Pilsner Gold, Wicked Red Ale, Wildcat Wheat Beer and Dark Angel Lager.
A brewing byproduct of Guinness, Guinness Yeast Extract (GYE), was produced until the 1950s. In the UK, a HP Guinness Sauce has recently been made available, manufactured by Heinz. Kraft also licenses the name for its Barbecue sauce product, Bull 's - Eye Barbecue Sauce.
In March 2010, Guinness began test marketing Guinness Black Lager, a new black lager, in Northern Ireland and Malaysia. As of September 2010, Guinness Black Lager is no longer readily available in Malaysia. In October 2010, Guinness began selling Foreign Extra Stout in 4 packs of bottles in the United States.
Guinness Red Harvest Stout was introduced in September 2013. sold in 14.9 oz widget cans: 4.1 % alcohol by volume (ABV); Inspired by the ancient Celtic festival of samhain, the seasonal Guinness Red Harvest Stout has a mildly sweet velvety taste and deep red hue. Crafted with a blend of lightly roasted barley and sweet Irish malt.
In 2014, Guinness released Guinness Blonde, a lager brewed in Latrobe, Pennsylvania using a combination of Guinness yeast and American ingredients. The Guinness Brewers Project also released two craft beers, Dublin Porter and West Indies Porter.
Guinness released a lager in 2015 called Hop House 13. It has become an available drink in most Irish pubs and is becoming increasingly popular since its release.
Before the 1960s, when Guinness adopted the current system of delivery using a nitrogen / carbon dioxide gas mixture, all beer leaving the brewery was cask - conditioned. Casks newly delivered to many small pubs were often nearly unmanageably frothy, but cellar space and rapid turnover demanded that they be put into use before they could sit for long enough to settle down. As a result, a glass would be part filled with the fresh, frothy beer, allowed to stand a minute, and then topped up with beer from a cask that had been pouring longer and had calmed down a bit. With the move to gas dispense in the 60s, it was felt important to keep the 2 stage pour ritual, in order to bring better customer acceptance of the new process.
What Diageo calls the "perfect pint '' of Draught Guinness is the product of a "double pour '', which according to the company should take 119.5 seconds. Guinness has promoted this wait with advertising campaigns such as "good things come to those who wait ''. Despite this, Guinness has endorsed the use of "Exactap '', marketed by DigitalDispense USA LLC, owned in a trust by its American inventor. The "Exactap '' is the fastest beer dispense system in the world and can deliver a perfectly presented Guinness, with no overfilling, in just 4 seconds. There are over 600 "Exactaps '' in use in Dublin stadia alone.
The brewer recommends that draught Guinness should be served at 6 ° C (42.8 ° F), while Extra Cold Guinness should be served at 3.5 ° C (38.6 ° F).
According to Esquire Magazine, a pint of Guinness should be served in a slightly tulip shaped pint glass (as opposed to the taller European tulip glass or ' Nonic ' glass, which contains a ridge approx 3 / 4 of the way up the glass). To begin the pour, the server holds the glass at a 45 ° angle below the tap and fills the glass 3 / 4 full. On the way out of the tap, the beer is forced at high speed through a five - hole disc restrictor plate in the end of the tap, creating friction and forcing the creation of small nitrogen bubbles which form a creamy head. After allowing the initial pour to settle, the server fills the remainder of the glass until the head forms a slight dome over the top of the glass.
In April 2010, Guinness redesigned the Guinness pint glass for the first time in a decade. The new glass is taller and narrower than the previous one and features a bevel design. The new glasses are planned to gradually replace the old ones.
When Guinness is poured, the gas bubbles appear to travel downwards in the glass. The effect is attributed to drag; bubbles that touch the walls of a glass are slowed in their travel upwards. Bubbles in the centre of the glass are, however, free to rise to the surface, and thus form a rising column of bubbles. The rising bubbles create a current by the entrainment of the surrounding fluid. As beer rises in the centre, the beer near the outside of the glass falls. This downward flow pushes the bubbles near the glass towards the bottom. Although the effect occurs in any liquid, it is particularly noticeable in any dark nitrogen stout, as the drink combines dark - coloured liquid and light - coloured bubbles.
A study published in 2012 revealed that the effect is due to the particular shape of the glass coupled with the small bubble size found in stout beers. If the vessel widens with height then bubbles will sink along the walls -- this is the case for the standard pint glass. Conversely, in an anti-pint (i.e. if the vessel narrows with height) bubbles will rise along the walls.
Guinness is frequently used as an ingredient in recipes, often to add a seemingly authentic Irish element to the menus of Irish - themed pubs in the United States, where it is stirred into everything from french toast to beef stew.
A popular, authentic, Irish course featuring Guinness is the "Guinness and Steak Pie. '' The recipe includes many common Irish herbs, as well as beef brisket, cheeses, and a can of Guinness.
The Guinness harp motif is modelled on the Trinity College Harp. It was adopted in 1862 by the incumbent proprietor, Benjamin Lee Guinness. Harps have been a symbol of Ireland at least since the reign of Henry VIII. Guinness registered their harp as a trademark shortly after the passing of the Trade Marks Registration Act of 1875. It faces right instead of left, and so can be distinguished from the Irish coat of arms.
Since the 1930s, in the face of falling sales, Guinness has had a long history of marketing campaigns, from television advertisements to beer mats and posters. Before then, Guinness had almost no advertising, instead allowing for word of mouth to sell the product.
Guinness ' iconic stature is partly due to its advertising. The most notable and recognisable series of advertisements was created by S.H. Benson 's advertising, primarily drawn by the artist John Gilroy, in the 1930s and 1940s. Benson created posters that included phrases such as "Guinness for Strength '', "Lovely Day for a Guinness '', "Guinness Makes You Strong '', "My Goodness My Guinness '' (or, alternatively, "My Goodness, My Christmas, It 's Guinness! ''), and most famously, "Guinness is Good For You ''. The posters featured Gilroy 's distinctive artwork and more often than not featured animals such as a kangaroo, ostrich, seal, lion and notably a toucan, which has become as much a symbol of Guinness as the harp. (An advertisement from the 1940s ran with the following jingle: "Toucans in their nests agree / Guinness is good for you / Try some today and see / What one or toucan do. '') Dorothy L. Sayers and Bobby Bevan copywriters at Benson 's also worked on the campaign; a biography of Sayers notes that she created a sketch of the toucan and wrote several of the adverts in question. Guinness advertising paraphernalia, notably the pastiche booklets illustrated by Ronald Ferns, attract high prices on the collectible market.
Many of the best known Guinness television commercials of the 1970s and 1980s were created by British director, Len Fulford.
In 1983, a conscious marketing decision was made to turn Guinness into a "cult '' beer in the UK, amidst declining sales. The move halted the sales decline. The Guardian described the management of the brand:
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, in the UK, there was a series of "darkly '' humorous adverts, featuring actor Rutger Hauer, with the theme "Pure Genius '', extolling its qualities in brewing and target market.
The 1994 -- 1995 Anticipation campaign, featuring actor Joe McKinney dancing to "Guaglione '' by Perez Prado while his pint settled, became a legend in Ireland and put the song to number one in the charts for several weeks. The advertisement was also popular in the UK where the song reached number two.
In 2000, Guinness ' 1999 advertisement "Surfer '' was named the best television commercial of all time, in a UK poll conducted by The Sunday Times and Channel 4. This advertisement is inspired by the famous 1980s Guinness TV and cinema ad, "Big Wave '', centred on a surfer riding a wave while a bikini - clad sun bather takes photographs. The 1980s advertisement not only remained a popular iconic image in its own right; it also entered the Irish cultural memory through inspiring a well known line in Christy Moore 's song "Delirium Tremens '' (1985). "Surfer '' was produced by the advertising agency Abbott Mead Vickers BBDO; the advertisement can be downloaded from their website.
Guinness won the 2001 Clio Award as the Advertiser of the Year, citing the work of five separate ad agencies around the world.
In 2003, the Guinness TV campaign featuring Tom Crean won the gold Shark Award at the International Advertising Festival of Ireland, while in 2005 their Irish Christmas campaign won a silver Shark. This TV ad has been run every Christmas since its debut in December 2004 and features pictures of snow falling in places around Ireland, evoking the James Joyce story "The Dead '', finishing at St. James 's Gate Brewery with the line: "Even at the home of the black stuff they dream of a white one ''.
Their UK commercial "noitulovE '', first broadcast in October 2005, was the most - awarded commercial worldwide in 2006. In it, three men drink a pint of Guinness, then begin to both walk and evolve backward. Their "reverse evolution '' passes through an ancient Homo sapiens, a monkey, a flying lemur, a pangolin, an ichthyosaur, and a velociraptor, until finally settling on a mud skipper drinking dirty water, which then expresses its disgust at the taste of the stuff, followed by the line: "Good Things Come To Those Who Wait ''. This was later modified to have a different endings to advertise Guinness Extra Cold, often shown as "break bumpers '' at the beginning and end of commercial breaks. The second endings show either the Homo sapiens being suddenly frozen in a block of ice, the ichthyasaurs being frozen while swimming, or the pool of muddy water freezing over as the mud skipper takes a sip, freezing his tongue to the surface.
Two further advertisements in 2006 and early 2007, "Hands '' and "St. Patrick 's Hands '', were created by animator Michael Schlingmann for Abbott Mead Vickers BBDO. They feature a pair of hands, animated in stop motion under a rostrum camera. "Hands '' focuses on the 119.53 seconds it takes to pour a pint, and "St. Patrick 's Hands is a spoof of Riverdance, with the animated hands doing the dancing.
Guinness ' 2007 advertisement, directed by Nicolai Fuglsig and filmed in Argentina, is entitled "Tipping Point ''. It involves a large - scale domino chain reaction and, with a budget of £ 10m, was the most expensive advertisement by the company at that point.
The 2000s also saw a series of television advertisements, entitled "Brilliant! '' in which two crudely animated Guinness brewmasters would discuss the beer, particularly the ability to drink it straight from the bottle. The two would almost always react to their discoveries with the catchphrase "Brilliant! '', hence the campaign 's title.
In 2009, the "To Arthur '' advertisement, which started with two friends realising the company 's long history, hail each other by lifting up their glasses and saying: "to Arthur! ''. The hailing slowing spread throughout the bar to the streets outside, and finally around the world. The advertisement ends with the voiceover: "Join the worldwide celebration, of a man named Arthur ''.
This gave rise to the event now known as Arthur 's Day. "Arthur 's Day is a series of events and celebrations taking place around the world to celebrate the life and legacy of Arthur Guinness and the much - loved Guinness beer which Arthur brought to the world. '' It took place for the third time at 17: 59 on 22 September 2011.
In 2006, sales of Guinness in Ireland and the United Kingdom declined 7 percent. Despite this, Guinness still accounts for more than a quarter of all beer sold in Ireland. By 2015, sales were on the rise in Ireland but flat globally.
Guinness began retailing in India in 2007.
Guinness has a significant share of the African beer market, where it has been sold since 1827. About 40 percent of worldwide total Guinness volume is brewed and sold in Africa, with Foreign Extra Stout the most popular variant. Three of the five Guinness - owned breweries worldwide are located in Africa. The Michael Power advertising campaign was a critical success for Guinness in Africa, running for nearly a decade before being replaced in 2006 with "Guinness Greatness ''.
The beer is brewed under licence internationally in several countries, including Nigeria, the Bahamas, Canada, Cameroon, Kenya, Uganda, South Korea, Namibia, and Indonesia. The unfermented but hopped Guinness wort extract is shipped from Dublin and blended with beer brewed locally.
In 2017 Guinness teamed up with AB InBev to distribute Guinness in mainland China. China is the single worldwide biggest alcohol market, especially for imported craft beers like Guinness.
The UK is the only sovereign state to consume more Guinness than Ireland. The third - largest Guinness drinking nation is Nigeria, followed by the USA; the United States consumed more than 950,000 hectolitres of Guinness in 2010.
The Guinness Storehouse is a popular tourist attraction at St. James 's Gate Brewery in Dublin, where a self - guided tour includes an account of the ingredients used to make the stout and a description of how it is made. Visitors can sample the smells of each Guinness ingredient in the Tasting Rooms, which are coloured with a unique lighting design that emits Guinness ' gold and black branding. A pint of Guinness is offered which the visitor may pour after a demonstration by one of the staff. There are videos showing how Guinness is tested by a panel of tasters, and the visitor is instructed in tasting the beer. The tour includes such items as the historical coopering trade within Guinness, a section dedicated to advertising and merchandising by Guinness, and a section dedicated to historical artefacts and footage relating to Guinness. The tour finishes with a pint of Guinness (if it has not already been drunk at one of the other bars) in the Gravity Bar. Two other bars, a coffee shop and a restaurant, are available to visitors during the tour, and a range of Guinness merchandise is available to purchase.
The Guinness Book of Records started as a Guinness marketing giveaway, based on an idea of its then Managing Director, Sir Hugh Beaver. Its holding company, Guinness World Records Ltd, was owned by Guinness plc, subsequently Diageo, until 2001.
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where did the 2014 world cup take place | 2014 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The 2014 FIFA World Cup was the 20th FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial world championship for men 's national football teams organized by FIFA. It took place in Brazil from 12 June to 13 July 2014, after the country was awarded the hosting rights in 2007. It was the second time that Brazil staged the competition, the first being in 1950, and the fifth time that it was held in South America.
Thirty - one national teams advanced through qualification competitions to join the host nation in the final tournament (with Bosnia and Herzegovina as only debutant). A total of 64 matches were played in 12 venues located in as many host cities across Brazil. For the first time at a World Cup finals, match officials used goal - line technology, as well as vanishing foam for free kicks. FIFA Fan Fests in each host city gathered a total of 5 million people, and the country received 1 million visitors from 202 countries.
Every World Cup - winning team since the first tournament in 1930 -- Argentina, Brazil, England, France, Germany, Italy, Spain and Uruguay -- qualified for this tournament. Spain, the title holders, were eliminated at the group stage, along with England and Italy. Uruguay were eliminated in the round of 16, and France exited in the quarter - finals. Host nation Brazil, who had won the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, lost to Germany 7 -- 1 in the semi-finals and eventually finished in fourth place.
In the final, Germany defeated Argentina 1 -- 0 to win the tournament and secure the country 's fourth world title, the first after the German reunification in 1990, when as West Germany they also beat Argentina in the World Cup final. Germany became the first European team to win a World Cup staged in the Americas, and this result marked the first time that nations from the same continent won three consecutive tournaments (following Italy in 2006 and Spain in 2010).
In March 2003, FIFA announced that the tournament would be held in South America for the first time since 1978, in line with its then - active policy of rotating the right to host the World Cup among different confederations. With 2010 FIFA World Cup hosted in South Africa, it would be the second consecutive World Cup outside of Europe, which was a first for the tournament. It was also second in the Southern Hemisphere. Only Brazil and Colombia formally declared their candidacy but, after the withdrawal of the latter from the process, Brazil was officially elected as host nation unopposed on 30 October 2007.
Following qualification matches played between June 2011 and November 2013, the following 32 teams -- shown with their last pre-tournament FIFA world ranking -- qualified for the final tournament. Twenty - four of these teams were returning participants from the 2010 World Cup. Bosnia and Herzegovina were the only team with no previous appearance at the World Cup finals. Colombia qualified for the World Cup after 16 years of absence, while Russia and Belgium returned after 12 years. This was also the first World Cup for 32 years that did not feature a representative from the Nordic countries. The highest ranked team to not qualify was Ukraine (ranked 16th), while the lowest ranked team that did qualify was Australia (ranked 62nd).
The 32 participating teams were drawn into eight groups. In preparation for this, the teams were organised into four pots with the seven highest - ranked teams joining host nation Brazil in the seeded pot. As with the previous tournaments, FIFA aimed to create groups which maximised geographic separation and therefore the unseeded teams were arranged into pots based on geographic considerations. The draw took place on 6 December 2013 at the Costa do Sauípe resort in Bahia, during which the teams were drawn by various past World Cup - winning players. Under the draw procedure, one randomly drawn team -- Italy -- was firstly relocated from Pot 4 to Pot 2 to create four equal pots of eight teams.
In March 2013, FIFA published a list of 52 prospective referees, each paired, on the basis of nationality, with two assistant referees, from all six football confederations for the tournament. On 14 January 2014, the FIFA Referees Committee appointed 25 referee trios and eight support duos representing 43 different countries for the tournament. Yuichi Nishimura from Japan acted as referee in the opening match whereas Nicola Rizzoli from Italy acted as referee in the final.
As with the 2010 tournament, each team 's squad consists of 23 players (three of whom must be goalkeepers). Each participating national association had to confirm their final 23 - player squad no later than 10 days before the start of the tournament. Teams were permitted to make late replacements in the event of serious injury, at any time up to 24 hours before their first game. During a match, all remaining squad members not named in the starting team are available to be one of the three permitted substitutions (provided the player is not serving a suspension).
12 venues (seven new and five renovated) in twelve cities were selected for the tournament. The venues covered all the main regions of Brazil and created more evenly distributed hosting than the 1950 finals in Brazil. Consequently, the tournament required long - distance travel for teams. During the World Cup, Brazilian cities were also home to the participating teams at 32 separate base camps, as well as staging official fan fests where supporters could view the games.
Base camps were used by the 32 national squads to stay and train before and during the World Cup tournament. On 31 January 2014, FIFA announced the base camps for each participating team, having earlier circulated a brochure of 84 prospective locations. Most teams opted to stay in the Southeast Region of Brazil, with only eight teams choosing other regions; five teams (Croatia, Germany, Ghana, Greece and Switzerland) opted to stay in the Northeast Region and three teams (Ecuador, South Korea and Spain) opted to stay in the South Region. None opted to stay in the North Region or the Central - West Region.
For a third consecutive World Cup tournament, FIFA staged FIFA Fan Fests in each of the 12 host cities throughout the competition. Prominent examples were the Copacabana Beach in Rio de Janeiro, which already held a Fan Fest in 2010, and São Paulo 's Vale do Anhangabaú. The first official event took place on Iracema Beach, in Fortaleza, on 8 June 2014.
To avoid ghost goals the 2014 World Cup introduced goal - line technology following successful trials at among others 2013 Confederations Cup. The chosen Goal Control system featured 14 high speed cameras, 7 directed to each of the goals. Data were sent to the central image - processing centre, where a virtual representation of the ball was output on a widescreen to confirm the goal. The referee was equipped with a watch which vibrated and displayed a signal upon a goal. France 's second goal in their group game against Honduras was the first time goal - line technology was needed to confirm that a goal should be given.
Following successful trials, FIFA approved the use of vanishing foam by the referees for the first time at a World Cup Finals. The water - based spray, which disappears within minutes of application, can be used to mark a ten - yard line for the defending team during a free kick and also to draw where the ball is to be placed for a free kick.
The Adidas Brazuca was the official match ball of the 2014 FIFA World Cup and was supplied by Forward Sports of Sialkot, Pakistan. Adidas created a new design of ball after criticisms of the Adidas Jabulani used in the previous World Cup. The number of panels was reduced to six, with the panels being thermally bonded. This created a ball with increased consistency and aerodynamics compared to its predecessor. Furthermore, Adidas underwent an extensive testing process lasting more than two years to produce a ball that would meet the approval of football professionals.
Because of the relatively high ambient temperatures in Brazil, particularly at the northern venues, cooling breaks for the players were introduced. Breaks could take place at the referee 's discretion after the 30th minute of each half if the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature exceeded 32 ° C (90 ° F).
The first cooling break in World Cup play took place during the 32nd minute of the match between the Netherlands and Mexico in the round of 16. At the start of the match, FIFA listed the temperature at 32 ° C (90 ° F) with 68 % humidity.
The biological passport was introduced in the FIFA World Cup starting in 2014. Blood and urine samples from all players before the competition, and from two players per team per match, are analysed by the Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses. FIFA reported that 91.5 % of the players taking part in the tournament were tested before the start of the competition and none tested positive. However, FIFA was criticised for how it conducted doping tests.
The first round, or group stage, was a competition between the 32 teams divided among eight groups of four, where each group engaged in a round - robin tournament within itself. The two highest ranked teams in each group advanced to the knockout stage. Teams were awarded three points for a win and one for a draw. When comparing teams in a group over-all result came before head - to - head.
In the knockout stage there were four rounds (round of 16, quarter - finals, semi-finals, and the final), with each eliminating the losers. The two semi-final losers competed in a third place play - off. For any match in the knockout stage, a draw after 90 minutes of regulation time was followed by two 15 minute periods of extra time to determine a winner. If the teams were still tied, a penalty shoot - out was held to determine a winner.
The match schedule was announced on 20 October 2011 with the kick - off times being confirmed on 27 September 2012; after the final draw, the kick - off times of seven matches were adjusted by FIFA. The competition was organised so that teams that played each other in the group stage could not meet again during the knockout phase until the final (or the 3rd place match). The group stage began on 12 June, with the host nation competing in the opening game as has been the format since the 2006 tournament. The opening game was preceded by an opening ceremony that began at 15: 15 local time.
The group stage of the 2014 FIFA World Cup took place in Brazil from 12 June 2014 to 26 June 2014: each team played three games. The group stage was notable for a scarcity of draws and a large number of goals. The first drawn (and goalless) match did not occur until the 13th match of the tournament, between Iran and Nigeria: a drought longer than any World Cup since 1930. The group stage produced a total of 136 goals (an average of 2.83 goals per match), nine fewer than were scored during the entire 2010 tournament. This is the largest number of goals in the group stage since the 32 - team system was implemented in 1998 and the largest average in a group stage since 1958. World Cup holders Spain were eliminated after only two games, the quickest exit for the defending champions since Italy 's from the 1950 tournament. Spain also became the fourth nation to be eliminated in the first round while holding the World Cup crown, the first one being Italy in 1950 (and again in 2010), the second Brazil in 1966, and the third France in 2002.
Brazil v Croatia
Mexico v Cameroon
Brazil v Mexico
Cameroon v Croatia
Cameroon v Brazil
Croatia v Mexico
Spain v Netherlands
Chile v Australia
Australia v Netherlands
Spain v Chile
Australia v Spain
Netherlands v Chile
Colombia v Greece
Ivory Coast v Japan
Colombia v Ivory Coast
Japan v Greece
Japan v Colombia
Greece v Ivory Coast
Uruguay v Costa Rica
England v Italy
Uruguay v England
Italy v Costa Rica
Italy v Uruguay
Costa Rica v England
Switzerland v Ecuador
France v Honduras
Switzerland v France
Honduras v Ecuador
Honduras v Switzerland
Ecuador v France
Argentina v Bosnia and Herzegovina
Iran v Nigeria
Argentina v Iran
Nigeria v Bosnia and Herzegovina
Nigeria v Argentina
Bosnia and Herzegovina v Iran
Germany v Portugal
Ghana v United States
Germany v Ghana
United States v Portugal
United States v Germany
Portugal v Ghana
Belgium v Algeria
Russia v South Korea
Belgium v Russia
South Korea v Algeria
South Korea v Belgium
Algeria v Russia
Scores after extra time are indicated by (aet), and penalty shoot - outs are indicated by (pen.).
For the first time since the introduction of a round of 16 after the group stage in 1986, all the group winners advanced into the quarter - finals. They included four teams from UEFA, three from CONMEBOL, and one from CONCACAF. Of the eight matches, five required extra-time, and two of these required penalty shoot - outs; this was the first time penalty shoot - outs occurred in more than one game in a round of 16. The goal average per game in the round of 16 was 2.25, a drop of 0.58 goals per game from the group stage. The eight teams to win in the round of 16 included four former champions (Brazil, Germany, Argentina and France), a three - time runner - up (Netherlands), and two first - time quarter - finalists (Colombia and Costa Rica). Belgium reached the quarter - finals for the first time since 1986.
All times listed below are at local time (UTC − 3)
Brazil v Chile
Colombia v Uruguay
Netherlands v Mexico
Costa Rica v Greece
France v Nigeria
Germany v Algeria
Argentina v Switzerland
Belgium v United States
With a 1 -- 0 victory over France, Germany set a World Cup record with four consecutive semi-final appearances. Brazil beat Colombia 2 -- 1, but Brazil 's Neymar was injured and missed the rest of the competition. Argentina reached the final four for the first time since 1990 after a 1 -- 0 win over Belgium. The Netherlands reached the semi-finals for the second consecutive tournament, after overcoming Costa Rica in a penalty shoot - out following a 0 -- 0 draw at the end of extra time.
France v Germany
Brazil v Colombia
Argentina v Belgium
Netherlands v Costa Rica
Germany qualified for the final for the eighth time with a historic 7 -- 1 win over Brazil -- the biggest defeat in Brazilian football since 1920. Miroslav Klose 's goal in this match was his 16th throughout all World Cups, breaking the record he had previously shared with Ronaldo. Klose set another record by becoming the first player to appear in four World Cup semi-finals. Argentina reached their first final since 1990, and the fifth overall after overcoming the Netherlands in a penalty shoot - out following a 0 -- 0 draw at the end of extra time.
Brazil v Germany
Netherlands v Argentina
The Netherlands defeated Brazil 3 -- 0 to secure third place, the first for the Dutch team in their history. Overall, Brazil conceded 14 goals in the tournament; this was the most by a team at any single World Cup since 1986, and the most by a host nation in history, although their fourth - place finish still represented Brazil 's best result in a World Cup since their last win in 2002.
Brazil v Netherlands
The final featured Germany against Argentina for a record third time after 1986 and 1990.
Germany v Argentina
This marked the first time that teams from the same continent had won three consecutive World Cups (following Italy in 2006 and Spain in 2010). It was also the first time that a European nation had won the World Cup in the Americas. On aggregate Europe now has 11 victories, compared to South America 's 9 victories.
James Rodríguez was awarded the Golden Boot for scoring six goals, the first time that a Colombian player received the award. In total, 171 goals were scored by a record 121 players, with five credited as own goals. Goals scored from penalty shoot - outs are not counted.
Source: FIFA
The most notable disciplinary case was that of Uruguayan striker Luis Suárez, who was suspended for nine international matches and banned from taking part in any football - related activity (including entering any stadium) for four months, following a biting incident on Italian defender Giorgio Chiellini. He was also fined CHF 100,000. After an appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport, Suárez was later allowed to participate in training and friendly matches with new club Barcelona.
The following awards were given at the conclusion of the tournament:
01! Lionel Messi 02! Thomas Müller 03! Arjen Robben
Ángel Di María James Rodríguez Javier Mascherano Mats Hummels Neymar Philipp Lahm Toni Kroos
01! James Rodríguez (6 goals, 2 assists) 02! Thomas Müller (5 goals, 3 assists) 03! Neymar (4 goals, 1 assist)
Manuel Neuer
Keylor Navas Sergio Romero
Paul Pogba
Memphis Depay Raphaël Varane
Colombia
The members of the Technical Study Group, the committee that decided which players won the awards, were led by FIFA 's head of the Technical Division Jean - Paul Brigger and featured:
There were changes to the voting procedure for awards for the 2014 edition: while in 2010 accredited media were allowed to vote for the Golden Ball award, in 2014 only the Technical Study Group could select the outcome.
As was the case during the 2010 edition, FIFA did not release an official All - Star Team, but instead invited users of FIFA.com to elect their Dream Team.
Manuel Neuer (Germany)
Marcelo (Brazil) Mats Hummels (Germany) Thiago Silva (Brazil) David Luiz (Brazil)
Ángel Di María (Argentina) Toni Kroos (Germany) James Rodríguez (Colombia)
Neymar (Brazil) Lionel Messi (Argentina) Thomas Müller (Germany)
Joachim Löw (Germany)
Castrol, the official sponsor of the tournament, released a team of the tournament based on their Castrol Performance Index, which evaluates player performances through statistical data. The team consisted of the players leading each position, with midfielder Toni Kroos ranked as the overall leader. Lionel Messi, the Golden Ball recipient, finished fifth among forwards and was thus not included in the team.
Manuel Neuer (Germany)
Marcos Rojo (Argentina) Mats Hummels (Germany) Thiago Silva (Brazil) Stefan de Vrij (Netherlands)
Oscar (Brazil) Toni Kroos (Germany) Philipp Lahm (Germany) James Rodríguez (Colombia)
Arjen Robben (Netherlands) Thomas Müller (Germany)
The total prize money on offer for the tournament was confirmed by FIFA as US $576 million (including payments of $70 million to domestic clubs and $100 million as player insurances), a 37 percent increase from the amount allocated in the 2010 tournament. Before the tournament, each of the 32 entrants received $1.5 million for preparation costs. At the tournament, the prize money was distributed as follows:
As per statistical convention in football, matches decided in extra time are counted as wins and losses, while matches decided by penalty shoot - outs are counted as draws.
Forecasts on the eve of the tournament estimated that the cost to the Brazilian government would be US $14 billion, making it the most expensive World Cup to date. FIFA is expected to spend US $2 billion on staging the finals, with its greatest single expense being the US $576 million prize money pot.
Although organisers originally estimated costs of US $1.1 billion, a reported US $3.6 billion was ultimately spent on stadium works. Five of the chosen host cities had brand new venues built specifically for the World Cup, while the Estádio Nacional Mané Garrincha in the capital Brasília was demolished and rebuilt, with the remaining six being extensively renovated.
An additional R $3 billion (US $1.3 billion, € 960 million, £ 780 million at June 2014 rates) was earmarked by the Brazilian government for investment in infrastructure works and projects for use during the 2014 World Cup and beyond. However, the failed completion of many of the proposed works provoked discontent among some Brazilians.
The Brazilian government pledged US $900 million to be invested into security forces and that the tournament would be "one of the most protected sports events in history. ''
The marketing of the 2014 FIFA World Cup included sale of tickets, support from sponsors and promotion through events that utilise the symbols and songs of the tournament. Popular merchandise included items featuring the official mascot as well as an official video game that has been developed by EA Sports. The official song of the tournament was "We Are One (Ole Ola) '' with vocals from Pitbull, Jennifer Lopez and Claudia Leitte. As a partner of the German Football Association, the German airline Lufthansa renamed itself "Fanhansa '' on some of its planes that flew the German national team, media representatives and football fans to Brazil.
For a fourth consecutive FIFA World Cup Finals, the coverage was provided by HBS (Host Broadcast Services), a subsidiary of Infront Sports & Media. Sony was selected as the official equipment provider and built 12 bespoke high definition production 40 - foot - long containers, one for each tournament venue, to house the extensive amount of equipment required. Each match utilised 37 standard camera plans, including Aerial and Cablecam, two Ultramotion cameras and dedicated cameras for interviews. The official tournament film, as well as three matches, will be filmed with ultra high definition technology (4K resolution), following a successful trial at the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup.
The broadcasting rights -- covering television, radio, internet and mobile coverage -- for the tournament were sold to media companies in each individual territory either directly by FIFA, or through licensed companies or organisations such as the European Broadcasting Union, Organización de Televisión Iberoamericana, International Media Content, Dentsu and RS International Broadcasting & Sports Management. The sale of these rights accounted for an estimated 60 % of FIFA 's income from staging a World Cup. The International Broadcast Centre was situated at the Riocentro in the Barra da Tijuca neighbourhood of Rio de Janeiro.
Worldwide, several games qualified as the most - watched sporting events in their country in 2014, including 42.9 million people in Brazil for the opening game between Brazil and Croatia, the 34.1 million in Japan who saw their team play Ivory Coast, and 34.7 million in Germany who saw their national team win the World Cup against Argentina, while the 24.7 million viewers during the game between the USA and Portugal is joint with the 2010 final as the most - watched football game in the United States. According to FIFA, over one billion people tuned in worldwide to watch the final between Germany and Argentina.
The 2014 FIFA World Cup generated various controversies, including demonstrations, some of which took place even before the tournament started. Furthermore, there were various issues with safety, including eight deaths of workers and a fire during construction, breaches into stadiums, an unstable makeshift staircase at the Maracanã Stadium, a monorail collapse, and the collapse of an unfinished overpass in Belo Horizonte. The houses of thousands of families in Rio de Janeiro were cleared for redevelopments for the World Cup in spite of protests and resistance. Favela do Metrô, near the Maracanã Stadium, was completely destroyed as a result, having previously housed 700 families in 2010.
Prior to the opening ceremony of the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup staged in Brazil, demonstrations took place outside the venue, organised by people unhappy with the amount of public money spent to enable the hosting of the FIFA World Cup. Both the Brazilian president Dilma Rousseff and FIFA president Sepp Blatter were heavily booed as they were announced to give their speeches at the 2013 tournament 's opening, which resulted in FIFA announcing that the 2014 FIFA World Cup opening ceremony would not feature any speeches. Further protests took place during the Confederations Cup as well as prior to and during the World Cup.
At the Group B match between Spain and Chile, around 100 Chilean supporters who had gathered outside Maracanã Stadium forced their way into the stadium and caused damage to the media centre. Military police reported that 85 Chileans were detained during the events, while others reached the stands. Earlier, about 20 Argentinians made a similar breach during Argentina 's Group F game against Bosnia and Herzegovina at the same stadium.
On 3 July 2014, an overpass under construction in Belo Horizonte as part of the World Cup infrastructure projects collapsed onto a busy carriageway below, leaving two people dead and 22 others injured.
During the tournament, FIFA received significant criticism for the way head injuries are handled during matches. Two incidents in particular attracted the most attention. First, in a group stage match, after Uruguayan defender Álvaro Pereira received a blow to the head, he lay unconscious. The Uruguayan doctor signaled for the player to be substituted, but he returned to the match. The incident drew criticism from the professional players ' union FIFPro, and from Michel D'Hooghe, a member of the FIFA executive board and chairman of its medical committee.
Second, in the Final, German midfielder Christoph Kramer received a blow to the head from a collision in the 14th minute, but returned to the match before collapsing in the 31st minute. During that time, Kramer was disoriented and confused, and asked the referee Nicola Rizzoli whether the match he was playing in was the World Cup Final.
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who invented washing machine and in which year | Washing machine - wikipedia
A washing machine (laundry machine, clothes washer, or washer) is a device used to wash laundry. The term is mostly applied to machines that use water as opposed to dry cleaning (which uses alternative cleaning fluids, and is performed by specialist businesses) or ultrasonic cleaners. The user adds laundry detergent which is sold in liquid or powder form to the wash water.
Laundering by hand involves soaking, beating, scrubbing, and rinsing dirty textiles. Before indoor plumbing, the washerwoman (laundress) or housewife also had to carry all the water used for washing, boiling, and rinsing the laundry; according to an 1886 calculation, women fetched water eight to ten times every day from a pump, well, or spring. Water for the laundry would be hand carried, heated on a fire for washing, then poured into the tub. That made the warm soapy water precious; it would be reused, first to wash the least soiled clothing, then to wash progressively dirtier laundry.
Removal of soap and water from the clothing after washing was a separate process. First, soap would be rinsed out with clear water. After rinsing, the soaking wet clothing would be formed into a roll and twisted by hand to extract water. The entire process often occupied an entire day of hard work, plus drying and ironing.
It is also often used in washbasins.
Clothes washer technology developed as a way to reduce the manual labor spent, providing an open basin or sealed container with paddles or fingers to automatically agitate the clothing. The earliest machines were hand - operated and constructed from wood, while later machines made of metal permitted a fire to burn below the washtub, keeping the water warm throughout the day 's washing.
The earliest special - purpose mechanical washing device was the washboard, invented in 1797 by Nathaniel Briggs of New Hampshire.
By the mid-1850s steam - driven commercial laundry machinery were on sale in the UK and US. Technological advances in machinery for commercial and institutional washers proceeded faster than domestic washer design for several decades, especially in the UK. In the United States there was more emphasis on developing machines for washing at home, though machines for commercial laundry services were widely used in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The rotary washing machine was patented by Hamilton Smith in 1858. As electricity was not commonly available until at least 1930, some early washing machines were operated by a low - speed, single - cylinder hit - and - miss gasoline engine.
After the items were washed and rinsed, water had to be removed by twisting. To help reduce this labor, the wringer / mangle machine was developed. As implied by the term "mangle, '' these early machines were quite dangerous, especially if powered and not hand - driven. A user 's fingers, hand, arm, or hair could become entangled in the laundry being squeezed, resulting in horrific injuries; unwary bystanders, such as children, could also be caught and hurt. Safer mechanisms were developed over time, and the more hazardous designs were eventually outlawed.
The mangle used two rollers under spring tension to squeeze water out of clothing and household linen. Each laundry item would be fed through the wringer separately. The first wringers were hand - cranked, but were eventually included as a powered attachment above the washer tub. The wringer would be swung over the wash tub so that extracted wash water would fall back into the tub to be reused for the next load.
The modern process of water removal by spinning did not come into use until electric motors were developed. Spinning requires a constant high - speed power source, and was originally done in a separate device known as an "extractor ''. A load of washed laundry would be transferred from the wash tub to the extractor basket, and the water spun out in a separate operation. These early extractors were often dangerous to use, since unevenly distributed loads would cause the machine to shake violently. Many efforts were made to counteract the shaking of unstable loads, such as mounting the spinning basket on a free - floating shock - absorbing frame to absorb minor imbalances, and a bump switch to detect severe movement and stop the machine so that the load could be manually redistributed.
What is now referred to as an automatic washer was at one time referred to as a "washer / extractor '', which combined the features of these two devices into a single machine, plus the ability to fill and drain water by itself. It is possible to take this a step further, and to also merge the automatic washing machine and clothes dryer into a single device, called a combo washer dryer.
The first English patent under the category of Washing machines was issued in 1691. A drawing of an early washing machine appeared in the January 1752 issue of The Gentleman 's Magazine, a British publication. Jacob Christian Schäffer 's washing machine design was published 1767 in Germany. In 1782, Henry Sidgier issued a British patent for a rotating drum washer, and in the 1790s Edward Beetham sold numerous "patent washing mills '' in England. One of the first innovations in washing machine technology was the use of enclosed containers or basins that had grooves, fingers, or paddles to help with the scrubbing and rubbing of the clothes. The person using the washer would use a stick to press and rotate the clothes along the textured sides of the basin or container, agitating the clothes to remove dirt and mud. This crude agitator technology was hand - powered, but still more effective than actually hand - washing the clothes.
More advancements were made to washing machine technology in the form of the rotative drum design. Basically, these early design patents consisted of a drum washer that was hand - cranked to make the wooden drums rotate. While the technology was simple enough, it was a milestone in the history of washing machines, as it introduced the idea of "powered '' washing drums. As metal drums started to replace the traditional wooden drums, it allowed for the drum to turn above an open fire or an enclosed fire chamber, raising the water temperature for more effective washes.
It would not be until the 19th century when steam power would be used in washing machine designs.
In 1862, a patented "compound rotary washing machine, with rollers for wringing or mangling '' by Richard Lansdale of Pendleton, Manchester, was shown at the 1862 London Exhibition.
The first United States Patent titled "Clothes Washing '' was granted to Nathaniel Briggs of New Hampshire in 1797. Because of the Patent Office fire in 1836, no description of the device survives. Invention of a washing machine is also attributed to Watervliet Shaker Village, as a patent was issued to an Amos Larcom of Watervliet, New York, in 1829, but it is not certain that Larcom was a Shaker. A device that combined a washing machine with a wringer mechanism did not appear until 1843, when Canadian John E. Turnbull of Saint John, New Brunswick patented a "Clothes Washer With Wringer Rolls. '' During the 1850s, Nicholas Bennett from the Mount Lebanon Shaker Society at New Lebanon, New York, invented a "wash mill '', but in 1858 he assigned the patent to David Parker of the Canterbury Shaker Village, where it was registered as the "Improved Washing Machine ''.
Margaret Colvin invented the Triumph Rotary Washer, which was exhibited in the Women 's Pavilion at the Centennial International Exhibition of 1876 in Philadelphia. At the same Exhibition, the Shakers won a gold medal for their machine.
Electric washing machines were advertised and discussed in newspapers as early as 1904. Alva J. Fisher has been incorrectly credited with the invention of the electric washer. The US Patent Office shows at least one patent issued before Fisher 's US patent number 966677 (e.g. Woodrow 's US patent number 921195). The "inventor '' of the electric washing machine remains unknown.
US electric washing machine sales reached 913,000 units in 1928. However, high unemployment rates in the Depression years reduced sales; by 1932 the number of units shipped was down to about 600,000.
It is presumed that the first laundromat opened in Fort Worth, Texas in 1934. It was run by Andrew Clein. Patrons used coin - in - the - slot facilities to rent washing machines. The term "laundromat '' can be found in newspapers as early as 1884 and they were widespread during the Depression. England established public wash rooms for laundry along with bath houses throughout the 19th century.
Washer design improved during the 1930s. The mechanism was now enclosed within a cabinet, and more attention was paid to electrical and mechanical safety. Spin dryers were introduced to replace the dangerous power mangle / wringers of the day.
By 1940, 60 % of the 25,000,000 wired homes in the United States had an electric washing machine. Many of these machines featured a power wringer, although built - in spin dryers were not uncommon.
Bendix Home Appliances, a subsidiary of Avco, introduced the first domestic automatic washing machine in 1937, having applied for a patent in the same year. Avco had licensed the name from Bendix Corporation, an otherwise unrelated company. In appearance and mechanical detail, this first machine was not unlike the front loading automatic washers produced today. Although it included many of today 's basic features, the machine lacked any drum suspension and therefore had to be anchored to the floor to prevent "walking ''. Because of the components required, the machine was also very expensive. For instance, the Bendix Home Laundry Service Manual (published November 1, 1946) shows that the drum speed change was facilitated by a 2 - speed gearbox built to a heavy duty standard (not unlike a car automatic gearbox, albeit at a smaller size). The timer was also probably fairly costly, because miniature electric motors were expensive to produce.
Early automatic washing machines were usually connected to a water supply via temporary slip - on connectors to sink taps. Later, permanent connections to both the hot and cold water supplies became the norm, as dedicated laundry water hookups became common. Most modern front - loading European machines now only have a cold water connection (called "cold fill '') and rely completely on internal electric heaters to raise the water temperature.
Many of the early automatic machines had coin - in - the - slot facilities and were installed in the basement laundry rooms of apartment houses.
After the attack on Pearl Harbor, US domestic washer production was suspended for the duration of World War II in favor of manufacturing war material. However, numerous US appliance manufacturers were given permission to undertake the research and development of washers during the war years. Many took the opportunity to develop automatic machines, realizing that these represented the future for the industry.
A large number of US manufacturers introduced competing automatic machines (mainly of the top - loading type) in the late 1940s and early 1950s. An improved front - loading automatic model, the Bendix Deluxe (which retailed at $249.50 / £ 162.40, $2687.04 in 2016 dollars), was introduced in 1947. General Electric also introduced its first top loading automatic model in 1947. This machine had many of the features that are incorporated into modern machines. Another early form of automatic washing machine manufactured by The Hoover Company used cartridges to program different wash cycles. This system, called the "Keymatic '', used plastic cartridges with key - like slots and ridges around the edges. The cartridge was inserted into a slot on the machine and a mechanical reader operated the machine accordingly.
Several manufacturers produced semi-automatic machines, requiring the user to intervene at one or two points in the wash cycle. A common semi-automatic type (available from Hoover in the UK until at least the 1970s) included two tubs: one with an agitator or impeller for washing, plus another smaller tub for water extraction or centrifugal rinsing.
Since their introduction, automatic washing machines have relied on electromechanical timers to sequence the washing and extraction process. Electromechanical timers consist of a series of cams on a common shaft driven by a small electric motor via a reduction gearbox. At the appropriate time in the wash cycle, each cam actuates a switch to engage or disengage a particular part of the machinery (for example, the drain pump motor). One of the first was invented in 1957 by Winston L. Shelton and Gresham N. Jennings, then both General Electric engineers. The device was granted US Patent 2870278.
On the early electromechanical timers, the motor ran at a constant speed throughout the wash cycle, although it was possible for the user to truncate parts of the program by manually advancing the control dial. However, by the 1950s demand for greater flexibility in the wash cycle led to the introduction of more sophisticated electrical timers to supplement the electromechanical timer. These newer timers enabled greater variation in functions such as the wash time. With this arrangement, the electric timer motor is periodically switched off to permit the clothing to soak, and is only re-energized just prior to a micro-switch being engaged or disengaged for the next stage of the process. Fully electronic timers did not become widespread until decades later.
Despite the high cost of automatic washers, manufacturers had difficulty in meeting the demand. Although there were material shortages during the Korean War, by 1953 automatic washing machine sales in the US exceeded those of wringer - type electric machines.
In the UK and in most of Europe, electric washing machines did not become popular until the 1950s. This was largely because of the economic impact of World War II on the consumer market, which did not properly recover until the late 1950s. The early electric washers were single - tub, wringer - type machines, as fully automatic washing machines were extremely expensive. During the 1960s, twin tub machines briefly became very popular, helped by the low price of the Rolls Razor washers. Some machines had the ability to pump used wash water into a separate tub for temporary storage, and to later pump it back for re-use. This was done not to save water or soap, but because heated water was expensive and time - consuming to produce. Automatic washing machines did not become dominant in the UK until well into the 1970s and by then were almost exclusively of the front - loader design.
In early automatic washing machines, any changes in impeller / drum speed were achieved by mechanical means or by a rheostat on the motor power supply. However, since the 1970s electronic control of motor speed has become a common feature on the more expensive models.
Over time manufacturers of automatic washers have gone to great lengths to reduce cost. For instance, expensive gearboxes are no longer required, since motor speed can be controlled electronically. Some models can be controlled via WiFi.
Even on some expensive washers, the outer drum of front loading machines is often made of plastic. This makes changing the main bearings difficult, as the plastic drum usually can not be separated into two halves to enable the inner drum to be removed to gain access to the bearing.
Some manufacturers have taken steps to reduce vibration emanating from their washers, by means of reducing or controlling motor speeds, using hydraulic suspensions instead of spring suspensions, and having freely moving steel balls contained inside a ring mounted on both the front and back sides of the drum in order to counter the weight of the clothes and reduce vibration.
Some machines, since 1998 now use a direct drive motor, a low aspect ratio device, where the stator assembly is attached to the rear of the outer drum, whilst the co-axial rotor is mounted on the shaft of the inner drum. Direct drive eliminates the need for a pulley, belt and belt tensioner. It was invented by LG Electronics in 1998 and patents granted in the US in 2010. Since, other manufacturers have followed suit. Some washing machines with this type of motor come with 10 or even 20 year warranties, but only for the motor itself.
Some other washing machines include water jets (also known as water sprays and water showers) and steam nozzles that claim to sanitize clothes and help reduce washing times and remove soil from the clothes. Water jets get their water from the bottom of the drum, thus recirculating the water in the washer. Others have special drums with holes that will fill with water from the bottom of the tub and redeposit the water on top of the clothes. Some drums have elements with the shape of waves, pyramids, hexagons or diamonds. Some include titanium or ceramic heating elements that claim to eliminate calcium build up in the element. They can heat water up to 95 ° C. Some high end models have lights built into the washer itself to light up the drum, and others have soap dispensers where the user just fills a tank with detergent and softener and the washing machine automatically doses the detergent and softener and sometimes picks the most appropiate wash cycle. In some models, the tanks come pre filled and are installed and replaced with new tanks, also pre filled or refilled by the user, in a dedicated compartment on the bottom of the machine. Some have support for single use capsules containing enough laundry additives for one load. The capsules are installed in the detergent compartment. Many dilute the detergent before it comes in contact with the clothes, some by means of mixing the soap and water with air to make foam, which is then introduced into the drum. Some have pulsators that are mounted on a plate on the bottom of the drum instead of an agitator. The plate spins, and the pulsators generate waves that help shake the soil out of the clothes. Many also include mechanisms to prevent or remove undissolved detergent residue on the detergent dispenser. Some manufacturers like LG Electronics and Samsung Electronics have introduced functions on their washers that allow users to troubleshoot common problems with their washers without having to contact technical support. LG 's approach involves a phone receiving signals through sound tones, while Samsung 's approach involves having the user take a photo of the washer 's time display with his or her phone. In both methods, the problem and steps to resolve it are displayed on the phone itself. Some models are also NFC enabled. Some implementations are patented under US Patent US20050268669A1 and US Patent US20050097927A1.
In the early 1990s, upmarket machines incorporated microcontrollers for the timing process. These proved reliable and cost - effective, so many cheaper machines now also incorporate microcontrollers rather than electromechanical timers. Since the 2010s, some machines have touch panel displays, full color or color displays, or touch sensitive control panels. (see Color depth)
In 1994, Staber Industries released the System 2000 washing machine, which is the only top - loading, horizontal - axis washer to be manufactured in the United States. The hexagonal tub spins like a front - loading machine, using only about one third as much water as conventional top - loaders. This factor has led to an Energy Star rating for its high efficiency. This type of horizontal axis washer and dryer (with a circular drum) is often used in Europe, where space is limited, as they can be as thin as 40 cm in width.
In 1998, New Zealand - based company Fisher & Paykel introduced its SmartDrive washing machine line in the US. This washing machine uses a computer - controlled system to determine certain factors such as load size and automatically adjusts the wash cycle to match. It also used a mixed system of washing, first with the "Eco-Active '' wash, using a low level of recirculated water being sprayed on the load followed by a more traditional style wash. The SmartDrive also included direct drive brushless DC electric motor, which simplified the bowl and agitator drive by doing away with the need for a gearbox system.
In 2000, the British inventor James Dyson launched the CR01 ContraRotator, a type of washing machine with two cylinders rotating in opposite directions. It was claimed that this design reduced the wash time and produced cleaner washing than a single cylinder machine. In 2004 there was the launch of the CR02, which was the first washing machine to gain the British Allergy Foundation Seal of Approval. However, neither of the ContraRotator machines are now in production as they were too expensive to manufacture. They were discontinued in 2005. It is patented under U.S. Patent US7750531B2, U.S. Patent US6311527, U.S. Patent US20010023513, U.S. Patent US6311527B1, U.S. Patent USD450164.
In 2001, Whirlpool Corporation introduced the Calypso, the first vertical - axis high efficiency washing machine to be top - loading. A washplate in the bottom of the tub nutated (a special wobbling motion) to bounce, shake, and toss the laundry around. Simultaneously, water containing detergent was sprayed on to the laundry. The machine proved to be good at cleaning, but gained a bad reputation due to frequent breakdowns and destruction of laundry. The washer was recalled with a class - action lawsuit and pulled off the market.
In 2003, Maytag introduced their top - loading Neptune washer. Instead of an agitator, the machine had two washplates, perpendicular to each other and at a 45 degree angle from the bottom of the tub. The machine would fill with only a small amount of water and the two washplates would tumble the load within it, mimicking the action of a front - loading washer in a vertical axis design.
In 2006, Sanyo introduced the first drum type washing machine with "Air Wash '' function. It also reused and disinfected rinse water. This washing machine uses only 50 L (11.0 imp gal; 13.2 US gal) of water in the recycle mode.
In 2008, the University of Leeds created a concept washing machine that uses only a cup (less than 300 ml) of water and 20 kg of re-usable plastic beads to carry out a full wash. The machine leaves clothes virtually dry, and uses less than 2 % of the water and energy otherwise used by a conventional machine. As such, it could save billions of liters of water each year. The concept is being developed as the Xeros Washing Machine.
Approximately in 2012, eco indicators were introduced, capable of predicting the energy demand based on the customer settings in terms of program and temperature.
Features available in most modern consumer washing machines:
Additionally some of the modern machines feature:
Around 2015 and 2017, some manufacturers (namely Samsung and LG Electronics) offered washers and dryers that either have a top loading washer and dryer built on top of a front loading washer and dryer respectively (in Samsung washers and dryers) or offer users an optional top loading washer that can be installed under a washer or dryer (for LG washers and dryers) Both manufacturers have also introduced front loading washers allowing users to add items after a wash cycle has started, and has also introduced top loading washers with a built in sink and a detergent dispenser that claims to leave no residue on the dispenser itself. In IFA 2017, Samsung released the QDrive, a front loading washer similar to the Dyson ContraRotator but instead of 2 counterrotating drums, the QDrive has a single drum with a counterrotating impeller mounted on the back of the drum. Samsung claims this technique reduces cycle times by half and energy consumption by 20 %.
This design places the clothes in a vertically mounted perforated basket that is contained within a water - retaining tub, with a finned water - pumping agitator in the center of the bottom of the basket. Clothes are loaded through the top of the machine, which is usually but not always covered with a hinged door.
During the wash cycle, the outer tub is filled with water sufficient to fully immerse and suspend the clothing freely in the basket. The movement of the agitator pushes water outward between the paddles towards the edge of the tub. The water then moves outward, up the sides of the basket, towards the center, and then down towards the agitator to repeat the process, in a circulation pattern similar to the shape of a torus. The agitator direction is periodically reversed, because continuous motion in one direction would just lead to the water spinning around the basket with the agitator rather than the water being pumped in the torus - shaped motion. Some washers supplement the water - pumping action of the agitator with a large rotating screw on the shaft above the agitator, to help move water downwards in the center of the basket.
Since the agitator and the drum are separate and distinct in a top - loading washing machine, the mechanism of a top - loader is inherently more complicated than a front - loading machine. Manufacturers have devised several ways to control the motion of the agitator during wash and rinse separately from the high speed rotation of the drum required for the spin cycle.
While a top - loading washing machine could use a universal motor or DC brushless motor, it is conventional for top - loading washing machines to use more expensive, heavy, and more electrically efficient and reliable induction motors. The action of a front - loading washing machine is better suited to a motor capable of reversing direction with every reversal of the wash basket; a universal motor is noisier, less efficient, does n't last as long, but is better suited to the task of reversing direction every few seconds.
An alternative to the oscillating agitator design is the impeller type washtub pioneered by Hoover on its long running Hoovermatic series of top loading machines. Here, an impeller (trademarked by Hoover as a "Pulsator '') mounted on the side of the tub spins in a constant direction, and creates a fast moving current of water in the tub which drags the clothes through the water along a toroidal path. The impeller design has the advantage of its mechanical simplicity - a single speed motor with belt drive is all that is required to drive the Pulsator with no need for gearboxes or complex electrical controls, but has the disadvantage of lower load capacity in relation to tub size. Hoovermatic machines were made mostly in twin tub format for the European market - (where they competed with Hotpoint 's Supermatic line which used the oscillating agitator design) until the early 1990s. Some industrial garment testing machines still use the Hoover wash action.
The many different ways different manufacturers have solved the same problem over the years is a good example of many different ways to solve the same engineering problem with different goals, different manufacturing capabilities and expertise, and different patent encumbrances.
In most current top - loading washers, if the motor spins in one direction, the gearbox drives the agitator; if the motor spins the other way, the gearbox locks the agitator and spins the basket and agitator together. Similarly, if the pump motor rotates one way it recirculates the sudsy water; in the other direction it pumps water from the machine during the spin cycle. Mechanically, this system is very simple.
In some top loaders, the motor runs only in one direction. During agitation, the transmission converts the rotation into the alternating motion driving the agitator. During the spin cycle, the timer turns on a solenoid which engages a clutch locking the motor 's rotation to the wash basket, providing a spin cycle. General Electric 's very popular line of Filter - Flo (seen to the right) used a variant of this design where the motor reversed only to pump water out of the machine. The same clutch which allows the heavy tub full of wet clothes to "slip '' as it comes up to the motor 's speed, is also allowed to "slip '' during agitation to engage a Gentle Cycle for delicate clothes.
Whirlpool (Kenmore) created a popular design demonstrating the complex mechanisms which could be used to produce different motions from a single motor with the so - called "wig wag '' mechanism, which was used for decades until modern controls rendered it obsolete. In the Whirlpool mechanism, a protruding moving piece oscillates in time with the agitation motion. Two solenoids are mounted to this protruding moving piece, with wires attaching them to the timer. During the cycle, the motor operates continuously, and the solenoids on the "wig wag '' engage agitation or spin. Despite the wires controlling the solenoids being subject to abrasion and broken connections due to their constant motion and the solenoids operating in a damp environment where corrosion could damage them, these machines were surprisingly reliable.
Some top - loaders, especially compact apartment - sized washers, use a hybrid mechanism. The motor reverses direction every few seconds, often with a pause between direction changes, to perform the agitation. Spin cycle is accomplished by engaging a clutch in the transmission. A separate motorized pump is generally used to drain this style of machine. These machines could easily be implemented with universal motors or more modern DC brushless motors, but older ones tend to use a capacitor - start induction motor with a pause between reversals of agitation.
The top - loader 's spin cycle between washing and rinsing allows an extremely simple passive fabric softener dispenser, which operates through centrifugal force and gravity. Fabric softener, vinegar, or any other liquid rinse agent, is placed in a cup at the top of the agitator. It "rides along '' during the wash cycle. When the spin cycle is engaged, the fabric softener is pulled up by a tapered cup and centrifugal force, where it collects in the top of the spinning agitator. Once the spin cycle is completed, centrifugal force no longer suspends the fabric softener and it falls through the center of the agitator to join the rinse water coming into the tub. The same objective must be accomplished by a solenoid valve or a pump, and associated timer controls and wiring, on a front loader.
A lint trap can also be built into the center of the agitator, or on the drum 's walls, passively collecting lint from water forced through the agitator. Front - loaders tend to require separate pumps and plumbing to provide lint filters which are often mounted behind covers on the bottom of the machine.
Another advantage to the top loading design is the reliance on gravity to contain the water, rather than potentially trouble - prone or short - lived front door seals. Top loaders may require less periodic maintenance, since there is no need to clean a door seal or bellows, although a plastic tub may still require a periodic "maintenance wash '' cycle (described below).
As with front - loading washers, clothing should not be packed tightly into a top - loading washer. Although wet fabric usually fits into a smaller space than dry fabric, a dense wad of fabric can restrict water circulation, resulting in poor soap distribution and incomplete rinsing. Extremely overloaded top - loading washers can either jam the motion of the agitator, overloading or damaging the motor or gearbox, burning drive belts, or tearing fabrics - many Whirlpool / Kenmore machines even have a mechanical "fuse '' designed to break before the expensive motor is damaged. Extreme overloading can also push fabrics into the small gap between the underside of the agitator and the bottom of the wash basket, resulting in fabrics wrapped around the agitator shaft, possibly requiring agitator removal to unjam.
Some top - loading machines use mechanisms very similar to front - loading drum machines, and are described below.
The front - loading or horizontal - axis clothes washer is the dominant design in Europe. In the U.S. and elsewhere, most "high - end '' washing machines are of this type. In addition, most commercial and industrial clothes washers around the world are of the horizontal - axis design.
This layout mounts the inner basket and outer tub horizontally, and loading is through a door at the front of the machine. The door often but not always contains a transparent window. Agitation is supplied by the back - and - forth rotation of the cylinder and by gravity. The clothes are lifted up by paddles on the inside wall of the drum and then dropped. This motion flexes the weave of the fabric and forces water and detergent solution through the clothes load. Because the wash action does not require the clothing be freely suspended in water, only enough water is needed to moisten the fabric. Because less water is required, front - loaders typically use less soap, and the repeated dropping and folding action of the tumbling can easily produce large amounts of foam or suds.
Front - loaders control water usage through the surface tension of water, and the capillary wicking action this creates in the fabric weave. A front - loader washer always fills to the same low water level, but a large pile of dry clothing standing in water will soak up the moisture, causing the water level to drop. The washer then refills to maintain the original water level. Because it takes time for this water absorption to occur with a motionless pile of fabric, nearly all front - loaders begin the washing process by slowly tumbling the clothing under the stream of water entering and filling the drum, to rapidly saturate the clothes with water.
Front - loading washers are mechanically simple compared to top - loaders, with the main motor (a universal motor or variable - frequency drive motor) normally being connected to the drum via a grooved pulley belt and large pulley wheel, without the need for a gearbox, clutch or crank. But front - load washers suffer from their own technical problems, due to the drum lying sideways. For example, a top loading washer keeps water inside the tub merely through the force of gravity pulling down on the water, while a front - loader must tightly seal the door shut with a gasket to prevent water dripping onto the floor during the wash cycle. This access door is locked shut during the entire wash cycle, since opening the door with the machine in use could result in water gushing out onto the floor. For front - loaders without viewing windows on the door, it is possible to accidentally pinch fabric between the door and the drum, resulting in tearing and damage to the pinched clothing during tumbling and spinning.
Nearly all front - loader washers for the consumer market also use a folded flexible bellows assembly around the door opening, to keep clothing contained inside the basket during the tumbling wash cycle. If this bellows assembly were not used, small articles of clothing such as socks could slip out of the wash basket near the door, and fall down the narrow slot between the outer tub and basket, plugging the drain and possibly jamming rotation of the inner basket. Retrieving lost items from between the outer tub and inner basket can require complete disassembly of the front of the washer and pulling out the entire inner wash basket. Commercial and industrial front - loaders used by businesses (described below) usually do not use the bellows, and instead require all small objects to be placed in a mesh bag to prevent loss near the basket opening.
The bellows assembly around the door is a potential source of problems for the consumer front - loader. The bellows has a large number of flexible folds to permit the tub to move separately from the door during the high speed extraction cycle. On many machines, these folds can collect lint, dirt, and moisture, resulting in mold and mildew growth, and a foul odor. Some front - loading washer operating instructions say the bellows should be wiped down monthly with a strong bleach solution, while others offer a special "freshening '' cycle where the machine is run empty with a strong dosing of bleach.
The inherent mechanical weak spot of the front loader design is the cantilevered mounting of the inner drum within the outer tub. The drum bearing has to support the entire weight of the drum, the laundry, and the dynamic loads created by the sloshing of the water and of the imbalance of the load during the spin cycle. The drum bearing eventually wears out, and usually requires extensive dismantling of the machine to replace, which often results in the machine being written off due to the failure of a relatively inexpensive component that is labor - intensive to renew. Some manufacturers have compounded this problem by "overmolding '' the drum bearing into the outer tub to reduce manufacturing costs, but this makes the bearing impossible to renew without replacing the entire outer tub - which usually forces owners to scrap the entire machine - this may be viewed as an implementation of built - in obsolescence.
Compared to top - loading washers, clothing can be packed more tightly in a front loader, up to the full drum volume if using a cottons wash cycle. This is because wet cloth usually fits into a smaller space than dry cloth, and front loaders are able to self - regulate the water needed to achieve correct washing and rinsing. Extreme overloading of front - loading washers pushes fabrics towards the small gap between the loading door and the front of the wash basket, potentially resulting in fabrics lost between the basket and outer tub, and in severe cases, tearing of clothing and jamming the motion of the basket.
There are many variations of the two general designs. Top - loading machines in Asia use impellers instead of agitators. Impellers are similar to agitators except that they do not have the center post extending up in the middle of the wash tub basket.
Some machines which actually load from the top are otherwise much more similar to front - loading horizontal - axis drum machines. They have a drum rotating around a horizontal axis, as a front - loader, but there is no front door; instead there is a liftable lid which provides access to the drum, which has a hatch which can be latched shut. Clothes are loaded, the hatch and lid are closed, and the machine operates and spins just like a front - loader. These machines are narrower but usually taller than front - loaders, usually have a lower capacity, and are intended for use where only a narrow space is available, as is sometimes the case in Europe. They have incidental advantages: they can be loaded without bending down; they do not require a perishable rubber bellows seal; and instead of the drum having a single bearing on one side, it has a pair of symmetrical bearings, one on each side, avoiding asymmetrical bearing loading and potentially increasing life. This type of washing machine is popular in Europe, where space is limited, as a washer can be as thin as 40 cm in width, and a full washer and dryer installation can be as thin as 80 cm in width.
There are also combo washer dryer machines that combine washing cycles and a full drying cycle in the same drum, eliminating the need to transfer wet clothes from a washer to a dryer machine. In principle, these machines are convenient for overnight cleaning (the combined cycle is considerably longer), but the effective capacity for cleaning larger batches of laundry is drastically reduced. The drying process tends to use much more energy than using two separate devices, because a combo washer dryer not only must dry the clothing, but also needs to dry out the wash chamber itself. These machines are used more in Europe, because they can be fitted into small spaces, and many can be operated without dedicated utility connections. In these machines, the washer and dryer functions often have different capacities, with the dryer usually having the lowest capacity. These machines should not be confused with a dryer on top of a washer installation, or with a laundry center, which is a one piece appliance offering a compromise between a washer - dryer combo and a full washer to the side of the dryer installation or a dryer on top of a washer installation. Laundry centers usually have the dryer on top of the washer, with the controls for both machines being on a single control panel. Often, the controls are simpler than the controls on a washer - dryer combo or a dedicated washer and dryer. Some implementations are patented under US Patent US6343492B1 and US Patent US 6363756B1.
True front - loaders, and top - loading machines with horizontal - axis drum as described above, can be compared with top - loaders on a number of aspects:
The earliest washing machines simply carried out a washing action when loaded with clothes and soap, filled with hot water, and started. Over time machines became more and more automated, first with very complex electromechanical controllers, then fully electronic controllers; users put clothes into the machine, select a suitable program via a switch, start the machine, and come back to remove clean and slightly damp clothes at the end of the cycle. The controller starts and stops many different processes including pumps and valves to fill and empty the drum with water, heating, and rotating at different speeds, with different combinations of settings for different fabrics.
Many front loading machines have internal electrical heating elements to heat the wash water, to near boiling if desired. The rate of chemical cleaning action of the detergent and other laundry chemicals increases greatly with temperature, in accordance with the Arrhenius equation. Washing machines with internal heaters can use special detergents formulated to release different chemical ingredients at different temperatures, allowing different type of stains and soils to be cleaned from the clothes as the wash water is heated up by the electrical heater.
However, higher - temperature washing uses more energy, and many fabrics and elastics are damaged at higher temperatures. Temperatures exceeding 40 ° C (104 ° F) have the undesirable effect of inactivating the enzymes when using biological detergent.
Many machines are cold - fill, connected to cold water only, which they heat to operating temperature. Where water can be heated more cheaply or with less carbon dioxide emission than by electricity, cold - fill operation is inefficient.
Front loaders need to use low - sudsing detergents because the tumbling action of the drum folds air into the clothes load that can cause over-sudsing and overflows. However, due to efficient use of water and detergent, the sudsing issue with front - loaders can be controlled by simply using less detergent, without lessening cleaning action.
Washing machines perform several rinses after the main wash to remove most of the detergent. Modern washing machines use less water due to environmental concerns; however, this has led to the problem of poor rinsing on many washing machines on the market, which can be a problem to people who are sensitive to detergents. The Allergy UK website suggests re-running the rinse cycle, or rerunning the entire wash cycle without detergent.
In response to complaints, many washing machines allow the user to select additional rinse cycles, at the expense of higher water usage and longer cycle time.
Higher spin speeds, along with larger tub diameters, remove more water, leading to faster drying. If a heated clothes - dryer is used after the wash and spin, energy use is reduced if more water has been removed from clothes. However, faster spinning can crease clothes more. Also, mechanical wear on bearings increases rapidly with rotational speed, reducing life. Early machines would spin at only 300 rpm and, because of lack of any mechanical suspension, would often shake and vibrate.
In 1976, most front loading washing machines spun at around 700 rpm, or less.
Separate spin - driers, without washing functionality, are available for specialized applications. For example, a small high - speed centrifuge machine may be provided in locker rooms of communal swimming pools to allow wet swimsuits to be substantially dried to a slightly damp condition after daily use.
Washing machines can spin in either a clockwise or counter-clockwise direction but not both in the same machine, depending on the manufacturer.
Many home washing machines use a plastic, rather than metal, outer shell to contain the wash water; residue can build up on the plastic tub over time. Some manufacturers advise users to perform a regular maintenance or "freshening '' wash to clean the inside of the washing machine of any mold, bacteria, encrusted detergent, and unspecified dirt more effectively than with a normal wash.
A maintenance wash is performed without any laundry, on the hottest wash program, adding substances such as white vinegar, 100 grams of citric acid, a detergent with bleaching properties, or a proprietary washing machine cleaner. The first injection of water goes into the sump so the machine can be allowed to fill for about 30 seconds before adding cleaning substances.
Capacity and cost are both considerations when purchasing a washing machine. All else being equal, a machine of higher capacity will cost more to buy, but will be more convenient if large amounts of laundry must be cleaned. Fewer runs of a machine of larger capacity may have lower running costs and better energy and water efficiency than frequent use of a smaller machine, particularly for large families. Running a large machine with small loads is wasteful.
For many years energy and water efficiency were not regulated, and little attention was paid to them. From the last part of the twentieth century increasing attention was paid to efficiency, with regulations enforcing some standards, and efficiency being a selling point, both to save on running costs and to reduce carbon dioxide emissions associated with energy generation, and waste of water.
As energy and water efficiency were regulated, and a selling point, but effectiveness of rinsing was not, manufacturers tended to reduce the degree of rinsing after washing, saving water and motor energy. This had the side - effect of leaving more detergent residue in clothes. Insufficient rinsing can leave enough detergent in clothes to affect people with allergies or sensitivity.
Washing machines display an EU Energy Label with grades for energy efficiency, washing performance and spin efficiency. Grades for energy efficiency run from A+++ to G (best to worst), providing a simple method for judging running costs. Washing performance and spin efficiency are graded in the range A to G. However, all machines for sale must have washing performance A, such that manufacturers can not compromise washing performance in order to improve the energy efficiency. This labeling has had the desired effect of driving customers toward more efficient washing machines and away from less efficient ones.
The TopTenEU and other national TopTen European organizations provide independent recommendations for high efficient washing machines.
According to newer regulations, each washing machine is equipped with a waste water filter. There are two reasons for that. On one hand it has to be ensured that no hazardous chemical substances are disposed of improperly through the waste water channel; on the other hand it must also be ensured that in case of a backwards shear in the waste water channel that is possible in case of technical problems, the feces and other waste could not enter the washing machine.
Top - loading and front - loading clothes washers are covered by a single Federal Standard regulating energy consumption. The old Federal Standard applicable until January 1, 2011 included no restriction on water consumption; washer manufacturers faced no legal restriction on how much unheated rinse water could be used. Energy consumption for clothes washers is quantified using the energy factor.
But after new mandatory Federal Standards were introduced, many US washers were manufactured to be more energy - and water - efficient than required by the federal standard, or even certified by the more stringent Energy Star standard. Manufacturers were found to be motivated to exceed mandatory standards by a program of direct - to - manufacturer tax credits.
In North America, the Energy Star program compares and lists energy efficient clothes washers. Certified Energy Star units can be compared by their Modified Energy Factor (MEF) and Water Factor (WF) coefficients.
The MEF tells us how many cubic feet of clothes are washed per kWh (kilowatt hour) and is closely related to the configuration of the washer (top - loading, front - loading), its spin speed and the temperatures and the amount of water used in the rinse and wash cycles.
Energy Star residential clothes washers have a MEF of at least 2.0 (the higher the better), but the best machines may reach 3.5. Energy Star washers have also a WF of less than 6.0 (the lower the better).
A commercial washing machine is intended for more frequent use than a consumer washing machine. Durability and functionality is more important than style; most commercial washers are bulky and heavy, often with more expensive stainless steel construction to minimize corrosion in a constantly moist environment. They are built with large easy - to - open service covers, and washers are designed not to require access to the underside for service. Often commercial washers are installed in long rows with a wide access passageway behind all the machines to allow maintenance without moving the heavy machines.
Many commercial washers are built for use by the general public, and are installed in publicly accessible laundromats or laundrettes, operated by money accepting devices or card readers. The features of a commercial laundromat washer are more limited than a consumer washer, usually offering just two or three basic wash programs and an option to choose wash cycle temperatures.
The common front - loading commercial washing machine also differs from consumer models in its expulsion of wash and rinse water. While the consumer models pump used washer water out, allowing the waste line to be located above the washer, front loading commercial machines generally use only gravity to expel used water. A drain in the rear, at the bottom of the machine opens at the appointed time during the cycle and water flows out. This creates the need for a drainage trough behind machines, which leads to a filter and drain. The trough is usually part of a cement platform built for the purpose of raising the machines to a convenient height, and can be seen behind washers at most laundromats.
Most laundromat machines are horizontal - axis front - loading models, because of their lower operating costs (notably lower consumption of expensive hot water).
By contrast, commercial washers for internal business operations (still often referred to as "washer / extractor '' machines) may include features absent from domestic machines. Many commercial washers offer an option for automatic injection of five or more different chemical types, so that the operator does not have to deal with constantly measuring out soap products and fabric softeners for each load by hand. Instead, a precise metering system draws the detergents and wash additives directly from large liquid - chemical storage barrels and injects them as needed into the various wash and rinse cycles. Some computer - controlled commercial washers offer the operator control over the various wash and rinse cycles, allowing the operator to program custom washing cycles.
Most large - scale industrial washers are horizontal - axis machines, but may have front -, side -, or top - load doors. Some industrial clothes washers can batch - process up to 800 pounds (360 kg) of textiles at once, and can be used for extremely machine - abusive washing tasks such as stone washing or fabric bleaching and dyeing.
An industrial washer can be mounted on heavy - duty shock absorbers and attached to a concrete floor, so that it can extract water from even the most severely out - of - balance and heavy wash loads. Noise and vibration is not as unacceptable as in a domestic machine. It may be mounted on hydraulic cylinders, permitting the entire washer to be lifted and tilted so that fabrics can be automatically dumped from the wash drum onto a conveyor belt once the cycle is complete.
One special type of continuous - processing washer is known as the tunnel washer. This specialized high - capacity machine does not have a drum where everything being washed undergoes distinct wash and rinse cycles, but moves the laundry slowly and continuously through a long, large - diameter horizontal - axis rotating tube in the manner of an assembly line, with different processes at different positions.
The historically laborious process of washing clothes (a task which often had a whole day set aside to perform) has at times been labelled ' woman 's work '. The spread of the washing machine has been seen to be a force behind the improvement of women 's position in society. In 2009 the Italian newspaper L'Osservatore Romano published a controversial article on International Women 's Day arguing that the washing machine had done more for the liberation of women than the contraceptive pill and abortion rights. A study from Université de Montréal, Canada presented a similar point of view, adding fridges as well. The following year, Swedish statistician Hans Rosling suggested that the positive effect the washing machine had on the liberation of women, makes it "the greatest invention of the industrial revolution ''. It has been argued that washing machines are an example of labour saving technology, which does not decrease employment because households can internalize the gains of the innovation. Historian Frances Finnegan credits the rise of this technology in helping undercut the economic viability of the Magdalene Asylums in Ireland, later revealed to be inhumanly abusive prisons for women, by supplanting their laundry businesses and prompting the eventual closure of the institutions as a whole.
Before the advent of the washing machine, laundry was done first at watercourses and then in public washhouses known as lavoirs. Camille Paglia and others argue that the washing machine led to a type of social isolation of women, as a communal activity became a solitary one.
In India, dhobis, a caste group specialized in washing clothes, are slowly adapting to modern technology, but even with access to washing machines, many still handwash garments as well. Since most modern homes are equipped with a washing machine, many Indians have dispensed with the services of the dhobiwallahs.
Due to the increasing cost of repairs relative to the price of a washing machine, there has been a major increase in the number of defective washing machines being discarded, to the detriment of the environment. The cost of repair and the expected life of the machine may make the purchase of a new machine seem like the better option.
Different washing machine models vary widely in their use of water, detergent, and energy. The energy required for heating is large compared to that used by lighting, electric motors, and electronic devices. Because of their use of hot water, washing machines are among the largest consumers of energy in a typical modern home.
Notable brands include:
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who is robin in the batman lego movie | The Lego Batman Movie - wikipedia
The Lego Batman Movie is a 2017 3D computer - animated superhero comedy film, produced by Warner Animation Group, directed by Chris McKay, and written by Seth Grahame - Smith, Chris McKenna, Erik Sommers, Jared Stern and John Whittington, and produced by Dan Lin, Roy Lee, Phil Lord and Christopher Miller. Based on the Lego Batman toy line, the film is an international co-production of the United States, Australia and Denmark, and the first spin - off installment of The Lego Movie. The story focuses on the DC Comics character Batman as he attempts to overcome his greatest fear to stop the Joker 's latest plan, with Will Arnett reprising his role as Batman for the film, along with Zach Galifianakis, Michael Cera, Rosario Dawson and Ralph Fiennes.
The Lego Batman Movie premiered in Dublin, Ireland on January 29, 2017, and was released in the United States on February 10, 2017. Internationally, the film was released in 3D, RealD 3D, Dolby Cinema, and IMAX 3D. The film received positive reviews and grossed $312 million worldwide.
Within the Lego Universe, Batman continues to protect Gotham City and fight crime. During his latest mission to stop the Joker from destroying the city, he hurts his arch - rival 's feelings by telling him he is not as important in his life as he thinks he is, leading Joker to seek the ultimate revenge on him. The following day, Batman 's alter ego, Bruce Wayne, attends the city 's winter gala, which is celebrating both the retirement of Commissioner Gordon and the ascension of his daughter Barbara as the city 's new police commissioner, only to be infuriated by Barbara 's plans to restructure the police to function without the need of Batman. Without warning, Joker crashes the party with the city 's other villains, all of whom surrender, with the exception of Harley Quinn, who disappears during the confusion.
Suspecting his arch - rival is up to something, Batman plots to steal Superman 's Phantom Zone Projector, a device that can banish anyone to the Phantom Zone which houses some of the most dangerous villains in the Lego multiverse. Just as he plans his heist of the device, Alfred intervenes and advises him to take charge of Dick Grayson, whom Bruce unwittingly adopted as his ward during the gala. Reluctantly agreeing to do so, Batman fosters Dick as Robin, whereupon the pair successfully recover the Projector from the Fortress of Solitude, and break into Arkham Asylum to send Joker to the Phantom Zone. Suspecting that the Joker wanted to be sent there, Barbara locks up Batman and Robin for their reckless actions.
While the Projector is being seized as evidence, Harley steals it back as part of Joker 's plan and frees him, allowing him to return to Gotham with all the villains he had recruited in the Phantom Zone. Realizing that the city does need him, Barbara releases Batman and Robin and teams up with them and Alfred to stop the Joker. Although Batman finds himself able to trust and rely on his new team upon reaching Wayne Island, he chooses to send them away rather than losing them like his parents. Upon facing him alone, Joker believes that Batman is incapable of change and zaps him to the Phantom Zone before stealing the Batcave 's stash of confiscated bombs. Arriving in the Phantom Zone, Batman witnesses the harm his selfishness has caused to everyone and slowly accepts his greatest fear. Making a deal with the Zone 's gatekeeper Phyllis, a talking Lego brick, to be allowed back to Gotham in order to retrieve the Zone 's escaped prisoners, Batman arrives in time to save his teammates, apologizing to them for his actions, and requesting their help to stop Joker.
Realizing that Joker plans to use the explosives he took to destroy the city 's Energy Facility, thus causing the city to come apart and be destroyed, Batman turns Barbara into Batgirl, before he, his team, and Gotham City 's other villains, who felt neglected by Joker, manage to successfully send the escaped villains back to the Phantom Zone. However, the group fail to stop Joker 's bombs going off as the explosion begins to tear the city apart at the plates beneath it. Knowing this was his fault, Batman reluctantly convinces Joker that he is the true reason for being the hero he is before they, their friends and allies, and the city 's inhabitants, chain - link themselves together and pull the plates back together, saving the city.
With the city saved, Batman prepares to be taken back into the Phantom Zone to fulfill his bargain only to be rejected by Phyllis who chooses to let him remain after seeing how much he had changed in order to save everyone. Batman allows Joker and the rest of his rogues gallery to temporarily escape with the confidence that whenever they return, they will be no match for his new alliance with Robin, Batgirl, and Alfred.
After the success of The Lego Movie, Warner Bros. gave the green light to further multiple Lego movies being produced, including The Lego Batman Movie; Chris McKay, who co-directed The Lego Movie, was brought on board to direct the film, marking this as his solo directorial debut. In an interview about his work on the film, McKay stated that working on the film was "a very mixed blessing '' owing partly to the film 's hectic time schedule for its production, remarking that the two and half years allocated to the film made it difficult to fit in everything that he wanted for the movie, considering his earlier work on The Lego Movie. His work on The Lego Batman Movie was influenced by the comedy portrayed in both The Naked Gun and Airplane! film series, with his pitch for the film to the studios being described as like "Jerry Maguire as directed by Michael Mann ''. His proposal to combine all the Batman eras featured in the comic book series and various media formats, including movies and comic series, despite a couple of issues - the total inconsistency inherent to such a task, and Lego rejecting some of the characters he proposed to include in the film - was based on his desire of how to portray Robin within the film 's setting. In an interview regarding his version of the superhero duo, McKay stated:
"I was thinking that we were basically taking the Burt Ward Robin and sticking him in the Batmobile with the Zack Snyder / Ben Affleck Batman, or the Frank Miller Batman. And putting these two different energies together. Somebody who 's like the grumpiest, dark grittiest, broodiest Batman with the most positive, indefatigable kid. ''
The film was announced in October 2014, along with news that Will Arnett would be reprising his role as Batman, and later in the month Animal Logic, who had worked on The Lego Movie, were in talks to produce additional movies in the franchise, including The Lego Batman Movie. On July 16, 2015, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Arnett 's Arrested Development co-star Michael Cera was set to voice Robin, while Dan Lin, Roy Lee, Phil Lord and Christopher Miller were announced as producers. Additional casting announcements were made over the course of the year: Zach Galifianakis was revealed to be assigned the role of Joker, on August 12; the signing on of Rosario Dawson to voice Barbara Gordon, was announced on October 16; and the casting of Ralph Fiennes as the voice of Alfred Pennyworth, on November 3. On November 9, 2015, Deadline.com incorrectly reported that Mariah Carey, who had been hired as part of the film 's cast, would be voicing Commissioner Gordon; The Hollywood Reporter later revealed this to be falsely claimed, stating that she was instead voicing the character of Mayor McCaskill. In July 2016, it was revealed Jenny Slate would voice Harley Quinn in the movie, while later that year on November 30, it was announced that Billy Dee Williams would reprise his role of Harvey Dent from Tim Burton 's Batman film. On February 2, 2017, one week before the film 's release, it was revealed that Héctor Elizondo was voicing Commissioner Gordon, while on February 3, it was announced that Conan O'Brien, Riki Lindhome, and Zoë Kravitz, were amongst a number of actors hired into the cast to round out the voices for the various villians included in the film.
As part of its production, the movie was designed to make numerous references to previous Batman movies, cartoons and comics. These include: the 1940s Batman serials; the films Batman (1966), Batman (1989), Batman Returns (1992), Batman Forever (1995), Batman & Robin (1997), Batman Begins (2005), The Dark Knight (2008), The Dark Knight Rises (2012), Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016), and Suicide Squad (2016); the television shows Batman (1960s), Batman: The Animated Series (1990s), Batman Beyond (2000s), and The Batman (2000s); and the comics Detective Comics # 27 (Batman 's introductory story), The Dark Knight Returns, and Gotham by Gaslight. Other references include previous costumes worn by Batman and Robin, and the various Batmobiles used. In most cases, their appearances in the movie are done in a Lego style, with the exception being footage from a live - action shot of Adam West 's depiction of Batman in the 1960s Batman show and a picture of Batman 's suit from Batman and Robin. Climactic events from past Batman films including the Joker have been mentioned, including "the one with the parade and the Prince music '' (1989 's Batman) and "the two boats '' (The Dark Knight).
Alongside Joker, the main antagonist of the film 's story, and Superman, who features heavily and has notable links to the Christopher Reeve films Superman (1978) and its sequel Superman II (1980), many other DC characters, both villains associated with Batman and other DC superheroes, feature in the film. The film 's villains who have been featured in Batman comics, films and cartoons include: Man - Bat; Captain Boomerang; Egghead; Crazy Quilt; Eraser; Polka - Dot Man; Mime; Tarantula; King Tut, from the 1960s series; Killer Moth; March Harriet; Zodiac Master; the Mutant Leader from The Dark Knight Returns; Doctor Phosphorus; Magpie; Calculator; Hugo Strange; an unidentified version of Red Hood; the Kabuki Twins from The Batman; Gentleman Ghost; Clock King; Calendar Man; Kite Man; Catman; Zebra - Man; and a variation of Condiment King from Batman: The Animated Series. The other DC heroes who feature, both from the Justice League and Super Friends, include: Wonder Woman; Aquaman; Cyborg; Green Arrow; Black Canary; Hawkman; Hawkgirl; Martian Manhunter; Apache Chief; Black Vulcan; El Dorado; Samurai; Wonder Dog; the Wonder Twins; and Gleek. Although not part of the DC franchise, Iron Man from Marvel Comics is referenced in the movie as part of a small joke about Batman 's password for entering the Batcave in reference to the famous rivalry between DC and Marvel.
The film also features characters from other notable franchises and movie series, with them following the same narrative of The Lego Movie in that they came from worlds that co-exist alongside others of the Lego Universe, which are made up of Lego playsets of the various media franchises. These additional characters include: Medusa; the Creature from the Black Lagoon; Dracula; King Kong; the Daleks from Doctor Who; the Wicked Witch of the West and her flying monkeys from The Wizard of Oz; the Kraken from Clash of the Titans; Agent Smith and his clones from The Matrix; the great white shark from Jaws; Voldemort from Harry Potter; the Eye of Sauron from The Lord of the Rings; the Tyrannosaurus and Velociraptors from Jurassic Park; and the Gremlins. The way in which the Gremlins attack a plane references The Twilight Zone episode "Nightmare at 20,000 Feet ''.
The film also includes Batman watching the scene from Jerry Maguire where Tom Cruise says "You complete me ''; this line had previously been quoted by The Joker in The Dark Knight. When Batman discusses possible team names, he mentions "Fox Force Five, '' which was the name of a failed television pilot mentioned in Pulp Fiction. The film 's use of Cutting Crew 's "(I Just) Died in Your Arms '' is a nod to the romantic comedy Never Been Kissed. The film 's other references include Gleaming the Cube and Gymkata.
The film 's original score was composed by Lorne Balfe and features Red Hot Chili Peppers ' drummer Chad Smith. The soundtrack was released on February 3, 2017, on CD and for digital download, while the vinyl version was released on May 19, 2017.
The film 's main premiere was conducted in Dublin, Ireland on January 29, 2017, whereupon it went into general release from 8 February; it was released in Denmark on 9 February, and in the United States the day after. Its overall release saw movie theatres displaying the film in 3D, RealD 3D, Dolby Cinema and IMAX, though the latter format was restricted to 2D for North America, while international countries were able to view it in IMAX 3D.
The first teaser trailer for The Lego Batman Movie was released on March 24, 2016, and features the song "Black and Yellow '' by Wiz Khalifa. It was attached to showings of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice in theatres. A second teaser trailer was released on March 28, 2016, and features references to all live action iterations of Batman, from the 1960 's Batman TV series to Batman v Superman. A third trailer was released on July 23, 2016. A fourth trailer was released on November 4, 2016. A Story Pack for the toys - to - life video game Lego Dimensions based on The Lego Batman Movie was released on February 10, 2017, alongside the film. The pack adds a six - level story campaign adapting the events of the film, and includes playable figures of Robin and Batgirl, a driveable Batwing, and a constructible gateway model based on the Batcomputer. A Fun Pack including Excalibur Batman and his Bionic Steed was also released the same day.
On January 14, 2017, at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit, Chevrolet unveiled a life - sized Lego Batmobile inspired by the design featured in the film, constructed from around 350,000 Lego pieces. As a related promotion, a Bat - Signal (alternating between Batman 's emblem and the Chevrolet logo) was projected on the Renaissance Center over the weekend, and Chevrolet released a new television commercial tying into the film, featuring the Batmobile as a crossover with its ongoing "Real People, Not Actors '' campaign.
Warner Bros. released several promotional tie - ins on the week of the movie 's release. LEGO billboard versions of several TV shows were shown outside of the studio lot, that took 300 hours to make out of 10,000 bricks. The Big Bang Theory included a LEGO version of the opening sequence in the episode "The Locomotion Reverberation '' that first aired on CBS. In addition, the network aired two LEGO commercials featuring Batman and the cast.
The CW featured LEGO end cards for Supergirl, The Flash, DC 's Legends of Tomorrow and Arrow respectively on the week of the movie 's release. All four DC shows also include a special variant of the Berlanti Productions logo that featured Batman 's cameo and a new recording from Greg Berlanti 's real - life father who says "Batman move your head '' instead of the usual "Greg move your head ''. In addition, the network aired two commercials where Batman interacts with the characters from each show.
The Lego Batman Movie was released on Digital HD on May 19, 2017. The release included the theatrical short film The Master: A Lego Ninjago Short, as well as four new short films: Dark Hoser, Batman is Just Not That Into You, Cooking with Alfred and Movie Sound Effects: How Do They Do That?. The Lego Batman Movie was released on DVD, Blu - ray (2D and 3D), and Ultra HD Blu - ray by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment on June 13, 2017. The film debuted at No. 3 on the NPD VideoScan overall disc sales chart.
The Lego Batman Movie grossed $175.8 million in the United States and Canada and $136.2 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $312 million, against a production budget of $80 million.
In the United States and Canada, The Lego Batman Movie opened alongside two other sequels, Fifty Shades Darker and John Wick: Chapter 2, and was projected to gross around $60 million in its opening weekend. It earned $2.2 million from Thursday night previews and $15 million on Friday. It went on to open with $53 million, finishing first at the box office. In its second weekend, the film grossed $32.7 million (a drop of 38.4 %), again topping the box office; with the additional President 's Day holiday on Monday, it made a total of $42.7 million for the weekend. In its third weekend of release, the film dropped to second at the box office, behind newcomer Get Out, grossing $19.2 million (a drop of 41.2 %).
Outside North America the film was simultaneously released in 61 countries, and was expected to gross around $40 million over its first three days. It ended up grossing $37 million in its opening weekend, including $9.3 million in the United Kingdom, $2.6 million in Mexico, $2.3 million in Germany and $2.2 million in Russia.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 91 % based on 259 reviews, with an average rating of 7.5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "The Lego Batman Movie continues its block - buster franchise 's winning streak with another round of dizzyingly funny -- and beautifully animated -- family - friendly mayhem. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 75 out of 100, based on 48 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
Mike Ryan of Uproxx gave the film a positive review, praising its comedy, and saying: "The LEGO Batman Movie is n't the same experience as watching The LEGO Movie, but I also do n't think it 's trying to be. It 's trying to be a fun superhero movie with clever callbacks to previous Batman films (every single Batman movie all the way back to the 1940s serials are referenced) that can, at least, provide DC superhero fans with a taste of fun amidst all the doom and gloom. (That can either be a reference to ' the real world ' or the current DC Cinematic Universe films, you can choose either one you want or both.) And at that, The LEGO Batman Movie succeeds. '' Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a "B + '' and wrote, "LEGO Batman revs so fast and moves so frenetically that it becomes a little exhausting by the end. It flirts with being too much of a good thing. But rarely has corporate brainwashing been so much fun and gone down with such a delightful aftertaste. '' Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times was positive in his review, saying, "In its best moments, this gag - a-minute Bat - roast serves as a reminder that, in the right hands, a sharp comic scalpel can be an instrument of revelation as well as ridicule. '' Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post praised the film for its heart, humor and action which, "snap together, with a satisfying click. ''
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where are the appalachian mountains in north carolina | Appalachian Mountains - wikipedia
The Appalachian Mountains (/ ˌæpəˈlæʃɪn, - ˈleɪtʃɪn / (listen), French: les Appalaches), often called the Appalachians, are a system of mountains in eastern North America. The Appalachians first formed roughly 480 million years ago during the Ordovician Period. They once reached elevations similar to those of the Alps and the Rocky Mountains before naturally occurring erosion. The Appalachian chain is a barrier to east - west travel, as it forms a series of alternating ridgelines and valleys oriented in opposition to most roads running east or west.
Definitions vary on the precise boundaries of the Appalachians. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) defines the Appalachian Highlands physiographic division as consisting of thirteen provinces: the Atlantic Coast Uplands, Eastern Newfoundland Atlantic, Maritime Acadian Highlands, Maritime Plain, Notre Dame and Mégantic Mountains, Western Newfoundland Mountains, Piedmont, Blue Ridge, Valley and Ridge, Saint Lawrence Valley, Appalachian Plateaus, New England province, and the Adirondack provinces. A common variant definition does not include the Adirondack Mountains, which geologically belong to the Grenville Orogeny and have a different geological history from the rest of the Appalachians.
The range is mostly in the United States (U.S.) but extends into southeastern Canada, forming a zone from 100 to 300 mi (160 to 480 km) wide, running from the island of Newfoundland 1,500 mi (2,400 km) southwestward to Central Alabama in the United States. The range covers parts of the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, which comprise an overseas territory of France. The system is divided into a series of ranges, with the individual mountains averaging around 3,000 ft (910 m). The highest of the group is Mount Mitchell in North Carolina at 6,684 feet (2,037 m), which is the highest point in the United States east of the Mississippi River.
The term Appalachian refers to several different regions associated with the mountain range. Most broadly, it refers to the entire mountain range with its surrounding hills and the dissected plateau region. The term is often used more restrictively to refer to regions in the central and southern Appalachian Mountains, usually including areas in the states of Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, Maryland, West Virginia, and North Carolina, as well as sometimes extending as far south as northern Alabama, Georgia and western South Carolina, and as far north as Pennsylvania, southern Ohio and parts of southern upstate New York.
The Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas and Oklahoma were originally part of the Appalachians as well, but became disconnected through geologic history.
While exploring inland along the northern coast of Florida in 1528, the members of the Narváez expedition, including Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, found a Native American village near present - day Tallahassee, Florida whose name they transcribed as Apalchen or Apalachen (a. paˈla. tʃɛn). The name was soon altered by the Spanish to Apalachee and used as a name for the tribe and region spreading well inland to the north. Pánfilo de Narváez 's expedition first entered Apalachee territory on June 15, 1528, and applied the name. Now spelled "Appalachian, '' it is the fourth - oldest surviving European place - name in the US.
After the de Soto expedition in 1540, Spanish cartographers began to apply the name of the tribe to the mountains themselves. The first cartographic appearance of Apalchen is on Diego Gutierrez 's map of 1562; the first use for the mountain range is the map of Jacques le Moyne de Morgues in 1565.
The name was not commonly used for the whole mountain range until the late 19th century. A competing and often more popular name was the "Allegheny Mountains '', "Alleghenies '', and even "Alleghania ''. In the early 19th century, Washington Irving proposed renaming the United States either Appalachia or Alleghania.
In U.S. dialects in the southern regions of the Appalachians, the word is pronounced / ˌæpəˈlætʃɪnz /, with the third syllable sounding like "latch ''. In northern parts of the mountain range, it is pronounced / ˌæpəˈleɪtʃɪnz / or / ˌæpəˈleɪʃɪnz /; the third syllable is like "lay '', and the fourth "chins '' or "shins ''. There is often great debate between the residents of the regions as to which pronunciation is the more correct one. Elsewhere, a commonly accepted pronunciation for the adjective Appalachian is / ˌæpəˈlætʃiən /, with the last two syllables "- ian '' pronounced as in the word "Romanian ''.
The whole system may be divided into three great sections:
The Adirondack Mountains in New York are sometimes considered part of the Appalachian chain but, geologically speaking, are a southern extension of the Laurentian Mountains of Canada.
In addition to the true folded mountains, known as the ridge and valley province, the area of dissected plateau to the north and west of the mountains is usually grouped with the Appalachians. This includes the Catskill Mountains of southeastern New York, the Poconos in Pennsylvania, and the Allegheny Plateau of southwestern New York, western Pennsylvania, eastern Ohio and northern West Virginia. This same plateau is known as the Cumberland Plateau in southern West Virginia, eastern Kentucky, western Virginia, eastern Tennessee, and northern Alabama.
The dissected plateau area, while not actually made up of geological mountains, is popularly called "mountains, '' especially in eastern Kentucky and West Virginia, and while the ridges are not high, the terrain is extremely rugged. In Ohio and New York, some of the plateau has been glaciated, which has rounded off the sharp ridges, and filled the valleys to some extent. The glaciated regions are usually referred to as hill country rather than mountains.
The Appalachian region is generally considered the geographical divide between the eastern seaboard of the United States and the Midwest region of the country. The Eastern Continental Divide follows the Appalachian Mountains from Pennsylvania to Georgia.
The Appalachian Trail is a 2,175 - mile (3,500 km) hiking trail that runs all the way from Mount Katahdin in Maine to Springer Mountain in Georgia, passing over or past a large part of the Appalachian system. The International Appalachian Trail is an extension of this hiking trail into the Canadian portion of the Appalachian range in New Brunswick and Quebec.
The Appalachian belt includes, with the ranges enumerated above, the plateaus sloping southward to the Atlantic Ocean in New England, and south - eastward to the border of the coastal plain through the central and southern Atlantic states; and on the north - west, the Allegheny and Cumberland plateaus declining toward the Great Lakes and the interior plains. A remarkable feature of the belt is the longitudinal chain of broad valleys, including The Great Appalachian Valley, which in the southerly sections divides the mountain system into two unequal portions, but in the northernmost lies west of all the ranges possessing typical Appalachian features, and separates them from the Adirondack group. The mountain system has no axis of dominating altitudes, but in every portion the summits rise to rather uniform heights, and, especially in the central section, the various ridges and intermontane valleys have the same trend as the system itself. None of the summits reaches the region of perpetual snow.
Mountains of the Long Range in Newfoundland reach heights of nearly 2,700 ft (800 m). In the Chic - Choc and Notre Dame mountain ranges in Quebec, the higher summits rise above 4,000 ft (1,200 m) in elevation. Isolated peaks and small ranges in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick vary from 1,000 to 2,700 ft (300 to 800 m). In Maine several peaks exceed 4,000 ft (1,200 m), including Mount Katahdin at 5,267 feet (1,605 m). In New Hampshire, many summits rise above 5,000 ft (1,500 m), including Mount Washington in the White Mountains at 6,288 ft (1,917 m), Adams at 5,771 ft (1,759 m), Jefferson at 5,712 ft (1,741 m), Monroe at 5,380 ft (1,640 m), Madison at 5,367 ft (1,636 m), Lafayette at 5,249 feet (1,600 m), and Lincoln at 5,089 ft (1,551 m). In the Green Mountains the highest point, Mt. Mansfield, is 4,393 ft (1,339 m) in elevation; others include Killington Peak at 4,226 ft (1,288 m), Camel 's Hump at 4,083 ft (1,244 m), Mt. Abraham at 4,006 ft (1,221 m), and a number of other heights exceeding 3,000 ft (900 m).
In Pennsylvania, there are over sixty summits that rise over 2,500 ft (800 m); the summits of Mount Davis and Blue Knob rise over 3,000 ft (900 m). In Maryland, Eagle Rock and Dans Mountain are conspicuous points reaching 3,162 ft (964 m) and 2,882 ft (878 m) respectively. On the same side of the Great Valley, south of the Potomac, are the Pinnacle 3,007 feet (917 m) and Pidgeon Roost 3,400 ft (1,000 m). In West Virginia, more than 150 peaks rise above 4,000 ft (1,200 m), including Spruce Knob 4,863 ft (1,482 m), the highest point in the Allegheny Mountains. A number of other points in the state rise above 4,800 ft (1,500 m). Snowshoe Mountain at Thorny Flat 4,848 ft (1,478 m) and Bald Knob 4,842 ft (1,476 m) are among the more notable peaks in West Virginia.
The Blue Ridge Mountains, rising in southern Pennsylvania and there known as South Mountain, attain elevations of about 2,000 ft (600 m) in that state. South Mountain achieves its highest point just below the Mason - Dixon line in Maryland at Quirauk Mountain 2,145 ft (654 m) and then diminishes in height southward to the Potomac River. Once in Virginia the Blue Ridge again reaches 2,000 ft (600 m) and higher. In the Virginia Blue Ridge, the following are some of the highest peaks north of the Roanoke River: Stony Man 4,031 ft (1,229 m), Hawksbill Mountain 4,066 ft (1,239 m), Apple Orchard Mountain 4,225 ft (1,288 m) and Peaks of Otter 4,001 and 3,875 ft (1,220 and 1,181 m). South of the Roanoke River, along the Blue Ridge, are Virginia 's highest peaks including Whitetop Mountain 5,520 ft (1,680 m) and Mount Rogers 5,729 ft (1,746 m), the highest point in the Commonwealth.
Chief summits in the southern section of the Blue Ridge are located along two main crests -- the Western or Unaka Front along the Tennessee - North Carolina border and the Eastern Front in North Carolina -- or one of several "cross ridges '' between the two main crests. Major subranges of the Eastern Front include the Black Mountains, Great Craggy Mountains, and Great Balsam Mountains, and its chief summits include Grandfather Mountain 5,964 ft (1,818 m) near the Tennessee - North Carolina border, Mount Mitchell 6,684 ft (2,037 m) in the Blacks, and Black Balsam Knob 6,214 ft (1,894 m) and Cold Mountain 6,030 ft (1,840 m) in the Great Balsams. The Western Blue Ridge Front is subdivided into the Unaka Range, the Bald Mountains, the Great Smoky Mountains, and the Unicoi Mountains, and its major peaks include Roan Mountain 6,285 ft (1,916 m) in the Unakas, Big Bald 5,516 ft (1,681 m) and Max Patch 4,616 ft (1,407 m) in the Bald Mountains, Clingmans Dome 6,643 ft (2,025 m), Mount Le Conte 6,593 feet (2,010 m), and Mount Guyot 6,621 ft (2,018 m) in the Great Smokies, and Big Frog Mountain 4,224 ft (1,287 m) near the Tennessee - Georgia - North Carolina border. Prominent summits in the cross ridges include Waterrock Knob (6,292 ft (1,918 m)) in the Plott Balsams. Across northern Georgia, numerous peaks exceed 4,000 ft (1,200 m), including Brasstown Bald, the state 's highest, at 4,784 ft (1,458 m) and 4,696 ft (1,431 m) Rabun Bald.
There are many geological issues concerning the rivers and streams of the Appalachians. In spite of the existence of the Great Appalachian Valley, many of the main rivers are transverse to the mountain system axis. The drainage divide of the Appalachians follows a tortuous course which crosses the mountainous belt just north of the New River in Virginia. South of the New River, rivers head into the Blue Ridge, cross the higher Unakas, receive important tributaries from the Great Valley, and traversing the Cumberland Plateau in spreading gorges (water gaps), escape by way of the Cumberland River and the Tennessee River rivers to the Ohio River and the Mississippi River, and thence to the Gulf of Mexico. In the central section, north of the New River, the rivers, rising in or just beyond the Valley Ridges, flow through great gorges to the Great Valley, and then across the Blue Ridge to tidal estuaries penetrating the coastal plain via the Roanoke River, James River, Potomac River, and Susquehanna River.
In the northern section the height of land lies on the inland side of the mountainous belt, and thus the main lines of drainage run from north to south, exemplified by the Hudson River. However, the valley through which the Hudson River flows was cut by the gigantic glaciers of the Ice Ages -- the same glaciers that deposited their terminal moraines in southern New York and formed the east - west Long Island.
A look at rocks exposed in today 's Appalachian mountains reveals elongated belts of folded and thrust faulted marine sedimentary rocks, volcanic rocks and slivers of ancient ocean floor, which provides strong evidence that these rocks were deformed during plate collision. The birth of the Appalachian ranges, some 480 Ma, marks the first of several mountain - building plate collisions that culminated in the construction of the supercontinent Pangaea with the Appalachians near the center. Because North America and Africa were connected, the Appalachians formed part of the same mountain chain as the Little Atlas in Morocco. This mountain range, known as the Central Pangean Mountains, extended into Scotland, before the Mesozoic Era opening of the Iapetus Ocean, from the North America / Europe collision (See Caledonian orogeny).
During the middle Ordovician Period (about 496 -- 440 Ma), a change in plate motions set the stage for the first Paleozoic mountain - building event (Taconic orogeny) in North America. The once - quiet Appalachian passive margin changed to a very active plate boundary when a neighboring oceanic plate, the Iapetus, collided with and began sinking beneath the North American craton. With the birth of this new subduction zone, the early Appalachians were born. Along the continental margin, volcanoes grew, coincident with the initiation of subduction. Thrust faulting uplifted and warped older sedimentary rock laid down on the passive margin. As mountains rose, erosion began to wear them down. Streams carried rock debris down slope to be deposited in nearby lowlands. The Taconic Orogeny was just the first of a series of mountain building plate collisions that contributed to the formation of the Appalachians, culminating in the collision of North America and Africa (see Alleghanian orogeny).
By the end of the Mesozoic Era, the Appalachian Mountains had been eroded to an almost flat plain. It was not until the region was uplifted during the Cenozoic Era that the distinctive topography of the present formed. Uplift rejuvenated the streams, which rapidly responded by cutting downward into the ancient bedrock. Some streams flowed along weak layers that define the folds and faults created many millions of years earlier. Other streams downcut so rapidly that they cut right across the resistant folded rocks of the mountain core, carving canyons across rock layers and geologic structures.
The Appalachian Mountains contain major deposits of anthracite coal as well as bituminous coal. In the folded mountains the coal is in metamorphosed form as anthracite, represented by the Coal Region of northeastern Pennsylvania. The bituminous coal fields of western Pennsylvania, western Maryland, southeastern Ohio, eastern Kentucky, southwestern Virginia, and West Virginia contain the sedimentary form of coal. The mountain top removal method of coal mining, in which entire mountain tops are removed, is currently threatening vast areas and ecosystems of the Appalachian Mountain region.
The 1859 discovery of commercial quantities of petroleum in the Appalachian Mountains of western Pennsylvania started the modern United States petroleum industry. Recent discoveries of commercial natural gas deposits in the Marcellus Shale formation and Utica Shale formations have once again focused oil industry attention on the Appalachian Basin.
Some plateaus of the Appalachian Mountains contain metallic minerals such as iron and zinc.
The floras of the Appalachians are diverse and vary primarily in response to geology, latitude, elevation and moisture availability. Geobotanically, they constitute a floristic province of the North American Atlantic Region. The Appalachians consist primarily of deciduous broad - leaf trees and evergreen needle - leaf conifers, but also contain the evergreen broad - leaf American holly (Ilex opaca), and the deciduous needle - leaf conifer, the tamarack, or eastern larch (Larix laricina).
The dominant northern and high elevation conifer is the red spruce (Picea rubens), which grows from near sea level to above 4,000 ft (1,200 m) above sea level (asl) in northern New England and southeastern Canada. It also grows southward along the Appalachian crest to the highest elevations of the southern Appalachians, as in North Carolina and Tennessee. In the central Appalachians it is usually confined above 3,000 ft (900 m) asl, except for a few cold valleys in which it reaches lower elevations. In the southern Appalachians it is restricted to higher elevations. Another species is the black spruce (Picea mariana), which extends farthest north of any conifer in North America, is found at high elevations in the northern Appalachians, and in bogs as far south as Pennsylvania.
The Appalachians are also home to two species of fir, the boreal balsam fir (Abies balsamea), and the southern high elevation endemic, Fraser fir (Abies fraseri). Fraser fir is confined to the highest parts of the southern Appalachian Mountains, where along with red spruce it forms a fragile ecosystem known as the Southern Appalachian spruce - fir forest. Fraser fir rarely occurs below 5,500 ft (1,700 m), and becomes the dominant tree type at 6,200 ft (1,900 m). By contrast, balsam fir is found from near sea level to the tree line in the northern Appalachians, but ranges only as far south as Virginia and West Virginia in the central Appalachians, where it is usually confined above 3,900 ft (1,200 m) asl, except in cold valleys. Curiously, it is associated with oaks in Virginia. The balsam fir of Virginia and West Virginia is thought by some to be a natural hybrid between the more northern variety and Fraser fir. While red spruce is common in both upland and bog habitats, balsam fir, as well as black spruce and tamarack, are more characteristic of the latter. However balsam fir also does well in soils with a pH as high as 6.
Eastern or Canada hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) is another important evergreen needle - leaf conifer that grows along the Appalachian chain from north to south, but is confined to lower elevations than red spruce and the firs. It generally occupies richer and less acidic soils than the spruce and firs and is characteristic of deep, shaded and moist mountain valleys and coves. It is, unfortunately, subject to the hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae), an introduced insect, that is rapidly extirpating it as a forest tree. Less abundant, and restricted to the southern Appalachians, is Carolina hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana). Like Canada hemlock, this tree suffers severely from the hemlock woolly adelgid.
Several species of pines characteristic of the Appalachians are eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), pitch pine (Pinus rigida), Table Mountain pine (Pinus pungens) and shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata). Red pine (Pinus resinosa) is a boreal species that forms a few high elevation outliers as far south as West Virginia. All of these species except white pine tend to occupy sandy, rocky, poor soil sites, which are mostly acidic in character. White pine, a large species valued for its timber, tends to do best in rich, moist soil, either acidic or alkaline in character. Pitch pine is also at home in acidic, boggy soil, and Table Mountain pine may occasionally be found in this habitat as well. Shortleaf pine is generally found in warmer habitats and at lower elevations than the other species. All the species listed do best in open or lightly shaded habitats, although white pine also thrives in shady coves, valleys, and on floodplains.
The Appalachians are characterized by a wealth of large, beautiful deciduous broadleaf (hardwood) trees. Their occurrences are best summarized and described in E. Lucy Braun 's 1950 classic, Deciduous Forests of Eastern North America (Macmillan, New York). The most diverse and richest forests are the mixed mesophytic or medium moisture types, which are largely confined to rich, moist montane soils of the southern and central Appalachians, particularly in the Cumberland and Allegheny Mountains, but also thrive in the southern Appalachian coves. Characteristic canopy species are white basswood (Tilia heterophylla), yellow buckeye (Aesculus octandra), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), white ash (Fraxinus americana) and yellow birch (Betula alleganiensis). Other common trees are red maple (Acer rubrum), shagbark and bitternut hickories (Carya ovata and C. cordiformis) and black or sweet birch (Betula lenta). Small understory trees and shrubs include flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana), witch - hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) and spicebush (Lindera benzoin). There are also hundreds of perennial and annual herbs, among them such herbal and medicinal plants as American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis), bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis) and black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa).
The foregoing trees, shrubs and herbs are also more widely distributed in less rich mesic forests that generally occupy coves, stream valleys and flood plains throughout the southern and central Appalachians at low and intermediate elevations. In the northern Appalachians and at higher elevations of the central and southern Appalachians these diverse mesic forests give way to less diverse "northern hardwoods '' with canopies dominated only by American beech, sugar maple, American basswood (Tilia americana) and yellow birch and with far fewer species of shrubs and herbs.
Dryer and rockier uplands and ridges are occupied by oak - chestnut type forests dominated by a variety of oaks (Quercus spp.), hickories (Carya spp.) and, in the past, by the American chestnut (Castanea dentata). The American chestnut was virtually eliminated as a canopy species by the introduced fungal chestnut blight (Cryphonectaria parasitica), but lives on as sapling - sized sprouts that originate from roots, which are not killed by the fungus. In present - day forest canopies chestnut has been largely replaced by oaks.
The oak forests of the southern and central Appalachians consist largely of black, northern red, white, chestnut and scarlet oaks (Quercus velutina, Q. rubra, Q. alba, Q. prinus and Q. coccinea) and hickories, such as the pignut (Carya glabra) in particular. The richest forests, which grade into mesic types, usually in coves and on gentle slopes, have dominantly white and northern red oaks, while the driest sites are dominated by chestnut oak, or sometimes by scarlet or northern red oaks. In the northern Appalachians the oaks, except for white and northern red, drop out, while the latter extends farthest north.
The oak forests generally lack the diverse small tree, shrub and herb layers of mesic forests. Shrubs are generally ericaceous, and include the evergreen mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia), various species of blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), black huckleberry (Gaylussacia baccata), a number of deciduous rhododendrons (azaleas), and smaller heaths such as teaberry (Gaultheria procumbens) and trailing arbutus (Epigaea repens). The evergreen great rhododendron (Rhododendron maximum) is characteristic of moist stream valleys. These occurrences are in line with the prevailing acidic character of most oak forest soils. In contrast, the much rarer chinquapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii) demands alkaline soils and generally grows where limestone rock is near the surface. Hence no ericaceous shrubs are associated with it.
The Appalachian floras also include a diverse assemblage of bryophytes (mosses and liverworts), as well as fungi. Some species are rare and / or endemic. As with vascular plants, these tend to be closely related to the character of the soils and thermal environment in which they are found.
Eastern deciduous forests are subject to a number of serious insect and disease outbreaks. Among the most conspicuous is that of the introduced gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar), which infests primarily oaks, causing severe defoliation and tree mortality. But it also has the benefit of eliminating weak individuals, and thus improving the genetic stock, as well as creating rich habitat of a type through accumulation of dead wood. Because hardwoods sprout so readily, this moth is not as harmful as the hemlock woolly adelgid. Perhaps more serious is the introduced beech bark disease complex, which includes both a scale insect (Cryptococcus fagisuga) and fungal components.
During the 19th and early 20th centuries the Appalachian forests were subject to severe and destructive logging and land clearing, which resulted in the designation of the national forests and parks as well many state protected areas. However, these and a variety of other destructive activities continue, albeit in diminished forms; and thus far only a few ecologically based management practices have taken hold.
Appalachian bogs are boreal ecosystems, which occur in many places in the Appalachians, particularly the Allegheny and Blue Ridge subranges. Though popularly called bogs, many of them are technically fens.
Animals that characterize the Appalachian forests include five species of tree squirrels. The most commonly seen is the low to moderate elevation eastern gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis). Occupying similar habitat is the slightly larger fox squirrel (Sciurus niger) and the much smaller southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans). More characteristic of cooler northern and high elevation habitat is the red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus), whereas the Appalachian northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus fuscus), which closely resembles the southern flying squirrel, is confined to northern hardwood and spruce - fir forests.
As familiar as squirrels are the eastern cottontail rabbit (Silvilagus floridanus) and the white - tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). The latter in particular has greatly increased in abundance as a result of the extirpation of the eastern wolf (Canis lupus lycaon) and the cougar. This has led to the overgrazing and browsing of many plants of the Appalachian forests, as well as destruction of agricultural crops. Other deer include the moose (Alces laces), found only in the north, and the elk (Cervus canadensis), which, although once extirpated, is now making a comeback, through transplantation, in the southern and central Appalachians. In Quebec, the Chic - Chocs host the only population of caribou (Rangifer tarandus) south of the St. Lawrence River. An additional species that is common in the north but extends its range southward at high elevations to Virginia and West Virginia is the varying of snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus). However, these central Appalachian populations are scattered and very small.
Another species of great interest is the beaver (Castor canadensis), which is showing a great resurgence in numbers after its near extirpation for its pelt. This resurgence is bringing about a drastic alteration in habitat through the construction of dams and other structures throughout the mountains.
Other common forest animals are the black bear (Ursus americanus), striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), raccoon (Procyon lot or), woodchuck (Marmota monax), bobcat (Felis rufus), gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and in recent years, the coyote (Canis latrans), another species favored by the advent of Europeans and the extirpation of eastern and red wolves. European boars were introduced in the early 20th century.
Characteristic birds of the forest are wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris), ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), mourning dove (Zenaida macroura), common raven (Corvus corax), wood duck (Aix sponsa), great horned owl (Bubo virginianus), barred owl (Strix varia), screech owl (Megascops asio), red - tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), red - shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus), and northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), as well as a great variety of "songbirds '' (Passeriformes), like the warblers in particular.
Of great importance are the many species of salamanders and, in particular, the lungless species (Family Plethodontidae) that live in great abundance concealed by leaves and debris, on the forest floor. Most frequently seen, however, is the eastern or red - spotted newt (Notophthalmus viridescens), whose terrestrial eft form is often encountered on the open, dry forest floor. It has been estimated that salamanders represent the largest class of animal biomass in the Appalachian forests. Frogs and toads are of lesser diversity and abundance, but the wood frog (Rana sylvatica) is, like the eft, commonly encountered on the dry forest floor, while a number of species of small frogs, such as spring peepers (Pseudacris crucifer), enliven the forest with their calls. Salamanders and other amphibians contribute greatly to nutrient cycling through their consumption of small life forms on the forest floor and in aquatic habitats.
Although reptiles are less abundant and diverse than amphibians, a number of snakes are conspicuous members of the fauna. One of the largest is the non-venomous black rat snake (Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta), while the common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis) is among the smallest but most abundant. The American copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) and the timber rattler (Crotalus horridus) are venomous pit vipers. There are few lizards, but the broad - headed skink (Eumeces laticeps), at up to 13 in (33 cm) in length, and an excellent climber and swimmer, is one of the largest and most spectacular in appearance and action. The most common turtle is the eastern box turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina), which is found in both upland and lowland forests in the central and southern Appalachians. Prominent among aquatic species is the large common snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina), which occurs throughout the Appalachians.
Appalachian streams are notable for their highly diverse freshwater fish life. Among the most abundant and diverse are those of the minnow family (family Cyprinidae), while species of the colorful darters (Percina spp.) are also abundant.
A characteristic fish of shaded, cool Appalachian forest streams is the wild brook or speckled trout (Salvelinus fontinalis), which is much sought after as a game fish. However, in past years such trout waters have been much degraded by increasing temperatures due to timber cutting, pollution from various sources and potentially, global warming.
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where does wet hot american summer take place | Wet Hot American Summer - wikipedia
Wet Hot American Summer is a 2001 American satirical comedy film directed by David Wain from a screenplay written by Wain and Michael Showalter. The film features an ensemble cast, including Janeane Garofalo, David Hyde Pierce, Molly Shannon, Paul Rudd, Christopher Meloni, Michael Showalter (and various other members of MTV 's sketch comedy group The State), Elizabeth Banks, Ken Marino, Michael Ian Black, Bradley Cooper, Amy Poehler, Zak Orth, and A.D. Miles. The film takes place during the last full day at a fictional summer camp in 1981, and spoofs the sex comedies aimed at teen audiences of that era.
The film was a critical and commercial failure, but has since developed a cult following, as many of its cast members have gone on to high - profile work. Netflix released an eight - episode prequel series starring most of the film 's original cast on July 31, 2015. An eight - episode sequel series, set ten years after the original film, was released on August 4, 2017.
In 1981, Camp Firewood, a summer camp located near Waterville, Maine, is preparing for its last day of camp. Counselors have one last chance to have a romantic encounter with another person at Camp Firewood. The summer culminates in a talent show.
Beth (Janeane Garofalo), the camp director, struggles to keep her counselors in order -- and her campers alive -- while falling in love with Henry (David Hyde Pierce), an astrophysics associate professor at Colby College. Henry has to devise a plan to save the camp from a piece of NASA 's Skylab, which is falling to Earth.
Coop (Michael Showalter) has a crush on Katie (Marguerite Moreau), his fellow counselor, but has to pry her away from her rebellious, obnoxious, and obviously unfaithful boyfriend, Andy (Paul Rudd). Only Gene (Christopher Meloni), the shell - shocked Vietnam war veteran and camp chef, can help Coop win Katie -- with some help from a talking can of mixed vegetables (voiced by H. Jon Benjamin).
All the while, Gary (A.D. Miles), Gene 's unfortunately chosen apprentice, and J.J. (Zak Orth) attempt to figure out why McKinley (Michael Ian Black) has n't been with a woman, the reason being that McKinley is in love with Ben (Bradley Cooper), whom he marries in a ceremony in the lake; Victor (Ken Marino) attempts to lose his virginity with the resident loose - girl Abby (Marisa Ryan); and Susie (Amy Poehler) and Ben attempt to produce and choreograph the greatest talent show Camp Firewood has ever seen.
The film is based on the experiences Wain had while attending Camp Modin, a Jewish camp, located in Belgrade, Maine, and Showalter had at Camp Mohawk in the Berkshires in Cheshire, Massachusetts. During one scene, the counselors take a trip into Waterville, Maine, which is not far from the camp. It is also a parody of, and homage to, other films about summer camp such as Meatballs (1979), Sleepaway Camp (1983), and Indian Summer (1993). According to Wain, they wanted to make a film structured like films such as Nashville, Dazed and Confused and Do the Right Thing -- "films that take place in one contained time period that have lots of different characters. ''
The film 's financing took three years to assemble; in a June 2011 interview, Wain revealed the film 's budget was $1.8 million; he noted that during the 2001 Sundance Film Festival, the film had been promoted as costing $5 million, in an attempt to attract a better offer from a distributor. Because of the film 's relatively small budget, the cast was paid very little; Paul Rudd has stated that he is uncertain that he received any compensation at all for the film.
Principal photography lasted 28 days, and, according to director David Wain, it rained on every day of shooting. Exterior shots were filmed when possible, sometimes under covers or umbrellas, but some scenes were moved indoors instead. In many interior scenes, rain seen outside turns into sun as soon as characters step outside. Due to the cold, the actors ' breath can be seen in some outdoor scenes. The film was shot at Camp Towanda in Honesdale, Pennsylvania.
As the film is set in the early 1980s, the film 's soundtrack features songs from many popular bands of the era, most notably Jefferson Starship, Rick Springfield, Loverboy, and KISS.
Wet Hot American Summer premiered at the 2001 Sundance Film Festival, where it was screened four times to sold - out crowds, though it failed to attract a distributor. Months later, USA Films offered the filmmakers $100,000 for the film, with virtually no participation for the filmmakers, an offer the film 's investors accepted. It premiered in New York City on July 27, 2001, then received a theatrical release limited to fewer than 30 cities.
Wet Hot American Summer received mostly negative reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 32 %, based on 66 reviews, with the site 's critical consensus reading, "As comedy, Wet Hot American Summer is a slapdash, fragmented affair that misses more often than hits. As parody, it fails because it attempts to satirize something ridiculous and self - parodying in itself. '' Metacritic gives the film a score of 42 out of 100, based on 24 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Roger Ebert rated the film with one star out of four. His review took the form of a tongue - in - cheek parody of Allan Sherman 's "Hello Muddah, Hello Fadduh ''.
In contrast, Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman awarded the film an "A '' and named it as one of the ten best films of the year. Newsweek 's David Ansen also lauded it, calling it a "gloriously silly romp '' that "made me laugh harder than any other movie this summer. Make that this year. '' Numerous other critics have praised the film as a witty pop satire and it has gone on to achieve a cult following.
Actress Kristen Bell stated on NPR on September 2, 2012, that this was her favorite film of all time, having watched it "hundreds of times ''. NPR host Jesse Thorn said on the April 29, 2014, episode of Bullseye, "When someone has an open enough heart to accept this silliness - and that 's what it 's about for me, an open heart - if someone 's heart is open to Wet Hot American Summer, they love it. And that 's when I know that me and them, we 've got an unbreakable bond. Together forever. Like camp counselors. ''
The film was released in both VHS and DVD formats on January 15, 2002. In 2011, Wain tried to convince Universal Studios to do either a 10th anniversary home video re-release with extra features, or perhaps a Blu - ray release, but Universal rejected the idea. The film was released on Blu - ray on May 12, 2015.
The film is followed by two Netflix series with one serving as a prequel and one as a sequel. The prequel, First Day of Camp, was released on July 31, 2015, while the sequel, Ten Years Later, was released on August 4, 2017.
Events were held around the country to celebrate the film 's 10 - year anniversary in 2011 and 2012, including a screening of the film in Boston, an art show in Santa Monica of works inspired by the film with a reception hosted by Wain, a screening at the Los Angeles Film School with a Q&A with Wain, a midnight screening in Cleveland, Ohio, a 10th anniversary celebration event with the members of Stella in Brooklyn, and a reading of the script at the San Francisco Comedy Festival with much of the original cast.
During an interview with Variety, Wain and Showalter confirmed that they wrote a pilot to Fox for a possible TV series based on the film. Wain described the series as a "22 - minute Fox sitcom with commercials and nothing Rated R, so it was a little bit odd. '' The pilot was not picked up for a series.
Alongside the prequel series, a making - of documentary, Hurricane of Fun: The Making of Wet Hot, was released on Netflix on July 24, 2015, consisting of behind - the - scenes interviews and footage shot during the filming of the movie.
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who plays the mayor blue bloods season 8 | Blue Bloods (season 8) - wikipedia
The eighth season of Blue Bloods, a police procedural drama series created by Robin Green and Mitchell Burgess, premiered on CBS on September 29, 2017. The season is set to contain 22 episodes.
Donnie Wahlberg (Danny Reagan), Bridget Moynahan (Erin Reagan), Will Estes (Jamie Reagan), and Len Cariou (Henry Reagan) are first credited. Then Sami Gayle (Nicky Reagan - Boyle) is credited next, marking the fourth season she has been included in the opening credits. Tom Selleck (Frank Reagan) receives an "and '' billing at the close of the main title sequence. Amy Carlson (Linda Reagan) left between Seasons 7 and 8.
Marisa Ramirez, as Danny 's partner Detective Maria Baez, and Vanessa Ray, as Jamie 's partner Eddie Janko, continue to receive "also starring '' billing for season 8. Appearing regularly and receiving "special guest star '' billing are Gregory Jbara as Deputy Commissioner of Public Information Garrett Moore, Robert Clohessy as Lt. Sidney Gormley, and Abigail Hawk as Detective Abigail Baker, Frank 's primary aide.
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the life of an artist as a young man | A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man - wikipedia
A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man is the first novel by Irish writer James Joyce. A Künstlerroman in a modernist style, it traces the religious and intellectual awakening of young Stephen Dedalus, a fictional alter ego of Joyce and an allusion to Daedalus, the consummate craftsman of Greek mythology. Stephen questions and rebels against the Catholic and Irish conventions under which he has grown, culminating in his self - exile from Ireland to Europe. The work uses techniques that Joyce developed more fully in Ulysses (1922) and Finnegans Wake (1939).
A Portrait began life in 1904 as Stephen Hero -- a projected 63 - chapter autobiographical novel in a realistic style. After 25 chapters, Joyce abandoned Stephen Hero in 1907 and set to reworking its themes and protagonist into a condensed five - chapter novel, dispensing with strict realism and making extensive use of free indirect speech that allows the reader to peer into Stephen 's developing consciousness. American modernist poet Ezra Pound had the novel serialised in the English literary magazine The Egoist in 1914 and 1915, and published as a book in 1916 by B.W. Huebsch of New York. The publication of A Portrait and the short story collection Dubliners (1914) earned Joyce a place at the forefront of literary modernism.
Born into a middle - class family in Dublin, Ireland, James Joyce (1882 -- 1941) excelled as a student, graduating from University College, Dublin, in 1902. He moved to Paris to study medicine, but soon gave it up. He returned to Ireland at his family 's request as his mother was dying of cancer. Despite her pleas, the impious Joyce and his brother Stanislaus refused to make confession or take communion, and when she passed into a coma they refused to kneel and pray for her. After a stretch of failed attempts to get published and launch his own newspaper, Joyce then took jobs teaching, singing and reviewing books, while drinking heavily.
Joyce made his first attempt at a novel, Stephen Hero, in early 1904. That June he saw Nora Barnacle for the first time walking along Nassau Street. Their first date was on June 16, the same date that his novel "Ulysses '' takes place. Almost immediately, Joyce and Nora were infatuated with each other and they bonded over their shared disapproval of Ireland and the Church. Nora and Joyce eloped to Europe, first staying in Zürich before settling for ten years in Trieste (then in Austria - Hungary), where he taught English. In March 1905, Joyce was transferred to the Berlitz School In Trieste, presumably because of threats of spies in Austria. There Nora gave birth to their children, George in 1905 and Lucia in 1907, and Joyce wrote fiction, signing some of his early essays and stories "Stephen Daedalus ''. The short stories he wrote made up the collection Dubliners (1914), which took about eight years to be published due to its controversial nature. While waiting on Dubliners to be published, Joyce reworked the core themes of the novel Stephen Hero he had begun in Ireland in 1904 and abandoned in 1907 into A Portrait, published in 1916, a year after he had moved back to Zürich in the midst of the First World War.
Et ignotas animum dimittit in artes. ("And he turned his mind to unknown arts. '')
At the request of its editors, Joyce submitted a work of philosophical fiction entitled "A Portrait of the Artist '' to the Irish literary magazine Dana on 7 January 1904. Dana 's editor, W.K. Magee, rejected it, telling Joyce, "I ca n't print what I ca n't understand. '' On his 22nd birthday, 2 February 1904, Joyce began a realist autobiographical novel, Stephen Hero, which incorporated aspects of the aesthetic philosophy expounded in A Portrait. He worked on the book until mid-1905 and brought the manuscript with him when he moved to Trieste that year. Though his main attention turned to the stories that made up Dubliners, Joyce continued work on Stephen Hero. At 914 manuscript pages, Joyce considered the book about half - finished, having completed 25 of its 63 intended chapters. In September 1907, however, he abandoned this work, and began a complete revision of the text and its structure, producing what became A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. By 1909 the work had taken shape and Joyce showed some of the draft chapters to Ettore Schmitz, one of his language students, as an exercise. Schmitz, himself a respected writer, was impressed and with his encouragement Joyce continued work on the book.
In 1911 Joyce flew into a fit of rage over the continued refusals by publishers to print Dubliners and threw the manuscript of Portrait into the fire. It was saved by a "family fire brigade '' including his sister Eileen. Chamber Music, a book of Joyce 's poems, was published in 1907.
Joyce showed, in his own words, "a scrupulous meanness '' in his use of materials for the novel. He recycled the two earlier attempts at explaining his aesthetics and youth, A Portrait of the Artist and Stephen Hero, as well as his notebooks from Trieste concerning the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas; they all came together in five carefully paced chapters.
Stephen Hero is written from the point of view of an omniscient third - person narrator, but in Portrait Joyce adopts the free indirect style, a change that reflects the moving of the narrative centre of consciousness firmly and uniquely onto Stephen. Persons and events take their significance from Stephen, and are perceived from his point of view. Characters and places are no longer mentioned simply because the young Joyce had known them. Salient details are carefully chosen and fitted into the aesthetic pattern of the novel.
In 1913 the Irish poet W.B. Yeats recommended Joyce 's work to the avant - garde American poet Ezra Pound, who was assembling an anthology of verse. Pound wrote to Joyce, and in 1914 Joyce submitted the first chapter of the unfinished Portrait to Pound, who was so taken with it that he pressed to have the work serialised in the London literary magazine The Egoist. Joyce hurried to complete the novel, and it appeared in The Egoist in twenty - five instalments from 2 February 1914 to 1 September 1915.
There was difficulty finding a British publisher for the finished novel, so Pound arranged for its publication by an American publishing house, B.W. Huebsch, which issued it on 29 December 1916. The Egoist Press republished it in the United Kingdom on 12 February 1917 and Jonathan Cape took over its publication in 1924. In 1964 Viking Press issued a corrected version overseen by Chester Anderson. Garland released a "copy text '' edition by Hans Walter Gabler in 1993.
Stephen Dedalus -- The main character of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. Growing up, Stephen goes through long phases of hedonism and deep religiosity. He eventually adopts a philosophy of aestheticism, greatly valuing beauty and art. Stephen is essentially Joyce 's alter ego, and many of the events of Stephen 's life mirror events from Joyce 's own youth. His surname is taken from the ancient Greek mythical figure Daedalus, who also engaged in a struggle for autonomy.
Simon Dedalus -- Stephen 's father, an impoverished former medical student with a strong sense of Irish nationalism. Sentimental about his past, Simon Dedalus frequently reminisces about his youth. Loosely based on Joyce 's own father and their relationship.
Mary Dedalus -- Stephen 's mother who is very religious and often argues with Stephen about attending services.
Emma Clery -- Stephen 's beloved, the young girl to whom he is fiercely attracted over the course of many years. Stephen constructs Emma as an ideal of femininity, even though (or because) he does not know her well.
Charles Stewart Parnell -- An Irish political leader who is not an actual character in the novel, but whose death influences many of its characters. Parnell had powerfully led the Irish Parliamentary Party until he was driven out of public life after his affair with a married woman was exposed.
Cranly -- Stephen 's best friend at university, in whom he confides some of his thoughts and feelings. In this sense Cranly represents a secular confessor for Stephen. Eventually Cranly begins to encourage Stephen to conform to the wishes of his family and to try harder to fit in with his peers, advice that Stephen fiercely resents. Towards the conclusion of the novel he bears witness to Stephen 's exposition of his aesthetic philosophy. It is partly due to Cranly that Stephen decides to leave, after witnessing Cranly 's budding (and reciprocated) romantic interest in Emma.
Dante (Mrs. Riordan) -- The governess of the Dedalus children. She is very intense and a dedicated Catholic.
Lynch -- Stephen 's friend from university who has a rather dry personality.
Once upon a time and a very good time it was there was a moocow coming down along the road and this moocow that was coming down along the road met a nicens little boy named baby tuckoo...
His father told him that story: his father looked at him through a glass: he had a hairy face.
The childhood of Stephen Dedalus is recounted using vocabulary that changes as he grows, in a voice not his own but sensitive to his feelings. The reader experiences Stephen 's fears and bewilderment as he comes to terms with the world in a series of disjointed episodes. Stephen attends the Jesuit - run Clongowes Wood College, where the apprehensive, intellectually gifted boy suffers the ridicule of his classmates while he learns the schoolboy codes of behaviour. While he can not grasp their significance, at a Christmas dinner he is witness to the social, political and religious tensions in Ireland involving Charles Stewart Parnell, which drive wedges between members of his family, leaving Stephen with doubts over which social institutions he can place his faith in. Back at Clongowes, word spreads that a number of older boys have been caught "smugging ''; discipline is tightened, and the Jesuits increase use of corporal punishment. Stephen is strapped when one of his instructors believes he has broken his glasses to avoid studying, but, prodded by his classmates, Stephen works up the courage to complain to the rector, Father Conmee, who assures him there will be no such recurrence, leaving Stephen with a sense of triumph.
Stephen 's father gets into debt and the family leaves its pleasant suburban home to live in Dublin. Stephen realises that he will not return to Clongowes. However, thanks to a scholarship obtained for him by Father Conmee, Stephen is able to attend Belvedere College, where he excels academically and becomes a class leader. Stephen squanders a large cash prize from school, and begins to see prostitutes, as distance grows between him and his drunken father.
As Stephen abandons himself to sensual pleasures, his class is taken on a religious retreat, where the boys sit through sermons. Stephen pays special attention to those on pride, guilt, punishment and the Four Last Things (death, judgement, Hell, and Heaven). He feels that the words of the sermon, describing horrific eternal punishment in hell, are directed at himself and, overwhelmed, comes to desire forgiveness. Overjoyed at his return to the Church, he devotes himself to acts of ascetic repentance, though they soon devolve to mere acts of routine, as his thoughts turn elsewhere. His devotion comes to the attention of the Jesuits, and they encourage him to consider entering the priesthood. Stephen takes time to consider, but has a crisis of faith because of the conflict between his spiritual beliefs and his aesthetic ambitions. Along Dollymount Strand he spots a girl wading, and has an epiphany in which he is overcome with the desire to find a way to express her beauty in his writing.
As a student at University College, Dublin, Stephen grows increasingly wary of the institutions around him: Church, school, politics and family. In the midst of the disintegration of his family 's fortunes his father berates him and his mother urges him to return to the Church. An increasingly dry, humourless Stephen explains his alienation from the Church and the aesthetic theory he has developed to his friends, who find that they can not accept either of them. Stephen concludes that Ireland is too restricted to allow him to express himself fully as an artist, so he decides that he will have to leave. He sets his mind on self - imposed exile, but not without declaring in his diary his ties to his homeland:
... I go to encounter for the millionth time the reality of experience and to forge in the smithy of my soul the uncreated conscience of my race.
The novel mixes third - person narrative with free indirect speech, which allows both identification with and distance from Stephen. The narrator refrains from judgement. The omniscient narrator of the earlier Stephen Hero informs the reader as Stephen sets out to write "some pages of sorry verse, '' while Portrait gives only Stephen 's attempts, leaving the evaluation to the reader.
The novel is written primarily as a third - person narrative with minimal dialogue until the final chapter. This chapter includes dialogue - intensive scenes alternately involving Stephen, Davin and Cranly. An example of such a scene is the one in which Stephen posits his complex Thomist aesthetic theory in an extended dialogue. Joyce employs first - person narration for Stephen 's diary entries in the concluding pages of the novel, perhaps to suggest that Stephen has finally found his own voice and no longer needs to absorb the stories of others. Joyce fully employs the free indirect style to demonstrate Stephen 's intellectual development from his childhood, through his education, to his increasing independence and ultimate exile from Ireland as a young man. The style of the work progresses through each of its five chapters, as the complexity of language and Stephen 's ability to comprehend the world around him both gradually increase. The book 's opening pages communicate Stephen 's first stirrings of consciousness when he is a child. Throughout the work language is used to describe indirectly the state of mind of the protagonist and the subjective effect of the events of his life.
The writing style is notable also for Joyce 's omission of quotation marks: he indicates dialogue by beginning a paragraph with a dash, as is commonly used in French, Spanish or Russian publications.
According to the literary scholar Hugh Kenner, "every theme in the entire life - work of James Joyce is stated on the first two pages of the Portrait ''. The highly condensed recounting of young Stephen 's growing consciousness "enact (s) the entire action (of the novel) in microcosm. An Aristotelian catalogue of senses, faculties, and mental activities is counterpointed against the unfolding of the infant conscience '', and themes that run through Joyce 's later novels find expression there.
The epigraph quotes from Ovid 's Metamorphoses: the inventor Daedalus, who has built a labyrinth to imprison the Minotaur, and his son Icarus who are forbidden to leave the Island of Crete by its King, Minos. Daedalus, "turning his mind to unknown arts '', fashions wings of birds ' feathers and wax with which he and his son flee their island prison. Icarus flies so close to the sun that the wax on his pair melts and he plummets into the sea. To A. Nicholas Fargnoli and Michael Patrick Gillespie the epigraph parallels the heights and depths that end and begin each chapter, and can be seen to proclaim the interpretive freedom of the text.
A Portrait belongs to the genre of Künstlerroman, a story of artistic development, of which A Portrait is the primary example in English.
Stephen Hero is a directly autobiographical novel, including people and events because Joyce had personally experienced them. In contrast, in A Portrait Joyce refines his approach by selectively drawing on life events and reflecting them through the consciousness of Stephen Dedalus, a fictional character.
A Portrait won Joyce a reputation for his literary skills, as well as a patron, Harriet Shaw Weaver, the business manager of The Egoist.
In 1917 H. G. Wells wrote that "one believes in Stephen Dedalus as one believes in few characters in fiction, '' while warning readers of Joyce 's "cloacal obsession, '' his insistence on the portrayal of bodily functions that Victorian morality had banished from print.
A film version adapted for the screen by Judith Rascoe and directed by Joseph Strick was released in 1977. It features Bosco Hogan as Stephen Dedalus and T.P. McKenna as Simon Dedalus. John Gielgud plays Father Arnall, the priest whose lengthy sermon on Hell terrifies the teenage Stephen.
The first stage version was produced by Léonie Scott - Matthews at Pentameters Theatre in 2012 using an adaptation by Tom Neill.
Hugh Leonard 's stage work Stephen D is an adaptation of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and Stephen Hero. It was first produced at the Gate Theatre during the Dublin Theatre Festival of 1962.
Computer scientists and literature scholars at University College Dublin, Ireland are in a collaboration to create the multimedia version this work, by charting the social networks of characters in the novel. Animations in the multimedia editions express the relation of every character in the chapter to the others.
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in immunological terms the proteins that make up the abo blood types are considered to be | ABO blood group system - wikipedia
The ABO blood group system is used to denote the presence of one, both, or neither of the A and B antigens on erythrocytes. In human blood transfusions it is the most important of the 35 different blood type (or group) classification systems currently recognized. A very rare (in modern medicine) mismatch in this, or any other serotype, can cause a serious, potentially fatal, adverse reaction after a transfusion, or an contra - indicated immune response to a organ transplant. The associated anti-A and anti-B antibodies are usually IgM antibodies, which are produced in the first years of life by sensitization to environmental substances, such as food, bacteria, and viruses. ABO blood types are also present in some other animals, for example rodents and apes, such as chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas.
The ABO blood group system is widely credited to have been discovered by the Austrian scientist Karl Landsteiner, who identified the O, A, and B blood types in 1900. Landsteiner originally described the O blood type as type "C '', and in parts of Europe it is rendered as "0 '' (zero), signifying the lack of A or B antigen. Landsteiner was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930 for his work. Alfred von Decastello and Adriano Sturli discovered the fourth type, AB, in 1902.
It was subsequently found that the Czech serologist Jan Janský had independently pioneered the classification of human blood into four groups in 1907, but Landsteiner 's independent discovery had been accepted by the scientific world while Janský remained then in relative obscurity. However, in 1921 an American medical commission acknowledged Janský 's classification. Jan Janský is nowadays credited with the first classification of blood into the four types (I, II, III, IV).
Janský 's classification remains in use today. In Russia and states of the former USSR, blood types O, A, B, and AB are respectively designated I, II, III, and IV. The designation A and B with reference to blood groups was proposed by Ludwik Hirszfeld.
In America, W.L. Moss published his own (very similar) work in 1910.
Ludwik Hirszfeld and E. von Dungern discovered the heritability of ABO blood groups in 1910 -- 11. Felix Bernstein demonstrated the correct blood group inheritance pattern of multiple alleles at one locus in 1924. Watkins and Morgan, in England, discovered that the ABO epitopes were conferred by sugars, to be specific, N - acetylgalactosamine for the A-type and galactose for the B - type. After much published literature claiming that the ABH substances were all attached to glycosphingolipids, Finne et al. (1978) found that the human erythrocyte glycoproteins contain polylactosamine chains that contains ABH substances attached and represent the majority of the antigens. The main glycoproteins carrying the ABH antigens were identified to be the Band 3 and Band 4.5 proteins and glycophorin. Later, Yamamoto 's group showed the precise glycosyl transferase set that confers the A, B and O epitopes.
In April 2007, an international team of researchers announced in the journal Nature Biotechnology an inexpensive and efficient way to convert types A, B, and AB blood into type O. This is done by using glycosidase enzymes from specific bacteria to strip the blood group antigens from red blood cells. The removal of A and B antigens still does not address the problem of the Rh blood group antigen on the blood cells of Rh positive individuals, and so blood from Rh negative donors must be used. Patient trials will be conducted before the method can be relied on in live situations.
Another approach to the blood antigen problem is the manufacture of artificial blood, which could act as a substitute in emergencies.
Blood groups are inherited from both parents. The ABO blood type is controlled by a single gene (the ABO gene) with three types of alleles inferred from classical genetics: i, I, and I. The I designation stands for isoagglutinogen, another term for antigen. The gene encodes a glycosyltransferase -- that is, an enzyme that modifies the carbohydrate content of the red blood cell antigens. The gene is located on the long arm of the ninth chromosome (9q34).
The I allele gives type A, I gives type B, and i gives type O. As both I and I are dominant over i, only ii people have type O blood. Individuals with I I or I i have type A blood, and individuals with I I or I i have type B. I I people have both phenotypes, because A and B express a special dominance relationship: codominance, which means that type A and B parents can have an AB child. A couple with type A and type B can also have a type O child if they are both heterozygous (I i, I i) The cis - AB phenotype has a single enzyme that creates both A and B antigens. The resulting red blood cells do not usually express A or B antigen at the same level that would be expected on common group A or B red blood cells, which can help solve the problem of an apparently genetically impossible blood group.
The table above summarizes the various blood groups that children may inherit from their parents. Genotypes are shown in the second column and in small print for the offspring: AO and AA both test as type A; BO and BB test as type B. The four possibilities represent the combinations obtained when one allele is taken from each parent; each has a 25 % chance, but some occur more than once.
Historically, ABO blood tests were used in paternity testing, but in 1957 only 50 % of American men falsely accused were able to use them as evidence against paternity. Occasionally, the blood types of children are not consistent with expectations -- for example, a type O child can be born to an AB parent -- due to rare situations, such as Bombay phenotype and cis AB.
The A blood type contains about 20 subgroups, of which A1 and A2 are the most common (over 99 %). A1 makes up about 80 % of all A-type blood, with A2 making up almost all of the rest. These two subgroups are not always interchangeable as far as transfusion is concerned, as some A2 individuals produce antibodies against the A1 antigen. Complications can sometimes arise in rare cases when typing the blood.
With the development of DNA sequencing, it has been possible to identify a much larger number of alleles at the ABO locus, each of which can be categorized as A, B, or O in terms of the reaction to transfusion, but which can be distinguished by variations in the DNA sequence. There are six common alleles in white individuals of the ABO gene that produce one 's blood type:
The same study also identified 18 rare alleles, which generally have a weaker glycosylation activity. People with weak alleles of A can sometimes express anti-A antibodies, though these are usually not clinically significant as they do not stably interact with the antigen at body temperature.
Cis AB is another rare variant, in which A and B genes are transmitted together from a single parent.
The distribution of the blood groups A, B, O and AB varies across the world according to the population. There are also variations in blood type distribution within human subpopulations.
In the UK, the distribution of blood type frequencies through the population still shows some correlation to the distribution of placenames and to the successive invasions and migrations including Norsemen, Danes, Saxons, Celts, and Normans who contributed the morphemes to the placenames and the genes to the population.
The two common O alleles, O01 and O02, share their first 261 nucleotides with the group A allele A01. However, unlike the group A allele, a guanosine base is subsequently deleted. A premature stop codon results from this frame - shift mutation. This variant is found worldwide, and likely predates human migration from Africa. The O01 allele is considered to predate the O02 allele.
Some evolutionary biologists theorize that the I allele evolved first, followed by O (by the deletion of a single nucleotide, shifting the reading frame) and then I. This chronology accounts for the percentage of people worldwide with each blood type. It is consistent with the accepted patterns of early population movements and varying prevalent blood types in different parts of the world: for instance, B is very common in populations of Asian descent, but rare in ones of Western European descent. Another theory states that there are four main lineages of the ABO gene and that mutations creating type O have occurred at least three times in humans. From oldest to youngest, these lineages comprise the following alleles: A101 / A201 / O09, B101, O02 and O01. The continued presence of the O alleles is hypothesized to be the result of balancing selection. Both theories contradict the previously held theory that type O blood evolved first.
It is possible that food and environmental antigens (bacterial, viral, or plant antigens) have epitopes similar enough to A and B glycoprotein antigens. The antibodies created against these environmental antigens in the first years of life can cross-react with ABO - incompatible red blood cells that it comes in contact with during blood transfusion later in life. Anti-A antibodies are hypothesized to originate from immune response towards influenza virus, whose epitopes are similar enough to the α - D-N - galactosamine on the A glycoprotein to be able to elicit a cross-reaction. Anti-B antibodies are hypothesized to originate from antibodies produced against Gram - negative bacteria, such as E. coli, cross-reacting with the α - D - galactose on the B glycoprotein.
However, it is more likely that the force driving evolution of allele diversity is simply negative frequency - dependent selection; cells with rare variants of membrane antigens are more easily distinguished by the immune system from pathogens carrying antigens from other hosts. Thus, individuals possessing rare types are better equipped to detect pathogens. The high within - population diversity observed in human populations would, then, be a consequence of natural selection on individuals.
HIV can be neutralized in in vitro experiments using antibodies against blood group antigens specifically expressed on the HIV - producing cell lines.
The carbohydrate molecules on the surfaces of red blood cells have roles in cell membrane integrity, cell adhesion, membrane transportation of molecules, and acting as receptors for extracellular ligands, and enzymes. ABO antigens are found having similar roles on epithelial cells as well as red blood cells.
The ABO antigen is also expressed on the von Willebrand factor (vWF) glycoprotein, which participates in hemostasis (control of bleeding). In fact, having type O blood predisposes to bleeding, as 30 % of the total genetic variation observed in plasma vWF is explained by the effect of the ABO blood group, and individuals with group O blood normally have significantly lower plasma levels of vWF (and Factor VIII) than do non-O individuals. In addition, vWF is degraded more rapidly due to the higher prevalence of blood group O with the Cys1584 variant of vWF (an amino acid polymorphism in VWF): the gene for ADAMTS13 (vWF - cleaving protease) maps to the ninth chromosome (9q34), the same locus as ABO blood type. Higher levels of vWF are more common amongst people who have had ischemic stroke (from blood clotting) for the first time. The results of this study found that the occurrence was not affected by ADAMTS13 polymorphism, and the only significant genetic factor was the person 's blood group.
Compared to O group individuals, non-O group (A, AB, and B) individuals have a 14 % reduced risk of squamous cell carcinoma and 4 % reduced risk of basal cell carcinoma. Conversely, type O blood is associated with a reduced risk of pancreatic cancer. The B antigen links with increased risk of ovarian cancer. Gastric cancer has reported to be more common in blood group A and least in group O.
According to Glass, Holmgren, et al., those in the O blood group have an increased risk of infection with cholera, and those O - group individuals who are infected have more severe infections. The mechanisms behind this association with cholera are unclear in the literature.
ABO blood group incompatibilities between the mother and child does not usually cause hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) because antibodies to the ABO blood groups are usually of the IgM type, which do not cross the placenta. However, in an O - type mother, IgG ABO antibodies are produced and the baby can potentially develop ABO hemolytic disease of the newborn.
In human cells, the ABO alleles and their encoded glycosyltransferases have been described in several oncologic conditions. Using anti-GTA / GTB monoclonal antibodies, it was demonstrated that a loss of these enzymes was correlated to malignant bladder and oral epithelia. Furthermore, the expression of ABO blood group antigens in normal human tissues is dependent the type of differentiation of the epithelium. In most human carcinomas, including oral carcinoma, a significant event as part of the underlying mechanism is decreased expression of the A and B antigens. Several studies have observed that a relative down - regulation of GTA and GTB occurs in oral carcinomas in association with tumor development. More recently, a genome wide association study (GWAS) has identified variants in the ABO locus associated with susceptibility to pancreatic cancer.
A multi-locus genetic risk score study based on a combination of 27 loci, including the ABO gene, identified individuals at increased risk for both incident and recurrent coronary artery disease events, as well as an enhanced clinical benefit from statin therapy. The study was based on a community cohort study (the Malmo Diet and Cancer study) and four additional randomized controlled trials of primary prevention cohorts (JUPITER and ASCOT) and secondary prevention cohorts (CARE and PROVE IT - TIMI 22).
During the 1930s, connecting blood groups to personality types became popular in Japan and other areas of the world. There are some positive science studies.
Other popular but unsupported ideas include the use of a blood type diet, claims that group A causes severe hangovers, group O is associated with perfect teeth, and those with blood group A2 have the highest IQs. Scientific evidence in support of these concepts is nonexistent.
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where does the money go for planned parenthood | Planned Parenthood - Wikipedia
Planned Parenthood Federation of America, Inc. (PPFA), or Planned Parenthood, is a nonprofit organization that provides reproductive health care in the United States and globally. It is a tax - exempt corporation under Internal Revenue Code section 501 (c) (3) and a member association of the International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF). PPFA has its roots in Brooklyn, New York, where Margaret Sanger opened the first birth control clinic in the U.S. in 1916. Sanger founded the American Birth Control League in 1921, which changed its name to Planned Parenthood in 1942.
Planned Parenthood consists of 159 medical and non-medical affiliates, which operate over 600 health clinics in the United States. It partners with organizations in 12 countries globally. The organization directly provides a variety of reproductive health services and sexual education, contributes to research in reproductive technology and advocates for the protection and expansion of reproductive rights.
PPFA is the largest single provider of reproductive health services, including abortion, in the U.S. In their 2014 Annual Report, PPFA reported seeing over 2.5 million patients in over 4 million clinical visits and performing a total of nearly 9.5 million discrete services including 324,000 abortions. Its combined annual revenue is US $ 1.3 billion, including approximately US $530 million in government funding such as Medicaid reimbursements. Throughout its history, PPFA and its member clinics have experienced support, controversy, protests, and violent attacks.
The origins of Planned Parenthood date to October 16, 1916, when Margaret Sanger, her sister Ethel Byrne, and Fania Mindell opened the first birth control clinic in the U.S. in the Brownsville section of the New York borough of Brooklyn. They distributed birth control, birth control advice, and birth control information. All three women were arrested and jailed for violating provisions of the Comstock Act, accused of distributing obscene materials at the clinic. The so - called Brownsville trials brought national attention and support to their cause. Sanger and her co-defendants were convicted on misdemeanor charges, which they appealed through two subsequent appeals courts. While the convictions were not overturned, the judge who issued the final ruling also modified the law to permit physician - prescribed birth control. The women 's campaign led to major changes in the laws governing birth control and sex education in the United States.
In 1921 the clinic was organized into the American Birth Control League, the core of the only national birth - control organization in the U.S. until the 1960s. By 1941 it was operating 222 centers and had served 49,000 clients. However, some found its title offensive and "against families '', so the League began discussions for a new name. In 1938, a group of private citizens organized the Citizens Committee for Planned Parenthood to aid the American Birth Control League in spreading scientific knowledge about birth control to the general public. In 1942, the League officially changed its name to the Planned Parenthood Federation of America.
Largely relying on a volunteer workforce, by 1960 the Federation had provided family planning counseling in hundreds of communities across the country. Planned Parenthood was one of the founding members of the International Planned Parenthood Federation when it was launched at a conference in Bombay (now Mumbai), India, in 1952.
Both Planned Parenthood and Margaret Sanger are strongly associated with the abortion issue today. For much of the organization 's history, however, and throughout Sanger 's life, abortion was illegal in the United States, and discussions of the issue were often censored. During this period, Sanger -- like other American advocates of birth control -- publicly condemned abortion, arguing that it would not be needed if every woman had access to birth control.
Following Margaret Sanger, Alan Frank Guttmacher became president of Planned Parenthood, serving from 1962 until 1974. During his tenure, the Food and Drug Administration approved the sale of the original birth control pill, giving rise to new attitudes towards women 's reproductive freedom. Also during his presidency, Planned Parenthood lobbied the federal government to support reproductive health, culminating with President Richard Nixon 's signing of Title X to provide governmental subsidies for low - income women to access family planning services. The Center for Family Planning Program Development was also founded as a semi-autonomous division during this time. The center became an independent organization and was renamed the Guttmacher Institute in 1977.
Planned Parenthood began to advocate abortion law reform beginning in 1955, when the organization 's medical director, Mary Calderone, convened a national conference of medical professionals on the issue. The conference was the first instance of physicians and other professionals advocating reform of the laws which criminalized abortion, and it played a key role in creating a movement for the reform of abortion laws in the United States. Focusing, at first, on legalizing therapeutic abortion, Planned Parenthood became an increasingly vocal proponent of liberalized abortion laws during the 1960s, culminating in its call for the repeal of all anti-abortion laws in 1969. In the years that followed, the organization played a key role in landmark abortion rights cases such as Roe v Wade (1973) and Planned Parenthood v Casey (1992). Once abortion was legalized during the early 1970s, Planned Parenthood also began acting as an abortion provider.
Faye Wattleton became the first African American president of the Planned Parenthood Federation of America in 1978. Wattleton, who was also the youngest president in Planned Parenthood 's history, served in this role until 1992. During her term, Planned Parenthood grew to become the seventh largest charity in the country, providing services to four million clients each year through its 170 affiliates, whose activities were spread across 50 states.
From 1996 to 2006, Planned Parenthood was led by Gloria Feldt. Feldt activated the Planned Parenthood Action Fund (PPAF), the organization 's political action committee, launching what was the most far reaching electoral advocacy effort in its history. The PPAF serves as the nonpartisan political advocacy arm of PPFA. It engages in educational and electoral activity, including legislative advocacy, voter education, and grassroots organizing to promote the PPFA mission. Feldt also launched the Responsible Choices Action Agenda, a nationwide campaign to increase services to prevent unwanted pregnancies, improve quality of reproductive care, and ensure access to safe and legal abortions. Another initiative was the commencement of a "Global Partnership Program '', with the aim of building a vibrant activist constituency in support of family planning.
On February 15, 2006, Cecile Richards, the daughter of former Texas governor Ann Richards, and formerly the deputy chief of staff to the U.S. Rep. Nancy Pelosi (the Democratic Leader in the United States House of Representatives), became president of the organization. In 2012 Richards was voted one of Time magazine 's 100 Most Influential People in the World.
In 1966, PPFA began awarding the Margaret Sanger Award annually to honor, in their words, "individuals of distinction in recognition of excellence and leadership in furthering reproductive health and reproductive rights ''. In the first year, it was awarded to four men: Carl G. Hartman, William H. Draper, Lyndon Baines Johnson, and Martin Luther King, Jr. Later recipients have included John D. Rockefeller III, Katharine Hepburn, Jane Fonda, Hillary Clinton, and Ted Turner.
The services provided by PPFA affiliates vary by location, with just over half of all Planned Parenthood affiliates in the United States performing abortions. Services provided by PPFA include birth control and long - acting reversible contraception; emergency contraception; clinical breast examinations; cervical cancer screening; pregnancy testing and pregnancy options counseling; testing and treatment for sexually transmitted infections; sex education; vasectomies; LGBT services; and abortion. Contrary to the assumption of some, Planned Parenthood conducts cancer screenings but does not provide mammograms.
In 2013 PPFA reported seeing 2.7 million patients in 4.6 million clinical visits. Roughly 16 % of its clients are teenagers. According to PPFA, in 2014 the organization provided 3.6 million contraceptive services, 4.5 million sexually transmitted infection services, about 1 million cancer related services, over 1 million pregnancy tests and prenatal services, over 324,000 abortion services, and over 100,000 other services, for a total of 9.5 million discrete services. PPFA is well known for providing services to minorities and the poor; according to PPFA, approximately four out of five of their clients have incomes at or below 150 percent of the federal poverty level. Services for Men 's Health include STD testing and treatment, vasectomy procedures, and erectile dysfunction services. Education is available regarding male birth control and lowering the risk of Sexually Transmitted Diseases.
PPFA has two national offices in the United States: one in Washington, D.C., and one in New York. It has three international offices, including a hub office in London, England. It has 68 medical and related affiliates and 101 other affiliates including 34 political action committees. These affiliates together operate more than 700 health centers in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. PPFA owns about US $54 million in property, including real estate. In addition, PPFA spends a little over US $1 million per year for rented space. The largest facility, a US $26 million, 78,000 - square - foot (7,200 - square - metre) structure, was completed in Houston, Texas, in May 2010.
PPFA 's international outreach and other activities are performed by Planned Parenthood Global, a division of PPFA, and by the International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) which now consists of more than 149 Member Associations working in more than 189 countries. The IPPF is further associated with International Planned Parenthood Federation affiliates in the Caribbean and the Americas and IPPF European Network, as well as other organizations like Family Planning Queensland, Pro Familia (Germany) and mouvement français pour le planning familial (French Movement for Family Planning). Offices are located in New York, NY; Washington, DC; Miami, FL; Guatemala City, Guatemala; Abuja, Nigeria; and Nairobi, Kenya. The organization 's focus countries are Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Peru, Senegal, Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Sudan, South Sudan, Uganda, Ethiopia, and Kenya. The Bloomberg Philanthropies donated US $50 million for Planned Parenthood Global 's reproductive health and family planning efforts in Tanzania, Nicaragua, Burkina Faso, Senegal and Uganda. Among specific countries and territories serviced by Planned Parenthood Global 's reproductive planning outreach are Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Martinique, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, Dominican Republic, Barbados, Bolivia, Ecuador, Guadeloupe, Saint Martin, Guyana, Cape Verde and Samoa.
Planned Parenthood has received federal funding since 1970, when President Richard Nixon signed into law the Family Planning Services and Population Research Act, amending the Public Health Service Act. Title X of that law provides funding for family planning services, including contraception and family planning information. The law had support from both Republicans and Democrats. Nixon described Title X funding as based on the premise that "no American woman should be denied access to family planning assistance because of her economic condition ''.
Donors to Planned Parenthood have included the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Buffett Foundation, the Ford Foundation, the Turner Foundation, the Cullmans, and others. The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 's contributions to the organization have been specifically marked to avoid funding abortions. Some donors, such as the Buffett Foundation, have supported reproductive health that can include abortion services. Pro-life groups have advocated the boycott of donors to Planned Parenthood. Corporate donors include CREDO Mobile.
In the fiscal year ending June 30, 2014, total revenue was US $1.3 billion: non-government health services revenue was US $305 million, government revenue (such as Medicaid reimbursements) was US $528 million, private contributions totaled US $392 million, and US $78 million came from other operating revenue. According to Planned Parenthood, 59 % of the group 's revenue is put towards the provision of health services, while non-medical services such as sex education and public policy work make up another 15 %; management expenses, fundraising, and international family planning programs account for about 16 %, and 10 % of the revenue in 2013 -- 2014 was not spent.
Planned Parenthood receives over a third of its money in government grants and contracts (about US $528 million in 2014). By law, federal funding can not be allocated for abortions (except in rare cases), but some opponents of abortion have argued that allocating money to Planned Parenthood for the provision of other medical services allows other funds to be re-allocated for abortions.
A coalition of national and local pro-life groups have lobbied federal and state governments to stop funding Planned Parenthood. As a result, federal and state legislators have proposed legislation to reduce funding levels. Eight states -- Alabama, Arkansas, Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana, New Hampshire, Ohio, and Utah -- have enacted such proposals. In some cases the courts have overturned such actions, citing conflict with federal or state laws; in others the federal executive branch has provided funding in lieu of the states. In some states, Planned Parenthood was completely or partially defunded.
In August 2015, Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal attempted to end Louisiana 's contract with Planned Parenthood to treat Medicaid patients at a time when there was an epidemic of sexually transmitted diseases in Louisiana. Planned Parenthood and three patients sued the state of Louisiana, with the United States Department of Justice siding with Planned Parenthood.
On February 2, 2016, the U.S. House failed to override President Obama 's veto of H.R. 3762 which would have prohibited Planned Parenthood from receiving any federal Medicaid funds for one year.
Late in 2016, the Obama administration issued a rule effective in January 2017 banning U.S. states from withholding federal family - planning funds from health clinics that give abortions, including Planned Parenthood affiliates; this rule mandates that local and state governments give federal funds for services related to sexually transmitted infections, pregnancy care, fertility, contraception, and breast and cervical cancer screening to qualified health providers whether or not they give abortions. However, this rule was blocked by a federal judge the day before it would have taken effect. In 2017 it was overturned by new legislation.
The proposed American Health Care Act, announced by Congressional Republicans in March 2017, would have made Planned Parenthood "ineligible for Medicaid reimbursements or federal family planning grants ''.
Planned Parenthood is an advocate for the legal and political protection of reproductive rights. This advocacy includes helping to sponsor abortion rights and women 's rights events. The Federation opposes restrictions on women 's reproductive health services, including parental consent laws for minors. To justify this position, Planned Parenthood has cited the case of Becky Bell, who died following an illegal abortion rather than seek parental consent for a legal one. Planned Parenthood also takes the position that laws requiring parental notification before an abortion can be performed on a minor are unconstitutional on privacy grounds.
The organization opposes laws requiring ultrasounds before abortions, stating that their only purpose is to make abortions more difficult to obtain. Planned Parenthood has also opposed initiatives that require waiting periods before abortions, and bans on late - term abortions including intact dilation and extraction, which has been illegal in the U.S. since 2003. Planned Parenthood supports the wide availability of emergency contraception such as the Plan B pill. It opposes conscience clauses, which allow pharmacists to refuse to dispense drugs against their beliefs. Planned Parenthood has been critical of hospitals that do not provide access to emergency contraception for rape victims. Citing the need for medically accurate information in sex education, Planned Parenthood opposes abstinence - only education in public schools. Instead, Planned Parenthood is a provider of, and endorses, comprehensive sex education, which includes discussion of both abstinence and birth control.
Planned Parenthood 's advocacy activities are executed by the Planned Parenthood Action Fund, which is registered as a 501 (c) (4) charity, and files financial information jointly with PPFA. The committee was founded in 1996, by then - president Gloria Feldt, for the purpose of maintaining reproductive health rights and supporting political candidates of the same mindset. In the 2012 election cycle, the committee gained prominence based on its effectiveness of spending on candidates. Although the Planned Parenthood Action Fund (PPAF) shares some leadership with the Planned Parenthood Federation of America, the president of PPAF, Cecile Richards, testified before Congress in September 2015 that she did not manage the organization. The Planned Parenthood Action Fund has 58 active, separately incorporated chapters in 41 states and maintains national headquarters in New York and Washington, D.C. Planned Parenthood has received grants from the Obama administration to help promote the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, or ObamaCare.
Planned Parenthood spends money on politics and elections through the Planned Parenthood Action Fund (its federal political action committee), through its Super PAC, and through a variety of related 501 (c) (4) entities. Planned Parenthood endorsed Barack Obama in the 2008 and 2012 presidential elections. In the 2014 election cycle, Planned Parenthood spent US $6,587,100 on contributions to candidates and political parties (overwhelmingly to Democrats) and on independent expenditures.
Planned Parenthood regional chapters have been active in the American courts. A number of cases in which Planned Parenthood has been a party have reached the U.S. Supreme Court. Notable among these cases is the 1992 case Planned Parenthood v. Casey, the case that sets forth the current constitutional abortion standard. In this case, "Planned Parenthood '' was the Southeast Pennsylvania Chapter, and "Casey '' was Robert Casey, the governor of Pennsylvania. The ultimate ruling was split, and Roe v. Wade was narrowed but upheld in an opinion written by Sandra Day O'Connor, Anthony Kennedy, and David Souter. Harry Blackmun and John Paul Stevens concurred with the main decision in separately written opinions. The Supreme Court struck down spousal consent requirements for married women to obtain abortions, but found no "undue burden '' -- an alternative to strict scrutiny, which tests the allowable limitations on rights protected under the Constitution -- from the other statutory requirements. Dissenting were William Rehnquist, Antonin Scalia, Clarence Thomas, and Byron White. Blackmun, Rehnquist, and White were the only justices who voted on the original Roe v. Wade decision in 1973 who were still on the Supreme Court to rule on this case, and their votes on this case were consistent with their votes on the original decision that legalized abortion. Only Blackmun voted to maintain Roe v. Wade in its entirety.
Other related cases include:
Some state attorney generals have subpoenaed medical records of patients treated by Planned Parenthood. Planned Parenthood has gone to court to keep from turning over these records, citing medical privacy and concerns about the motivation for seeking the records.
In 2006, Kansas Attorney General Phill Kline, a Republican, released some sealed patient records obtained from Planned Parenthood to the public. His actions were described as "troubling '' by the state Supreme Court, but Planned Parenthood was compelled to turn over the medical records, albeit with more stringent court - mandated privacy safeguards for the patients involved. In 2007 Kline 's successor, Paul J. Morrison, a Democrat, notified the clinic that no criminal charges would be filed after a three - year investigation, as "an objective, unbiased and thorough examination '' showed no wrongdoing. Morrison stated that he believed Kline had politicized the attorney general 's office. In 2012 a Kansas district attorney found that the practices of the Kansas City - area Planned Parenthood clinic were "within accepted practices in the medical community '' and dropped all of the remaining criminal charges. In all, the Planned Parenthood clinic had faced 107 criminal charges from Kline and other Kansas prosecutors, all of which were ultimately dismissed.
In 2006, the Indiana Court of Appeals ruled that Planned Parenthood was not required to turn over its medical records in an investigation of possible child abuse. In 2005 Planned Parenthood Minnesota / North Dakota / South Dakota was fined US $50,000 for violating a Minnesota state parental consent law.
In 2012, a Texas state court judge, Gary Harger, denied Planned Parenthood request for a temporary restraining order against the State of Texas, concluding that the State may exclude otherwise qualified doctors and clinics from receiving state funding if the doctors or clinics advocate for abortion rights.
In the 1920s, various theories of eugenics were popular among intellectuals in the United States. (For example, 75 % of colleges offered courses on eugenics.) In her campaign to promote birth control, Sanger teamed with eugenics organizations such as the American Eugenics Society, although she argued against many of their positions. Scholars describe Sanger as believing that birth control and sterilization should be voluntary, and not based on race. Sanger advocated for "voluntary motherhood '' -- the right to choose when to be pregnant -- for all women, as an important element of women 's rights. As part of her efforts to promote birth control, however, Sanger found common cause with proponents of eugenics, believing that she and they both sought to "assist the race toward the elimination of the unfit ''.
Critics of Planned Parenthood often refer to Sanger 's connection with supporters of eugenics to discredit the organization by associating it, and birth control, with the more negative modern view of eugenics. Planned Parenthood has responded to this effort directly in a leaflet acknowledging that Sanger agreed with some of her contemporaries who advocated the voluntary hospitalization or sterilization of people with untreatable, disabling, hereditary conditions, and limits on the immigration of the diseased. The leaflet also states that Planned Parenthood "finds these views objectionable and outmoded '' but says that it was compelled to discuss the topic because "anti-family planning activists continue to attack Sanger... because she is an easier target '' than Planned Parenthood.
Planned Parenthood has occupied a central position in the abortion debate in the U.S., and has been among the most prominent targets of the United States pro-life movement for decades. Some members of Congress, overwhelmingly Republican, have attempted since the 1980s to end federal funding of the organization, nearly leading to a government shutdown over the issue in 2011. Planned Parenthood has consistently maintained that federal money received by Planned Parenthood is not used to fund abortion services, but pro-life activists have argued that the federal funding frees up other resources that are, in turn, used to provide abortions.
Planned Parenthood is the largest single provider of abortions in the U.S., but pro-choice advocates have argued that the organization 's family planning services reduce the need for abortions; in the words of Megan Crepeau of the Chicago Tribune, Planned Parenthood could be "characterized as America 's largest abortion preventer ''. Pro-life activists dispute the evidence that greater access to contraceptives reduces abortion frequency.
Periodically, pro-life advocates and activists have tried to demonstrate that Planned Parenthood does not follow applicable state or federal laws. The groups called or visited Planned Parenthood health centers posing as victims of statutory rape, minors who by law need parental notification before abortion, racist donors seeking to earmark donations to reduce the African - American population, or pimps seeking abortions for underage prostitutes. As a result of some of these videos, several Planned Parenthood workers have been disciplined or fired. However, a 2005 review by the Bush administration 's Department of Health and Human Services "yielded no evidence of clinics around the nation failing to comply with laws on reporting child abuse, child molestation, sexual abuse, rape or incest ''.
Beginning in 2010, Live Action has released several series of undercover videos filmed in Planned Parenthood centers. Live Action said one series showed Planned Parenthood employees at many affiliates actively assisting or being complicit in aiding a prostitution ring, advising patients on how to procure sex - selective abortions, while one who said they would immerse a child born alive after a botched abortion in a chemical solution to make it stop moving and breathing. No criminal convictions resulted, but some Planned Parenthood employees and volunteers were fired for not following procedure, and the organization committed to retraining its staff. Additionally, one center was placed on probation.
In 2015, an anti-abortion organization named the Center for Medical Progress (CMP) released several videos that had been secretly recorded. Members of the CMP posed as representatives of a biotechnology company in order to gain access to both meetings with abortion providers and abortion facilities. The videos showed how abortion providers made fetal tissue available to researchers, although no problems were found with the legality of the process.
All of the videos were found to be altered, according to analysis by Fusion GPS and its co-founder Glenn R. Simpson, a former investigative reporter for The Wall Street Journal. The CMP disputed this finding, attributed the alterations to the editing out of "bathroom breaks and waiting periods ''. CMP continues to allege that the videos provide evidence that abortion providers profit from the sale of donated tissue. The videos attracted widespread media coverage, and after the release of the first video, conservative Congressional lawmakers singled out Planned Parenthood and began to push bills that would strip the organization of federal family planning funding. No such attempts by Congress to cut federal family planning money from Planned Parenthood have become law. Conservative politicians in several states have also used this as an opportunity to cut or attempt to cut family planning funding at the state level.
Officials in 12 states initiated investigations into claims made by the videos, but none found Planned Parenthood clinics to have sold tissue for profit as alleged by CMP and other anti-abortion groups. An investigation by the United States House of Representatives Oversight and Government Reform Committee found no evidence of wrongdoing by Planned Parenthood. A select committee, the United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce Select Investigative Panel on Planned Parenthood, was formed to further investigate Planned Parenthood. The Republican - controlled Select Investigative Panel released its final report on December 30, 2016, recommending that Planned Parenthood be de-funded. The report was heavily criticized as partisan and inaccurate by Democratic members of the committee, Planned Parenthood, and some news media.
On January 25, 2016, a Texas grand jury indicted CMP founder David Daleiden and member Sandra Merritt while finding no wrongdoing by Planned Parenthood. The charges against Daleiden and Merritt in Texas were dismissed six months later. On March 28, 2017, Daleiden and Merritt were charged with 15 felonies in the State of California - one for each of the people whom they had filmed without consent, and one for criminal conspiracy to invade privacy. On June 21, 2017, all the invasion of privacy charges (but not that of conspiracy) were dismissed with leave to amend.
In the U.S., abortion providers have been threatened with death, and facilities that provide abortions have been attacked or vandalized. Planned Parenthood clinics have been the target of a number of instances of violence by anti-abortion activists, including bombing, arson and attacks with chemical weaponry. In 1994, John Salvi entered a Brookline, Massachusetts Planned Parenthood clinic and opened fire, murdering receptionist Shannon Elizabeth Lowney and wounding three others. He fled to another Planned Parenthood clinic where he murdered Leane Nichols and wounded two others. In 2012, a Grand Chute, Wisconsin, Planned Parenthood clinic was subject to a bombing perpetrated by an unknown individual. In 2015, a Planned Parenthood clinic in Pullman, Washington was heavily damaged by arson.
On November 27, 2015, a gunman shot and killed two civilians and a police officer during a five - hour gun battle at the Colorado Springs, Colorado clinic. The 57 - year - old gunman, Robert Dear, surrendered to police and was taken into custody. During his arrest, he gave a "rambling '' interview in which, at one point, he said "no more baby parts '', echoing language used in the news media about the clinic following the Center for Medical Progress videos. Dear was declared incompetent to stand trial for the shooting, citing experts ' finding that he suffers from "delusional disorder, persecutory type. ''
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tom petty and stevie nicks video stop dragging my heart around | Stop Draggin ' My Heart Around - wikipedia
"Stop Draggin ' My Heart Around '' was the first single from Stevie Nicks ' debut solo album, Bella Donna (1981). The track is the album 's only song that was neither written nor co-written by Nicks. Written by Tom Petty and Mike Campbell as a Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers song, Jimmy Iovine, who was also working for Stevie Nicks at the time, arranged for her to sing on it. Petty sang with Nicks in the chorus and bridge, while his entire band (save Ron Blair, whose bass track was played by Donald "Duck '' Dunn instead) played on the song.
A performance of the song in the studio was used as the promotional video. The video was the 25th video to be played on MTV 's launch date on August 1, 1981. Petty and Nicks also sang together on the songs "Insider '' (from Petty 's 1981 album, Hard Promises) and "I Will Run to You '' (from Nicks ' 1983 album, The Wild Heart), and frequently performed impromptu live versions of these and 1960s classic "Needles and Pins '' in many shows throughout the 1980s.
As of 2017, "Stop Draggin ' My Heart Around '' remains a mainstay of Stevie Nicks 's solo performances, and on July 9, 2017, Nicks performed the song together with Petty and the Heartbreakers at the British Summer Time festival at Hyde Park in London, in what turned out to be their final performance of the song together before Petty 's death in October 2017.
The song peaked at No. 3 on the American Billboard Hot 100 for six consecutive weeks. However, in the UK, the song only managed to peak at No. 50. The song also appeared in the 1981 film Taps.
The lyrics are about a woman who feels weighed down by relationships and wants to part despite a strong sentimental attachment to her lover. The melody is described by All Music as "dark and sinister '', probably because of the dense drumming of Stan Lynch which is the most prominent feature of the song 's rhythm. Apart from the intro before the first verse and a solo following the second verse (where there is some fairly heavy riffing), however, the guitar sound is laid - back in typical Heartbreakers style. The song was originally recorded for Petty 's album Hard Promises, but the producers felt the song came from a female point of view and it was left unreleased until it was agreed to be put on the Bella Donna album instead. A demo version of the song, recorded without Nicks, was eventually released on Petty 's boxed set Playback in 1995.
"Stop Draggin ' My Heart Around '' was released as a 7 '' vinyl single in the picture sleeve featured above in many territories. Promo 7 '' singles were also released in some territories, including the US, in the same picture sleeve, but the disc featured the title track on both sides.
A highly collectable 12 '' promo single in a unique glossy sleeve was released in the US.
The song was parodied by "Weird Al '' Yankovic as "Stop Draggin ' My Car Around '' on his debut album, "Weird Al '' Yankovic (1983).
My Morning Jacket and Neko Case covered the song during My Morning Jacket 's Circuital tour in 2011.
The song was also covered by the post-grunge band Puddle of Mudd for their 2011 cover album, Re: (disc) overed.
American singer - songwriter Sharon Van Etten and American indie rock band Shearwater performed a version of the song in March 2012 for The A.V. Club 's "A.V. Undercover '' series.
Tim Rogers and Rebecca Barnard covered the song in series 4 (2006) of Rockwiz.
J Mascis and Adalita Srsen performed the song in 2013 on RocKwiz 's "Episode 146 ''.
Phillip Phillips and Elise Testone performed the song on the 11th season of American Idol. Caleb Johnson and Jessica Meuse performed the song on the 13th season. Carrie Underwood and Keith Urban performed the song on the series finale.
Jimmy Fallon and Stevie Nicks performed the song in a humorous recreation of the 1981 music video on The Tonight Show on April 9, 2014.
It was made available to download on February 11, 2011, for use in the Rock Band 3 music gaming platform in both Basic rhythm, and PRO mode which utilizes real guitar / bass guitar, and MIDI compatible electronic drum kits / keyboards in addition to vocals.
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how is oxygen able to move in the direction indicated in this diagram | Electric current - wikipedia
An electric current is a flow of electric charge. In electric circuits this charge is often carried by moving electrons in a wire. It can also be carried by ions in an electrolyte, or by both ions and electrons such as in an ionised gas (plasma).
The SI unit for measuring an electric current is the ampere, which is the flow of electric charge across a surface at the rate of one coulomb per second. Electric current is measured using a device called an ammeter.
Electric currents cause Joule heating, which creates light in incandescent light bulbs. They also create magnetic fields, which are used in motors, inductors and generators.
The moving charged particles in an electric current are called charge carriers. In metals, one or more electrons from each atom are loosely bound to the atom, and can move freely about within the metal. These conduction electrons are the charge carriers in metal conductors.
The conventional symbol for current is I, which originates from the French phrase intensité de courant, (current intensity). Current intensity is often referred to simply as current. The I symbol was used by André - Marie Ampère, after whom the unit of electric current is named, in formulating Ampère 's force law (1820). The notation travelled from France to Great Britain, where it became standard, although at least one journal did not change from using C to I until 1896.
In a conductive material, the moving charged particles which constitute the electric current are called charge carriers. In metals, which make up the wires and other conductors in most electrical circuits, the positively charged atomic nuclei are held in a fixed position, and the negatively charged electrons are free to move, carrying their charge from one place to another. In other materials, notably the semiconductors, the charge carriers can be positive or negative, depending on the dopant used. Positive and negative charge carriers may even be present at the same time, as happens in an electrolyte in an electrochemical cell.
A flow of positive charges gives the same electric current, and has the same effect in a circuit, as an equal flow of negative charges in the opposite direction. Since current can be the flow of either positive or negative charges, or both, a convention is needed for the direction of current that is independent of the type of charge carriers. The direction of conventional current is arbitrarily defined as the same direction as positive charges flow.
Since electrons, the charge carriers in metal wires and most other parts of electric circuits, have a negative charge, as a consequence, they flow in the opposite direction of conventional current flow in an electrical circuit.
Since the current in a wire or component can flow in either direction, when a variable I is defined to represent that current, the direction representing positive current must be specified, usually by an arrow on the circuit schematic diagram. This is called the reference direction of current I. If the current flows in the opposite direction, the variable I has a negative value.
When analyzing electrical circuits, the actual direction of current through a specific circuit element is usually unknown. Consequently, the reference directions of currents are often assigned arbitrarily. When the circuit is solved, a negative value for the variable means that the actual direction of current through that circuit element is opposite that of the chosen reference direction. In electronic circuits, the reference current directions are often chosen so that all currents are toward ground. This often corresponds to the actual current direction, because in many circuits the power supply voltage is positive with respect to ground.
Ohm 's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential difference across the two points. Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance, one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes this relationship:
where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm 's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current.
In alternating current (AC) systems, the movement of electric charge periodically reverses direction. AC is the form of electric power most commonly delivered to businesses and residences. The usual waveform of an AC power circuit is a sine wave. Certain applications use different waveforms, such as triangular or square waves. Audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are also examples of alternating current. An important goal in these applications is recovery of information encoded (or modulated) onto the AC signal.
In contrast, direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge, or a system in which the movement of electric charge is in one direction only. Direct current is produced by sources such as batteries, thermocouples, solar cells, and commutator - type electric machines of the dynamo type. Direct current may flow in a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. An old name for direct current was galvanic current.
Natural observable examples of electrical current include lightning, static electric discharge, and the solar wind, the source of the polar auroras.
Man - made occurrences of electric current include the flow of conduction electrons in metal wires such as the overhead power lines that deliver electrical energy across long distances and the smaller wires within electrical and electronic equipment. Eddy currents are electric currents that occur in conductors exposed to changing magnetic fields. Similarly, electric currents occur, particularly in the surface, of conductors exposed to electromagnetic waves. When oscillating electric currents flow at the correct voltages within radio antennas, radio waves are generated.
In electronics, other forms of electric current include the flow of electrons through resistors or through the vacuum in a vacuum tube, the flow of ions inside a battery or a neuron, and the flow of holes within a semiconductor.
Current can be measured using an ammeter.
At the circuit level, there are various techniques that can be used to measure current:
Joule heating, also known as ohmic heating and resistive heating, is the process by which the passage of an electric current through a conductor releases heat. It was first studied by James Prescott Joule in 1841. Joule immersed a length of wire in a fixed mass of water and measured the temperature rise due to a known current through the wire for a 30 minute period. By varying the current and the length of the wire he deduced that the heat produced was proportional to the square of the current multiplied by the electrical resistance of the wire.
This relationship is known as Joule 's First Law. The SI unit of energy was subsequently named the joule and given the symbol J. The commonly known unit of power, the watt, is equivalent to one joule per second.
In an electromagnet a coil, of a large number of circular turns of insulated wire, wrapped on a cylindrical core, behaves like a magnet when an electric current flows through it. When the current is switched off, the coil loses its magnetism immediately. We call such a device as an electromagnet.
Electric current produces a magnetic field. The magnetic field can be visualized as a pattern of circular field lines surrounding the wire that persists as long as there is current.
Magnetism can also produce electric currents. When a changing magnetic field is applied to a conductor, an Electromotive force (EMF) is produced, and when there is a suitable path, this causes current.
Electric current can be directly measured with a galvanometer, but this method involves breaking the electrical circuit, which is sometimes inconvenient. Current can also be measured without breaking the circuit by detecting the magnetic field associated with the current. Devices used for this include Hall effect sensors, current clamps, current transformers, and Rogowski coils.
When an electric current flows in a suitably shaped conductor at radio frequencies radio waves can be generated. These travel at the speed of light and can cause electric currents in distant conductors.
In metallic solids, electric charge flows by means of electrons, from lower to higher electrical potential. In other media, any stream of charged objects (ions, for example) may constitute an electric current. To provide a definition of current independent of the type of charge carriers, conventional current is defined as moving in the same direction as the positive charge flow. So, in metals where the charge carriers (electrons) are negative, conventional current is in the opposite direction as the electrons. In conductors where the charge carriers are positive, conventional current is in the same direction as the charge carriers.
In a vacuum, a beam of ions or electrons may be formed. In other conductive materials, the electric current is due to the flow of both positively and negatively charged particles at the same time. In still others, the current is entirely due to positive charge flow. For example, the electric currents in electrolytes are flows of positively and negatively charged ions. In a common lead - acid electrochemical cell, electric currents are composed of positive hydrogen ions (protons) flowing in one direction, and negative sulfate ions flowing in the other. Electric currents in sparks or plasma are flows of electrons as well as positive and negative ions. In ice and in certain solid electrolytes, the electric current is entirely composed of flowing ions.
In a metal, some of the outer electrons in each atom are not bound to the individual atom as they are in insulating materials, but are free to move within the metal lattice. These conduction electrons can serve as charge carriers, carrying a current. Metals are particularly conductive because there are a large number of these free electrons, typically one per atom in the lattice. With no external electric field applied, these electrons move about randomly due to thermal energy but, on average, there is zero net current within the metal. At room temperature, the average speed of these random motions is 10 metres per second. Given a surface through which a metal wire passes, electrons move in both directions across the surface at an equal rate. As George Gamow wrote in his popular science book, One, Two, Three... Infinity (1947), "The metallic substances differ from all other materials by the fact that the outer shells of their atoms are bound rather loosely, and often let one of their electrons go free. Thus the interior of a metal is filled up with a large number of unattached electrons that travel aimlessly around like a crowd of displaced persons. When a metal wire is subjected to electric force applied on its opposite ends, these free electrons rush in the direction of the force, thus forming what we call an electric current. ''
When a metal wire is connected across the two terminals of a DC voltage source such as a battery, the source places an electric field across the conductor. The moment contact is made, the free electrons of the conductor are forced to drift toward the positive terminal under the influence of this field. The free electrons are therefore the charge carrier in a typical solid conductor.
For a steady flow of charge through a surface, the current I (in amperes) can be calculated with the following equation:
where Q is the electric charge transferred through the surface over a time t. If Q and t are measured in coulombs and seconds respectively, I is in amperes.
More generally, electric current can be represented as the rate at which charge flows through a given surface as:
Electric currents in electrolytes are flows of electrically charged particles (ions). For example, if an electric field is placed across a solution of Na and Cl (and conditions are right) the sodium ions move towards the negative electrode (cathode), while the chloride ions move towards the positive electrode (anode). Reactions take place at both electrode surfaces, absorbing each ion.
Water - ice and certain solid electrolytes called proton conductors contain positive hydrogen ions ("protons '') that are mobile. In these materials, electric currents are composed of moving protons, as opposed to the moving electrons in metals.
In certain electrolyte mixtures, brightly coloured ions are the moving electric charges. The slow progress of the colour makes the current visible.
In air and other ordinary gases below the breakdown field, the dominant source of electrical conduction is via relatively few mobile ions produced by radioactive gases, ultraviolet light, or cosmic rays. Since the electrical conductivity is low, gases are dielectrics or insulators. However, once the applied electric field approaches the breakdown value, free electrons become sufficiently accelerated by the electric field to create additional free electrons by colliding, and ionizing, neutral gas atoms or molecules in a process called avalanche breakdown. The breakdown process forms a plasma that contains enough mobile electrons and positive ions to make it an electrical conductor. In the process, it forms a light emitting conductive path, such as a spark, arc or lightning.
Plasma is the state of matter where some of the electrons in a gas are stripped or "ionized '' from their molecules or atoms. A plasma can be formed by high temperature, or by application of a high electric or alternating magnetic field as noted above. Due to their lower mass, the electrons in a plasma accelerate more quickly in response to an electric field than the heavier positive ions, and hence carry the bulk of the current. The free ions recombine to create new chemical compounds (for example, breaking atmospheric oxygen into single oxygen (O → 2O), which then recombine creating ozone (O)).
Since a "perfect vacuum '' contains no charged particles, it normally behaves as a perfect insulator. However, metal electrode surfaces can cause a region of the vacuum to become conductive by injecting free electrons or ions through either field electron emission or thermionic emission. Thermionic emission occurs when the thermal energy exceeds the metal 's work function, while field electron emission occurs when the electric field at the surface of the metal is high enough to cause tunneling, which results in the ejection of free electrons from the metal into the vacuum. Externally heated electrodes are often used to generate an electron cloud as in the filament or indirectly heated cathode of vacuum tubes. Cold electrodes can also spontaneously produce electron clouds via thermionic emission when small incandescent regions (called cathode spots or anode spots) are formed. These are incandescent regions of the electrode surface that are created by a localized high current. These regions may be initiated by field electron emission, but are then sustained by localized thermionic emission once a vacuum arc forms. These small electron - emitting regions can form quite rapidly, even explosively, on a metal surface subjected to a high electrical field. Vacuum tubes and sprytrons are some of the electronic switching and amplifying devices based on vacuum conductivity.
Superconductivity is a phenomenon of exactly zero electrical resistance and expulsion of magnetic fields occurring in certain materials when cooled below a characteristic critical temperature. It was discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes on April 8, 1911 in Leiden. Like ferromagnetism and atomic spectral lines, superconductivity is a quantum mechanical phenomenon. It is characterized by the Meissner effect, the complete ejection of magnetic field lines from the interior of the superconductor as it transitions into the superconducting state. The occurrence of the Meissner effect indicates that superconductivity can not be understood simply as the idealization of perfect conductivity in classical physics.
In a semiconductor it is sometimes useful to think of the current as due to the flow of positive "holes '' (the mobile positive charge carriers that are places where the semiconductor crystal is missing a valence electron). This is the case in a p - type semiconductor. A semiconductor has electrical conductivity intermediate in magnitude between that of a conductor and an insulator. This means a conductivity roughly in the range of 10 to 10 siemens per centimeter (S ⋅ cm).
In the classic crystalline semiconductors, electrons can have energies only within certain bands (i.e. ranges of levels of energy). Energetically, these bands are located between the energy of the ground state, the state in which electrons are tightly bound to the atomic nuclei of the material, and the free electron energy, the latter describing the energy required for an electron to escape entirely from the material. The energy bands each correspond to a large number of discrete quantum states of the electrons, and most of the states with low energy (closer to the nucleus) are occupied, up to a particular band called the valence band. Semiconductors and insulators are distinguished from metals because the valence band in any given metal is nearly filled with electrons under usual operating conditions, while very few (semiconductor) or virtually none (insulator) of them are available in the conduction band, the band immediately above the valence band.
The ease of exciting electrons in the semiconductor from the valence band to the conduction band depends on the band gap between the bands. The size of this energy band gap serves as an arbitrary dividing line (roughly 4 eV) between semiconductors and insulators.
With covalent bonds, an electron moves by hopping to a neighboring bond. The Pauli exclusion principle requires that the electron be lifted into the higher anti-bonding state of that bond. For delocalized states, for example in one dimension -- that is in a nanowire, for every energy there is a state with electrons flowing in one direction and another state with the electrons flowing in the other. For a net current to flow, more states for one direction than for the other direction must be occupied. For this to occur, energy is required, as in the semiconductor the next higher states lie above the band gap. Often this is stated as: full bands do not contribute to the electrical conductivity. However, as a semiconductor 's temperature rises above absolute zero, there is more energy in the semiconductor to spend on lattice vibration and on exciting electrons into the conduction band. The current - carrying electrons in the conduction band are known as free electrons, though they are often simply called electrons if that is clear in context.
Current density is a measure of the density of an electric current. It is defined as a vector whose magnitude is the electric current per cross-sectional area. In SI units, the current density is measured in amperes per square metre.
where I (\ displaystyle I) is current in the conductor, J → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (J))) is the current density, and d A → (\ displaystyle d (\ vec (A))) is the differential cross-sectional area vector.
The current density (current per unit area) J → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (J))) in materials with finite resistance is directly proportional to the electric field E → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (E))) in the medium. The proportionality constant is called the conductivity σ (\ displaystyle \ sigma) of the material, whose value depends on the material concerned and, in general, is dependent on the temperature of the material:
The reciprocal of the conductivity σ (\ displaystyle \ sigma) of the material is called the resistivity ρ (\ displaystyle \ rho) of the material and the above equation, when written in terms of resistivity becomes:
Conduction in semiconductor devices may occur by a combination of drift and diffusion, which is proportional to diffusion constant D (\ displaystyle D) and charge density α q (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (q)). The current density is then:
with q (\ displaystyle q) being the elementary charge and n (\ displaystyle n) the electron density. The carriers move in the direction of decreasing concentration, so for electrons a positive current results for a positive density gradient. If the carriers are holes, replace electron density n (\ displaystyle n) by the negative of the hole density p (\ displaystyle p).
In linear anisotropic materials, σ, ρ and D are tensors.
In linear materials such as metals, and under low frequencies, the current density across the conductor surface is uniform. In such conditions, Ohm 's law states that the current is directly proportional to the potential difference between two ends (across) of that metal (ideal) resistor (or other ohmic device):
where I (\ displaystyle I) is the current, measured in amperes; V (\ displaystyle V) is the potential difference, measured in volts; and R (\ displaystyle R) is the resistance, measured in ohms. For alternating currents, especially at higher frequencies, skin effect causes the current to spread unevenly across the conductor cross-section, with higher density near the surface, thus increasing the apparent resistance.
The mobile charged particles within a conductor move constantly in random directions, like the particles of a gas. (More accurately, a Fermi gas.) To create a net flow of charge, the particles must also move together with an average drift rate. Electrons are the charge carriers in metals and they follow an erratic path, bouncing from atom to atom, but generally drifting in the opposite direction of the electric field. The speed they drift at can be calculated from the equation:
where
Typically, electric charges in solids flow slowly. For example, in a copper wire of cross-section 0.5 mm, carrying a current of 5 A, the drift velocity of the electrons is on the order of a millimetre per second. To take a different example, in the near - vacuum inside a cathode ray tube, the electrons travel in near - straight lines at about a tenth of the speed of light.
Any accelerating electric charge, and therefore any changing electric current, gives rise to an electromagnetic wave that propagates at very high speed outside the surface of the conductor. This speed is usually a significant fraction of the speed of light, as can be deduced from Maxwell 's Equations, and is therefore many times faster than the drift velocity of the electrons. For example, in AC power lines, the waves of electromagnetic energy propagate through the space between the wires, moving from a source to a distant load, even though the electrons in the wires only move back and forth over a tiny distance.
The ratio of the speed of the electromagnetic wave to the speed of light in free space is called the velocity factor, and depends on the electromagnetic properties of the conductor and the insulating materials surrounding it, and on their shape and size.
The magnitudes (not the natures) of these three velocities can be illustrated by an analogy with the three similar velocities associated with gases. (See also hydraulic analogy.)
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which civilization created the sun stone a national symbol of pride in modern mexico | Aztecs - wikipedia
The Aztecs (/ ˈæztɛks /) were a Mesoamerican culture that flourished in central Mexico in the post-classic period from 1300 to 1521. The Aztec peoples included different ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica from the 14th to the 16th centuries. Aztec culture was organized into city - states (altepetl), some of which joined to form alliances, political confederations, or empires. The Aztec empire was a confederation of three city - states established in 1427, Tenochtitlan, city - state of the Mexica or Tenochca; Texcoco; and Tlacopan, previously part of the Tepanec empire, whose dominant power was Azcapotzalco. Although the term Aztecs is often narrowly restricted to the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, it is also broadly used to refer to Nahua polities or peoples of central Mexico in the prehispanic era, as well as the Spanish colonial era (1521 -- 1821). The definitions of Aztec and Aztecs have long been the topic of scholarly discussion, ever since German scientist Alexander von Humboldt established its common usage in the early nineteenth century.
Most ethnic groups of central Mexico in the post-classic period shared basic cultural traits of Mesoamerica, and so many of the traits that characterize Aztec culture can not be said to be exclusive to the Aztecs. For the same reason, the notion of "Aztec civilization '' is best understood as a particular horizon of a general Mesoamerican civilization. The culture of central Mexico includes maize cultivation, the social division between nobility (pipiltin) and commoners (macehualtin), a pantheon (featuring Tezcatlipoca, Tlaloc and Quetzalcoatl), and the calendric system of a xiuhpohualli of 365 days intercalated with a tonalpohualli of 260 days. Particular to the Mexica of Tenochtitlan was the patron God Huitzilopochtli, twin pyramids, and the ceramic ware known as Aztec I to III.
From the 13th century, the Valley of Mexico was the heart of dense population and the rise of city - states. The Mexica were late - comers to the Valley of Mexico, and founded the city - state of Tenochtitlan on unpromising islets in Lake Texcoco, later becoming the dominant power of the Aztec Triple Alliance or Aztec Empire. It was a tributary empire that expanded its political hegemony far beyond the Valley of Mexico, conquering other city states throughout Mesoamerica in the late post-classic period. It originated in 1427 as an alliance between the city - states Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan; these allied to defeat the Tepanec state of Azcapotzalco, which had previously dominated the Basin of Mexico. Soon Texcoco and Tlacopan were relegated to junior partnership in the alliance, with Tenochtitlan the dominant power. The empire extended its reach by a combination of trade and military conquest. It was never a true territorial empire controlling a territory by large military garrisons in conquered provinces, but rather dominated its client city - states primarily by installing friendly rulers in conquered, by constructing marriage alliances between the ruling dynasties, and by extending an imperial ideology to its client city - states. Client city - states paid tribute to the Aztec emperor, the Huey Tlatoani, in an economic strategy limiting communication and trade between outlying polities, making them dependent on the imperial center for the acquisition of luxury goods. The political clout of the empire reached far south into Mesoamerica conquering polities as far south as Chiapas and Guatemala and spanning Mesoamerica from the Pacific to the Atlantic oceans.
The empire reached its maximal extent in 1519, just prior to the arrival of a small group of Spanish conquistadors led by Hernán Cortés. Cortés allied with city - states opposed to the Mexica, particularly the Nahuatl - speaking Tlaxcalteca as well as other central Mexican polities, including Texcoco, its former ally in the Triple Alliance. After the fall of Tenochtitlan on August 13, 1521 and the capture of the emperor Cuauhtemoc, the Spanish founded Mexico City on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. From there they proceeded with the process of conquest and incorporation of Mesoamerican peoples into the Spanish Empire. With the destruction of the superstructure of the Aztec Empire in 1521, the Spanish utilized the city - states on which the Aztec Empire had been built, to rule the indigenous populations via their local nobles. Those nobles pledged loyalty to the Spanish crown and converted, at least nominally, to Christianity, and in return were recognized as nobles by the Spanish crown. Nobles acted as intermediaries to convey tribute and mobilize labor for their new overlords, facilitating the establishment of Spanish colonial rule.
Aztec culture and history is primarily known through archaeological evidence found in excavations such as that of the renowned Templo Mayor in Mexico City; from indigenous writings; from eyewitness accounts by Spanish conquistadors such as Cortés and Bernal Díaz del Castillo; and especially from 16th - and 17th - century descriptions of Aztec culture and history written by Spanish clergymen and literate Aztecs in the Spanish or Nahuatl language, such as the famous illustrated, bilingual (Spanish and Nahuatl), twelve - volume Florentine Codex created by the Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún, in collaboration with indigenous Aztec informants. Important for knowledge of post-conquest Nahuas was the training of indigenous scribes to write alphabetic texts in Nahuatl, mainly for local purposes under Spanish colonial rule. At its height, Aztec culture had rich and complex mythological and religious traditions, as well as achieving remarkable architectural and artistic accomplishments.
The Nahuatl words aztecatl (asˈtekat͡ɬ) (singular) and aztecah (asˈtekaʔ) (plural) mean "people from Aztlan '', a mythical place of origin for several ethnic groups in central Mexico. The term was not used as an endonym by Aztecs themselves, but it is found in the different migration accounts of the Mexica, where it describes the different tribes who left Aztlan together. In one account of the journey from Aztlan, Huitzilopochtli, the tutelary deity of the Mexica tribe, tells his followers on the journey that "now, no longer is your name Azteca, you are now Mexitin (Mexica) ''.
In today 's usage, the term "Aztec '' often refers exclusively to the Mexica people of Tenochtitlan (now the location of Mexico City), situated on an island in Lake Texcoco, who referred to themselves as Mēxihcah Nahuatl pronunciation: (meːˈʃiʔkaʔ) (a tribal designation that included the Tlatelolca), Tenochcah (referring only to the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, excluding Tlatelolco) Nahuatl pronunciation: (teˈnot͡ʃkaʔ) or Cōlhuah Nahuatl pronunciation: (ˈkoːlwaʔ) (referring to their royal genealogy tying them to Culhuacan).
Sometimes the term also includes the inhabitants of Tenochtitlan 's two principal allied city - states, the Acolhuas of Texcoco and the Tepanecs of Tlacopan, who together with the Mexica formed the Aztec Triple Alliance that controlled what is often known as the "Aztec Empire ''. The usage of the term "Aztec '' in describing the empire centered in Tenochtitlan, has been criticized by Robert H. Barlow who preferred the term "Culhua - Mexica '', and by Pedro Carrasco who prefers the term "Tenochca empire ''. Carrasco writes about the term "Aztec '' that "It is of no use for understanding the ethnic complexity of ancient Mexico and for identifying the dominant element in the political entity we are studying ''.
In other contexts, Aztec may refer to all the various city states and their peoples, who shared large parts of their ethnic history and cultural traits with the Mexica, Acolhua and Tepanecs, and who often also used the Nahuatl language as a lingua franca. An example is Jerome A. Offner 's Law and Politics in Aztec Texcoco. In this meaning, it is possible to talk about an "Aztec civilization '' including all the particular cultural patterns common for most of the peoples inhabiting central Mexico in the late postclassic period. Such a usage may also extend the term "Aztec '' to all the groups in Central Mexico that were incorporated culturally or politically into the sphere of dominance of the Aztec empire.
When used to describe ethnic groups, the term "Aztec '' refers to several Nahuatl - speaking peoples of central Mexico in the postclassic period of Mesoamerican chronology, especially the Mexica, the ethnic group that had a leading role in establishing the hegemonic empire based at Tenochtitlan. The term extends to further ethnic groups associated with the Aztec empire, such as the Acolhua, the Tepanec and others that were incorporated into the empire. Charles Gibson enumerates a number of groups in central Mexico that he includes in his study The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule (1964). These include the Culhuaque, Cuitlahuaque, Mixquica, Xochimilca, Chalca, Tepaneca, Acolhuaque, and Mexica.
In older usage the term was commonly used about modern Nahuatl - speaking ethnic groups, as Nahuatl was previously referred to as the "Aztec language ''. In recent usage, these ethnic groups are referred to as the Nahua peoples. Linguistically, the term "Aztecan '' is still used about the branch of the Uto - Aztecan languages (also sometimes called the yuto - nahuan languages) that includes the Nahuatl language and its closest relatives Pochutec and Pipil.
To the Aztecs themselves the word "aztec '' was not an endonym for any particular ethnic group. Rather, it was an umbrella term used to refer to several ethnic groups, not all of them Nahuatl - speaking, that claimed heritage from the mythic place of origin, Aztlan. In the Nahuatl language "aztecatl '' means "person from Aztlan ''. Alexander von Humboldt originated the modern usage of "Aztec '' in 1810, as a collective term applied to all the people linked by trade, custom, religion, and language to the Mexica state and the Triple Alliance. In 1843, with the publication of the work of William H. Prescott on the history of the conquest of Mexico, the term was adopted by most of the world, including 19th - century Mexican scholars who saw it as a way to distinguish present - day Mexicans from pre-conquest Mexicans. This usage has been the subject of debate in more recent years, but the term "Aztec '' is still more common.
Knowledge of Aztec society rests on several different sources: The many archeological remains of everything from temple pyramids to thatched huts, can be used to understand many of the aspects of what the Aztec world was like. However, archeologists often must rely on knowledge from other sources to interpret the historical context of artifacts. Many written texts by indigenous and Spaniards are historical sources produced in the early colonial period are invaluable sources of information about precolonial Aztec history. These texts provide much information about political histories of various Aztec city - states, and their ruling lineages. Such histories were produced both in pictorial codices. Some of these manuscripts were entirely pictorial, often with glyphs. In the post-conquest era many others were in written in the Latin script by either by literate Aztecs or by Spanish friars who interviewed the native people about their customs and histories. An important pictorial and alphabetic text produced in the early sixteenth century was Codex Mendoza, named after the first viceroy of Mexico and perhaps commissioned by him, to inform the Spanish crown about the political and economic structure of the Aztec empire. It has information naming the polities that the Triple Alliance conquered, the types of tribute rendered to the Aztec Empire, as well as about class structure and gender. Many written annals exist, written by local Nahua historians recording the histories of their polity. These annals used pictorial histories and transformed into alphabetic textual annals in Latin script. Well - known native chroniclers and annalists are Chimalpahin of Amecameca - Chalco; Fernando Alvarado Tezozomoc of Tenochtitlan; Alva Ixtlilxochitl of Texcoco, Juan Bautista Pomar of Texcoco, and Diego Muñoz Camargo of Tlaxcala. There are also many accounts by Spanish conquerors who participated in Spanish invasion, such as Bernal Díaz del Castillo who wrote a full history of the conquest.
Many Spanish friars also produced documentation in chronicles or other types of accounts. Of key importance is Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, one of the first twelve Franciscans arriving in Mexico in 1524. Another Franciscan of great importance was Fray Juan de Torquemada, author of Monarquia Indiana. Dominican Diego Durán also wrote extensively about prehispanic religion as well as a history of the Mexica. An invaluable source of information about many aspects of Aztec religious thought, political and social structure, as well as history of the Spanish conquest from the Mexica viewpoint is the Florentine Codex. Produced between 1545 - 1576 in the form of an ethnographic encyclopedia written bilingually in Spanish and Nahuatl, by Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún and indigenous informants and scribes, it contains knowledge about many aspects of pre-colonial society from religion, calendrics, botany, zoology, trades and crafts and history. Another source of knowledge is the cultures and customs of the contemporary Nahuatl speakers who can often provide insights into what prehispanic ways of life may have been like. Scholarly study of Aztec civilization is most often based on scientific and multidisciplinary methodologies, combining archeological knowledge with ethnohistorical and ethnographic information.
It is a matter of debate whether the enormous city of Teotihuacan was inhabited by speakers of Nahuatl, or whether Nahuas had not yet arrived in central Mexico in the classic period. It is generally agreed that the Nahua peoples were not indigenous to the highlands of central Mexico, but that they gradually migrated into the region from somewhere in northwestern Mexico. At the fall of Teotihuacan in the 6th century CE, a number of city states rose to power in central Mexico, some of them, including Cholula and Xochicalco, probably inhabited by Nahuatl speakers. One study has suggested that Nahuas originally inhabited the Bajío area around Guanajuato which reached a population peak in the 6th century, after which the population quickly diminished during a subsequent dry period. This depopulation of the Bajío coincided with an incursion of new populations into the Valley of Mexico, which suggests that this marks the influx of Nahuatl speakers into the region. These populated central Mexico, dislocating speakers of Oto - Manguean languages as they spread their political influence south. As the former nomadic hunter - gatherer peoples mixed with the complex civilizations of Mesoamerica, adopting religious and cultural practices, the foundation for later Aztec culture was laid. After 900 CE, during the Postclassic period, a number of sites almost certainly inhabited by Nahuatl speakers became powerful. Among them the site of Tula, Hidalgo, and also city states such as Tenayuca, and Colhuacan in the valley of Mexico and Cuauhnahuac in Morelos.
In the ethnohistorical sources from the colonial period, the Mexica themselves describe their arrival in the Valley of Mexico. The ethnonym Aztec (Nahuatl Aztecah) means "people from Aztlan '', Aztlan being a mythical place of origin toward the north. Hence the term applied to all those peoples who claimed to carry the heritage from this mythical place. The migration stories of the Mexica tribe tell how they traveled with other tribes, including the Tlaxcalteca, Tepaneca and Acolhua, but that eventually their tribal deity Huitzilopochtli told them to split from the other Aztec tribes and take on the name "Mexica ''. At the time of their arrival, there were many Aztec city - states in the region. The most powerful were Colhuacan to the south and Azcapotzalco to the west. The Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco soon expelled the Mexica from Chapultepec. In 1299, Colhuacan ruler Cocoxtli gave them permission to settle in the empty barrens of Tizapan, where they were eventually assimilated into Culhuacan culture. The noble lineage of Colhuacan traced its roots back to the legendary city - state of Tula, and by marrying into Colhua families, the Mexica now appropriated this heritage. After living in Colhuacan, the Mexica were again expelled and were forced to moved.
According to Aztec legend, in 1323 the Mexica were shown a vision of an eagle perched on a prickly pear cactus, eating a snake. The vision indicated the location where they were to build their settlement. The Mexica founded Tenochtitlan on a small swampy island in Lake Texcoco, the inland lake of the Basin of Mexico. The year of foundation is usually given as 1325. In 1376 the Mexica royal dynasty was founded when Acamapichtli, son of a Mexica father and a Colhua mother, was elected as the first Huey Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan.
In the first 50 years after the founding of the Mexica dynasty, the Mexica were a tributary of Azcapotzalco, which had become a major regional power under the ruler Tezozomoc. The Mexica supplied the Tepaneca with warriors for their successful conquest campaigns in the region and received part of the tribute from the conquered city states. In this way, the political standing and economy of Tenochtitlan gradually grew.
In 1396, at Acamapichtli 's death, his son Huitzilihhuitl (Nahuatl: "Hummingbird feather '') became ruler; married to Tezozomoc 's daughter, the relation with Azcapotzalco remained close. Chimalpopoca (Nahuatl: "She smokes like a shield ''), son of Huitzilihhuitl, became ruler of Tenochtitlan in 1417. In 1418, Azcapotzalco initiated a war against the Acolhua of Texcoco and killed their ruler Ixtlilxochitl. Even though Ixtlilxochitl was married to Chimalpopoca 's daughter, the Mexica ruler continued to support Tezozomoc. Tezozomoc died in 1426, and his sons began a struggle for rulership of Azcapotzalco. During this struggle for power, Chimalpopoca died, probably killed by Tezozomoc 's son Maxtla who saw him as a competitor. Itzcoatl, brother of Huitzilihhuitl and uncle of Chimalpopoca, was elected the next Mexica tlatoani. The Mexica were now in open war with Azcapotzalco and Itzcoatl petitioned for an alliance with Nezahualcoyotl, son of the slain Texcocan ruler Ixtlilxochitl against Maxtla. Itzcoatl also allied with Maxtla 's brother Totoquihuaztli ruler of the Tepanec city of Tlacopan. The Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan besieged Azcapotzalco, and in 1428 they destroyed the city and sacrificed Maxtla. Through this victory Tenochtitlan became the dominant city state in the Valley of Mexico, and the alliance between the three city - states provided the basis on which the Aztec Empire was built.
Itzcoatl proceeded by securing a power basis for Tenochtitlan, by conquering the city - states on the southern lake -- including Culhuacan, Xochimilco, Cuitlahuac and Mizquic. These states had an economy based on highly productive chinampa agriculture, cultivating human - made extensions of rich soil in the shallow lake Xochimilco. Itzcoatl then undertook further conquests in the valley of Morelos, subjecting the city state of Cuauhnahuac (today Cuernavaca).
In 1440, Motecuzoma I Ilhuicamina (Nahuatl: "he frowns like a lord, he shoots the sky '') was elected tlatoani; he was son of Huitzilihhuitl, brother of Chimalpopoca and had served as the war leader of his uncle Itzcoatl in the war against the Tepanecs. The accession of a new ruler in the dominant city state was often an occasion for subjected cities to rebel by refusing to pay tribute. This meant that new rulers began their rule with a coronation campaign, often against rebellious tributaries, but also sometimes demonstrating their military might by making new conquests. Motecuzoma tested the attitudes of the cities around the valley by requesting laborers for the enlargement of the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan. Only the city of Chalco refused to provide laborers, and hostilities between Chalco and Tenochtitlan would persist until the 1450s. Motecuzoma then reconquered the cities in the valley of Morelos and Guerrero, and then later undertook new conquests in the Huaxtec region of northern Veracruz, and the Mixtec region of Coixtlahuaca and large parts of Oaxaca, and later again in central and southern Veracruz with conquests at Cosamalopan, Ahuilizapan and Cuetlaxtlan. During this period the city states of Tlaxcallan, Cholula and Huexotzinco emerged as major competitors to the imperial expansion, and they supplied warriors to several of the cities conquered. Motecuzoma therefore initiated a state of low - intensity warfare against these three cities, staging minor skirmishes called "Flower Wars '' (Nahuatl xochiyaoyotl) against them, perhaps as a strategy of exhaustion.
Motecuzoma also consolidated the political structure of the Triple Alliance, and the internal political organization of Tenochtitlan. His brother Tlacaelel served as his main advisor (Nahuatl Cihuacoatl) and he is considered the architect of major political reforms in this period, consolidating the power of the noble class (Nahuatl pipiltin) and instituting a set of legal codes, and the practice of reinstating conquered rulers in their cities bound by fealty to the Mexica tlatoani.
In 1469, the next ruler became Axayacatl (Nahuatl: "Water mask ''), son of Itzcoatl 's son Tezozomoc and Motecuzoma I 's daughter Atotoztli. He undertook a successful coronation campaign far south of Tenochtitlan against the Zapotecs in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Axayacatl also conquered the independent Mexica city of Tlatelolco, located on the northern part of the island where Tenochtitlan was also located. The Tlatelolca ruler Moquihuix was married to Axayacatl 's sister, and his alleged mistreatment of her was used as an excuse to incorporate Tlatelolco and its important market directly under the control of the tlatoani of Tenochtitlan.
Axayacatl then conquered areas in Central Guerrero, the Puebla Valley, on the gulf coast and against the Otomi and Matlatzinca in the Toluca valley. The Toluca valley was a buffer zone against the powerful Tarascan state in Michoacan, against which Axayacatl turned next. In the major campaign against the Tarascans (Nahua Michhuahqueh) in 1478 -- 79 the Aztec forces were repelled by a well organized defense. Axayacatl was soundly defeated in a battle at Tlaximaloyan (today Tajimaroa), losing most of his 32,000 men and only barely escaping back to Tenochtitlan with the remnants of his army.
In 1481 at Axayacatls death, his older brother Tizoc was elected ruler. Tizoc 's coronation campaign against the Otomi of Metztitlan failed as he lost the major battle and only managed to secure 40 prisoners to be sacrificed for his coronation ceremony. Having shown weakness, many of the tributary towns rebelled and consequently most of Tizoc 's short reign was spent attempting to quell rebellions and maintain control of areas conquered by his predecessors. Tizoc died suddenly in 1485, and it has been suggested that he was poisoned by his brother and war leader Ahuitzotl who became the next tlatoani. Tizoc is mostly known as the namesake of the Stone of Tizoc a monumental sculpture (Nahuatl temalacatl), decorated with representation of Tizoc 's conquests.
The next ruler was Ahuitzotl (Nahuatl: "Water monster ''), brother of Axayacatl and Tizoc and war leader under Tizoc. His successful coronation campaign suppressed rebellions in the Toluca valley and conquered Jilotepec and several communities in the northern Valley of Mexico. A second 1521 campaign to the gulf coast was also highly successful. He began an enlargement of the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan, inaugurating the new temple in 1487. For the inauguration ceremony the Mexica invited the rulers of all their subject cities, who participated as spectators in the ceremony in which an unprecedented number of war captives were sacrificed -- some sources giving a figure of 84,000 prisoners sacrificed over four days. Probably the actual figure of sacrifices was much smaller, but still numbering several thousands. Ahuitzotl also constructed monumental architecture in sites such as Calixtlahuaca, Malinalco and Tepoztlan. After a rebellion in the towns of Alahuiztlan and Oztoticpac in Northern Guerrero he ordered the entire population executed, and repopulated with people from the valley of Mexico. He also constructed a fortified garrison at Oztuma defending the border against the Tarascan state.
Moctezuma II Xocoyotzin is known to world history as the Aztec ruler when the Spanish invaders and their indigenous allies began their conquest of the empire in a two - year - long campaign (1519 -- 1521). His early rule did not hint at his future fame. He succeeded to the rulership after the death of Ahuitzotl. Moctezuma Xocoyotzin (Nahuatl "He frowns like a lord, the youngest child ''), was a son of Axayacatl, and a war leader. He began his rule in standard fashion, conducting a coronation campaign to demonstrate his skills as a leader. He attacked the fortified city of Nopallan in Oaxaca and subjected the adjacent region to the empire. An effective warrior, Moctezuma maintained the pace of conquest set by his predecessor and subjected large areas in Guerrero, Oaxaca, Puebla and even far south along the Pacific and Gulf coasts, conquering the province of Xoconochco in Chiapas. he also intensified the flower wars waged against Tlaxcallan and Huexotzinco, and secured an alliance with Cholula. He also consolidated the class structure of Aztec society, by making it harder for commoners (Nahuatl macehualtin) to accede to the privileged class of the pipiltin through merit in combat. He also instituted a strict sumptuary code limiting the types of luxury goods that could be consumed by commoners.
In 1517, Moctezuma received the first news of ships with strange warriors having landed on the Gulf Coast near Cempoallan and he dispatched messengers to greet them and find out what was happening, and he ordered his subjects in the area to keep him informed of any new arrivals. In 1519, he was informed of the arrival of the Spanish fleet of Hernán Cortés, who soon marched towards Tlaxcallan where he formed an alliance with the traditional enemies of the Aztecs. On November 8, 1519, Motecuzoma II received Cortés and his troops and Tlaxcalan allies on the causeway south of Tenochtitlan, and he invited the Spaniards to stay as his guests in Tenochtitlan. When Aztec troops destroyed a Spanish camp on the gulf coast, Cortés ordered Motecuzoma to execute the commanders responsible for the attack, and Motecuzoma complied. At this point the power balance had shifted towards the Spaniards who now held Motecuzoma as a prisoner in his own palace. As this shift in power became clear to Motecuzoma 's subjects the Spaniards became increasingly unwelcome guests in the capital city, and in June 1520, hostilities broke out, culminating in the massacre in the Great Temple, and a major uprising of the Mexica against the Spanish. During the fighting Moctezuma was killed, either by the Spaniards who killed him as they fled the city or by the Mexica themselves who considered him a traitor.
Cuitláhuac, an kinsman and adviser to Motecuzoma succeeded him as tlatoani, mounting the defense of Tenochtitlan against the Spanish invaders and their indigenous allies. He ruled only 80 days, perhaps dying in the smallpox epidemic, although early sources do not give the cause. He was succeeded by Cuauhtémoc, the last independent Mexica tlatoani, who continued the fierce defense of Tenochtitlan. After the siege and complete destruction of the Aztec capital, he was captured on 13 August 1521, and marked the start of Spanish hegemony in central Mexico. Spaniards held Cuauhtémoc captive until he was tortured executed on the orders of Cortés, supposedly for treason, during an ill - fated expedition to Honduras in 1525. His death marked the end of a tumultuous era in Aztec political history.
The highest class were the pīpiltin or nobility. The pilli status was hereditary and ascribed certain privileges to its holder, such as the right to wear particularly fine garments and consume luxury goods, as well as to own land and direct corvée labor by commoners. The most powerful nobles were called lords (Nahuatl teuctin) and they owned and controlled noble estates or houses, and could serve in the highest government positions or as military leaders. Nobles made up about 5 % of the population.
The second class were the mācehualtin, originally peasants, but later extended to the lower working classes in general. Eduardo Noguera 1974, p. 56 estimates that in later stages only 20 % of the population was dedicated to agriculture and food production. The other 80 % of society were warriors, artisans and traders. Eventually, most of the mācehuallis were dedicated to arts and crafts. Their works were an important source of income for the city. Macehualtin could become enslaved, (Nahuatl tlacotin) for example if they had to sell themselves into the service of a noble due to debt or poverty, but enslavement was not an inherited status among the Aztecs. Some macehualtin were landless and worked directly for a lord (Nahuatl mayehqueh), whereas the majority of commoners were organized into calpollis which gave them access to land and property.
Commoners were able to obtain privileges similar to those of the nobles by demonstrating prowess in warfare. When a warrior took a captive he accrued the right to use certain emblems, weapons or garments, and as he took more captives his rank and prestige increased.
The Aztec family pattern was bilateral, counting relatives on the fathers and mothers side of the family equally, and inheritance was also passed both to sons and daughters. This meant that women could own property just as men, and that women therefore had a good deal of economic freedom from their spouses. Nevertheless, Aztec society was highly gendered with separate gender roles for men and women. Men were expected to work outside of the house, as farmers, traders, craftsmen and warriors, whereas women were expected to take the responsibility of the domestic sphere. Women could however also work outside of the home as small - scale merchants, doctors, priests and midwives. Warfare was highly valued and a source of high prestige, but women 's work was metaphorically conceived of as equivalent to warfare, and as equally important in maintaining the equilibrium of the world and pleasing the gods. This situation has led some scholars to describe Aztec gender ideology as an ideology not of a gender hierarchy, but of gender complementarity, with gender roles being separate but equal.
Among the nobles, marriage alliances were often used as a political strategy with lesser nobles marrying daughters from more prestigious lineages whose status was then inherited by their children. Nobles were also often polygamous, with lords having many wives. Polygamy was not very common among the commoners and some sources describe it as being prohibited.
The main unit of Aztec political organization was the city state, in Nahuatl called the altepetl, meaning "water - mountain ''. Each altepetl was led by a ruler, a tlatoani, with authority over a group of nobles and a population of commoners. The altepetl included a capital which served as a religious center, the hub of distribution and organization of a local population which often lived spread out in minor settlements surrounding the capital. Altepetl were also the main source of ethnic identity for the inhabitants, even though Altepetl were frequently composed of groups speaking different languages. Each altepetl would see itself as standing in a political contrast to other altepetl polities, and war was waged between altepetl states. In this way Nahuatl speaking Aztecs of one Altepetl would be solidary with speakers of other languages belonging to the same altepetl, but enemies of Nahuatl speakers belonging to other competing altepetl states. In the basin of Mexico, altepetl was composed of subdivisions called calpolli, which served as the main organizational unit for commoners. In Tlaxcala and the Puebla valley, the altepetl was organized into teccalli units headed by a lord (Nahuatl tecutli), who would hold sway over a territory and distribute rights to land among the commoners. A calpolli was at once a territorial unit where commoners organized labor and land use, since land was not in private property, and also often a kinship unit as a network of families that were related through intermarriage. Calpolli leaders might be or become members of the nobility, in which case they could represent their calpollis interests in the altepetl government.
In the valley of Morelos, archeologist Michael E. Smith estimates that a typical altepetl had from 10,000 to 15,000 inhabitants, and covered an area between 70 and 100 square kilometers. In the Morelos valley, altepetl sizes were somewhat smaller. Smith argues that the altepetl was primarily a political unit, made up of the population with allegiance to a lord, rather than as a territorial unit. He makes this distinction because in some areas minor settlements with different altepetl allegiances were interspersed.
The Aztec Empire was ruled by indirect means. Like most European empires, it was ethnically very diverse, but unlike most European empires, it was more of a system of tribute than a single system of government. Ethnohistorian Ross Hassig has argued that Aztec empire is best understood as an informal or hegemonic empire because it did not exert supreme authority over the conquered lands; it merely expected tributes to be paid and exerted force only to the degree it was necessary to ensure the payment of tribute. It was also a discontinuous empire because not all dominated territories were connected; for example, the southern peripheral zones of Xoconochco were not in direct contact with the center. The hegemonic nature of the Aztec empire can be seen in the fact that generally local rulers were restored to their positions once their city - state was conquered, and the Aztecs did not generally interfere in local affairs as long as the tribute payments were made and the local elites participated willingly. Such compliance was secured by establishing and maintaining a network of elites, related through intermarriage and different forms of exchange.
Nevertheless, the expansion of the empire was accomplished through military control of frontier zones, in strategic provinces where a much more direct approach to conquest and control was taken. Such strategic provinces were often exempt from tributary demands. The Aztecs even invested in those areas, by maintaining a permanent military presence, installing puppet - rulers, or even moving entire populations from the center to maintain a loyal base of support. In this way, the Aztec system of government distinguished between different strategies of control in the outer regions of the empire, far from the core in the Valley of Mexico. Some provinces were treated as tributary provinces, which provided the basis for economic stability for the empire, and strategic provinces, which were the basis for further expansion.
Although the form of government is often referred to as an empire, in fact most areas within the empire were organized as city - states, known as altepetl in Nahuatl. These were small polities ruled by a hereditary leader (tlatoani) from a legitimate noble dynasty. The Early Aztec period was a time of growth and competition among altepetl. Even after the confederation of the Triple Alliance was formed in 1427 and began its expansion through conquest, the altepetl remained the dominant form of organization at the local level. The efficient role of the altepetl as a regional political unit was largely responsible for the success of the empire 's hegemonic form of control.
As all Mesoamerican peoples Aztec society was organized around maize agriculture. The humid environment in the Valley of Mexico with its many lakes and swamps permitted intensive agriculture. The main crops in addition to maize were beans, squashes, chilies and amaranth. Particularly important for agricultural production in the valley was the construction of chinampas on the lake, artificial islands that allowed the conversion of the shallow waters into highly fertile gardens that could be cultivated year round. Chinampas are human - made extensions of agricultureal land, created from alternating layers of mud from the bottom of the lake, and plant matter and other vegetation. These raised beds were separated by narrow canals, which allowed farmers to move between them by canoe. Chinampas were extremely fertile pieces of land, and yielded, on average, seven crops annually. On the basis of current chinampa yields, it has been estimated that 1 hectare of chinampa would feed 20 individuals and 9,000 hectares of chinampas could feed 180,000.
The Aztecs further intensified agricultural production by constructing systems of artificial irrigation. While most of the farming occurred outside the densely populated areas, within the cities there was another method of (small scale) farming. Each family had their own garden plot where they grew maize, fruits, herbs, medicines and other important plants. When the city of Tenochtitlan became a major urban center, water was supplied to the city through aqueducts from springs on the banks of the lake, and they organized a system that collected human waste for use as fertilizer. Through intensive agriculture the Aztecs were able to sustain a large urbanized population. The lake was also a rich source of proteins in the form of aquatic animals such as fish, amphibians, shrimp, insects and insect eggs, and water fowl. The presence of such varied sources of protein meant that there was little use for domestic animals for meat (only turkeys and dogs were kept), and scholars have calculated that there was no shortage of protein among the inhabitants of the Valley of Mexico.
The excess supply of food products allowed a significant portion of the Aztec population to dedicate themselves to trades other than food production. Apart from taking care of domestic food production women weaved textiles from agave fibers and cotton. Men also engaged in craft specializations such as the production of ceramics and of obsidian and flint tools, and of luxury goods such as beadwork, featherwork and the elaboration of tools and musical instruments. Sometimes entire calpollis specialized in a single craft, and in some archeological sites large neighborhoods have been found where apparently only a single craft speciality was practiced.
The Aztecs did not produce much metal work, but did have knowledge of basic smelting technology for gold, and they combined gold with precious stones such as jade and turquoise. Copper products were generally imported from the Tarascans of Michoacan.
Products were distributed through a network of markets; some markets specialized in a single commodity (for example the dog market of Acolman) and other general markets with presence of many different goods. Markets were highly organized with a system of supervisors taking care that only authorized merchants were permitted to sell their goods, and punishing those who cheated their customers or sold substandard or counterfeit goods. A typical town would have a weekly market (every 5 days), while larger cities held markets every day. Cortés reported that the central market of Tlatelolco, Tenochtitlan 's sister city, was visited by 60,000 people daily. Some sellers in the markets were petty vendors; farmers might sell some of their produce, potters sold their vessels, and so on. Other vendors were professional merchants who traveled from market to market seeking profits.
The pochteca were specialized long distance merchants organized into exclusive guilds. They made long expeditions to all parts of Mesoamerica bringing back exotic luxury goods, and they served as the judges and supervisors of the Tlatelolco market. Although the economy of Aztec Mexico was commercialized (in its use of money, markets, and merchants) land and labor were not generally commodities for sale, though some types of land could be sold between nobles. In the commercial sector of the economy several types of money were in regular use. Small purchases were made with cacao beans, which had to be imported from lowland areas. In Aztec marketplaces, a small rabbit was worth 30 beans, a turkey egg cost 3 beans, and a tamal cost a single bean. For larger purchases, standardized lengths of cotton cloth called quachtli were used. There were different grades of quachtli, ranging in value from 65 to 300 cacao beans. About 20 quachtli could support a commoner for one year in Tenochtitlan.
Another form of distribution of goods was through the payment of tribute. When an altepetl was conquered the victor imposed a yearly tribute, usually paid in the form of whichever local product was most valuable or treasured. Several pages from the Codex Mendoza list tributary towns along with the goods they supplied, which included not only luxuries such as feathers, adorned suits, and greenstone beads, but more practical goods such as cloth, firewood, and food. Tribute was usually paid twice or four times a year at differing times.
Archaeological excavations in the Aztec - ruled provinces show that incorporation into the empire had both costs and benefits for provincial peoples. On the positive side, the empire promoted commerce and trade, and exotic goods from obsidian to bronze managed to reach the houses of both commoners and nobles. Trade partners also included the enemy Purépecha (also known as Tarascans), a source of bronze tools and jewelry. On the negative side, imperial tribute imposed a burden on commoner households, who had to increase their work to pay their share of tribute. Nobles, on the other hand, often made out well under imperial rule because of the indirect nature of imperial organization. The empire had to rely on local kings and nobles and offered them privileges for their help in maintaining order and keeping the tribute flowing.
Aztec society combined a relatively simple agrarian rural tradition with the development of truly urbanized society with a complex system of institutions, specializations and hierarchies. The urban tradition in Mesoamerica was developed during the classic period with major urban centers such as Teotihuacan with a population well above 100,000, and at the rise of the Aztec the urban tradition was ingrained in Mesoamerican society, with urban centers serving major religious, political and economic functions for the entire population.
The capital city of the Aztec empire was Tenochtitlan, now the site of modern - day Mexico City. Built on a series of islets in Lake Texcoco, the city plan was based on a symmetrical layout that was divided into four city sections called campan (directions). Tenochtitlan was built according to a fixed plan and centered on the ritual precinct, where the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan rose 50 m (164.04 ft) above the city. Houses were made of wood and loam, roofs were made of reed, although pyramids, temples and palaces were generally made of stone. The city was interlaced with canals, which were useful for transportation. Anthropologist Eduardo Noguera estimated the population at 200,000 based in the house count and merging the population of Tlatelolco (once an independent city, but later became a suburb of Tenochtitlan). If one includes the surrounding islets and shores surrounding Lake Texcoco, estimates range from 300,000 to 700,000 inhabitants. Michael E. Smith gives a somewhat smaller figure of 212,500 inhabitants of Tenochtitlan based on an area of 1,350 hectares and a population density of 157. The second largest city in the valley of Mexico in the Aztec period was Texcoco with some 25,000 inhabitants dispersed over 450 hectares.
The center of Tenochtitlan was the sacred precinct, a walled - off square area which housed the Great Temple, temples for other deities, the ballcourt, the calmecac (a school for nobles), a skull rack ' ' tzompantli, displaying the skulls of sacrificial victims, houses of the warrior orders, a penitential palace of the tlatoani and a merchants palace. Around the sacred precinct were the royal palaces of the rulers.
The centerpiece of Tenochtitlan was the Templo Mayor, the Great Temple, a large stepped pyramid with a double stair case leading up to two twin shrines -- one dedicated to Tlaloc, the other to Huitzilopochtli. This was where most of the human sacrifices were carried out during the ritual festivals and the bodies of sacrificial victims were thrown down the stairs. The temple was enlarged in several stages, and most of the Aztec rulers made a point of adding a further stage, each with a new dedication and inauguration. The temple has been excavated in the center of Mexico City and the rich dedicatory offerings are displayed in the Museum of the Templo Mayor.
Archaeologist Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, in his essay "Symbolism of the Templo Mayor, '' posits that the orientation of the temple is indicative of the totality of the vision the Mexica had of the universe (cosmovision). He states that the "principal center, or navel, where the horizontal and vertical planes intersect, that is, the point from which the heavenly or upper plane and the plane of the Underworld begin and the four directions of the universe originate, is the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan. '' Matos Moctezuma supports his supposition by claiming that the temple acts as an embodiment of a living myth where "all sacred power is concentrated and where all the levels intersect. ''
Other major Aztec cities were some of the previous city state centers around the lake including Tenayuca, Azcapotzalco, Texcoco, Colhuacan, Tlacopan, Chapultepec, Coyoacan, Xochimilco, and Chalco. In the Puebla valley, Cholula was the largest city with the largest pyramid temple in Mesoamerica, while the confederacy of Tlaxcala consisted of four smaller cities. In Morelos, Cuahnahuac was a major city of the Nahuatl speaking Tlahuica tribe, and Tollocan in the Toluca valley was the capital of the Matlatzinca tribe which included Nahuatl speakers as well as speakers of Otomi and the language today called Matlatzinca. Most Aztec cities had a similar layout with a central plaza with a major pyramid with two staircases and a double temple oriented towards the west.
Aztec religion was organized around the practice of calendar rituals dedicated to a pantheon of different deities. Similar to other Mesoamerican religious systems it has generally been understood as a polytheist agriculturalist religion with elements of animism. Central in the religious practice was the offering of sacrifices to the deities, as a way of thanking or paying for the continuation of the cycle of life.
The main deities worshipped by the Aztecs were Tlaloc, a rain and storm deity, Huitzilopochtli a solar and martial deity and the tutelary deity of the Mexica tribe, Quetzalcoatl, a wind, sky and star deity and cultural hero, Tezcatlipoca, a deity of the night, magic, prophecy and fate. The Great Temple in Tenochtitlan had two shrines on its top, one dedicated to Tlaloc, the other to Huitzilopochtli. Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca each had separate temples within the religious precinct close to the Great Temple, and the high priests of the Great Temple were named "Quetzalcoatl Tlamacazqueh ''. Other major deities were Tlaltecutli or Coatlicue a female earth deity, the deity couple Tonacatecuhtli and Tonacacihuatl were associated with life and sustenance, Mictlantecutli and Mictlancihuatl, a male / female couple of deities of the underworld and death, Chalchiutlicue, a female deity of lakes and springs, Xipe Totec, a deity of fertility and the natural cycle, Huehueteotl or Xiuhtecuhtli a fire god, Tlazolteotl a femal deity tied to childbirth and sexuality, and a Xochipilli and Xochiquetzal gods of song, dance and games. In some regions, particularly Tlaxcala, Mixcoatl or Camaxtli was the main tribal deity. A few sources mention a deity Ometeotl who may have been a god of the duality between life and death, male and female and who may have incorporated Tonacatecuhtli and Tonacacihuatl. Apart from the major deities there were dozens of minor deities each associated with an element or concept, and as the Aztec empire grew so did their pantheon because they adopted and incorporated the local deities of conquered people into their own. Additionally the major gods had many alternative manifestations or aspects, creating small families of gods with related aspects.
Aztec mythology is known from a number of sources written down in the colonial period. One set of myths, called Legend of the Suns, describe the creation of four successive suns, or periods, each ruled by a different deity and inhabited by a different group of beings. Each period ends in a cataclysmic destruction that sets the stage for the next period to begin. In this process, the deities Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl appear as adversaries, each destroying the creations of the other. The current Sun, the fifth, was created when a minor deity sacrificed himself on a bonfire and turned into the sun, but the sun only begins to move once the other deities sacrifice themselves and offers it their life force.
In another myth of how the earth was created Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl appear as allies, defeating a giant crocodile Cipactli and requiring her to become the earth, allowing humans to carve into her flesh and plant their seeds, on the condition that in return they will offer blood to her. And in the story of the creation of humanity Quetzalcoatl travels with his twin Xolotl to the underworld and brings back bones which are then ground like corn on a metate by the goddess Cihuacoatl, the resulting dough is given human form and comes to life when Quetzalcoatl imbues it with his own blood.
Huitzilopochtli is the deity tied to the Mexica tribe and he figures in the story of the origin and migrations of the tribe. On their journey, Huitzilopochtli, in the form of a deity bundle carried by the Mexica priest, continuously spurs the tribe on by pushing them into conflict with their neighbors whenever they are settled in a place. In another myth Huitzilopochtli defeats and dismembers his sister the lunar deity Coyolxauhqui and her four hundred brothers at the hill of Coatepetl. The southern side of the Great Temple, also called Coatepetl, was a representation of this myth and at the food of the stairs lay a large stone monolith carved with a representation of the dismembered goddess.
Aztec religious life was organized around the calendars. As most Mesoamerican people, the Aztecs used two calendars simultaneously: a ritual calendar of 260 days called the tonalpohualli and a solar calendar of 365 days called the xiuhpohualli. Each day had a name and number in both calendars, and the combination of two dates were unique within a period of 52 years. The tonalpohualli was mostly used for divinatory purposes and it consisted of 20 day signs and number coefficients of 1 -- 13 that cycled in a fixed order. The xiuhpohualli was made up of 18 "months '' of 20 days, and with a remainder of 5 "void '' days at the end of a cycle before the new xiuhpohualli cycle began. Each 20 - day month was named after the specific ritual festival that began the month, many of which contained a relation to the agricultural cycle. Whether, and how, the Aztec calendar corrected for leap year is a matter of discussion among specialists. The monthly rituals involved the entire population as rituals were performed in each household, in the calpolli temples and in the main sacred precinct. Many festivals involved different forms of dancing, as well as the reenactment of mythical narratives by deity impersonators and the offering of sacrifice, in the form of food, animals and human victims.
Every 52 years the two calendars reached their shared starting point and a new calendar cycle began. This calendar event was celebrated with a ritual known as Xiuhmolpilli or the New Fire Ceremony. In this ceremony old pottery was broken in all homes and all fires in the Aztec realm were put out. Then a new fire was drilled over the breast of a sacrificial victim and runners brought the new fire to the different calpolli communities where fire was redistributed to each home. The night without fire was associated with the fear that star demons, tzitzimime, might descend and devour the earth ending the fifth period of the sun.
To the Aztecs, death was instrumental in the perpetuation of creation, and gods and humans alike had the responsibility of sacrificing themselves in order to allow life to continue. As described in the myth of creation above, humans were understood as responsible for the sun 's continued revival, as well as for the paying the earth for its continued fertility. Blood sacrifice in various forms were conducted. Both humans and animals were sacrificed, depending on the god to be placated and the ceremony being conducted, and priests of some gods were sometimes required to provide their own blood through self - mutilation. It is known that some rituals included acts of cannibalism, with the captor and his family consuming part of the flesh of their sacrificed captives, but it is not known how widespread this practice was.
While human sacrifice was practiced throughout Mesoamerica, the Aztecs, if their own accounts are to be believed, brought this practice to an unprecedented level. For example, for the reconsecration of the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, the Aztecs reported that they sacrificed 80,400 prisoners over the course of four days, reportedly by Ahuitzotl, the Great Speaker himself. This number, however, is not universally accepted and may have been exaggerated.
The scale of Aztec human sacrifice has provoked many scholars to consider what may have been the driving factor behind this aspect of Aztec religion. In the 1970s, Michael Harner and Marvin Harris argued that the motivation behind human sacrifice among the Aztecs was actually the cannibalization of the sacrificial victims, depicted for example in Codex Magliabechiano. Harner claimed that very high population pressure and an emphasis on maize agriculture, without domesticated herbivores, led to a deficiency of essential amino acids among the Aztecs. While there is universal agreement that the Aztecs practiced sacrifice, there is a lack of scholarly consensus as to whether cannibalism was widespread. Harris, author of Cannibals and Kings (1977), has propagated the claim, originally proposed by Harner, that the flesh of the victims was a part of an aristocratic diet as a reward, since the Aztec diet was lacking in proteins. These claims have been refuted by Bernard Ortíz Montellano who, in his studies of Aztec health, diet, and medicine, demonstrates that while the Aztec diet was low in animal proteins, it was rich in vegetable proteins. Ortiz also points to the preponderance of human sacrifice during periods of food abundance following harvests compared to periods of food scarcity, the insignificant quantity of human protein available from sacrifices and the fact that aristocrats already had easy access to animal protein. Today many scholars point to ideological explanations of the practice, noting how the public spectacle of sacrificing warriors from conquered states was a major display of political power, supporting the claim of the ruling classes to divine authority. It also served as an important deterrent against rebellion by subjugated polities against the Aztec state, and such deterrents were crucial in order for the loosely organized empire to cohere.
The Aztecs greatly appreciated the arts and fine craftsmanship which they called toltecayotl which referred to the Toltecs, who had inhabited central Mexico prior to the rise of the Aztec city states in the Basin of Mexico and whom the Aztecs considered to represent the finest state of culture. The fine arts included writing and painting, singing and composing poetry, carving sculptures and producing mosaic, making fine ceramics, producing complex featherwork, and working metals, including copper and gold. All artisans of these fine arts were referred to collectively as tolteca "Toltecs ''.
The Aztecs did not have a fully developed writing system like the Maya did, but like the Maya and Zapotec they did use a writing system that combined logographic signs with phonetic syllable signs. Logograms would for example be the use of an image of a mountain to signify the word tepetl "mountain '', whereas a phonetic syllable sign would be the use of an image of a tooth tlantli to signify the syllable tla in words unrelated to teeth. The combination of these principles allowed the Aztecs to represent the sounds of names of persons and places. Narratives tended to be represented through sequences of images, using different iconographic conventions such as footprints to show paths, temples on fire to show conquest events etc.
Epigrapher Alfonso Lacadena has demonstrated that the different syllable signs used by the Aztecs almost enabled the representation of all the most frequent syllables of the Nahuatl language (with some notable exceptions), but some scholars have argued that such a high degree of phoneticity was only achieved after the conquest when the Aztecs had been introduced to the principles of phonetic writing by the Spanish. Other scholars, notably Gordon Whittaker, have argued that the syllabic and phonetic aspects of Aztec writing were considerably less systematic and more creative than Lacadena 's proposal suggests, arguing that Aztec writing never coalesced into a strictly syllabic system such as the Maya writing, but rather used a wide range of different types of phonetic signs.
The image to right demonstrates the use of phonetic signs for writing place names in the colonial Aztec Codex Mendoza. The uppermost place is "Mapachtepec '', meaning literally "On the Hill of the Raccoon ", but the glyph includes the phonetic signs "MA '' (hand) and "PACH '' (moss) over a mountain "TEPETL '' spelling the word "mapach '' ("raccoon '') phonetically instead of logographically. The other two placenames Mazatlan ("Place of Many Deer '') and Huitztlan ("Place of many thorns '') use the phonetic element "TLAN '' represented by a tooth (tlantli) combined with a deer head to spell "MAZA '' (mazatl = deer) and a thorn (huitztli) to spell "HUITZ ''.
Song and poetry were highly regarded; there were presentations and poetry contests at most of the Aztec festivals. There were also dramatic presentations that included players, musicians and acrobats. There were several different genres of cuicatl (song): Yaocuicatl was devoted to war and the god (s) of war, Teocuicatl to the gods and creation myths and to adoration of said figures, xochicuicatl to flowers (a symbol of poetry itself and indicative of the highly metaphorical nature of a poetry that often utilized duality to convey multiple layers of meaning). "Prose '' was tlahtolli, also with its different categories and divisions.
A key aspect of Aztec poetics was the use of parallelism, using a structure of embedded couplets to express different perspectives on the same element. Some such couplets were diphrasisms, conventional metaphors whereby an abstract concept was expressed metaphorically by using two more concrete concepts. For example, the Nahuatl expression for "poetry '' was in xochitl in cuicatl a dual term meaning "the flower, the song ''.
A remarkable amount of this poetry survives, having been collected during the era of the conquest. In some cases poetry is attributed to individual authors, such as Nezahualcoyotl, tlatoani of Texcoco, and Cuacuauhtzin, Lord of Tepechpan, but whether these attributions reflect actual authorship is a matter of opinion. Important collection of such poems are Romances de los señores de la Nueva España, collected (Tezcoco 1582), probably by Juan Bautista de Pomar, and the Cantares Mexicanos.
The Aztecs produced ceramics of different types. Common are orange wares, which are orange or buff burnished ceramics with no slip. Red wares are ceramics with a reddish slip. And polychrome ware are ceramics with a white or orange slip, with painted designs in orange, red, brown, and / or black. Very common is "black on orange '' ware which is orange ware decorated with painted designs in black.
Aztec black on orange ceramics are chronologically classified into four phases: Aztec I and II corresponding to ca, 1100 -- 1350 (early Aztec period), Aztec II ca. (1350 -- 1520), and the last phase Aztec IV was the early colonial period. Aztec I is characterized by floral designs and day - name glyphs; Aztec II is characterized by a stylized grass design above calligraphic designs such as s - curves or scrolls; Aztec III is characterized by very simple line designs; Aztec four continues some pre-columbian designs but adds European influenced floral designs. There were local variations on each of these styles, and archeologists continue to refine the ceramic sequence.
Typical vessels for everyday use were clay griddles for cooking (comalli), bowls and plates for eating (caxitl), pots for cooking (comitl) molcajetes or mortar - type vesses with slashed bases for grinding chile (molcaxitl), and different kinds of braziers, tripod dishes and biconical goblets. Vessels were fired in simple updraft kilns or even in open firing in pit kilns at low temperatures. Poluchrome ceramics were imported from the Cholula region (also known as Mixteca - Puebla style), and these weres were highly prized as a luxury ware, whereas the local block on orange styles were also for everyday use.
Aztec painted art was produced on animal skin (mostly deer), on cotton lienzos and on amate paper made from bark (e.g. from Trema micrantha or Ficus aurea), it was also produced on ceramics and carved in wood and stone. The surface of the material was often first treated with gesso to make the images stand out more clearly. The art of painting and writing was known in Nahuatl by the metaphor in tlilli, in tlapalli - meaning "the black ink, the red pigment ''.
There are few extant Aztec painted books. Of these none are conclusively confirmed to have been created before the conquest, but several codices must have been painted either right before the conquest or very soon after - before traditions for producing them were much disturbed. Even if some codices may have been produced after the conquest, there is good reson to think that they may have been copied from pre-columbian originals by scribes. The Codex Borbonicus is considered by some to be the only extant Aztec codex produced before the conquest - it is a calendric codex describing the day and month counts indicating the patron deities of the different time periods. Others consider it to have stylistic traits suggesting a post-conquest production.
Some codices were produces post-conquest, sometimes commissioned by the colonial government, for example Codex Mendoza, were painted by Aztec tlacuilos (codex creators), but under the control of Spanish authorities, who also sometimes commissioned codices describing pre-colonial religious practices, for example Codex Ríos. After the conquest, codices with calendric or religious information were sought out and systematically destroyed by the church - whereas other types of painted books, particularly historical narratives and tribute lists continued to be produced. Although depicting Aztec deities and describing religious practices also shared by the Aztecs of the Valley of Mexico, the codices produced in Southern Puebla near Cholula, are sometimes not considered to be Aztec codices, because they were preoduced outside of the Aztec "heartland ''. Karl Anton Nowotny, nevertheless considered that the Codex Borgia, painted in the area around Cholula and using a Mixtec style, was the "most significant work of art among the extant manuscripts ''.
Sculptures were carved in stone and wood, but few wood carvings have survived. Aztec stone sculptures exist in many sizes from small figurines and masks to large monuments, and are characterized by a high quality of craftmanship. Many sculptures were carved in highly realistic styles, for example realistic sculpture of animals such as rattlesnakes, dogs, jaguars, frogs, turtle and monkeys.
In Aztec artwork a number of monumental stone sculptures have been preserved, such sculptures usually functioned as adornments for religious architecture. Particularly famous monumental rock sculpture includes the so - called Aztec "Sunstone '' or Calendarstone discovered in 1790; also discovered in 1790 excavations of the Zócalo was the 2.7 meter tall Coatlicue statue made of andesite, representing a serpentine chtonic goddess with a skirt made of rattlesnakes. The Coyolxauhqui Stone representing the dismembered goddess Coyolxauhqui, found in 1978, was at the foot of the staircase leading up to the Great Temple in Tenochtitlan. Two important types of sculpture are unique to the Aztecs, and related to the context of ritual sacrifice: the cuauhxicalli or "eagle vessel '', large stone bowls often shaped like eagles or jaguars used as a receptacle for extracted human hearts; the temalacatl, a monumental carved stone disk to which war captives were tied and sacrificed in a form of gladitorial combat. The most well known examples of this type of sculpture are the Stone of Tizoc and the Stone of Motecuzoma I, both carved with images of warfare and conquest by specific Aztec rulers. Many smaller stone sculptures depicting deities also exist. The style used in religious sculpture was rigid stances likely meant to create a powerful experience in the onlooker. Although Aztec stone sculptures are now displayed in museums as unadorned rock, they were originally painted in vivid polychrome color, sometimes covered first with a base coat of plaster. Early Spanish conquistador accounts also describe stone sculptures as having been decorated with precious stones and metal, inserted into the plaster.
An especially prized art form among the Aztecs was featherwork - the creation of intricate and colorful mosaics of feathers, and their use in garments as well as decoration on weaponry, war banners, and warrior suits. The class of highly skilled and honored craftsmen who created feather objects was called the amanteca, named after the Amantla neighborhood in Tenochtitlan where they lived and worked. They did not pay tribute nor were required to perform public service. The Florentine Codex gives information about how feather works were created. The amanteca had two ways of creating their works. One was to secure the feathers in place using agave cord for three - dimensional objects such as fly whisks, fans, bracelets, headgear and other objects. The second and more difficult was a mosaic type technique, which the Spanish also called "feather painting. '' These were done principally on feather shields and cloaks for idols. Feather mosaics were arrangements of minute fragments of feathers from a wide variety of birds, generally worked on a paper base, made from cotton and paste, then itself backed with amate paper, but bases of other types of paper and directly on amate were done as well. These works were done in layers with "common '' feathers, dyed feathers and precious feathers. First a model was made with lower quality feathers and the precious feathers found only on the top layer. The adhesive for the feathers in the Mesoamerican period was made from orchid bulbs. Feathers from local and faraway sources were used, especially in the Aztec Empire. The feathers were obtained from wild birds as well as from domesticated turkeys and ducks, with the finest quetzal feathers coming from Chiapas, Guatemala and Honduras. These feathers were obtained through trade and tribute. Due to the difficulty of conserving feathers, fewer than ten pieces of original Aztec featherwork exist today.
Mexico City was built on the ruins of Tenochtitlan, gradually replacing and covering the lake, the island and the architecture of Aztec Tenochtitlan. After the fall of Tenochtitlan, Aztec warriors were enlisted as auxiliary troops alongside the Spanish Tlaxcalteca allies, and Aztec forces participated in all of the subsequent campaigns of conquest in northern and southern Mesoamerica. This meant that aspects of Aztec culture and the Nahuatl language continued to expand during the early colonial period as Aztec auxiliary forces made permanent settlements in many of the areas that were put under the Spanish crown.
The Aztec ruling dynasty continued to govern the indigenous polity of San Juan Tenochtitlan, a division of the Spanish capital of Mexico City, but the subsequent indigenous rulers were mostly puppets installed by the Spanish. One was Andrés de Tapia Motelchiuh, who was appointed by the Spanish. Other former Aztec city states likewise were established as colonial indigenous towns, governed by a local indigenous gobernador. This office was often initially held by the hereditary indigenous ruling line, with the gobernador being the tlatoani, but the two positions in many Nahua towns became separated over time. Indigenous governors were in charge of the colonial political organization of the Indians. In particular they enabled the continued functioning of the tribute and obligatory labor of commoner Indians to benefit the Spanish holders of encomiendas. Encomiendas were private grants of labor and tribute from particular indigenous communities to particular Spaniards, replacing the Aztec overlords with Spanish. In the early colonial period some indigenous governors became quite rich and influential and were able to maintain positions of power comparable to that of Spanish encomenderos.
After the arrival of the Europeans in Mexico and the conquest, indigenous populations declined significantly. This was largely the result of the epidemics of viruses brought to the continent against which the natives had no immunity. In 1520 -- 1521, an outbreak of smallpox swept through the population of Tenochtitlan and was decisive in the fall of the city; further significant epidemics struck in 1545 and 1576.
There has been no general consensus about the population size of Mexico at the time of European arrival. Early estimates gave very small population figures for the Valley of Mexico, in 1942 Kubler estimated a figure 200,000. In 1963 Borah and Cook used pre-Conquest tribute lists to calculate the number of tributaries in central Mexico, estimating over 18 -- 30 million. Their very high figure has been highly criticized for relying un unwarranted assumptions. Archeologist William Sanders based an estimate on archeological evidence of dwellings, arriving at an estimate of 1 -- 1.2 million inhabitants in the Valley of Mexico. Whitmore used a computer simulation model based on colonial censuses to arrive at an estimate of 1.5 million for the Basin in 1519, and an estimate of 16 million for all of Mexico. Depending on the estimations of the population in 1519 the scale of the decline in the 16th century, range from around 50 % to around 90 % -- with Sanders 's and Whitmore 's estimates being around 90 %.
Although the Aztec empire fell, some of its highest elites continued to hold elite status in the colonial era. The principal heirs of Moctezuma II and their descendants retained high status. His son Pedro Moctezuma produced a son, who married into Spanish aristocracy and a further generation saw the creation of the title, Count of Moctezuma. From 1696 to 1701, the Viceroy of Mexico was held the title of count of Moctezuma. In 1766, the holder of the title became a Grandee of Spain. In 1865, (during the Second Mexican Empire) the title, which was held by Antonio María Moctezuma - Marcilla de Teruel y Navarro, 14th Count of Moctezuma de Tultengo, was elevated to that of a Duke, thus becoming Duke of Moctezuma, with de Tultengo again added in 1992 by Juan Carlos I. Two of Moctezuma 's daughters, Doña Isabel Moctezuma and her younger sister, Doña Leonor Moctezuma, were granted extensive encomiendas in perpetuity by Hernán Cortes. Doña Leonor Moctezuma married in succession two Spaniards, and left her encomiendas to her daughter by her second husband.
The different Nahua peoples, just as other Mesoamerican indigenous peoples in colonial New Spain, were able to maintain many aspects of their social and political structure under the colonial rule. The basic division the Spanish made was between the indigenous populations, organized under the Republica de indios, which was separate from the Hispanic sphere, the República de españoles. The República de españoles included not just Europeans, but also Africans and mixed - race castas. The Spanish recognized the indigenous elites as nobles in the Spanish colonial system, maintaining the status distinction of the pre-conquest era, and used these noblemen as intermediaries between the Spanish colonial government and their communities. This was contingent on their conversion to Christianity and continuing loyalty to the Spanish crown. Colonial Nahua polities had considerable autonomy to regulate their local affairs. The Spanish rulers did not entirely understand the indigenous political organization, but they recognized the importance of the existing system and their elite rulers. They reshaped the political system utilizing altepetl or city - states as the basic unit of governance. In the colonial era, altepetl were renamed cabeceras or "head towns '' (although they often retained the term altepetl in local - level, Nahuatl - language documentation), with outlying settlements governed by the cabeceras named sujetos, subject communities. In cabeceras, the Spanish created Iberian - style town councils, or cabildos, which usually continued to function as the elite ruling group had in the pre-conquest era. Population decline due to epidemic disease resulted in many population shifts in settlement patterns, and the formation of new population centers. These were often forced resettlements under the Spanish policy of congregación. Indigenous populations living in sparsely populated areas were resettled to form new communities, making it easier for them to brought within range of evangelization efforts, and easier for the colonial state to exploit their labor.
Today the legacy of the Aztecs lives on in Mexico in many forms. Archeological sites are excavated and opened to the public and their artifacts are prominently displayed in museums. Place names and loanwords from the Aztec language Nahuatl permeate the Mexican landscape and vocabulary, and Aztec symbols and mythology have been promoted by the Mexican government and integrated into contemporary Mexican nationalism as emblems of the country.
During the 19th century, the image of the Aztecs as uncivilized barbarians was replaced with romanticized visions of the Aztecs as original sons of the soil, with a highly developed culture rivaling the ancient European civilizations. When Mexico became independent from Spain, a romanticized version of the Aztecs became a source of images that could be used to ground the new nation as a unique blend of European and American.
Aztec culture and history has been central to the formation of a Mexican national identity after Mexican independence in 1821. In 17th and 18th century Europe, the Aztecs were generally described as barbaric, gruesome and culturally inferior. Even before Mexico achieved its independence, American - born Spaniards (criollos) drew on Aztec history to ground their own search for symbols of local pride, separate from that of Spain. Intellectuals utilized Aztec writings, such as those collected by Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, and writings of Hernando Alvarado Tezozomoc, and Chimalpahin to understand Mexico 's indigenous past in texts by indigenous writers. This search became the basis for what historian D.A. Brading calls "creole patriotism. '' Seventeenth - century cleric and scientist, Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora acquired the manuscript collection of Texcocan nobleman Alva Ixtlilxochitl. Creole Jesuit Francisco Javier Clavijero published La Historia Antigua de México (1780 -- 81) in his Italian exile following the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767, in which he traces the history of the Aztecs from their migration to the last Aztec ruler, Cuauhtemoc. He wrote it expressly to defend Mexico 's indigenous past against the slanders of contemporary writers, such as Pauw, Buffon, Raynal, and William Robertson. Archeological excavations in 1790 in the capital 's main square uncovered two massive stone sculptures, buried immediately after the fall of Tenochtitlan in the conquest. Unearthed were unearthed the famous calendar stone, as well as a stature of Coatlicue. Antonio de León y Gama 's 1792 Descripción histórico y cronológico de las dos piedras examines the two stone monoliths. A decade later, German scientist Alexander von Humboldt spent a year in Mexico, during his epic four - year expedition to Spanish America. he spent a year in Mexico. One of his early publications from that period was Views of the Cordilleras and Monuments of the Indigenous Peoples of the Americas. Humboldt was important in disseminating images of the Aztecs to scientists and general readers in the Western world.
In the realm of religion, late colonial paintings of the Virgin of Guadalupe have examples of her depicted floating above the iconic nopal cactus of the Aztecs. Juan Diego, the Nahua to whom the apparition was said to appear, links the dark Virgin to Mexico 's Aztec past.
When New Spain achieved independence in 1821 and became a monarchy, the First Mexican Empire, its flag had the traditional Aztec eagle on a nopal cactus. The eagle had a crown, symbolizing the new Mexican monarchy. When Mexico became a republic after the overthrow of the first monarchy in 1822, the flag was revised showing the eagle with no crown. In the 1860s, when the French established the Second Mexican Empire under Maximilian Hapsburg, the Mexican flag retained the emblematic eagle and cactus, with elaborate symbols of monarchy. After the defeat of the French and their Mexican collaborators, the Mexican Republic was re-established, and the flag returned to its republican simplicity. This emblem has also been adopted as Mexico 's national Coat of Arms, and is emblazoned on official buildings, seals, and signs.
Tensions within post-independence Mexico pitted those rejecting the ancient civilizations of Mexico as source of national pride, the Hispanistas, mostly politically conservative Mexican elites, and those who saw them as a source of pride, the Indigenistas, who were mostly liberal Mexican elites. Although the flag of the Mexican Republic had the symbol of the Aztecs as its central element, conservative elites were generally hostile to the current indigenous populations of Mexico or crediting them with a glorious prehispanic history. Under Mexican president Antonio López de Santa Anna, pro-indigenist Mexican intellectuals did not find a wide audience. With Santa Anna 's overthrow in 1854, Mexican liberals and scholars interested in the indigenous past became more active. Liberals were more favorably inclined to the indigenous populations and their history, but considered a pressing matter being the "Indian Problem. '' Liberals ' commitment to equality before the law meant that for upwardly mobile indigenous, such as Zapotec Benito Juárez, who rose in the ranks of the liberals to become Mexico 's first president of indigenous origins, and Nahua intellectual and politician Ignacio Altamirano, a disciple of Ignacio Ramírez, a defender of the rights of the indigenous, liberalism presented a way forward in that era. For investigations of Mexico 's indigenous past, however, the role of moderate liberal José Fernando Ramírez is important, serving as director of the National Museum and doing research utilizing codices, while staying out of the fierce conflicts between liberals and conservatives that led to a decade of civil war. Mexican scholars who pursued research on the Aztecs in the late nineteenth century were Francisco Pimentel, Antonio García Cubas, Manuel Orozco y Berra, Joaquín García Icazbalceta, and Francisco del Paso y Troncoso contributing significantly to the nineteenth - century development of Mexican scholarship on the Aztecs.
The late nineteenth century in Mexico was a period in which Aztec civilization became a point of national pride. The era was dominated by liberal military hero, Porfirio Díaz, a mestizo from Oaxaca who was president of Mexico from 1876 to 1911. His policies opening Mexico to foreign investors and modernizing the country under a firm hand controlling unrest, "Order and Progress, '' undermined Mexico 's indigenous populations and their communities. However, for investigations of Mexico 's ancient civilizations, his was a benevolent regime, with funds supporting archeological research and for protecting monuments. "Scholars found it more profitable to confine their attention to Indians who had been dead for a number of centuries. '' His benevolence saw the placement of a monument to Cuauhtemoc in a major traffic round - about (glorieta) of the wide Paseo de la Reforma, which he inaugurated in 1887. In world 's fairs of the late nineteenth century, Mexico 's pavilions included a major focus on its indigenous past, especially the Aztecs. Mexican scholars such as Alfredo Chavero helped shape the cultural image of Mexico at these exhibitions.
The Mexican Revolution (1910 -- 1920) and significant participation of indigenous people in the struggle in many regions, ignited a broad government - sponsored political and cultural movement of indigenismo, with symbols of Mexico 's Aztec past becoming ubiquitous, most especially in Mexican muralism of Diego Rivera.
In their works, Mexican authors such as Octavio Paz and Agustin Fuentes have analyzed the use Aztec symbols by the modern Mexican state, critiquing the way it adopts and adapts indigenous culture to political ends, yet they have also in their works made use of the symbolic idiom themselves. Paz for example critiqued the architectural layout of the National Museum of Anthropology, which constructs a view of Mexican history as culminating with the Aztecs, as an expression of a nationalist appropriation of Aztec culture.
Scholars in Europe and the United States increasingly pursued investigations into Mexico 's ancient civilizations, starting in the nineteenth century. Humboldt had been extremely important bringing ancient Mexico into broader scholarly discussions of ancient civilizations. French Americanist Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg (1814 -- 1874) asserted that "science in our own time has at last effectively studied and rehabilitated America and the Americans from the (previous) viewpoint of history and archeology. It was Humboldt... who woke us from our sleep. '' Frenchman Jean - Frédéric Waldeck published Voyage archaelogique et pittoresque dans la Province de Yucatan in 1838. Although not directly connected with the Aztecs, it contributed to the increased interest in ancient Mexican studies in Europe. English aristocrat Lord Kingsborough spent considerable energy in their pursuit of understanding of ancient Mexico. Kingsborough answered Humboldt 's call for the publication of all known Mexican codices, publishing nine volumes of Antiquities of Mexico (1831 -- 1846) that were richly illustrated, bankrupting him. He was not directly interested in the Aztecs, but rather in proving that Mexico had been colonized by Jews. However, his publication of these valuable primary sources gave others access to them.
In the United States in the early nineteenth century, interest in ancient Mexico propelled John Lloyd Stephens to travel to Mexico and then publish well - illustrated accounts in the early 1840s. But the research of a half - blind Bostonian, William Hickling Prescott, into the Spanish conquest of Mexico resulted in his highly popular and deeply researched The Conquest of Mexico (1843). Although not formally trained as a historian, Prescott drew on the obvious Spanish sources, but also Ixtlilxochitl and Sahagún 's history of the conquest. His resulting work was a mixture of pro - and anti-Aztec attitudes. It was not only a bestseller in English, it also had an impact on Mexican intellectuals, including the leading conservative politician, Lucas Alamán. Alamán pushed back against his characterization of the Aztecs. In the assessment of Benjamin Keen, Prescott 's history "has survived attacks from every quarter, and still dominates the conceptions of the laymen, if not the specialist, concerning Aztec civilization. '' In the later nineteenth century, businessman and historian Hubert Howe Bancroft oversaw a huge project, employing writers and researchers, to write the history the "Native Races '' of North America, including Mexico, California, and Central America. One entire work was devoted to ancient Mexico, half of which concerned the Aztecs. It was a work of synthesis drawing on Ixtlilxochitl and Brasseur de Bourbourg, among others.
When the International Congress of Americanists was formed in Nancy, France in 1875, Mexican scholars became active participants, and Mexico City has hosted the biennial multidisciplinary meeting six times, starting in 1895. Mexico 's ancient civilizations have continued to be the focus of major scholarly investigations by Mexican and international scholars.
The Nahuatl language is today spoken by 1.5 million people, mostly in mountainous areas in the states of central Mexico. Mexican Spanish today incorporates hundreds of loans from Nahuatl, and many of these words have passed into general Spanish use, and further into other world languages.
In Mexico, Aztec placenames are ubiquituous, particularly in central Mexico where the Aztec empire was centered, but also in other regions where many towns, cities and regions were established under their Nahuatl names, as Aztec auxiliary troops accompanied the Spanish colonizers on the early expeditions that mapped New Spain. In this way even towns, that were not originally Nahuatl speaking came to be known by their Nahuatl names. In Mexico City there are commemorations of Aztec rulers, including on the Mexico City Metro, line 1, with stations named for Moctezuma II and Cuauhtemoc.
Mexican cuisine continues to be based on staple elements of Mesoamerican cooking and, particularly, of Aztec cuisine: corn, chili, beans, squash, tomato, avocado. Many of these staple products continue to be known by their Nahuatl names, carrying in this way ties to the Aztec people who introduced these foods to the Spaniards and to the world. Through spread of ancient Mesoamerican food elements, particularly plants, Nahuatl loan words (chocolate, tomato, chili, avocado, tamale, taco, pupusa, chipotle, pozole, atole) have been borrowed through Spanish into other languages around the world. Through the spread and popularity of Mexican cuisine, the culinary legacy of the Aztecs can be said to have a global reach. Today Aztec images and Nahuatl words are often used to lend an air of authenticity or exoticism in the marketing of Mexican cuisine.
The idea of the Aztecs has captivated the imaginations of Europeans since the first encounters, and has provided many iconic symbols to Western popular culture. In his book The Aztec Image in Western Thought, Benjamin Keen argued that Western thinkers have usually viewed Aztec culture through a filter of their own cultural interests.
The Aztecs and figures from Aztec mythology feature in Western culture. The name of Quetzalcoatl, a feathered serpent god, has been used for a genus of pterosaurs, Quetzalcoatlus, a large flying reptile with a wingspan of as much as 11 metres (36 ft). Quetzalcoatl has appeared as a character in many books, films and video games. D.H. Lawrence gave the name Quetzalcoatl to an early draft of his novel The Plumed Serpent, but his publisher, Alfred A. Knopf, insisted on a change of title. American author Gary Jennings wrote two acclaimed historical novels set in Aztec - period Mexico, Aztec (1980) and Aztec Autumn (1997). The novels were so popular that four more novels in the Aztec series were written after his death.
Aztec society has also been depicted in cinema. The Mexican feature film The Other Conquest (Spanish: La Otra Conquista) from 2000 was directed by Salvador Carrasco, and illustrated the colonial aftermath of the 1520s Spanish Conquest of Mexico. It adopted the perspective of an Aztec scribe, Topiltzin, who survived the attack on the temple of Tenochtitlan. The 1989 film Retorno a Aztlán by Juan Mora Catlett is a work of historical fiction set during the rule of Motecuzoma I, filmed in Nahuatl and with the alternative Nahuatl title Necuepaliztli in Aztlan. In Mexican exploitation B movies of the 1970s, a recurring figure was the "Aztec mummy '' as well as Aztec ghosts and sorcerers.
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give three possible arrangements for a 256-bit memory | Memory management unit - wikipedia
A memory management unit (MMU), sometimes called paged memory management unit (PMMU), is a computer hardware unit having all memory references passed through itself, primarily performing the translation of virtual memory addresses to physical addresses. It is usually implemented as part of the central processing unit (CPU), but it also can be in the form of a separate integrated circuit.
An MMU effectively performs virtual memory management, handling at the same time memory protection, cache control, bus arbitration and, in simpler computer architectures (especially 8 - bit systems), bank switching.
Modern MMUs typically divide the virtual address space (the range of addresses used by the processor) into pages, each having a size which is a power of 2, usually a few kilobytes, but they may be much larger. The bottom bits of the address (the offset within a page) are left unchanged. The upper address bits are the virtual page numbers.
Most MMUs use an in - memory table of items called a "page table '', containing one "page table entry '' (PTE) per page, to map virtual page numbers to physical page numbers in main memory. An associative cache of PTEs is called a translation lookaside buffer (TLB) and is used to avoid the necessity of accessing the main memory every time a virtual address is mapped. Other MMUs may have a private array of memory or registers that hold a set of page table entries. The physical page number is combined with the page offset to give the complete physical address.
A PTE may also include information about whether the page has been written to (the "dirty bit ''), when it was last used (the "accessed bit, '' for a least recently used (LRU) page replacement algorithm), what kind of processes (user mode or supervisor mode) may read and write it, and whether it should be cached.
Sometimes, a PTE prohibits access to a virtual page, perhaps because no physical random access memory has been allocated to that virtual page. In this case, the MMU signals a page fault to the CPU. The operating system (OS) then handles the situation, perhaps by trying to find a spare frame of RAM and set up a new PTE to map it to the requested virtual address. If no RAM is free, it may be necessary to choose an existing page (known as a "victim ''), using some replacement algorithm, and save it to disk (a process called "paging ''). With some MMUs, there can also be a shortage of PTEs, in which case the OS will have to free one for the new mapping.
The MMU may also generate illegal access error conditions or invalid page faults upon illegal or non-existing memory accesses, respectively, leading to segmentation fault or bus error conditions when handled by the operating system.
In some cases, a page fault may indicate a software bug, which can be prevented by using memory protection as one of key benefits of an MMU: an operating system can use it to protect against errant programs by disallowing access to memory that a particular program should not have access to. Typically, an operating system assigns each program its own virtual address space.
An MMU also mitigates the problem of fragmentation of memory. After blocks of memory have been allocated and freed, the free memory may become fragmented (discontinuous) so that the largest contiguous block of free memory may be much smaller than the total amount. With virtual memory, a contiguous range of virtual addresses can be mapped to several non-contiguous blocks of physical memory; this non-contiguous allocation is one of the benefits of paging.
In some early microprocessor designs, memory management was performed by a separate integrated circuit such as the VLSI VI475 (1986), the Motorola 68851 (1984) used with the Motorola 68020 CPU in the Macintosh II, or the Z8015 (1985) used with the Zilog Z8000 family of processors. Later microprocessors (such as the Motorola 68030 and the Zilog Z280) placed the MMU together with the CPU on the same integrated circuit, as did the Intel 80286 and later x86 microprocessors.
While this article concentrates on modern MMUs, commonly based on pages, early systems used a similar concept for base - limit addressing that further developed into segmentation. Those are occasionally also present on modern architectures. The x86 architecture provided segmentation, rather than paging, in the 80286, and provides both paging and segmentation in the 80386 and later processors (although the use of segmentation is not available in 64 - bit operation).
Most modern systems divide memory into pages that are 4 - 64 KB in size, often with the capability to use huge pages from 2 MB to 1 GB in size. Page translations are cached in a translation lookaside buffer (TLB). Some systems, mainly older RISC designs, trap into the OS when a page translation is not found in the TLB. Most systems use a hardware - based tree walker. Most systems allow the MMU to be disabled, but some disable the MMU when trapping into OS code.
VAX pages are 512 bytes, which is very small. An OS may treat multiple pages as if they were a single larger page. For example, Linux on VAX groups eight pages together. Thus, the system is viewed as having 4 KB pages. The VAX divides memory into four fixed - purpose regions, each 1 GB in size. They are:
Page tables are big linear arrays. Normally, this would be very wasteful when addresses are used at both ends of the possible range, but the page table for applications is itself stored in the kernel 's paged memory. Thus, there is effectively a two - level tree, allowing applications to have sparse memory layout without wasting a lot of space on unused page table entries. The VAX MMU is notable for lacking an accessed bit. OSes which implement paging must find some way to emulate the accessed bit if they are to operate efficiently. Typically, the OS will periodically unmap pages so that page - not - present faults can be used to let the OS set an accessed bit.
ARM architecture - based application processors implement an MMU defined by ARM 's virtual memory system architecture. The current architecture defines PTEs for describing 4 KB and 64 KB pages, 1 MB sections and 16 MB super-sections; legacy versions also defined a 1 KB tiny page. ARM uses a two - level page table if using 4 KB and 64 KB pages, or just a one - level page table for 1 MB sections and 16 MB sections.
TLB updates are performed automatically by page table walking hardware. PTEs include read / write access permission based on privilege, cacheability information, an NX bit, and a non-secure bit.
The IBM System / 360 Model 67, which was introduced Aug. 1965, included an MMU that was called a dynamic address translation (DAT) box. It had the unusual feature of storing accessed and dirty bits outside of the page table. They refer to physical memory rather than virtual memory, and are accessed by special - purpose instructions. This reduces overhead for the OS, which would otherwise need to propagate accessed and dirty bits from the page tables to a more physically oriented data structure. This makes OS - level virtualization easier.
Starting in August, 1972, the IBM System / 370 had a similar MMU, although it initially supported only a 24 - bit virtual address space rather than the 32 - bit virtual address space of the System / 360 Model 67. It also stored the accessed and dirty bits outside the page table. In early 1983, the System / 370 - XA architecture expanded the virtual address space to 31 bits, and in 2000, the 64 - bit z / Architecture was introduced, with the address space expanded to 64 bits; those continued to store the accessed and dirty bits outside the page table.
The DEC Alpha processor divides memory into 8 KB pages. After a TLB miss, low - level firmware machine code (here called PALcode) walks a three - level tree - structured page table. Addresses are broken down as follows: 21 bits unused, 10 bits to index the root level of the tree, 10 bits to index the middle level of the tree, 10 bits to index the leaf level of the tree, and 13 bits that pass through to the physical address without modification. Full read / write / execute permission bits are supported.
The MIPS architecture supports one to 64 entries in the TLB. The number of TLB entries is configurable at CPU configuration before synthesis. TLB entries are dual. Each TLB entry maps a virtual page number (VPN2) to either one of two page frame numbers (PFN0 or PFN1), depending on the least significant bit of the virtual address that is not part of the page mask. This bit and the page mask bits are not stored in the VPN2. Each TLB entry has its own page size, which can be any value from 1 KB to 256 MB in multiples of four. Each PFN in a TLB entry has a caching attribute, a dirty and a valid status bit. A VPN2 has a global status bit and an OS assigned ID which participates in the virtual address TLB entry match, if the global status bit is set to zero. A PFN stores the physical address without the page mask bits.
A TLB refill exception is generated when there are no entries in the TLB that match the mapped virtual address. A TLB invalid exception is generated when there is a match but the entry is marked invalid. A TLB modified exception is generated when there is a match but the dirty status is not set. If a TLB exception occurs when processing a TLB exception, a double fault TLB exception, it is dispatched to its own exception handler.
MIPS32 and MIPS32r2 support 32 bits of virtual address space and up to 36 bits of physical address space. MIPS64 supports up to 64 bits of virtual address space and up to 59 bits of physical address space.
The original Sun 1 was a single - board computer built around the Motorola 68000 microprocessor and introduced in 1982. It included the original Sun 1 memory management unit that provided address translation, memory protection, memory sharing and memory allocation for multiple processes running on the CPU. All access of the CPU to private on - board RAM, external Multibus memory, on - board I / O and the Multibus I / O ran through the MMU, where they were translated and protected in uniform fashion. The MMU was implemented in hardware on the CPU board.
The MMU consisted of a context register, a segment map and a page map. Virtual addresses from the CPU were translated into intermediate addresses by the segment map, which in turn were translated into physical addresses by the page map. The page size was 2 KB and the segment size was 32 KB which gave 16 pages per segment. Up to 16 contexts could be mapped concurrently. The maximum logical address space for a context was 1024 pages or 2 MB. The maximum physical address that could be mapped simultaneously was also 2 MB.
The context register was important in a multitasking operating system because it allowed the CPU to switch between processes without reloading all the translation state information. The 4 - bit context register could switch between 16 sections of the segment map under supervisor control, which allowed 16 contexts to be mapped concurrently. Each context had its own virtual address space. Sharing of virtual address space and inter-context communications could be provided by writing the same values in to the segment or page maps of different contexts. Additional contexts could be handled by treating the segment map as a context cache and replacing out - of - date contexts on a least - recently used basis.
The context register made no distinction between user and supervisor states. Interrupts and traps did not switch contexts which required that all valid interrupt vectors always be mapped in page 0 of context, as well as the valid supervisor stack.
In PowerPC G1, G2, G3, and G4 pages are normally 4 KB. After a TLB miss, the standard PowerPC MMU begins two simultaneous lookups. One lookup attempts to match the address with one of four or eight data block address translation (DBAT) registers, or four or eight instruction block address translation registers (IBAT), as appropriate. The BAT registers can map linear chunks of memory as large as 256 MB, and are normally used by an OS to map large portions of the address space for the OS kernel 's own use. If the BAT lookup succeeds, the other lookup is halted and ignored.
The other lookup, not directly supported by all processors in this family, is via a so - called "inverted page table, '' which acts as a hashed off - chip extension of the TLB. First, the top four bits of the address are used to select one of 16 segment registers. Then 24 bits from the segment register replace those four bits, producing a 52 - bit address. The use of segment registers allows multiple processes to share the same hash table.
The 52 - bit address is hashed, then used as an index into the off - chip table. There, a group of eight - page table entries is scanned for one that matches. If none match due to excessive hash collisions, the processor tries again with a slightly different hash function. If this, too, fails, the CPU traps into OS (with MMU disabled) so that the problem may be resolved. The OS needs to discard an entry from the hash table to make space for a new entry. The OS may generate the new entry from a more - normal tree - like page table or from per - mapping data structures which are likely to be slower and more space - efficient. Support for no - execute control is in the segment registers, leading to 256 MB granularity.
A major problem with this design is poor cache locality caused by the hash function. Tree - based designs avoid this by placing the page table entries for adjacent pages in adjacent locations. An operating system running on the PowerPC may minimize the size of the hash table to reduce this problem.
It is also somewhat slow to remove the page table entries of a process. The OS may avoid reusing segment values to delay facing this, or it may elect to suffer the waste of memory associated with per - process hash tables. G1 chips do not search for page table entries, but they do generate the hash, with the expectation that an OS will search the standard hash table via software. The OS can write to the TLB. G2, G3, and early G4 chips use hardware to search the hash table. The latest chips allow the OS to choose either method. On chips that make this optional or do not support it at all, the OS may choose to use a tree - based page table exclusively.
The x86 architecture has evolved over a very long time while maintaining full software compatibility, even for OS code. Thus, the MMU is extremely complex, with many different possible operating modes. Normal operation of the traditional 80386 CPU and its successors (IA - 32) is described here.
The CPU primarily divides memory into 4 KB pages. Segment registers, fundamental to the older 8088 and 80286 MMU designs, are not used in modern OSes, with one major exception: access to thread - specific data for applications or CPU - specific data for OS kernels, which is done with explicit use of the FS and GS segment registers. All memory access involves a segment register, chosen according to the code being executed. The segment register acts as an index into a table, which provides an offset to be added to the virtual address. Except when using FS or GS, the OS ensures that the offset will be zero.
After the offset is added, the address is masked to be no larger than 32 bits. The result may be looked up via a tree - structured page table, with the bits of the address being split as follows: 10 bits for the branch of the tree, 10 bits for the leaves of the branch, and the 12 lowest bits being directly copied to the result. Some operating systems, such as OpenBSD with its W ^ X feature, and Linux with the Exec Shield or PaX patches, may also limit the length of the code segment, as specified by the CS register, to disallow execution of code in modifiable regions of the address space.
Minor revisions of the MMU introduced with the Pentium have allowed very large 4 MB pages by skipping the bottom level of the tree (this leaves 10 bits for indexing the first level of page hierarchy with the remaining 10 + 12 bits being directly copied to the result). Minor revisions of the MMU introduced with the Pentium Pro introduced the physical address extension (PAE) feature, enabling 36 - bit physical addresses with 2 + 9 + 9 bits for three - level page tables and 12 lowest bits being directly copied to the result. Large pages (2 MB) are also available by skipping the bottom level of the tree (resulting in 2 + 9 bits for two - level table hierarchy and the remaining 9 + 12 lowest bits copied directly). In addition, the page attribute table allowed specification of cacheability by looking up a few high bits in a small on - CPU table.
No - execute support was originally only provided on a per - segment basis, making it very awkward to use. More recent x86 chips provide a per - page no - execute bit in the PAE mode. The W ^ X, Exec Shield, and PaX mechanisms described above emulate per - page non-execute support on machines x86 processors lacking the NX bit by setting the length of the code segment, with a performance loss and a reduction in the available address space.
x86 - 64 is a 64 - bit extension of x86 that almost entirely removes segmentation in favor of the flat memory model used by almost all operating systems for the 386 or newer processors. In long mode, all segment offsets are ignored, except for the FS and GS segments. When used with 4 KB pages, the page table tree has four levels instead of three.
The virtual addresses are divided as follows: 16 bits unused, nine bits each for four tree levels (for a total of 36 bits), and the 12 lowest bits directly copied to the result. With 2 MB pages, there are only three levels of page table, for a total of 27 bits used in paging and 21 bits of offset. Some newer CPUs also support a 1 GB page with two levels of paging and 30 bits of offset.
CPUID can be used to determine if 1 GB pages are supported. In all three cases, the 16 highest bits are required to be equal to the 48th bit, or in other words, the low 48 bits are sign extended to the higher bits. This is done to allow a future expansion of the addressable range, without compromising backwards compatibility. In all levels of the page table, the page table entry includes a no - execute bit.
The Burroughs B5000 from 1961 was the first commercial system to support virtual memory (after the Atlas), even though it has no MMU It provides the two functions of an MMU - virtual memory addresses and memory protection - with a different architectural approach.
First, in the mapping of virtual memory addresses, instead of needing an MMU, the MCP systems are descriptor - based. Each allocated memory block is given a master descriptor with the properties of the block (i.e., the size, address, and whether present in memory). When a request is made to access the block for reading or writing, the hardware checks its presence via the presence bit (pbit) in the descriptor.
A pbit of 1 indicates the presence of the block. In this case, the block can be accessed via the physical address in the descriptor. If the pbit is zero, an interrupt is generated for the MCP (operating system) to make the block present. If the address field is zero, this is the first access to this block, and it is allocated (an init pbit). If the address field is non-zero, it is a disk address of the block, which has previously been rolled out, so the block is fetched from disk and the pbit is set to one and the physical memory address updated to point to the block in memory (another pbit). This makes descriptors equivalent to a page - table entry in an MMU system. System performance can be monitored through the number of pbits. Init pbits indicate initial allocations, but a high level of other pbits indicate that the system may be thrashing.
All memory allocation is therefore completely automatic (one of the features of modern systems) and there is no way to allocate blocks other than this mechanism. There are no such calls as malloc or dealloc, since memory blocks are also automatically discarded. The scheme is also lazy, since a block will not be allocated until it is actually referenced. When memory is nearly full, the MCP examines the working set, trying compaction (since the system is segmented, not paged), deallocating read - only segments (such as code - segments which can be restored from their original copy) and, as a last resort, rolling dirty data segments out to disk.
Another way the B5000 provides a function of a MMU is in protection. Since all accesses are via the descriptor, the hardware can check that all accesses are within bounds and, in the case of a write, that the process has write permission. The MCP system is inherently secure and thus has no need of an MMU to provide this level of memory protection. Descriptors are read only to user processes and may only be updated by the system (hardware or MCP). (Words whose tag is an odd number are read - only; descriptors have a tag of 5 and code words have a tag of 3.)
Blocks can be shared between processes via copy descriptors in the process stack. Thus, some processes may have write permission, whereas others do not. A code segment is read only, thus reentrant and shared between processes. Copy descriptors contain a 20 - bit address field giving index of the master descriptor in the master descriptor array. This also implements a very efficient and secure IPC mechanism. Blocks can easily be relocated, since only the master descriptor needs update when a block 's status changes.
The only other aspect is performance -- do MMU - based or non-MMU - based systems provide better performance? MCP systems may be implemented on top of standard hardware that does have an MMU (for example, a standard PC). Even if the system implementation uses the MMU in some way, this will not be at all visible at the MCP level.
This article is based on material taken from the Free On - line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the "relicensing '' terms of the GFDL, version 1.3 or later.
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snarky puppy - lingus (we like it here) | We Like It Here - wikipedia
We Like It Here is the ninth album by American jazz fusion group Snarky Puppy, released on February 25, 2014.
All songs composed by Michael League, except where noted.
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where did expression son of a gun come from | Son of a gun - wikipedia
Son of a gun is an exclamation or a noun in American and British English. It can be used encouragingly or to compliment, as in "You son of a gun, you did it! ''
The Cambridge Advanced Learner 's Dictionary and Webster 's Dictionary both define "son of a gun '' in American English as an euphemism for son of a bitch. Encarta Dictionary defines the term in a different way as someone "affectionately or kindly regarded. '' The term can also be used as an interjection expressing surprise, mild annoyance or disappointment.
The phrase potentially has its origin in a Royal Navy requirement that pregnant women aboard naval vessels give birth in the space between the broadside guns, in order to keep the gangways and crew decks clear. Admiral William Henry Smyth wrote in his 1867 book, The Sailor 's Word - Book: "Son of a gun, an epithet conveying contempt in a slight degree, and originally applied to boys born afloat, when women were permitted to accompany their husbands to sea; one admiral declared he literally was thus cradled, under the breast of a gun - carriage. ''
Alternatively, historian Brian Downing proposes that the phrase "son of a gun '' originated from feudal knights ' disdain for newly developed firearms and those who wielded them. An American urban myth also proposes that the saying originated in a story reported in the October 7, 1864 The American Medical Weekly about a woman impregnated by a bullet that went through a soldier 's scrotum and into her abdomen. The story about the woman was a joke written by Dr. Legrand G. Capers; some people who read the weekly failed to realize that the story was a joke and reported it as true. This myth was the subject of an episode of the television show MythBusters, in which experiments showed the story implausible.
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sign of the times what is the song about | Sign of the Times - wikipedia
Sign of the Times, A Sign of the Times, or Signs of the Times may refer to:
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rebellion to tyrants is obedience to god latin | Sic semper tyrannis - wikipedia
Sic semper tyrannis is a Latin phrase meaning "thus always to tyrants ''.
The phrase is sometimes said to have originated with Roman Marcus Junius Brutus during the assassination of Julius Caesar on 15 March 44 BC, but according to Plutarch, Brutus either did not have a chance to say anything, or if he did, no one heard what was said:
Caesar thus done to death, the senators, although Brutus came forward as if to say something about what had been done, would not wait to hear him, but burst out of doors and fled, thus filling the people with confusion and helpless fear.
The phrase has been invoked historically in Europe and other parts of the world as an epithet or rallying cry against abuse of power.
In American history, John Tyler 's father uttered the phrase to a school - teacher who had been tied up by Tyler and his fellow pupils.
During the Civil War, at least one regiment of the United States Colored Troops used it as their motto.
John Wilkes Booth wrote in his diary that he shouted "Sic semper tyrannis '' after shooting U.S. President Abraham Lincoln on April 14, 1865, in part because of the association with the assassination of Caesar. The phrase was also in the pro-Confederate Civil War song Maryland, My Maryland, which was popular at the time with Southern sympathizers in Maryland, such as Booth. The song, containing the phrase, is now the official state song of Maryland.
Timothy McVeigh was wearing a T - shirt with this phrase and a picture of Lincoln on it when he was arrested on April 19, 1995, the day of the Oklahoma City bombing.
The phrase is also the motto of the U.S. city Allentown, the third largest city in Pennsylvania.
The phrase was recommended by George Mason to the Virginia Convention in 1776, as part of the commonwealth 's seal. The Seal of the Commonwealth of Virginia shows Virtue, spear in hand, with her foot on the prostrate form of Tyranny, whose crown lies nearby. The Seal was planned by Mason and designed by George Wythe, who signed the United States Declaration of Independence and taught law to Thomas Jefferson. A joke referencing the image on the seal that dates as far back as the Civil War, is that "Sic semper tyrannis '' actually means "Get your foot off my neck. ''
"Happy While United '' was the slogan on a medal coined by the State of Virginia in 1780. First envisioned by Thomas Jefferson, the medal was minted and designed to be given to Indian signatories to the treaties Jefferson planned with the First Peoples of Virginia. The medal portrays a Virginia colonial sitting enjoying a peace pipe with a Native American. The obverse portrays a variation of the Virginia state seal of the state symbol standing triumphant over a slain enemy with the legend: "Rebellion to Tyrants Is Obedience to God ''.
The phrase is the motto of the United States Navy attack submarine named for the state, the USS Virginia. Before that, it was the motto of the nuclear - powered cruiser USS Virginia.
The phrase appears on the Insignia of the 149th Fighter Squadron which is located at Joint Base Langley -- Eustis, Virginia.
The English version of the phrase is alluded to in The Big Lebowski by the character Wu, who snarks, "Ever thus to deadbeats '' as he urinates upon the Dude 's rug.
In House of Lies Season 3, Episode 2, "Power (less), '' junior consultant Christy stabs her tyrannical boss, Monica, while uttering the full latin phrase.
In Seinfeld, Season 4, Episode 24, "The Pilot (Part 2), '' "Crazy '' Joe Davola cries out the phrase and then jumps off the stands into the set in an attempt to attack Jerry.
Great Seal of Virginia with the commonwealth 's motto.
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which of these have been associated with and may have contributed to the end-permian mass extinction | Permian -- Triassic extinction event - wikipedia
The Permian -- Triassic (P -- Tr or P -- T) extinction event, colloquially known as the Great Dying, the End - Permian Extinction or the Great Permian Extinction, occurred about 252 Ma (million years) ago, forming the boundary between the Permian and Triassic geologic periods, as well as the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras. It is the Earth 's most severe known extinction event, with up to 96 % of all marine species and 70 % of terrestrial vertebrate species becoming extinct. It is the only known mass extinction of insects. Some 57 % of all families and 83 % of all genera became extinct. Because so much biodiversity was lost, the recovery of life on Earth took significantly longer than after any other extinction event, possibly up to 10 million years. Studies in Bear Lake County near Paris, Idaho showed a quick and dynamic rebound in a marine ecosystem, illustrating the remarkable resilience of life.
There is evidence for one to three distinct pulses, or phases, of extinction. Suggested mechanisms for the latter include one or more large meteor impact events, massive volcanism such as that of the Siberian Traps, and the ensuing coal or gas fires and explosions, and a runaway greenhouse effect triggered by sudden release of methane from the sea floor due to methane clathrate dissociation according to the clathrate gun hypothesis or methane - producing microbes known as methanogens. Possible contributing gradual changes include sea - level change, increasing anoxia, increasing aridity, and a shift in ocean circulation driven by climate change.
Until 2000, it was thought that rock sequences spanning the Permian -- Triassic boundary were too few and contained too many gaps for scientists to reliably determine its details. However, it is now possible to date the extinction with millennial precision. U -- Pb zircon dates from five volcanic ash beds from the Global Stratotype Section and Point for the Permian -- Triassic boundary at Meishan, China, establish a high - resolution age model for the extinction -- allowing exploration of the links between global environmental perturbation, carbon cycle disruption, mass extinction, and recovery at millennial timescales. The extinction occurred between 251.941 ± 0.037 and 251.880 ± 0.031 Ma, a duration of 60 ± 48 ka. A large (approximately 0.9 %), abrupt global decrease in the ratio of the stable isotope C to that of C, coincides with this extinction, and is sometimes used to identify the Permian -- Triassic boundary in rocks that are unsuitable for radiometric dating. Further evidence for environmental change around the P -- Tr boundary suggests an 8 ° C (14 ° F) rise in temperature, and an increase in CO levels by 6997200000000000000 ♠ 2000 ppm (for comparison, the concentration immediately before the industrial revolution was 6996279999999999999 ♠ 280 ppm.) There is also evidence of increased ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth, causing the mutation of plant spores.
It has been suggested that the Permian -- Triassic boundary is associated with a sharp increase in the abundance of marine and terrestrial fungi, caused by the sharp increase in the amount of dead plants and animals fed upon by the fungi. For a while this "fungal spike '' was used by some paleontologists to identify the Permian -- Triassic boundary in rocks that are unsuitable for radiometric dating or lack suitable index fossils, but even the proposers of the fungal spike hypothesis pointed out that "fungal spikes '' may have been a repeating phenomenon created by the post-extinction ecosystem in the earliest Triassic. The very idea of a fungal spike has been criticized on several grounds, including: Reduviasporonites, the most common supposed fungal spore, was actually a fossilized alga; the spike did not appear worldwide; and in many places it did not fall on the Permian -- Triassic boundary. The algae, which were misidentified as fungal spores, may even represent a transition to a lake - dominated Triassic world rather than an earliest Triassic zone of death and decay in some terrestrial fossil beds. Newer chemical evidence agrees better with a fungal origin for Reduviasporonites, diluting these critiques.
Uncertainty exists regarding the duration of the overall extinction and about the timing and duration of various groups ' extinctions within the greater process. Some evidence suggests that there were multiple extinction pulses or that the extinction was spread out over a few million years, with a sharp peak in the last million years of the Permian. Statistical analyses of some highly fossiliferous strata in Meishan, Zhejiang Province in southeastern China, suggest that the main extinction was clustered around one peak. Recent research shows that different groups became extinct at different times; for example, while difficult to date absolutely, ostracod and brachiopod extinctions were separated by 670 to 1170 thousand years. In a well - preserved sequence in east Greenland, the decline of animals is concentrated in a period 10 to 7001600000000000000 ♠ 60 thousand years long, with plants taking an additional several hundred thousand years to show the full impact of the event. An older theory, still supported in some recent papers, is that there were two major extinction pulses 9.4 million years apart, separated by a period of extinctions well above the background level, and that the final extinction killed off only about 80 % of marine species alive at that time while the other losses occurred during the first pulse or the interval between pulses. According to this theory one of these extinction pulses occurred at the end of the Guadalupian epoch of the Permian. For example, all but one of the surviving dinocephalian genera died out at the end of the Guadalupian, as did the Verbeekinidae, a family of large - size fusuline foraminifera. The impact of the end - Guadalupian extinction on marine organisms appears to have varied between locations and between taxonomic groups -- brachiopods and corals had severe losses.
Marine invertebrates suffered the greatest losses during the P -- Tr extinction. Evidence of this was found in samples from south China sections at the P -- Tr boundary. Here, 286 out of 329 marine invertebrate genera disappear within the final 2 sedimentary zones containing conodonts from the Permian. The decrease in diversity was probably caused by a sharp increase in extinctions, rather than a decrease in speciation.
The extinction primarily affected organisms with calcium carbonate skeletons, especially those reliant on stable CO levels to produce their skeletons. These organisms were susceptible to the effects of the ocean acidification that resulted from increased atmospheric CO.
Among benthic organisms the extinction event multiplied background extinction rates, and therefore caused maximum species loss to taxa that had a high background extinction rate (by implication, taxa with a high turnover). The extinction rate of marine organisms was catastrophic.
Surviving marine invertebrate groups include: articulate brachiopods (those with a hinge), which have undergone a slow decline in numbers since the P -- Tr extinction; the Ceratitida order of ammonites; and crinoids ("sea lilies ''), which very nearly became extinct but later became abundant and diverse.
The groups with the highest survival rates generally had active control of circulation, elaborate gas exchange mechanisms, and light calcification; more heavily calcified organisms with simpler breathing apparatuses suffered the greatest loss of species diversity. In the case of the brachiopods, at least, surviving taxa were generally small, rare members of a formerly diverse community.
The ammonoids, which had been in a long - term decline for the 30 million years since the Roadian (middle Permian), suffered a selective extinction pulse 10 million years before the main event, at the end of the Capitanian stage. In this preliminary extinction, which greatly reduced disparity, or the range of different ecological guilds, environmental factors were apparently responsible. Diversity and disparity fell further until the P -- Tr boundary; the extinction here (P -- Tr) was non-selective, consistent with a catastrophic initiator. During the Triassic, diversity rose rapidly, but disparity remained low.
The range of morphospace occupied by the ammonoids, that is, their range of possible forms, shapes or structures, became more restricted as the Permian progressed. A few million years into the Triassic, the original range of ammonoid structures was once again reoccupied, but the parameters were now shared differently among clades.
The Permian had great diversity in insect and other invertebrate species, including the largest insects ever to have existed. The end - Permian is the only known mass extinction of insects, with eight or nine insect orders becoming extinct and ten more greatly reduced in diversity. Palaeodictyopteroids (insects with piercing and sucking mouthparts) began to decline during the mid-Permian; these extinctions have been linked to a change in flora. The greatest decline occurred in the Late Permian and was probably not directly caused by weather - related floral transitions.
Most fossil insect groups found after the Permian -- Triassic boundary differ significantly from those before. Of Paleozoic insect groups, only the Glosselytrodea, Miomoptera, and Protorthoptera have been discovered in deposits from after the extinction. The caloneurodeans, monurans, paleodictyopteroids, protelytropterans, and protodonates became extinct by the end of the Permian. In well - documented Late Triassic deposits, fossils overwhelmingly consist of modern fossil insect groups.
The geological record of terrestrial plants is sparse and based mostly on pollen and spore studies. Interestingly, plants are relatively immune to mass extinction, with the impact of all the major mass extinctions "insignificant '' at a family level. Even the reduction observed in species diversity (of 50 %) may be mostly due to taphonomic processes. However, a massive rearrangement of ecosystems does occur, with plant abundances and distributions changing profoundly and all the forests virtually disappearing; the Palaeozoic flora scarcely survived this extinction.
At the P -- Tr boundary, the dominant floral groups changed, with many groups of land plants entering abrupt decline, such as Cordaites (gymnosperms) and Glossopteris (seed ferns). Dominant gymnosperm genera were replaced post-boundary by lycophytes -- extant lycophytes are recolonizers of disturbed areas.
Palynological or pollen studies from East Greenland of sedimentary rock strata laid down during the extinction period indicate dense gymnosperm woodlands before the event. At the same time that marine invertebrate macrofauna declined, these large woodlands died out and were followed by a rise in diversity of smaller herbaceous plants including Lycopodiophyta, both Selaginellales and Isoetales. Later, other groups of gymnosperms again become dominant but again suffered major die offs. These cyclical flora shifts occurred a few times over the course of the extinction period and afterwards. These fluctuations of the dominant flora between woody and herbaceous taxa indicate chronic environmental stress resulting in a loss of most large woodland plant species. The successions and extinctions of plant communities do not coincide with the shift in δ C values, but occurred many years after. The recovery of gymnosperm forests took 4 -- 5 million years.
No coal deposits are known from the Early Triassic, and those in the Middle Triassic are thin and low - grade. This "coal gap '' has been explained in many ways. It has been suggested that new, more aggressive fungi, insects and vertebrates evolved, and killed vast numbers of trees. These decomposers themselves suffered heavy losses of species during the extinction, and are not considered a likely cause of the coal gap. It could simply be that all coal forming plants were rendered extinct by the P -- Tr extinction, and that it took 10 million years for a new suite of plants to adapt to the moist, acid conditions of peat bogs. Abiotic factors (factors not caused by organisms), such as decreased rainfall or increased input of clastic sediments, may also be to blame.
On the other hand, the lack of coal may simply reflect the scarcity of all known sediments from the Early Triassic. Coal - producing ecosystems, rather than disappearing, may have moved to areas where we have no sedimentary record for the Early Triassic. For example, in eastern Australia a cold climate had been the norm for a long period, with a peat mire ecosystem adapted to these conditions. Approximately 95 % of these peat - producing plants went locally extinct at the P -- Tr boundary; Interestingly, coal deposits in Australia and Antarctica disappear significantly before the P -- Tr boundary.
There is enough evidence to indicate that over two - thirds of terrestrial labyrinthodont amphibians, sauropsid ("reptile '') and therapsid ("proto - mammal '') families became extinct. Large herbivores suffered the heaviest losses.
All Permian anapsid reptiles died out except the procolophonids (although testudines have morphologically anapsid skulls, they are now thought to have separately evolved from diapsid ancestors). Pelycosaurs died out before the end of the Permian. Too few Permian diapsid fossils have been found to support any conclusion about the effect of the Permian extinction on diapsids (the "reptile '' group from which lizards, snakes, crocodilians, and dinosaurs (including birds) evolved).
The groups that survived suffered extremely heavy losses of species, and some terrestrial vertebrate groups very nearly became extinct at the end - Permian. Some of the surviving groups did not persist for long past this period, while others that barely survived went on to produce diverse and long - lasting lineages. Yet it took 30 million years for the terrestrial vertebrate fauna to fully recover both numerically and ecologically.
An analysis of marine fossils from the Permian 's final Changhsingian stage found that marine organisms with low tolerance for hypercapnia (high concentration of carbon dioxide) had high extinction rates, while the most tolerant organisms had very slight losses.
The most vulnerable marine organisms were those that produced calcareous hard parts (i.e., from calcium carbonate) and had low metabolic rates and weak respiratory systems -- notably calcareous sponges, rugose and tabulate corals, calcite - depositing brachiopods, bryozoans, and echinoderms; about 81 % of such genera became extinct. Close relatives without calcareous hard parts suffered only minor losses, for example sea anemones, from which modern corals evolved. Animals with high metabolic rates, well - developed respiratory systems, and non-calcareous hard parts had negligible losses -- except for conodonts, in which 33 % of genera died out.
This pattern is consistent with what is known about the effects of hypoxia, a shortage but not a total absence of oxygen. However, hypoxia can not have been the only killing mechanism for marine organisms. Nearly all of the continental shelf waters would have had to become severely hypoxic to account for the magnitude of the extinction, but such a catastrophe would make it difficult to explain the very selective pattern of the extinction. Models of the Late Permian and Early Triassic atmospheres show a significant but protracted decline in atmospheric oxygen levels, with no acceleration near the P -- Tr boundary. Minimum atmospheric oxygen levels in the Early Triassic are never less than present day levels -- the decline in oxygen levels does not match the temporal pattern of the extinction.
Marine organisms are more sensitive to changes in CO (carbon dioxide) levels than are terrestrial organisms for a variety of reasons. CO is 28 times more soluble in water than is oxygen. Marine animals normally function with lower concentrations of CO in their bodies than land animals, as the removal of CO in air - breathing animals is impeded by the need for the gas to pass through the respiratory system 's membranes (lungs ' alveolus, tracheae, and the like), even when CO diffuses more easily than oxygen. In marine organisms, relatively modest but sustained increases in CO concentrations hamper the synthesis of proteins, reduce fertilization rates, and produce deformities in calcareous hard parts. In addition, an increase in CO concentration is inevitably linked to ocean acidification, consistent with the preferential extinction of heavily calcified taxa and other signals in the rock record that suggest a more acidic ocean. The decrease in ocean pH is calculated to be up to 0.7 units.
It is difficult to analyze extinction and survival rates of land organisms in detail, because few terrestrial fossil beds span the Permian -- Triassic boundary. Triassic insects are very different from those of the Permian, but a gap in the insect fossil record spans approximately 15 million years from the late Permian to early Triassic. The best - known record of vertebrate changes across the Permian -- Triassic boundary occurs in the Karoo Supergroup of South Africa, but statistical analyses have so far not produced clear conclusions. However, analysis of the fossil river deposits of the floodplains indicate a shift from meandering to braided river patterns, indicating an abrupt drying of the climate. The climate change may have taken as little as 100,000 years, prompting the extinction of the unique Glossopteris flora and its herbivores, followed by the carnivorous guild. End - Permian extinctions did not occur at an instantaneous time horizon; particularly, floral extinction was delayed in time.
Earlier analyses indicated that life on Earth recovered quickly after the Permian extinctions, but this was mostly in the form of disaster taxa, opportunist organisms such as the hardy Lystrosaurus. Research published in 2006 indicates that the specialized animals that formed complex ecosystems, with high biodiversity, complex food webs and a variety of niches, took much longer to recover. It is thought that this long recovery was due to the successive waves of extinction, which inhibited recovery, and prolonged environmental stress to organisms, which continued into the Early Triassic. Research indicates that recovery did not begin until the start of the mid-Triassic, 4 to 6 million years after the extinction; and some writers estimate that the recovery was not complete until 7014946728000000000 ♠ 30 Ma after the P -- Tr extinction, i.e. in the late Triassic.
A study published in the journal Science found that during the Great Extinction the oceans ' surface temperatures reached 40 ° C (104 ° F), which explains why recovery took so long: it was simply too hot for life to survive. Of course, not all of the Earth 's surface was 40 °, and if it was simply too hot for life to survive then nothing would have survived. Anoxic waters may have also delayed the recovery.
During the early Triassic (4 to 6 million years after the P -- Tr extinction), the plant biomass was insufficient to form coal deposits, which implies a limited food mass for herbivores. River patterns in the Karoo changed from meandering to braided, indicating that vegetation there was very sparse for a long time.
Each major segment of the early Triassic ecosystem -- plant and animal, marine and terrestrial -- was dominated by a small number of genera, which appeared virtually worldwide, for example: the herbivorous therapsid Lystrosaurus (which accounted for about 90 % of early Triassic land vertebrates) and the bivalves Claraia, Eumorphotis, Unionites and Promylina. A healthy ecosystem has a much larger number of genera, each living in a few preferred types of habitat.
Disaster taxa took advantage of the devastated ecosystems and enjoyed a temporary population boom and increase in their territory. Microconchids are the dominant component of otherwise impoverished Early Triassic encrusting assemblages. For example: Lingula (a brachiopod); stromatolites, which had been confined to marginal environments since the Ordovician; Pleuromeia (a small, weedy plant); Dicroidium (a seed fern).
Prior to the extinction, about two - thirds of marine animals were sessile and attached to the sea floor but, during the Mesozoic, only about half of the marine animals were sessile while the rest were free - living. Analysis of marine fossils from the period indicated a decrease in the abundance of sessile epifaunal suspension feeders such as brachiopods and sea lilies and an increase in more complex mobile species such as snails, sea urchins and crabs.
Before the Permian mass extinction event, both complex and simple marine ecosystems were equally common; after the recovery from the mass extinction, the complex communities outnumbered the simple communities by nearly three to one, and the increase in predation pressure led to the Mesozoic Marine Revolution.
Bivalves were fairly rare before the P -- Tr extinction but became numerous and diverse in the Triassic, and one group, the rudist clams, became the Mesozoic 's main reef - builders. Some researchers think much of this change happened in the 5 million years between the two major extinction pulses.
Crinoids ("sea lilies '') suffered a selective extinction, resulting in a decrease in the variety of their forms. Their ensuing adaptive radiation was brisk, and resulted in forms possessing flexible arms becoming widespread; motility, predominantly a response to predation pressure, also became far more prevalent.
Lystrosaurus, a pig - sized herbivorous dicynodont therapsid, constituted as much as 90 % of some earliest Triassic land vertebrate fauna. Smaller carnivorous cynodont therapsids also survived, including the ancestors of mammals. In the Karoo region of southern Africa, the therocephalians Tetracynodon, Moschorhinus and Ictidosuchoides survived, but do not appear to have been abundant in the Triassic.
Archosaurs (which included the ancestors of dinosaurs and crocodilians) were initially rarer than therapsids, but they began to displace therapsids in the mid-Triassic. In the mid to late Triassic, the dinosaurs evolved from one group of archosaurs, and went on to dominate terrestrial ecosystems during the Jurassic and Cretaceous. This "Triassic Takeover '' may have contributed to the evolution of mammals by forcing the surviving therapsids and their mammaliform successors to live as small, mainly nocturnal insectivores; nocturnal life probably forced at least the mammaliforms to develop fur and higher metabolic rates, while losing part of the differential color - sensitive retinal receptors reptilians and birds preserved.
Some temnospondyl amphibians made a relatively quick recovery, in spite of nearly becoming extinct. Mastodonsaurus and trematosaurians were the main aquatic and semiaquatic predators during most of the Triassic, some preying on tetrapods and others on fish.
Land vertebrates took an unusually long time to recover from the P -- Tr extinction; Palaeontologist Michael Benton estimated the recovery was not complete until 7001300000000000000 ♠ 30 million years after the extinction, i.e. not until the Late Triassic, in which dinosaurs, pterosaurs, crocodiles, archosaurs, amphibians, and mammaliforms were abundant and diverse.
Pinpointing the exact cause or causes of the Permian -- Triassic extinction event is difficult, mostly because the catastrophe occurred over 250 million years ago, and since then much of the evidence that would have pointed to the cause has been destroyed or is concealed deep within the Earth under many layers of rock. The sea floor is also completely recycled every 200 million years by the ongoing process of plate tectonics and seafloor spreading, leaving no useful indications beneath the ocean.
Scientists have accumulated a fairly significant amount of evidence for causes, and several mechanisms have been proposed for the extinction event. The proposals include both catastrophic and gradual processes (similar to those theorized for the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event).
Any hypothesis about the cause must explain the selectivity of the event, which affected organisms with calcium carbonate skeletons most severely; the long period (4 to 6 million years) before recovery started, and the minimal extent of biological mineralization (despite inorganic carbonates being deposited) once the recovery began.
Evidence that an impact event may have caused the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event (Cretaceous -- Tertiary) has led to speculation that similar impacts may have been the cause of other extinction events, including the P -- Tr extinction, and thus to a search for evidence of impacts at the times of other extinctions and for large impact craters of the appropriate age.
Reported evidence for an impact event from the P -- Tr boundary level includes rare grains of shocked quartz in Australia and Antarctica; fullerenes trapping extraterrestrial noble gases; meteorite fragments in Antarctica; and grains rich in iron, nickel and silicon, which may have been created by an impact. However, the accuracy of most of these claims has been challenged. Quartz from Graphite Peak in Antarctica, for example, once considered "shocked '', has been re-examined by optical and transmission electron microscopy. The observed features were concluded to be not due to shock, but rather to plastic deformation, consistent with formation in a tectonic environment such as volcanism.
An impact crater on the sea floor would be evidence of a possible cause of the P -- Tr extinction, but such a crater would by now have disappeared. As 70 % of the Earth 's surface is currently sea, an asteroid or comet fragment is now perhaps more than twice as likely to hit ocean as it is to hit land. However, Earth has no ocean - floor crust more than 200 million years old because the "conveyor belt '' process of seafloor spreading and subduction destroys it within that time. Craters produced by very large impacts may be masked by extensive flood basalting from below after the crust is punctured or weakened. Subduction should not, however, be entirely accepted as an explanation of why no firm evidence can be found: as with the K-T event, an ejecta blanket stratum rich in siderophilic elements (such as iridium) would be expected to be seen in formations from the time.
A large impact might have triggered other mechanisms of extinction described below, such as the Siberian Traps eruptions at either an impact site or the antipode of an impact site. The abruptness of an impact also explains why more species did not rapidly evolve to survive, as would be expected if the Permian - Triassic event had been slower and less global than a meteorite impact.
Several possible impact craters have been proposed as the site of an impact causing the P -- Tr extinction, including the 250 km (160 mi) Bedout structure off the northwest coast of Australia and the hypothesized 480 km (300 mi) Wilkes Land crater of East Antarctica. In each case, the idea that an impact was responsible has not been proven and has been widely criticized. In the case of Wilkes Land, the age of this sub-ice geophysical feature is very uncertain -- it may be later than the Permian -- Triassic extinction.
The 40 km (25 mi) Araguainha crater in Brazil has been most recently dated to 254.7 ± 2.5 million years ago, overlapping with estimates for the Permo - Triassic boundary. Much of the local rock was oil shale. The estimated energy released by the Araguainha impact is insufficient to be a direct cause of the global mass extinction, but the colossal local earth tremors would have released huge amounts of oil and gas from the shattered rock. The resulting sudden global warming might have precipitated the Permian -- Triassic extinction event.
In May 1992, Michael Rampino published an abstract for the American Geophysical Union noting the discovery of a circular gravity anomaly near the Falkland Islands. He suggested this structure might correspond to an impact crater with a diameter of 250 km (160 mi). In August 2017, Rampino, Maximilliano Rocca and Jaime Baez Presser followed up with a paper providing further seismic and magnetic evidence that the structure is an impact crater. Estimates for the age of the structure range up to 250 millions years old. If, in fact, this is an impact crater, it would be substantially larger than the well - known 180 km (110 mi) Chicxulub impact crater associated with a later extinction event.
The final stages of the Permian had two flood basalt events. A small one, the Emeishan Traps in China, occurred at the same time as the end - Guadalupian extinction pulse, in an area close to the equator at the time. The flood basalt eruptions that produced the Siberian Traps constituted one of the largest known volcanic events on Earth and covered over 2,000,000 square kilometres (770,000 sq mi) with lava. The date of the Siberian Traps eruptions and the extinction event are in good agreement.
The Emeishan and Siberian Traps eruptions may have caused dust clouds and acid aerosols, which would have blocked out sunlight and thus disrupted photosynthesis both on land and in the photic zone of the ocean, causing food chains to collapse. The eruptions may also have caused acid rain when the aerosols washed out of the atmosphere. That may have killed land plants and molluscs and planktonic organisms which had calcium carbonate shells. The eruptions would also have emitted carbon dioxide, causing global warming. When all of the dust clouds and aerosols washed out of the atmosphere, the excess carbon dioxide would have remained and the warming would have proceeded without any mitigating effects.
The Siberian Traps had unusual features that made them even more dangerous. Pure flood basalts produce fluid, low - viscosity lava and do not hurl debris into the atmosphere. It appears, however, that 20 % of the output of the Siberian Traps eruptions was pyroclastic (consisted of ash and other debris thrown high into the atmosphere), increasing the short - term cooling effect. The basalt lava erupted or intruded into carbonate rocks and into sediments that were in the process of forming large coal beds, both of which would have emitted large amounts of carbon dioxide, leading to stronger global warming after the dust and aerosols settled.
In January 2011, a team, led by Stephen Grasby of the Geological Survey of Canada -- Calgary, reported evidence that volcanism caused massive coal beds to ignite, possibly releasing more than 3 trillion tons of carbon. The team found ash deposits in deep rock layers near what is now Buchanan Lake. According to their article, "coal ash dispersed by the explosive Siberian Trap eruption would be expected to have an associated release of toxic elements in impacted water bodies where fly ash slurries developed... Mafic megascale eruptions are long - lived events that would allow significant build - up of global ash clouds. '' In a statement, Grasby said, "In addition to these volcanoes causing fires through coal, the ash it spewed was highly toxic and was released in the land and water, potentially contributing to the worst extinction event in earth history. '' In 2013, QY Tang reported the total amounts of important volatiles emitted from the Siberian Traps are 8.5 × 10 Tg CO, 4.4 × 10 Tg CO, 7.0 × 10 Tg H S and 6.8 × 10 Tg SO, the data support a popular notion that the end - Permian mass extinction on the Earth was caused by the emission of enormous amounts of volatiles from the Siberian Traps into the atmosphere.
In 2015, evidence and a timeline indicated the extinction was caused by events in the Large igneous province of the Siberian Traps.
Scientists have found worldwide evidence of a swift decrease of about 1 % in the C / C isotope ratio in carbonate rocks from the end - Permian. This is the first, largest, and most rapid of a series of negative and positive excursions (decreases and increases in C / C ratio) that continues until the isotope ratio abruptly stabilised in the middle Triassic, followed soon afterwards by the recovery of calcifying life forms (organisms that use calcium carbonate to build hard parts such as shells).
A variety of factors may have contributed to this drop in the C / C ratio, but most turn out to be insufficient to account fully for the observed amount:
Other hypotheses include mass oceanic poisoning releasing vast amounts of CO and a long - term reorganisation of the global carbon cycle.
Prior to consideration of the inclusion of roasting carbonate sediments by volcanism, the only proposed mechanism sufficient to cause a global 1 % reduction in the C / C ratio was the release of methane from methane clathrates. Carbon - cycle models confirm that it would have had enough effect to produce the observed reduction. Methane clathrates, also known as methane hydrates, consist of methane molecules trapped in cages of water molecules. The methane, produced by methanogens (microscopic single - celled organisms), has a C / C ratio about 6.0 % below normal (δ C − 6.0 %). At the right combination of pressure and temperature, it gets trapped in clathrates fairly close to the surface of permafrost and in much larger quantities at continental margins (continental shelves and the deeper seabed close to them). Oceanic methane hydrates are usually found buried in sediments where the seawater is at least 300 m (980 ft) deep. They can be found up to about 2,000 m (6,600 ft) below the sea floor, but usually only about 1,100 m (3,600 ft) below the sea floor.
The area covered by lava from the Siberian Traps eruptions is about twice as large as was originally thought, and most of the additional area was shallow sea at the time. The seabed probably contained methane hydrate deposits, and the lava caused the deposits to dissociate, releasing vast quantities of methane. A vast release of methane might cause significant global warming since methane is a very powerful greenhouse gas. Strong evidence suggests the global temperatures increased by about 6 ° C (10.8 ° F) near the equator and therefore by more at higher latitudes: a sharp decrease in oxygen isotope ratios (O / O); the extinction of Glossopteris flora (Glossopteris and plants that grew in the same areas), which needed a cold climate, with its replacement by floras typical of lower paleolatitudes.
However, the pattern of isotope shifts expected to result from a massive release of methane does not match the patterns seen throughout the early Triassic. Not only would such a cause require the release of five times as much methane as postulated for the PETM, but would it also have to be reburied at an unrealistically high rate to account for the rapid increases in the C / C ratio (episodes of high positive δ C) throughout the early Triassic before it was released again several times.
Evidence for widespread ocean anoxia (severe deficiency of oxygen) and euxinia (presence of hydrogen sulfide) is found from the Late Permian to the Early Triassic. Throughout most of the Tethys and Panthalassic Oceans, evidence for anoxia, including fine laminations in sediments, small pyrite framboids, high uranium / thorium ratios, and biomarkers for green sulfur bacteria, appear at the extinction event. However, in some sites, including Meishan, China, and eastern Greenland, evidence for anoxia precedes the extinction. Biomarkers for green sulfur bacteria, such as isorenieratane, the diagenetic product of isorenieratene, are widely used as indicators of photic zone euxinia because green sulfur bacteria require both sunlight and hydrogen sulfide to survive. Their abundance in sediments from the P-T boundary indicates hydrogen sulfide was present even in shallow waters.
This spread of toxic, oxygen - depleted water would have been devastating for marine life, producing widespread die - offs. Models of ocean chemistry show that anoxia and euxinia would have been closely associated with hypercapnia (high levels of carbon dioxide). This suggests that poisoning from hydrogen sulfide, anoxia, and hypercapnia acted together as a killing mechanism. Hypercapnia best explains the selectivity of the extinction, but anoxia and euxinia probably contributed to the high mortality of the event. The persistence of anoxia through the Early Triassic may explain the slow recovery of marine life after the extinction. Models also show that anoxic events can cause catastrophic hydrogen sulfide emissions into the atmosphere (see below).
The sequence of events leading to anoxic oceans may have been triggered by carbon dioxide emissions from the eruption of the Siberian Traps. In that scenario, warming from the enhanced greenhouse effect would reduce the solubility of oxygen in seawater, causing the concentration of oxygen to decline. Increased weathering of the continents due to warming and the acceleration of the water cycle would increase the riverine flux of phosphate to the ocean. The phosphate would have supported greater primary productivity in the surface oceans. The increase in organic matter production would have caused more organic matter to sink into the deep ocean, where its respiration would further decrease oxygen concentrations. Once anoxia became established, it would have been sustained by a positive feedback loop because deep water anoxia tends to increase the recycling efficiency of phosphate, leading to even higher productivity.
A severe anoxic event at the end of the Permian would have allowed sulfate - reducing bacteria to thrive, causing the production of large amounts of hydrogen sulfide in the anoxic ocean. Upwelling of this water may have released massive hydrogen sulfide emissions into the atmosphere and would poison terrestrial plants and animals and severely weaken the ozone layer, exposing much of the life that remained to fatal levels of UV radiation. Indeed, biomarker evidence for anaerobic photosynthesis by Chlorobiaceae (green sulfur bacteria) from the Late - Permian into the Early Triassic indicates that hydrogen sulfide did upwell into shallow waters because these bacteria are restricted to the photic zone and use sulfide as an electron donor.
The hypothesis has the advantage of explaining the mass extinction of plants, which would have added to the methane levels and should otherwise have thrived in an atmosphere with a high level of carbon dioxide. Fossil spores from the end - Permian further support the theory: many show deformities that could have been caused by ultraviolet radiation, which would have been more intense after hydrogen sulfide emissions weakened the ozone layer.
About halfway through the Permian (in the Kungurian age of the Permian 's Cisuralian epoch), all the continents joined to form the supercontinent Pangaea, surrounded by the superocean Panthalassa, although blocks that are now parts of Asia did not join the supercontinent until very late in the Permian. The configuration severely decreased the extent of shallow aquatic environments, the most productive part of the seas, and it exposed formerly isolated organisms of the rich continental shelves to competition from invaders. Pangaea 's formation would also have altered both oceanic circulation and atmospheric weather patterns, creating seasonal monsoons near the coasts and an arid climate in the vast continental interior.
Marine life suffered very high but not very catastrophic rates of extinction after the formation of Pangaea (see the diagram "Marine genus biodiversity '' at the top of this article), almost as high as in some of the "Big Five '' mass extinctions. The formation of Pangaea seems not to have caused a significant rise in extinction levels on land, and, in fact, most of the advance of the therapsids and increase in their diversity seems to have occurred in the late Permian, after Pangaea was almost complete. Thus, it seems likely that Pangaea initiated a long period of increased marine extinctions but was not directly responsible for the "Great Dying '' and the end of the Permian.
A hypothesis published in 2014 posits that a genus of anaerobic methanogenic archaea known as Methanosarcina was responsible for the event. Three lines of evidence suggest that these microbes acquired a new metabolic pathway via gene transfer at about that time, enabling them to efficiently metabolize acetate into methane. That would have led to their exponential reproduction, allowing them to rapidly consume vast deposits of organic carbon that had accumulated in the marine sediment. The result would have been a sharp buildup of methane and carbon dioxide in the Earth 's oceans and atmosphere, in a manner that may be consistent with the C / C isotopic record. Massive volcanism facilitated this process by releasing large amounts of nickel, a scarce metal which is a cofactor for an enzymes involved in producing methane. On the other hand, in the canonical Meishan sections, the nickel concentration increases somewhat after the δ C concentrations have begun to fall.
Possible causes supported by strong evidence appear to describe a sequence of catastrophes, each worse than the last: the Siberian Traps eruptions were bad enough alone, but because they occurred near coal beds and the continental shelf, they also triggered very large releases of carbon dioxide and methane. The resultant global warming may have caused perhaps the most severe anoxic event in the oceans ' history: according to this theory, the oceans became so anoxic, anaerobic sulfur - reducing organisms dominated the chemistry of the oceans and caused massive emissions of toxic hydrogen sulfide.
However, there may be some weak links in this chain of events: the changes in the C / C ratio expected to result from a massive release of methane do not match the patterns seen throughout the early Triassic; and the types of oceanic thermohaline circulation that may have existed at the end of the Permian are not likely to have supported deep - sea anoxia.
Millions of years before present
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tactical plans contain a medium level of detail | Operational planning - wikipedia
Operational planning is the process of planning strategic goals and objectives to tactical goals and objectives. It describes milestones, conditions for success and explains how, or what portion of, a strategic plan will be put into operation during a given operational period, in the case of commercial application, a fiscal year or another given budgetary term. An operational plan is the basis for, and justification of an annual operating budget request. Therefore, a five - year strategic plan would typically require five operational plans funded by five operating budgets.
Operational plans should establish the activities and budgets for each part of the organization for the next 1 -- 3 years. They link the strategic plan with the activities the organization will deliver and the resources required to deliver them.
An operational plan draws directly from agency and program strategic plans to describe agency and program missions and goals, program objectives, and program activities. Like a strategic plan, an operational plan addresses four questions:
The operations plan is both the first and the last step in preparing an operating budget request. As the first step, the operations plan provides a plan for resource allocation; as the last step, the OP may be modified to reflect policy decisions or financial changes made during the budget development process.
Operational plans should be prepared by the people who will be involved in implementation. There is often a need for significant cross-departmental dialogue as plans created by one part of the organization inevitably have implications for other parts.
Operational plans should contain:
A Process planning medium almost universaly used as the rotating also known as route sheet.it lists and describes the operations of a process Routing are written as possible to save time. They completely designate departments of yukesh roman the mechanical legends of 2014 - 2018 departments, machines, tools, etc., The operation sheet from will vary for different companies. However the description of the operation special instruments is usually similar.
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how many episodes are left in flash season 4 | The Flash (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of the American television series The Flash, which is based on the DC Comics character Barry Allen / Flash, premiered on The CW on October 10, 2017, and ran for 23 episodes until May 22, 2018. The season follows a crime scene investigator with superhuman speed who fights criminals, including others who have also gained superhuman abilities. It is set in the Arrowverse, sharing continuity with the other television series of the universe, and is a spin - off of Arrow. The season is produced by Berlanti Productions, Warner Bros. Television, and DC Entertainment, with Andrew Kreisberg and Todd Helbing serving as showrunners.
The season was ordered in January 2017, and filming began that July. Grant Gustin stars as Barry, with principal cast members Candice Patton, Danielle Panabaker, Carlos Valdes, Keiynan Lonsdale, Tom Cavanagh, and Jesse L. Martin also returning from previous seasons, and are joined by Neil Sandilands.
Barry, Oliver, Sara, Alex, Martin and Jax wake up in a Nazi concentration camp on Earth - X wearing power dampeners. The arriving SS Sturmbannführer is revealed to be the Earth - X doppelgänger of Quentin Lance, who plans to execute them, but they are saved by Citizen Cold (the Earth - X doppelgänger of Leonard Snart) and Ray Terrill. Snart and Terrill take them to the headquarters of the Freedom Fighters, where the team meets the resistance movement 's leader, General Schott (Winn Schott 's Earth - X doppelgänger). They learn that the only way back to Earth - 1 is through a temporal gateway in a research facility, which Schott plans to blow up to strand Dark Arrow (Oliver 's Earth - X doppelgänger) on Earth - 1. Oliver disguises himself as Dark Arrow to infiltrate the facility and discovers the Nazi doomsday device against parallel Earths is a militarized timeship called Wellenreiter. Barry and Ray battle the Freedom Fighters ' Red Tornado to stop it from destroying the gateway while the rest of the team enters the facility to reactivate its portal, during which Stein is shot and gravely wounded. On Earth - 1, Eobard Thawne prepares to perform surgery on Kara to save Overgirl. Felicity and Iris try to stop him, but are captured.
The series was renewed for a fourth season on January 8, 2017, earlier than usual for the series. Executive producer Andrew Kreisberg said on this, "The great thing about our dear friends at The CW and Mark Pedowitz picking the shows up as early as they did has allowed us to start building the schedules for next season. '' In May 2017, it was announced that Aaron Helbing would not return as an executive producer for season four, with only Greg Berlanti, Andrew Kreisberg, Sarah Schechter, and Todd Helbing returning from previous seasons. Todd Helbing and Kreisberg were slated to serve as the season 's showrunners. In November 2017, Kreisberg was suspended from his role as executive producer and showrunner on The Flash over allegations of sexual harassment. By the end of the month, he had been fired, with his name eventually being removed from the credits from all shows he worked on. In addition, Berlanti would take additional responsibilities working with Helbing to co-showrun the season.
-- Grant Gustin on the rebirth of Barry in season four.
In March 2017, Kreisberg confirmed that the main villain for the fourth season would not be a speedster, like the previous three seasons. Executive producers Aaron and Todd Helbing also mentioned that there would be less time travel in the season, with Aaron saying, "We like playing with the timelines and the different time periods and future and past. For now, I think we 're going to focus on the present. '' In June 2017, Clifford DeVoe / Thinker was reported to be the main antagonist of the season. He was first hinted in the third season episode "Abra Kadabra '' when the titular villain mentions him among the Flash 's greatest enemies, and again in the season finale "Finish Line '' when Savitar mentions facing DeVoe but states that the Flash has not dealt with him yet. At the series ' San Diego Comic - Con panel, the speculation was confirmed, with Todd Helbing saying, "With three Speedsters in a row, this year it 's the fastest man alive against the fastest mind alive. '' He added that the writers were "making a conscious effort this year to get the fun quotient back up ''.
Regarding the possibility of Wally West taking on the mantle of the Flash in Barry 's absence, Keiynan Lonsdale said that "It 's not something that 's on my radar. I feel as though there is so much story to tell and Wally has so much growing to do... We need to see how these character realistically get to where they are headed for. '' With the action picking up six months after season three, Kid Flash and Vibe are left to protect Central City, with Carlos Valdes saying "the team is sort of clutching at straws to keep the city together,... there is a unanimous feeling amongst the remaining members that it 's just not the same without Barry... So in light of that, Cisco does whatever it takes to get his friends back. '' Valdes also confirmed the return of Cisco 's more lighthearted joking manner. Candice Patton explained Iris West 's larger role within Team Flash as "a way of distracting herself, '' adding that "(Iris) is forced to deal with that anger and resentment and abandonment by kind of focusing on protecting Central City... We 're seeing a very different Iris, almost a very hardened Iris. '' Kreisberg also hinted at some major growth for Iris this season, and noted that "the season premiere is all about Iris and Cisco, not Barry ''.
In July 2017, Sterling Gates, DC Comics comic book writer, joined as a member of the fourth season 's writing staff. At the Television Critics Association press tour in August 2017, Pedowitz stated that the fourth season of The Flash is "going to try to find the lightness... of the Barry Allen of the first two seasons, '' and said that the show was likely "done with Speedster villains ''. Later in the month, Kreisberg confirmed the return of Harry Wells from Earth - 2, saying that "season 4 for Harry is really realizing what he 's missing in his life and what it is he needs to become a better, more complete person, and so he 's going to be going on a fairly epic emotional journey this season that is tied to the Thinker 's plan, '' in addition to confirming the introduction of a new version of the Wells character.
In September 2017, Helbing noted "There 's a lot of love in the air this season, '' and compared Barry and Iris ' reunion to "somebody going off to war for six months and coming back. There 's a lot that Iris experienced that Barry did n't when he was gone, and it 's really (about) the fun and the emotional component of making up that time when they were n't together. '' Helbing also explained that the Speed Force "let (Barry) deal with all of the baggage (from the past three seasons). When he comes out, he 's sort of left that all behind. '' That month, Kreisberg also confirmed that Barry and Iris will be getting married this season, while also revealing that the pair will be going to couples therapy since "(they) keep comically clashing inadvertently because (both are) used to being in charge, and so they wind up going... to work through it. '' He added, "The two of them with the therapist is some of the funniest stuff we have ever done on this show, but it also leads to a deepening of their relationship. ''
Main cast members Grant Gustin, Candice Patton, Danielle Panabaker, Carlos Valdes, Keiynan Lonsdale, Tom Cavanagh, and Jesse L. Martin return from previous seasons as Barry Allen / The Flash, Iris West, Caitlin Snow / Killer Frost, Cisco Ramon / Vibe, Wally West / Kid Flash, Harrison Wells, and Joe West, respectively. Cavanagh will portray Harry Wells from Earth - 2 at the start of the season, without ruling out the possibility of introducing another incarnation of the Wells character later on. Teasing the arrival of a new Harrison Wells, Cavanagh said, "We 're going to start with Harry and then find a way, I think, to try and get a different version of Wells in there, be it some version of Harry or whatnot as the season 's gaps present themselves. '' Also returning from earlier in the series is Jessica Camacho as Gypsy. It was revealed that Tom Felton, who joined the cast as Julian Albert in the third season, would not be a series regular in the fourth season, and that there were no plans for him to appear. Julian 's absence will be addressed "pretty quickly -- there 's a reason why he 's no longer with the team, '' said Helbing. In the season premiere, it is revealed that Julian has returned to London. Kreisberg also confirmed that he had put on hold the planned return of Violett Beane as Jesse Quick due to the high number of speedsters on the show, but did not rule out a possible return in the future. Beane eventually appeared as Jesse on the episode "Luck Be a Lady ''. Britne Oldford, who previously appeared as Shawna Baez / Peek - a-Boo in the first season and the web series The Chronicles of Cisco, reprised her role in the season premiere.
In July 2017, Neil Sandilands was announced to be cast as Clifford DeVoe, a metahuman genius who embarks on a seasonlong battle with the Flash in order to fix all that he deems wrong with humanity; while Kim Engelbrecht was announced as The Mechanic, DeVoe 's right hand and a highly intelligent engineer who designs devices for him; and Danny Trejo as Breacher, a bounty hunter from Earth - 19 and the father of Gypsy. Also in June, the series was looking to cast a role that "should put the visual effects department to the test '', with the role later revealed to be Ralph Dibny / Elongated Man, a metahuman with the ability to stretch his body to superhuman lengths and sizes. Hartley Sawyer was cast in the recurring role that July as the fast - talking private investigator who after discovering his abilities will help Team Flash solve one of Central City 's greatest mysteries. The character was previously mentioned in the first season, as one of the fourteen people who seemingly died as a result of the particle accelerator explosion. The next month, Katee Sackhoff was announced in the recurring role of Amunet Black / Blacksmith, who operates an underground black market of metahuman supervillains.
Filming for the season began on July 4, 2017, in Vancouver, British Columbia, and concluded on April 21, 2018. Kevin Smith returned to direct an episode in January 2018.
In August 2017, series composer Blake Neely and Nathaniel Blume began to compose the music for the fourth season.
In May 2017, The CW president Mark Pedowitz officially announced plans for a four - show Arrowverse crossover event, crossing over episodes of the television series Supergirl, The Flash, Legends of Tomorrow, and Arrow. The crossover, Crisis on Earth - X, began with Supergirl and a special airing of Arrow on November 27, 2017, and concluded on The Flash and Legends of Tomorrow on November 28. In August 2017, Berlanti noted that it would be "a big life event for a few different people '' that would bring them all together for the crossover, adding "There are many life events that happen. '' Prior to that, Arrow actress Emily Bett Rickards appears as Felicity Smoak in the fifth episode of the season. Following the crossover, Katie Cassidy (who has previously appeared on The Flash as both Laurel Lance and Black Siren) appears in the nineteenth episode as Siren - X, an alternate version of Laurel from Earth - X. Arrow actor David Ramsey appears as John Diggle, as well as DeVoe 's Diggle disguise earlier in the twenty - second episode.
The season began airing on October 10, 2017, on The CW in the United States, and on CTV in Canada. The season concluded on May 22, 2018. Sky One acquired the rights to air the season in the UK & Ireland, airing it alongside the other Arrowverse shows. The season premiered October 17.
In July 2017, cast from the series appeared at San Diego Comic - Con International to promote the season, where exclusive footage was shown. During the panel, a trailer for the season was shown, with James Whitbrook at io9 feeling that despite the "grim '' tone, there was "some fun signs of the team coming together to protect the city without (Barry),... Sprinkle in a few wacky things, like, say a goddamn Samuroid ripped straight from the comics, and ladies and gents, you 've got a good season of The Flash lined up. '' Ben Pearson with / Film felt seeing Iris West deal with the absence of Barry was "a nice change of pace for that character '', but anticipated that "Barry (would) be back two or three episodes in at the latest. '' Collider 's Allison Keene also noted Iris "getting an actual storyline '' with Barry gone, and similarly presumed that he "(would) be back in the fold by the end of the first episode '' alike to Flashpoint in the third season. She added, "There are some new foes, lots of action, plenty of tech -- it 's great! ''
The season was made available for streaming on Netflix in late May 2018, soon after the season finale aired. It will be released on Blu - ray on August 28, 2018.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 82 % approval rating with an average rating of 6.65 / 10 based on 17 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "After an unsteady turn in season three, The Flash returns to its roots with a fourth season packed with humor, spectacle, and a whole lot of heart. ''
Reviewing the first two episodes of the season, Allison Keene writing for Collider.com, felt the premiere "wipes the slate clean, fixing a lot of the issues that plagued the end of the last season, and setting up a much more toned - down storyline. Most importantly, it 's brought back some fun. '' She added that with a "streamlined team, '' the core characters now have time to interact and have meaningful plot lines. On the second episode, Keene described it as "truly a delight '' with the show taking "the time to focus on character relationships, and not just romantic relationships '' and each character "feeling like a refreshed version of themselves, with new narrative purpose ''. She also highlighted the setup of the Thinker "as an Alchemy - like villain who manipulates evil metas into the Flash 's path as part of some kind of masterplan '', saying "The Flash is a series that truly works best as a procedural, with the team finding creative ways to bring down Villains of the Week. ''
In reviewing the finale, IGN 's Jesse Schedeen gave the episode "We Are The Flash '' a rating of 4.6 / 10, opining that, "As troubled as the series has been this year, it 's disappointing but unsurprising to see The Flash 's fourth season end on such a bland note. '' Mike Cecchini of Den of Geek! similarly assigned the episode a rating of 2.5 / 5. In his review, Cecchini felt that the finale was "the weakest season finale (The Flash) has ever produced, '' and that, "despite several high points, was n't really enough to salvage the season. '' In a more positive review from The A.V. Club, Scott Von Doviak gave the finale a B+, praising the light tone and character moments, while adding that "None of this can make up for the long stretches of mediocrity this year, but at least it does n't leave me with a bad taste in my mouth. ''
General references
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who played kevin's mom in home alone | Catherine O'Hara - wikipedia
Catherine Anne O'Hara OC (born March 4, 1954) is a Canadian - American actress, writer, and comedian. She first drew notice as an actress in 1974 as a member of The Second City improvisational comedy troupe in Toronto. She landed her first significant television role in 1975 starring opposite John Candy and Dan Aykroyd in the main cast of the Canadian sitcom Coming Up Rosie (1975 -- 1978). The following year she and Candy began work on Second City Television (1976 -- 84) where she drew acclaim for both her work as a comedic actress and writer, notably winning a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Variety Series in 1981. Candy was also her costar in her first feature film, the 1980 comedy Deadly Companion. Her other early film work includes the 1983 cult animated film Rock & Rule, the black comedy After Hours (1985), and the comedy Heartburn (1986) with Meryl Streep, Jack Nicholson and Kevin Spacey.
O'Hara has appeared in several films directed by Tim Burton, beginning with the role of Delia Deetz in the 1988 film Beetlejuice. Other roles she has portrayed in Burton films include the voices of Sally / Shock in The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993) and Susan Frankenstein in Frankenweenie (2012). She has also frequently collaborated with director and writer Christopher Guest, appearing in the mockumentary films Waiting for Guffman (1996), Best in Show (2000), A Mighty Wind (2003), and For Your Consideration (2006). In 2000 she won a Genie Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role for the film The Life Before This. She is also known to audiences as Kate McCallister, the mother of Kevin, in both Home Alone (1990) and Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (1992), and for her voice work in multiple animated films like Pippi Longstocking (1997), Bartok the Magnificent (1999), Chicken Little (2005), Over the Hedge (2006), Monster House (2006), Brother Bear 2 (2006), Barbie in the 12 Dancing Princesses (2006), Where the Wild Things Are (2009), A Monster in Paris (2011), and When Marnie Was There (2014). Her other film credits include Dick Tracy (1990), The Paper (1994), Wyatt Earp (1994), Tall Tale (1995), Home Fries (1998), Surviving Christmas (2004), Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events (2004), Penelope (2006), Killers (2010), and A.C.O.D. (2013).
In 2010 O'Hara was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Movie and the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film for her portrayal of Aunt Ann in Temple Grandin opposite Claire Danes. For her work on the television series Schitt 's Creek (2015 -- present), O'Hara has won two Canadian Screen Awards for Best Lead Actress in a Comedy Series, at the 4th Canadian Screen Awards in 2016 and the 5th Canadian Screen Awards in 2017. Her other notable television appearances include the recurring roles of Dr. Georgina Orwell in the Netflix series A Series of Unfortunate Events and Carol Ward in Six Feet Under, and the voices of Jackie Martin in Glenn Martin, DDS, Miss Malone in The Completely Mental Misadventures of Ed Grimley, Kaossandra in Skylanders Academy and Liz Larsen in Committed. She has also hosted Saturday Night Live twice during her career, and made numerous guest appearances on sitcoms, variety shows, and late night television.
O'Hara was born in Toronto, Ontario, into a large family of Irish descent. She was raised Catholic and is the sixth of seven children. She attended Burnhamthorpe Collegiate Institute, where she first met fellow comedian Robin Duke.
O'Hara started her comedy career in 1974 as a cast member of The Second City in her native Toronto. She was an understudy for Gilda Radner until Radner left for Saturday Night Live. Two years later, this theater troupe created the sketch comedy show SCTV, for which O'Hara became a regular performer. Her memorable characterizations on the show included Las Vegas scorcher Lola Heatherton, buzzer - happy game show contestant Margaret Meehan, raunchy nightclub comedian Dusty Towne, soap opera seductress Sue Ellen, and stage actress Sue Bopper Simpson.
In the late 1970s, she provided voice - overs for a number of cartoons, work which would continue throughout her career. During a short time in the early 1980s when SCTV was in between network deals, she was hired to replace Ann Risley when Saturday Night Live was being retooled in 1981. However, she quit the show without ever appearing on air, choosing to go back to SCTV when the show signed on with NBC. Her SNL position was then given to fellow Canadian Robin Duke, who had also replaced O'Hara for a season on SCTV. O'Hara also starred in The Nightmare Before Christmas.
O'Hara began her career on television, apart from SCTV, in the mid-1970s. She appeared in the 1976 television film The Rimshots, the children 's television series Coming Up Rosie for a year, and television specials, such as Witch 's Night Out and Intergalactic Thanksgiving. But it was her performances on SCTV that earned her fame in Canada, which is why she returned to the show, not only as an actress but as a writer for both SCTV and SCTV Network 90, which earned her an Emmy Award for outstanding writing and two Emmy Award nominations. She also has written for SCTV Channel.
O'Hara has appeared in a number of television series and television films and continues to work in television. During the ' 90s, she made guest appearances on Tales from the Crypt, Oh Baby, Morton & Hayes and The Larry Sanders Show. She served as actress and director on Dream On and The Outer Limits, the revival of the ' 60s series of the same name. O'Hara has guest - starred on top - rated television series including Six Feet Under and Curb Your Enthusiasm. In May 2008, it was announced that she had signed on to star in the upcoming ABC dramedy Good Behavior. Her role in the 2010 television film Temple Grandin earned her three award nominations: a Primetime Emmy Award, a Satellite Award, and a Screen Actors Guild Award.
O'Hara has also had a successful career in film. She made her feature debut in the 1980 film Double Negative, which also starred her SCTV co-stars John Candy, Eugene Levy, and Joe Flaherty. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, O'Hara appeared in many supporting roles, including Martin Scorsese 's After Hours and Heartburn, with Meryl Streep. She had more notable roles in Beetlejuice, the blockbuster hit Home Alone and its sequel Home Alone 2: Lost in New York. In 1992, O'Hara worked alongside Jeff Daniels in the comedy There Goes the Neighborhood. O'Hara continued to appear in many films during the 1990s and the beginning of the 21st century. She received roles in four of Christopher Guest 's mockumentary films, three of which earned her awards and nominations: Waiting for Guffman, Best in Show, A Mighty Wind and For Your Consideration. Her role in 1999 's The Life Before This won her a Genie Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role. She also appeared in episodes 6, 10 and 11 on the tenth and final series of the UK Whose Line Is It Anyway? In 2006, she starred with Christina Ricci in the fantasy feature Penelope. O'Hara has served as a voice artist in a number of animated movies, including The Nightmare Before Christmas, Chicken Little, Over the Hedge, Monster House, Brother Bear 2 and Frankenweenie.
Since 2015, O'Hara has starred alongside Eugene Levy as Moira Rose in the CBC sitcom Schitt 's Creek. Her role has earned her two Canadian Screen Awards for Best Lead Actress in a Comedy Series, at the 4th Canadian Screen Awards in 2016 and the 5th Canadian Screen Awards in 2017.
O'Hara met production designer Bo Welch on the set of Beetlejuice. They were married in 1992, and together have two sons, Matthew (b. 1994) and Luke (b. 1997). She is the sister of critically acclaimed singer - songwriter Mary Margaret O'Hara, and is a singer - songwriter in her own right, having written and performed songs in Christopher Guest 's film A Mighty Wind. She is a naturalized U.S. citizen. She currently lives in Los Angeles, California with her husband and children.
O'Hara has situs inversus, a rare congenital condition in which all of an individual 's internal organs in the thorax and abdomen are positioned on the opposite side to where they should be.
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where is the love black eyed peas video | Where Is the Love? - Wikipedia
"Where Is the Love? '' is a song by American hip hop group The Black Eyed Peas. It was released in June 2003 as the lead single from their third album, Elephunk. The song was written by will.i.am, apl. de. ap, Taboo, Justin Timberlake, Printz Board, Michael Fratantuno and George Pajon. The track features vocals from Timberlake, although he is not officially credited on the single release. It was the band 's first song to feature singer Fergie as an official member.
"Where Is the Love? '' saw success on radio airplay charts, peaked at number eight on the US Billboard Hot 100, and topped the charts in Australia, Ireland and the United Kingdom. It became the biggest - selling single of 2003 in the latter country. The band and Timberlake received two nominations, Record of the Year and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration, for "Where Is the Love? '' at the 46th Grammy Awards.
Following the commercial failures of their previous albums and singles, there was doubt over whether The Black Eyed Peas would continue to record together. A&R executive Ron Fair approached them and suggested a crossover to a more mainstream pop sound. will.i.am in particular resisted the idea for fear that they would be seen as sellouts. However, after discussions and some writing sessions, the idea was pursued.
Shortly after Christmas 2001, will.i.am created a loop and a guitar part that he liked. apl. de. ap and Taboo also heard the track and were able to write similar lyrics over it. Justin Timberlake was introduced to the group by Taboo, and got a chance to hear the track that will.i.am created. Impressed with the music, Timberlake helped write and sing the chorus.
Timberlake was in the midst of promotion of his debut solo album, Justified, and his label Jive Records was concerned about possible overexposure. The Black Eyed Peas were worried about this, as getting some assistance from an established pop star like Timberlake had been the original point of this song. A compromise was reached eventually in which Jive gave clearance for the vocals of Timberlake to be released on the song, but he does not appear in the song 's music video nor is he officially credited on the song as an artist. By 2008, the single had sold 954,000 digital copies.
The song was written by will.i.am, apl. de. ap, Taboo, Justin Timberlake, Ron Fair, Printz Board, George Pajon, Fiona Davies M. Fratantuno, and J. Curtis, and co-produced by will.i.am and Ron Fair. In this song, The Black Eyed Peas lament on various worldwide problems. Many issues are discussed, which include but are not limited to terrorism, US government hypocrisy, racism, gang crime, pollution, war, and intolerance.
The song was rewarded with nominations at the 46th Grammy Awards in 2004 for Record of the Year and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration.
The song was the biggest selling single of 2003 in the UK. It was also the 25th best - selling single of the 2000s (decade) in the UK.
On May 12, 2013, after 10 years since the song 's release, the song re-entered the official UK singles charts at 40, eventually peaking at 35.
The music video for "Where Is the Love? '' was shot in East Los Angeles and features The Black Eyed Peas and various other people, including various young children, asking the world where the love really is. In the video, will.i.am and Taboo act as a soul music road duo who use music to tell people what is wrong with the world, Fergie appears as a peacemaker who places stickers with question marks on them all over the place to ask people where the love is in the world, and apl. de. ap is a criminal who is arrested for using criminal offences to tell people the truth. Justin Timberlake does not appear in the video, although several different people are seen mouthing the chorus as he sings it.
The video is similar to a 2002 British television advertisement for T - Mobile, in which a face of a young baby is presented in various forms around a large city, much like the question mark in this video. The Bon Jovi music video "Have a Nice Day '' is also similar to both the advertisement and this video. The video features gameplay footage of the graphically explicit and controversial video game Postal 2, in which a group of young children are playing the game. This suggests that violence in the media and entertainment industry affects the morals of children.
British pop band Busted did a rock version of the song, which features on their live album, A Ticket for Everyone.
The Voice UK contestant Frances Wood sang the song at her audition and chose will.i.am to be her mentor.
Japanese pop singer Sho Sakurai of Arashi re-wrote the rap lyrics in Japanese language and performed his cover version at his solo concert in 2006.
At the Mnet Asian Music Awards (commonly abbreviated as MAMA) promotional held in Singapore in 2011, will.i.am apl. de. ap performed the song with friend and collaborator, K - pop vocalist and rapper CL of 2NE1 performing Taboo and Fergie 's part.
The X Factor Israel contestant Inbal Bibi sang the song at the live shows and received positive reviews.
Ariana Grande joined the Black Eyed Peas for a cover of the song at Grande 's 2017 One Love Manchester concert.
Gwen Stefani performed the song at Hyundai Genesis G70 launch event in Seoul, South Korea on September 15, 2017.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
On August 31, 2016, a new version of the song titled "Where 's the Love? '' (stylized as "# WHERESTHELOVE ''), credited to "The Black Eyed Peas featuring The World '' was made available for digital download exclusively on iTunes and released to other digital retailers later that day. The song samples the original track but has additional music composition and features additional vocals from Justin Timberlake, Jamie Foxx, Ty Dolla $ ign, Mary J. Blige, Diddy, Cassie, Andra Day, The Game, Tori Kelly, V. Bozeman, Jessie J, French Montana, DJ Khaled, Usher, Nicole Scherzinger, ASAP Rocky, Jaden Smith and a 40 - member children 's choir. All proceeds from the song will go to will. i. am 's non-profit foundation, i. am. angel. -- the charity funds educational programs and college scholarships. The Black Eyed Peas partnered with issues - driven media company ATTN and foundation education partner and leading geospatial company Esri for the single release campaign.
An accompanying music video, directed by Michael Jurkovac, also premiered worldwide on Apple Music that same day and shows appearances by the featured vocalists and many celebrities including Connie Britton, Lance Bass, Rosario Dawson, Shailene Woodley, Taye Diggs, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Quincy Jones, Olivia Munn, Jhené Aiko, Krewella, Wiz Khalifa, Charlie Carver, Ian Harding, Max Carver, Daniel Sharman, Vanessa Hudgens, Russell Westbrook, Carla Gugino, DJ Khaled, Ben Barnes, Nikki Reed, Jessica Szohr, Snoop Dogg, LL Cool J, Kris Jenner and Kendall Jenner.
Inspired by tragedies, like the attacks in Paris, and in Brussells and Orlando, and police shootings of Philando Castile and Alton Sterling, the Peas saw the relevance of the song and decided it was time to revive the track for a new generation. Family members affected by gun violence including (Alton Sterling 's aunt Sandra, Philando Castile 's mother Valerie) and police officials (Dallas Police Chief David O. Brown, Officer Miguel Salcedo) and more appear in the video.
Credits adapted from the official press release.
The Black Eyed Peas also released a bilingual Spanish / English version of "Where 's the Love? '', titled "Dónde Está El Amor? '' crediting The Black Eyed Peas featuring El Mundo. The version was premiered on November 7, 2016, during Premios de la Radio. The music video premiered days later, featuring a roster of Latin stars including Gerardo Ortiz, Milkman, Pepe Aguilar, Becky G, Fey, Paulina Rubio, Luis Coronel and many others.
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simon fraser university pipe band live at carnegie hall | Simon Fraser University Pipe band - wikipedia
The Simon Fraser University Pipe Band is a grade one pipe band affiliated with Simon Fraser University in Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada. It is led by pipe major Alan Bevan and leading drummer J. Reid Maxwell.
The Simon Fraser University Pipe Band was originally formed by a group of students at Simon Fraser University in 1966.
Brothers Terry and Jack Lee joined the Simon Fraser University band in 1981 after being approached by then - president of the University George Pedersen through Scottish soccer coach John Buchanan, who wanted to have a better quality band than the one that would form as necessary for events. The next year, the band won the North American Championships, and in 1983 came 10th at the World Championships. In 1985, the band came second at the Worlds.
J. Reid Maxwell joined the band as leading drummer in 1992, having previously been leading drummer of the 78th Fraser Highlanders Pipe Band when it became the first non-Scottish band to win the World Championships in 1987.
After Robert Barbulak and Malcolm Bokenfor were killed in a road accident in 1994, the Robert Malcolm Memorial Pipe Band was created as a system of three bands in lower grades to act as a feeder to the Grade 1 band. The Robert Malcolm Memorial bands have also been successful in competitions in their respective grades.
The band wears the Simon Fraser University tartan, which was custom designed for the band in 2010.
On September 29, 2013, Terry Lee stepped down as Pipe Major after leading the band for over 30 years, having appointed Alan Bevan, a two - time solo Gold Medalist, as his successor. Jack continues to act as pipe sergeant.
Terry and Jack played in the City of Victoria Pipe Band, and then Terry led the now defunct Port Moody Pipe Band, before they joined the Simon Fraser University band in 1981.
Steven McWhirter and Stuart Liddell, now leading drummer and pipe major respectively of Inveraray & District Pipe Band, played with Simon Fraser University for several years.
The band has consistently placed in the top three in world competition and has won the Grade One World Pipe Band Championships six times, in 1995, 1996, 1999, 2001, 2008, and 2009.
SFUPB is one of only four bands located outside of the United Kingdom that have won a World Pipe Band Championship (the other three being the 78th Fraser Highlanders Pipe Band, the Victoria Police Pipe Band and the St. Laurence O'Toole Pipe Band). In addition, the band has placed second nine times. The band placed in the top three at the World Championships for 14 consecutive years up until 2012, with a fourth placing in 2013 and no placing in 2014. They are the second most successful pipe band from outside Scotland, after the Field Marshal Montgomery Pipe Band.
SFUPB regularly competes in Highland Games competitions sanctioned by the British Columbia Pipers Association in the northwestern United States and southwestern British Columbia before traveling to Scotland in August for the World Pipe Band Championships. The band wears the Simon Fraser University Pipe Band tartan.
Since 1994, the SFUPB has led an extensive family of pipe bands which each compete in their own grades. This organization is called the Robert Malcolm Memorial Pipe Band.
The band has produced twelve recordings, three concert / documentary videos, and appeared on four BBC Radio Scotland broadcasts.
In April 2001 the band recorded a CD live at the Sydney Opera House in Australia. On February 20, 1998, the band performed in concert at Carnegie Hall, New York City. This concert marked the first time a pipe band has performed a concert at this prestigious venue. The debut performance was recorded and released in June 1998 as Simon Fraser University Pipe Band - Live at Carnegie Hall. In June 1996, the band released its first live album Alive in America, the first live, in concert recording in the United States of a pipe band.
In May 2012, the band returned to New York and recorded its latest album Live from New York City at the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts.
In August 2015, for the first time since recording their 2009 concert entitled "Affirmation '', the band took to the stage of the Glasgow Royal Concert Hall to perform "Nous Sommes Prets '' under the direction of Pipe Major Alan Bevan.
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which of the following is not an example of the government acting as a source of payment | Government procurement in the United States - wikipedia
Government procurement in the United States is the process by which the Federal Government of the United States acquires goods, services (notably construction), and interests in real property. In FY 2016 alone the US Federal Government spent $461 B on contracts. Contracts for Government procurement usually involve appropriated funds spent on supplies, services, and interests in real property by and for the use of the Federal Government through purchase or lease, whether the supplies, services, or interests are already in existence or must be created, developed, demonstrated, and evaluated. See 48 C.F.R. § 2.101 ("Acquisition '' defined, as to goods and services only). Federal Government contracting has the same legal elements as contracting between private parties: a lawful purpose, competent contracting parties, an offer, an acceptance that complies with the terms of the offer, mutuality of obligation, and consideration. However, Federal contracts are much more heavily regulated, subject to volumes of statutes dealing with Federal contracts and the Federal contracting process, mostly in Titles 10, 31, 40, and 41 of the United States Code.
Private parties entering into a contract with one another (i.e., commercial contracts) are more free to establish a broad range of contract terms by mutual consent than a private party entering into a contract with the Federal Government. Each private party represents its own interests and can obligate itself in any lawful manner. Federal Government contracts allow for the creation of contract terms by mutual consent of the parties, but many areas addressed by mutual consent in commercial contracts are controlled by law in Federal contracts and legally require use of prescribed provisions and clauses. In commercial contracting, where one or both parties may be represented by agents whose authority is controlled by the law of agency, the agent is usually allowed to form a contract only with reference to accepted notions of commercial reasonableness and perhaps a few unique statutes that apply. In Federal Government contracting, specific regulatory authority is required for the Government 's agent to enter into the contract, and that agent 's bargaining authority is strictly controlled by statutes and regulations reflecting national policy choices and prudential limitations on the right of Federal employees to obligate Federal funds. By contrast, in commercial contracting, the law allows each side to rely on the other 's authority to make a binding contract on mutually agreeable terms.
The authority of a Contracting Officer, the Government 's agent, to contract on behalf of the Government is set forth in public documents (a warrant) that a person dealing with the Contracting Officer can review. The Contracting Officer does not have authority to act outside of this warrant or to deviate from the laws and regulations controlling Federal Government contracts. The private contracting party is held to know the limitations of the Contracting Officer 's authority, even if the Contracting Officer does not. This makes contracting with the United States a more structured and restricted process than a commercial one.
Federal Procurement Reports provide contract data that may be used for geographical, market, and socio - economic analysis, as well as for measuring and assessing the impact of acquisition policy and management improvements.
In Fiscal Year 2010, the top five departments by dollars obligated were:
The Top 100 Contractors Report for Fiscal Year 2009 lists contracts totalling $294.6 billion, the top five comprising aerospace and defense contractors:
In the same period, small business contracts totalled $96.8 billion.
The Federal Government 's authority to enter into contracts derives from the U.S. Constitution, which defines its powers. The Federal Government acts through legislation, treaties, implementing regulations, and the exercise of those authorities. The Federal Government 's power to contract is not set forth expressly and specifically in the U.S. Constitution. However, the U.S. Constitution appears to assume the continued vitality "Engagements '' entered into under the Articles of Confederation. U.S. Const., Art. VI. Moreover, the power to contract was and is regarded at law as necessarily incidental to the Federal Government 's execution of its other powers. An early Supreme Court case, United States v. Thomas Tingey, 30 U.S. 5 Pet. 115 (1831), recognized that the United States Government has a right to enter into a contract. It is an incident to the general right of sovereignty, and the United States, may, within the sphere of the constitutional powers confided to it and through the instrumentality of the proper department to which those powers are confided, enter into contracts not prohibited by law and appropriate to the just exercise of those powers. Scores of statutes now also expressly authorize departments and agencies to enter into contracts. The U.S. Congress passes legislation that defines the process and additional legislation that provides the funds. Executive branch agencies enter into the contracts and expend the funds to achieve their Congressionally defined missions. When disputes arise, administrative processes within the agencies may resolve them, or the contractor can appeal to the courts.
The procurement process for executive branch agencies (as distinguished from legislative or judicial bodies) is governed primarily by the Armed Services Procurement Act and the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act. To address the many rules imposed by Congress and the courts, a body of administrative law has been developed through the Federal Acquisition Regulation. This 53 - part regulation defines the procurement process including special preference programs, and includes the specific language of many clauses in Government contracts. Most agencies also have supplemental regulatory coverage contained in what are known as FAR Supplements. These supplements appear within the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) volumes of the respective agencies. For example, the Department of Defense (DOD) FAR Supplement can be found at 10 CFR.
Government contracts are governed by Federal common law, a body of law which is separate and distinct from the bodies of law applying to most businesses -- the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) and the general law of contracts. The UCC applies to contracts for the purchase and sale of goods, and to contracts granting a security interest in property other than land. The UCC is a body of law passed by the U.S. state legislatures and is generally uniform among the states. The general law of contracts, which applies when the UCC does not, is mostly common law, and is also similar across the states, whose courts look to each other 's decisions when there is no in - state precedent.
Contracts directly between the Government and its contractors ("prime contracts '') are governed by the Federal common law. Contracts between the prime contractor and its subcontractors are governed by the contract law of the respective states. Differences between those legal frameworks can put pressure on a prime contractor.
The authority to purchase is not one of the explicitly enumerated powers given to the Federal Government by Section 8 of Article One of the United States Constitution, but courts found that power implicit in the Constitutional power to make laws that are necessary and proper for executing its specifically granted powers, such as the powers to establish post offices, post roads, banks, an army, a navy, or militias.
Behind any Federal Government acquisition is legislation that permits it and provided money for it. These are normally covered in authorization and appropriation legislation. Generally, this legislation does not affect the acquisition process itself, although the appropriation process has been used to amend procurement laws, notably with the Federal Acquisition Reform Act (FARA) and the Federal Acquisitions Streamlining Act (FASA). Other relevant laws include the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949, the Armed Services Procurement Act (ASPA) and the Anti-Deficiency Act.
U.S. Federal fiscal law is about Congressional oversight of the Executive Branch, not principally toward getting the mission accomplished nor getting a good deal for the Government. Fiscal law frequently prevents Government agencies from signing agreements that commercial entities would sign. Therefore, fiscal law can constrain a Federal agency from the quickest, easiest, or cheapest way to accomplish its mission. This Constitutionally mandated oversight of the use of public funds is associated with the principle of checks and balances. A good working relationship and robust communication between the Executive and Legislative branches is the key to avoiding problems in this area.
The teeth for fiscal law comes from the Anti-Deficiency Act (ADA). The Anti Deficiency Act provides that no one can obligate the Government to make payments for which money has not already been authorized. The ADA also prohibits the Government from receiving gratuitous services without explicit statutory authority. In particular, an ADA violation occurs when a Federal agency uses appropriated funds for a different purpose than is specified in the appropriations act which provided the funds to the agency. The ADA is directly connected to several other fiscal laws, namely the Purpose Act and the Bona Fide Needs Rule.
Money appropriated for one purpose can not be used for a different purpose, according to the Purpose Act (31 U.S.C. § 1301). The annual DoD appropriations acts include approximately 100 different appropriations (known as "colors of money ''), and by this rule operations and maintenance (O&M) funds may not be used to buy weapons. Even an expenditure within the apparent scope of one appropriation may not be permissible if there is a more specific appropriation or the agency has made a previous funds election contrary to the proposed use of funds. For example, O&M fund can be used for purchasing repair parts, but if the parts are required to effect a major service life extension that is no longer repair but replacement -- procurement funds must be used if the total cost is more than $250,000 (otherwise known as the Other Procurement threshold, for example, Other Procurement Army (OPA) threshold) or another procurement appropriation is available such as the armored vehicle or weapons appropriation.
An Anti-Deficiency Act violation can also occur when a contract uses funds in a period that falls outside of the time period the funds are authorized for use under what is known as the Bona Fide Needs rule (31 USC 1502), which provides: "The balance of a fixed - term appropriation is available only for payment of expenses properly incurred during the period of availability or to complete contracts properly made within that period. ''
The Bona Fide Need Rule is a fundamental principle of appropriations law addressing the availability as to time of an agency 's appropriation. 73 Comp. Gen. 77, 79 (1994); 64 Comp. Gen. 410, 414 - 15 (1985). The rule establishes that an appropriation is available for obligation only to fulfill a genuine or bona fide need of the period of availability for which it was made. 73 Comp. Gen. 77, 79 (1994). It applies to all Federal Government activities carried out with appropriated funds, including contract, grant, and cooperative agreement transactions. 73 Comp. Gen. 77, 78 - 79 (1994). An agency 's compliance with the bona fide need rule is measured at the time the agency incurs an obligation, and depends on the purpose of the transaction and the nature of the obligation being entered into. 61 Comp. Gen. 184, 186 (1981) (bona fide need determination depends upon the facts and circumstances of the particular case). In the grant context, the obligation occurs at the time of award. 31 Comp. Gen. 608 (1952). See also 31 U.S.C. Sec. 1501 (a) (5) (B). Simply put, this rule states that the Executive Branch may only use current funds for current needs -- they can not buy items which benefit future year appropriation periods (i.e., 1 October through 30 September) without a specific exemption. The net result of this rule is funds expire after the end date for which Congress has specified their availability. For example, a single year fund expires on 1 October of the year following their appropriation (i.e., FY07 appropriations. (for example, 1 October 2006 through 30 September 2007) expire on 1 October 2007).
For example, operations and maintenance funds generally can not be used to purchase supplies after 30 September of the year they are appropriated within with several exceptions -- 1) the severable services exemption under 10 USC 2410 and Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Circular A-34, Instructions on Budget Execution, 2) Authorized stockage level exceptions and 3) long lead time exception. (see https://www.safaq.hq.af.mil/contracting/affars/fiscal-law/bona-fide-need.doc) The Government Accounting Office Principles of Federal Appropriations Law (otherwise known as the GAO Redbook at http://www.gao.gov/legal.htm) has a detailed discussion of these fiscal law rules which directly impact on the ability of a Federal agency to contract with the private sector.
The procurement process is subject to legislation and regulation separate from the authorization and appropriation process. These regulations are included in the Code of Federal Regulations ("CFR ''), the omnibus listing of Government regulations, as Title 48. Chapter 1 of Title 48 is commonly called the Federal Acquisition Regulation ("FAR ''). The remaining chapters of Title 48 are supplements to the FAR for specific agencies.
The process for promulgating regulations including the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) includes publication of proposed rules in the Federal Register and receipt of comments from the public before issuing the regulation. Courts treat the FAR as having the "force and effect of law '', and Contracting Officers do not have the authority to deviate from it. Supplements to the FAR have been issued following the same process, and have the same force and effect.
The FAR and its supplements permit a substantial variation from the purchases of paperclips to battleships. The Contracting Officer and the contractor must seek to achieve their sometimes conflicting goals while following the requirements of the regulations. As with any complex document (in book form, Title 48 of the CFR requires several shelves), the FAR and its supplements can be interpreted differently by different people.
FAR Subpart 1.4, Deviations from the FAR, provides the steps needed to document deviations from the mandatory FAR or agency FAR supplement. Deviation documentation is needed if there is a precise FAR clause or provision for the issue.
FAR 12.401 allows Commercial Items contracts to be tailored to a great extent, therefore deviating in many particulars from the mandatory clause language. See also FAR 12.211, Technical Data; FAR 12.212, Computer Software; FAR 12.213, Other Commercial Practices for additional authority to deviate or "tailor '' FAR clauses and provisions in the context of commercial items / services.
A ratification is the proper authorization by a contracting officer of an earlier procurement by a Government employee who was not authorized to do it. A ratification package has a legal memo that says an unauthorized commitment was made, that the commitment could properly have been done by contracting officers, and that funds were and are available for it. Other regulations and agency rules apply too, such as those from the Army discussed below.
Ratifications are governed by FAR 1.602 - 3 (Ratification of Unauthorized Commitment) which defines a ratification as the act of approving an unauthorized commitment by an official who has the authority to do so. Unauthorized commitment means an agreement that is not binding solely because the Government representative who made it lacked the authority to enter into that agreement on behalf of the Government. A ratifying official may ratify only when: (1) The Government has received the goods or services; (2) The ratifying official has authority to obligate the United States, and had that authority at the time of the unauthorized commitment; (3) The resulting contract would otherwise be proper, i.e., adequate funds are available, the contract is not prohibited by law, the ratification is in accordance with agency procedures, etc.; (4) The contracting officer determines that the price paid was fair and reasonable and recommends payment, and legal counsel concurs.
There are dollar limits to the authority to ratify unauthorized commitments. A Chief of Contracting Office can approve up to $10,000. A Principal Assistant Responsible for Contracting can approve up to $100,000. A Head of Contracting Authority can approve higher amounts.
Ratifications in the U.S. Army call for a signed statement describing the unauthorized commitment, the value of the procurement, and other documentation. Then a contracting officer is to study the case and recommend action. If the procurement is not ratified, the matter may be handled under FAR Part 50 and DFARS Part 250 (Public Law 85 - 804) as a GAO claim or some other way.
FAR Part 45 provides rules on the Contractor 's obligations and the Government 's remedies in these cases. Specific clauses should be in the contract to deal with Government Furnished Equipment (GFE) situations and bring your own device (BYOD) situations.
The authority under FAR Part 12, Commercial Items (and services), must be used thoughtfully and carefully. It is very tempting for a contracting officer to use FAR Part 12 and hence FAR Part 13 in situations where such use is clearly not appropriate in view of the basic reasons commercial item acquisition authority was created by Congress.
FAR 2.101 provides that
"a commercial item means -- (6) services of a type offered and sold competitively in substantial quantities in the commercial marketplace based on established catalog or market prices for specific tasks performed or specific outcomes to be achieved and under standard commercial terms and conditions. This does not include services that are sold based on hourly rates without an established catalog or market price for a specific service performed or specific outcomes to be achieved. For purposes of these services -- (i) catalog price means a price included in a catalog, price list, schedule or other form that is regularly maintained by the manufacturer or vendor, is either published or otherwise available for inspection by customers and states prices at which sales are currently, or were last, made to a significant number of buyers constituting the general public; and (ii) Market prices means current prices that are established in the course of ordinary trade between buyers and sellers free to bargain and that can be substantiated through competition or from sources independent of the offerors. ''
Note the emphasis in the FAR 2.101 definition for commercial items on established market prices. The reason why simplified acquisition is permitted for items above the $100,000 simplified acquisition procedure threshold for commercial items is there is an efficient market pricing mechanism which pressures market participants to provide goods and services at a fair and reasonable price which represents very efficient / non-wasteful pricing mechanisms. Generally, the more efficient and well developed markets have a large number of participating vendors and information is freely available to consumers in that market on the relative merits of each vendor 's products and pricing which permits easy comparison of each vendor 's products to each other. FAR Part 12 commercial items acquisition authority was intended to take advantage of the WalMart 's (R) and Microsoft 's (R) of the world where there is no need to go through the extensive, formalistic and resource / time consuming process of a fully negotiated procurement, which requires vendors provide cost and pricing information, to verify a fair and reasonable price. In other words, FAR Part 12 was intended to increase the number of competitors available to the US Government by jettisoning all of the unique requirements, including cost accounting systems, which are forced upon Federal contractors by acquisition processes such as FAR Parts 14, 15, 36 etc.; instead, the Federal Government could act more like a normal buyer in a fully functioning commercial market where the Government was but one of a large number of consumers seeking the same or highly similar products or services. However, FAR Part 12 was never intended to apply where the US Government was the only or one of a very few buyers for an item or service not in demand by the commercial market place.
What happens when there are very few market participants and the goods or services are not widely available to the public? Lets take surveillance systems in a military overseas contingency environment as an example. Battlefield full motion video is not something that is found in the commercial sector -- Wal - Marts do n't sell this; moreover, frequently there are special restrictions which impact on commercial firms ability to engage in work of this nature. For example, special FAA Administrator permission is required before a US certificated aircraft or pilot can fly in Iraq under Special Federal Aviation Regulation (SFAR) 77; if there are very few, or only one, vendor who can participate in this requirement, there are no vendors out there for meanginful competition which is the bedrock assumption of FAR Parts 12 and 13. In view of the above, the airborne recon contract is NOT a commercial service -- therefore use of FAR Part 12 commercial items contracting processes is wholly inappropriate and not permissible under the applicable laws governing Federal acquisition.
Taking another example, what happens when significant research and development is needed to adapt a commercial items for Government use? Should FAR Parts 12 and 13 be used here? Absolutely not. There are no market pricing mechanisms for the non-standard variant -- the Government is the only buyer of this particular variant of the commercially available item.
What about situations where Government demand overwhelms the commercial markets supply? In this case, the Government is actually competing against itself because it has swallowed the market whole and usually has multiple requiring activities competing against each other for the same goods and services. This is exemplified in cases where numerous contracting offices demand the same goods and services unknowingly are driving prices up against each other. Frequently in these case, contracting commands accept take - it or leave - it prices from relatively few vendors (compared to demand) who know that these contracting offices are not coordinating amongst each other or establishing commodity control councils to ration demand against the civilian sources of supply. As the US Federal Reserve will attest to, inflation is one of the most damaging elements in an economic system to investment, capital markets and economic activity. In this case, the effect of driving massive cost inflation directly impacts civilians and non-Government consumers who are also competing for the same goods and services against the US Government acquisition commands; ultimately the deep pockets of the Government win out against the lesser buying power of the non-governmental market participants. In such cases, as the US Government did during World War II, commodity control councils must be established to identify all available sources of supply and ration supply to the various consumers, including US Government consumers, sometimes with price controls (although this is very dangerous because it frequently leads to black markets run by criminals). One solution in this case is to identify markets unaffected by the Government demand and seek to acquire goods and services through that other market. When the situation of overwhelming government demand occurs in a faltering or damaged economy, Government demand that is in excess of what the local vendors can supply to both Government and non-Government consumers should be met by vendors who operate out of the market in question, including through the GSA Schedule system if the damaged market is outside of the United States. Resources and expertise are in the Federal Government that are designed to assist in cases where Federal demand overwhelms civilian supply, one example being the Industrial College of the Armed Forces (ICAF). The ICAF 's charter is to maintain the ability to nationalize an economy to achieve strategic objectives or a wartime mobilization, thus is a good resource expertise in this particular area. Use of FAR Parts 12 and 13 without rationing of demand through a single commodity control council or finding other solutions is likely to create more problems than it solves. Non-commercial contracting methodology and clauses should be used for any acquisition where Government demand overwhelms civilian supply. It is highly unlikely there will be any cost controls or a fair and reasonable price obtained for non-commercial services or goods obtained using FAR Parts 12 and FAR 13 under these circumstances.
Special rules apply to service contracts. They must be performance - based to the extent practicable, with measurable outcomes. FAR 37.102 and FAR Part 37.6 describe performance - based methods. FAR 37.601 has specific requirements for performance work statements (PWS) for service contracts requiring performance - based standards. Agency supplements also require performance - based acquisitions. (See, e.g., DFARS 237.170 Approval of contracts and task orders for services; DFARS 237.170 - 2 Approval requirements.)
Performance Based Service Acquisition (PBSA) is a process and way of defining requirements that yields well written work statements that are outcome oriented and measurable thus enforceable. Deming / Six Sigma style quality assessments and process analysis can help define performance work statements. A Performance Work Statement (PWS) has:
The DOD PBSA guide has a "performance requirements summary '' matrix which can serve as an outline for work statement provisions.
Army Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) Supplement (AFARS) has an outline for performance - based service contracts.
Additional Resources for PBSA:
The Office of Federal Procurement Policy (OFPP) has a Draft Best Practices Guide on Contractor Performance
"Nonpersonal services contract '' means a contract under which the personnel rendering the services are not subject, either by the contract 's terms or by the manner of its administration, to the supervision and control usually prevailing in relationships between the Government and its employees.
"Personal services contract '' means a contract that, by its express terms or as administered, makes the contractor personnel appear, in effect, Government employees (see FAR 37.104).
Advisory and assistance services (A&AS) are permissible (See FAR Subpart 37.2)
Personal services are NOT permissible (See FAR 37.104 and Classification Act) without specific authority to obtain such services (meaning, statutory authority)
Permissible to acquire expert and consultant services (5 USC 3109 or 10 USC 129b -- expert services) or 10 USC 1091 -- health services), as well as health services, intelligence, counter intelligence or special operations command operations requirements under DFARS 237.104, Personal Services Contracts and 10 USC 129b -- Contracting must do a determination and finding (D&F) (per FAR Subpart 1.7 and DFARS Subpart 237.104) for this
DFARS 237.170 - 2 forbids non-performance - based contracts unless exception done under DFARS 237.170 - 2
If an agency is hiring experts, read over 5 USC 3109, Employment of Experts and Consultants, Temporary or Intermittent to see if it applies to FAR 37.104 (f). Office of Personnel Management (OPM) has established requirements that apply in acquiring personal services for experts or consultants in this manner (for example, benefits, taxes, conflicts of interest), "therefore, the contracting officer shall effect necessary coordination with the cognizant civilian personnel office. '' Note that personal service contracts are potentially subject to salary caps
See also 10 USC 2331 Procurement of services: contracts for professional and technical services and AFARS 5137.104 -- Personal Services Contracts.
See also agency regulations on specific prohibitions on use of service contractors for inherently governmental activities under OMB Circular A-76, for example, Army Regulation (AR) 735 - 5, para 2 - 11 sets out those property accountability tasks which can and can not be performed by contractors. (Basically, contractors may not exercise any discretionary authority.)
Examples of prohibited personal services:
Special acquisitions rules and laws govern acquisition of health or medical related services. For example, DoD Instruction (DoDI) 6025.5, Personal Services Contracts (PSCS) for Health Care Providers (HCPS) has extensive requirements that must be addressed in any DoD health care contract. DoD 6025.18 - R, DoD Health Information Privacy Regulation also has substantial mandates concerning medical records as well as HIPAA compliance. See http://biotech.law.lsu.edu/blaw/dodd/corres/html/602518r.htm
Military service regulations also deal with this issue extensively: for example, See AR 40 - 400 Medical Support Provisions -- Authority
From the Government perspective, the most critical aspect of IP, data, technical data and patent rights revolve around freedom to operate and freedom of contract, namely freedom to have maximum competition. From the perspective of a contractor, the most critical aspect of this area is protection of competitive advantage from disclosure to its competitors. In other words, the contractor / commercial vendor wants to retain its ability to have a product to sell -- inherent in this desire is a need to prevent the Government from disclosing important technical data, e.g., engineering designs, schematics, specifications, to its competitors when the Government conducts a follow - on acquisition and attempts to seek competition to meet legal and policy mandates in the Competition in Contracting Act (CICA) and Armed Services Procurement Act.
IP, data rights and technical data rights is a highly specialized practice area in Federal acquisitions. Careful examination of FAR Part 27 and applicable agency FAR supplements (for example, DFARS 227) must be performed and consultation with a wide variety of Federal statutes accomplished before attempting to deal with IP / data / technical data.
A number of variables drive allocation and use of IP / data / technical data including whether or not the subject of the contract is for research and development (R&D), small business / non-profit or non-small business / for - profit, source of funds used to create the IP in question (exclusively private, exclusively Government or mixed funds), acquisition of commercial or non-commercial items / services and whether software or non-software is being acquired. Additional clauses must be added to the acquisition for patent / data / technical data and specific CLINs must be added for data / technical data deliverables per the FAR / DFAR. Various agency regulations separately deal with technical data acquisition as well and must be consulted.
There is a difference between FAR and agency supplements. For example, the FAR focuses on "data '' while the DFAR provisions focus on the narrower subset of "technical data ''. For technical data, DFARS 227.7102 - 3 (b) states "Use the clause at 252.227 - 7013, Rights in Technical Data -- Noncommercial Items, in lieu of the clause at 252.227 - 7015 if the Government will pay any portion of the development costs... '' Thus, the Government would n't be using that clause if it was not paying some portion of development costs -- the question is whether or not this particular item 's development costs were in fact paid for by the Government. It is prudent to make this determination up front in the CLIN structure of a contract for technical data deliverables.
There are different categories of technical data which are addressed in different sections of the Defense Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) Supplement (DFARS). These main categories are technical data (defined not to include specific categories as called out in this list), software, and SBIR technical data. Technical data and software each are subdivided into two additional sub categories: commercial and non-commercial. Separate treatment and clauses are provided for each sub-category.
Generally, there are specific issues which must be addressed in any technical data rights or software acquisition, which include:
- Required contract clauses and provisions (driven by the below categories) (commercial versus non-commercial; software vs non-software; SIBR versus non-SBIR; technical and scientific information versus non-technical and non-scientific information; and special cases discussed in DFARS 227)
- Disclosure of technical data use restrictions as a part of the offer / proposal (for example, DFARS 252.227. 7017 clause)
- Markings provisions (includes basic markings clause plus challenge clause)
- Required contract line item numbers (CLIN) structure (broken out for each category / type which are segregable -- must be specifically expanded upon in the work statement / contract specifications; each CLIN must be separately priced; this is NOT THE CDRLS!!!! -- CDRLS are separate!)
It is absolutely critical that both contracting and the requiring activity both understand the categories and subcategories of technical data as well as data. A basic understanding of the patent rights clauses are also necessary. Both technical data (and / or data) AND the patent rights clauses must be included as they are completely separate from each other.
Accordingly, it is important to understand your requirement and whether or not the acquisition or the deliverables fit into these categories because it drives acquisition planning and required clauses and provisions that must be inserted into the solicitation. It is normal for MULTIPLE contract clauses and provisions to be inserted into the contract solicitation for the acquisition of a SINGLE CATEGORY of technical data (for example, DFARS 7013, Non-Commercial Technical Data, and 7017 clauses). However, it is important to note that if multiple categories of technical data (or even FAR data) is to be acquired, multiple categories of technical data clauses must be inserted and each contract line item number (CLIN) must be specifically drafted to cover each separate CATEGORY of technical data (e.g., commercial AND separately non-commercial software)
Technical data for DoD contracts is defined at the DFARS 252.227. 7013 clause, paragraph a, subparagraph (14): ""Technical data '' means recorded information, regardless of the form or method of the recording, of a scientific or technical nature (including computer software documentation). The term does not include computer software or data incidental to contract administration, such as financial and / or management information. '' There are separate clauses for software (commercial and non-commercial).
The two standards technical data rights clauses in the FAR are the DFARS 252.227. 7013 (non-commercial technical data) and the 252.227. 7015 (commercial technical data) -- neither of which covers software or software documentation.
Non-commercial software and its documentation are covered by the DFARS 252.227. 7014 clause.
Commercial software acquisitions are dealt with only briefly at DFARS 227.7202 which essentially says that the Government shall get the rights customarily obtained by customers in the relevant software market, the Government shall obtain the minimum rights necessary for the Government 's purposes, and that the Government can not force the commercial vendor to give up rights. The Government can not issue a unilateral modification forcing delivery of rights in computer software; mutual consent is mandated by law and DFARS provisions for commercial software acquisitions. The contract clause that is normally in a commercial software contract acquisition is the FAR 52.212 - 4, Commercial Items, clause. This clause mirrors the above intent which states that the Government will have rights provided to the normal consumer in that particular market, which in reality are defined by a separate software license. Licenses for software routinely have provisions which are illegal in Government contracts. In particular, see FAR 12.304 for the provisions of the 52.212 - 4 clause which may be tailored and which ones that may not as well as some provisions that may NEVER be in a Government contract except under very specific circumstances (for example, indemnification agreements, provisions which require the Government to give up control of litigation (usually for patent infringement lawsuits against the Government / licensee, invoicing, and remedies). Separately, examine the 52.212 - 4 clause as well as the software license and determine if they have provisions which either overlap or contradict each other. If so, then the two will have to be reconciled -- essentially, the license will have to be rewritten to address any conflict with a provision which tells which one will control -- either the license or the 52.212 - 4 clause.
The broader category of know - how, etc. is covered by the "data '' provisions of the FAR. Note that DFARS part 227 scope provision requires that DOD use the DFARS 227 provisions rather than the FAR 27 provisions. However, it is important to remember that the FAR data provisions include both "data '' and "technical data ''. Therefore, in cases where the Government is acquiring rights to know - how, copyrighted information, etc., which is not "scientific or technical data '' for example, socio - economic information for information operations or psychological operations contracts, DO NOT USE THE DFARS CLAUSES OR PROVISIONS -- USE FAR 27 REGARDLESS OF WHAT DFARS 227 SAYS. The scope section is inartfully drafted because a literal reading would compel use of clauses which are specifically limited to scientific and technical information -- you have to use the much broader FAR clauses to go after "data '' which is not scientific or technical information.
DFARS 227.7103 - 1, Policy, para (c) says that "Offerors shall not be required... to sell or otherwise relinquish to the Government any rights in technical data related to items, components or processes developed at private expense solely because the Government 's rights to use, modify, release, reproduce, perform, display, or disclose technical data pertaining to those items may be restricted. '' HOWEVER, the Government may include a source selection criteria which rates offers more favorably or higher which provide desired technical data rights.
A detailed discussion of intellectual property in Government contracts can be found in a variety of sources, including Intellectual Property in Government Contracts by Ralph C. Nash, Jr. and Leonard Rawicz published by CCH / Wolters Kluwer, as well as Licensing Software and Technology to the U.S. Government: the Complete Guide to Rights to Intellectual Property in Prime Contracts and Subcontracts. However, note that neither of these books provide a nuts and bolts explanation on how to deal with commercial computer software licenses as discussed above. These books provide a high level discussion of the law and regulations, history and policy involved, which is useful.
Categories of Technical Data Rights:
DFARS 227.7103 - 4 License rights (Non-commercial items) provides the standard license rights that a licensor grants to the Government are (1) unlimited rights, (2) Government purpose rights, or (3) limited rights. Those rights are defined in the clause at 252.227 - 7013, Rights in Technical Data -- Noncommercial Items.
Technical information developed exclusively with Government funds may be used by the Government without restriction including going to another contractor to produce the item in question.
A second technical data rights scenario occurs when items / technical data is acquired using mixed funding -- the Government gets Government purpose rights which allow the Government to go with another vendor provided a non disclosure agreement is signed with that other vendor and any tech data / drawings produced under that other contract are marked in accordance with the DFARS 252.227. 7013 clause.
If the technical data was developed exclusively at private expense, the Government has limited rights. That means the rights to use, modify, and disclose the data within the Government. But it generally may not, without permission, release the data outside of the Government. DFARS 252.227 - 7013.
Contractors in the Government Workplace -- OMB Circular A-76 Public -- Private Competitions, Inherently Governmental Work (not permitted to be performed by a contractor) and Federal Trade Secret Act (FTSA) Impacts on Use of Contractors:
In other areas, problems frequently arise when Federal activities hire support contractors to assist them with executing their mission. These contracts frequently come into at least potential conflict with rules governing permissible use of contractors, such as rules against use of contractors for inherently governmental functions (See OMB Circular A-76) and rules against personal services (see above). One of the most serious problems can occur when a contractor is put into a position where they can see private party trade secrets, proprietary information or other contractor 's proprietary information. The Federal Trade Secret Act (18 USC 1905) imposes criminal, civil and administrative sanctions on Federal employees who with knowledge allow proprietary, confidential or trade secret information to be used for an unauthorized purpose, including permitting other Federal contractors to view the proprietary information in question.
Given the overwhelming reliance on support contractors, it is now necessary to address this question of authorized use under the Federal Trade Secret Act. A simple solution is to include in the CLIN structure a statement, such as for example, "the Government may provide proprietary information received under this contract to support contractors provided no organizational conflict of interest occurs under FAR Subpart 9.5, the support contractor is not directly competing on the acquisition in question which originated the proprietary information in question and a non-disclosure agreement with each contractor recipient is accomplished requiring the contractor ensure such proprietary information is not disclosed outside of the Government activity handling the proprietary information. '' In this way, the contract that is the entry point for such proprietary information being handled by US Government support contractors includes an explicit authorization which avoids violation of the Federal Trade Secret Act provisions relating to authorized versus unauthorized use.
The DFARS includes a non-disclosure agreement at DFARS 227.7103 - 7, para c, which can be used in this case.
Markings:
Markings are critically important technical / proprietary data to manage in a Government contract. See:
Contracts which include technical data should include a markings section to ensure a contractor properly marks proprietary information and the Government protects it accordingly.
Patent rights are determined and dealt with separately from technical data and data rights. By default the Government owns ("receives title to '') any invention first created, prototyped, or put into practice in the performance of a Government contract. (The patent law term is "reduced to practice ''.) Thus if an inventor designed something, convinced the Government to buy it, then created it for the first time in the performance of the contract, the Government takes title of it. The patent rights clause can specify that the contractor gets title or a license to the invention if the contractor follows some procedures within a specified time span and commercializes the invention or at least provides a commercialization plan.
FAR 11.104, Use of Brand Name or Equal Purchase Descriptions discusses acceptable uses of brand names in solicitations and how to do this. FAR 11.105 Items Peculiar to One Manufacturer states "agency requirements shall not be written so as to require a particular brand name or product or a feature of a product, peculiar to one manufacturer, thereby precluding consideration of a product manufactured by another company, unless:
Contracting activities are at unequal stages of transitioning to automated contract generation tools which have a menu driven system which generates the contract with appropriate clauses. However, frequently contracting officers do not have sufficient knowledge that some optional or required clause is applicable in a particular case -- especially for intellectual property or other specialized acquisitions. With the transition to the automated systems, many contracting officers do not possess the knowledge to prepare a manual contract without the automated tool. Also, the automated systems frequently do not allow inclusion of various non standard work statement, instructions or clauses due to limitations on input options.
Generally, Federal acquisitions begin with identification of a requirement by a specific Federal activity. A basic idea of what is needed and the problem statement is prepared and the requiring activity meets with an acquisition command having a Contracting Officer with an appropriate warrant issued by a specific acquisition activity.
Contracting Officers have different contracting thresholds and capabilities. Each one has a specific warrant that states the conditions under which they are permitted to engage in Federal contracting. Depending on the contracting activity, some contracting officers may have no experience whatever with the product, service or requirements in question or knowledge of any of the potential vendor base, creating a weakness in the Government procurement process.
Frequently, contractor proposals in response to a Request for Proposals (RFP) include an exact copy of the RFP 's statement of work. An offeror 's response usually indicates their approach to performing the statement of work, their approach to managing the program or project, and examples of past performance on projects similar in size, scope, and complexity.
Evaluator scoring penalizes proposals that contain "fluff '' or generic information that does not directly pertain to the specifics of the solicitation -- the Government 's need, source selection factors and work statement or performance specification. Charts and other infographics can help a proposal. Examples would be: a six - line chart of the most compelling credentials of contractor 's key personnel, or including a picture of a uniformed security guard on the pages describing contractor 's uniforms. Professional proposal writers often have graphic design experience.
A proposal can be too long, causing the Government 's source selection authority to skim over it. The Government source selection team may not wish to spend much time on the acquisition source selection. Also, it is possible for vendors to put too much information into proposals which do not go to the heart of the acquisition, particularly information not related to the source selection criteria as well as the work statement.
For simple acquisitions, Government source selection authorities have responded favorably to proposals which emphasize experience with the specific requirement that the Government is seeking to source and information on how a product or service will meet the needs of the Government as stated in the source selection factors and the work statement.
Contractors must also be aware of whether or not price is more important than non-price factors. Where price is more important than non-price factors, then the lowest bidder who is technically acceptable in view of the source selection factors and work statement requirements will be selected. Where the solicitation indicates that the requirement is a best value acquisition, then a contractor must draft their proposal to emphasize how their proposed technical solution will meet each and every requirement and source selection factor.
For more complex acquisitions, source selection authorities will be interested in how the contractor will produce service or non-service deliverables. Thus, staffing plans, methodology to produce, past experience, ISO certifications, and other information which shows that risks to the Government acquisition have been identified and mitigated should be rated higher than other proposals which do not show such information. However, it is important that the proposal first and foremost address the solicitation 's work statement or technical specifications and source selection factors.
Contractors must also be aware of the contract clauses in the contract to include requirements for specific standards which do not directly relate to the deliverables in question to include small business or minority set - aside requirements, Davis - Bacon (essentially local union labor rates must be used), specific accounting standards, specific certifications, etc.
The requiring activity and Contracting Officer, ideally, will commence acquisition planning as a first step to a Federal acquisition. Acquisition planning is described in FAR Part 7, Acquisition Planning, and any agency supplement to the FAR, for example, Defense FAR Supplement (DFARS) 207, Acquisition Planning. Components to an agency, such as the US Army, as well as the individual contracting command in question frequently also have an acquisition instruction which includes additional instructions on acquisition planning. For example, the US Army must follow AFARS Part 7, Acquisition Planning.
Acquisition planning is frequently dependent on the circumstances. For example, during World War II, quantity was the key. As in the Civil War, the U.S. achieved victory due in large part to the American industrial base. A war of attrition requires massive quantities of material, but not necessarily of great quality. During the Cold War, quality was key. The United States may not have had as many pieces of equipment as their opposition, but that equipment could be more effective, efficient, or lethal, and offset the opposition 's numerical advantage. Today, the military needs equipment that works where it is needed, is dependable, has a high degree of maintainability, has long - term reliability, is agile, versatile, and avoids equipment choices that result in political debate and partisan politics.
As part of the acquisition planning process, the Government must address its buying power leverage. Many Government acquisition commands write acquisitions solely based on haphazard acquisition strategies that are primarily directed toward avoiding bid protests. Thus, it is necessary to emphasize competition and understand the acquisition from the view point of the contractor; Government acquisition commands should ask what is to be achieved and whether or not the program is really in the best interest of the Government.
Many Federal acquisitions are rushed due to poor time management. In these cases, the tendency is to issue a sole - source contract to known vendors even though FAR Part 6 specifically forbids sole - source contracting when it is due to lack of advanced planning. There is also a high cost premium that is added to the cost of an acquisition when a buyer wants a supplier / vendor to rush to execute a contract or push their contract to the head of all other work the contractor / vendor is executing. It is often said that "if you want it bad, you get it bad. '' Accordingly, bad acquisition planning generally produces poor and unjustifiable acquisition outcomes. Thus, it is critical to understand the time resources that are required to properly plan and execute a Federal acquisition. Generally, a Government acquisition for moderate to complex requirements requires at least 120 days.
A variety of factors can affect the contracting process and the contract clauses that are used in a Federal acquisition, including:
An acquisition plan may have numerous elements as listed in FAR 7.105; depending upon the estimated cost of the acquisition, these elements include:
During the planning of an acquisition, several key aspects of the effort are decided, including:
Effective market research assists the Government in:
Contracting is all about risk allocation and minimizing risk to include cost, schedule and performance. The more vague the contract work statement, the more risk that the Government assumes.
Risk. A measure of the inability to achieve program objectives within defined cost and schedule constraints. Risk is associated with all aspects of the program, for example, threat, technology, design processes, Work breakdown structure (WBS) elements, etc. It has two components, the probability of failing to achieve a particular outcome, and the consequences of failing to achieve that outcome.
Does this contract adequately describe all essential work / expectations, is there a schedule and is it enforceable? What are our remedies, if any?
Requiring activities and frequently contracting officers want to get an acquisition on contract as quickly as possible; sometimes too quickly. Thus, contracting officers and acquisition attorneys will frequently have to carefully review the overall acquisition to identify risks to cost, schedule and performance and recommend mitigation measures to decrease these risk areas.
What is my expected payoff? The larger the expected payoff, the larger the associated risk, and vice versa. An Investor, who is a shareholder in a contracting company, will seek to carefully balance the expected payoff with the associated risk, and he is incentivized to seek a large payoff, as long as the risk is acceptable. This perspective is unique in the sense that risk represents both opportunity and danger to the Investor, while it only represents danger to the Program Manager and the Lawyer.
In other words, there is a misalignment in the perception of risk between the Program Manager, the Lawyer, and the Investor. It is ultimately the Investor who owns the contracting company, and this misalignment will have an effect on the Investor 's behavior and the stock 's performance.
Cost, schedule and performance risk can be increased by over-bundling of a requirement into a single acquisition vehicle. Over-bundling dries up the possible vendor base that might otherwise compete for a requirement. Thus, it is critical that an evaluation of the possible vendors who might compete for the overall work statement / deliverables be accomplished. For example, having a work statement for asphalt roads, space shuttles, hot dog carts, movie projectors and skyscrapers is unlikely to get a good vendor; only a prime integrator will bid on that type of bloated requirement, thereby stacking a tremendous amount of overhead into the price of the acquisition. In the best - case scenario, the prime integrator will merely go out and contract with the vendors the Government should have gone with in the first place. The worst case is the prime integrator will mismanage outsourcing to their subcontractors and poor results will ensue. Overhead costs of over 100 % of the price of the subcontractors is not uncommon in this situation, especially in Iraq. This analysis will frequently require splitting up a requirement into different pieces. The bundling of a requirement also has the very bad effect of making the SSCs and CLIN structure difficult to use in source selection, price evaluation and contract administration.
Overbundled requirements frequently suffer from very vague requirements and work statements, particularly in service contracts. In service contracts, the CLIN structure is priced on a per person per hour basis rather than on the service work deliverables themselves. Government or contractor ability to prepare cost or price estimates for vague work statements is severely limited; Accordingly, the Government will negotiate a labor rate, number of people and individual qualifications for the requirement given that is the only feasible way to get an idea of cost. However, use of per person / per hour pricing for services is a poor contracting practice given the Government retains virtually all performance, cost and schedule risk given the contractor has fully performed under the CLIN statement when they provide the qualified body, rather than providing the needed service. One could argue that a CLIN statement which overbundles work in even a well written work statement and prices the work on a per person / per hour basis with limits on the numbers of person and types of qualifications the contractor can use is in contradiction to the work statement given the means the Government has asked the contractor to price the contract bears no relationship to the actual work itself and the Government is directing the contractor on how to execute the requirement -- thus interfering with contractor performance and a sign of an employee - employer relationship rather than an independent contracting relationship. Also, the CLIN structure which prices on a per person basis or per hour basis generally pays for such persons on an annual basis rather than merely for the service on an a la carte or as - needed basis, therefore driving up costs in many cases. Pricing on a per person or per hour basis is a sign that a contract likely also qualifies as a personal services contract under FAR Part 37 -- technically violating at least the spirit, if not the letter, of the Classification Act and FAR Part 37 except in specific circumstances and with specific determinations and findings.
Use of prime integrators in overbundled contracts sometimes has led to poor results in a number of major systems acquisitions. For example, what would happen if say the US Navy went too far in allowing contractors to make choices that make economic sense in the specific acquisition but add cost to the overall Navy? Example is a prime integrator who gets a good deal on a specific radar system that is not used in any other ship system -- makes this specific buy cheaper but overall this costs the Navy a great deal of money given a lack of interoperability that drives a need to stand up training schools, supply system, work force increase, etc.
Over-bundling makes it easy for contracting, but many times, especially for complex acquisitions, does not deliver the results expected by the customer or war fighter for complex acquisitions, especially acquisitions that the acquisition command in question has little experience with or has substantial turn over of personnel during the life of the acquisition.
Small business acquisitions have mandatory restrictions on over-bundling. However, non-small business acquisitions are not subject to the same rules.
Example of how over-bundling causes big problems (permutations and evaluation of total price in source selection): Lets say a requiring activity wants to get polling services. Acquisition planning reveals there are five polls in ten different regions. However, it turns out that the Government will only be ordering one of the five polls in any real numbers and that particular poll is much more expensive in actual cost than the other four. If a weighting scheme is not applied to this bundled requirement, a vendor can make the four lightly ordered polls very cheap in their offer and the high volume poll very expensive, based on their knowledge of the ordering patterns of the Government in past acquisitions. Thus, on its face, the overall price of a bid when each poll is added together to arrive at a total price (used in source selection) would look attractive but in practice, the Government will burn through its budget very quickly given the vast majority of the actually ordered polls are extremely expensive (even though the actual cost of the most frequently ordered poll is far less than what was in the offer). To avoid the headache of a weighting scheme, all five polls should be broken apart and contracted for separately so they can be judged on their merits. This is an example of what is frequently done on major indefinite duration, indefinite quantity (IDIQ) contracts and explains why some acquisitions are appallingly expensive and require additional funding to achieve the requiring activity 's objectives.
The statement of work (SOW) is a formal document submitted along with the request for proposal (RFP) to a vendor that defines the work to be performed, the location of the work, the deliverable schedule, applicable performance standards, any special requirements (e.g., security clearances, travel, and special knowledge), and the period of performance.
The Procurement Integrity Act (PIA) applies to the personnel that engage in Federal source selections to include prohibitions on gifts to source selection personnel, restrictions on dissemination of procurement sensitive information and post Government employment restrictions.
Source selection refers to the process for evaluating contractor proposals or quotes submitted in response to a request for proposals (RFP) or request for quotes (RFQ) based on the contract solicitation. Source selection is driven by what instructions to offerors clause is included in the contract solicitation (e.g., FAR 52.212 - 2 with the tailored language spelling out what the source selection criteria are, weighting, etc.).
After the requiring activity has written their SOW / PWS, figured out source selection approach, then selected factors and subfactors, then figured out weighting of non cost / price factors, then understood consequences of the above, they write a source selection plan (SSP). A SSP gives instructions to a source selection committee on how to evaluate each proposal. Courts will defer to the source selection committee 's business judgment, so facts must be included to base a decision on; the source selection committee must not be arbitrary or lack facts in the record for their findings.
Ultimately, risk evaluation is where a source selection team wants to be. That is what is used to determine weakness, significant weakness and deficiencies, which are briefed to unsuccessful offerors. Making the connection between risk evaluation / source selection criteria / factors and offeror proposals is what source selection is all about
The process used for source selection can be selected from FAR Parts 13, Simplified Acquisition, 14, Sealed Bidding or 15, Contracting by Negotiation.
Contractors competing for a Government requirement have an opportunity to request clarification or amendment of a work statement or solicitation. The request for clarification must be done relatively early in the acquisition process, preferably as close to the publication of a solicitation, RFQ, RFP or other publication. Frequently contracting officers will agree to such clarifications if a contractor 's request is well reasoned.
Key principles for source selection:
Offers excluded from competitive range must follow notification procedures at 15.503 (a) and debriefing procedures at FAR 15.305 (c) (4). Do NOT use competitive ranges to exclude offers / proposals unless solicitation stated discussions were going to be used. FAR 15.306 (c). If a competitive range is used, you MUST send pre-award notifications to offerors thus excluded. An agency entering into discussions must provide "meaningful discussions '' (See GAO decisions on this issue).
If FAR Part 15 is used, there MUST be a proposal evaluation under FAR 15.305 to include a "fair and reasonable '' price determination under FAR 15.305 (a) (1), a past performance evaluation under FAR 15.305 (a) (2) and a technical evaluation under FAR 15.305 (a) (3).
For each factor rating, identify each offeror 's key strengths, uncertainties and deficiencies of the proposal and then explain how the strengths, uncertainties and deficiencies resulted in that rating. Focus specifically on the factors and subfactors specifically stated in the solicitation / instructions to offerors. Do not use unstated source selection criteria to select the winning offer.
Discuss those discriminators that make one offeror better than another based on the selection criteria. Be as detailed and focused upon discriminators as the source selection results allow. If something was not a discriminator then say so and also state why it was not. If the strength had no bearing on the offerors rating, state so.
Adequately address the impact of past performance on the decision; remember, no past performance is rated NEUTRAL!!
A drafter of the source selection decision document must show the source selection authorities thought process and reasons behind the comparative analysis. Use a declaration of thinking / intent on the part of the source selection authority (SSA). For example: I selected; I thought; I determined; I reviewed; etc.
Source selections can not compare the offers against each other. Only against the award criteria.
Spend some time on the summary to make it correct as it is very important. It is meant to very quickly put in words the best of the key discriminators used by the SSA to reach their decision.
Do n't focus the discussion on only one offeror. The Source Selection Decision Document (SSDD) compares assessments of the successful offeror against the others. If there are a large number of offerors, the detailed discussion may be limited to the most highly rated offerors. Some light discussion of lower rated offerors is needed when a competitive range is not established.
Do n't use ratings with contradicting supporting language, such as a "not detailed '' rated "excellent. '' Examine ratings closely as they relate to your technical discussions. Ensure they are consistent (i.e., avoid having a weakness discussed in one proposal evaluation and not another proposal having the same weakness).
Do n't identify or list weaknesses without discussing them and their importance to the thought process.
Do n't treat a neutral performance confidence assessment favorably or unfavorably. (Do n't disqualify an offeror for having a neutral rating.) No past performance must be rated as neutral under FAR Part 13 and FAR Subpart 15.3.
Ensure that, when documenting an award decision in the SSDD, SSA 's are focusing on the underlying advantages and disadvantages of the proposals rather than merely the ratings themselves. HoveCo, B - 298697: http://www.gao.gov/decisions/bidpro/298697.pdf
Agency regulations frequently provide guidance on source selections: See for example, AFARS 5115.308 Source selection decision -- "A source selection decision document must be prepared for all source selections and reflect the SSA 's integrated assessment and decision. The document must be the single summary document supporting selection of the best value proposal consistent with the stated evaluation criteria. It must clearly explain the decision and documents the reasoning used by the SSA to reach a decision. The document should be releasable to the General Accounting Office and others authorized to receive proprietary and source selection information. When releasing a copy to offerors or to anyone not authorized to receive proprietary and source selection information, redacted material should be limited to that which is proprietary and that which must continue to be protected as source selection information. ''
Consistency: what is bad for one proposal is bad for all; find an adverse comment, then look at of the proposals of the other bidders and see if the same problem exists in there and was not written up in the evaluation for those proposals. What is good for one proposal is good for all proposals (See above)
Take a hard look at definitions in instructions given to source selection committee -- look at the words in them; start with the worst definition, i.e., unacceptable, look at the words in it, then see if those words show up in evaluations that are rated higher than that definition in the rating worksheets.
If you have something bad in the proposal you want to win, then acknowledge it in your source decision document, and STATE THAT IT DID NOT AFFECT YOUR DECISION OF X REGARDING RATING OF THAT PROPOSAL!!! -- if the same thing is bad in another proposal, then say the same thing in that one as well.
The word "non-responsive '' IS ONLY USED IN SEALED BIDDING! It should NEVER be used in FAR Parts 13 or 15 evaluation processes. Packages missing things are just rated lower for example, poor, good, unacceptable or IAW FAR of weakness, significant weakness, etc.
Compare SOW and delivery schedules on solicitation (for example, RFP / RFQ) to what is in proposals word for word to see if everything was addressed. State if something is missing to justify lower ratings; talk about everything that applies for each award criteria to "pile on '' good comments for proposals you like; then show that more good was said about the ones you liked, and less good was said about the ones you do n't.
Do the best you can with bad source selection or award criteria. Just make sure it is consistently applied
Source Selection Criteria (SSC) can be simple or complex depending on the subject of the acquisition. If FAR Part 15 is used, then a concept called best value can be used; best value simply is an idea that the lowest bidder is not necessarily the winner of a competition -- rather, an evaluation of the overall offer based on specified SSCs is accomplished and a source selection decision is accomplished (see below) based on those specified SSCs using a fact - based business judgement of the acquiring activity.
SSCs can vary widely in complexity depending on the acquisition process used, for example, FAR Part 13, Simplified Acquisition, or FAR Part 15, Negotiated Procurement. For example, under FAR Part 15, there is a range of source selection models including:
If FAR Part 13, simplified acquisition is used, then a contracting officer can select from a range of processes including Government Purchase Card (GPC) for purchases under the micro-purchase threshold (see definition section of FAR for current value (for example, in U.S., it is currently $2,500), simplified acquisition threshold (see FAR definition section, currently up to $150,000 within the U.S. with certain exceptions), or up to $6.5 M for commercial items / services. Under FAR Part 13, contracting officers are not required to use FAR Part 15 processes or follow the publication requirements of FAR Part 5, however they MUST create their own processes to follow.
Vendor past performance is generally included as a source selection criteria. It is important to include a requirement for "recent and relevant '' past performance.
Inadequate SSCs renders the best work statement and CLIN worthless.
A metric is a meaningful measurement taken over a period of time that communicates vital information about a process or activity, leading to fact - based decisions.
Focus on where things go bad -- not resource effective to measure everything. Instead, select the critical few metrics for mission essential processes, process that have historically experienced chronic problems or process choke points and monitor them.
40 USC 181 (c) provides: "In acquiring personal property, any executive agency, under regulations to be prescribed by the Administrator, subject to regulations prescribed by the Administrator for Federal Procurement Policy pursuant to the Office of Federal Procurement Policy Act may exchange or sell similar items and may apply the exchange allowance or proceeds of sale in such cases in whole or in part payment for the property acquired... ''
The Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949 gives agencies general authority to sell personal property and use the proceeds to replace similar property during the same fiscal year or the next one, like a used car trade - in.
The Miscellaneous Receipts Act (31 USC 3302) mandates that funds received by the US Government must be deposited in the miscellaneous receipts account at the US Treasury unless a specific exemption was authorized by Congress. The Miscellaneous Receipts Act prevents the Executive Branch from financing itself except as specifically authorized by Congress. 40 USC 181 (c) thus is necessary to ensure a command that essentially trades or sells items, frequently information technology (IT) equipment, can retain the receipts from the trade in or sale and apply them to acquisition of replacement items.
Unless specifically prohibited by another provision of law, an agency 's authority to contract is vested in the agency head, for example, the Secretary of the Air Force or the Administrator, National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Agency heads delegate their authority to Contracting Officers, who either hold their authority by virtue of their position or must be appointed in accordance with procedures set forth in the Federal Acquisition Regulation. Only Contracting Officers may sign Government contracts on behalf of the Government. 48 CFR § 1.601. A Contracting Officer has only the authority delegated pursuant to law and agency procedures. This authority is set forth in the Contracting Officer 's certificate of appointment (formerly called a "warrant ''). Unlike in commercial contracting, there is no doctrine of apparent authority applicable to the Government. Any action taken by a Contracting Officer that exceeds the Contracting Officer 's actual delegated authority is not binding on the Government, even if both the Contracting Officer and the contractor desire the action and the action benefits the Government. The contractor is presumed to know the scope of the Contracting Officer 's authority and can not rely on any action of Contracting Officers when it exceeds their authority. Contracting Officers are assisted in their duties by Contracting Officer Representatives (CORs) and Contracting Officer Technical Representatives (COTRs), who usually do not have the authority of a Contracting Officer.
What happens after a Government contract is signed? That subject is referred to as contract administration. Contract administration tasks can include:
See the DCMA Handbook for more information on contract administration.
Requests for Equitable Adjustments (REAs) are modifications of the contract that were not done formally or properly. REAs are frequently based on the changes clause. They typically occur when new work is added or a change in current work is ordered, perhaps by the contracting officer, without the required documentation. Changed circumstances and equity are possible justifications for a contractor to ask for a REA. Contractors can ask for delay damages arising from contract changes in REAs. These can be large.
The burden of showing evidence of increased costs is on the contractor. Special rules exist for entitlement to whether or not contractor is entitled to profit in addition to the actual costs they incurred, especially in the cases of leased equipment that was held over due to delays on the part of the Government or the Government 's failure to properly integrate other contractors who then interfered with our contractor 's work. Cases out there that say the Government can reduce profit if risk was reduced due to the change.
Can use the settlement procedures in FAR Part 49, per FAR 49.002 (c) but be advised that this section is really written for terminations -- you have to adapt the settlement procedures, probably for terminations for convenience, to the REA.
The Government should make sure there is a release of claims (ROC) clause in the REA 's contract modification -- FAR / DFARS do not have a sample ROC clause. In the context of FAR Part 12 commercial items, the changes clause requires BILATERAL AGREEMENT.
A substantial number of Federal cases deal with REAs:
Two types of scope determinations in contracts. One is scope of the original contract -- meaning, do we have to pay anything for this modification. The second one is whether or not the modification or change is within the scope of the original competition. The first issue comes up when a contractor demands more money (i.e., demand for more money in a CDA claim or REA); the second issue comes up when the Government wishes to modify the contract and the contractor agrees, but another contractor objects to the failure to recompete the contract.
Modifications are governed by the changes clause in the contract. However, the question of competitive scope must be determined first to determine if there will be a Competition in Contracting Act (CICA) violation first. As a collateral issue, the question of whether or not the modification is a good deal must be evaluated because any modification is inherently a sole source award to the incumbent contractor. Thus, there is no price competition for the modification. If the acquisition was done under FAR Part 12, Commercial Items, the Government has no ability to demand cost and pricing information from the Contractor to evaluate whether or not the contractor is ripping off the Government with inflated or padded charges.
With regard to competitive scope determinations, the GAO in American Air Filter Co., 57 Comp. Gen 567 (B - 188408), 78 - 1, para 443, at 573, stated:
"The impact of any modification is in our view to be determined by examining whether the alteration is within the scope of the competition which was initially conducted. Ordinarily, a modification falls within the scope of the procurement provided that it is of a nature which potential offerors would have reasonably anticipated under the changes clause.
To determine what potential offerors would have reasonably expected, consideration should be given to the procurement format used, the history of the present and related past procurements, and the nature of the supplies or services sought. A variety of factors may be pertinent, including: whether the requirement was appropriate initially for an advertised or negotiated procurement; whether a standard off the shelf or similar item is sought; or whether, for example, the contract is one for research and development, suggesting that broad changes might be expected because the Government 's requirement are at best only indefinite. ''
GAO issued a decision on 31 Jan 06 in DOR Biodefense Inc. and Emergent BioSolutions, B - 296358.3 and B - 296358.4 regarding whether a modification is within the scope of the original competition under the Competition In Contracting Act (CICA). Modifications outside the scope of the original competition must be competed or justified as sole source actions. Scope analysis is not mechanical, but requires an integrated assessment of multiple factors, including contract type, specification or statement of work, cost and performance period. Whether the modification requires competition also depends upon whether the original solicitation adequately advised offerors of the potential for that type of change, and thus whether the modification would have changed the field of competition. In Biodefense, the Army issued a single award ten year indefinite quantity contract for development and certification of vaccines for biological defense. The challenged modification was exercise of an optional CLIN for development of a type of vaccine not expressly listed in the solicitation 's option that extended the performance period for the option by 8 years at a significant increase in cost. The GAO determined that this modification was, nevertheless, within the overall scope of the original competition based on the broad developmental purpose of the contract and the solicitation 's express notice to offerors that additional vaccine types could be added after award and that changes in regulation may affect performance period and costs. The discussion of actions taken by the Army in the original solicitation to put competitors on notice of the potential for post-award modifications provides good practice insight. See DOR Biodefense, Inc.; Emergent BioSolutions: http://www.gao.gov/decisions/bidpro/2963583.pdf
See DCMA 's Contract Administration Handbook for more information: http://guidebook.dcma.mil/15/instructions.htm
Release of Claims In consideration of the premises contained in contract modification number _______________ of contract number ______________________________, executed on _____________, and sum of $ ______________to be paid by the United States Government under the above noted contract, the undersigned contractor does release and discharge the Government, its officers, agents, and employees of, from all liabilities, obligations, and claims whatsoever in law and equity arising out of or by virtue of said contract, except as follows:
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, this release has been executed this ___ day of _________.
Contract claims are handled under the disputes clause in commercial items contracts or another clause in different types of contracts. The clause simply refers to another clause, the contract dispute clause. That clause invokes the Contract Disputes Act (CDA) and specific procedures that must be followed.
The Government seeks to avoid treating requests for additional money or changes to the contract as a claim, for several reasons. For starters, the Government has to pay interest from the date of receipt to the date of payment. Second, if the amount is over a specified amount, then the claim must be certified (see the FAR and CDA). Certification is essentially a company swearing under pain of 18 USC false claims act penalties that they are not falsifying the claim.
Instead of dealing with it as a claim, the Government should deal with it as a REA; the contractor will have to decide what is more advantageous to it -- a REA or CDA claim.
Contractors are understandably quite upset when an awarded contract is cancelled before contract performance can begin. There is some authority for a contractor to recover bid preparation costs in very limited circumstances. Even so, a contracting agency need only establish a reasonable basis to support a decision to cancel an RFQ; in this regard, so long as there is a reasonable basis for doing so, an agency may cancel an RFQ no matter when the information precipitating the cancellation first arises, even if it is not until quotations have been submitted and evaluated. Quality Tech., Inc., B - 292883.2, Jan. 21, 2004, 2004 CPD para. 29 at 2 - 3; Datatrak Consulting, Inc., B - 292502 et al., September 26, 2003, 2003 CPD para. 169 at 5. It is well established that an agency 's lack of funding for a procurement provides a reasonable basis for cancellation, as agencies can not award contracts which exceed available funds. First Enter., B - 221502.3, Mar. 24, 1986, 86 - 1 CPD para. 290 at 3. Procurement authorities are presumed to act in good faith and in order for GAO to conclude otherwise, the record must show that procuring officials intended to injure the protester. Cycad Corp., B ‐ 255870, April 12, 1994, 94 - 1 CPD para. 253 at 5. A protester 's mere inference of bad faith is insufficient.
The Government may terminate a contract for cause (commercial items), for default (T4D) or for convenience (T4C). Terminations for commercial items (FAR Part 12) contracts are governed by FAR 52.212 - 4 (l) and (m), not the T4C or T4D clauses of FAR 52.249 - x. FAR Part 49 prescribes T4D and T4C clauses in FAR Part 52 for non-commercial items (FAR Part 12) related contracts. In particular, T4D is covered by FAR Subpart 49.4, Terminations for Default. T4C is covered by several sections of FAR Part 49.
Termination for default reviews can be done a variety of ways, however, one method is to start with what is the ACTUAL deliverable on the contract, not the one that the customer thought they had. Carefully track what the contractor 's actual performance is against the specific language in the contract. If there has been verbal changes by the Government without going through the contracting officer (which should never happen), is there something that indicates the contractor consented to those changes? In writing? For example, the DFARS 252.212 - 4 clause section that deals with modifications states that mutual consent is required for all modifications. In this review, use the language from the contract and then see if you have adequate evidence from the Government documenting the actual performance. Ask if the Government COR has signed any receiving reports e.g., DD Form 250s accepting performance (so they can get paid). Is there anything in the record that shows the Government placed the contractor on notice of their default or non conforming deliveries?
FAR Part 49 should be read that to get information on terminations including notice to cure and show cause notices. The more the Government tries to give the contractor chances to remedy their default, the more the Government bolsters its case that T4D is appropriate.
The various courts that review T4Ds have a high standard of review for T4Ds, so the Government should consider making sure the T4D is well supported and the Government has had little or no role in the contractors non-conforming performance as well as ensuring there is a clearly defined deliverable, several chances to cure and nothing in the record that indicates the Government failed to do something that was condition precedent to performance or the Government interfered with contract performance or failed to provide required cooperation / support. (For example, failure to provide security escorts or access to a work site thus causing delays on the part of Contractor performance).
The key point for T4Ds is that it is the only way that a Government agency can use prior year single year appropriated funds, such as O&M or many types of procurement funds, for reprocurement of the item in question. Accordingly, it is very important the Agency get the acquisition right up front because bad work statements and poor contract administration destroy the Government 's ability to T4D, thus keep their prior year funds to get a replacement contractor.
Defense Contract Management Agency (DCMA) has a Terminations Handbook which is very useful in dealing with terminations for convenience issues.
One approach to analysing Government procurements of large systems, such as weapons systems, is to use real options analysis. Such procurements can be done in single annual lots ("single - year procurements, '' or SYPs), or, with Congressional approval, multi-year procurement (MYP) contracts. Multi-year contracts generally lower the risk for the contractor, and thus the unit price paid by the Government. One way to look at this situation is that a multi-year contract contains a real option for the contractor to escape the uncertainty associated with a sequence of single - year contract negotiations (analogous to a put option). Real options analysis can give an estimate of the value to the contractor of transferring revenue risk to the Government as a function of the contract 's size and the volatility of the contract 's value, even though the option is not actively traded. The negotiated price is also influenced by the attitudes towards risk of the negotiating parties.
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why did the english want colonies in north america | British colonization of the Americas - wikipedia
The British colonization of the Americas (including colonization by both the English and the Scots) began in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia, and reached its peak when colonies had been established throughout the Americas. The English, and later the British, were among the most important colonizers of the Americas, and their American empire came to rival the Spanish American colonies in military and economic might.
Three types of colonies were established in the English overseas possessions in America of the 17th century and continued into the British Empire at the height of its power in the 18th century. These were charter colonies, proprietary colonies, and royal colonies. A group of 13 British American colonies collectively broke from the British Empire in the 1770s through a successful revolution, establishing the modern United States. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1803 -- 15), the remaining British territories in North America were slowly granted more responsible government. In 1838 the Durham Report recommended full responsible government for Canada, but this was not fully implemented for another decade. Eventually, with the Confederation of Canada, the Canadian colonies were granted significant autonomy and became a self - governing Dominion in 1867. Other colonies in the Americas followed at a much slower pace. In this way, two countries in North America, ten in the Caribbean, and one in South America have received their independence from Great Britain or the later United Kingdom. All of these, except the United States, are members of the Commonwealth of Nations and nine are Commonwealth realms. The eight current British overseas territories in the Americas have varying degrees of self - government.
A number of English colonies were established under a system of Proprietary Governors, who were appointed under mercantile charters to English joint stock companies to found and run settlements.
In 1664, England took over the Dutch colony of New Netherland (including its capital of New Amsterdam) which England renamed the Province of New York. With New Netherland, the English also came to control the former New Sweden (in what is now Delaware), which the Dutch had conquered earlier. This later became part of Pennsylvania after that was established in 1680.
The Kingdom of Scotland tried unsuccessfully to establish a colony at Darién, and the Scottish colonization of Nova Scotia (New Scotland) lasted from 1629 to 1632. Thousands of Scotsmen also participated in English colonization before the two countries were united in 1707.
The Kingdom of Great Britain acquired the French colony of Acadia in 1713 and then Canada and the Spanish colony of Florida in 1763. After being renamed the Province of Quebec, the former French Canada was divided into two Provinces, the Canadas, consisting of the old settled country of Lower Canada (today Quebec) and the newly settled Upper Canada (today Ontario).
In the north, the Hudson 's Bay Company actively traded for fur with the indigenous peoples, and had competed with French, Aboriginal, and Métis fur traders. The company came to control the entire drainage basin of Hudson Bay, called Rupert 's Land. The small part of the Hudson Bay drainage south of the 49th parallel went to the United States in the Anglo - American Convention of 1818.
Thirteen of Great Britain 's colonies rebelled in the American Revolutionary War, beginning in 1775, primarily over representation, local laws and tax issues, and established the United States of America, which was recognised internationally with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 3 September 1783.
Great Britain also colonised the west coast of North America, indirectly via the Hudson 's Bay Company licenses west of the Rocky Mountains: the Columbia District and New Caledonia fur district. Most of these were jointly claimed as the Oregon Country by the United States from 1818 until the 49th parallel was established as the international boundary west of the Rockies by the Oregon Treaty of 1846. The Colony of Vancouver Island, founded in 1849, and the Colony of British Columbia, founded in 1858, were combined in 1866 under the name Colony of British Columbia, and joined the Confederation in 1871. British Columbia was expanded with the inclusion of the Stikine Territory in 1863; and upon joining Confederation the Peace River Block, formerly part of Rupert 's Land, was added.
In 1867, the colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the Province of Canada (the southern portion of modern - day Ontario and Quebec) combined to form a self - governing dominion, named Canada, within the British Empire (the term "kingdom '' was avoided so as to not provoke the United States). Quebec (including what is now the southern portion of Ontario) and Nova Scotia (including what is now New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island) had been ceded to Britain by the French. The colonies of Prince Edward Island and British Columbia joined over the next six years, and Newfoundland joined in 1949. Rupert 's Land and the North - Western Territory were ceded to Canada in 1870. This area now consists of the provinces of Manitoba (admitted after negotiation between Canada and a Métis provisional government in 1870), Saskatchewan, and Alberta (both created in 1905), as well as the Northwest Territories, the Yukon Territory (created 1898, following the start of the Klondike Gold Rush), and Nunavut (created in 1999).
In order of settlement or founding:
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who is the actor who plays david budd | Richard Madden - wikipedia
Richard Madden (born 18 June 1986) is a Scottish actor. He is best known for his roles as Robb Stark in the HBO television series Game of Thrones, Prince Kit in the Disney romantic fantasy film Cinderella (2015), and Sergeant David Budd in the BBC thriller Bodyguard (2018 -- present). He has also played Cosimo de ' Medici in the drama series Medici: Masters of Florence (2016) and starred in the Netflix romantic comedy Ibiza (2018).
Madden was born on 18 June 1986 in Elderslie, Renfrewshire, just outside the town of Paisley and the city of Glasgow, where he was brought up, with older and younger sisters. His mother, Pat, is a classroom assistant, and his father, Richard, is in the fire brigade.
At the age of 11, Madden joined Paisley Arts Centre 's youth theatre programme to help overcome his shyness. He was soon cast as young Andy in the film adaptation of Iain Banks 's Complicity; he was then cast in the lead role of Sebastian in the television series Barmy Aunt Boomerang, for which he filmed six episodes that aired from 1999 until 2000.
He attended the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama (RSAMD) in Glasgow, from where he graduated in 2007. While at RSAMD, he worked with the Arches and Glasgow Repertory Company, followed by Franz Xaver Kroetz 's play Tom Fool at the Citizens ' Theatre, which was so well received that it transferred to London, where Madden was spotted by a team from the Globe Theatre. In his final year with RSAMD, he was cast as Romeo in a production of Romeo and Juliet at the Globe Theatre which, after a run in London, toured in open - air stages during the summer of 2007, being the Globe 's first tour.
He played Callum McGregor in the stage production of Malorie Blackman 's Noughts and Crosses in 2008. He later gained the lead role of Dean McKenzie in the 2009 BBC series Hope Springs, followed by his roles as Ripley in the 2010 film Chatroom, and as Theatre of Hate singer Kirk Brandon in the 2010 film Worried About The Boy. From 2011 to 2013, he starred as Robb Stark in the HBO series Game of Thrones, based upon George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series of novels. Speaking in September 2018, Madden claimed that he was not paid much for his role in Game of Thrones. During this period, Madden also starred in the Channel 4 series Sirens, and in the BBC series Birdsong.
In May 2013, Madden was chosen to portray the prince in the live action Disney film Cinderella. The film was released in March 2015.
Madden first obtained his Screen Actors Guild (SAG) card for the 2014 miniseries Klondike, in which he plays Bill Haskell.
Between 12 May and 13 August 2016, Richard Madden appeared on stage in London 's West End playing the part of Romeo in Romeo and Juliet, where he was reunited with his Cinderella costar Lily James, who played Juliet, and director Kenneth Branagh. Richard was replaced as Romeo in July 2016, after suffering an ankle injury.
In 2016, he has played the leading role in the Italian TV Series, "Medici: Masters of Florence '', which has starred him as Cosimo de ' Medici, the son of the founder of the Medici Bank during the Italian Renaissance. In the same year he played American pickpocket Michael Mason in the 2016 action movie Bastille Day, starring alongside Idris Elba.
Madden had a previous relationship with English actress Jenna Coleman, which ended in 2015. He has since dated TV presenter Laura Whitmore and model Suki Waterhouse. His current partner is actress and model Ellie Bamber, whom he has been dating since the summer of 2017.
Of Madden 's performance as Mark McNulty in the National Theatre of Scotland 's production of Be Near Me, Warwick Thompson of Bloomberg noted his performance to be "especially good ''. Susan Mansfield of The Scotsman reported that Madden has caught the eye of critics for his work and reported additional positive reviews of his work by The Daily Telegraph and The Observer.
In reviewing the Globe Theatre 's 2007 production of Romeo and Juliet as its first - ever tour, Susan Elkin of The Stage noted Madden 's "gravelly Glaswegian, almost childlike Romeo ''.
In 2010, The Scotsman touted Madden as "one of the hottest young acting talents in the business ''. They also noted that Madden is "tipped for mainstream glory this year '' due to his upcoming roles in the film Chatroom and TV series Game of Thrones. He won Most Stylish Male at the Scottish Style Awards in October 2009 and was also named in Esquire 's Hottest Stars for 2010.
He was named one of Screen International 's Stars of Tomorrow in 2011.
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is a 6 year old considered a toddler | Toddler - wikipedia
A toddler is a child 12 to 36 months old. The toddler years are a time of great cognitive, emotional and social development. The word is derived from "to toddle '', which means to walk unsteadily, like a child of this age.
Toddler development can be broken down into a number of interrelated areas. There is reasonable consensus about what these areas may include:
Although it is useful to chart defined periods of development, it is also necessary to recognize that development exists on a continuum, with considerable individual differences between children. There is a wide range of what may be considered ' normal ' development.
At one year of age, the typical toddler will be able to display the following skills:
"If I want it, it 's mine. If I give it to you and change my mind later, it 's mine. If I can take it away from you, it 's mine. If I had it a little while ago, it 's mine. If it 's mine it will never belong to anyone else, no matter what. If we are building something together, all the pieces are mine. If it looks like mine, it 's mine. '' -- Burton L. White in his Raising a Happy, Unspoiled Child
Games: throwing and retrieving objects
Suggested toys:
Young children squat instinctively as a continuous movement from standing up whenever they want to lower themselves to ground level. One - and two - year - olds can commonly be seen playing in a stable squatting position, with feet wide apart and bottom not quite touching the floor, although at first they need to hold on to something to stand up again.
Talking is the next milestone of which parents are typically aware. A toddler 's first word most often occurs around 12 months, but again this is only an average. The child will then continue to steadily add to his or her vocabulary until around the age of 18 months when language increases rapidly. He or she may learn as many as 7 -- 9 new words a day. Around this time, toddlers generally know about 50 words. At 21 months is when toddlers begin to incorporate two word phrases into their vocabulary, such as "I go '', "mama give '', and "baby play ''. Before going to sleep they often engage in a monologue called crib talk in which they practice conversational skills. At this age, children are becoming very proficient at conveying their wants and needs to their parents in a verbal fashion.
There are several other important milestones that are achieved in this time period that parents tend not to emphasize as much as walking and talking. Gaining the ability to point at whatever it is the child wants you to see shows huge psychological gains in a toddler. This generally happens before a child 's first birthday.
This age is sometimes referred to as "the terrible twos '', because of the temper tantrums for which they are famous. This stage can begin as early as nine months old depending on the child and environment. Toddlers tend to have temper tantrums because they have such strong emotions but do not know how to express themselves the way that older children and adults do. They also throw tantrums to let others know that they are free and can do what they want. The toddler is discovering that they are a separate being from their parent and are testing their boundaries in learning the way the world around them works. Although the toddler is in their exploratory phase, it is also important to understand that the methods used by the parents for communicating with the toddler can either set off a tantrum or calm the situation. Research has shown that parents with histories of maltreatment, violence exposure, and related psychopathology may have particular difficulty in responding sensitively and in a developmentally appropriate manner to their toddlers ' tantrums and thus may benefit from parent - child mental health consultation. This time between the ages of two and five when they are reaching for independence repeats itself during adolescence.
Self - awareness is another milestone that helps parents understand how a toddler is reacting. Around 18 months of age, a child will begin to recognize himself or herself as a separate physical being with his / her own thoughts and actions. A parent can test if this milestone has been reached by noticing if the toddler recognizes that their reflection in a mirror is in fact themselves. One way to test this is the rouge test: putting lipstick on the child 's face and showing them their own reflection. Upon seeing the out - of - the - ordinary mark, if the child reaches to his or her own face, the child has achieved this important milestone. Along with self recognition comes feelings of embarrassment and pride that the child had not previously experienced.
The toddler developmental timeline shows what an average toddler can do at what age. Times vary greatly from child to child. It is common for some toddlers to master certain skills such as walking well before other skills, like talking. Even close siblings can vary greatly in the time taken to achieve each key milestone.
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who plays wonder woman in the 2017 movie | Wonder Woman (2017 film) - wikipedia
Wonder Woman is a 2017 American superhero film based on the DC Comics character of the same name, distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. It is the fourth installment in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU). The film is directed by Patty Jenkins, with a screenplay by Allan Heinberg, from a story by Heinberg, Zack Snyder, and Jason Fuchs, and stars Gal Gadot, Chris Pine, Robin Wright, Danny Huston, David Thewlis, Connie Nielsen, and Elena Anaya. Wonder Woman is the second live action theatrical film featuring the titular character, following her debut in 2016 's Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. Jenkins 's role as director makes her the first female director of a live - action, theatrically released comic book superhero film. The film tells the story of Princess Diana, who grows up on the Amazon island of Themyscira. After American pilot Steve Trevor crashes offshore of the island and is rescued by her, he tells the Amazons about the ongoing World War. Diana then leaves her home in order to end the conflict.
While development for the film began in 1996, Jenkins signed on to direct in 2015. Principal photography began on November 21, 2015, with filming taking place in the United Kingdom, France, and Italy before wrapping up on May 9, 2016, the 123rd anniversary of the birth of the creator, William Moulton Marston. Additional filming took place in November 2016.
Wonder Woman premiered in Shanghai on May 15, 2017, and was released in the United States on June 2, 2017, in 2D, 3D and IMAX 3D. It received largely positive reviews from critics, being praised for the direction, performances, action sequences and musical score. The film set numerous box office records, including becoming the highest - grossing film directed by a woman, the biggest domestic opening for a film directed by a woman, the highest - grossing superhero origin film domestically, and the largest opening for a female - led comic book film. Wonder Woman is also the fifth - highest - grossing superhero film domestically and 20th - highest - grossing film in the United States. It has grossed over $821 million worldwide, making it the seventh - highest - grossing film of 2017. It also helped the DCEU to push past $3 billion at the worldwide box office, making it the seventeenth - highest - grossing film franchise of all time. As of October 2017, the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes has listed the movie as # 1 on its list of the 50 Best Superhero Movies of All Time. A sequel, Wonder Woman 2, is set to be released on December 13, 2019.
In present - day Paris, Diana Prince receives a photographic plate of herself and four men taken during World War I, prompting her to recall her past. Daughter of Queen Hippolyta, Diana was raised on the hidden island of Themyscira, home to the Amazonian warrior women created by Zeus to protect mankind. Hippolyta shares the Amazonian history with Diana, including how Ares, Zeus 's son, became jealous of humanity and orchestrated its destruction. When the other gods attempted to stop him, Ares killed all but Zeus, who wounded Ares and forced his retreat. Zeus left the Amazons the island and a weapon, the "Godkiller '', to prepare them for Ares ' return.
Initially forbidding Diana to train as a warrior, Hippolyta allows her sister Antiope to train Diana, but only if the training is more rigorous than that of any other warrior. In 1918, Diana, now a young woman, rescues American pilot Captain Steve Trevor when his plane crashes off the Themyscira coast. The island is soon invaded by a German cruiser pursuing Trevor. The Amazons kill the crew, but Antiope sacrifices herself to save Diana. Steve is interrogated with the Lasso of Hestia, and reveals that a war is consuming the outside world, and that he is an Allied spy. He has stolen a notebook of the Spanish chief chemist Isabel Maru, who is attempting to engineer a deadlier form of mustard gas, under the orders of General Erich Ludendorff. Believing Ares is responsible for the war, Diana arms herself with the "Godkiller '' sword, the lasso, and her armor before leaving Themyscira with Steve to find and destroy Ares.
In London, they deliver Maru 's notebook to the Supreme War Council, where Sir Patrick Morgan is trying to negotiate an armistice with Germany. Diana translates Maru 's notes and reveals that the Germans plan to release the deadly gas at the war front. Although forbidden by his commanders to act, Steve, with secret funding from Sir Patrick, recruits spy Sameer, marksman Charlie, and smuggler Chief to help prevent the gas from being released. When the team reaches the Western Front in Belgium, they are halted by the enemy lines. Diana goes alone through No Man 's Land and captures the enemy trench, allowing the Allied forces to help her liberate the village of Veld. The team briefly celebrates, while Diana and Steve grow closer romantically.
The team learns a gala will be held at the nearby German High Command. Steve and Diana each infiltrate the party, with Steve intending to locate the gas and destroy it, while Diana intends to kill Ludendorff, believing that he is Ares and thus killing him will end the war. Steve stops her to avoid jeopardizing the mission, and Ludendorff unleashes the gas on Veld, killing its inhabitants. Blaming Steve for intervening, Diana pursues Ludendorff to a base where the gas is being loaded into a bomber aircraft bound for London. Diana fights and kills Ludendorff but is confused when his death does not stop the war.
Sir Patrick appears and reveals himself as Ares. He tells Diana that although he has subtly given humans ideas and inspirations, using Ludendorff and Maru as pawns in the process, it is ultimately their decision to cause violence as they are inherently corrupt. When Diana attempts to kill Ares with the "Godkiller '' sword he destroys it, then reveals Diana to be the "Godkiller '', as the daughter of Zeus and Hippolyta. He fails to persuade Diana to help him destroy mankind to restore paradise on Earth. While the two battle, the others on Steve 's team destroy Maru 's laboratory. Steve pilots the bomber carrying the gas to a safe altitude and detonates it, sacrificing himself in the process. Ares attempts to direct Diana 's rage and grief at Steve 's death by convincing her to kill Maru, but memories of her experience with Steve cause her to realize that humans have good within them. She spares Maru and redirects Ares ' lightning into him, killing him. Later, the team celebrates the end of the war. In the present day, Diana sends an email to Bruce Wayne thanking him for the photographic plate of her and Steve, and reaffirms her new mission to protect and give love to the world.
Additionally, Mayling Ng, Florence Kasumba, Madeleine Vall Beijner, Hayley Jane Warnes and Ann Wolfe portray Orana, Acantha, Egeria, Aella and Artemis, respectively, all of whom are Amazons. James Cosmo appears as Field Marshal Haig, Steffan Rhodri appears as Colonel Darnell, and Dutch model Doutzen Kroes portrays the Amazon Venelia. Samantha Jo was cast as the Amazonian Euboea, and previously played the Kryptonian, Car - Vex, in Man of Steel. Zack Snyder also makes a brief cameo appearance in the film as an unnamed soldier.
Development for a live action Wonder Woman feature film began in 1996, with Ivan Reitman attached as producer and possible director. In 1999 the project became attached to Jon Cohen, who adapted Wonder Woman for producer Joel Silver, with the hope that Sandra Bullock would star. By 2001, Todd Alcott was hired to write the screenplay, with Silver Pictures backing the project. At that time, performers such as Mariah Carey and Catherine Zeta - Jones were also rumored to be possible candidates for the role of Wonder Woman. Leonard Goldberg, however, focused on Bullock who said that she was approached for the role. In addition, wrestler Chyna also expressed interest. Lucy Lawless, the star of Xena: Warrior Princess, was also under consideration, though she stated that she would have been more interested if Wonder Woman was portrayed as a "flawed hero. '' The screenplay went through various drafts written by Alcott, Cohen, Becky Johnston, and Philip Levens, and by August 2003, Levens had been replaced by screenwriter Laeta Kalogridis.
In March 2005, Warner Bros. and Silver Pictures announced that Joss Whedon would write and direct the film, with a reported salary was of $2 to $3 million. Since Whedon was directing Serenity at the time, and required time to research Wonder Woman 's background, he did not begin the screenplay until late 2005. Early drafts of his screenplay included Steve Trevor as the narrator, a fierce battle between Diana and her mother over Trevor 's welfare, and after leaving Themyscira, his need to frequently rescue a Diana rendered helpless by the modern world. Whedon was not able to complete a final version of his screenplay however, and left the project in 2007.
Although Whedon stated in May 2005 that he would not cast the part of Wonder Woman until he finished the script, actors such as Kate Beckinsale were linked to the part. In 2010 however, Whedon admitted that he did have an actress in mind for the part, stating that "Wonder Woman was basically Angelina Jolie. '' A few years later in May 2017, Indie Ground Films leaked a version of Whedon 's script in - progress online. Some reacted negatively to it on social media in June 2017, shortly after the release of Patty Jenkins version of the film. When asked about this response to his script, Jenkins said in a June 2017 interview that she has not read it and that Whedon is "in the DC universe now, and I do n't think there 's any reason to go there (...) It was what it was. I 'm lucky that I 'm the person who got to do it. But I do n't see what would be beneficial about comparing what he would 've done versus what I would have done. ''
A day before Whedon 's departure from Wonder Woman, Warner Bros. and Silver Pictures purchased a spec script for the film written by Matthew Jennison and Brent Strickland. Set during World War II, the script impressed executives at Silver Pictures. However, Silver stated that he had purchased the script because he did not want the rights reverting; while stating the script had good ideas, Silver did not want the film to be a period piece. By April 2008, Silver hired Jennison and Strickland to write a new script set in contemporary times that would not depict Wonder Woman 's origin, but explore Paradise Island 's history. In November 2008, Beyoncé met with representatives from DC Comics and Warner Bros., to discuss her interest in portraying Wonder Woman.
In 2010, Warner Bros. stated that a film was in development, along with films based on DC Comics superheroes the Flash and Aquaman. Both Wonder Woman and Aquaman were still under consideration for solo film subjects as of June 2013. DC Chief Diane Nelson said Wonder Woman "has been, since I started, one of the top three priorities for DC and for Warner Bros. We are still trying right now, but she 's tricky. '' On October 5, 2013, WB chairman Kevin Tsujihara said he wanted to get Wonder Woman in a film or on TV. Shortly afterward, Paul Feig said he had pitched the studio an idea for Wonder Woman as an action - comedy film. The studio then began to search for female directors to direct the film. While Michelle MacLaren was the studio 's initial choice to direct (and while she initially indicated interest), she eventually left the project due to creative differences.
In 2015, Patty Jenkins accepted an offer to direct Wonder Woman, based on a screenplay by Allan Heinberg and a story co-written by Heinberg, Zack Snyder, Geoff Johns and Jason Fuchs. Of this version, Gadot stated that,
for a long time, people did n't know how to approach the story. When Patty and I had our creative conversations about the character, we realized that Diana can still be a normal woman, one with very high values, but still a woman. She can be sensitive. She is smart and independent and emotional. She can be confused. She can lose her confidence. She can have confidence. She is everything. She has a human heart.
This version was conceived of as a prequel to the first live - action, theatrical appearance of Wonder Woman, in the 2016 film, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, placing Wonder Woman in the 1910s and World War I (a decision which differs from her comic book origins as a supporter of the Allies during World War II). As for story development, Jenkins credits the stories by the character 's creator William Moulton Marston in the 1940s and George Perez 's seminal stories in the 1980s in which he modernized the character. In addition, it follows some aspects of DC Comics ' origin changes in The New 52 reboot, where Diana is the daughter of Zeus. Jenkins cited Richard Donner 's Superman as an inspiration.
In late 2013, Zack Snyder cast Gal Gadot in the role of Wonder Woman for the 2016 film, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice over Élodie Yung and Olga Kurylenko. Some fans initially reacted to this choice by criticizing Gadot 's appearance. Snyder would later comment on his decision to cast Gadot, stating that he
tested a bunch of actresses, as you can imagine. But the thing with Gal is that she 's strong, she 's beautiful, and she 's a kind person, which is interesting, but fierce at the same time. It 's that combination of being fierce but kind at the same time that we were looking for.
Gadot described Diana as having "the heart of a human so she can be emotional, she 's curious, she 's compassionate, she loves people. And then she has the powers of a goddess. She 's all for good, she fights for good. '' She also said that Diana has "many strengths and powers, but at the end of the day she 's a woman with a lot of emotional intelligence ''. As to how her character is different from her appearance in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, Gadot said "We go back 100 years to when she 's more naive '', further explaining, "She 's this young idealist. She 's pure. Very different to the experienced, super-confident, grown - up woman you 've seen ''. Gadot underwent a diet and training regimen, practiced different martial arts and gained 17 pounds of muscle for the role. Gadot was previously offered a different role (as a villain) in Man of Steel, which she declined because she was pregnant at the time; this allowed her to later be cast as Wonder Woman in the film 's follow - up. Gadot signed a three - picture deal. She was only paid a base salary of $300,000 for the film itself.
Chris Pine was cast as Steve Trevor, a character he described as a "rogue - ish, cynical realist who 's seen the awful brutish nature of modern civilization '' and added that he is a "worldly guy, a charming guy ''. He signed a multi-picture deal. Lucy Davis ' performance as Etta Candy is the first live - action cinematic portrayal of the character. As well, Elena Anaya 's performance as Doctor Poison is the cinematic debut of that character. Nicole Kidman was in negotiations for the role of Queen Hippolyta, but was forced to drop out due to scheduling conflicts with Big Little Lies.
Production began on November 21, 2015, under the working title Nightingale. Among the film sets were Lower Halstow, Kent, Australia House, and the Sassi di Matera, Castel del Monte and Camerota in Southern Italy. Matthew Jensen was the director of photography, filming in the United Kingdom, France and Italy. Production in London ended on March 13, 2016. On March 20, 2016, filming was underway in Italy. In late April, filming took place at a museum in France, where a Wayne Enterprises truck was spotted alongside Gadot. Production ended on May 9, 2016. Patty Jenkins and director of photography Matt Jensen revealed that the film 's look was inspired by painter John Singer Sargent. Reshoots took place in November 2016, while Gadot was five months pregnant. A green cloth was placed over her stomach to edit out her pregnancy during post-production.
To find the perfect location to shoot the Amazon island of Themyscira, the birthplace of Wonder Woman herself, the film 's producers searched all over the world, finally settling on the Amalfi Coast: a stretch of coastline on the Tyrrhenian Sea, located in the Province of Salerno in Southern Italy. It was chosen because most beaches in the world that sit below big cliffs disappear beneath the tide for part of every day. Production designer Aline Bonetto and her location manager Charles Somers considered 47 countries and visited several of them before they found what they were looking for. Bonetto explained that, "Italy had beautiful weather, a beautiful blue - green sea, not too much tide, not too much wave. Our effects team added some cliffs in post-production, and it was the perfect way to go ''.
The estuary at Lower Halstow in Kent, featured in the scenes in which Princess Diana arrives in the Belgium creek to make her way to the warfront.
Bill Westenhofer served as the visual effects supervisor for the film and Martin Walsh served as editor.
On November 3, 2016, Rupert Gregson - Williams was hired to write and compose the film 's music. He was joined by Evan Jolly, Tom Howe, Paul Mounsey, and Andrew Kawczynski, who provided additional music. The soundtrack was released on CD, digital, and vinyl the same day as the film.
Australian musician Sia sang a song for the film, titled "To Be Human '', featuring English musician Labrinth. Written by Florence Welch and Rick Nowels, the track is also featured on the soundtrack.
Additional music featured in the film are: "Another Little Drink Would n't Do Us Any Harm '' by Clifford Grey and Nat Ayer and performed by Edgar Trevor and Cecil Cooper; "Molly O'Morgan '' written by Fred Godfrey and Will Letters and performed by Ella Retford; "It 's a Long Way to Tipperary '' written by Jack Judge and Harry Williams; "Sous les ponts de Paris '' written by Jean Rodor and Vincent Scotto and performed by Lucienne Delyle; "I 'll Walk Beside You '' written by Edward Lockton and Alan Murray and performed by Ewen Bremner; "Green Grow the Rushes, O '' written by Robert Burns and performed by Ewen Bremner; and "Schatzwalzer Op. 4 '' written by Johann Strauss II and performed by the Berlin String Quartet. Also features samples from the movie 's soundtrack "Is She with You '' from Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice composed by Hans Zimmer and Junkie XL.
Wonder Woman had its world premiere on May 25, 2017 in Los Angeles. The film 's London premiere, which was scheduled to take place on May 31 at the Odeon Leicester Square, was cancelled due to the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing. The film had its Latin America premiere in Mexico City on May 27. It was released in most of the world, including in IMAX, on June 2, 2017, after originally being scheduled for June 23. Belgium, Singapore and South Korea received the film first, with May 31 openings. On April 17, it was announced that Wonder Woman would be released in China on June 2, the same day as its North American release.
The success of the superhero television series Supergirl informed the marketing and promotion strategy used for Wonder Woman. According to Time Warner chief marketing officer Kristen O'Hara, they wanted to approach the Wonder Woman marketing campaign in a light manner, similar to how they did with Supergirl. O'Hara elaborated that the modest campaign route they took for Supergirl aided in establishing a large central fanbase among women well in advance of the series, which reportedly generated 5 million female superhero fans in one week. They were then able to model over time, and grow that audience leading up to the 15 - months - later release of Wonder Woman. Though neither the film nor the series are aimed exclusively at women, the latter 's campaign gave them their first opportunity to begin collecting data about female superhero fans. In May 2017, a promo for Wonder Woman was released during the season finale of Supergirl, featuring a remix of the song "These Boots Are Made for Walkin ' '' and Supergirl (Melissa Benoist) wearing Wonder Woman 's boots. The promo included an appearance by Lynda Carter, star of the 1970s Wonder Woman, who plays the American president on Supergirl.
The costs for television advertisements for Wonder Woman are higher in comparison to that of previous DCEU film Suicide Squad. Warner Bros. has spent over $3 million on advertisements for Wonder Woman, whereas they spent $2.6 million on advertisements for Suicide Squad.
Ticket selling site Fandango reported that Wonder Woman rounded the final leg of its marketing campaign as the most anticipated blockbuster of summer 2017, according to a poll conducted by 10,000 voters, the biggest survey in company history. Separately, Fandango also found that 92 % of people surveyed said that they are looking forward to seeing a film that features a standalone woman superhero, and 87 % wished Hollywood would make more women - led superhero films.
In May 2017, NASCAR driver Danica Patrick drove her No. 10 car with a Wonder Woman paint scheme at the Go Bowling 400 in Kansas and at the Monster Energy Open in Charlotte.
The film was released on Digital HD on August 29, 2017 and on Blu - ray, Blu - ray 3D, 4K Ultra-HD Blu - ray and DVD on September 19, 2017.
On May 31, Wonder Woman was banned in Lebanon after the Campaign to Boycott Supporters of Israel asked the Lebanese government 's Ministry of Economy and Trade to block the film because its star, Gal Gadot, is Israeli. The Lebanese government did not, however, ban Gadot 's Fast & Furious films which did screen in Lebanon. On June 7, Variety reported that a Tunisian court suspended the theatrical release of Wonder Woman after a lawsuit brought by the Al - Chaab party and the Tunisian Association of Young Lawyers to have the film blocked due to Gadot 's Israeli citizenship, military service, and public comments in support of the Israeli military during the 2014 war in Gaza. Jordan was reportedly also considering a ban of the film and suspended screenings pending a decision, but on June 11, Al Bawaba reported that the government decided not to do so, as there was no legal precedent for it.
Some men were unhappy with women - only screenings held at the Alamo Drafthouse Cinema in Austin, with some opponents of the gender - restricted screening stating on platforms such as Facebook that such screenings were discriminatory against men.
A gay Albany Law School professor initiated a complaint with Austin 's Equal Employment and Fair Housing Office claiming discrimination against male prospective customers and employees of the theater. The chain responded with an online statement saying the event "may have created confusion -- we want everybody to see this film '' and announced a similar event at their Brooklyn location. Tickets sold out in less than an hour, prompting the chain to schedule additional screenings. On July 18, Alamo Drafthouse proposed settlement offers of a Wonder Woman DVD to the complainants, stating "Respondent did not realize that advertising a ' women 's only ' screening was a violation of discrimination laws ''
As of October 19, 2017, Wonder Woman has grossed $412.5 million in the United States and Canada and $409.1 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $821.6 million, against a production budget of $149 million. Estimates for the number the film needed to surpass internationally in order to cover its production and promotional costs and break even ranged from $300 million to $460 million.
In May 2017, early tracking had Wonder Woman opening with $65 -- 75 million, and possibly as high as $105 million. The film opened Friday, June 2, 2017, across 4,165 theaters and made $38.7 million on its opening day, including $3.7 million in IMAX. It was the biggest single - day gross for a woman - directed film, ahead of the $35.9 million opening Friday of Catherine Hardwicke 's Twilight in 2008 and the biggest opening day for a woman - led comic book superhero film, ahead of Ghost in the Shell ($7 million). This included $11 million it made from Thursday previews, also the best start for a film directed by a woman, surpassing Fifty Shades of Grey 's $8.6 million which was directed by Sam Taylor - Johnson, and the third - biggest of the year, behind Beauty and the Beast and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. Of that, $1.5 million came from IMAX screenings.
Earning a total of $103.3 million on its opening weekend, the film recorded a number of records: the biggest domestic opening of all time for a female director (surpassing previous record holder Fifty Shades of Grey by Sam Taylor - Johnson), the biggest DC Comics release without Batman or Superman (ahead of Constantine), the sixth - biggest non-sequel comic book superhero debut ever, as well as the sixth - biggest June debut weekend. Its three - day opening alone made it the highest - grossing woman - led comic book superhero film ever (surpassing Ghost in the Shell). It was also the 16th superhero film to cross $100 million in its domestic box office launch. About 9 % ($9 million) of the opening weekend came from IMAX screenings from 343 theaters. In its second week the film grossed $58.5 million, again topping the box office. It marked a 43.3 % drop for its second weekend at the box office, better than the average 50 -- 60 % decline superhero films tend to see, and was a better second weekend than Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice ($51.3 million) and Suicide Squad ($43.5 million). In its third weekend it grossed $40.8 million, finishing second behind newcomer Cars 3 ($53.5 million). It was the second - best third weekend ever for Warner Bros. and was nearly double what Batman v Superman ($23.3 million), Suicide Squad ($20.9 million) and Man of Steel ($20.7 million) made in their third weekends. It earned $24.9 million and $15.7 million in its fourth and fifth weekends, respectively, dropping just 39 % and 36 % despite facing rough competition from opening films Transformers: The Last Knight and Despicable Me 3. It eventually became the highest - grossing film directed by a woman, surpassing the previous records of Jennifer Yuh Nelson 's Kung Fu Panda 2 and Phyllida Lloyd 's Mamma Mia!. By August 8, the film had garnered $400 million in ticket sales, becoming the second female - fueled film (after Disney 's Beauty and the Beast), Warner Bros. ' third - biggest movie (after Christopher Nolan 's The Dark Knight and The Dark Knight Rises), holding the record of the highest origin superhero film; supplanting the previous record held by Spider - Man (2002) and also becoming the highest - earning film with a female director in terms of domestic earnings, surpassing Frozen (2013).
Internationally, the film was released day - and - date with its North American debut in 55 markets (72 % of its total release), and was projected to debut with anywhere between $92 -- 118 million. It ended up opening to $125 million, including $38 million in China, $8.5 million in Korea, $8.4 million in Mexico, $8.3 million in Brazil and $7.5 million in the UK. In its second week of release, the film brought in another $60 million, including holding the top spot on France, the UK, Australia and Brazil. As of June 25, 2017, the biggest markets of Wonder Woman outside North America are China (US $90 million) followed by Brazil (US $34 million), UK (US $28 million) and Australia (US $24 million). In the Philippines, it broke 2017 box office record for highest - earning non-holiday opening day -- earning $4.7 million and becoming the 6th-most successful commercial film of all time as well overtaking the record set by Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. The film opened in its last market, Japan, on August 25 and debuted to $3.4 million, helping the international gross cross the $400 million mark.
Wonder Woman received largely positive reviews, with some critics calling it the best film in the DC Extended Universe, and praising Jenkins ' direction, performances, chemistry of Gadot and Pine and musical score. On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 92 % based on 351 reviews, with an average rating of 7.5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Thrilling, earnest, and buoyed by Gal Gadot 's charismatic performance, Wonder Woman succeeds in spectacular fashion. '' It is the highest - rated superhero film on the site. On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score of 76 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Critics commented favorably on Gadot 's performance and Chris Pine 's Steve Trevor. Andrew Barker of Variety found the film to be more lighthearted than recent DC Comics films: "Never prone to stewing in solitude, and taking more notes from Richard Donner than from Christopher Nolan, Patty Jenkins ' Wonder Woman provides a welcome respite from DC 's house style of grim darkness -- boisterous, earnest, sometimes sloppy, yet consistently entertaining -- with star Gal Gadot proving an inspired choice for this avatar of truth, justice, and the Amazonian way. '' Vox stated "Trevor is the superhero girlfriend comic book movies need ''. The San Francisco Chronicle 's Mick LaSalle lauded the performances of Gadot, Pine, Huston, and Thewlis while commending the film 's "different perspective '' and humor. Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times described Gadot 's performance as inspirational, heroic, heartfelt and endearing and the most "real '' Wonder Woman portrayal.
A.O. Scott of The New York Times wrote that it "briskly shakes off blockbuster branding imperatives and allows itself to be something relatively rare in the modern superhero cosmos. It feels less like yet another installment in an endless sequence of apocalyptic merchandising opportunities than like... what 's the word I 'm looking for? A movie. A pretty good one, too. '' Michael Phillips of Chicago Tribune compared the film to Captain America: The First Avenger, noting that as with "the first Captain America movie over in the Marvel Comics universe, DC 's Wonder Woman offers the pleasures of period re-creation for a popular audience. Jenkins and her design team make 1918 - era London; war - torn Belgium; the Ottoman Empire; and other locales look freshly realized, with a strong point of view. There are scenes here of dispossessed war refugees, witnessed by an astonished and heartbroken Diana, that carry unusual gravity for a comic book adaptation. '' Katie Erbland of IndieWire commended its thematic depth, explaining that "Wonder Woman is a war movie. Patty Jenkins ' first -- and we hope not last -- entry into the DC Expanded Universe is primarily set during World War I, but while the feature does n't balk at war - time violence, it 's the internal battles of its compelling heroine that are most vital. '' Alonso Duralde of TheWrap similarly felt that, "Diana 's scenes of action are thrilling precisely because they 're meant to stop war, not to foment it; the idea of a demi - god using love to fight war might sound goofy in the abstract, but Jenkins makes the concept work. '' Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post praised Gadot and Pine 's performances as well the film 's detailed plot and narrative while comparing of some slow - motion action sequences to The Matrix. Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine hailed the film as a "cut above nearly all the superhero movies that have been trotted out over the past few summers '' while praising Gadot 's performance as "charming '' and "marvelous '' and commending Jenkins ' direction of the film as a step forward for women directors in directing big - budget blockbuster films in Hollywood.
Elise Jost of Moviepilot observed that "Gadot 's take on Wonder Woman is one of those unique cases of an actor merging with their story, similar to Robert Downey Jr. 's Tony Stark. Gal Gadot is Wonder Woman, and Wonder Woman is Gal Gadot. '' Jost praised Gadot 's interpretation of Wonder Woman as the one in which Gadot "absolutely nails the character 's unwaveringly positive outlook on life. She 's a force of nature who believes in the greater good; her conviction that she 's meant to save the world is stronger than her bullet - deflecting shield. She 's genuine, she 's fun, she 's the warm source of energy at the heart of the movie. '' The Federalist suggests that Wonder Woman is "a story of Jesus ''. "The movie is wrapped up in faux Greek mythology, true, but there 's no mistaking the Christology here. '' "Perhaps Christ in the form of a beautiful and kick - ass Amazon is all that our contemporary society can handle right now '', stated M. Hudson, a Christian feminist. On HuffPost cultural critic, G. Roger Denson, who regards the superhero genre as a source of contemporary "Mainstream Mythopoetics '' ("the making of new yet vitally meaningful, if not symbolic, stories filled with imagery reflecting, yet also shaping and advancing, the political, legal, moral and social practices of today ''), wrote that the "No Man 's Land '' scene "that people are crying over in theaters and raving about afterward happens to be among the most powerfully mythopoetic scenes ever filmed at the same time it is one of the oldest myths to have been utilized by artists and writers after it had been invented by early military strategists and leaders. '' Specifically "used by director Patty Jenkins '', the scene raises "the esteem for powerful yet compassionate women as heroes and leaders to a level equal with that of men for having won over a huge and adoring popular audience around the world ''.
Steve Rose in The Guardian criticized the film for failing to explore the material 's potential for "patriarchy - upending subversion ''. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone criticized the film 's over-reliance on exposition: "Wonder Woman is hobbled by a slogging origin story and action that only comes in fits and starts. Just when Gadot and director Patty Jenkins... are ready to kick ass, we get backstory. ''
"Gas was intended to win the war. On that much Wonder Woman is absolutely right. '' said David Hambling in Popular Mechanics. Rachel Becker of The Verge stated that despite the scientific liberties of using a "hydrogen - based '' chemical weapon as a plot device, the film succeeds in evoking real and horrifying history. "First off, mustard gas is such a horrible, terrifying weapon, it does n't need to be made more potent. But if you were a chemist bent on raining destruction on the Allied forces, you would n't do it by replacing the sulfur atom in mustard gas with a hydrogen atom. You 'd know that sulfur is the linchpin holding together this poisonous molecule. ''
Wonder Woman has been the subject of a discussion regarding the appearance and representation of female power in general, and of female action heroes in particular since her initial 1941 appearance in Sensation Comics, as she was created to document "the growth in the power of women '', while wearing "a golden tiara, a red bustier, blue underpants and knee - high, red leather boots. '' She was blacklisted a year later in 1942 in the "Publications Disapproved for Youth '' because, the group behind the list argued, she was "not sufficiently dressed ''.
A few decades later, Second - wave feminist Gloria Steinem 's Ms. Magazine debuted in 1972 with an image of Wonder Woman on the cover. Historian Tim Hanley suggested that this move shifted "the focus away from female superiority to sisterhood and equality, essentially making her a mascot of the women 's movement ''. This perception shifted over the years, however, as demonstrated in December 2016 when the United Nations decided to drop the title of "honorary ambassador for the empowerment of women and girls '' which it had given to the comic book character Wonder Woman a few months before, in a ceremony attended by the actors who had portrayed her (Lynda Carter and Gal Gadot). The title was dropped in response to a petition signed by 44,000 people which argued that Wonder Woman undermines female empowerment due to her costume, described as a "shimmery, thigh - baring bodysuit with an American flag motif and knee - high boots ''. The petition stated that "it is alarming that the United Nations would consider using a character with an overtly sexualised image at a time when the headline news in United States and the world is the objectification of women and girls ''. Wonder Woman director Patty Jenkins responded to both the petition and to the U.N. 's decision by stating that she thinks "that that 's sexist. I think it 's sexist to say you ca n't have both. I have to ask myself what I would apply to any other superhero ''.
The debate continued with the release of Jenkins ' 2017 film, Wonder Woman, which according to the BBC had "some thinking it 's too feminist and others thinking it 's not feminist enough ''. Kyle Killian found an inherent contradiction in the construction of Wonder Woman as "a warrior '' whom, she states, is also highly sexualized. Killian thus suggests that these elements "should not be the focus of a kickass heroine -- her beauty, bone structure, and sexiness -- if she is to be a feminist icon ''. Theresa Harold concurred, comparing Wonder Woman to Katniss Everdeen (of The Hunger Games), who "did n't have to wear a teenager 's wet dream of a costume to fight in ''. Christina Cauterucci also felt that Wonder Woman 's ability to be considered a "feminist antidote '' was undermined by her "sex appeal ''. Other critics refer to the construction of Wonder Woman in the film as "an implausible post-feminist hero ''.
Jenkins disagrees with this line of critique, however. She has stated that she was raised by a Second wave "feminist mother '', who taught her to be "both super aware that there had been sexism but also: ' Congratulations -- thank you, now I get to do whatever I want, Mom! ' '' Jenkins thus notes that it is this upbringing which has led her to question a feminist critique of Wonder Woman 's costume. When she was working on her own version of Wonder Woman 's "Gladiator '' re-design of the outfit (in the 2016 film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice) Jenkins decided that Wonder Woman (as well as the other Amazons) "should n't be dressed in armor like men (...) It should be different (...) I, as a woman, want Wonder Woman to be hot as hell, fight badass, and look great at the same time -- the same way men want Superman to have huge pecs and an impractically big body. '' Jenkins also notes that she is "frustrated '' by the critique of Wonder Woman 's appearance, stating "when people get super critical about her outfit, who 's the one getting crazy about what a woman wears? That 's who she is; that 's Wonder Woman. '' Gal Gadot concurs with Jenkins, arguing that the character "is a feminist '' as "feminism is about equality and choice and freedom. And the writers, Patty and myself all figured that the best way to show that is to show Diana as having no awareness of social roles. She has no gender boundaries. To her, everyone is equal. ''
Critics such as Valerie Estelle Frankel support Jenkins ' vision. Frankel argues that the film subverts the male gaze, stating that the construction of Wonder Woman tends to shift every few decades as it reflects the state of feminism during different time periods, including Third - wave feminism (which reflects Jenkins ' approach). Zoe Williams offers a similar argument stating that while Wonder Woman "is sort of naked a lot of the time '' it is n't, at the same time, "objectification so much as a cultural reset: having thighs, actual thighs you can kick things with, not thighs that look like arms, is a feminist act ''. Williams then juxtaposes Wonder Woman to past female action heroes such as Sarah Connor, Ellen Ripley, and Lara Croft, whom she suggests were all constructed for the male gaze, in which a "female warrior becomes a sex object '', (a point which she argues that Jenkins directly references in the film). Gloria Steinem thought that the film "was very good '' as it made Wonder Woman 's "Amazon origin story clear; she was stopping war, not perpetuating it. '' Steinem also noted that she knew "some women were disappointed by all the makeup, but I may be desperate -- I was just happy that the Amazons had wild hair! '' Her only complaint lay in the choice to eliminate the World War II setting as the Wonder Woman comic book developed in response to existing comics that were "so sadistic and racist that there was a congressional hearing on the subject ''. Steinem also gave Hillary Clinton the first Wonder Woman Award in October 2017 during the Women 's Media Center 's "Speaking Truth to Power Awards '' (an organization created by Steinem, Jane Fonda, and Robin Morgan). Upon receiving the award, Clinton noted that she had seen Jenkins ' Wonder Woman film and that she "loved the outfit ''. She also said that as her granddaughter was "really keen '' on Wonder Woman, Clinton "thought maybe I could borrow something from her for the night. It did n't quite work for me, but I will say that this award means a lot to me because as a little girl, and then as a young woman, and then as a slightly older woman, I always wondered when Wonder Woman would have her time, and now that has happened. '' Clinton had previously praised Jenkins ' film, in a public August 2017 message, stating that "it was just as inspirational as I 'd suspected a movie about a strong, powerful woman in a fight to save the world from international disaster would be. ''
American director James Cameron continued this debate, through his critique of the representation of female power in Jenkins ' film. In an August 2017 interview with The Guardian, Cameron qualifies Jenkins ' vision of Wonder Woman as "an objectified icon '' and called the film "a step backwards ''. In contrast, he states, his character Sarah Connor (from his Terminator films) "was not a beauty icon. She was strong, she was troubled, she was a terrible mother, and she earned the respect of the audience through pure grit. '' Jenkins stated in response that Cameron 's "inability to understand what ' Wonder Woman ' is, or stands for, to women all over the world is unsurprising as, though he is a great filmmaker, he is not a woman ''. She further argued "there is no right and wrong kind of powerful woman '' because "if women have to always be hard, tough and troubled to be strong, and we are n't free to be multidimensional or celebrate an icon of women everywhere because she is attractive and loving, then we have n't come very far have we. '' Reaction to this debate was mixed. Julie Miller sided with Cameron whom she states refers to himself as "a pretty hardcore feminist '' and who told Vulture that "I have no problem writing a script in which the males become subservient to the females, which is what happens in Aliens (...) It 's up to Ripley to win the day. '' In contrast, Miller argues that Jenkins and Gadot envisioned Wonder Woman as "a woman who exuded both femininity and strength, along with genuine confusion as to why men would treat women differently than they do other men ''. Susannah Breslin also agreed with Cameron, describing Jenkins ' Wonder Woman as "a Playmate with a lasso '' and "female power with no balls ''. Others were more critical of Cameron 's critique. An article in Newsweek suggested that Cameron 's films include "lot of objectification '', and included quotes from Hollywood celebrities such as Jesse McLaren who commented that "James Cameron 's just confused there 's a female hero whose motivations are n't centered around motherhood. '' Noah Berlatsky found areas of agreement between both Cameron and Jenkins, stating that while Cameron 's objection is "an old point that 's been made over and over for decades '', Jenkins film is n't "solely focused on objectifying Gal Gadot for a male audience ''.
A few weeks later in September, Cameron reiterated his criticism in an interview with the Hollywood Reporter. He compared Gal Gadot 's representation of the character to Raquel Welch films of the 1960s, and reinforced a comparison with Linda Hamilton 's portrayal of Sarah Connor. He argued that Connor was "if not ahead of its time, at least a breakthrough in its time '' because though she "looked great '', she "was n't treated as a sex object ''. He also stated that he while he "applaud (s) Patty directing the film and Hollywood, uh, ' letting ' a woman direct a major action franchise, I did n't think there was anything groundbreaking in Wonder Woman. I thought it was a good film. Period. '' Former Wonder Woman actress Lynda Carter responded to Cameron 's Hollywood Reporter interview by asking him to "Stop dissing WW. '' Like Jenkins, she suggests that while Cameron does "not understand the character '' she does. She also refers to Cameron 's critiques as "thuggish jabs at a brilliant director '' that "are ill advised '' as the "movie was spot on ''. Carter also states that she has the authority to make these observations because she has "embodied this character for more than 40 years ''. A month later, Jenkins responded to Cameron 's comments once again in an interview with Variety, stating that she "was not upset at all '' as "everybody is entitled to their own opinion. But if you 're going to debate something in a public way, I have to reply that I think it 's incorrect. '' Tricia Ennis was also critical of Cameron 's statements, arguing that "while he may consider himself a feminist and an ally to women, (he) is not very good at it '' as being an ally means using his position of privilege "without silencing the voices of those you 're trying to help ''. She also states that it "is not enough to simply call yourself a feminist. It 's not even enough to create a strong female character (...) You have to bring women to the table. You have to let them speak. You can not speak for them. But speaking for women is exactly what Cameron is doing through his comments (...) Cameron is using his position of power as a respected producer and director to silence women. ''
Originally signed for three feature films, with Wonder Woman and Justice League being her second and third films, Gadot signed an extension to her contract for additional films. Jenkins initially signed for only one film, but in an interview with Variety, Geoff Johns revealed that he and Jenkins are writing the treatment for a Wonder Woman sequel and that he has a "cool idea for the second one ''. At the 2017 San Diego Comic Con, Warner Bros. officially announced a sequel would be released on December 13, 2019, and would be titled Wonder Woman 2. Later, Jenkins was officially signed to return as director, with confirmation that Gadot will be returning as the titular role. On August 19, 2017, actress Geena Davis stated that she would like very much to play a role in Wonder Woman 2 and that she is in talks with Jenkins about that matter. Days later, the studio hired Dave Callaham to co-write the film 's script with Jenkins and Johns.
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what waterway was vitally important to the french colonies in north america | French colonization of the Americas - wikipedia
The French colonization of the Americas began in the 16th century, and continued on into the following centuries as France established a colonial empire in the Western Hemisphere. France founded colonies in much of eastern North America, on a number of Caribbean islands, and in South America. Most colonies were developed to export products such as fish, rice, sugar, and furs.
As they colonized the New World, the French established forts and settlements that would become such cities as Quebec and Montreal in Canada; Detroit, Green Bay, St. Louis, Cape Girardeau, Mobile, Biloxi, Baton Rouge and New Orleans in the United States; and Port - au - Prince, Cap - Haïtien (founded as Cap - Français) in Haiti, Cayenne in French Guiana, São Luís (founded as Saint - Louis de Maragnan in northern coast of Brazil), Pariaba in New Holland and Rio de Janeiro in portuguese South America.
The French first came to the New World as explorers, seeking a route to the Ocean and wealth. Major French exploration of North America began under the rule of Francis I, King of France. In 1524, Francis sent Italian - born Giovanni da Verrazzano to explore the region between Florida and Newfoundland for a route to the Pacific Ocean. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, thus promoting French interests.
In 1534, Francis I of France sent Jacques Cartier on the first of three voyages to explore the coast of Newfoundland and the St. Lawrence River. He founded New France by planting a cross on the shore of the Gaspé Peninsula. The French subsequently tried to establish several colonies throughout North America that failed, due to weather, disease, or conflict with other European powers. Cartier attempted to create the first permanent European settlement in North America at Cap - Rouge (Quebec City) in 1541 with 400 settlers but the settlement was abandoned the next year after bad weather and attacks from Native Americans in the area. A small group of French troops were left on Parris Island, South Carolina in 1562 to build Charlesfort, but left after a year when they were not resupplied by France. Fort Caroline established in present - day Jacksonville, Florida, in 1564, lasted only a year before being destroyed by the Spanish from St. Augustine. An attempt to settle convicts on Sable Island off Nova Scotia in 1598 failed after a short time. In 1599, a sixteen - person trading post was established in Tadoussac (in present - day Quebec), of which only five men survived the first winter. In 1604 Pierre Du Gua de Monts and Samuel de Champlain founded a short - lived French colony, the first in Acadia, on Saint Croix Island, presently part of the state of Maine, which was much plagued by illness, perhaps scurvy. The following year the settlement was moved to Port Royal, located in present - day Nova Scotia.
Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec (1608) and explored the Great Lakes. In 1634, Jean Nicolet founded La Baye des Puants (present - day Green Bay), which is one of the oldest permanent European settlements in America. In 1634, Sieur de Laviolette founded Trois - Rivières. In 1642, Paul de Chomedey, Sieur de Maisonneuve, founded Fort Ville - Marie which is now known as Montreal. Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette founded Sault Sainte Marie (1668) and Saint Ignace (1671) and explored the Mississippi River. At the end of the 17th century, René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle established a network of forts going from the Gulf of Mexico to the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River. Fort Saint Louis was established in Texas in 1685, but was gone by 1688. Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit (modern - day Detroit) in 1701 and Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville founded La Nouvelle Orléans (New Orleans) in 1718. Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville founded Baton Rouge in 1719.
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The French were eager to explore North America but New France remained largely unpopulated. Due to the lack of women, intermarriages between French and Indians were frequent, giving rise to the Métis people. Relations between the French and Indians were usually peaceful. As the 19th - century historian Francis Parkman stated:
"Spanish civilization crushed the Indian; English civilization scorned and neglected him; French civilization embraced and cherished him ''
To boost the French population, Cardinal Richelieu issued an act declaring that Indians converted to Catholicism were considered as "natural Frenchmen '' by the Ordonnance of 1627:
"The descendants of the French who are accustomed to this country (New France), together with all the Indians who will be brought to the knowledge of the faith and will profess it, shall be deemed and renowned natural Frenchmen, and as such may come to live in France when they want, and acquire, donate, and succeed and accept donations and legacies, just as true French subjects, without being required to take no letters of declaration of naturalization. ''
Louis XIV also tried to increase the population by sending approximately 800 young women nicknamed the "King 's Daughters ''. However, the low density of population in New France remained a very persistent problem. At the beginning of the French and Indian War (1754 -- 1763), the British population in North America outnumbered the French 20 to 1. France fought a total of six colonial wars in North America (see the four French and Indian Wars as well as Father Rale 's War and Father Le Loutre 's War).
In 1562, Charles IX, under the leadership of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny sent Jean Ribault and a group of Huguenot settlers in an attempt to colonize the Atlantic coast and found a colony on a territory which will take the name of the French Florida. They discovered the probe and Port Royal Island, which will be called by Parris Island in South Carolina, on which he built a fort named Charlesfort. The group, led by René Goulaine de Laudonnière, moved to the south where they founded the Fort Caroline on the Saint John 's river in Florida on June 22, 1564.
This irritated the Spanish who claimed Florida and opposed the Protestant settlers for religious reasons. In 1565, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés led a group of Spaniards and founded Saint Augustine, 60 kilometers south of Fort Caroline. Fearing a Spanish attack, Ribault planned to move the colony but a storm suddenly destroyed his fleet. On 20 September 1565 the Spaniards, commanded by Menéndez de Avilés, attacked and massacred all the Fort Caroline occupants including Jean Ribault.
The French interest in Canada focused first on fishing off the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. However, at the beginning of the 17th century, France was more interested in fur from North America. The fur trading post of Tadoussac was founded in 1600. Four years later, Champlain made his first trip to Canada in a trade mission for fur. Although he had no formal mandate on this trip, he sketched a map of the St. Lawrence River and in writing, on his return to France, a report entitled Savages (relation of his stay in a tribe of Montagnais near Tadoussac).
Champlain needed to report his findings to Henry IV. He participated in another expedition to New France in the spring of 1604, conducted by Pierre Du Gua de Monts. It helped the foundation of a settlement on Saint Croix Island, the first French settlement in the New World, which would be given up the following winter. The expedition then founded the colony of Port - Royal.
In 1608, Champlain founded a fur post that would become the city of Quebec, which would become the capital of New France. In Quebec, Champlain forged alliances between France and the Huron and Ottawa against their traditional enemies, the Iroquois. Champlain and other French travelers then continued to explore North America, with canoes made from Birch bark, to move quickly through the Great Lakes and their tributaries. In 1634, the Normand explorer Jean Nicolet pushed his exploration to the West up to Wisconsin.
Following the capitulation of Quebec by the Kirke brothers, the British occupied the city of Quebec and Canada from 1629 to 1632. Samuel de Champlain was taken prisoner and there followed the bankruptcy of the Company of One Hundred Associates. Following the Treaty of Saint - Germain - en - Laye, France took possession of the colony in 1632. The city of Trois - Rivières was founded in 1634. In 1642, the Angevin Jérôme le Royer de la Dauversière founded Ville - Marie (later Montreal) which was at that time, a fort as protection against Iroquois attacks (the first great Iroquois war lasted from 1642 to 1667).
Despite this rapid expansion, the colony developed very slowly. The Iroquois wars and diseases were the leading causes of death in the French colony. In 1663 when Louis XIV provided the Royal Government, the population of New France was only 2500 European inhabitants. That year, to increase the population, Louis XIV sent between 800 and 900 ' King 's Daughters ' to become the wives of French settlers. The population of New France reached subsequently 7000 in 1674 and 15000 in 1689.
From 1689 to 1713, the French settlers were faced with almost incessant war during the French and Indian Wars. From 1689 to 1697, they fought the British in the Nine Years ' War. The war against the Iroquois continued even after the Treaty of Rijswijk until 1701, when the two parties agreed on peace. Then, the war against the English took over in the War of the Spanish Succession. In 1690 and 1711, Quebec City had successfully resisted the attacks of the English navy and then British army. Nevertheless, the British took advantage of the second war. With the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, France ceded to Britain Acadia (with a population of 1700 people), Newfoundland and Hudson Bay. Under the Sovereign Council, the population of the colony grew faster. However, the population growth was far inferior to that of the British Thirteen Colonies to the south. In the middle of the 18th century, New France accounted for 60,000 people while the British colonies had more than one million people. This placed the colony at a great military disadvantage against the British. The war between the colonies resumed in 1744, lasting until 1748. A final and decisive war began in 1754. The Canadiens and the French were helped by numerous alliances with Native Americans, but they were usually outnumbered on the battlefield.
On May 17, 1673, explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi River, known to the Sioux as does Tongo, or to the Miami - Illinois as missisipioui (the great river). They reached the mouth of the Arkansas and then up the river, after learning that it flowed into the Gulf of Mexico and not to the California Sea (Pacific Ocean).
In 1682, the Normand Cavelier de la Salle and the Italian Henri de Tonti came down the Mississippi to its Delta. They left from Fort Crevecoeur on the Illinois River, along with 23 French and 18 Native Americans. In April 1682, they arrived at the mouth of the Mississippi; they planted a cross and a column bearing the arms of the king of France. La Salle returned to France and won over the Secretary of State of the Navy to give him the command of Louisiana. He believed that it was close to New Spain by drawing a map on which the Mississippi seemed much further west than its actual rate. He set up a maritime expedition with four ships and 320 emigrants, but it ended in disaster when he failed to find the Mississippi Delta and was killed in 1687.
In 1698, Pierre LeMoyne d'Iberville left La Rochelle and explored the area around the mouth of the Mississippi. He stopped between Isle - aux - Chats (now Cat Island) and Isle Surgeres (renamed Isle - aux - Vascular or Ship Island) on February 13, 1699 and continued his explorations to the mainland, with his brother Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville to Biloxi. He built a precarious fort, called ' Maurepas ' (later ' Old Biloxi '), before returning to France. He returned twice in the Gulf of Mexico and established a fort at Mobile in 1702.
From 1699 to 1702, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville was governor of Louisiana. His brother succeeded him in that post from 1702 to 1713. He was again governor from 1716 to 1724 and again 1733 to 1743. In 1718, Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville commanded a French expedition in Louisiana. He founded the city of New Orleans, in homage to Regent Duke of Orleans. The architect Adrian de Pauger drew the orthogonal plane of the Old Square.
In 1718, there were only 700 Europeans in Louisiana. The Mississippi Company arranged for ships to bring 800 more, who landed in Louisiana in 1718, doubling the European population. John Law encouraged Germans, particularly Germans of the Alsatian region who had recently fallen under French rule, and the Swiss to emigrate.
Prisoners were set free in Paris in September 1719 onwards, under the condition that they marry prostitutes and go with them to Louisiana. The newly married couples were chained together and taken to the port of embarkation. In May 1720, after complaints from the Mississippi Company and the concessioners about this class of French immigrants, the French government prohibited such deportations. However, there was a third shipment of prisoners in 1721.
The last French and Indian War resulted in the dissolution of New France, with Canada going to Great Britain and Louisiana going to Spain. Only the islands of Saint - Pierre - et - Miquelon are still in French hands.
In 1802 Spain returned Louisiana to France, but Napoleon sold it to the United States in 1803. The French left many toponyms (Illinois, Vermont, Bayous...) and ethnonyms (Sioux, Coeur d'Alene, Nez Percé...) in North America.
A major French settlement lay on the island of Hispaniola, where France established the colony of Saint - Domingue on the western third of the island in 1664. Nicknamed the "Pearl of the Antilles '', Saint - Domingue became the richest colony in the Caribbean due to slave plantation production of sugar cane. It had the highest slave mortality rate in the western hemisphere. A 1791 slave revolt, the only ever successful slave revolt, began the Haitian Revolution, led to freedom for the colony 's slaves in 1794 and, a decade later, complete independence for the country, which renamed itself Haiti. France briefly also ruled the eastern portion of the island, which is now the Dominican Republic.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, France ruled much of the Lesser Antilles at various times. Islands that came under French rule during part or all of this time include Dominica, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Marie - Galante, Martinique, St. Barthélemy, St. Croix, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, St. Martin, St. Vincent and Tobago. Control of many of these islands was contested between the French, the British and the Dutch; in the case of St. Martin, the island was divided in two, a situation that persists to this day. Great Britain captured some of France 's islands during the Seven Years ' War and the Napoleonic Wars. Following the latter conflict, France retained control of Guadeloupe, Martinique, Marie - Galante, St. Barthélemy, and its portion of St. Martin; all remain part of France today. Guadeloupe (including Marie - Galante and other nearby islands) and Martinique each is an overseas department of France, while St. Barthélemy and St. Martin each became an overseas collectivity of France in 2007.
France Antarctique (formerly also spelled France antartique) was a French colony south of the Equator, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which existed between 1555 and 1567, and had control over the coast from Rio de Janeiro to Cabo Frio. The colony quickly became a haven for the Huguenots, and was ultimately destroyed by the Portuguese in 1567. On November 1, 1555, French vice-admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon (1510 -- 1575), a Catholic knight of the Order of Malta, who later would help the Huguenots to find a refuge against persecution, led a small fleet of two ships and 600 soldiers and colonists, and took possession of the small island of Serigipe in the Guanabara Bay, in front of present - day Rio de Janeiro, where they built a fort named Fort Coligny. The fort was named in honor of Gaspard de Coligny (then a Catholic statesman, who about a year later would become a Huguenot), an admiral who supported the expedition and would use the colony in order to protect his co-religionists. To the still largely undeveloped mainland village, Villegaignon gave the name of Henriville, in honour of Henry II, the King of France, who also knew of and approved the expedition, and had provided the fleet for the trip. Villegaignon secured his position by making an alliance with the Tamoio and Tupinambá Indians of the region, who were fighting the Portuguese.
Unchallenged by the Portuguese, who initially took little notice of his landing, Villegaignon endeavoured to expand the colony by calling for more colonists in 1556. He sent one of his ships, the Grande Roberge, to Honfleur, entrusted with letters to King Henry II, Gaspard de Coligny and according to some accounts, the Protestant leader John Calvin. After one ship was sent to France to ask for additional support, three ships were financed and prepared by the king of France and put under the command of Sieur De Bois le Comte, a nephew of Villegagnon. They were joined by 14 Calvinists from Geneva, led by Philippe de Corguilleray, including theologians Pierre Richier and Guillaume Chartrier. The new colonists, numbering around 300, included 5 young women to be wed, 10 boys to be trained as translators, as well as 14 Calvinists sent by Calvin, and also Jean de Léry, who would later write an account of the colony. They arrived in March 1557. The relief fleet was composed of: The Petite Roberge, with 80 soldiers and sailors was led by Vice Admiral Sieur De Bois le Comte. The Grande Roberge, with about 120 on board, captained by Sieur de Sainte - Marie dit l'Espine. The Rosée, with about 90 people, led by Captain Rosée. Doctrinal disputes arose between Villegagnon and the Calvinists, especially in relation to the Eucharist, and in October 1557 the Calvinists were banished from Coligny island as a result. They settled among the Tupinamba until January 1558, when some of them managed to return to France by ship together with Jean de Léry, and five others chose to return to Coligny island where three of them were drowned by Villegagnon for refusing to recant.
In 1560 Mem de Sá, the new Governor - General of Brazil, received from the Portuguese government the command to expel the French. With a fleet of 26 warships and 2,000 soldiers, on 15 March 1560, he attacked and destroyed Fort Coligny within three days, but was unable to drive off their inhabitants and defenders, because they escaped to the mainland with the help of the Native Brazilians, where they continued to live and to work. Admiral Villegaignon had returned to France in 1558, disgusted with the religious tension that existed between French Protestants and Catholics, who had come also with the second group (see French Wars of Religion). Urged by two influential Jesuit priests who had come to Brazil with Mem de Sá, named José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega, and who had played a big role in pacifying the Tamoios, Mem de Sá ordered his nephew, Estácio de Sá to assemble a new attack force. Estácio de Sá founded the city of Rio de Janeiro on March 1, 1565, and fought the Frenchmen for two more years. Helped by a military reinforcement sent by his uncle, on January 20, 1567, he imposed final defeat on the French forces and decisively expelled them from Brazil, but died a month later from wounds inflicted in the battle. Coligny 's and Villegaignon 's dream had lasted a mere 12 years.
Equinoctial France was the contemporary name given to the colonization efforts of France in the 17th century in South America, around the line of Equator, before "tropical '' had fully gained its modern meaning: Equinoctial means in Latin "of equal nights '', i.e., on the Equator, where the duration of days and nights is nearly the same year round. The French colonial empire in the New World also included New France (Nouvelle France) in North America, particularly in what is today the province of Quebec, Canada, and for a very short period (12 years) also Antarctic France (France Antarctique, in French), in present - day Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. All of these settlements were in violation of the papal bull of 1493, which divided the New World between Spain and Portugal. This division was later defined more exactly by the Treaty of Tordesillas.
France Équinoxiale started in 1612, when a French expedition departed from Cancale, Brittany, France, under the command of Daniel de la Touche, Seigneur de la Ravardière, and François de Razilly, admiral. Carrying 500 colonists, it arrived in the Northern coast of what is today the Brazilian state of Maranhão. De la Ravardière had discovered the region in 1604 but the death of the king postponed his plans to start its colonization. The colonists soon founded a village, which was named "Saint - Louis '', in honor of the French king Louis IX. This later became São Luís in Portuguese, (1) the only Brazilian state capital founded by France. On 8 September, Capuchin friars prayed the first mass, and the soldiers started building a fortress. An important difference in relation to France Antarctique is that this new colony was not motivated by escape from religious persecutions to Protestants (see French Wars of Religion). The colony did not last long. A Portuguese army assembled in the Captaincy of Pernambuco, under the command of Alexandre de Moura, was able to mount a military expedition, which defeated and expelled the French colonists in 1615, less than four years after their arrival in the land. Thus, it repeated the disaster spelt for the colonists of France Antarctique, in 1567. A few years later, in 1620, Portuguese and Brazilian colonists arrived in number and São Luís started to develop, with an economy based mostly in sugar cane and slavery.
French traders and colonists tried again to settle a France Équinoxiale further North, in what is today French Guiana, in 1626, 1635 (when the capital, Cayenne, was founded) and 1643. Twice a Compagnie de la France Équinoxiale was founded, in 1643 and 1645, but both foundered as a result of misfortune and mismanagement. It was only after 1674, when the colony came under the direct control of the French crown and a competent Governor took office, that France Équinoxiale became a reality. To this day, French Guiana is a department of France.
French Guiana was first settled by the French in 1604, although its earliest settlements were abandoned in the face of hostilities from the indigenous population and tropical diseases. The settlement of Cayenne was established in 1643, but was abandoned. It was re-established in the 1660s. Except for brief occupations by the English and Dutch in the 17th century, and by the Portuguese in the 19th century, Guiana has remained under French rule ever since. From 1851 to 1951 it was the site of a notorious penal colony, Devil 's Island (Île du Diable). Since 1946, French Guiana has been an overseas department of France.
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where is bigg boss set located in chennai | Bigg Boss Tamil - wikipedia
Bigg Boss Tamil is the Tamil - language version of the reality TV programme Bigg Boss broadcast in India. It follows the Big Brother format, which was first developed by Endemol in the Netherlands.
Kamal Haasan hosts the first season of Bigg Boss Tamil launched on 25 June 2017 on Star Vijay.
Bigg Boss Tamil is a reality show based on the Hindi show Bigg Boss which too was based on the original Dutch Big Brother format developed by John de Mol Jr. A number of contestants (known as "housemates '') live in a purpose - built house and are isolated from the rest of the world. Each week, housemates nominate two of their fellow housemates for eviction, and the housemates who receives the most nominations would face a public vote. Eventually, one housemate would leave after being "evicted '' from the House. In the final week, there will be five housemates remaining, and the public will vote for who they wanted to win. Unlike other versions of Big Brother, the Tamil version uses celebrities as housemates, not members of the general public.
The house is well - furnished and decorated. It has all kinds of modern amenities, but just two bedrooms, living area, kitchen, store room, smoking room, and four toilet bath rooms. There is a garden, pool, activity area and gym in the House. There is also a Confession Room, where the housemates may be called in by Bigg Boss for any kind of conversation, and for the nomination process. The House has no TV connection, no telephones, and no Internet connection.
They are not supposed to tamper with any of the electronic equipment or any other thing in the House. They can not leave the House premises at any time except when permitted to. They can not discuss the nomination process with anyone. They can not sleep in the day time.
Sometimes, the housemates may be nominated for other reasons, such as nomination by a person who has achieved special privileges (via tasks or other things), for breaking rules or something else. If something is very serious, a contestant may be evicted directly.
All the rules have never been told to the audience, the most prominent ones are clearly seen. The inmates are not permitted to talk in any other language than the language Tamil.
Bigg Boss Tamil is aired on Star Vijay and also Vijay Super from 9 to 10: 30 (IST) on weekdays and 8: 30 to 10 (IST) on weekends. Everyday 's episodes contain the main happenings of the previous day. Every weekend episode mainly focuses on an interview of the evicted contestant by the host.
Contestants are nominated every week by their housemates. Viewers cast their vote in favour of the contestants they would like to save from eviction. Each viewer is entitled to 50 votes per day. The contestant with the least number of votes is evicted from the house.
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where does blood go when you have internal bleeding | Internal bleeding - wikipedia
Internal bleeding (also called internal hemorrhage) is a loss of blood that occurs from the vascular system into a body cavity or space. It is a serious medical emergency and the extent of severity depends on bleeding rate and location of the bleeding (e.g. heart, brain, stomach, lungs). It can cause death and cardiac arrest if proper medical treatment is not received quickly.
A number of medical conditions may lead to internal bleeding. Common causes include trauma, various pathological conditions and complications of medical therapy. Common locations include the gastrointestinal tract, the aorta and intracranial hemorrhage. A contusion (bruise) is a form of internal bleeding, as the blunt trauma causes small blood vessels to rupture on the inside - causing the coloration, due to blunt force, but depending on the severity may not be very serious of an injury.
Internal bleeding can be caused by blunt trauma such as high speed deceleration in an automobile accident, or by penetrating trauma such as a ballistic or stab wound.
A number of pathological conditions and diseases can lead to internal bleeding. These include blood vessel rupture as a result of high blood pressure, aneurysms, esophageal varices or peptic ulcers. Another common cause of internal bleeding is carcinoma (cancer), either of the gastro - intestinal tract, of the lung, or more rarely of other organs such as the prostate, pancreas or kidney. Other diseases linked to internal bleeding include scurvy, hepatoma, liver cancer, Autoimmune Thrombocytopenia, ectopic pregnancy, malignant hypothermia, ovarian cysts, Vitamin K Deficiency, and hemophilia and malaria. Some viruses may cause a type of internal bleeding called viral hemorrhagic fever, such as the Ebola, Dengue or Marburg viruses, but these are rare.
Internal bleeding could be an iatrogenic artifact as a result of complications after surgical operations or medical treatment. Some medication effects may also lead to internal bleeding, such as the use of anticoagulant drugs or antiplatelet drugs in the treatment of coronary artery disease.
Internal bleeding is serious for two reasons:
If there is pressure, it may lead to death or a brain hemorrhage.
Cases of internal bleeding are usually termed as hemorrhage, even though the term is general to all kinds of bleeding. A minor case of internal bleeding results in ecchymosis, or a bruise: blood expands under the skin, causing discoloration.
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when did the who shot jr episode air | Who shot J.R.? - Wikipedia
"Who shot J.R.? '' is an advertising catchphrase that American network CBS created in 1980 to promote the television series Dallas. It referred to the mystery surrounding a murder attempt against the character J.R. Ewing in the show 's third season finale, "A House Divided ''. The mystery was not resolved until the fourth episode of the fourth season titled "Who Done It '', which aired eight months later.
In the final scene of the 1979 -- 80 season, J.R. Ewing (Larry Hagman) hears a noise outside his office, walks out to the corridor to look, and is shot twice by an unseen assailant. The episode, titled "A House Divided '', was broadcast on March 21, 1980, and was written by Rena Down and directed by Leonard Katzman. Viewers had to wait all summer to learn whether J.R. would survive, and which of his many enemies was responsible.
Ultimately, the person who pulled the trigger was revealed to be Kristin Shepard (Mary Crosby) in the "Who Done It? '' episode which aired on November 21, 1980. Kristin was J.R. 's scheming sister - in - law and mistress, who shot him in a fit of anger. J.R. did not press charges, as Kristin claimed she was pregnant with his child as a result of their affair.
Production for the 1980 -- 81 season began in June 1980, but Hagman -- who had begun the show in a secondary role but now was the star -- refused to film the show without a raise. He returned to work ten days later with a new contract that paid him $100,000 per episode and royalties from J.R. Ewing merchandise. Viewers had to wait an additional two months to find out the answer to the famous question, however, as a strike by the Writers Guild of America began in July that delayed the production of most new network shows by eight weeks. During the delay, CBS showed reruns of early Dallas episodes featuring J.R. Ewing, helping the show 's many new fans better understand his character.
T - shirts printed with such references as "Who Shot J.R.? '' and "I Shot J.R. '' became common over the summer, the latter eventually being seen in the first episode of Irish sitcom Father Ted. Several media outlets held "Who shot J.R.? '' contests.
During the 1980 United States presidential election, the Republicans distributed campaign buttons that claimed "A Democrat shot J.R. '', while Democratic incumbent Jimmy Carter joked that he would have no problem financing his campaign if he knew who shot J.R. When Hagman was offered £ 100,000 during vacation in the United Kingdom for the identity of the shooter, he admitted that neither he nor anyone in the cast knew the answer. Queen Elizabeth, The Queen Mother, was among the millions worldwide intrigued by the mystery, and the crowd at the Royal Ascot yelled "J.R.! J.R.! '' when Hagman arrived. Betting parlors worldwide took bets as to which one of the 10 or so principal characters had actually pulled the trigger. Comedy pop group The Barron Knights recorded "We know who done it ''. Using the tune of Gary Numan 's "Cars '', the song ended with a repetition of "It was -- '' as if, frustratingly, the record 's needle stuck just before the culprit was named.
International oddsmakers created a set of odds for the possible culprits:
Other suspects included J.R. 's brother, Bobby Ewing, and his longtime rival, Cliff Barnes. Scenes were shot with each of these characters committing the crime, so that not even the cast or crew would know which direction the writers had decided to go.
"Who Done It? '' was, at the time, the highest - rated television episode in U.S. history. It had a Nielsen rating of 53.3 and a 76 % share, and it was estimated that 83 million people watched the episode, more than the number of voters in that year 's presidential election. The previous record for a TV episode had been the 1967 finale for The Fugitive. "Who Done It? '' now sits second on the list, beaten in 1983 by the final episode of M * A * S * H. In 2011, Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly named "A House Divided '' number one of the seven most "Unforgettable Cliff - Hangers '' of prime time dramatic television. The episode was also very popular outside the United States; a session of the Turkish parliament was suspended to allow legislators a chance to get home in time to view the conclusion of the cliffhanger.
The great success of this 1980 stunt helped popularize in the United States the practice of ending a television season with a cliffhanger. The episode also inspired a novelty record by radio personality Gary Burbank which hit the Billboard Top 100 in 1980. In addition, the episode is credited with helping CNN, which began airing in June 1980, to get off the ground.
The "Who shot J.R.? '' storyline was spoofed in the February 21, 1981, episode of Saturday Night Live, which was guest - hosted by Dallas star Charlene Tilton. The episode, sometimes referred to as "Who Shot C.R.? '', provided several cast members with various motivations to hate co-star Charles Rocket, who is shot in the episode. At the end of the episode, Rocket made the notorious ad - libbed comment "I 'd like to know who the fuck did it '', for which he was subsequently fired.
It was spoofed in an episode of The Jeffersons ("As Florence Turns ''), when Florence writes a soap opera based on caricatures of The Jeffersons characters.
"Who shot J.R.? '' was later spoofed in a 1995 The Simpsons episode entitled "Who Shot Mr. Burns? '' which similarly provided many characters with motivation to kill Mr. Burns, and similarly ended on a cliffhanger.
In Larry Hagman 's final episode of the 2012 sequel, Dallas, which aired on March 4, 2013, J.R. was shot again, this time fatally. In the 2013 season 2 finale it was revealed that J.R. asked Steve "Bum '' Jones to shoot him so his "masterpiece '' could play out, framing Cliff Barnes for his murder. The main reason he had himself killed was because doctors told J.R. that he had only days to live; he was dying from cancer (as was actor Larry Hagman in real life). In his letter to Bobby he reveals all of this and that he wanted to die helping his family end the Ewing -- Barnes feud once and for all. As J.R. 's son John Ross said "The only person that could take down J.R. -- was J.R. ''
In the season 4 finale of Jane the Virgin, Jane "J.R. '' Ramos (Rosario Dawson) shot a mystery person before "# JRShotWho? '' appeared on the screen.
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where is christopher kimball from cook's country | Christopher Kimball - wikipedia
Christopher Kimball (born June 5, 1951) is an American chef, editor, publisher, and radio / TV personality.
Kimball was born and raised in Westchester County, New York, the son of Mary Alice White and Edward Norris Kimball. The family had a cabin in southwestern Vermont.
He graduated from Phillips Exeter Academy and then Columbia University (1973) with a degree in Primitive Art.
After graduating from Columbia, he went to work with his stepbrother in a publishing company. Soon after, he worked for The Center for Direct Marketing in Westport, Connecticut and also started taking cooking courses. After securing $100,000 in angel investments from friends and family, he started Cook 's Magazine from a tiny office in Weston, Connecticut in 1980 when he was 29 years old. He sold the magazine to the Bonnier Group in 1989 and moved on to other publishing ventures.
Kimball was a co-founder and has been editor and publisher of America 's Test Kitchen, which produces television and radio shows, and publishes magazines, including Cook 's Illustrated, which Kimball launched in 1993. It also publishes Cook 's Country magazine, which was launched in 2004, and former publisher of the now - defunct Cook 's Magazine. The company 's revenue comes from its readers, rather than advertisers, which differentiates them from the competitors.
Its cookbook publisher division is Two Pigs Farm. Boston Common Press, a private partnership between Kimball, Eliot Wadsworth II, and George P. Denny III, owns Kimball 's publishing activities. Kimball also hosted the syndicated Public Television cooking shows America 's Test Kitchen and Cook 's Country from America 's Test Kitchen.
On November 16, 2015, a news release from Boston Common Press, parent company of Cooks Country / Cooks Illustrated / America 's Test Kitchen, announced the departure of Christopher Kimball. The 2016 TV programs had already been filmed and Kimball appeared as host, but his direct participation in the company ended immediately. He remains a minority stockholder in the closely held company.
In 2016, he embarked on a new venture, Christopher Kimball 's Milk Street, located on Milk Street in Boston, Massachusetts.
On October 31, 2016, the company behind America 's Test Kitchen and Cook 's Illustrated Magazine filed a lawsuit against Kimball in Suffolk Superior Court, claiming that Kimball "literally and conceptually ripped off '' his former employer. In the lawsuit, America 's Test Kitchen claims that Kimball built his new venture while still on their payroll, using company resources in the form of recipes and databases to help shape Milk Street Kitchen into a direct competitor.
He is the author of The Cook 's Bible, The Yellow Farmhouse Cookbook, Dear Charlie, The Dessert Bible and Fannie 's Last Supper, and is a columnist for the New York Daily News and the Boston - based Tab Communications.
Other television appearances include This Old House and the morning shows Weekend Today and The Early Show. He is a regular contributor on National Public Radio. On January 8, 2011, Kimball began hosting WGBH - FM 's America 's Test Kitchen Radio distributed by PRX.
He has been married three times. He had a son and three daughters with his second wife, Adrienne. They divorced in December 2012. On June 30, 2013, Kimball married Melissa Lee Baldino, executive producer of the America 's Test Kitchen television show. She is now co-founder of Christopher Kimball 's Milk Street.
Their son, Oliver Kimball, was born on May 4, 2017.
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who plays gates wife in line of duty | Line of Duty - wikipedia
Line of Duty is a BBC police procedural television series created by Jed Mercurio that premiered on 26 June 2012. The first series was BBC Two 's best - performing drama series in ten years with a consolidated audience of 4.1 million viewers. The drama was recommissioned for a second series and the first episode was broadcast on 12 February 2014. The second series achieved widespread public and critical acclaim and on 8 April 2014, the BBC commissioned a further two series back to back. The third series broadcast was on 24 March 2016, and the fourth on 26 March 2017 on BBC One. A fifth series has been confirmed for 2019 and the BBC have also ordered a sixth series.
It is the most popular drama series broadcast on BBC Two in the multi-channel era and is a winner of the Royal Television Society Award for Best Drama Series. Line of Duty was included in a list of the Top 50 BBC Two shows of all - time and in a list of the 80 best BBC shows of all time. It was the highest - ranked current series in a list of the best cop shows of all time.
In the United States, the first series was aired on Hulu in August 2012 as an exclusive series.
Series one and two were created and written by Jed Mercurio and produced by World Productions, on behalf of BBC Two. David Caffrey and Douglas Mackinnon directed series one. Mackinnon was retained as director for series two 's first three episodes, whilst Daniel Nettheim directed series two 's last three episodes. Mercurio produced series one and acted as executive producer for series two, with Peter Norris taking over as producer for series two.
Although the police refused to co-operate with the programme 's producers, the production team was advised anonymously by serving officers and by retired police officers. Use was made of anonymous police blogs.
Series one was filmed in Birmingham (including pub interiors in the Queens Arms) and series two, three and four in Northern Ireland by BBC Northern Ireland. The name of the city is not mentioned. Maps of Birmingham appear on walls and telephone numbers use an 0121 area code, so would indicate Birmingham. The police force referred to in multiple series is the fictional East Midlands Constabulary. A photo gallery of exterior scenes from series two shows the 4th Street Station on Ormeau Avenue in Belfast.
Following the complaint of one viewer, the media regulator Ofcom found the BBC had breached Rule 1.28 of the Code in 2012. Specifically that there was a "serious lapse '' in its duty of care for a 13 - year - old actor, Gregory Piper, who had appeared in scenes which were "of a particularly violent nature and included sexually explicit language '' by breaching broadcasting rules requiring that "due care must be taken over the physical and emotional welfare and the dignity of people under 18 ''. In its full report, Ofcom cited the programme 's failure to involve an independent expert, such as a child psychiatrist, to determine the actor 's intellectual and emotional capacity to participate in the controversial scenes and that programme makers had not followed the best practice advice of the BBC 's Editorial Policy Unit. However, the regulator found that there was no actual harm, distress or anxiety caused to the child actor.
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why did vanessa and tony leave general hospital | Jason Morgan (General Hospital) - wikipedia
Jason Morgan is a fictional character on the ABC soap opera, General Hospital. Created by Thom Racina and Leah Laiman, he is most notably played by Daytime Emmy Award - winning actor Steve Burton, who joined the cast in 1991 and vacated the role in 2012. Burton reprised the role in 2017. Jason was born offscreen in September 1981 and the character made his onscreen debut in November 1981 as the son of Dr. Alan Quartermaine (Stuart Damon) and his mistress, Susan Moore (Gail Ramsey), later adopted by Alan 's wife Dr. Monica Quartermaine (Leslie Charleson). As one of the longest - running characters on the show, the role was played by various child actors from 1982 to 1986. In 2014, Billy Miller was cast in the role. With Burton 's 2017 return, Miller 's casting was later retconned as Jason 's twin - brother, Andrew Cain.
The role was originated on November 11, 1981, by Quinn Carlson until June 3, 1982. Child actor Bryan Beck stepped into the role on September 8, 1982 to 1986.
On December 19, 1991, Burton stepped into the role on a contractual basis as a SORASed Jason Quartermaine. In November 1999, ABC confirmed that Burton had decided not to renew his contract which expired in December to pursue other opportunities. Burton last appeared on contract on January 27, 2000. In June 2000, ABC confirmed that Burton would reprise his role for a six - week stint starting on August 25, 2000 until he last appeared on October 10, 2000. In December 2000, it was announced that Burton would return to the series once again and began airing on January 29, 2001. In January 2001, Burton announced that his return was only temporary due to his commitment to film a pilot for his DreamWorks Television development deal. Whether he returned to the role full - time would depend on whether the series was picked up. The pilot was not picked up, Burton landed a role in a major motion picture leading to his departure on April 23, 2001. Burton returned to the series on contract in 2002 during May Sweeps, airing on May 24.
In late 2008, Burton 's contract expired and forcing to make a decision on re-signing with the show. After months of speculation, he announced in a public appearance that he re-signed with the show. Burton stated that he would be willing to take a pay cut because he understands that money is a lot tighter now than it has been in recent years and stated that he is blessed to have a job right now. In 2011, rumors began circulating that Burton could depart from the series due to contract negotiations. However, in May 2011 Burton announced via Twitter that he had re-signed with the series again. On August 23, 2012, Jamey Giddens of the website Daytime Confidential reported that contract negotiations were not going well and Burton was close to walking away from the series. On August 28, 2012, Burton confirmed in an interview with TV Guide 's Michael Logan that he would exit the series and agreed to stay long enough for the producers to write his character out properly. Following the announcement that Sean Kanan (A.J. Quartermaine) was returning to the series in an undisclosed role, rumors began circulating that Kanan might be a recast of Jason. Kanan 's resemblance to Burton fed into the rumors.
On September 2, 2014, executive producer Frank Valentini announced on Twitter that former All My Children and The Young and the Restless actor Billy Miller would join the cast as Jason. On September 30, 2014, Miller 's air date as Jason was revealed to be on October 1.
In June 2017, it was announced that Burton would return to the series in an undisclosed role, later referred to as "Patient 6. '' In November 2017, it was announced that Burton had reprised the role of Jason, while Miller 's casting was retconned to the character of Andrew Cain.
-- Burton on Jason Morgan
Steve Burton 's early years on the soap as the "rich, wholesome preppy '' Jason Quartermaine would come to a shocking, and dramatic end in 1995 after a car accident caused by his brother, A.J. leaves the character as a brain damaged amnesiac. Following Jason 's split from the Quartermaines, except for his sister Emily and grandmother Lila Morgan Quartermaine (Anna Lee), and a change of his surname to Morgan, he would become the right - hand man for mob boss, Sonny Corinthos (Maurice Benard). At the time, Burton was considering leaving the show and joked that a producer noted that he played every scene, the same way, as if someone was about to die. Burton 's decision to stay stemmed from a conversation with Benard who gave him advice on how to improve. While still portraying Jason Quartermaine, the writers saw the chemistry between him and Benard and decided to create Jason Morgan.
-- Burton on his character 's change in direction
With a new personality shift, Burton 's Jason went from "preppy and wholesome '' to "angry, stoic and emotionless. '' In the early stages of his transformation into Jason Morgan, he would experience fits of rage and was even given the nickname "anger boy. '' Post accident, as Jason matured the fits of rage subsided, Jason was very light and fun during his relationship with Robin Scorpio. It was n't until after he was hurt multiple times that Jason grew darker and more intense. Jason was seen as "stone cold, '' and he did n't show much personality, unless it was with his closest loved ones. Despite the drastic change, Burton described his character as "vulnerable, caring, honest, and honorable '' around those that he loves. Burton welcomed the change in story for his character, noting that it can sometimes become annoying playing "just plain nice '' all the time. Within the mob and despite constant conflicts with law enforcement, Jason operated as a vigilante often taking down criminals who targeted the Corinthos family and tried to bring illegal substances and weapons into Port Charles, New York. Jason was known to show loyalty and compassion to those he held closest to him. His acts of extreme loyalty and compassion could be seen through his friendships with Sonny and Carly, his romantic relationships and his relationship with his nephew Michael, who he raised for the first year of Michael 's life. The passing years also saw a thaw in Jason 's relationship with the Quartermaines. The death of his father Alan and a shooting that left Michael in a year - long coma opened his eyes to what the Quartermaines suffered after his own accident. For that point on, Jason was shown to be more open to a relationship with his mother Monica, and eventually his grandfather Edward Quartermaine (John Ingle). The extent of the thaw with his family could also be seen through Jason 's decision to name his son, Daniel Edward, after his grandfather.
Jason was conceived out of his father, Alan Quartermaine 's (Stuart Damon), affair with Susan Moore (Gail Ramsey). Jason was born on September 14, 1981 at Our Lady of Mercy Hospital in New York City. When Jason was born, Alan supported him financially, but was fighting for custody of his other son, A.J.. Jason lived with his mother and Scott Baldwin (Kin Shriner) up until her death, upon which he lived with Susan 's aunt, Alice Grant (Lieux Dressler). Then he moved into the Quartermaine mansion with Alan. Alan 's wife, Monica (Leslie Charleson), initially rejected Jason, but eventually grew to love him and later adopted him. Jason and A.J. were sent off to boarding school as children. In December 1991, Jason was aged several years, re-establishing his birth year as 1973 then to November 11, 1976 in 2017 then to September 14, 1978 in 2018.
When a newly SORASed Jason and older brother A.J. return to town, Jason, who is a successful student and athlete, is treated as the family favorite while A.J. is failing and dealing with alcoholism. Jason has relationships with Karen Wexler (Cari Shayne), Brenda Barrett (Vanessa Marcil), Robin Scorpio (Kimberly McCullough) and Keesha Ward (Senait Ashenafi). Jason supports Monica through her health crisis with breast cancer and adores his adoptive sister, Emily Quartermaine (then Amber Tamblyn). In December 1995, an intoxicated A.J. runs his car into a tree. Jason, who was attempting to stop A.J. from driving, is in the passenger seat and hits his head on a large boulder after being ejected from the car. Jason suffers brain injuries that result in total memory loss. Upon waking up from his coma, Jason had no recollection of his past and resented all of the Quartermaines except his grandmother Lila Quartermaine (Anna Lee) and sister Emily. His personality drastically changes. Jason eventually turns his back on his family, and changes his surname to Morgan, Lila 's maiden name. Jason meets Robin again on a bridge and they begin a friendship which turns into a romantic relationship. Robin encouraged Jason to develop relationships with Lila, Emily, and Monica, and he stood by Robin at the Nurses Ball, where she shares with Port Charles for the first time that she is HIV positive. Robin leaves for college at Yale University, and Jason asks her friend Sonny Corinthos (Maurice Benard) for a job. His loyalty and hard work impress Sonny. Jason becomes Sonny 's personal enforcer in his mob business. Robin returns in 1997 and was with Jason when he was shot for the first time by the Tin Man. Jason was operated on and saved. Robin begged Jason to leave his dangerous life behind. When Jason refused Robin begged Sonny to fire Jason. Initially hesitant, Sonny finally relented. Jason was infuriated when Sonny told him he was fired, and knew Robin was to blame. He and Robin broke up, and Robin made plans to leave town again. Jason met Robin on the bridge, and they said a last goodbye.
To help Carly Benson (then Sarah Joy Brown), Jason pretends to be the father of her baby. Carly develops postpartum depression after giving birth to her son, Michael, and leaves town. Robin returns to Port Charles and Jason confesses that the child is A.J. 's. Jason and Michael bond with Robin during Carly 's absence. Dr. Tony Jones (Brad Maule) kidnaps Michael and Robin. Jason eventually rescues them both. At trial, Carly shoots Tony in a moment of temporary insanity and is remanded to a mental facility. In Carly 's absence, Jason and Robin reunite. After Robin is almost killed in an explosion, Jason leaves the mob. Carly is released from the hospital, which puts a strain on Jason and Robin 's relationship. Robin tells A.J. that he is Michael 's father, and Jason temporarily loses custody of Michael. A.J. and Carly marry, and a judge awards joint custody to Jason, A.J. and Carly. Jason fears his hatred of A.J. will hurt Michael and signs away all rights; however, he remains an integral part of Michael 's life. Jason comforts Elizabeth Webber (Rebecca Herbst) over the supposed death of her boyfriend, Lucky Spencer (Jonathan Jackson). Carly misunderstands their relationship, and sleeps with Sonny. Jason is unable to deal with the betrayal of Sonny and Carly, and leaves town. Jason and Elizabeth are later romantically drawn to each other, but a relationship is never established.
Jason marries Brenda to avoid testifying against each other in a murder trial. They are cleared of the charges, and later get divorced. Soon after, Jason ends up falling in love with Sonny 's sister, Courtney Matthews (Alicia Leigh Willis), and they begin a relationship, despite Sonny 's disapproval. Courtney and Jason marry, but a miscarriage and the stress of the mob life tear them apart, and they annul their marriage. When Jason discovers that Sonny 's mistress, Sam McCall (Kelly Monaco), is pregnant, he pretends to be the father of Sam 's baby so Sonny will stay with his wife, Carly. The two bonded as the pregnancy advanced, and Sam wanted Jason to be a part of her baby 's life. Sadly, Sonny and Sam 's daughter is stillborn, but Jason helped Sam cope with the loss, and the two eventually fall in love and got engaged. When all three of Sonny 's children are kidnapped, Jason and Sam rescue them from A.J., who is killed soon after. Jason takes a drug to remember A.J. 's killer, but later causes memory loss. Sam convinces Jason to go on an experimental drug that Robin finds, to help him regain his memory. The drug works but causes a brain aneurysm. They moved back to Hawaii where they plan to spend the last days of Jason 's life. Jason later changes his mind, and has an operation that saves his life.
When Sam is shot and almost dies, Sam 's mother Alexis Davis (Nancy Lee Grahn) guilts Jason into breaking up with Sam for the Summer of 2006. Jason later changes his mind, and tries to reconcile with her, but witnesses Sam sleeping with Ric Lansing (Rick Hearst). Jason goes home and Elizabeth shows up. They sleep together, and Elizabeth ends up pregnant. Elizabeth claims Lucky is the father, but later tells Jason the truth during the Metro Court hostage crisis. Elizabeth gives birth to a son, Jacob Martin Spencer. Sam finds out about Jake 's paternity, and she and Jason began a 2 - year break up. Jake 's paternity is revealed to Lucky, but they agree to let Lucky be the father. Jason and Elizabeth start dating and get engaged, but when Michael is shot and left in a coma, Jason breaks up with Elizabeth. Jason ends up taking over Sonny 's business after Sonny decides to leave the mob since it 's too dangerous to his family. Sonny tries to rejoin the mob, but Jason prevents him access. Sonny tries to regain his power by marrying Claudia Zacchara (Sarah Joy Brown), daughter of rival mob boss Anthony Zacchara (Bruce Weitz).
When Jason 's friend and trusted associate Damian Spinelli (Bradford Anderson) is set up and arrested for his illegal activities, Jason is forced to agree to a deal to gain Spinelli 's freedom by getting Anthony arrested. The feds renege on their promise, and make Jason get Sonny arrested too, which Jason refuses. Spinelli is freed when Sam helps Jason destroy the evidence against him. Jason and Sonny reconcile, and Jason gives the business back. Michael wakes up from his year - long coma, and Jason suspects that Claudia is responsible for Michael 's shooting. When Michael and Kristina Davis (Lexi Ainsworth) run away to Mexico, Sam and Jason track the siblings, but encounter Jerry Jacks (Sebastian Roché). Jason is shot and left to die by Jerry. Sam rescues Jason, and cares for him; the two reconnect. Jason and Sam find Michael and Kristina, and bring them back to Port Charles. He and Sam start dating again as lovers for the first time in 2 years. Jason and Sam find the proof they need to confirm Claudia 's involvement in Michael 's shooting. They hand it over to Sonny, who confronts Claudia. Cornered, Claudia takes a pregnant Carly hostage, and escapes. Michael ends up finding them before Jason & Sam can, and kills Claudia to protect Carly and his baby sister, Josslyn Jacks. To protect Michael, Jason covers up the crime and makes it look like Claudia disappeared.
Jason is stalked by obsessed artist Franco (James Franco), who exposes Claudia 's murder and gets Michael sent to prison. Jason makes a deal to go to prison to protect Michael, but they are both eventually released. After Jake dies in an accident, a grief - stricken Jason realizes how much he wants a family, and proposes to Sam; they get engaged, and marry soon after. During their honeymoon in Hawaii, Sam and Jason are drugged by Franco. He locks Jason in a room, and forces him to watch as he apparently rapes Sam. After returning to Port Charles, Jason kills Franco, but Sam finds out she 's pregnant. A paternity test establishes Jason as the father. However, Sam is led to believe that Franco is Jason 's fraternal twin brother. Another DNA test shows that Franco is the father, and Jason has a hard time accepting the news, separating the couple. Jason eventually tries to make amends with Sam the same night she gives birth to a baby boy, but they are led to believe her son died, and mourn the baby 's death. Unknown to either, Sam 's son was actually switched by Heather Webber (Robin Mattson) and Todd Manning (Roger Howarth) with the stillborn Victor Lord III. It 's also revealed that Jason is the baby 's father because Heather switched the paternity test. The baby 's "death '' causes Jason and Sam 's marriage to deteriorate, and they agree to divorce. Jason eventually figures out that the baby that died was n't Sam 's. He and Sam are eventually reunited with their son, whom they name Daniel Edward Morgan. That night, Jason is shot by Cesar Faison (Anders Hove), who kicks him into the water; Jason is presumed dead. Not long after he disappears, Sam finds out Jason is Danny 's biological father.
Almost two years later, Jason was revealed to be alive, being held captive by Victor Cassadine (Thaao Penghlis). Victor gets Robin to revive Jason, then has him locked up to use his abilities. Jason manages to escape, only to be hit by a car. He is brought to General Hospital, and has multiple reconstructive surgeries to his face. Jason (Billy Miller) wakes up with amnesia, and is tended to by Elizabeth. He believes his name to be Jake. Helena Cassadine (Constance Towers) uses "Jake '' through mind control to carry out her sinister plans. In the meantime, he and Elizabeth grow closer. When Jason is caught for his crimes, they find a chip inside his head that Helena uses to control him. Jason undergoes surgery to remove the chip, but still ca n't remember his real identity. Soon after, Hayden Barnes (Rebecca Budig) arrives, claiming to be "Jake 's '' wife, but she is exposed as a fraud. Elizabeth learns "Jake '' 's identity, but keeps it a secret to pursue a relationship with Jason. Elizabeth and Jason 's son, Jake, is found alive and being held captive by Helena. He is rescued, and returned to Elizabeth & Jason. "Jake '' proposes to Elizabeth, and she accepts. He asks Sam for help to figure out his real identity. Spinelli and Carly figure out "Jake '' is actually Jason. "Jake '' finds out his true identity on his wedding day. Jason still ca n't remember his past, and decides to divorce Sam so he can marry Elizabeth. Sam figures out that Elizabeth knew who Jason was, and tells him. Heartbroken over her deception, Jason breaks up with Elizabeth.
While dealing with Jake 's anger over his father leaving, Jason grows closer to Sam, and the two slowly start to rebuild their relationship. When Jake is almost hit by a car and Jason saves Sam from an explosion, the two eventually agree to start over. Sam asks Jason for a divorce, though, hoping to not pressure Jason into remembering their past. Jason reluctantly agrees. Soon after, Jason is in an accident, and ends up saving Dante Falconeri 's (Dominic Zamprogna) life. While trying to rescue Dante, he starts having visions of Robin, Carly, Helena, Sam, and Sonny. Jason 's memory finally returns, and he reconnects with his family and friends; despite reconnecting with Sonny, Jason decides not to go back into the mob for the sake of his family. Jason goes on the run with Sam when he is accused of murder. They find the evidence to clear Jason 's name, and return to Port Charles. After returning, Sam found out that she was pregnant, and Jason was ecstatic; he proposed to Sam, and they remarried soon after. Jason investigated the car bombing that killed Morgan Corinthos (Bryan Craig), Sonny and Carly 's son, in an attempt to clear Sonny 's name. He teams up with Curtis Ashford (Donnell Turner), and they figure out the culprit was Olivia St. John (Tonja Walker), who was trying to kill Julian Jerome (William deVry). Jason ends up rescuing Sam after Olivia kidnaps her. Sam goes into labor, and Jason is forced to deliver their daughter, Emily Scout Morgan.
Jason tries to help Sonny leave the mob, but ends up getting shot in an ambush. He goes into a coma for several weeks. At the same time, a man known as "Patient 6 '' (Burton) is seen in Russia with Jason 's original face. Patient 6 makes his way back to Port Charles, just as Jason wakes up. Patient 6 claims to be Jason, and is eventually believed to be the real Jason by many. Franco, proven to not be Jason 's twin brother, reveals that Jason did have a twin brother named Andrew, but they do not know where he is. It 's revealed that Andre Maddox (Anthony Montgomery) used Jason and Andrew as part of a memory - mapping experiment, putting Jason 's memories into Andrew, making them both believe they 're Jason. Andre reveals that Patient 6 is Jason, and the "other Jason '' is his twin brother, Drew Cain. Jason decides to find Faison, in hopes of figuring out why he and Drew were abducted. Meanwhile, he and Sam file for divorce, as she decides to stay with Drew. On January 22, 2018, Jason was fighting for Sam, in order to stop the wedding, but it was to late when she married Drew. In March 2018, during an earthquake that started shaking, Jason and Sam hide safely. Then in the aftermath of the quake, Jason and Sam developed feelings for each other. By March 23, 2018, she told her husband, Drew that she had feelings and love for Jason, her ex-husband, that had her break up with Drew, who moved out of her penthouse.
Burton 's portrayal of Jason Morgan earned him two Soap Opera Digest Awards for Outstanding Younger Lead Actor in 1997 and 1998. He was nominated for the 1997 Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Younger Actor in a Drama Series and won the 1998 Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series. He also received a Daytime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in 2000. He won two Soap Opera Digest Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in 2003 and Outstanding Actor in 2005. Also in 2005, he received a nomination for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series and in 2012 he received a pre-nomination for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series. With the 2014 casting of Billy Miller, Michael Fairman of On Air, On Soaps questioned: "Knowing now that Miller is taking on the role, do you think the Jason that comes to life after Robin revived him, will be a hitman, killer, or will he be Jason Quartermaine-esque or none of the above? ''
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who is important in both judeo christian and greco roman thought | Judeo - Christian - wikipedia
Judeo - Christian is a term that groups Judaism and Christianity, either in reference to Christianity 's derivation from Judaism or due to perceived parallels or commonalities shared between those two religions.. The term became prevalent towards the middle of the 20th century in the United States to link broader principles of Judeo - Christian ethics such as dignity of human life, adherence to the Abrahamic Covenant, common decency, and support of traditional family values.
The concept of "Judeo - Christian values '' in an ethical (rather than theological or liturgical) sense was used by George Orwell in 1939, with the phrase "the Judaeo - Christian scheme of morals. '' It has become part of the "American civil religion '' since the 1940s.
The term "Abrahamic religions '' is used to include Bahá'ísm, Islam, Druze etc. as well as Judaism and Christianity.
The term is used, as "Judæo Christian '', at least as far back as in a letter from Alexander M'Caul dated October 17, 1821. The term in this case referred to Jewish converts to Christianity. The term is used similarly by Joseph Wolff in 1829, referring to a style of church that would keep with some Jewish traditions in order to convert Jews.
Use of the German term Judenchristlich ("Jewish - Christian ''), in a decidedly negative sense, can be found in the late writings of Friedrich Nietzsche, who emphasized what he saw as neglected aspects of continuity between the Jewish world view and that of Christianity. The expression appears in The Antichrist, published in 1895 and written several years earlier; a fuller development of Nietzsche 's argument can be found in a prior work, On the Genealogy of Morality.
Christianity inherits the notion of a "covenant '' from Second Temple Judaism, in the form of the Old Testament. Two major views of the relationship exist, namely New Covenant theology and Dual - covenant theology. In addition, although the order of the books in the Protestant Old Testament (excluding the Biblical apocrypha) and the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) differ, the contents of the books are very similar.
The Christian Old Testament is, thus, Jewish scripture, and it is used as moral and spiritual teaching material throughout the Christian world.
The prophets, patriarchs, and heroes of the Jewish scripture are also known in Christianity, which uses the Jewish text as the basis for its understanding of biblical figures such as Abraham, Elijah, and Moses. As a result, a substantial amount of Jewish and Christian teachings are based on a common sacred text.
Promoting the concept of United States as a Judeo - Christian nation based upon Judeo - Christian ethics first became a political program in the 1940s, in response to the growth of anti-Semitism in America. Jews played a small role in that but the rise of anti-semitism in the 1930s led concerned Protestants, Catholics, and Jews to take steps to increase mutual understanding and lessen the high levels of anti-semitism in the United States.
In this effort, precursors of the National Conference of Christians and Jews created teams consisting of a priest, a rabbi, and a minister, to run programs across the country, and fashion a more pluralistic America, no longer defined as a Christian land, but "one nurtured by three ennobling traditions: Protestantism, Catholicism and Judaism... The phrase ' Judeo - Christian ' entered the contemporary lexicon as the standard liberal term for the idea that Western values rest on a religious consensus that included Jews. ''
Through soul - searching in the aftermath of the Holocaust, "there was a revolution in Christian theology in America. (...) The greatest shift in Christian attitudes toward the Jewish people since Constantine converted the Roman Empire. '' The rise of Christian Zionism -- that is, religiously motivated Christian interest and support for the state of Israel -- along with a growth of philo - Semitism (love of the Jewish people) has increased interest among American Evangelicals in Judaism, especially areas of commonality with their own beliefs (see also Jerusalem in Christianity). During the late 1940s, Evangelical proponents of the new Judeo - Christian approach lobbied Washington for diplomatic support of the new state of Israel. The Evangelicals have never wavered in their support for Israel. On the other hand, by the late 1960s Mainline Protestant denominations and the National Council of Churches were showing more support for the Palestinians than for the Israelis. Interest in and a positive attitude towards America 's Judeo - Christian tradition has become mainstream among Evangelicals.
The scriptural basis for this new positive attitude towards Jews among Evangelicals is Genesis 12: 3, in which God promises that He will bless those who bless Abraham and his descendants, and curse those who curse them (see also "Abrahamic Covenant ''). Other factors in the new philo - Semitism include gratitude to the Jews for contributing to the theological foundations of Christianity and for being the source of the prophets and Jesus; remorse for the Church 's history of anti-Semitism; and fear that God will judge the nations at the end of time on the basis of how they treated the Jewish people. Moreover, for many Evangelicals Israel is seen as the instrument through which prophecies of the end times are fulfilled. Great numbers of Christian pilgrims visit Israel, especially in times of trouble for the Jewish state, to offer moral support, and return with an even greater sense of a shared Judeo - Christian heritage.
Response of Jews towards the "Judeo - Christian '' concept has been mixed. In the 1930s, "In the face of worldwide antisemitic efforts to stigmatize and destroy Judaism, influential Christians and Jews in America labored to uphold it, pushing Judaism from the margins of American religious life towards its very center. '' During World War II, Jewish chaplains worked with Catholic priests and Protestant ministers to promote goodwill, addressing servicemen who, "in many cases had never seen, much less heard a Rabbi speak before. '' At funerals for the unknown soldier, rabbis stood alongside the other chaplains and recited prayers in Hebrew. In a much publicized wartime tragedy, the sinking of the Dorchester, the ship 's multi-faith chaplains gave up their lifebelts to evacuating seamen and stood together "arm in arm in prayer '' as the ship went down. A 1948 postage stamp commemorated their heroism with the words: "interfaith in action. ''
In the 1950s, "a spiritual and cultural revival washed over American Jewry '' in response to the trauma of the Holocaust. American Jews became more confident to be identified as different.
Two notable books addressed the relations between contemporary Judaism and Christianity, Abba Hillel Silver 's Where Judaism Differs and Leo Baeck 's Judaism and Christianity, both motivated by an impulse to clarify Judaism 's distinctiveness "in a world where the term Judeo - Christian had obscured critical differences between the two faiths. '' Reacting against the blurring of theological distinctions, Rabbi Eliezer Berkovits wrote that "Judaism is Judaism because it rejects Christianity, and Christianity is Christianity because it rejects Judaism. '' Theologian and author Arthur A. Cohen, in The Myth of the Judeo - Christian Tradition, questioned the theological validity of the Judeo - Christian concept and suggested that it was essentially an invention of American politics, while Jacob Neusner, in Jews and Christians: The Myth of a Common Tradition, writes, "The two faiths stand for different people talking about different things to different people. ''
Law professor Stephen M. Feldman looking at the period before 1950, chiefly in Europe, sees religious conflict as supersessionism:
Once one recognizes that Christianity has historically engendered antisemitism, then this so - called tradition appears as dangerous Christian dogma (at least from a Jewish perspective). For Christians, the concept of a Judeo - Christian tradition comfortably suggests that Judaism progresses into Christianity -- that Judaism is somehow completed in Christianity. The concept of a Judeo - Christian tradition flows from the Christian theology of supersession, whereby the Christian covenant (or Testament) with God supersedes the Jewish one. Christianity, according to this myth, reforms and replaces Judaism. The myth therefore implies, first, that Judaism needs reformation and replacement, and second, that modern Judaism remains merely as a "relic ''. Most importantly the myth of the Judeo - Christian tradition insidiously obscures the real and significant differences between Judaism and Christianity.
Advocates of the term "Abrahamic religion '' since the second half of the 20th century have proposed a hyper - ecumenicism that emphasizes not only Judeo - Christian commonalities but that would include Islam as well (the rationale for the term "Abrahamic '' being that while only Christianity and Judaism give the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) the status of scripture, Islam does also trace its origins to the figure of Abraham as the "first Muslim '').
Advocates of this umbrella term consider it the "exploration of something positive '' in the sense of a "spiritual bond '' between Jews, Christians, and Muslims.
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when did the fall of the roman empire happen | Fall of the Western Roman Empire - wikipedia
The Fall of the Western Roman Empire (also called Fall of the Roman Empire or Fall of Rome) was the process of decline in the Western Roman Empire in which it failed to enforce its rule, and its vast territory was divided into several successor polities. The Roman Empire lost the strengths that had allowed it to exercise effective control over its Western provinces; modern historians mention factors including the effectiveness and numbers of the army, the health and numbers of the Roman population, the strength of the economy, the competence of the Emperors, the internal struggles for power, the religious changes of the period, and the efficiency of the civil administration. Increasing pressure from barbarians outside Roman culture also contributed greatly to the collapse. The reasons for the collapse are major subjects of the historiography of the ancient world and they inform much modern discourse on state failure.
Relevant dates include 117 CE, when the Empire was at its greatest territorial extent, and the accession of Diocletian in 284. Irreversible major territorial loss, however, began in 376 with a large - scale irruption of Goths and others. In 395, after winning two destructive civil wars, Theodosius I died, leaving a collapsing field army and the Empire, still plagued by Goths, divided between his two incapable sons. By 476 when Odoacer deposed the Emperor Romulus, the Western Roman Emperor wielded negligible military, political, or financial power and had no effective control over the scattered Western domains that could still be described as Roman. Invading barbarians had established their own power in most of the area of the Western Empire. While its legitimacy lasted for centuries longer and its cultural influence remains today, the Western Empire never had the strength to rise again.
The Fall is not the only unifying concept for these events; the period described as Late Antiquity emphasizes the cultural continuities throughout and beyond the political collapse.
Since 1776, when Edward Gibbon published the first volume of his The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Decline and Fall has been the theme around which much of the history of the Roman Empire has been structured. "From the eighteenth century onward, '' historian Glen Bowersock wrote, "we have been obsessed with the fall: it has been valued as an archetype for every perceived decline, and, hence, as a symbol for our own fears. '' The Fall is not the only unifying concept for these events; the period described as Late Antiquity emphasizes the cultural continuities throughout and beyond the political collapse.
The Fall of the Western Roman Empire was the process of decline in the Western Roman Empire in which it failed to enforce its rule. The loss of centralized political control over the West, and the lessened power of the East, are universally agreed, but the theme of decline has been taken to cover a much wider time span than the hundred years from 376. For Cassius Dio, the accession of the emperor Commodus in 180 CE marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron ''. Gibbon started his story in 98 and Theodor Mommsen regarded the whole of the imperial period as unworthy of inclusion in his Nobel Prize - winning History of Rome. Arnold J. Toynbee and James Burke argue that the entire Imperial era was one of steady decay of institutions founded in republican times. As one convenient marker for the end, 476 has been used since Gibbon, but other markers include the Crisis of the Third Century, the Crossing of the Rhine in 406 (or 405), the sack of Rome in 410, the death of Julius Nepos in 480, all the way to the Fall of New Rome in 1453.
Gibbon gave a classic formulation of reasons why the Fall happened. He began an ongoing controversy about the role of Christianity, but he gave great weight to other causes of internal decline and to attacks from outside the Empire.
The story of its ruin is simple and obvious; and, instead of inquiring why the Roman empire was destroyed, we should rather be surprised that it had subsisted so long. The victorious legions, who, in distant wars, acquired the vices of strangers and mercenaries, first oppressed the freedom of the republic, and afterwards violated the majesty of the purple. The emperors, anxious for their personal safety and the public peace, were reduced to the base expedient of corrupting the discipline which rendered them alike formidable to their sovereign and to the enemy; the vigour of the military government was relaxed, and finally dissolved, by the partial institutions of Constantine; and the Roman world was overwhelmed by a deluge of Barbarians.
Alexander Demandt enumerated 210 different theories on why Rome fell, and new ideas have emerged since. Historians still try to analyze the reasons for loss of political control over a vast territory (and, as a subsidiary theme, the reasons for the survival of the Eastern Roman Empire). Comparison has also been made with China after the end of the Han dynasty, which re-established unity under the Sui dynasty while the Mediterranean world remained politically disunited.
From at least the time of Henri Pirenne scholars have described a continuity of Roman culture and political legitimacy long after 476. Pirenne postponed the demise of classical civilization to the 8th century. He challenged the notion that Germanic barbarians had caused the Western Roman Empire to end, and he refused to equate the end of the Western Roman Empire with the end of the office of emperor in Italy. He pointed out the essential continuity of the economy of the Roman Mediterranean even after the barbarian invasions, and suggested that only the Muslim conquests represented a decisive break with antiquity. The more recent formulation of a historical period characterized as "Late Antiquity '' emphasizes the transformations of ancient to medieval worlds within a cultural continuity. In recent decades archaeologically - based argument even extends the continuity in material culture and in patterns of settlement as late as the eleventh century. Observing the political reality of lost control, but also the cultural and archaeological continuities, the process has been described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall.
The Roman Empire reached its greatest geographical extent under Trajan (emperor 98 -- 117), who ruled a prosperous state that stretched from Armenia to the Atlantic. The Empire had large numbers of trained, supplied, and disciplined soldiers, as well as a comprehensive civil administration based in thriving cities with effective control over public finances. Among its literate elite it had ideological legitimacy as the only worthwhile form of civilization and a cultural unity based on comprehensive familiarity with Greek and Roman literature and rhetoric. The Empire 's power allowed it to maintain extreme differences of wealth and status (including slavery on a large scale), and its wide - ranging trade networks permitted even modest households to use goods made by professionals far away.
Its financial system allowed it to raise significant taxes which, despite endemic corruption, supported a large regular army with logistics and training. The cursus honorum, a standardized series of military and civil posts organised for ambitious aristocratic men, ensured that powerful noblemen became familiar with military and civil command and administration. At a lower level within the army, connecting the aristocrats at the top with the private soldiers, a large number of centurions were well - rewarded, literate, and responsible for training, discipline, administration, and leadership in battle. City governments with their own properties and revenues functioned effectively at a local level; membership of city councils involved lucrative opportunities for independent decision - making, and, despite its obligations, became seen as a privilege. Under a series of emperors who each adopted a mature and capable successor, the Empire did not require civil wars to regulate the imperial succession. Requests could be submitted directly to the better emperors, and the answers had the force of law, putting the imperial power directly in touch with even humble subjects. The cults of polytheist religion were hugely varied, but none claimed that theirs was the only truth, and their followers displayed mutual tolerance, producing a polyphonous religious harmony. Religious strife was rare after the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 136 (after which the devastated Judaea ceased to be a major centre for Jewish unrest). Heavy mortality in 165 -- 180 from the Antonine Plague seriously impaired attempts to repel Germanic invaders, but the legions generally held or at least speedily re-instated the borders of the Empire.
The Empire suffered multiple serious crises during the third century. The rising Sassanid Empire inflicted three crushing defeats on Roman field armies and remained a potent threat for centuries. Other disasters included repeated civil wars, barbarian invasions, and more mass - mortality in the Plague of Cyprian (from 250 onwards). Rome abandoned the province of Dacia on the north of the Danube (271), and for a short period the Empire split into a Gallic Empire in the West (260 -- 274), a Palmyrene Empire in the East (260 -- 273), and a central Roman rump state. The Rhine / Danube frontier also came under more effective threats from larger barbarian groupings, which had developed improved agriculture and increased their populations. The Empire survived the "Crisis of the Third Century '', directing its economy successfully towards defense, but survival came at the price of a more centralized and bureaucratic state. Under Gallienus (Emperor from 253 to 268) the senatorial aristocracy ceased joining the ranks of the senior military commanders, its typical members lacking interest in military service and showing incompetence at command.
Aurelian reunited the empire in 274; and from 284 Diocletian and his successors reorganized it with more emphasis on the military. John the Lydian, writing over two centuries later, reported that Diocletian 's army at one point totaled 389,704 men, plus 45,562 in the fleets, and numbers may have increased later. With the limited communications of the time, both the European and the Eastern frontiers needed the attention of their own supreme commanders. Diocletian tried to solve this problem by re-establishing an adoptive succession with a senior (Augustus) and junior (Caesar) emperor in each half of the Empire, but this system of tetrarchy broke down within one generation; the hereditary principle re-established itself with generally unfortunate results, and thereafter civil war became again the main method of establishing new imperial regimes. Although Constantine the Great (in office 306 to 337) again re-united the Empire, towards the end of the fourth century the need for division was generally accepted. From then on, the Empire existed in constant tension between the need for two emperors and their mutual mistrust.
Until late in the fourth century the united Empire retained sufficient power to launch attacks against its enemies in Germania and in the Sassanid Empire. Receptio of barbarians became widely practiced: imperial authorities admitted potentially hostile groups into the Empire, split them up, and allotted to them lands, status, and duties within the imperial system. In this way many groups provided unfree workers (coloni) for Roman landowners, and recruits (laeti) for the Roman army. Sometimes their leaders became officers. Normally the Romans managed the process carefully, with sufficient military force on hand to ensure compliance, and cultural assimilation followed over the next generation or two.
The new supreme rulers disposed of the legal fiction of the early Empire (seeing the emperor as but the first among equals); emperors from Aurelian (reigned 270 -- 275) onwards openly styled themselves as dominus et deus, "lord and god '', titles appropriate for a master - slave relationship. An elaborate court ceremonial developed, and obsequious flattery became the order of the day. Under Diocletian, the flow of direct requests to the emperor rapidly reduced and soon ceased altogether. No other form of direct access replaced them, and the emperor received only information filtered through his courtiers.
Official cruelty, supporting extortion and corruption, may also have become more commonplace. While the scale, complexity, and violence of government were unmatched, the emperors lost control over their whole realm insofar as that control came increasingly to be wielded by anyone who paid for it. Meanwhile, the richest senatorial families, immune from most taxation, engrossed more and more of the available wealth and income, while also becoming divorced from any tradition of military excellence. One scholar identifies a great increase in the purchasing power of gold, two and a half fold from 274 to the later fourth century, which may be an index of growing economic inequality between a gold - rich elite and a cash - poor peasantry.
Within the late Roman military, many recruits and even officers had barbarian origins, and soldiers are recorded as using possibly - barbarian rituals such as elevating a claimant on shields. Some scholars have seen this as an indication of weakness; others disagree, seeing neither barbarian recruits nor new rituals as causing any problem with the effectiveness or loyalty of the army.
In 313 Constantine I declared official toleration of Christianity, followed over the ensuing decades by establishment of Christian orthodoxy and by official and private action against pagans and non-orthodox Christians. His successors generally continued this process, and Christianity became the religion of any ambitious civil official. Under Constantine the cities lost their revenue from local taxes, and under Constantius II (r. 337 -- 361) their endowments of property. This worsened the existing difficulty in keeping the city councils up to strength, and the services provided by the cities were scamped or abandoned. Public building projects became fewer, more often repairs than new construction, and now provided at state expense rather than by local grandees wishing to consolidate long - term local influence. A further financial abuse was Constantius 's increased habit of granting to his immediate entourage the estates of persons condemned of treason and other capital charges; this reduced future though not immediate income, and those close to the emperor gained a strong incentive to stimulate his suspicion of plots.
Constantine settled Franks on the lower left bank of the Rhine; their settlements required a line of fortifications to keep them in check, indicating that Rome had lost almost all local control. Under Constantius, bandits came to dominate areas such as Isauria well within the empire. The tribes of Germany also became more populous and more threatening. In Gaul, which did not really recover from the invasions of the third century, there was widespread insecurity and economic decline in the 300s, perhaps worst in Armorica. By 350, after decades of pirate attacks, virtually all villas in Armorica were deserted, and local use of money ceased about 360. Repeated attempts to economize on military expenditure included billeting troops in cities, where they could less easily be kept under military discipline and could more easily extort from civilians. Except in the rare case of a determined and incorruptible general, these troops proved ineffective in action and dangerous to civilians. Frontier troops were often given land rather than pay; as they farmed for themselves, their direct costs diminished, but so did their effectiveness, and there was much less economic stimulus to the frontier economy. However, except for the provinces along the lower Rhine, the agricultural economy was generally doing well. The average nutritional state of the population in the West suffered a serious decline in the late second century; the population of North - Western Europe did not recover, though the Mediterranean regions did.
The numbers and effectiveness of the regular soldiers may have declined during the fourth century: payrolls were inflated so that pay could be diverted and exemptions from duty sold, their opportunities for personal extortion were multiplied by residence in cities, and their effectiveness was reduced by concentration on extortion instead of drill. However, extortion, gross corruption, and occasional ineffectiveness were not new to the Roman army; there is no consensus whether its effectiveness significantly declined before 376. Ammianus Marcellinus, himself a professional soldier, repeats longstanding observations about the superiority of contemporary Roman armies being due to training and discipline, not to physical size or strength. Despite a possible decrease in its ability to assemble and supply large armies, Rome maintained an aggressive and potent stance against perceived threats almost to the end of the fourth century.
Julian (r. 360 -- 363) launched a drive against official corruption which allowed the tax demands in Gaul to be reduced to one - third of their previous amount, while all government requirements were still met. In civil legislation Julian was notable for his pro-pagan policies. All Christian sects were officially tolerated by Julian, persecution of heretics was forbidden, and non-Christian religions were encouraged. Some Christians continued to destroy temples, disrupt rituals, and break sacred images, seeking martyrdom and at times achieving it at the hands of non-Christian mobs or secular authorities; some pagans attacked the Christians who had previously been involved with the destruction of temples.
Julian won victories against Germans who had invaded Gaul. He launched an expensive campaign against the Persians, which ended in defeat and his own death. He succeeded in marching to the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, but lacked adequate supplies for an assault. He burned his boats and supplies to show resolve in continuing operations, but the Sassanids began a war of attrition by burning crops. Finding himself cut off in enemy territory, he began a land retreat during which he was mortally wounded. His successor Jovian, acclaimed by a demoralized army, began his brief reign (363 -- 364) trapped in Mesopotamia without supplies. To purchase safe passage home, he had to concede areas of northern Mesopotamia and Kurdistan, including the strategically important fortress of Nisibis, which had been Roman since before the Peace of Nisibis in 299.
The brothers Valens (r. 364 -- 378) and Valentinian I (r. 364 -- 375) energetically tackled the threats of barbarian attacks on all the Western frontiers and tried to alleviate the burdens of taxation, which had risen continuously over the previous forty years; Valens in the East reduced the tax demand by half in his fourth year.
Both were Christians and confiscated the temple lands that Julian had restored, but were generally tolerant of other beliefs. Valentinian in the West refused to intervene in religious controversy; in the East, Valens had to deal with Christians who did not conform to his ideas of orthodoxy, and persecution formed part of his response. The wealth of the church increased dramatically, immense resources both public and private being used for ecclesiastical construction and support of the religious life. Bishops in wealthy cities were thus able to offer vast patronage; Ammianus described some as "enriched from the offerings of matrons, ride seated in carriages, wearing clothing chosen with care, and serve banquets so lavish that their entertainments outdo the tables of kings ''. Edward Gibbon remarked that "the soldiers ' pay was lavished on the useless multitudes of both sexes who could only plead the merits of abstinence and chastity '', though there are no figures for the monks and nuns nor for their maintenance costs. Pagan rituals and buildings had not been cheap either; the move to Christianity may not have had significant effects on the public finances. Some public disorder also followed competition for prestigious posts; Pope Damasus I was installed in 366 after an election whose casualties included a hundred and thirty - seven corpses in the basilica of Sicininus.
Valentinian died of an apoplexy while personally shouting at envoys of Germanic leaders. His successors in the West were children, his sons Gratian (r. 375 -- 383) and Valentinian II (r. 375 -- 392). Gratian, "alien from the art of government both by temperament and by training '' removed the Altar of Victory from the Senate House, and he rejected the pagan title of Pontifex Maximus.
In 376 the East faced an enormous barbarian influx across the Danube, mostly Goths who were refugees from the Huns. They were exploited by corrupt officials rather than effectively resettled, and they took up arms, joined by more Goths and by some Alans and Huns. Valens was in Asia with his main field army, preparing for an assault on the Persians, and redirecting the army and its logistic support would have required time. Gratian 's armies were distracted by Germanic invasions across the Rhine. In 378 Valens attacked the invaders with the Eastern field army, perhaps some 20,000 men -- possibly only 10 % of the soldiers nominally available in the Danube provinces -- and in the Battle of Adrianople, 9 August 378, he lost much of that army and his own life. All of the Balkan provinces were thus exposed to raiding, without effective response from the remaining garrisons who were "more easily slaughtered than sheep ''. Cities were able to hold their own walls against barbarians who had no siege equipment, and they generally remained intact although the countryside suffered.
Gratian appointed a new Augustus, a proven general from Hispania called Theodosius. During the next four years, he partially re-established the Roman position in the East. These campaigns depended on effective imperial coordination and mutual trust -- between 379 and 380 Theodosius controlled not only the Eastern empire, but also, by agreement, the diocese of Illyricum. Theodosius was unable to recruit enough Roman troops, relying on barbarian warbands without Roman military discipline or loyalty. In contrast, during the Cimbrian War, the Roman Republic, controlling a smaller area than the western Empire, had been able to reconstitute large regular armies of citizens after greater defeats than Adrianople, and it ended that war with the near - extermination of the invading barbarian supergroups, each recorded as having more than 100,000 warriors (with allowances for the usual exaggeration of numbers by ancient authors). Theodosius 's partial failure may have stimulated Vegetius to offer advice on re-forming an effective army (the advice may date from the 390s or from the 430s):
From the foundation of the city till the reign of the Emperor Gratian, the foot wore cuirasses and helmets. But negligence and sloth having by degrees introduced a total relaxation of discipline, the soldiers began to think their armor too heavy, as they seldom put it on. They first requested leave from the Emperor to lay aside the cuirass and afterwards the helmet. In consequence of this, our troops in their engagements with the Goths were often overwhelmed with their showers of arrows. Nor was the necessity of obliging the infantry to resume their cuirasses and helmets discovered, notwithstanding such repeated defeats, which brought on the destruction of so many great cities. Troops, defenseless and exposed to all the weapons of the enemy, are more disposed to fly than fight. What can be expected from a foot - archer without cuirass or helmet, who can not hold at once his bow and shield; or from the ensigns whose bodies are naked, and who can not at the same time carry a shield and the colors? The foot soldier finds the weight of a cuirass and even of a helmet intolerable. This is because he is so seldom exercised and rarely puts them on.
The final Gothic settlement was acclaimed with relief, even the official panegyrist admitting that these Goths could not be expelled or exterminated, nor reduced to unfree status. Instead they were either recruited into the imperial forces, or settled in the devastated provinces along the south bank of the Danube, where the regular garrisons were never fully re-established. In some later accounts, and widely in recent work, this is regarded as a treaty settlement, the first time that barbarians were given a home within the Empire in which they retained their political and military cohesion. No formal treaty is recorded, nor details of whatever agreement was actually made, and when "the Goths '' re-emerge in our records they have different leaders and are soldiers of a sort. In 391 Alaric, a Gothic leader, rebelled against Roman control. Goths attacked the emperor himself, but within a year Alaric was accepted as a leader of Theodosius 's Gothic troops and this rebellion was over.
Theodosius 's financial position must have been difficult, since he had to pay for expensive campaigning from a reduced tax base. The business of subduing barbarian warbands also demanded substantial gifts of precious metal. Nevertheless, he is represented as financially lavish, though personally frugal when on campaign. At least one extra levy provoked desperation and rioting in which the emperor 's statues were destroyed. He was pious, a Nicene Christian heavily influenced by Ambrose, and implacable against heretics. In 392 he forbade even private honor to the gods, and pagan rituals such as the Olympic Games. He either ordered or connived at the widespread destruction of sacred buildings.
Theodosius had to face a powerful usurper in the West; Magnus Maximus declared himself Emperor in 383, stripped troops from the outlying regions of Britannia (probably replacing some with federate chieftains and their war - bands) and invaded Gaul. His troops killed Gratian and he was accepted as Augustus in the Gallic provinces, where he was responsible for the first official executions of Christian heretics. To compensate the Western court for the loss of Gaul, Hispania, and Britannia, Theodosius ceded the diocese of Dacia and the diocese of Macedonia to their control. In 387 Maximus invaded Italy, forcing Valentinian II to flee to the East, where he accepted Nicene Christianity. Maximus boasted to Ambrose of the numbers of barbarians in his forces, and hordes of Goths, Huns, and Alans followed Theodosius. Maximus negotiated with Theodosius for acceptance as Augustus of the West, but Theodosius refused, gathered his armies, and counterattacked, winning the civil war in 388. There were heavy troop losses on both sides of the conflict. Later Welsh legend has Maximus 's defeated troops resettled in Armorica, instead of returning to Britannia, and by 400, Armorica was controlled by Bagaudae rather than by imperial authority.
Theodosius restored Valentinian II, still a very young man, as Augustus in the West. He also appointed Arbogast, a pagan general of Frankish origin, as Valentinian 's commander - in - chief and guardian. Valentinian quarreled in public with Arbogast, failed to assert any authority, and died, either by suicide or by murder, at the age of 21. Arbogast and Theodosius failed to come to terms and Arbogast nominated an imperial official, Eugenius (r. 392 -- 394), as emperor in the West. Eugenius made some modest attempts to win pagan support, and with Arbogast led a large army to fight another destructive civil war. They were defeated and killed at the Battle of the Frigidus, which was attended by further heavy losses especially among the Gothic federates of Theodosius. The north - eastern approaches to Italy were never effectively garrisoned again.
Theodosius died a few months later in early 395, leaving his young sons Honorius (r. 395 -- 423) and Arcadius (r. 395 -- 408) as emperors. In the immediate aftermath of Theodosius 's death, the magister militum Stilicho, married to Theodosius 's niece, asserted himself in the West as the guardian of Honorius and commander of the remains of the defeated Western army. He also claimed control over Arcadius in Constantinople, but Rufinus, magister officiorum on the spot, had already established his own power there. Henceforward the Empire was not under the control of one man, until much of the West had been permanently lost. Neither Honorius nor Arcadius ever displayed any ability either as rulers or as generals, and both lived as the puppets of their courts. Stilicho tried to reunite the Eastern and Western courts under his personal control, but in doing so achieved only the continued hostility of all of Arcadius 's successive supreme ministers.
The ineffectiveness of Roman military responses from Stilicho onwards has been described as "shocking '', with little evidence of indigenous field forces or of adequate training, discipline, pay, or supply for the barbarians who formed most of the available troops. Local defence was occasionally effective, but was often associated with withdrawal from central control and taxes; in many areas, barbarians under Roman authority attacked culturally - Roman "Bagaudae ''.
Corruption, in this context the diversion of public finance from the needs of the army, may have contributed greatly to the Fall. The rich senatorial aristocrats in Rome itself became increasingly influential during the fifth century; they supported armed strength in theory, but did not wish to pay for it or to offer their own workers as army recruits. They did, however, pass large amounts of money to the Christian Church. At a local level, from the early fourth century, the town councils lost their property and their power, which often became concentrated in the hands of a few local despots beyond the reach of the law.
The fifth - century Western emperors, with brief exceptions, were individuals incapable of ruling effectively or even of controlling their own courts. Those exceptions were responsible for brief, but remarkable resurgences of Roman power.
Without an authoritative ruler, the Balkan provinces fell rapidly into disorder. Alaric was disappointed in his hopes for promotion to magister militum after the battle of the Frigidus. He again led Gothic tribesmen in arms and established himself as an independent power, burning the countryside as far as the walls of Constantinople. Alaric 's ambitions for long - term Roman office were never quite acceptable to the Roman imperial courts, and his men could never settle long enough to farm in any one area. They showed no inclination to leave the Empire and face the Huns from whom they had fled in 376; indeed the Huns were still stirring up further migrations which often ended by attacking Rome in turn. Alaric 's group was never destroyed nor expelled from the Empire, nor acculturated under effective Roman domination.
Stilicho moved with his remaining mobile forces into Greece, a clear threat to Rufinus ' control of the Eastern empire. The bulk of Rufinus ' forces were occupied with Hunnic incursions in Asia Minor and Syria, leaving Thrace undefended. He opted to enlist Alaric and his men, and sent them to Thessaly to stave off Stilicho 's threat, which they did. No battle took place. Stilicho was forced to send some of his Eastern forces home. They went to Constantinople under the command of one Gainas, a Goth with a large Gothic following. On arrival, Gainas murdered Rufinus, and was appointed magister militum for Thrace by Eutropius, the new supreme minister and the only eunuch consul of Rome, who controlled Arcadius "as if he were a sheep ''. Stilicho obtained a few more troops from the German frontier and continued to campaign ineffectively against the Eastern empire; again he was successfully opposed by Alaric and his men. During the next year, 397, Eutropius personally led his troops to victory over some Huns who were marauding in Asia Minor. With his position thus strengthened he declared Stilicho a public enemy, and he established Alaric as magister militum per Illyricum. A poem by Synesius advises the emperor to display manliness and remove a "skin - clad savage '' (probably Alaric) from the councils of power and his barbarians from the Roman army. We do not know if Arcadius ever became aware of the existence of this advice, but it had no recorded effect. Synesius, from a province suffering the widespread ravages of a few poor but greedy barbarians, also complained of "the peacetime war, one almost worse than the barbarian war and arising from military indiscipline and the officer 's greed. ''
The magister militum in the Diocese of Africa declared for the East and stopped the supply of grain to Rome. Italy had not fed itself for centuries and could not do so now. In 398, Stilicho sent his last reserves, a few thousand men, to re-take the Diocese of Africa, and he strengthened his position further when he married his daughter Maria to Honorius. Throughout this period Stilicho, and all other generals, were desperately short of recruits and supplies for them. In 400, Stilicho was charged to press into service any "laetus, Alamannus, Sarmatian, vagrant, son of a veteran '' or any other person liable to serve. He had reached the bottom of his recruitment pool. Though personally not corrupt, he was very active in confiscating assets; the financial and administrative machine was not producing enough support for the army.
In 399, Tribigild 's rebellion in Asia Minor allowed Gainas to accumulate a significant army (mostly Goths), become supreme in the Eastern court, and execute Eutropius. He now felt that he could dispense with Alaric 's services and he nominally transferred Alaric 's province to the West. This administrative change removed Alaric 's Roman rank and his entitlement to legal provisioning for his men, leaving his army -- the only significant force in the ravaged Balkans -- as a problem for Stilicho. In 400, the citizens of Constantinople revolted against Gainas and massacred as many of his people, soldiers and their families, as they could catch. Some Goths at least built rafts and tried to cross the strip of sea that separates Asia from Europe; the Roman navy slaughtered them. By the beginning of 401, Gainas ' head rode a pike through Constantinople while another Gothic general became consul. Meanwhile, groups of Huns started a series of attacks across the Danube, and the Isaurians marauded far and wide in Anatolia.
In 401 Stilicho travelled over the Alps to Raetia, to scrape up further troops. He left the Rhine defended only by the "dread '' of Roman retaliation, rather than by adequate forces able to take the field. Early in spring, Alaric, probably desperate, invaded Italy, and he drove Honorius westward from Mediolanum, besieging him in Hasta Pompeia in Liguria. Stilicho returned as soon as the passes had cleared, meeting Alaric in two battles (near Pollentia and Verona) without decisive results. The Goths, weakened, were allowed to retreat back to Illyricum where the Western court again gave Alaric office, though only as comes and only over Dalmatia and Pannonia Secunda rather than the whole of Illyricum. Stilicho probably supposed that this pact would allow him to put Italian government into order and recruit fresh troops. He may also have planned with Alaric 's help to relaunch his attempts to gain control over the Eastern court.
However, in 405, Stilicho was distracted by a fresh invasion of Northern Italy. Another group of Goths fleeing the Huns, led by one Radagaisus, devastated the north of Italy for six months before Stilicho could muster enough forces to take the field against them. Stilicho recalled troops from Britannia and the depth of the crisis was shown when he urged all Roman soldiers to allow their personal slaves to fight beside them. His forces, including Hun and Alan auxiliaries, may in the end have totalled rather less than 15,000 men. Radagaisus was defeated and executed. 12,000 prisoners from the defeated horde were drafted into Stilicho 's service. Stilicho continued negotiations with Alaric; Flavius Aetius, son of one of Stilicho 's major supporters, was sent as a hostage to Alaric in 405. In 406 Stilicho, hearing of new invaders and rebels who had appeared in the northern provinces, insisted on making peace with Alaric, probably on the basis that Alaric would prepare to move either against the Eastern court or against the rebels in Gaul. The Senate deeply resented peace with Alaric; in 407, when Alaric marched into Noricum and demanded a large payment for his expensive efforts in Stilicho 's interests, the senate, "inspired by the courage, rather than the wisdom, of their predecessors, '' preferred war. One senator famously declaimed Non est ista pax, sed pactio servitutis ("This is not peace, but a pact of servitude ''). Stilicho paid Alaric four thousand pounds of gold nevertheless. Stilicho sent Sarus, a Gothic general, over the Alps to face the usurper Constantine III, but he lost and barely escaped, having to leave his baggage to the bandits who now infested the Alpine passes.
The empress Maria, daughter of Stilicho, died in 407 or early 408 and her sister Aemilia Materna Thermantia married Honorius. In the East, Arcadius died on 1 May 408 and was replaced by his son Theodosius II; Stilicho seems to have planned to march to Constantinople, and to install there a regime loyal to himself. He may also have intended to give Alaric a senior official position and send him against the rebels in Gaul. Before he could do so, while he was away at Ticinum at the head of a small detachment, a bloody coup against his supporters took place at Honorius 's court. It was led by Stilicho 's own creature, one Olympius.
Stilicho had news of the coup at Bononia (where he was probably waiting for Alaric). His small escort of barbarians was led by Sarus, who rebelled. His Gothic troops massacred the Hun contingent in their sleep, and then withdrew towards the cities in which their families were billeted. Stilicho ordered that these troops should not be admitted, but, now without an army, he was forced to flee for sanctuary, promised his life, and killed.
Alaric was again declared an enemy of the Emperor. The conspiracy then massacred the families of the federate troops (as presumed supporters of Stilicho, although they had probably rebelled against him), and the troops defected en masse to Alaric. The conspirators seem to have let their main army disintegrate, and had no policy except hunting down supporters of Stilicho. Italy was left without effective indigenous defence forces thereafter. Heraclianus, a co-conspirator of Olympius, became governor of the Diocese of Africa, where he controlled the source of most of Italy 's grain, and he supplied food only in the interests of Honorius 's regime.
As a declared ' enemy of the Emperor ', Alaric was denied the legitimacy that he needed to collect taxes and hold cities without large garrisons, which he could not afford to detach. He again offered to move his men, this time to Pannonia, in exchange for a modest sum of money and the modest title of Comes, but he was refused as a supporter of Stilicho. He moved into Italy, probably using the route and supplies arranged for him by Stilicho, bypassing the imperial court in Ravenna which was protected by widespread marshland and had a port, and he menaced the city of Rome itself. In 407, there was no equivalent of the determined response to the catastrophic Battle of Cannae in 216 BCE, when the entire Roman population, even slaves, had been mobilized to resist the enemy.
Alaric 's military operations centred on the port of Rome, through which Rome 's grain supply had to pass. Alaric 's first siege of Rome in 408 caused dreadful famine within the walls. It was ended by a payment that, though large, was less than one of the richest senators could have produced. The super-rich aristocrats made little contribution; pagan temples were stripped of ornaments to make up the total. With promises of freedom, Alaric also recruited many of the slaves in Rome.
Alaric withdrew to Tuscany and recruited more slaves. Ataulf, a Goth nominally in Roman service and brother - in - law to Alaric, marched through Italy to join Alaric despite taking casualties from a small force of Hunnic mercenaries led by Olympius. Sarus was an enemy of Ataulf, and on Ataulf 's arrival went back into imperial service.
In 409 Olympius fell to further intrigue, having his ears cut off before he was beaten to death. Alaric tried again to negotiate with Honorius, but his demands (now even more moderate, only frontier land and food) were inflated by the messenger and Honorius responded with insults, which were reported verbatim to Alaric. He broke off negotiations and the standoff continued. Honorius 's court made overtures to the usurper Constantine III in Gaul and arranged to bring Hunnic forces into Italy, Alaric ravaged Italy outside the fortified cities (which he could not garrison), and the Romans refused open battle (for which they had inadequate forces). Late in the year Alaric sent bishops to express his readiness to leave Italy if Honorius would only grant his people a supply of grain. Honorius, sensing weakness, flatly refused.
Alaric moved to Rome and captured Galla Placidia, sister of Honorius. The Senate in Rome, despite its loathing for Alaric, was now desperate enough to give him almost anything he wanted. They had no food to offer, but they tried to give him imperial legitimacy; with the Senate 's acquiescence, he elevated Priscus Attalus as his puppet emperor, and he marched on Ravenna. Honorius was planning to flee to Constantinople when a reinforcing army of 4,000 soldiers from the East disembarked in Ravenna. These garrisoned the walls and Honorius held on. He had Constantine 's principal court supporter executed and Constantine abandoned plans to march to Honorius 's defence. Attalus failed to establish his control over the Diocese of Africa, and no grain arrived in Rome where the famine became even more frightful. Jerome reports cannibalism within the walls. Attalus brought Alaric no real advantage, failing also to come to any useful agreement with Honorius (who was offered mutilation, humiliation, and exile). Indeed, Attalus 's claim was a marker of threat to Honorius, and Alaric dethroned him after a few months.
In 410 Alaric took Rome by starvation, sacked it for three days (there was relatively little destruction, and in some Christian holy places Alaric 's men even refrained from wanton wrecking and rape), and invited its remaining barbarian slaves to join him, which many did. The city of Rome was the seat of the richest senatorial noble families and the centre of their cultural patronage; to pagans it was the sacred origin of the empire, and to Christians the seat of the heir of Saint Peter, Pope Innocent I, the most authoritative bishop of the West. Rome had not fallen to an enemy since the Battle of the Allia over eight centuries before. Refugees spread the news and their stories throughout the Empire, and the meaning of the fall was debated with religious fervour. Both Christians and pagans wrote embittered tracts, blaming paganism or Christianity respectively for the loss of Rome 's supernatural protection, and blaming Stilicho 's earthly failures in either case. Some Christian responses anticipated the imminence of Judgement Day. Augustine in his book "City of God '' ultimately rejected the pagan and Christian idea that religion should have worldly benefits; he developed the doctrine that the City of God in heaven, undamaged by mundane disasters, was the true objective of Christians. More practically, Honorius was briefly persuaded to set aside the laws forbidding pagans to be military officers, so that one Generidus could re-establish Roman control in Dalmatia. Generidus did this with unusual effectiveness; his techniques were remarkable for this period, in that they included training his troops, disciplining them, and giving them appropriate supplies even if he had to use his own money. The penal laws were reinstated no later than 25 August 410 and the overall trend of repression of paganism continued.
Procopius mentions a story in which Honorius, on hearing the news that Rome had "perished '', was shocked, thinking the news was in reference to his favorite chicken he had named "Roma ''. On hearing that Rome itself had fallen he breathed a sigh of relief:
At that time they say that the Emperor Honorius in Ravenna received the message from one of the eunuchs, evidently a keeper of the poultry, that Roma had perished. And he cried out and said, "And yet it has just eaten from my hands! '' For he had a very large cockerel, Roma by name; and the eunuch comprehending his words said that it was the city of Roma which had perished at the hands of Alaric, and the emperor with a sigh of relief answered quickly: "But I thought that my fowl Roma had perished. '' So great, they say, was the folly with which this emperor was possessed.
Alaric then moved south, intending to sail to Africa, but his ships were wrecked in a storm and he shortly died of fever. His successor Ataulf, still regarded as an usurper and given only occasional and short - term grants of supplies, moved north into the turmoil of Gaul, where there was some prospect of food. His supergroup of barbarians are called the Visigoths in modern works: they may now have been developing their own sense of identity.
The Crossing of the Rhine in 405 / 6 brought unmanageable numbers of German and Alan barbarians (perhaps some 30,000 warriors, 100,000 people) into Gaul. They may have been trying to get away from the Huns, who about this time advanced to occupy the Great Hungarian Plain. For the next few years these barbarian tribes wandered in search of food and employment, while Roman forces fought each other in the name of Honorius and a number of competing claimants to the imperial throne.
The remaining troops in Britannia elevated a succession of imperial usurpers. The last, Constantine III, raised an army from the remaining troops in Britannia, invaded Gaul and defeated forces loyal to Honorius led by Sarus. Constantine 's power reached its peak in 409 when he controlled Gaul and beyond, he was joint consul with Honorius and his magister militum Gerontius defeated the last Roman force to try to hold the borders of Hispania. It was led by relatives of Honorius; Constantine executed them. Gerontius went to Hispania where he may have settled the Sueves and the Asding Vandals. Gerontius then fell out with his master and elevated one Maximus as his own puppet emperor. He defeated Constantine and was besieging him in Arelate when Honorius 's general Constantius arrived from Italy with an army (possibly, mainly of Hun mercenaries). Gerontius 's troops deserted him and he committed suicide. Constantius continued the siege, defeating a relieving army. Constantine surrendered in 411 with a promise that his life would be spared, and was executed.
In 410, the Roman civitates of Britannia rebelled against Constantine and evicted his officials. They asked for help from Honorius, who replied that they should look to their own defence. While the British may have regarded themselves as Roman for several generations, and British armies may at times have fought in Gaul, no central Roman government is known to have appointed officials in Britannia thereafter.
In 411, Jovinus rebelled and took over Constantine 's remaining troops on the Rhine. He relied on the support of Burgundians and Alans to whom he offered supplies and land. In 413 Jovinus also recruited Sarus; Ataulf destroyed their regime in the name of Honorius and both Jovinus and Sarus were executed. The Burgundians were settled on the left bank of the Rhine. Ataulf then operated in the south of Gaul, sometimes with short - term supplies from the Romans. All usurpers had been defeated, but large barbarian groups remained un-subdued in both Gaul and Hispania.. The imperial government was quick to restore the Rhine frontier. The invading tribes of 407 had passed into Spain at the end of 409 but the Visigoths had exited Italy at the beginning of 412 and settled themselves in Narbo.
Heraclianus was still in command in the diocese of Africa, the last of the clique that overthrew Stilicho to retain power. In 413 he led an invasion of Italy, lost to a subordinate of Constantius, and fled back to Africa where he was murdered by Constantius 's agents.
In January 414 Roman naval forces blockaded Ataulf in Narbo, where he married Galla Placidia. The choir at the wedding included Attalus, a puppet emperor without revenues or soldiers. Ataulf famously declared that he had abandoned his intention to set up a Gothic empire because of the irredeemable barbarity of his followers, and instead he sought to restore the Roman Empire. He handed Attalus over to Honorius 's regime for mutilation, humiliation, and exile, and abandoned Attalus 's supporters. (One of them, Paulinus Pellaeus, recorded that the Goths considered themselves merciful for allowing him and his household to leave destitute, but alive, without being raped.) Ataulf moved out of Gaul, to Barcelona. There his infant son by Galla Placidia was buried, and there Ataulf was assassinated by one of his household retainers, possibly a former follower of Sarus. His ultimate successor Wallia had no agreement with the Romans; his people had to plunder in Hispania for food.
In 416 Wallia reached agreement with Constantius; he sent Galla Placidia back to Honorius and received provisions, six hundred thousand modii of wheat. From 416 to 418, Wallia 's Goths campaigned in Hispania on Constantius 's behalf, exterminating the Siling Vandals in Baetica and reducing the Alans to the point where the survivors sought the protection of the king of the Asding Vandals. (After retrenchment they formed another barbarian supergroup, but for the moment they were reduced in numbers and effectively cowed.) In 418, by agreement with Constantius, Wallia 's Goths accepted land to farm in Aquitania. Constantius also reinstituted an annual council of the southern Gallic provinces, to meet at Arelate. Although Constantius rebuilt the western field army to some extent -- the Notitia Dignitatum gives a list of the units of the western field army at this time -- he did so only by replacing half of its units (vanished in the wars since 395) by re-graded barbarians, and by garrison troops removed from the frontier.
Constantius had married the princess Galla Placidia (despite her protests) in 417. The couple soon had two children, Honoria and Valentinian III, and Constantius was elevated to the position of Augustus in 420. This earned him the hostility of the Eastern court, which had not agreed to his elevation. Nevertheless, Constantius had achieved an unassailable position at the Western court, in the imperial family, and as the able commander - in - chief of a partially restored army.
This settlement represented a real success for the Empire -- a poem by Rutilius Namatianus celebrates his voyage back to Gaul in 417 and his confidence in a restoration of prosperity. But it marked huge losses of territory and of revenue; Rutilius travelled by ship past the ruined bridges and countryside of Tuscany, and in the west the River Loire had become the effective northern boundary of Roman Gaul. In the east of Gaul the Franks controlled large areas; the effective line of Roman control until 455 ran from north of Cologne (lost to the Ripuarian Franks in 459) to Boulogne. The Italian areas which had been compelled to support the Goths had most of their taxes remitted for several years. Even in southern Gaul and Hispania large barbarian groups remained, with thousands of warriors, in their own non-Roman military and social systems. Some occasionally acknowledged a degree of Roman political control, but without the local application of Roman leadership and military power they and their individual subgroups pursued their own interests.
Constantius died in 421, after only seven months as Augustus. He had been careful to make sure that there was no successor in waiting, and his own children were far too young to take his place. Honorius was unable to control his own court and the death of Constantius initiated more than ten years of instability. Initially Galla Placidia sought Honorius 's favour in the hope that her son might ultimately inherit. Other court interests managed to defeat her, and she fled with her children to the Eastern court in 422. Honorius himself died, shortly before his thirty - ninth birthday, in 423. After some months of intrigue, the patrician Castinus installed Joannes as Western Emperor, but the Eastern Roman government proclaimed the child Valentinian III instead, his mother Galla Placidia acting as regent during his minority. Joannes had few troops of his own. He sent Aetius to raise help from the Huns. An Eastern army landed in Italy, captured Joannes, cut his hand off, abused him in public, and killed him with most of his senior officials. Aetius returned, three days after Joannes ' death, at the head of a substantial Hunnic army which made him the most powerful general in Italy. After some fighting, Placidia and Aetius came to an agreement; the Huns were paid off and sent home, while Aetius received the position of magister militum.
Galla Placidia, as Augusta, mother of the Emperor, and his guardian until 437, could maintain a dominant position in court, but women in Ancient Rome did not exercise military power and she could not herself become a general. She tried for some years to avoid reliance on a single dominant military figure, maintaining a balance of power between her three senior officers, Aetius (magister militum in Gaul), Count Boniface governor in the Diocese of Africa, and Flavius Felix magister militum praesentalis in Italy. Meanwhile, the Empire deteriorated seriously. Apart from the losses in the Diocese of Africa, Hispania was slipping out of central control and into the hands of local rulers and Suevic bandits. In Gaul the Rhine frontier had collapsed, the Visigoths in Aquitaine may have launched further attacks on Narbo and Arelate, and the Franks, increasingly powerful although disunited, were the major power in the north - east. Aremorica was controlled by Bagaudae, local leaders not under the authority of the Empire. Aetius at least campaigned vigorously and mostly victoriously, defeating aggressive Visigoths, Franks, fresh Germanic invaders, Bagaudae in Aremorica, and a rebellion in Noricum. Not for the first time in Rome 's history, a triumvirate of mutually distrustful rulers proved unstable. In 427 Felix tried to recall Boniface from Africa; he refused, and overcame Felix 's invading force. Boniface probably recruited some Vandal troops among others.
In 428 the Vandals and Alans were united under the able, ferocious, and long - lived king Genseric; he moved his entire people to Tarifa near Gibraltar, divided them into 80 groups nominally of 1,000 people, (perhaps 20,000 warriors in total), and crossed from Hispania to Mauretania without opposition. (The Straits of Gibraltar were not an important thoroughfare at the time, and there were no significant fortifications nor military presence at this end of the Mediterranean.) They spent a year moving slowly to Numidia, defeating Boniface. He returned to Italy where Aetius had recently had Felix executed. Boniface was promoted to magister militum and earned the enmity of Aetius, who may have been absent in Gaul at the time. In 432 the two met at the Battle of Ravenna which left Aetius 's forces defeated and Boniface mortally wounded. Aetius temporarily retired to his estates, but after an attempt to murder him he raised another Hunnic army (probably by conceding parts of Pannonia to them) and in 433 he returned to Italy, overcoming all rivals. He never threatened to become an Augustus himself and thus maintained the support of the Eastern court, where Valentinian 's cousin Theodosius II reigned until 450.
Aetius campaigned vigorously, somewhat stabilizing the situation in Gaul and in Hispania. He relied heavily on his forces of Huns. With a ferocity celebrated centuries later in the Nibelungenlied, the Huns slaughtered many Burgundians on the middle Rhine, re-establishing the survivors as Roman allies, the first Kingdom of the Burgundians. This may have returned some sort of Roman authority to Trier. Eastern troops reinforced Carthage, temporarily halting the Vandals, who in 435 agreed to limit themselves to Numidia and leave the most fertile parts of North Africa in peace. Aetius concentrated his limited military resources to defeat the Visigoths again, and his diplomacy restored a degree of order to Hispania. However, his general Litorius was badly defeated by the Visigoths at Toulouse, and a new Suevic king, Rechiar, began vigorous assaults on what remained of Roman Hispania. At one point Rechiar even allied with Bagaudae. These were Romans not under imperial control; some of their reasons for rebellion may be indicated by the remarks of a Roman captive under Attila who was happy in his lot, giving a lively account of
the vices of a declining empire, of which he had so long been the victim; the cruel absurdity of the Roman princes, unable to protect their subjects against the public enemy, unwilling to trust them with arms for their own defence; the intolerable weight of taxes, rendered still more oppressive by the intricate or arbitrary modes of collection; the obscurity of numerous and contradictory laws; the tedious and expensive forms of judicial proceedings; the partial administration of justice; and the universal corruption, which increased the influence of the rich, and aggravated the misfortunes of the poor.
A religious polemic of about this time complains bitterly of the oppression and extortion suffered by all but the richest Romans. Many wished to flee to the Bagaudae or even to foul - smelling barbarians.
Although these men differ in customs and language from those with whom they have taken refuge, and are unaccustomed too, if I may say so, to the nauseous odor of the bodies and clothing of the barbarians, yet they prefer the strange life they find there to the injustice rife among the Romans. So you find men passing over everywhere, now to the Goths, now to the Bagaudae, or whatever other barbarians have established their power anywhere... We call those men rebels and utterly abandoned, whom we ourselves have forced into crime. For by what other causes were they made Bagaudae save by our unjust acts, the wicked decisions of the magistrates, the proscription and extortion of those who have turned the public exactions to the increase of their private fortunes and made the tax indictions their opportunity for plunder?
From Britannia comes an indication of the prosperity which freedom from taxes could bring.
No sooner were the ravages of the enemy checked, than the island was deluged with a most extraordinary plenty of all things, greater than was before known, and with it grew up every kind of luxury and licentiousness.
Nevertheless, effective imperial protection from barbarian ravages was eagerly sought. About this time authorities in Britannia asked Aetius for help:
"To Aetius, now consul for the third time: the groans of the Britons. '' And again a little further, thus: -- "The barbarians drive us to the sea; the sea throws us back on the barbarians: thus two modes of death await us, we are either slain or drowned. '' The Romans, however, could not assist them...
The Visigoths passed another waymark on their journey to full independence; they made their own foreign policy, sending princesses to make (rather unsuccessful) marriage alliances with Rechiar of the Sueves and with Huneric, son of the Vandal king Genseric.
In 439 the Vandals moved eastward (temporarily abandoning Numidia) and captured Carthage, where they established an independent state with a powerful navy. This brought immediate financial crisis to the Western Empire; the diocese of Africa was prosperous, normally required few troops to keep it secure, contributed large tax revenues, and exported wheat to feed Rome and many other areas. Roman troops assembled in Sicily, but the planned counter-attack never happened. Huns attacked the Eastern empire, and
the troops, which had been sent against Genseric, were hastily recalled from Sicily; the garrisons, on the side of Persia, were exhausted; and a military force was collected in Europe, formidable by their arms and numbers, if the generals had understood the science of command, and the soldiers the duty of obedience. The armies of the Eastern empire were vanquished in three successive engagements... From the Hellespont to Thermopylae, and the suburbs of Constantinople, (Attila) ravaged, without resistance, and without mercy, the provinces of Thrace and Macedonia.
Attila 's invasions of the East were stopped by the walls of Constantinople, and at this heavily fortified Eastern end of the Mediterranean there were no significant barbarian invasions across the sea into the rich southerly areas of Anatolia, the Levant, and Egypt. Despite internal and external threats, and more religious discord than the West, these provinces remained prosperous contributors to tax revenue; despite the ravages of Attila 's armies and the extortions of his peace treaties, tax revenue generally continued to be adequate for the essential state functions of the Eastern empire.
Genseric settled his Vandals as landowners and in 442 was able to negotiate very favourable peace terms with the Western court. He kept his latest gains and his eldest son Huneric was honoured by betrothal to Princess Eudocia, who carried the legitimacy of the Theodosian dynasty. Huneric 's Gothic wife was suspected of trying to poison her father - in - law Genseric; he sent her home without her nose or ears, and his Gothic alliance came to an early end. The Romans regained Numidia, and Rome again received a grain supply from Africa.
The losses of income from the Diocese of Africa were equivalent to the costs of nearly 40,000 infantry or over 20,000 cavalry. The imperial regime had to increase taxes. Despite admitting that the peasantry could pay no more, and that a sufficient army could not be raised, the imperial regime protected the interests of landowners displaced from Africa and allowed wealthy individuals to avoid taxes.
In 444, the Huns were united under Attila. His subjects included Huns, outnumbered several times over by other groups, predominantly Germanic. His power rested partly on his continued ability to reward his favoured followers with precious metals, and he continued to attack the Eastern Empire until 450, by when he had extracted vast sums of money and many other concessions.
Attila may not have needed any excuse to turn West, but he received one in the form of a plea for help from Honoria, the Emperor 's sister, who was being forced into a marriage which she resented. Attila claimed Honoria as his wife and half of the Western Empire 's territory as his dowry. Faced with refusal, he invaded Gaul in 451 with a huge army. In the bloody battle of the Catalaunian Plains the invasion was stopped by the combined forces of the barbarians within the Western empire, coordinated by Aetius and supported by what troops he could muster. The next year, Attila invaded Italy and proceeded to march upon Rome, but an outbreak of disease in his army, lack of supplies, reports that Eastern Roman troops were attacking his noncombatant population in Pannonia, and, possibly, Pope Leo 's plea for peace induced him to halt this campaign. Attila unexpectedly died a year later (453) and his empire crumbled as his followers fought for power. The life of Severinus of Noricum gives glimpses of the general insecurity, and ultimate retreat of the Romans on the Upper Danube, in the aftermath of Attila 's death. The Romans were without adequate forces; the barbarians inflicted haphazard extortion, murder, kidnap, and plunder on the Romans and on each other.
So long as the Roman dominion lasted, soldiers were maintained in many towns at the public expense to guard the boundary wall. When this custom ceased, the squadrons of soldiers and the boundary wall were blotted out together. The troop at Batavis, however, held out. Some soldiers of this troop had gone to Italy to fetch the final pay to their comrades, and no one knew that the barbarians had slain them on the way.
In 454 Aetius was personally stabbed to death by Valentinian, who was himself murdered by the dead general 's supporters a year later.
(Valentinian) thought he had slain his master; he found that he had slain his protector: and he fell a helpless victim to the first conspiracy which was hatched against his throne.
A rich senatorial aristocrat, Petronius Maximus, who had encouraged both murders, then seized the throne. He broke the engagement between Huneric, prince of the Vandals, and Princess Eudocia, and had time to send Avitus to ask for the help of the Visigoths in Gaul before the Vandals sailed to Italy. Petronius was unable to muster any effective response and was killed by a mob as he tried to flee the city. The Vandals entered Rome, and plundered it for two weeks. Despite the shortage of money for the defence of the state, considerable private wealth had accumulated since the previous sack in 410. The Vandals sailed away with large amounts of treasure and also with the Princess Eudocia, who became the wife of one Vandal king and the mother of another.
The Vandals conquered Sicily, and their fleet became a constant danger to Roman sea trade and to the coasts and islands of the western Mediterranean.
Avitus, at the Visigothic court in Burdigala, declared himself Emperor. He moved on Rome with Visigothic support which gained his acceptance by Majorian and Ricimer, commanders of the remaining army of Italy. This was the first time that a barbarian kingdom had played a key role in the imperial succession. Avitus 's son - in - law Sidonius wrote propaganda to present the Visigothic king Theoderic II as a reasonable man with whom a Roman regime could do business. Theoderic 's payoff included precious metal from stripping the remaining public ornaments of Italy, and an unsupervised campaign in Hispania. There he not only defeated the Sueves, executing his brother - in - law Rechiar, but he also plundered Roman cities. The Burgundians expanded their kingdom in the Rhone valley and the Vandals took the remains of the Diocese of Africa. In 456 the Visigothic army was too heavily engaged in Hispania to be an effective threat to Italy, and Ricimer had just destroyed a pirate fleet of sixty Vandal ships; Majorian and Ricimer marched against Avitus and defeated him near Placentia. He was forced to become Bishop of Placentia, and died (possibly murdered) a few weeks later.
Majorian and Ricimer were now in control of Italy. Ricimer was the son of a Suevic king and his mother was the daughter of a Gothic one, so he could not aspire to an imperial throne. After some months, allowing for negotiation with the new emperor of Constantinople and the defeat of 900 Alamannic invaders of Italy by one of his subordinates, Majorian was acclaimed as Augustus. Majorian is described by Gibbon as "a great and heroic character ''. He rebuilt the army and navy of Italy with vigour and set about recovering the remaining Gallic provinces, which had not recognized his elevation. He defeated the Visigoths at the Battle of Arelate, reducing them to federate status and obliging them to give up their claims in Hispania; he moved on to subdue the Burgundians, the Gallo - Romans around Lugdunum (who were granted tax concessions and whose senior officials were appointed from their own ranks) and the Suevi and Bagaudae in Hispania. Marcellinus, magister militum in Dalmatia and the pagan general of a well - equipped army, acknowledged him as emperor and recovered Sicily from the Vandals. Aegidius also acknowledged Majorian and took effective charge of northern Gaul. (Aegidius may also have used the title "King of the Franks ''.) Abuses in tax collection were reformed and the city councils were strengthened, both actions necessary to rebuild the strength of the Empire but disadvantageous to the richest aristocrats. Majorian prepared a fleet at Carthago Nova for the essential reconquest of the Diocese of Africa.
The fleet was burned by traitors, and Majorian made peace with the Vandals and returned to Italy. Here Ricimer met him, arrested him, and executed him five days later. Marcellinus in Dalmatia, and Aegidius around Soissons in northern Gaul, rejected both Ricimer and his puppets and maintained some version of Roman rule in their areas. Ricimer later ceded Narbo and its hinterland to the Visigoths for their help against Aegidius; this made it impossible for Roman armies to march from Italy to Hispania. Ricimer was then the effective ruler of Italy (but little else) for several years. From 461 to 465 the pious Italian aristocrat Libius Severus reigned. There is no record of anything significant that he even tried to achieve, he was never acknowledged by the East whose help Ricimer needed, and he died conveniently in 465.
After two years without a Western Emperor, the Eastern court nominated Anthemius, a successful general who had a strong claim on the Eastern throne. He arrived in Italy with an army, supported by Marcellinus and his fleet; he married his daughter to Ricimer, and he was proclaimed Augustus in 467. In 468, at vast expense, the Eastern empire assembled an enormous force to help the West retake the Diocese of Africa. Marcellinus rapidly drove the Vandals from Sardinia and Sicily, and a land invasion evicted them from Tripolitania. The commander in chief with the main force defeated a Vandal fleet near Sicily and landed at Cape Bon. Here Genseric offered to surrender, if he could have a five - day truce to prepare the process. He used the respite to prepare a full - scale attack preceded by fireships, which destroyed most of the Roman fleet and killed many of its soldiers. The Vandals were confirmed in their possession of the Diocese of Africa and they retook Sardinia and Sicily. Marcellinus was murdered, possibly on orders from Ricimer. The Praetorian prefect of Gaul, Arvandus, tried to persuade the new king of the Visigoths to rebel, on the grounds that Roman power in Gaul was finished anyway, but he refused.
Anthemius was still in command of an army in Italy. Additionally, in northern Gaul, a British army led by one Riothamus, operated in imperial interests. Anthemius sent his son over the Alps, with an army, to request that the Visigoths return southern Gaul to Roman control. This would have allowed the Empire land access to Hispania again. The Visigoths refused, defeated the forces of both Riothamus and Anthemius, and with the Burgundians took over almost all of the remaining imperial territory in southern Gaul.
Ricimer then quarreled with Anthemius, and besieged him in Rome, which surrendered in July 472 after more months of starvation. Anthemius was captured and executed (on Ricimer 's orders) by the Burgundian prince Gundobad. In August Ricimer died of a pulmonary haemorrhage. Olybrius, his new emperor, named Gundobad as his patrician, then died himself shortly thereafter.
After the death of Olybrius there was a further interregnum until March 473, when Gundobad proclaimed Glycerius emperor. He may have made some attempt to intervene in Gaul; if so, it was unsuccessful.
In 474 Julius Nepos, nephew and successor of the general Marcellinus, arrived in Rome with soldiers and authority from the eastern emperor Leo I. Gundobad had already left to contest the Burgundian throne in Gaul and Glycerius gave up without a fight, retiring to become bishop of Salona in Dalmatia.
In 475, Orestes, a former secretary of Attila, drove Julius Nepos out of Ravenna and proclaimed his own son Flavius Momyllus Romulus Augustus (Romulus Augustulus) to be Emperor, on October 31. His surname ' Augustus ' was given the diminutive form ' Augustulus ' by rivals because he was still a minor, and he was never recognized outside of Italy as a legitimate ruler.
In 476, Orestes refused to grant Odoacer and the Heruli federated status, prompting an invasion. Orestes fled to the city of Pavia on August 23, 476, where the city 's bishop gave him sanctuary. Orestes was soon forced to flee Pavia when Odoacer 's army broke through the city walls and ravaged the city. Odoacer 's army chased Orestes to Piacenza, where they captured and executed him on August 28, 476.
On September 4, 476, Odoacer forced then 16 - year - old Romulus Augustulus, whom his father Orestes had proclaimed to be Rome 's Emperor, to abdicate. After deposing Romulus, Odoacer did not execute him. The Anonymus Valesianus wrote that Odoacer, "taking pity on his youth '', spared Romulus ' life and granted him an annual pension of 6,000 solidi before sending him to live with relatives in Campania. Odoacer then installed himself as ruler over Italy, and sent the Imperial insignia to Constantinople.
By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus and proclaimed himself ruler of Italy, but this convention is subject to many qualifications. In Roman constitutional theory, the Empire was still simply united under one emperor, implying no abandonment of territorial claims. In areas where the convulsions of the dying Empire had made organized self - defence legitimate, rump states continued under some form of Roman rule after 476. Julius Nepos still claimed to be Emperor of the West and controlled Dalmatia until his murder in 480. Syagrius son of Aegidius ruled the Domain of Soissons until his murder in 487. The indigenous inhabitants of Mauretania developed kingdoms of their own, independent of the Vandals, with strong Roman traits. They again sought Imperial recognition with the reconquests of Justinian I, and they put up effective resistance to the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb. While the civitates of Britannia sank into a level of material development inferior even to their pre-Roman Iron Age ancestors, they maintained identifiably Roman traits for some time, and they continued to look to their own defence as Honorius had authorized.
Odoacer began to negotiate with the East Roman (Byzantine) Emperor Zeno, who was busy dealing with unrest in the East. Zeno eventually granted Odoacer the status of patrician and accepted him as his own viceroy of Italy. Zeno, however, insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the Emperor of the Western Empire. Odoacer never returned any territory or real power, but he did issue coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy. The murder of Julius Nepos in 480 (Glycerius may have been among the conspirators) prompted Odoacer to invade Dalmatia, annexing it to his Kingdom of Italy. In 488 the Eastern emperor authorized a troublesome Goth, Theoderic (later known as "the Great '') to take Italy. After several indecisive campaigns, in 493 Theoderic and Odoacer agreed to rule jointly. They celebrated their agreement with a banquet of reconciliation, at which Theoderic 's men murdered Odoacer 's, and Theoderic personally cut Odoacer in half.
The Roman Empire was not only a political unity enforced by violence. It was also the combined and elaborated civilization of the Mediterranean basin and beyond. It included manufacture, trade, and architecture, widespread secular literacy, written law, and an international language of science and literature. The Western barbarians lost much of these higher cultural practices, but their redevelopment in the Middle Ages by polities aware of the Roman achievement formed the basis for the later development of Europe.
Observing the cultural and archaeological continuities through and beyond the period of lost political control, the process has been described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall.
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bible verse about the narrow and straight path | Matthew 7: 14 - wikipedia
Matthew 7: 14 is the fourteenth verse of the seventh chapter of the Gospel of Matthew in the New Testament and is part of the Sermon on the Mount. This verse continues a metaphor begun in the previous one about the ease of following the wrong path.
In the King James Version of the Bible the text reads:
The World English Bible translates the passage as:
For additional translations see here: Matthew 7: 14
As with the word destruction in the previous verse, the word life seems to clearly have eschatological meaning. In other parts of Matthew the word life is used to stand for eternal salvation.
What is meant by restricted is somewhat in doubt. The term can be read to mean that the narrow route is overcrowded, but this contradicts the idea that only a few find it. Luz notes that it could imply that the route is a hard and difficult one to follow, as the sermon has implied the proper path is one of tribulation and suffering. Another view is that the proper way is so narrow that it is difficult to find, and requires effort and searching to find.
The metaphor in this verse implies that the path of sin is an easy one to follow, and that one will do so without conscious effort not to. Davies and Allison note that the notion of vice being a far easier path than virtue is a common one to most religions. The verse seems clear that it is only a minority that will find and follow God 's path. While pessimistic, this is in keeping with Jewish thought, which traditionally saw the pious as a beleaguered minority in a world of sinners. In other parts of the Gospel, such as Matthew 8: 11 and Mathew 20: 28, Jesus does state that many are saved, so it can not be too small a number that find the narrow gate.
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where is the television show death in paradise filmed | Top of the Lake - wikipedia
Top of the Lake is a mystery drama television series created and written by Jane Campion and Gerard Lee, and directed by Campion and Garth Davis. It aired in 2013, with the sequel, entitled Top of the Lake: China Girl, airing in 2017. It marks Campion 's first work for television since An Angel at My Table in 1990. The story follows Detective Robin Griffin (Elisabeth Moss), and deals with the investigation of the disappearance of a pregnant 12 - year - old girl in New Zealand. China Girl is set in Sydney four years later, as Detective Griffin investigates the death of an unidentified Asian girl found at Bondi Beach. Top of the Lake was co-produced for BBC Two in the UK, BBC UKTV in Australia and New Zealand, and Sundance Channel in the United States. It has been generally very well received.
Actress Jennifer Ehle auditioned for the role of GJ, which went to Holly Hunter. Jane Campion originally offered the role of Robin to Anna Paquin, who had worked with her before on The Piano (1993). Paquin declined due to her pregnancy, and the role went to Elisabeth Moss.
The series was originally intended as a co-production with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. But after American - born Elisabeth Moss was cast, the network pulled their funding before production began, citing a prior agreement to put an Australian actress in the lead. Australian - based channel UKTV, owned by BBC Worldwide, filled the funding gap left by the ABC. Philippa Campbell was the New Zealand - based producer.
Filming took 18 weeks and was shot entirely on location in Queenstown and Glenorchy, in Otago, on the South Island of New Zealand. While Queenstown is referred to during the series, Glenorchy doubles as the fictitious town of Laketop. The scenes in the women 's commune were filmed at Moke Lake.
In early 2013, co-creator Jane Campion said that Top of the Lake comes to a distinct ending and there would be no additional series. Despite this, it was announced in October 2014 that the series had been renewed for a second season. China Girl began shooting on location in Sydney, Australia in December 2015.
Jane Campion returned as co-writer and co-director. Gerard Lee returned as co-writer. Original co-director Garth Davis, was replaced by Ariel Kleiman due to scheduling conflicts. Philippa Campbell returned as producer. Actress Nicole Kidman joined the cast for China Girl, which is the second time she has worked with Campion. Kidman "plays an Australian mother, Julia, whose story dovetails with that of Detective Robin Griffin '', played by Elisabeth Moss.
Top of the Lake screened in its entirety at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival, in January 2013. It was screened in a single seven - hour session one intermission and a break for lunch. This was the first such screening in the history of the festival. Top of the Lake was additionally shown at the 63rd Berlin International Film Festival.
The US premiere was on the Sundance Channel on 18 March 2013, in Australia on BBC UKTV on 24 March 2013, and in New Zealand on 25 March, also on BBC UKTV.
China Girl was screened in its entirety at the 2017 Cannes Film Festival in May 2017. In the UK, it premiered on BBC Two on 27 July 2017, and the entire series was released on the BBC iPlayer immediately afterwards. The US premiere is set for September 2017 on Sundance TV. Each episode will be available on Hulu the day after its screening on SundanceTV. In Canada, China Girl premieres on Wednesday, October 25, 2017, on CBC Television.
Reviews of Top of the Lake have been positive, referring to the series as "masterfully made '', "beautiful '', "mysterious '', "riveting '', and "a masterpiece ''. It received a score of 86 out of 100 from Metacritic and a score of 93 per cent from Rotten Tomatoes.
There were also some less positive reviews. Mike Hale of The New York Times criticized the "elaborately introduced plotlines '' and described Tui 's disappearance as "less a story element than a metaphor for the kind of armed resistance to male hegemony that constitutes the central idea of Ms Campion 's body of work. ''
Top of the Lake was lauded by feminist critics for its explicit effort to analyse rape culture as well as its radical construction of narratives entirely foregrounding the experiences of single women.
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when is meredith going to have her baby | Meredith Grey - wikipedia
Meredith Grey, M.D. is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy, which airs on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States. The character was created by series ' producer Shonda Rhimes, and is portrayed by actress Ellen Pompeo. Meredith is the series ' protagonist and title character, and was introduced as a surgical intern at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital (later Seattle Grace - Mercy West, and afterwards Grey Sloan Memorial), eventually obtaining the position of a resident, and later the position of an attending, and in 2015, attaining the Chief of General Surgery position. As the daughter of world - renowned surgeon Ellis Grey, Meredith struggles with the everyday life of being in a competitive profession, maintaining the relationship with her one - night stand and eventual husband Derek Shepherd (deceased), her motherhood, and her friendships with her colleagues.
Meredith is the narrator of the show and serves as the focal point for most episodes. Pompeo 's connection with Patrick Dempsey (Derek Shepherd) is acclaimed as a high point of the series. Rhimes has characterized Meredith as not believing in good or bad, but instead doing what she thinks is right. Grey has been positively received by television critics, with Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times referring to her as "the heroine of Grey 's Anatomy ''. News of Pompeo leaving arose when it was made clear that her contract ended after the eighth season, and whether or not she would return to the series after her contract expires has been the centre of media speculation ever since. In 2016, Pompeo re-negotiated her contract and signed up for the thirteenth season of the show.
Pompeo 's performance has been well received throughout the show and the character has gained widespread popularity worldwide. Pompeo has been nominated for multiple awards for her portrayal of the character in the long running ABC medical drama including Satellite Award for Best Actress and multiple nominations at the People 's Choice Awards for Best Actress winning at 39th People 's Choice Awards in 2013 and again in 2015 at 41st People 's Choice Awards, Pompeo has also received a Best Performance by an Actress in a Drama Series nomination at the 64th Golden Globe Awards.
Dr. Meredith Grey is the daughter of world - renowned surgeon Ellis Grey, and grew up in her shadow. Ellis was a deeply flawed, emotionally and verbally abusive, neglectful mother towards her. Meredith is described as a "dark and twisty, '' damaged person who sees the world in varying shades of gray morality. Because of this, she is an emotionally complex person capable of empathizing with others when they 're at their lowest points, and a sensitive observer of the people around her. Meredith is a graduate of Dartmouth College and nearly did not attend med school due to conflicts with her mother. Meredith was directionless after obtaining her undergrad and had plans to sleep and party her way through Europe. After a month abroad, Meredith was called back to care for Ellis, who had developed early - onset Alzheimer 's disease, and Meredith obtained her M.D.
The night before Meredith 's internship begins, she has a one - night stand with Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), a stranger she meets at a bar. She discovers the next day that he is the recently hired attending and new head of neurosurgery at her new workplace, Seattle Grace Hospital. Meredith is assigned to work under resident Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson), and befriends her fellow interns, George O'Malley (T.R. Knight), Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl), Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh) and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers).
She is particularly close with Cristina Yang, who becomes her best friend and "person ''. Though she initially thinks poorly of him, Alex Karev also evolves into Meredith 's "person '' and the two assume a sibling-esque familial relationship. Meredith has a conflicted relationship with Richard Webber (James Pickens Jr.), the Chief of Surgery at Seattle Grace. Richard was very close to Ellis when Meredith was a child, which inclines him to save or mentor Grey and make exceptions for her. Meredith has a habit of "collecting strays '', allowing her friends and coworkers to live in the house her mother left her and become her pseudo-family. Meredith is endlessly loyal to those she deems her family, and bends traditional morality as needed in order to keep them safe.
Having grown up in a hospital, Meredith shows immense natural talent. She possesses a steadfast, calm ease during medical procedures and emergencies, and is a natural observer of people. She exhibits a knack for catching subtle hints and accurately determining difficult - to - catch diagnoses. Her placid, non-judgmental bedside manner often causes people to open up and trust her. Her surgical skills are solidly impressive and she shows a talent and patience for medical research trials and dealing with psychologically damaged patients.
Meredith resists Derek 's advances throughout her internship, but is eventually charmed into starting a relationship with him despite misgivings about an intern dating an attending. She is therefore shocked by the arrival of Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh), Derek 's wife, unaware that he was married. Derek struggles to choose between the two, but ultimately returns to Addison, despite Meredith begging to be chosen instead.
Meredith is devastated and turns to multiple, self - destructive means of coping. Initially she falls on old habits of self - medicating with tequila and sex, and buys a dog. She also tries to resolve some issues by searching for her long - absent father, Thatcher. She learns that her father, who left when she was five and she has not seen since, remarried and had two more daughters. The two do not become close, but Grey becomes fond of her stepmother.
Meredith spirals further when Ellis is admitted to the hospital, revealing Ellis ' diagnosis of early - onset Alzheimer 's and her verbally abusive tendencies. Meredith self - destructive behavior increases when she saves a patient with a bomb in their chest by impulsively inserting her hand to hold it until the bomb squad can remove it. Mereidth has a series of one - night stands, including one with George, who is in love with her. When she cries in the middle of their encounter, their friendship temporarily ends. Meredith swears off her behavior, agrees to be friends only with Shepherd, and embarks on a relationship with veterinarian Finn Dandridge (Chris O'Donnell).
Derek regrets his decision to return to his wife and Meredith must decide whether to continue a relationship with Finn, or allow Derek a second chance.
When Ellis experiences a rare, completely lucid day, and expresses her immense disappointment at how ordinary Meredith has turned out to be, she becomes depressed and possibly suicidal. During a ferryboat accident, Meredith is knocked into the water and chooses to give up and drown, rather than fight and swim. She flatlines at the hospital, and awakens in an "afterlife '', where she interacts with deceased former acquaintances. Ellis dies in the interim, and Meredith meets with her mother, who tells her that she is anything but ordinary. She is subsequently resuscitated at the insistence of Cristina. Derek distances himself from Meredith as the result of her self recklessness, prompting her to seek therapy to address her problems. Meredith sees a therapist, Dr. Wyatt (Amy Madigan), to seek happiness and begins to successfully tackle her issues. Meredith found her mother 's diaries, dredging up old memories and secrets for her to work through. Meanwhile, Meredith nearly fails her intern exam after a drunken Thatcher publicly blames Meredith for the death of his wife, Susan, a distraught Grey sits through her entire test without writing a single answer. Dr. Webber gives her a second chance, saving her from destroying her career.
After Meredith is promoted to a resident, her younger half - sister Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh) begins working at Seattle Grace as an intern. Meredith initially rejects Lexie 's attempts to form a relationship, but slowly softens towards her. The sisters are very different people with different childhoods. Lexie had an idealistic family life and often has difficulty understanding her much darker sister, who does not have the same positive associations with family as Lexie.
She later initiates a neurosurgical clinical trial, enlisting Derek as a consulting neurosurgeon. The trial fails repeatedly, but the final patient they treat survives, which leads them to reuniting and moving in together. Their relationship is healthier than before, but still experiences snags as the two attempt to understand each other and navigate what they now look on as a permanent, long - term relationship. Meredith relies heavily on Cristina for emotional support and guidance. Eventually, Derek and Meredith decide to marry, but on their wedding day, the pair give their "perfect '' wedding ceremony to Izzie and Alex, to marry each other during the planned ceremony instead.
Meredith and Derek marry by writing their wedding vows on a post-it note. Meredith spends the majority of a season out of commission after donating part of her liver to Thatcher and supporting Cristina 's new relationship with Owen Hunt, an army doctor with worrisome PTSD.
Meredith experiences another immense trauma after the hospital is put under a lockdown from an active mass - shooter seeking revenge against Derek. Meredith offers her own life in exchange for his and miscarries her baby during the crisis. She goes through this traumatic experience with Cristina, who operates on Derek while threatened at gunpoint. Meredith hides her loss and the trauma psychiatrist refuses to clear neither Cristina nor Meredith for their return to surgery. Meredith is able to work through her issues and become cleared, but Cristina remains deeply traumatized. Meredith covers for and supports her friend through her dark time, but is ultimately unable to fully help her return to surgery.
Meredith decides to actively try to become pregnant, but learns that she has a "hostile uterus '', which leads her to consider her other possible genetic flaws. Derek, who is constantly worried about the possibility that she will develop Alzheimer 's, initiates a clinical trial hoping to cure the disease. Meredith opts to work on the trial and appears to be leaning towards a neuro specialty.
When the chief of surgery, Richard Webber (James Pickens Jr.) 's wife, Adele, is diagnosed with Alzheimer 's, she receives a spot on the trial. Meredith tampers with the drugs so that Adele does not receive the placebo. She and Derek decide to adopt Zola, an orphaned baby from Malawi, and make their marriage legal. When the truth about the tampering comes out, however, a furious Derek tells her he can not raise a child with her because of her moral ambiguity. Meredith is fired, and tries to conceal both this and her marital separation from the adoption counselor in order to keep Zola. Although Dr. Webber steps down as chief of surgery and takes the blame for the trial tampering to protect Meredith, Zola is taken away. She and Derek reconcile. Meredith chooses a general specialty over neuro, and they successfully fight to get Zola back.
As her last year of residency is coming to a close, the residents travel around the country, searching for the best jobs in their specialties. In order to finish their residency, the residents must take the medical boards. Meredith takes the exam while sick with the flu. She decides to take a job offer at The Brigham and Women 's Hospital as the next step in her career. During a medical flight to undertake a prestigious surgery involving conjoined twins, Meredith, Derek, Cristina, and Lexie, among others, are involved in an aviation accident. The plane crash kills Lexie, and the survivors are trapped in the wooded wilderness for days waiting for help. Following their rescue, Merdith becomes an attending general surgeon at Seattle Grace, now Seattle Grace - Mercy West. While Cristina flees Seattle for her fellowship, Meredith, afraid of flying and change, declines her job offer, and clings to what remains in Seattle. Cristina and Meredith begin calling the hospital Seattle Grace Mercy Death in light of the immense amount of trauma, death, and pain they have experienced there.
Meredith 's newfound attitude and sarcasm leads to her being dubbed "Medusa '' by the hospital 's new batch of interns. In the aftermath of the plane accident, the hospital is sued and eventually found guilty of negligence. Each victim including Derek, Cristina, Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) and herself must receive $15 million of compensation, which leads the hospital to a near bankruptcy as the insurance company refuses to pay due to a loophole. The doctors along with Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) buy the hospital with the help of the Harper Avery Foundation to prevent it from closing and become new members of the directing board.
Meredith asks Dr. Bailey to perform gene mapping on her to finally know whether she has Alzheimer 's genes like her mother. She tests positive for more than one of the genetic markers for the disease.
Meredith moves to the completed dream home and sells her house to Alex, who purchases it as the only true home he 's ever known. He continues Meredith 's tradition of keeping the house open to any "strays '' needing a home. Meredith discovers she is pregnant and gives birth to a son. The baby is delivered via C - section. While stitching Meredith up, the obstetrician who operated on her is called away to another patient and intern Shane Ross completes the stitching. When blood begins to appear from everywhere, Meredith diagnoses herself in as being in DIC. Dr. Bailey performs a spleen removal, which saves her life. In return, Derek and Meredith name their son Bailey.
As a spouse, surgeon, and mother, Meredith has cited a number times that she did not want to be like either of her parents: her father had followed her mother around pathetically before leaving to be happy, while her mother valued her career over her family. Meredith is frequently conflicted trying to balance between the two, and fears her family are hindering her medical aspirations, as much as she fears becoming like her mother whenever she 's tempted to choose surgery over family. Meredith and Cristina have a huge rift when Cristina confirms Meredith 's fears by stating that Meredith 's skills have fallen behind Cristina 's due to her familial obligations taking her away from OR time.
Meredith and Derek come to an agreement that he, already established in his career and reputation, would take a step back to take care of the children and allow her to shine. Meredith attempts to regain some ground by starting a promising research trial 3 - D printing portal veins. The conflict between Cristina and Meredith widens when Cristina commandeers Meredith 's resources for her own trial, ultimately garnering a Harper Avery nomination for Cristina. Cristina and Meredith repair their relationship when Meredith confesses that Cristina was correct, her skills have surpassed Meredith 's. Cristina moves to Switzerland take up a job offer from Dr. Preston Burke, her former attending, mentor and fiancé, who was looking for a replacement at a research hospital he was running, thus leaving Alex in charge of being Meredith 's "person '' in her place, an honor he gladly accepts.
Meredith and Derek 's marriage becomes strained when Derek goes against his promise and accepts an offer from the U.S. President to participate in the Brain Mapping Initiative, which consumes his time and eclipses Meredith, who is feeling increasingly left behind and mommy - tracked. He receives an offer to head the project itself in Washington D.C., meaning that he would have to be based there permanently. Meredith puts her foot down as she does not want to uproot their young family to move across the country for his career at the sacrifice of her own. They begin a series of on - and - off arguments and "cold wars '' over their careers. Derek accepts the job in the heat of the moment and promptly leaves for Washington. During a phone call with Meredith, they agree to work things out after she tells him that she did not want them to become "one of those couples '' and he reciprocates, saying that he missed her. She privately admits to Alex that she has realized that she could live independently of Derek, but chooses not to.
Meredith finds out she has a maternal half sister named Maggie Pierce who is now working in Grey Sloan Memorial. Meredith is in denial and rejects Maggie, thinking she would have remembered if her mother was pregnant until she finds a hospital document confirming the revelation. Meredith tries to piece together her relationship with her mother and half sister by going through old videos of her mother. She eventually recovers her repressed memories of the pregnancy when she views her mother 's diary and has a change of heart, choosing to accept Maggie and begin building a relationship.
Meredith is widowed when Derek is killed in a car accident and was taken to an understaffed hospital. The doctors failed to recognize his head injury in time and allowed personal conflicts to interfere. Derek is declared brain dead, and Meredith must go to the medical center to consent to remove him from life support, shortly before she 's hit with the first waves of morning sickness. She tells Penny, the intern who was assigned to Derek that every doctor has "that one '' patient who dies on their watch and haunts them forever and "that one will make you work harder, and they make you better. ''
After Derek 's death, Meredith returns to Grey Sloan Memorial to inform the others of his passing. Following the funeral service, Meredith impulsively packs up her belongings and leaves with the children to San Diego. Months pass by while her friends and family are unaware of her whereabouts. Eventually, parallels show similarities in Meredith 's and Ellis ' lives: Both have lost the love of their life, both run away from Seattle following their loss, and both eventually give birth to a daughter. Meredith names her newborn daughter after her mother. Although still grieving over Derek, Meredith returns to Seattle with the children and later becomes chief of general surgery. She sells the "dream house '' and moves back to her mother 's house, having purchased it back from Alex, and now lives there with Maggie and Amelia Shepherd, her sister - in - law.
Meredith hosts a dinner party and at the party Callie brings Penny as a date. Later at the event Meredith finds out Penny will be joining her at Grey Sloan Memorial. Meredith eventually forgives Penny, who becomes her favorite resident over Alex 's girlfriend, Jo. Alex and Meredith continue their close, sibling - like relationship of being each other 's "person '', despite Jo 's displeasure and inability to understand their closeness. He supports her when she is violently attacked by a disoriented patient, and she supports him through his legal difficulties. Alex initiates a weekly family waffle day where he makes waffles for everyone in the house.
Meredith recovers enough to start seeing Nathan Riggs, Owen Hunt 's former best friend, by season 13, although their relationship is complicated by the fact that Maggie confesses to Meredith that she has feelings for Riggs and Meredith is not ready to declare their relationship formally or publicly. Eventually she accepts her relationship with Riggs, but it 's complicated by the unexpected return of Owen 's sister, Megan Hunt, Riggs ' fiancée. Meredith finds herself in another love triangle when Megan rejects Riggs because he is still in love with Meredith, but Meredith pushes them to be together. After her relationship with Riggs ends, Meredith is nominated for a Harper Avery Award for her groundbreaking surgery on Megan. In the 300th episode, after failing to attend the awards ceremony to stay for a medical trauma, post-surgery, Meredith learns with all her closest friends in the OR and gallery that she has won the Harper Avery Award.
Pompeo discovered Grey 's Anatomy after an extended period of doing nothing in the acting profession. Her agent suggested she audition amongst other projects. While casting actresses for the part of Meredith Grey, series ' creator Shonda Rhimes said: "I kept saying we need a girl like that girl from Moonlight Mile, and after a while, they were like, ' We think we can get that girl from Moonlight Mile. ' I spent time with her and got to know her, and then we started casting for the men. '' She reported that Grey was not an easy role to cast because of the strong verbal possibilities. Rhimes was informed that the actress in question was Pompeo, who had a deal in place with ABC, having previously tested for a pilot show on the network. It has been speculated that Pompeo was the first character to be cast, but when asked, she said she did not know of this. When asked of how she created Pompeo 's character, Rhimes said:
Pompeo was cast as the program 's titular character, described by Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times as "a prickly, independent sort whose ambition, and ambivalence, is fueled by the fact that her mother was a gifted surgeon and now suffers from Alzheimer 's. '' Grey also serves as the show 's narrator, and as such was likened in early reviews to Carrie Bradshaw (Sarah Jessica Parker), the narrator and protagonist of Sex and the City. After her initial contract with Grey 's Anatomy expired, Pompeo negotiated a new one, in which she would be paid US $200,000 per episode, making her and Dempsey the highest - paid cast members on the show. In 2012, Forbes recognized Pompeo as the eighth highest - paid actress on television, with a salary of US $275,000 per episode for her role on Grey 's Anatomy.
Pompeo 's second contract with Grey 's Anatomy expired after the eighth season, and speculation arose that she would be leaving subsequently. In September 2011, Pompeo reported that she is open to the idea of extending her contract, if invited. She told TV Guide: "I would never turn up my nose at (Grey 's Anatomy). As long as the stories are honest and truthful, and Patrick (Dempsey) and I feel there is material for us to be passionate about, it still beats a 9 - to - 5 job any day. If I hear from the fans that they want us to keep going, then I would continue because we owe them everything. '' E! Online reported in May 2012, that Pompeo, as well as all original cast members have signed on for two more years. With the Huffington Post 's announcement of season nine having officially been renewed, the contract is set into place for Pompeo to return.
Pompeo 's contract expired again at the end of the twelfth season. She signed a new contract to keep her in the starring role on the series for the thirteenth season. According to a report in Deadline.com, Pompeo was earning $300,000 per episode under the new deal.
On January 17, 2018, it was announced by ABC that Ellen Pompeo 's contract had been renewed through season 16. Not only does the contract renewal secure that Pompeo 's return as Meredith Grey, but it also makes her a producer of Grey 's Anatomy and a co-executive producer of the spin - off series. The deal will make Pompeo the highest paid actress currently on a dramatic TV series, with her making $575,000 per episode and over $20 million yearly.
Executive producer Betsy Beers on developing Pompeo 's character
Grey is the protagonist and focal point of the series. She has been called "intelligent, compassionate, hard - working, oftentimes outspoken, easily distracted, and indecisive '' by Grey 's Anatomy executives. Pompeo says she is unaware if her character knows how to have fun, adding: "All of my scenes with (Dempsey) are the same -- we 're either breaking up or having sex. '' Her personality has evolved over the past few seasons from depressed, to happy and "fixed ''. Pompeo said to Good Morning America, "I am so incredibly lucky to have Patrick (Dempsey), to have the chemistry that we do, we have an amazing relationship, and it 's like any other relationship, you have your ups and downs. But we work it out, and we 've found a way to do this for this long and still get along, and make it work and believe in what we 're doing. '' Pompeo told Entertainment Weekly: "It 's awkward with Patrick (Dempsey) because he 's like my brother. As soon as the camera is off, I 'm like, ' Is your hand on my butt? ' But there are millions of girls who have been waiting for this, so I feel an obligation to the fans. '' Rhimes used the dog "Doc '', which Meredith and Derek shared, as a metaphor of their relationship during the second season. She characterizes Grey as doing what she thinks is right:
The character had a one - night stand with George O'Malley, in the second season. Series writer Stacy McKee, said of the sexual encounter: "There 's no turning back. There 's nothing George and Meredith can do. The damage is done -- things will never be the same. They 've just changed something important in their lives FOREVER and... they are freaking out. '' Grey 's character development has also been known as an influence on the creation of her half - sister, Lexie Grey. Particularly, it has been made clear that they both share the same motives. McKee offered her thoughts: "Meredith and Lexie both want to succeed. They want to be strong. They want to feel normal. They want, so much, to be whole. But it 's a struggle -- a genuine struggle for them. Being hardcore does n't come naturally. Sometimes, they have to fake it. '' Grey 's personality has been compared with that of Alex Karev 's. Rhimes offered the insight:
"I like to create moments for him and Meredith. Because, in my head, they are very similar people. Even though Karev can be such an ass, even though he 's arrogant, even though he gave O'Malley the Syph. He and Meredith are both lost, both lonely, both former screw - ups who got their acts together. In another lifetime, they would be really good friends. So throughout the season, we watch them pause from time to time to look at each other and see that they are mirrors of one another.
Pompeo fights for a truthful storyline for her character -- she wants it to be realistic and says you ca n't always wrap it up in a neat little package. Referring to Grey 's tampering with Shepherd 's trial, Pompeo said: "Listen, what Meredith did clearly crossed a line. Derek has a right to be pissed. '' Following the tampering, Rhimes said she believes that Grey and Shepherd are meant to be together and that it in the end, they will end up with each other. Grey 's relationship with Cristina Yang, has been looked upon as "sisterhood '', and Yang has repeatedly referred to Grey as "her person ''. This led to the two being dubbed "the twisted sisters ''. At the conclusion of season three, the duo went on a "honeymoon '' together, and Rhimes called it her favorite detail of the finale. Grey has been characterized, by some, as "whiny ''. Rhimes offered her insight:
Rhimes felt that the 100th episode showed well Meredith 's evolution throughout the show from a "dark and twisty girl '' to a "happy woman ''. She said: "She is the thing her mother wished for her. She is extraordinary. Because, to get past the crap of your past? To move on? To let the past go and change? That is extraordinary. To love? Without fear? Without screwing it up? That is extraordinary. It makes me happy to see her happy. ''
Following the departure of Patrick Dempsey 's character, Rhimes was quoted as saying that "... Meredith and the entire Grey 's Anatomy family are about to enter uncharted territory as we head into this new chapter of her life. The possibilities for what may come are endless. '' With at least a year left in Pompeo 's contract with the show, viewers are sure to witness some of the most difficult times of Meredith 's life yet.
The character has received both overwhelmingly positive reviews to weary response from television critics throughout the course of the show. The initial response to the character was positive but as the series progressed Meredith Grey became immensely popular and Pompeo established the character as a critic and fan favorite featuring on a number of Top TV Character lists. The development of the character has been deemed as the highlight of the show. Grey has constantly been defined as "the heroine of Grey 's Anatomy ''. At the time of inception Newsday 's Diane Werts praised the character stating, "Like Hugh Laurie 's irascible "House '' title character, star Ellen Pompeo 's newly minted Dr. Grey conveys such substance that you simply ca n't stop watching. '' Ellen A. Kim of After Pompeo not receiving an Emmy nomination for her work as Grey, McNamara of the Los Angeles Times suggested that Pompeo, "who has worked very hard and against all narrative odds to make Meredith Grey an interesting character at last '' should have received a nomination at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards. Later, during the twelfth season Western Gazette gave Ellen Pompeo the credit for carrying the show and re-ittirated. '' (It 's) time for Pompeo to finally win an Emmy Award. '' Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly referred to Grey as the "trusty voice over master '' of Grey 's Anatomy.
Former television columnist for The Star - Ledger Alan Sepinwall expressed his boredom on the focus given on Grey 's relationships storylines while reviewing the second season 's finale: "On those occasions when Meredith 's not involved in a plot about her love life, I do kind of like her, but those moments are so infrequent compared to her constant angsting over McDreamy -- not to mention all those seemingly unrelated storylines that always turn into a metaphor for that relationship -- that I really, really ca n't stand her. '' During the show 's third season, the development of the character received negative reviews, with Cristopher Monfette of IGN stating that her storyline has become "some bizarrely under - developed sub-plot about depression and giving Derek a season 's worth of reconsidering to do. '' Also during the third season, Robert Rorke of the New York Post noted the decline in Meredith 's role in the show, expressing disappointment: "She used to be the queen of the romantic dilemmas, but lately, she 's been a little dopey, what with the endless McDreamy soliloquies. '' Similarly, Macleans.ca found their storyline in the fourth season overused, "This whole ' Oh I need more time, ' but ' Oh, I 'm jealous if you look at someone else ' angst was tired in the second season, frustrating in the third and now a total channel changer. The will - they - or - wo n't - they plot does n't work because they 've already been in and out of that relationship too many times. Meredith is a nag and McDreamy is henpecked. '' On a more positive note, her relationship with Shepherd was included in AOL TV 's list of the "Best TV Couples of All Time '' and in the same list by TV Guide. During the sixth season the development of the character was praised, Glenn Diaz of BuddyTV commented that "You got ta love Mer when she 's gloomy. '', in addition to praising Pompeo 's performance. In her review of the episode Tainted Obligation she wrote "I felt for Meredith, but after Lexie 's heartfelt begging and pleading, I was happy that Mere finally grows up and casts her selfishness aside. Three seasons ago Meredith would never have dreamed of putting Lexie first, and I was proud of her for giving up part of her liver -- her offer to get to know her dad was an even bigger milestone. '' Reviewing the first part of the eighth season, TV Fanatic lauded the character and wrote: "this season belongs to Meredith Grey. She is the heart and soul of the show and has been outstanding. This is a character that used to be so dark and twisty and has now grown into a more mature woman. Ellen Pompeo has been at the top of her game this season. ''
Wit & Fancy praised the transformation of the character and stated, "Of course Meredith will still make rash decisions like when she took off with Zola, or tampered with the trial but she does things out of love and the kindness of her heart now and not because she is dark and twisty. Considering where Meredith was at the beginning and where she is now, I think she went through a remarkable journey and did more than just growing up, she finally became "all whole and healed ". ''
Maura O'Malley of Bustle also lauded the development of the character ahead of season 12 saying, "When the series began, Meredith was just a girl sitting in a bar celebrating the exciting next phase of her life. She had graduated medical school, she was starting her residency at a prestigious hospital, and she was simply looking for a no - strings attached, one night stand. What she got instead was a complicated romantic relationship that rivals Romeo and Juliet -- but the key is, she was n't searching for love. Working and learning were -- and continue to be -- her priorities, while McDreamy was simply an added perk. Hopefully, the new season of Grey 's Anatomy will reflect this change in tone, because Meredith is a strong, independent woman -- and she will be just fine. ''
Later in the series, Ellen Pompeo received critical acclaim with numerous critics lauding her portrayal of the character. Reviewing the episode She 's Leaving Home CarterMatt called her the "anchor '' for Grey 's saying, "Throughout, this was an episode completely anchored by Ellen Pompeo, who has done some of her best work ever on the show the past couple of weeks. Tonight, she cried, she fought, and she learned that she was carrying his child. '' and added that Pompeo is often "ovelooked '' saying, "Her subtlety is probably why she is often overlooked. '' Rick Porter of Zap2it reviewing "How to Save a Life '' wrote, "Without Meredith, and without one of Pompeo 's strongest performances in her long time on the show, "How to Save a Life '' would have run the risk of coming across as a baldly manipulative death episode, the likes of which the show has done several times before. He added. "How to Save a Life '' may not be the ideal Emmy - submission episode for Pompeo, considering Meredith is off screen for more than half of it. But it 's among the best work she 's ever done on the show. '' USA Today also lauded Pompeo saying, "In some ways, the episode (How to Save a Life) was even more of a showcase for Pompeo. She had some of the more memorable and well - played scenes, from her angry response to the doctor who tries to tell her what her choices are, to her resignation when she realizes she has to comfort and motivate the young doctor whose mistakes cost Derek his life. ''
The relation between Meredith and Cristina has been acclaimed and been a highlight of the show. Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald considered the friendship to be "the secret core of Grey 's ''. Aisha Harris of Slate called their relation The Best Female Friendship on TV adding that "With those two characters, showrunner Shonda Rhimes and her team of writers created one of the most nuanced and realistic portrayals of female friendship on television. '' Samantha Highfill of Entertainment Weekly called Cristina and Meredith the best female friends on TV because "they do n't try to be ''. There 's nothing fake about them, which is a rarity in how female friends are portrayed on television. She further went on to call them ' soulmates ', "And even though they 'd never dare get sappy enough to say it, they 're soul mates. Margaret Lyons of Vulture (magazine) called the friendship '' dream BFF relationship. '' and the primary focus of the show, "One of the series ' calling cards has been its depiction of female friendship and particularly the primacy that friendship enjoyed over romantic relationships. ''
E! at the time of Sandra Oh 's exit wrote, "In Grey 's Anatomy 's 10 - year history, the doctor duo has been through a lot together: weddings, deaths, plane crashes, bomb threats, shooting, you name it, they 've lived (and danced) through it. '' and added, "And with the three words, "You 're my person. '' Cristina Yang and Meredith Grey solidified their status as the small screen 's best best friends ever. '' Marama Whyte of Hypable wrote, "Critically, the key relationship in Meredith 's life was not her romance with Derek Shepherd, but her passionate, indestructible, absolutely enviable friendship with Cristina. Talk about relationship goals; who wants McDreamy when Cristina Yang could be your person. These two were the real powerhouse, and Shonda Rhimes did n't shy away from making the audience remember this. Derek was the love of her life, but Cristina was her soul mate. More than anyone else, Cristina challenged Meredith, was honest with her, and inspired her. For these reasons, it was Cristina who was constantly the source of Meredith 's character development, not Derek. ''
Pompeo 's character has also been used to define the image a strong woman, Bustle previewing the 12th season wrote, "Meredith Grey has always been capable of being on her own. Grey 's Anatomy is about Meredith 's journey. Men and romantic interests are a part of her life, but they are not the priority. She does n't need McDreamy. Grey 's Anatomy does n't need McDreamy. So even if the writers do decide to create a new love interest for Ms. Grey (Martin Henderson, perhaps?), it would n't matter. I have faith that the show 's writers will do this storyline justice, because TV needs more strong single women -- and Meredith seems like the perfect candidate. '' The site added, "This past season was almost a trial run for a McDreamy-less Grey 's Anatomy. When Derek left for Washington D.C. to pursue his research, Meredith stayed behind and focused on her own career. She did n't chase him. Her priority were her children and the Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. Meredith showed that she would never put aside her own dreams and aspirations for a man, and I believe that this wo n't change after Derek 's death. ''
Pompeo has won and has been nominated for multiple awards for her portrayal of Grey. She and the Grey 's Anatomy cast won Best Ensemble in a Television Series at the 2006 Satellite Awards. During the following year 's ceremony, she was named Best Actress in a Television Drama Series. She was among the Grey 's Anatomy cast members awarded the Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series accolade at the 13th Screen Actors Guild Awards, and received nominations in the same category in 2006 and 2008. Pompeo received a Best Performance by an Actress in a Drama Series nomination at the 64th Golden Globe Awards -- the program won Best Drama Series at the same ceremony. Also in 2007, Pompeo and the female cast and crew of Grey 's Anatomy received the Women in Film Lucy Award, which honors those "whose work in television has positively influenced attitudes toward women. ''
Pompeo 's performance has garnered her multiple People 's Choice Awards. At the 37th People 's Choice Awards, she was nominated against Dempsey and Oh in the Favorite TV Doctor category, and the following year, she was a contender in the Favorite TV Drama Actress category. Since 2012 Pompeo has received nomination at the People 's Choice Awards every year in two categories at 40th People 's Choice Awards alongside Patrick Dempsey and Sandra Oh respectively. She won the Best Drama Actress Award at both the 39th People 's Choice Awards and the 41st People 's Choice Awards. In 2007, show - business awards reporter Tom O'Neil commented that Pompeo was overdue an Emmy Award nomination for her role in Grey 's Anatomy. Readers of O'Neil's awards website, The Envelope, included Pompeo in their 2009 nominations for Best Drama Actress in the site 's Gold Derby TV Awards. Entertainment Weekly launched the EWwy Awards in 2008, to honor actors who have not received Emmy nominations. Pompeo was nominated in the Best Actress in a Drama Series category, and placed fourth, with 19 percent of readers ' votes.
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what is the ipv6 broadcast ip address assignment range | IPv6 address - wikipedia
An Internet Protocol Version 6 address (IPv6 address) is a numerical label that is used to identify a network interface of a computer or a network node participating in an IPv6 computer network.
An IP address serves the purpose of identifying an individual network interface of a host, locating it on the network, and thus permitting the routing of IP packets between hosts. For routing, IP addresses are present in fields of the packet header where they indicate source and destination of the packet.
IPv6 is the successor to the first addressing infrastructure of the Internet, Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4). In contrast to IPv4, which defined an IP address as a 32 - bit value, IPv6 addresses have a size of 128 bits. Therefore, IPv6 has a vastly enlarged address space compared to IPv4.
IPv6 addresses are classified by the primary addressing and routing methodologies common in networking: unicast addressing, anycast addressing, and multicast addressing.
A unicast address identifies a single network interface. The Internet Protocol delivers packets sent to a unicast address to that specific interface.
An anycast address is assigned to a group of interfaces, usually belonging to different nodes. A packet sent to an anycast address is delivered to just one of the member interfaces, typically the nearest host, according to the routing protocol 's definition of distance. Anycast addresses can not be identified easily, they have the same format as unicast addresses, and differ only by their presence in the network at multiple points. Almost any unicast address can be employed as an anycast address.
A multicast address is also used by multiple hosts, which acquire the multicast address destination by participating in the multicast distribution protocol among the network routers. A packet that is sent to a multicast address is delivered to all interfaces that have joined the corresponding multicast group. IPv6 does not implement broadcast addressing. Broadcast 's traditional role is subsumed by multicast addressing to the all - nodes link - local multicast group ff02:: 1. However, the use of the all - nodes group is not recommended, and most IPv6 protocols use a dedicated link - local multicast group to avoid disturbing every interface in the network.
An IPv6 address consists of 128 bits. For each of the major addressing and routing methodologies, various address formats are recognized by logically dividing the 128 address bits into bit groups and establishing rules for associating the values of these bit groups with special addressing features.
Unicast and anycast addresses are typically composed of two logical parts: a 64 - bit network prefix used for routing, and a 64 - bit interface identifier used to identify a host 's network interface.
The network prefix (the routing prefix combined with the subnet id) is contained in the most significant 64 bits of the address. The size of the routing prefix may vary; a larger prefix size means a smaller subnet id size. The bits of the subnet id (entifier) field are available to the network administrator to define subnets within the given network. The 64 - bit interface identifier is either automatically generated from the interface 's MAC address using the modified EUI - 64 format, obtained from a DHCPv6 server, automatically established randomly, or assigned manually.
A link - local address is also based on the interface identifier, but uses a different format for the network prefix.
The prefix field contains the binary value 1111111010. The 54 zeroes that follow make the total network prefix the same for all link - local addresses (fe80:: / 64 link - local address prefix), rendering them non-routable.
Multicast addresses are formed according to several specific formatting rules, depending on the application.
The prefix holds the binary value 11111111 for any multicast address.
Currently, 3 of the 4 flag bits in the flg field are defined; the most - significant flag bit is reserved for future use.
The 4 - bit scope field (sc) is used to indicate where the address is valid and unique.
There are special multicast addresses, like Solicited Node.
The sc (ope) field holds the binary value 0010 (link - local). Solicited - node multicast addresses are computed as a function of a node 's unicast or anycast addresses. A solicited - node multicast address is created by copying the last 24 bits of a unicast or anycast address to the last 24 bits of the multicast address.
Link - scoped multicast addresses use a comparable format.
An IPv6 address is represented as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits, each group representing 16 bits (two octets, a group sometimes also called a hextet). The groups are separated by colons (:). An example of an IPv6 address is:
The hexadecimal digits are case - insensitive, but IETF recommendations suggest the use of lower case letters. The full representation of eight 4 - digit groups may be simplified by several techniques, eliminating parts of the representation.
Leading zeroes in a group may be omitted, but each group must retain at least one hexadecimal digit. Thus, the example address may be written as:
One or more consecutive groups containing zeros only may be replaced with a single empty group, using two consecutive colons (::). The substitution may only be applied once in the address, however, because multiple occurrences would create an ambiguous representation. Thus, the example address can be further simplified:
The localhost (loopback) address, 0: 0: 0: 0: 0: 0: 0: 1, and the IPv6 unspecified address, 0: 0: 0: 0: 0: 0: 0: 0, are reduced to:: 1 and::, respectively.
During the transition of the Internet from IPv4 to IPv6, it is typical to operate in a mixed addressing environment. For such use cases, a special notation has been introduced, which expresses IPv4 - mapped and IPv4 - compatible IPv6 addresses by writing the least - significant 32 bits of an address in the familiar IPv4 dot - decimal notation, whereas the other 96 (most significant) bits are written in IPv6 format. For example, the IPv4 - mapped IPv6 address:: ffff: c000: 0280 is written as:: ffff: 192.0. 2.128, thus expressing clearly the original IPv4 address that was mapped to IPv6.
In an attempt to simplify IPv6 addresses, the standards provide flexibility in their representation. However, this also complicates several common operations: searching for a specific address in a text file or stream, and comparing two addresses to determine their equivalence. To mitigate these problems, a canonical format is defined for rendering IPv6 addresses in text:
An IPv6 network uses an address block that is a contiguous group of IPv6 addresses of a size that is a power of two. The leading set of bits of the addresses are identical for all hosts in a given network, and are called the network 's address or routing prefix.
Network address ranges are written in CIDR notation. A network is denoted by the first address in the block (ending in all zeroes), a slash (/), and a decimal value equal to the size in bits of the prefix. For example, the network written as 2001: db8: 1234:: / 48 starts at address 2001: db8: 1234: 0000: 0000: 0000: 0000: 0000 and ends at 2001: db8: 1234: ffff: ffff: ffff: ffff: ffff.
The routing prefix of an interface address may be directly indicated with the address by CIDR notation. For example, the configuration of an interface with address 2001: db8: a:: 123 connected to subnet 2001: db8: a:: / 64 is written as 2001: db8: a:: 123 / 64.
The size of a block of addresses is specified by writing a slash (/) followed by a number in decimal whose value is the length of the network prefix in bits, rather than by explicitly specifying which addresses are in the block. For example, an address block with 48 bits in the prefix is indicated by / 48. Such a block contains 2 = 2 addresses. The smaller the value of the network prefix, the larger the block: a / 21 block is 8 times larger than a / 24 block.
Colon (:) characters in IPv6 addresses may conflict with the established syntax of resource identifiers, such as URIs and URLs. The colon has traditionally been used to terminate the host path before a port number. To alleviate this conflict, literal IPv6 addresses are enclosed in square brackets in such resource identifiers, for example:
When the URL also contains a port number the notation is:
where the trailing 443 is the example 's port number.
For addresses with other than global scope (as described below), and in particular for link - local addresses, the choice of the network interface for sending a packet may depend on which zone the address belongs to: the same address may be valid in different zones, and be in use by a different host in each of those zones. Even if a single address is not in use in different zones, the address prefixes for addresses in those zones may still be identical, which makes the operating system unable to select an outgoing interface based on the information in the routing table (which is prefix - based).
In order to resolve the ambiguity in textual addresses, a zone index must be appended to the address, the two separated by a percent sign (%). The syntax of zone indices is an implementation - dependent string, although numeric zone indices must be universally supported as well. The following link - local address:
could become for instance:
or:
The former (using an interface name) is customary on most Unix - like operating systems (e.g., BSD, Linux, OS X). The latter (using an interface number) is the standard syntax on Microsoft Windows, but as support for this syntax is mandatory, it is also available on other operating systems.
BSD - based operating systems (including OS X) also support an alternative, non-standard syntax, where a numeric zone index is encoded in the second 16 - bit word of the address. E.g.:
In all operating systems mentioned above, the zone index for link - local addresses actually refers to an interface, not to a zone. As multiple interfaces may belong to the same zone (e.g. when connected to the same switch), in practice two addresses with different zone - ids may actually be equivalent, and refer to the same host on the same link.
When used in uniform resource identifiers (URI), the use of the percent sign causes a syntax conflict, therefore it must be escaped via percent - encoding, e.g.:
In Microsoft Windows operating systems, IPv4 addresses are valid location identifiers in Uniform Naming Convention (UNC) path names. However, the colon is an illegal character in a UNC path name. Thus, the use of IPv6 addresses is also illegal in UNC names. For this reason, Microsoft implemented a transcription algorithm to represent an IPv6 address in the form of a domain name that can be used in UNC paths. For this purpose, Microsoft registered and reserved the second - level domain ipv6-literal.net on the Internet (although they gave up the domain in January 2014). IPv6 addresses are transcribed as a hostname or subdomain name within this name space, in the following fashion:
is written as
This notation is automatically resolved locally by Microsoft software, without any queries to DNS name servers.
If the IPv6 address contains a zone index, it is appended to the address portion after an ' s ' character:
is written as
Every IPv6 address, except the unspecified address (::), has a "scope '', which specifies in which part of the network it is valid.
For unicast addresses, two scopes are defined: link - local and global.
Link - local addresses and the loopback address have link - local scope, which means they can only be used on a single directly attached network (link). All other addresses (including Unique local addresses) have global (or universal) scope, which means they are (or could be) globally routable, and can be used to connect to addresses with global scope anywhere, or to addresses with link - local scope on the directly attached network.
Even though Unique local addresses have global scope, they are not globally administered. As a result, only other hosts inside the same administrative domain (e.g. an organisation), or inside a cooperating administrative domain will be able to reach such addresses (i.e. have a route to them). As their scope is global, these addresses are valid as a source address when communicating with any other global - scope address, even though it may be impossible to route packets from the destination back to the source.
Anycast addresses are syntactically identical to and indistinguishable from unicast addresses. Their only difference is administrative. Scopes for anycast addresses are therefore the same as for unicast addresses.
For multicast addresses, the four least - significant bits of the second address octet (ff0s::) identify the address scope, i.e. the domain in which the multicast packet should be propagated. Predefined and reserved scopes are:
All other scopes are unassigned, and available to administrators for defining additional regions.
The management of IPv6 address allocation process is delegated to the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) by the Internet Architecture Board and the Internet Engineering Steering Group. Its main function is the assignment of large address blocks to the regional Internet registries (RIRs), which have the delegated task of allocation to network service providers and other local registries. The IANA has maintained the official list of allocations of the IPv6 address space since December 1995.
Only one eighth of the total address space is currently allocated for use on the Internet, 2000:: / 3, in order to provide efficient route aggregation, thereby reducing the size of the Internet routing tables; the rest of the IPv6 address space is reserved for future use or for special purposes. The address space is assigned to the RIRs in large blocks of / 23 up to / 12.
The RIRs assign smaller blocks to local Internet registries that distributes them to users. These are typically in sizes from / 19 to / 32. The addresses are typically distributed in / 48 to / 56 sized blocks to the end users.
Global unicast assignment records can be found at the various RIRs or other websites.
IPv6 addresses are assigned to organizations in much larger blocks as compared to IPv4 address assignments -- the recommended allocation is a / 48 block which contains 2 addresses, being 2 or about 7014279999999999999 ♠ 2.8 × 10 times larger than the entire IPv4 address space of 2 addresses and about 7016720000000000000 ♠ 7.2 × 10 times larger than the / 8 blocks of IPv4 addresses, which are the largest allocations of IPv4 addresses. The total pool, however, is sufficient for the foreseeable future, because there are 2 (exactly 340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456) or about 7038340000000000000 ♠ 3.4 × 10 (340 trillion trillion trillion) unique IPv6 addresses.
Each RIR can divide each of its multiple / 23 blocks into 512 / 32 blocks, typically one for each ISP; an ISP can divide its / 32 block into 65 536 / 48 blocks, typically one for each customer; customers can create 65 536 / 64 networks from their assigned / 48 block, each having 2 (18,446,744,073,709,551,616) addresses. In contrast, the entire IPv4 address space has only 2 (exactly 4,294,967,296 or about 7009430000000000000 ♠ 4.3 × 10) addresses.
By design, only a very small fraction of the address space will actually be used. The large address space ensures that addresses are almost always available, which makes the use of network address translation (NAT) for the purposes of address conservation completely unnecessary. NAT has been increasingly used for IPv4 networks to help alleviate IPv4 address exhaustion.
To allow for provider changes without renumbering, provider - independent address space -- assigned directly to the end user by the RIRs -- is taken from the special range 2001: 678:: / 29.
Internet Exchange Points (IXPs) are assigned special addresses from the range 2001: 7f8:: / 29 for communication with their connected ISPs. Root name servers have been assigned addresses from the same range.
The lowest address within each subnet prefix (the interface identifier set to all zeroes) is reserved as the "subnet - router '' anycast address. Applications may use this address when talking to any one of the available routers, as packets sent to this address are delivered to just one router.
The 128 highest addresses within each / 64 subnet prefix are reserved to be used as anycast addresses. These addresses usually have the 57 first bits of the interface identifier set to 1, followed by the 7 - bit anycast ID. Prefixes for the network, including subnets, are required to have a length of 64 bits, in which case the universal / local bit must be set to 0 to indicate the address is not globally unique. The address with value 0x7e in the 7 least - significant bits is defined as a mobile IPv6 home agents anycast address. The address with value 0x7f (all bits 1) is reserved and may not be used. No more assignments from this range are made, so values 0x00 through 0x7d are reserved as well.
There are a number of addresses with special meaning in IPv6. They represent less than 2 % of the entire address space:
The multicast addresses ff0x:: where x is any hexadecimal value are reserved and should not be assigned to any multicast group. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) manages address reservations.
Some common IPv6 multicast addresses are the following:
The least significant 24 bits of the solicited - node multicast address group ID are filled with the least significant 24 bits of the interface 's unicast or anycast address. These addresses allow link layer address resolution via Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP) on the link without disturbing all nodes on the local network. A host is required to join a solicited - node multicast group for each of its configured unicast or anycast addresses.
On system startup, a node automatically creates a link - local address on each IPv6 - enabled interface, even if globally routable addresses are manually configured or obtained through "configuration protocols '' (see below). It does so independently and without any prior configuration by stateless address autoconfiguration (SLAAC), using a component of the Neighbor Discovery Protocol. This address is selected with the prefix fe80:: / 64.
In IPv4, typical "configuration protocols '' include DHCP or PPP. Although DHCPv6 exists, IPv6 hosts normally use the Neighbor Discovery Protocol to create a globally routable unicast address: the host sends router solicitation requests and an IPv6 router responds with a prefix assignment.
The lower 64 bits of these addresses are populated with a 64 - bit interface identifier in modified EUI - 64 format. This identifier is usually shared by all automatically configured addresses of that interface, which has the advantage that only one multicast group needs to be joined for neighbor discovery. For this, a multicast address is used, formed from the network prefix ff02:: 1: ff00: 0 / 104 and the 24 least significant bits of the address.
A 64 - bit interface identifier is most commonly derived from its 48 - bit MAC address. A MAC address 00 - 0C - 29 - 0C - 47 - D5 is turned into a 64 - bit EUI - 64 by inserting FF - FE in the middle: 00 - 0C - 29 - FF - FE - 0C - 47 - D5. When this EUI - 64 is used to form an IPv6 address it is modified: the meaning of the Universal / Local bit (the 7th most significant bit of the EUI - 64, starting from 1) is inverted, so that a 1 now means Universal. To create an IPv6 address with the network prefix 2001: db8: 1: 2:: / 64 it yields the address 2001: db8: 1: 2: 020c: 29ff: fe0c: 47d5 (with the Universal / Local bit, the second - least - significant bit of the underlined quartet, inverted to 1 in this case because the MAC address is universally unique).
The assignment of a unicast IPv6 address to an interface involves an internal test for the uniqueness of that address using Neighbor Solicitation and Neighbor Advertisement (ICMPv6 type 135 and 136) messages. While in the process of establishing uniqueness an address has a tentative state.
The node joins the solicited - node multicast address for the tentative address (if not already done so) and sends neighbor solicitations, with the tentative address as target address and the unspecified address (:: / 128) as source address. The node also joins the all - hosts multicast address ff02:: 1, so it will be able to receive Neighbor Advertisements.
If a node receives a neighbor solicitation with its own tentative address as the target address, then that address is not unique. The same is true if the node receives a neighbor advertisement with the tentative address as the source of the advertisement. Only after having successfully established that an address is unique may it be assigned and used by an interface.
Each IPv6 address that is bound to an interface has a fixed lifetime. Lifetimes are infinite, unless configured to a shorter period. There are two lifetimes that govern the state of an address: the preferred lifetime and the valid lifetime. Lifetimes can be configured in routers that provide the values used for autoconfiguration, or specified when manually configuring addresses on interfaces.
When an address is assigned to an interface it gets the status "preferred '', which it holds during its preferred - lifetime. After that lifetime expires the status becomes "deprecated '' and no new connections should be made using this address. The address becomes "invalid '' after its valid - lifetime also expires; the address is removed from the interface and may be assigned somewhere else on the Internet.
Note: In most cases, the lifetime does not expire because new Router Advertisements (RAs) refresh the timers. But if there are no more RAs, eventually the preferred lifetime elapses and the address becomes "deprecated ''.
The globally unique and static MAC addresses, used by stateless address autoconfiguration to create interface identifiers, offer an opportunity to track user equipment -- across time and IPv6 network prefix changes -- and so users. To reduce the prospect of a user identity being permanently tied to an IPv6 address portion, a node may create temporary addresses with interface identifiers based on time - varying random bit strings and relatively short lifetimes (hours to days), after which they are replaced with new addresses.
Temporary addresses may be used as source address for originating connections, while external hosts use a public address by querying the Domain Name System.
Network interfaces configured for IPv6 use temporary addresses by default in OS X Lion and later Apple systems as well as in Windows Vista, Windows 2008 Server and later Microsoft systems.
IPv6 - enabled network interfaces usually have more than one IPv6 address, for example, a link - local and a global address, and permanent versus temporary addresses. IPv6 introduces the concepts of address scope and selection preference, yielding multiple choices for source and destination address selections in communication with another host.
The preference selection algorithm, which selects the most appropriate address to use in communications with a particular destination (including the use of IPv4 - mapped addresses in dual - stack implementations), is based on a user - customizable preference table that associates each routing prefix with a precedence level. The default table is as follows:
The default configuration places preference on IPv6, rather than IPv4, and on destination addresses within the smallest possible scope, so that link - local communication is preferred over globally routed paths when otherwise equally suitable. The prefix policy table is similar to a routing table, with the precedence value serving as the role of a link cost, where higher preference is expressed as a larger value. Source addresses are preferred to have the same label value as the destination address. Addresses are matched to prefixes based on the longest matching most - significant bit - sequence. Candidate source addresses are obtained from the operating system and candidate destination addresses may be queried via the Domain Name System (DNS).
In the Domain Name System, hostnames are mapped to IPv6 addresses by AAAA resource records, so - called quad - A records. For reverse lookup the IETF reserved the domain ip6.arpa, where the name space is hierarchically divided by the 1 - digit hexadecimal representation of nibble units (4 bits) of the IPv6 address.
As in IPv4, each host is represented in the DNS by two DNS records: an address record and a reverse mapping pointer record. For example, a host computer named derrick in zone example.com has the Unique Local Address fdda: 5cc1: 23: 4:: 1f. Its quad - A address record is
and its IPv6 pointer record is
This pointer record may be defined in a number of zones, depending on the chain of delegation of authority in the zone d.f. ip6.arpa.
The DNS protocol is independent of its Transport Layer protocol. Queries and replies may be transmitted over IPv6 or IPv4 transports regardless of the address family of the data requested.
As of 2009, many DNS resolvers in home - networking NAT devices and routers still handle AAAA records improperly. Some of these simply drop DNS requests for such records, instead of properly returning the appropriate negative DNS response. Because the request is dropped, the host sending the request has to wait for a timeout to trigger. This often causes a slow - down when connecting to dual - stack IPv6 / IPv4 hosts, as the client software will wait for the IPv6 connection to fail before trying IPv4. Use of the Happy Eyeballs algorithm by client software can mitigate this problem, by trying both IPv6 and IPv4 connections simultaneously, then using whichever connects first.
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who is the actor that plays oliver queen | Stephen Amell - wikipedia
Stephen Adam Amell (born May 8, 1981) is a Canadian actor, known for portraying Oliver Queen / Green Arrow on The CW superhero series Arrow and its spin - offs.
A lifelong professional wrestling fan, he has made guest appearances in major American promotions, including working a match for WWE in 2015, and more recently for Ring of Honor in 2017, joining the popular group known as Bullet Club.
Amell was born in Toronto, Ontario, the son of Sandra Anne (Bolté) and Thomas J. Amell. He is a first cousin of actor Robbie Amell.
He attended St. Andrew 's College, a private, independent school for boys.
Amell appeared in two episodes of the fourth season of Queer as Folk as the Liberty Ride spinning instructor in 2004. Amell played Adam in the first season of the television series Dante 's Cove; he was replaced in the second season by Jon Fleming. In 2007, Amell won a Gemini Award for his guest - starring role on ReGenesis. The same year he was also nominated for a Gemini Award in the Best Ensemble Cast Category for Rent - a-Goalie.
He had recurring roles in the TV series Da Kink in My Hair and Heartland. On December 3, 2010, Amell joined the cast of The Vampire Diaries as werewolf ' Brady ' for season 2.
Amell starred as Joran van der Sloot in the Lifetime film Justice for Natalee Holloway which originally aired in May 2011.
On October 2, 2011, season 3 of HBO 's series Hung premiered with Amell starring as busboy - turned - prostitute Jason, a younger rival "ho '' to Thomas Jane 's Ray Drecker. He also appeared as Jim in the fourth season of 90210.
Amell announced on October 28, 2011, that he had just finished filming the Christmas episode of New Girl with Zooey Deschanel and Max Greenfield. He touches on the experience of filming his first "network half - hour comedy '' in an interview with Daemon 's TV. On November 9, 2011, Amell was announced for the recurring role of Scottie, a paramedic on ABC 's Private Practice. He also played the role of Travis McKenna in Blue Mountain State
In January 2012, Amell was cast as the title character in The CW series Arrow, a re-imagining of the comic - book character Green Arrow.
Amell co-starred in the film Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of the Shadows, released on June 3, 2016, as vigilante Casey Jones.
Amell announced in May 2017 that he would be participating on a special celebrity edition of American Ninja Warrior.
In 2017, Amell took part in the directorial debut of former Heartland co-star Michelle Morgan, entitled Mi Madre, My Father, playing the estranged father of a six year old girl. Morgan raised funds for the production through a crowdfunding campaign.
As an avid professional wrestling fan, Amell had long campaigned for a guest appearance on WWE 's weekly Raw program, when in late May 2015 it was reported that he was tentatively set to wrestle Stardust (Cody Rhodes) at WWE 's SummerSlam pay - per - view on August 23, 2015. Amell made his first WWE appearance on the May 25 Raw, where he had a confrontation with Stardust. However, after the real - life death of Stardust 's father Dusty Rhodes in June 2015, reports speculated that the match had been scrapped. Despite this, Amell stated at the 2015 Comic Con International in July 2015, "I 'm probably gon na do some stuff with the WWE. I do n't know if that means a wrestling match. We 'll see. '' Amell returned to Raw on August 10, continuing his storyline with Stardust when he stepped into the ring after being assaulted in the audience by Stardust, attacking the wrestler until being contained by security. Following a backstage segment with Triple H, it was announced that Neville would team with Amell to face Stardust and King Barrett at SummerSlam.
At the event on August 23, 2015, Amell and Neville defeated Barrett and Stardust in a tag team match. Neville and Barrett started and after Neville used his speed to control the action, Barrett tagged in Stardust. Stardust insisted that Amell enter the ring, a challenge accepted in a way that both imitated and bettered Stardust 's own athletic ring entrance. Stardust first pushed Amell to the canvas, Amell then responded with a kip - up and a stiff front thrust kick to Stardust 's chest. For the next few minutes Amell was controlled by Stardust and Barrett, and absorbed punches, kicks, knees, slams, falls from ring to floor, and an attack on the floor by the non-legal man, Stardust. Upon returning to the ring, and hitting Stardust with an enzuigiri, Amell made a hot tag to Neville, who dominated both opponents. The conclusion of the match came after Amell dove off the top turnbuckle onto Stardust and Barrett who were standing on the floor below. The match ended after Neville hit his finisher, the Red Arrow, on Barrett and pinned him. Behind the scenes, wrestlers were said to have been impressed with Amell 's performance. There were also talks of a potential singles match with Stardust. Amell became friends with Rhodes, with whom he later also worked on Arrow. On December 21, 2015, Amell was awarded a Slammy for the "Celebrity Moment of the Year '' for his dive onto Stardust.
Amell returned to professional wrestling for Ring of Honor on November 17, 2017, at Survival of the Fittest. On the day of the show, Amell joined the Bullet Club stable, which also included Cody Rhodes. Amell also joined the ProWrestlingTees store, which released a "Vigilante Club '' shirt, Amell 's version of the Bullet Club shirt. At the show, he teamed with Rhodes, Kenny Omega and The Young Bucks (Matt Jackson and Nick Jackson) in a five - on - four tag team match, where they defeated The Addiction (Christopher Daniels and Frankie Kazarian), Flip Gordon and Scorpio Sky. During the match, Amell was put through a table by The Addiction, before teaming with Matt Jackson to hit The Young Bucks ' finishing maneuver, the Indytaker, on Daniels in the finish of the match.
Amell has hosted a number of successful fundraising campaigns via the crowd funded merchandise platform Represent.com. In 2014, Amell partnered with the charity Fuck Cancer to raise almost a million dollars with the release of a T - shirt featuring his face on the front (with a Post-it note on his forehead, and featuring the organization 's name). He ended up selling over 60,000 shirts from this campaign. In January 2015, Amell launched his second Represent.com campaign featuring a word he made up, Sinceriously, to benefit two mental health charities: Paws and Stripes, and Stand For The Silent. In August 2015, Amell used his guest appearance on WWE Raw with Stardust to raise funds via his third campaign for children 's hospice Emily 's House in Toronto. The campaign raised $300,000, and Amell and Stardust presented a cheque together at Emily 's House. During the Red Nose Day special of American Ninja Warrior, Amell donated $35,000 for completing all six obstacles, and an extra obstacle, the Salmon Ladder.
Amell married his first wife, fellow Canadian Carolyn Lawrence, on December 8, 2007, in Toronto. The couple divorced in 2010.
Amell married actress and model Cassandra Jean on December 25, 2012, in a private ceremony in the Caribbean, and for a second time in New Orleans on May 26, 2013. The couple have a daughter, Mavi, born in 2013.
Growing up, Amell was a fan of various local sporting teams, such as the Toronto Maple Leafs, Toronto Raptors, and the Toronto Blue Jays. Amell is still very involved with sports; in 2015, Amell campaigned to have Jays ' third baseman Josh Donaldson elected to the 2015 Major League Baseball All - Star Game. Since moving to Los Angeles, Amell has supported the LA Kings, and more recently, the LA Rams. During a visit to Dublin in May 2017, Amell attended the Dublin derby in Dalymount Park, after which he became a member of Bohemian F.C.
Amell and his business partner own Nocking Point, a wine company based out of Walla Walla, Washington.
In 2015, Amell and James Frazier (owner of Walker Stalker conventions), began Heroes and Villains Fan Fest (HVFF), with their inaugural event taking place in San Jose in November of that year. The pair now run regular HVFF conventions, featuring actors / artists / writers from both Arrowverse and other comics - based shows / films.
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what is a data warehouse what is a data mart | Data mart - wikipedia
A data mart is the access layer of the data warehouse environment that is used to get data out to the users. The data mart is a subset of the data warehouse and is usually oriented to a specific business line or team. Whereas data warehouses have an enterprise - wide depth, the information in data marts pertains to a single department. In some deployments, each department or business unit is considered the owner of its data mart including all the hardware, software and data. This enables each department to isolate the use, manipulation and development of their data. In other deployments where conformed dimensions are used, this business unit ownership will not hold true for shared dimensions like customer, product, etc.
Organizations build data warehouses and data marts because the information in the database is not organized in a way that makes it readily accessible, requiring queries that are too complicated or resource - consuming.
While transactional databases are designed to be updated, data warehouses or marts are read only. Data warehouses are designed to access large groups of related records. Data marts improve end - user response time by allowing users to have access to the specific type of data they need to view most often by providing the data in a way that supports the collective view of a group of users.
A data mart is basically a condensed and more focused version of a data warehouse that reflects the regulations and process specifications of each business unit within an organization. Each data mart is dedicated to a specific business function or region. This subset of data may span across many or all of an enterprise 's functional subject areas. It is common for multiple data marts to be used in order to serve the needs of each individual business unit (different data marts can be used to obtain specific information for various enterprise departments, such as accounting, marketing, sales, etc.).
The related term spreadmart is a derogatory label describing the situation that occurs when one or more business analysts develop a system of linked spreadsheets to perform a business analysis, then grow it to a size and degree of complexity that makes it nearly impossible to maintain.
Data warehouse:
Data mart:
According to the Inmon school of data warehousing, a dependent data mart is a logical subset (view) or a physical subset (extract) of a larger data warehouse, isolated for one of the following reasons:
According to the Inmon school of data warehousing, tradeoffs inherent with data marts include limited scalability, duplication of data, data inconsistency with other silos of information, and inability to leverage enterprise sources of data.
The alternative school of data warehousing is that of Ralph Kimball. In his view, a data warehouse is nothing more than the union of all the data marts. This view helps to reduce costs and provides fast development, but can create an inconsistent data warehouse, especially in large organizations. Therefore, Kimball 's approach is more suitable for small - to - medium corporations.
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celebrities that have been on say yes to the dress | Say Yes to the Dress - wikipedia
Say Yes to the Dress is an American reality television series on TLC which follows events at Kleinfeld Bridal in Manhattan. Kleinfeld Bridal recently expanded into the Canadian market by adding a store in Toronto. The series shows the progress of individual sales associates, managers, and fitters at the store, along with profiling brides as they search for the perfect wedding dress. Common themes include overwhelming advice of friends and family, the ability of the "perfect dress '' to help a bride overcome personal difficulty, struggle with weight and body image concerns, and the challenge of staying in budget, especially in the case of dresses by Kleinfeld 's exclusive designer, Pnina Tornai (one of the few designers ever mentioned by name in the show). Dresses sold on the show range from $1,300 to $40,000.
Mara Urshel is one of the co-owners of Kleinfeld. Earlier in her career in the retail industry, she served as senior vice president and general merchandise manager at Saks Fifth Avenue. She worked there for twenty years. After she left Saks, she was employed by Casual Corner and Geoffrey Beene Company in executive management positions. She then purchased the Kleinfeld Bridal store with Ronald Rothstein and Wayne Rogers on July 9, 1999.
Ronald (Ronnie) Rothstein is one of the co-owners of Kleinfeld. He was successful academically; he graduated from Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania in 1964 and received his law degree from the University of Miami in 1968. He then became a member of the Florida Bar. In 1976, he started his own consumer products company named Oh Dawn, but after eight years, he sold Oh Dawn to an American Stock Exchange company. He did however stay on in an executive capacity for several more years. On July 9, 1999 he purchased the Kleinfeld Bridal store with Mara Urshel and Wayne Rogers.
Randy Fenoli is the Fashion Director for Kleinfeld. He was born in Mt. Vernon, Illinois, and grew up with a love of fashion. He began sewing dresses when he was only nine years old. When he got older, he branched out into the areas of make - up artistry, hair styling, and entertainment. He then enrolled with the New York 's Fashion Institute of Technology. Later, he was offered a job working for Vivian Dessy Diamond, of the Vivian Diamond company. He was then offered a job at Kleinfeld where he worked until 2012. He is now an independent consultant.
Dorothy Silver is the Director of Sales and Merchandising for Kleinfeld. She began her career in New York as a floor manager at Bonwit Teller, but she has spent the majority of her twenty - five years in the retail industry at Kleinfeld. She works alongside Nicole Sacco and Joan Roberts.
Nicole Sacco is the Director of Fittings and Sales at Kleinfeld. She has worked there for thirteen years and has many responsibilities, primarily helping consultants with their clients, whether it 's finding a dress, closing the sale, or just making sure the client is happy. She works alongside Dorothy Silver and Joan Roberts.
Nitsa Glezelis is the Director of Alterations at Kleinfeld. She was born in Kos, Greece, and has been in the retail industry since she was twelve years old. She has worked at Kleinfeld for eighteen years. She works alongside Vera Skenderis.
Joan Roberts is the Director of Sales / Bridal Manager at Kleinfeld. Before coming to Kleinfeld, she had worked in the retail industry for twenty five years. She works alongside Nicole Sacco and Dorothy Silver.
Camille Coffey is one of the several bridal consultants at Kleinfeld. She was first introduced to Kleinfeld when she was shopping for a dress to wear to her son 's wedding. She applied for a job and has been working there ever since.
Vera Skenderis is the Alterations Manager at Kleinfeld. She was born in Athens, Greece. She has been working in the retail industry for thirty - four years. She works alongside Nitsa Glezelis.
Audrey Pisani is one of the several bridal consultants at Kleinfeld. She was born in Brooklyn and has worked in the retail industry for twenty years. Fifteen of those years has been spent working in bridal wear.
Keasha Rigsby is one of the several bridal consultants at Kleinfeld. She has been working in the retail industry for fifteen years. Six of those years has been spent working in bridal wear. She was first introduced to Kleinfeld when she was shopping for wedding dresses with her cousin. She met one of the co-owners, Ronnie Rothstein, applied for a job, and has been working there ever since. Keasha has not appeared on Say Yes to the Dress since the January 2011 season. She will be appearing on a new show entitled Keasha 's Perfect Dress on the Canadian Slice network. This show will follow Keasha as she opens a new bridal salon.
Debbie Asprea is one of the several bridal consultants at Kleinfeld. She has been working in the retail industry for eighteen years. She has been with Kleinfeld for fifteen of those eighteen years. She attributes her love of fashion to her father, who was a dress contractor.
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how long does it take a gi cocktail to work | GI cocktail - wikipedia
A gastrointestinal cocktail, (also known as a GI cocktail or gastric cocktail), is a generic term for a mixture of liquid antacid, viscous lidocaine, and an anticholinergic primarily used to treat dyspepsia. The GI cocktail may also deceptively mask pain originating from the heart.
There is a wide variety of GI cocktail recipes in use today. A very popular one is a mixture of Maalox, viscous lidocaine, and Donnatal, in equal parts. A mixture of 10 -- 30 ml Mylanta, 10 ml Donnatal and 10 ml viscous lidocaine is known as "The Green Goddess '', or "Green Lizard ''. The efficacy of this mixture for the treatment of dyspepsia is generally considered superior to treatment with only any one of its components, due to their varied mechanisms of relief. The treatment may also provide relief for hiatal hernia patients suffering acute symptoms.
Pink lady (medicine)
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who sang the song don't bring me down | Do n't Bring Me Down - wikipedia
"Do n't Bring Me Down '' is the ninth and final track on the English rock band the Electric Light Orchestra 's 1979 album Discovery. It is their highest charting hit in the United States to date.
"Do n't Bring Me Down '' is the band 's second highest charting hit in the UK where it peaked at number 3 and their biggest hit in the United States, peaking at number 4 on the Billboard Hot 100. It also charted well in Canada (number 1) and Australia (number 6). This was the first song by ELO not to include a string section.
The drum track is in fact a tape loop, coming from "On the Run '' looped and slowed down.
The song ends with the sound of a door slamming. According to producer Jeff Lynne, this was a metal fire door at Musicland Studios where the song was recorded.
The song was dedicated to the NASA Skylab space station, which re-entered the Earth 's atmosphere and burned up over the Indian Ocean and Western Australia on 11 July 1979.
On 4 November 2007, Lynne was awarded a BMI (Broadcast Music, Inc) Million - Air certificate for "Do n't Bring Me Down '' for the song having reached two million airplays.
A common mondegreen in the song is the perception that, following the title line, Lynne shouts "Bruce! '' In the liner notes of the ELO compilation Flashback and elsewhere, Lynne has explained that he is singing a made - up word, "Grooss, '' which some have suggested sounds like the German expression "Gruß. '' After the song 's release, so many people had misinterpreted the word as "Bruce '' that Lynne actually began to sing the word as "Bruce '' for fun at live shows.
A music video for the song was produced, which showed video of the band performing the song interspersed with various animations relating to the song 's subject matter, including big - bottomed majorettes and a pulsating neon frankfurter. The band 's three resident string players are depicted playing keyboards in the music video.
Jeff Lynne re-recorded the song in his own home studio. It was released in a compilation album with other re-recorded ELO songs and under the ELO name called Mr. Blue Sky: The Very Best of Electric Light Orchestra.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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when does ready player one come out on red box | Ready Player One (film) - wikipedia
Ready Player One is a 2018 American science fiction adventure film produced and directed by Steven Spielberg, and written by Zak Penn and Ernest Cline, based on Cline 's 2011 novel of the same name. The film stars Tye Sheridan, Olivia Cooke, Ben Mendelsohn, Lena Waithe, T.J. Miller, Simon Pegg, and Mark Rylance.
The film takes place in 2045, when much of humanity uses the virtual reality software OASIS to escape the desolation of the real world. Orphaned teenager Wade Watts (Sheridan) discovers clues to a hidden game within the program that promises the winner full ownership of the OASIS, and joins several allies to try to complete the game before a large company run by businessman Nolan Sorrento (Mendelsohn) can do so.
Ready Player One premiered at South by Southwest on March 11, 2018, was theatrically released by Warner Bros. Pictures in the United States on March 29, 2018, in 2D, Real D 3D, IMAX and IMAX 3D. It grossed $582 million worldwide, making it the sixth - highest - grossing film of 2018. The film received generally positive reviews, critics praised its visuals, brisk pacing, and Rylance 's performance. The film was noted to have significant differences from the book; some critics said the film 's plot was an improvement over the source material.
Set in a slum - filled version in 2045, people escape their lives to live out most days in the virtual reality entertainment universe OASIS, co-created by James Halliday and Ogden Morrow of Gregarious Games. After Halliday 's death, a pre-recorded message left by his avatar Anorak announces a game, granting ownership of OASIS to the first to find the Golden Easter Egg within it, locked behind a gate requiring three keys. The contest has lured a number of "Gunters '', Egg hunters, and the interest of Nolan Sorrento, the CEO of Innovative Online Industries (IOI), seeking to control OASIS himself. IOI uses a number of indentured servants and employees called "Sixers '' to seek the egg.
Wade Watts is an orphaned teenager living in the "stacks '' of Columbus, Ohio with his aunt, Alice; in the OASIS, his avatar, Parzival is good friends with Aech, a virtual mechanic. Parzival befriends Art3mis, a well - known Gunter, sharing a common interest in Halliday 's history. They review Halliday 's life from the Archives with help of its Curator. They learn Halliday had several regrets; his partner Morrow had signed away his part of Gregarious Games due to fallout over Halliday 's love for Morrow 's wife Kira. Using this information, they solve the first two challenges of Anorak 's game: a car race across an ever - shifting Manhattan cityscape, and a search for Kira in a simulation of the Overlook Hotel from The Shining. Aech and his friends Daito and Sho also follow; they become known as the "High Five '' on the OASIS scoreboards.
Sorrento learns of Parzival 's identity through OASIS mercenary i - R0k, and attempts to sway Wade into IOI, but he refuses. In retaliation, Sorrento has IOI 's head of operations F'Nale Zandor bomb Wade 's stack, killing Alice. Art3mis ' player, Samantha Cook, rescues Wade, but they too are soon found by IOI, who captures and forces Samantha into their servitude. Wade is extracted by the other High Five -- Helen (Aech), Toshiro (Daito) and Zhou (Sho) -- who discover her location and remotely provide her means to assist them in the OASIS as Art3mis.
The third challenge requires one to play Halliday 's favorite Atari 2600 game, in a castle on Planet Doom, which Sorrento has protected with a force field. Attesting to Sorrento 's nature, Parzival recruits countless OASIS players to help the rebels attack the IOI forces around the castle. Art3mis breaks the force field, allowing Parzival to reach the console, but Sorrento activates the Cataclyst, a bomb that wipes all the avatars off Planet Doom. However, due to having won a coin from the Archive 's Curator earlier, Parzival gets an extra life, and proceeds to play through Adventure to find its Easter egg, and is awarded the last key. Opening the gate, he is greeted by Anorak and given a contract to sign. Parzival recognizes it as the same contract Morrow signed to turn over his part of Gregarious, and refuses. Anorak reveals himself to be Halliday, and that the contract was the final test to make sure Parzival would not have the same regrets as Halliday did with Morrow. Parzival is given the Golden Egg that controls OASIS.
In the real world, Sorrento and Zandor fail to stop Parzival before he wins, and are arrested for the bombing, and IOI is dismantled as a company. Wade decides to run OASIS alongside the other High Five. Morrow, revealed to have been the Curator, offers his services to Wade. Wade and the others agree to shut down the OASIS twice a week for everyone to spend more time to improve the real world, while he and Samantha move into an apartment together.
Additionally, Susan Lynch portrays Alice, Wade 's aunt; Ralph Ineson portrays Rick, Alice 's abusive boyfriend; Perdita Weeks portrays Karen "Kira '' Underwood, Morrow 's wife; Clare Higgins portrays Mrs. Gilmore, Wade 's neighbor; and Letitia Wright portrays a rebel who can briefly be seen at the safe house. McKenna Grace and Lulu Wilson appear as elementary school children who use the OASIS.
Warner Bros. and De Line Pictures won an auction for the rights to Ernest Cline 's novel Ready Player One in 2010, before it had been published. Cline was set to write the script for the film, which Donald De Line and Dan Farah would produce. Eric Eason rewrote Cline 's script, and Zak Penn was hired to rewrite the previous drafts by Cline and Eason. Village Roadshow Pictures came aboard to co-finance and co-produce the film with Warner Bros. Steven Spielberg signed on to direct and produce the film, which Kristie Macosko Krieger also produced, along with De Line and Farah. Ready Player One is Spielberg 's first action - fantasy film since The Adventures of Tintin in late 2011. Cline and Penn made several revisions while adapting the novel to film. Most of these changes were to eliminate scenes that would be uninteresting in a visual format, such as when Wade beats a high score in Pac - Man, or recites all the lines from the film WarGames.
Three actresses were top - runners for the role of Art3mis: Elle Fanning, Olivia Cooke, and Lola Kirke; In September 2015, Cooke was announced as having been cast in the coveted female lead role. In January 2016, Ben Mendelsohn joined the cast. In February 2016, Tye Sheridan was confirmed as playing the lead role of Wade, after a lengthy nationwide casting call failed to produce an unknown for the part. In March 2016, Simon Pegg joined the cast. In April 2016, Mark Rylance joined the cast, and in June 2016, T.J. Miller, Hannah John - Kamen and Win Morisaki also joined. In July 2016, Philip Zhao joined the cast, and Lena Waithe, Ralph Ineson, McKenna Grace, and Letitia Wright were later also announced to have been cast.
Production was set to begin in July 2016. Screenwriter Zak Penn tweeted on July 1, 2016 that the first week of filming had been completed. In August and September 2016, filming took place in Birmingham, England; this included Livery Street in the Jewellery Quarter area of the city, which was extensively used, including the van chase that takes place towards the film 's end. The chase was edited to make the street appear longer than it actually is. The backpackers hostel Hatters, also on Livery Street, was used for internal filming for a basement scene. The Ludgate Hill Car Park lot on Lionel Street, in which caravan homes were partially built was also used and a planned explosion there caused some local business and homes to call emergency services, as no prior notification were given by the production team. Other locations in the city included the former industrial area of Digbeth, in a rooftop scene that overlooks the Birmingham City Centre skyline. Some of the city 's landmark buildings were erased and replaced with CGI buildings to create a dystopian Ohio in the year 2045. Principal photography ended on September 27, 2016.
Spielberg worked with Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) to oversee the film 's visual effects, meeting with ILM for 3 hours three times a week. He has stated that "(t) his is the most difficult movie I 've done since Saving Private Ryan. ''
A significant part of the film takes place in a virtual space based on the Overlook Hotel in the film The Shining. This was mostly a digital recreation of the film using high - quality telecine of the original film, giving them some freedom of new camera angles and shots that could be generated from this recreation. The final film includes a combination of the original footage from The Shining and ILM 's additional work. Only a few scenes in this sequence which involved real actors, such as the appearance of the Grady twins, required them to construct a faithful reproduction of The Shining 's set for the actors to interact with. Finally, the sequence was post-processed to introduce film grain and other aging effects to make the new footage indistinguishable from the original film.
ILM also had to faithfully produce digital recreations of several of the cultural references that appear throughout the film, including the DeLorean time machine, the Iron Giant, Chucky, and King Kong that was modeled after the 1933 version of the character. The Tyrannosaurus rex from Jurassic Park was also recreated using the same base model that ILM had previously created during the original film production.
Ready Player One pays homage to the popular culture of the 1970s and 1980s as in the book, but also extends to the 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s; several reviewers have identified well over one hundred references to films, television shows, music, toys, video games, anime and comics of these eras. Cline did not have any issues with these copyrighted elements when he published the book, but was aware that securing all necessary rights would be a major obstacle for a film adaptation, a task made easier by Spielberg 's reputation. Spielberg and producer Kristie Macosko Krieger spent several years securing the rights for the copyrighted elements used in the film, starting before filming began, since some scenes would not be possible without certain copyrighted elements. Spielberg estimated that they had gotten about 80 % of the copyrighted elements they wanted. Spielberg noted that in some cases, the filmmakers were able to secure rights for some but not all the characters they wanted; in negotiating with Warner Bros., they could not secure Close Encounters of the Third Kind from Columbia Pictures, despite the latter being one of Spielberg 's first films as director.
Blade Runner, which was integral to the plot of the book, was off limits to the film adaptation because Blade Runner 2049 was in production at the same time as Ready Player One. As a replacement, they conceived of players having to play out the events of The Shining, which Spielberg was able to secure the rights to as an homage to his friend Stanley Kubrick. While Cline 's original work heavily used the character of Ultraman, the rights over the character were still under legal dispute, requiring them to replace Ultraman with the titular robot from The Iron Giant. Spielberg recognized that his past films were a significant part of the 1980s popular culture cited in the book, and to avoid being accused of "vanity '', he opted to remove many of the references to his own work. Cline stated that he believed Spielberg wanted to avoid self - references to films he directed, due to the criticism he received for his film 1941, which lampooned his own previous works Jaws and Duel. Cline said he had to convince Spielberg to include some iconic elements, such as the DeLorean time machine from Back to the Future, which Spielberg conceded as the film was one he produced rather than directed. Spielberg also allowed the Tyrannosaurus rex from his own Jurassic Park to be included. Cline also asked ILM to include a reference to Last Action Hero, one of Penn 's first screenplays, without Penn 's knowledge.
On June 9, 2016, Variety stated that Spielberg 's regular collaborator John Williams was planning to compose the film 's score. However, in July 2017, it was reported that Williams had left the project to work on Spielberg 's The Post instead, with Alan Silvestri hired to take over scoring duties for Ready Player One. The official score was released by WaterTower Music as a two - CD set on March 30, 2018, with vinyl and cassette releases projected for the summer. At Spielberg 's request, Silvestri references his own music from Back to the Future within the film 's score, as well as quoting the music by Wendy Carlos and Rachel Elkind from The Shining for the film 's sequence at the Overlook Hotel.
The film also includes licensed music from the 1970s and 1980s, which appears on the digital - only soundtrack album Ready Player One: Songs From the Motion Picture.
Ready Player One was initially scheduled to be released on December 15, 2017, but was pushed back to March 30, 2018, to avoid competition with Star Wars: The Last Jedi. In January 2018, it was announced the film 's release date had been moved up one day to March 29, 2018. The film had its world premiere at the Paramount Theatre in Austin, Texas on March 11, 2018 (as part of the South by Southwest Film Festival).
Warner Bros. Pictures distributed the film worldwide, with Village Roadshow Pictures distributing in several overseas territories.
Ready Player One was released by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment on digital on July 3, 2018, and on 4K UHD, Blu - ray 3D, Blu - Ray, and DVD on July 24, 2018.
Ready Player One has grossed $137 million in the United States and Canada, and $445 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $582 million. Made on a production budget of $175 million, with about $150 million more spent on global marketing costs, the film needed to gross at least $440 million in order to break - even.
In the United States and Canada, Ready Player One was released alongside God 's Not Dead: A Light in Darkness and Acrimony, and was projected to gross $40 -- 50 million from 4,100 theaters over its first four days. It made $12.1 million on its first day, including $3.75 million from Wednesday night previews. It ended up grossing $41.8 million in its opening weekend (for a four - day total of $53.7 million), marking Spielberg 's biggest debut since 2008 's Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. In its second weekend it grossed $25.1 million (a drop of 40 %), finishing second behind newcomer A Quiet Place ($50 million). In its third weekend the film made $11.2 million, coming in fourth behind Rampage, A Quiet Place and Truth or Dare. In its fourth weekend the film made $7.4 million, finishing sixth at the box office In its fifth weekend it grossed $2.4 million, a drop of 67 % from previous weekend and finishing ninth.
Worldwide, the film was released day - in - date in 62 countries, including China, where it was expected to make $100 -- 120 million in its opening weekend. It grossed $2.9 million on its first day from 11 countries, including $980,000 from Korea. In China the film made $14.75 million on its first day and earned a score of 9.2 from audiences on Douban (compared to the average 6 -- 7 earned by Hollywood films). It grossed $61.7 million in China in its opening weekend which is the highest opening ever for Warner Bros in said territory. The film 's other major opening weekend territories were South Korea ($8.1 million), United Kingdom ($7.3 million), Russia ($6.1 million) and France ($6 million). In its second weekend in China it grossed $42 million, and in third weekend grossed $13.9 million. The film grossed $81.7 million in its second weekend overseas, dropping only 35 % and is ahead of other newcomers A Quiet Place and Blockers. In its third weekend it grossed $33.8 million overseas dropping 58.6 %. On April 21, 2018, the film topped $200 million in China, becoming the tenth - biggest U.S. release ever in the country. In its fourth weekend in China, it grossed $8.24 million finishing third at the box office and has a total gross of $207 million. It grossed $23 million overseas from 67 territories in its fourth weekend. It opened in Japan, its final major market and grossed $4.4 million. In its fifth weekend overseas, it grossed $8.6 million from 63 territories. In China, the weekend was $2.4 M to push it past Avatar as the no. 9 Hollywood title ever in the market with $213.8 M (RMB 1.34 B). Japan 's third frame held well during Golden Week with just a 6 % drop from the last session. The total there is currently at $17.5 M. In its sixth weekend in China, it bumped up 10 % from last session to lift the local cume to $220.2 M. The film 's largest markets after China are Japan ($23.4 million), United Kingdom ($21.3 million), France ($21.5 million), Korea ($18.6 million), and Russia - CIS ($13.1 million).
On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 73 % based on 336 reviews, and an average rating of 6.9 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Ready Player One is a sweetly nostalgic thrill ride that neatly encapsulates Spielberg 's strengths while adding another solidly engrossing adventure to his filmography. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 64 out of 100, based on 54 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an 82 % overall positive score and a 65 % "definite recommend ''.
In a review for RogerEbert.com, Brian Tallerico wrote that the film 's "overwhelming '' nature and non-stop action will likely thrill fans of pop culture; while he observed narrative weaknesses, such as a lack of depth among the supporting characters, he felt that they ultimately do not hinder the film from working "on the level of technical, blockbuster mastery that Spielberg helped define ''. Writing for Variety, Owen Gleiberman called the film a "coruscating explosion of pop - culture eye candy '', and found the sequence based on The Shining to be "irresistible ''. However, he also criticized Spielberg 's dichotomization of fantasy and reality, as well as the film having "more activity than it does layers ''. IndieWire 's Eric Kohn characterized the film as "an astonishing sci - fi spectacle and a relentless nostalgia trip at once '' and praised both the sequence based on The Shining as well as Penn 's screenplay, particularly with respect to Mendelsohn 's character. Nevertheless, he remarked that the film "drags a bunch in its final third ''.
Alissa Wilkinson, writing for Vox, praised both the quality and quantity of the world building. She also commented on just how dystopian the future portrayed is, where the main characters fight to save the OASIS and the escape from reality it represents, with arguably less concern for the problems of the real world.
Monica Castillo was more critical of the film in her review for The Guardian and drew attention to the absence of character arcs, the lack of resolution for plot holes in the novel, and the bloating of scenes in the film by trivia. Matt Bobkin scored the film a 6 out of 10 for Exclaim! saying the film "is not so much a groundbreaking recontextualizing, more doe - eyed affection with no critical commentary ''. Movie Metropolis noted that the film "is an absolute thrill - ride from start to finish and is pure Spielberg in the very best way '' and awarded it 4 out of 5 stars.
Film and television critic Matt Zoller Seitz praised Ready Player One and noted the undercurrent of sadness present in the film, stating that "I do n't think Spielberg gets enough credit for making sad films that most people interpret as happy, and complex films that are immediately dismissed as simple or confused ''. Seitz concluded that the film "is a mess, but it is a fascinating and complex one... ''
Cline is working on a sequel to the novel. For a sequel to the film, he stated, "(...) I think there 's a good chance that, if this one does well, Warner Bros. will want to make a sequel. I do n't know if Steven (Spielberg) would want to dive back in, because he would know what he is getting into. He 's said that it 's the third - hardest film he 's made, out of dozens and dozens of movies ''.
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the undertaker vs mr kennedy last ride match | Armageddon (2006) - Wikipedia
Armageddon (2006) was a professional wrestling pay - per - view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) and presented by Activision 's Call of Duty 3, which took place on December 17, 2006, at the Richmond Coliseum in Richmond, Virginia. The event starred wrestlers from the SmackDown! brand.
The main event was a tag team match, in which the team of Batista and John Cena defeated the team of King Booker and Finlay. Two featured bouts were scheduled on the undercard, including The Undertaker versus Mr. Kennedy, in a match where the objective was to place an opponent in a hearse located on the entrance stage and drive them out of the arena, which Undertaker won. The other match was an Inferno match featuring wrestlers attempting to set the opponent on fire with flames surrounding the ring. Kane defeated Montel Vontavious Porter.
The event grossed over $423,500 in ticket sales from an attendance of 8,200. Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section rated the WWE Tag Team Championship match a nine out of ten stars, the highest match rating. The event was released on DVD on January 16, 2007 by Sony Music Entertainment. The DVD reached second on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart for recreational sports during the week of February 18, 2007, and it dropped to the tenth spot the following week.
Armageddon (2006) was the seventh annual Armageddon event. Eight professional wrestling matches, were featured on the event 's card.
The leading staged rivalry written into the event was between Batista and King Booker. At Survivor Series, WWE 's November pay - per - view event, Batista defeated Booker to win the World Heavyweight Championship. On the December 1, 2006 episode of SmackDown!, one of WWE 's primary television programs, King Booker and Finlay both demanded a match against Batista for the World Heavyweight Championship. General Manager Theodore Long, a portrayed match maker and rules enforcer, announced that Booker and Finlay would instead form a tag team to compete against Batista and a partner of his choice at Armageddon. Later that night, Batista announced that his partner would be WWE Champion John Cena, a member of the Raw brand. The following week on an episode of SmackDown!, Batista defeated Finlay by disqualification after Booker interfered on Finlay 's behalf. On the December 15 episode of SmackDown!, Cena defeated Finlay after lifting Finlay up on his shoulders and slamming him to the mat, a move that Cena dubbed the FU.
The secondary rivalry was between The Undertaker and Mr. Kennedy. On the September 8, 2006 episode of SmackDown!, Kennedy announced that he was looking for a new opponent, one that he had never faced before. Long informed Kennedy that he knew a SmackDown! superstar that had never faced Kennedy, The Undertaker. A match was made between the two for No Mercy, in which Kennedy defeated Undertaker by disqualification. At Survivor Series, Kennedy once again defeated Undertaker in a First Blood match. On the December 1 episode of SmackDown!, Undertaker fought Montel Vontavious Porter (MVP) in a match where neither wrestler won. During the match, MVP was scripted to attempt escaping from the ring, but Kennedy caught him during the process and tried to throw him back into the ring. MVP instead threw Kennedy in. Undertaker then kicked Kennedy in the face, and Kane attacked MVP at ringside. The following week as Kennedy was in the ring, the hearse, appearing to have nobody in the driver 's seat, drove into the arena; suddenly, The Undertaker appeared from the back of the hearse, as Kennedy sprung from the ring. Later that night, Kane defeated Kennedy by disqualification after MVP interfered on Kennedy 's behalf. On the December 15 episode of SmackDown!, The Undertaker and Kane teamed together to face Kennedy and MVP in a tag team match, which ended in neither team winning. Kennedy knocked Kane down in the aisle and jumped into the driver 's seat of the hearse that had been at ringside for the match, and threatened to run him over with it however the Undertaker appeared in the passenger side seat scaring Kennedy off.
The first match to air live was between Kane and MVP in an Inferno match. The only way to win an Inferno match is by throwing one 's opponent into a fire that surrounds the ring on all four sides. This match was the first time that the Inferno match had been used on pay - per - view in more than seven years. At the start of the match, MVP attempted to leave the ring, but was unable to as the flames surrounding the ring prevented him. Kane kicked MVP in the head and threw him into the ring corner. MVP escaped the ring and was unable to go past the fire, so he returned to the ring and was continuously knocked down by Kane. The finish of the match saw Kane grab MVP and force him backwards into the fire. MVP 's costume caught on fire as he ran to the entrance ramp. MVP fell to the floor as WWE workers put out the flames with fire extinguishers.
The following match featured Paul London and Brian Kendrick, William Regal and Dave Taylor, MNM (Joey Mercury, and Johnny Nitro), and The Hardys (Matt and Intercontinental Champion Jeff) in a four - team ladder match for the WWE Tag Team Championship. In this match, the only way to win and capture the titles was by climbing a ladder and releasing the championship belts that were suspended above the ring. Towards the end of the match, while MNM and The Hardys were out of the ring, Regal and Taylor attempted to climb the ladder, but Kendrick managed to knock the pair off. Kendrick fought off Regal and Taylor as London climbed the ladder and captured the titles to win the match for his team and retain the championships. During the match, Mercury suffered a legitimate nose injury after being hit by a ladder.
I happened to be looking up, so it hit me in the throat. But Mercury was looking straight at it and it hit him square in the nose and the orbital bone. It really could have been any one of us. I was just lucky that the ladder hit him first.
I 'll always remember (the match) for what we did to Joey Mercury 's face. After the seesaw, I remember hearing him yell, "I 'm bleeding, '' and it was like someone went to a sink and turned the faucet on. It was gruesome.
The third match was a standard wrestling match between The Boogeyman and The Miz. The Boogeyman controlled the majority of the match and eventually won by pinfall after a Falling Chokebomb.
The next match featured Chris Benoit defending the United States Championship against Chavo Guerrero (accompanied by Vickie Guerrero). Before the bell rang to start the match, Chavo tried to attack Benoit, but as the match began, Benoit retaliated by delivering a clothesline. Benoit and Guerrero wrestled inconclusively until Benoit covered Chavo to try to pin him. Chavo managed to place his foot on top of the bottom rope, which forced Benoit to break the pin per official wrestling match rules. While Guerrero was lying on his stomach, Benoit applied the Sharpshooter, and made Chavo submit to retain the championship.
The fifth match was the encounter of Gregory Helms and Jimmy Wang Yang for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship. Helms performed a swinging neckbreaker on Yang. Yang retaliated, but Helms quickly moved back into the power position and pinned Yang to retain the championship.
The following match was a Last Ride match between The Undertaker and Mr. Kennedy, where the only way to win was by throwing one 's opponent into a hearse and driving it out of the arena. During the beginning of the match, The Undertaker tossed Kennedy into steel steps on the side of the ring and then onto the commentator 's announcing table. The Undertaker then threw Kennedy into the ring apron, which is the apron covering the area under the ring. Kennedy and The Undertaker wrestled inconclusively until The Undertaker tossed Kennedy on top of the roof of the hearse. The Undertaker then delivered a Chokeslam and a Tombstone Piledriver, both onto the roof of the hearse. As he was still in control of the match, The Undertaker threw Kennedy into the hearse and drove it out of the arena to win the match.
After the Last Ride match, Jillian Hall, Layla El, Ashley Massaro, and Kristal Marshall all took part in a "Naughty or Nice '' contest, a lingerie contest, where the Diva with the loudest fan reaction would win. The host of the contest was Santa Claus (portrayed by Big Dick Johnson, otherwise Christopher DeJoseph). Johnson declared all four of the Divas as the winners and proceeded to take off his Santa costume and dance to music being played in the arena.
The main event was the tag team match between John Cena and Batista versus the team of King Booker and Finlay. Batista wrestled the match with his left arm taped up due to a previous injury. Both teams wrestlers inconclusively until Cena applied the STFU on Booker. Finlay broke the submission hold, and The Little Bastard ran into the ring. Little Bastard attempted to kick Cena, but accidentally kicked himself in his head when Cena moved out of the way. Then, Booker tried to superkick Batista, but Batista moved out of the way, and Booker accidentally hit Finlay. Batista then delivered a Batista Bomb and pinned Booker to earn the victory for his team.
On the December 22, 2006 episode of SmackDown!, King Booker and Finlay demanded a rematch against Batista and John Cena. General Manager Theodore Long informed the pair that they would instead be facing Kane and The Undertaker later that night in a match, which Kane and The Undertaker won. At the Royal Rumble, the Royal Rumble match was held, where the winner is the final person left in the ring after the other twenty nine wrestlers are eliminated by being thrown over the top ring rope. The Undertaker won the Royal Rumble match to earn a title shot at WrestleMania 23. At WrestleMania, he defeated Batista to win the World Heavyweight Championship and maintain his WrestleMania undefeated streak.
Chris Benoit continued to feud with Chavo Guerrero over the WWE United States Championship. On the December 22, 2006 episode of SmackDown!, Benoit defeated Guerrero in a rematch for the title, with Vickie Guerrero accompanying Chavo to ringside. Benoit won the match by disqualification when Vickie hit Benoit in the head with the championship belt. On the January 12, 2007 episode of SmackDown!, Mr. Kennedy defeated Chris Benoit in a standard match, with help from Chavo Guerrero. The following week, Benoit defeated Chavo yet again with the championship on the line.
The feuds between Kane and Montel Vontavious Porter (MVP), and The Undertaker and Mr. Kennedy did not continue after the event. On the January 5, 2007, episode of SmackDown!, Kennedy set the time to beat in the "Beat the Clock '' sprint, a tournament based on the time wrestlers win matches, to become the new number one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship. On the January 12 episode of SmackDown!, Kennedy won the "Beat the Clock '' sprint by preventing The Undertaker from winning his match and from beating Kennedy 's time. At the Royal Rumble, Batista defeated Kennedy to retain the title. The feuds between Gregory Helms and Jimmy Wang Yang, and The Boogeyman and The Miz also did not continue, as Helms was put into a rivalry with The Boogeyman. Yang was put into a temporary rivalry with Tatanka.
The Richmond Coliseum has a maximum capacity of 13,000, but that was reduced for the 2006 Armageddon. The event grossed over $ 423,500 in ticket sales from an attendance of 8,200. Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section rated the WWE Tag Team Championship match a nine out of ten stars, the highest match rating. The United States Championship, Cruiserweight Championship, and Last Ride matches all received seven out of ten stars. The main event match received a five and a half stars out of ten rating.
The event was released on DVD on January 16, 2007, by Sony Music Entertainment. The DVD reached second on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart for recreational sports during the week of February 18, 2007, and it dropped to the tenth spot the following week. It remained on the chart 's "top ten '' for two consecutive weeks until the week of March 4, 2007, when it ranked 17th.
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what cities have been the capital of japan | Capital of Japan - wikipedia
The current capital of Japan is Tokyo. In the course of history, the national capital has been in many locations other than Tokyo.
Traditionally, the home of the Emperor is considered the capital. From 794 through 1868, the Emperor lived in Heian - kyō, modern - day Kyoto. After 1868, the seat of the Government of Japan and the location of the Emperor 's home was moved to Tokyo.
In 1941, the Ministry of Education published the "designation of Tokyo as capital '' (東京 奠 都, Tōkyō - tento).
While no laws have designated Tokyo as the Japanese capital, many laws have defined a "capital area '' (首都 圏, shuto - ken) that incorporates Tokyo. Article 2 of the Capital Area Consolidation Law (首都 圏 整備 法) of 1956 states: "In this Act, the term ' capital area ' shall denote a broad region comprising both the territory of Tokyo Metropolis as well as outlying regions designated by cabinet order. '' This clearly implies that the government has designated Tokyo as the capital of Japan, although (again) it is not explicitly stated, and the definition of the "capital area '' is purposely restricted to the terms of that specific law.
Other laws referring to this "capital area '' include the Capital Expressway Public Corporation Law (首都 高速 道路 公団 法) and the Capital Area Greenbelt Preservation Law (首都 圏 近郊 緑地 保全 法).
This term for capital was never used to refer to Kyoto. Indeed, shuto came into use during the 1860s as a gloss of the English term "capital ''.
The Ministry of Education published a book called "History of the Restoration '' in 1941. This book referred to "designating Tokyo as capital '' (東京 奠 都, Tōkyō - tento) without talking about "relocating the capital to Tokyo '' (東京 遷都, Tōkyō - sento). A contemporary history textbook states that the Meiji government "moved the capital (shuto) from Kyoto to Tokyo '' without using the sento term.
As of 2007, there is a movement to transfer the government functions of the capital from Tokyo while retaining Tokyo as the de jure capital, with the Gifu - Aichi region, the Mie - Kio region and other regions submitting bids for a de facto capital. Officially, the relocation is referred to as "capital functions relocation '' instead of "capital relocation '', or as "relocation of the Diet and other organizations ''.
This list of legendary capitals of Japan begins with the reign of Emperor Jimmu. The names of the Imperial palaces are in parentheses.
This list of capitals includes the Imperial palaces names in parentheses.
Kofun period
Asuka period
Nara period
Heian period
Media related to Capital of Japan at Wikimedia Commons
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this is us season 1 episode 1 full cast | This Is Us (TV series) - wikipedia
This Is Us is an American television series created by Dan Fogelman that premiered on NBC on September 20, 2016. The series stars an ensemble cast featuring Milo Ventimiglia, Mandy Moore, Sterling K. Brown, Chrissy Metz, Justin Hartley, Susan Kelechi Watson, Chris Sullivan, Ron Cephas Jones, Jon Huertas, Alexandra Breckenridge, Niles Fitch, Logan Shroyer, Hannah Zeile, Mackenzie Hancsicsak, Parker Bates, Lonnie Chavis, Eris Baker, and Faithe Herman. It is about the family lives and connections of several people who all share the same birthday and the ways in which they are similar and different.
The series has received positive reviews since its premiere, receiving nominations for Best Television Series -- Drama at the 74th Golden Globe Awards and Best Drama Series at the 7th Critics ' Choice Awards, as well as being chosen as a Top Television Program by the American Film Institute. The cast has received accolades, with Mandy Moore and Chrissy Metz receiving Golden Globe nominations for Best Supporting Actress, and Sterling K. Brown receiving a SAG nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series. In 2017, the series received ten Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, with Brown winning for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series.
On September 27, 2016, NBC picked up the series for a full season of 18 episodes. In January 2017, NBC renewed the series for two additional seasons of 18 episodes each. The second season premiered on September 26, 2017.
The series follows siblings Kate, Kevin and Randall as their lives intertwine. Kate and Kevin were originally part of a triplet pregnancy, conceived in the bathroom of Froggy 's, a bar, during Super Bowl XIV. Their due date was October 12, 1980, but they were born six weeks early on August 31; their biological brother was stillborn. Their parents, Jack and Rebecca, having expected to bring home three babies, decide to adopt another newborn: Randall, a black child born the same day and brought to the same hospital after his biological father abandoned him at a fire station.
Episodes weave through the stories of the past and present of the characters, with most scenes taking place in 1980, 1989 -- 1995, and the present day (2016 -- 2017). Flashback scenes take place in Pittsburgh, while current scenes are typically split between Los Angeles, New Jersey, and New York City.
In May 2017, Hulu acquired the SVOD rights to new and past episodes of the series to air exclusively on Hulu, in addition to NBC.com and the NBC app.
The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100 % approval rating for the first season with an average rating of 7.7 / 10 based on 56 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Featuring full - tilt heartstring - tugging family drama, This Is Us will provide a suitable surrogate for those who have felt a void in their lives since Parenthood went off the air. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 76 out of 100 based on 34 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Season 2 received a 94 % approval rating from Rotten Tomatoes based on 16 reviews.
Entertainment Weekly gave the first few episodes of This Is Us a rating of B, calling it "a refreshing respite from the relational violence and pessimism that marks the other buzz soaps that have bubbled forth from a culture of divisiveness ''. Moreover, they praised all the actors, specifically Sterling K. Brown, for being able to navigate "his scenes with such intelligence, authenticity, and charisma ''.
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who dies in the story of an hour | The story of an Hour - wikipedia
"The Story of an Hour, '' is a short story written by Kate Chopin on April 19, 1894. It was originally published in Vogue on December 6, 1894, as "The Dream of an Hour ''. It was later reprinted in St. Louis Life on January 5, 1895, as "The Story of an Hour ''.
The title of the short story refers to the time elapsed between the moments at which the protagonist, Louise Mallard, hears that her husband is dead, and when she discovers that he is alive after all. "The Story of an Hour '' was controversial by American standards of the 1890s because it features a female protagonist who feels liberated by the news of her husband 's death. In Unveiling Kate Chopin, Emily Toth argues that Chopin "had to have her heroine die '' in order to make the story publishable ". (The "heroine '' dies when she sees her husband alive after he was thought to be dead.)
"The Story of an Hour '' expresses every emotion that Louise Mallard feels after she finds out about the death of her husband. The very first sentence of the story states, "Knowing that Mrs. Mallard was afflicted with a heart trouble, great care was taken to break to her as gently as possible the news of her husband 's death ''. As the news is broken to her as delicately as possible, Mrs. Mallard begins weeping uncontrollably into the arms of her sister, Josephine. Mrs. Mallard is very heartbroken by the report of her husband 's death, but when her grief subsides, she goes away to her room to be alone. She sits down in an armchair that is facing a window and looks out at all of the nature. All of a sudden, as she is gazing outside this window, a feeling comes to her. A feeling that she keeps trying to push back, but she is unable to. It is a feeling of freedom. She knows that when the time of his funeral comes and she sees him with his arms folded across his chest, she will feel sad again. But as she looks ahead at her future years without her husband, she feels enlightened. Mrs. Mallard keeps whispering to herself, "Free! Body and soul free! '' and as Josephine listens in to her sister from the other side of the door, she gets very worried and tells Mrs. Mallard to open the door or she will make herself ill. Josephine was unable to hear exactly what her sister was saying inside of her room, but as Joseph Rosenblum states within his article, "' The Story of an Hour ' by Kate Chopin '', "Josephine... would be shocked if she knew what thoughts were racing through her sister 's mind. ''
After a few minutes, Mrs. Mallard gets up out of her chair and opens the door for Josephine and they both walk downstairs together. Upon arriving to the bottom of the staircase, the front door to Mrs. Mallard 's house began to unlock and open. It was Mrs. Mallard 's husband, Brently Mallard, who is alive and well. Startled, Josephine cries out and tries to hide the sight from Louise, but it is too late. Mrs. Mallard was so immensely shocked at the sight of him that her poor, weak heart gave out right then and there. "When the doctors came they said she had died of heart disease -- of joy that kills ''. The cynicism of this sentence can be detected almost immediately, and as explained by ThoughtCo, "It seems clear that her shock was not joy over her husband 's survival, but rather distress over losing her cherished, newfound freedom. Louise did briefly experience joy -- the joy of imagining herself in control of her own life. And it was the removal of that intense joy that led to her death. '' To further express the meaning of this "joy '', Selina S. Jamil explains in the article, "Emotions in the Story of an Hour '', "... the "joy '' that kills Louise is the joy that (doctors assume to be joy of finding out that Brently was not actually dead) she refuses to surrender, as the patriarchy would require her to do at Brently 's return. But, for one climactic hour of her life, Louise does truly taste joy. For one hour of emotion, Louise does glimpse meaning and fulfillment. To be fully alive, then, is to engage in heightened consciousness, to observe and connect with the world around one 's self. '' This helps to show just how powerful the emotion was that Louise had felt. For one hour, Louise had a sense of freedom and was so ecstatic to begin her new life, but that was stripped away from her far too soon and her heart was unable to bear the shock that she felt about seeing her husband alive.
The heroine of Kate Chopin 's "The Story of an Hour '', Louise Mallard, is known to be suffering from a weak heart. After the death of her husband, Mrs. Mallard was unable to shake the thought of being free from her husband. The word "free '' began to haunt her mind, free from oppression. Daniel P. Deneau mentions about a continuous debate about Mrs, Mallard 's personality. "Is Louise a normal, understandable, sympathetic woman, or is she an egocentric, selfish monster or anomaly? '' What is understood is that Mrs. Mallard 's reaction to her husband 's death allowed readers to view the "selfish monster '' side of her. After being released of her husband 's grasp, she began to find relations to the world. Normal women would have gone into grief and weep in sorrow; however, Mrs. Mallard 's reaction towards her husband was a passionate reaction that had caused the audience to question her personality. Mrs. Mallard 's irregular reaction caused readers to question her emotions towards the husband 's death. Throughout "The Story of an Hour '', her constant baffle on freedom had led readers to confusion whether her heart condition has anything to do with her reaction. Selina S. Jamil exclaims to her audience that, '' Mrs. Mallard 's "heart trouble '' (193) is not so much a physical ailment... as a sign of a woman who has unconsciously surrendered her heart (i.e., her identity as an individual) to the culture of paternalism. '' in which she goes through a stage where she appears "optimistic '' towards life. Then, in result, Mrs. Mallard 's weak heart, which is supposed to be frail, and her fear soon transforms into joy that is uncontrollable to begin with. Chopin 's interpretation of Louise Mallard is not similar to most women at all. "As her body responds to her emotions, she feels a rhythmic connection to the physical world '' (Jamil), by repeating words like "free '' in her head has shown that her emotions towards the loss of her husband has enhanced her connection to world.
Kate Chopin 's "The Story of an Hour '' presents the heroine as a heartless person who does not fear the death of her husband, but instead is filled with glee and joy. Nicole Diederich questions the "focus on the challenge the ending poses to the reader '' (Diederich 117) about how the audience sees her death. Her husband 's death was another way to escape the marriage she was binded to whereas her death was also another escape that was expressed at the end of the short story. Heidi Podlasti - Labrenz also supports that Mrs. Mallard was under Brently 's influence by stating, "... her strength of character and willpower are apparently mostly controlled and absorbed by Brently Mallard 's well - meant but forceful dominance '' and claims that her actions as this "crazed '' human being was just a reaction after being freed from marriage. Mrs. Mallard, as a character, shows that she was aware of her actions through Brently 's arrival. "But, for one climactic hour of her life, Louise does truly taste joy, '' (Jamil) which happens to cause her frail heart to collapse. Louise Mallard 's personality in "The Story of an Hour '' was understood to portray an unthoughtful image of what a wife should be. Her actions were to "illustrate the dangers of making assumptions '' (Mayer) and in result, her weakened heart had taken her life. Her sister thought of her behavior as nothing but a sickness. Josephine had not thought that her sister 's actions were to match her personality, but to think that Louise 's reaction was her reaching existentialism. It was not her mind going crazy, but Louise "reaching existentialism '' is her finally realizing her time and place as this new awakened being. When the thought of being free in mind and soul, existentialism, that 's when she began to act as if she was not normal.
The article "Marriage and The Story of an Hour '' suggests that Chopin 's short story demonstrates that marriage is not always what it appears to be, and that the journey to freedom can be dangerous. Chopin shows her readers that the love of only one partner in a marriage is not indicative of a mutual relationship. In the story, Louise says that she loves her husband sometimes, and in the article it suggests that maybe her husband was cruel; so even though she did indeed love him, she also loves her prospective freedom from him.
The open window through which Mrs. Mallard gazes for a majority of the story is a sign of the freedom and opportunities that await her through her newfound independence. "She hears people and birds singing and smells a coming rainstorm. Everything that she experiences through her senses suggests joy and spring -- new life. '' Mrs. Mallard can look into the distance and see nothing but a clear bright future ahead of her.
Bert Bender offers a biographical reading of the text and argues that writing of the 1890s was influenced by Charles Darwin 's theory of sexual selection. Chopin 's understanding of the meaning of love and courtship, in particular, was altered and became more pessimistic. This attitude finds its expression in "The Story of an Hour '' when Mrs. Mallard questions the meaning of love and ultimately rejects it as meaningless.
Lawrence I. Berkove notes that there has been "virtual critical agreement '' that the story is about female liberation from a repressive marriage. However, he contests this reading and argues that there is a "deeper level of irony in the story ''. The story, according to Berkove, depicts Mrs. Mallard as an "immature egotist '' and a "victim of her own extreme self - assertion ''. He also challenges the notion that Chopin intended for the views of the story 's main character to coincide with those of the author. Xuding Wang has criticized Berkove 's interpretation.
In her article, "Emotions in ' The Story of An Hour ' '', Selina Jamil argues that Chopin portrays Mrs. Mallard 's perception of her husband 's supposed death as fostered by emotions, rather than by rationality. Jamil claims that up until that point, Mrs. Mallard 's life has been devoid of emotion to such an extent that she has even wondered if it is worth living. The repression of emotion may represent Mrs. Mallard 's repressive husband, who had, up until that point, "smothered '' and "silenced '' her will. Therefore, her newfound freedom is brought on by an influx of emotion (representing the death of her repressive husband) that adds meaning and value to her life. Although Mrs. Mallard initially feels fear when she hears of her husband 's death, the strength of the emotion is so powerful that Mrs. Mallard actually feels joy (because she is feeling). Since this "joy that kills '' ultimately leads to Mrs. Mallard 's death, one possible interpretation is that the repression of Mrs. Mallard 's feelings is what killed her in the end.
In the same article, Jamil shows the repression that Mrs. Mallard faces as a wife. She realizes after her husband 's apparent death that she is "free, free, free ''. This shows how her life would change and that she is now a new person and removed from the repressed life she faced before. No evidence is given in the story about how she is repressed, but her reaction to his death and her newfound confidence and freedom are enough. This repression of herself, that she dealt with, has now been removed, enabling her to be free.
In a 2013 article, Jeremy Foote argues that "The Story of an Hour '' can be read as a commentary and warning about technology -- specifically the railroad and the telegraph. The railroad, he claims, may be the cause of the distance between the Mallards (and many other couples of the time). It allowed for work and home to be very distant from each other, and eliminated opportunities for spouses to spend time together. Foote argues that the reason that Louise Mallard wanted more autonomy was because she and her husband did not spend time together. The alone time that Louise had in the house made her less close to her husband, and made her want her independence.
The way the telegraph is used in the story can be viewed as a warning about a world in which information (and people) are moving too quickly. Instead of having enough time to think about and process the death of her husband, it is thrust upon Mrs. Mallard, in its entirety, followed within minutes by the shock of seeing him alive. As the title suggests, this is a story about the importance of time. It may not have been the events that happened so much as the speed at which they happened which is so devastating to Mrs. Mallard.
Louise Mallard is a young married woman, who feels constrained in her home and her marriage. Ellen Harrington states "It 's not as if her husband is mean or abusive, but she is trapped in a relationship that limits her freedoms as an individual. '' She discovers that her husband has died and she feels liberated; but soon after, her husband walks through the door, unharmed and alive, and kills his wife with a shock that was too much for her heart. Lawrence Berkove argues: "As we look at the character of Mrs. Mallard, we can take into account that, while she is happy her husband has died, she 's not involved in a loveless marriage, nor is she abused or oppressed by her husband. '' In fact Chopin states in her story, "She did love him. Sometimes. ''
Mrs. Mallard wished no ill on her husband and is even sad when she first hears the news. However, upon reflection, she decides this is a good thing. She is free to live her own life again and decides she is happy her husband has died. This offers us a glimpse into the dark side of her personality. Is this a mere expression of freedom, or is she excited to be free of this man who she believes has held her back? The story is vague on that particular topic. Mahmoud Sabbaugh states "It is more or less up to the reader to decide if Louise Mallard is a feminist champion, or a monster who wished death upon her husband. ''
Throughout the story Mrs. Mallard is indirectly shown to feel trapped within her marriage. She was joyful when the news of her husband 's alleged passing was brought to her attention and this showed the readers how she actually felt about being in her marriage. It 's shown that women who are married feel trapped and they are less happier then married men. Mrs. Mallard spends a lot of time thinking about how her life is going to be now that her "husband is gone '' and this further raises the question of how happy is she really. This take on the story could allow readers to look deeper behind her actions after her husbands death.
In "The Story of an Hour '' by Kate Chopin, there are many different themes that could be discussed. Marriage and self - assertion play a huge role in this short story. In the beginning the reader learns that Mrs. Mallard 's husband has died "... great care was taken to break her as gently as possible the news of her husband 's death ''. At first, Mrs. Mallard seems to be grief stricken by the loss of her husband. She left to her room alone to grieve "... pressed down by a physical exhaustion that haunted her body and seemed to reach into her soul. '' The reader begins to assume in this moment that Mrs. Mallard was exhausted by her marriage, not by the fact that she has learned that her husband has died. While Mrs. Mallard is grieving alone in her room, she gazes out the window and notices "... the new spring life. The delicious breath of rain was in the air. '' She begins to notice the new beginnings of spring in the air, and she realizes that she has something in common with this new spring day. As she sits in her chair and ponders over the feeling she is having, the feeling finally comes to her "... free, free, free! '' Prior to these words leaving her mouth, she sobs for only a few short minutes and then realizes she is only crying because of these words she has now spoken. These words now leave the reader with the belief that Mrs. Mallard was unhappy with her marriage and as Mavis Chia - Chieh states that "The text indicates that Louise 's life is extremely restricted because of her domestic confinement and also suggests that she must have been secretly yearning for a life of her own. '' As the reader continues through this short story, Chopin writes "But she saw beyond the bitter moment a long procession of years to come that would belong to her absolutely. And she opened and spread her arms out to them in welcome. '' While the reader was never told if Mrs. Mallard was truly unhappy in her marriage, the reader can only begin to conclude when reading those sentences that Mrs. Mallard was unhappy and would finally be free from a marriage that only confined her.
Another point to look at and that can closely relate with the unhappy marriage discussed above, is how Mrs. Mallard is beginning to find her individuality in such a short period of time from finding out about her husband 's death. It is mentioned in the article Emotions in the Story of an Hour "... emotion connects the soul to the body. As her body responds to her emotions, she feels a rhythmic connection to the physical world. '' (Jamil) The reader can see in the text how the emotions of Mrs. Mallard is connecting to her body. Chopin writes "Her pulses beat fast, and the coursing blood warmed and relaxed every inch of her body. '' Its as if the reader can feel Mrs. Mallard relaxing knowing that her individuality and freedom from her marriage are finally in her grasp. As mentioned previously, Mrs. Mallard repeats the word free over and over. This plays a significant part in both her finding freedom in her marriage but also freedom for herself. Towards the end of the story, Chopin writes "Free! Body and soul free! '' At this point Mrs. Mallard 's sister is at her door worried that she is making herself ill to which Mrs. Mallard insists that she is not making herself ill. Instead, Mrs. Mallard is "... drinking in a very elixir of life through that open window. '' This line can define that Mrs. Mallard is finally finding her independence and breathing in her new found freedom.
Previously it was mentioned that there is nothing in this story that defines that Mrs. Mallard had a difficult marriage. The reader only comes to this conclusion based on what is said and described in the story. In one research article titled Fatal Self - Assertion in Kate Chopin 's The Story of an Hour, Berkove states that this story is simply about Louise Mallard. Berkove enforces what the reader should be able to determine from reading this short story, that it is never defined that Mrs. Mallard is truly unhappy in her marriage or in her life in society. The reader watches the struggle of Mrs. Mallard realizing her husband is dead and finding self - assertion in such a short amount of time. However, at the end of the story, the reader learns that Brently Mallard is not dead and that Mrs. Mallard is not a widow. Suddenly, Mrs. Mallard shrieks, and the reader learns that she has died "... of heart disease -- of joy that kills. '' The reader is left wondering about the joy that killed Mrs. Mallard, was it that she is happy that her husband was in fact still alive or was it in terror that she felt free and is in fact not free because her husband is standing before her. As mentioned in the article Emotions in the Story of an Hour, the reader could assume that Mrs. Mallard 's death is "... a sign of a woman who has unconsciously surrendered her heart (i.e., her identity as an individual) to the culture of paternalism '' (Jamil). The reader is never told why she dies, but it can only be assumed that she died from surrendering her heart to a life of being an individual and finding her own happiness as a widow.
In 1984, director Tina Rathbone released a film adaptation of the story titled The Joy That Kills. This film is based on Kate Chopin 's story, "The Story of an Hour ''. Frances Conroy also suffers from a heart condition, just like Louise Mallard does. This production is mostly concerned with the psychological state.
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meaning of the song girl you'll be a woman soon | Girl, You 'll be a Woman Soon - wikipedia
"Girl, You 'll Be a Woman Soon '' is a song written by American musician Neil Diamond, whose recording of it on Bang Records reached number 10 on the US pop singles chart in 1967. The song enjoyed a second life when it appeared on the 1994 Pulp Fiction soundtrack, performed by rock band Urge Overkill. Other versions have been recorded by Cliff Richard (1968), Jackie Edwards (1968), the Biddu Orchestra (1978), and 16 Volt (1998).
The song first appeared on Diamond 's album Just for You. The mono and stereo versions of this song differ slightly. On the mono "Just For You '' LP as well as on the 45, the strings do not come in until the second verse. It also has a slightly longer fade. The stereo "Just For You '' LP version has a shorter fade and the strings come in on the first chorus.
Cliff Richard covered the song as the B - side to his 1968 single I 'll Love You Forever Today, which featured in the movie Two a Penny.
In 1992, the alternative rock band Urge Overkill recorded a cover of the song for their EP Stull. This version would later be featured in Quentin Tarantino 's 1994 film Pulp Fiction. Re-issued as a single, this version achieved chart success both domestically and internationally.
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chemosensitive areas of the respiratory center are located | Respiratory center - wikipedia
The respiratory center is located in the medulla oblongata and pons, in the brainstem. The respiratory center is made up of three major respiratory groups of neurons, two in the medulla and one in the pons. In the medulla they are the dorsal respiratory group, and the ventral respiratory group. In the pons, the pontine respiratory group includes two areas known as the pneumotaxic centre and the apneustic centre.
The respiratory centre is responsible for generating and maintaining the rhythm of respiration, and also of adjusting this in homeostatic response to physiological changes. The respiratory center receives input from chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, the cerebral cortex, and the hypothalamus in order to regulate the rate and depth of breathing. Input is stimulated by altered levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH, by hormonal changes relating to stress, and anxiety from the hypothalamus, and also by signals from the cerebral cortex to give a conscious control of respiration.
Injury to respiratory groups can cause various breathing disorders that may require mechanical ventilation, and is usually associated with a poor prognosis.
The respiratory centre is divided into three major groups, two in the medulla and one in the pons. The two groups in the medulla are the dorsal respiratory group and the ventral respiratory group. In the pons, the pontine respiratory group is made up of two areas -- the pneumotaxic centre and the apneustic centre. The dorsal and ventral medullary groups control the basic rhythm of respiration.
In the medulla, the dorsal respiratory group makes up the inhalation area of respiratory control.
In the medulla, the ventral respiratory group make up the exhalation area of respiratory control.
In the pons, the pontine respiratory group includes the pneumotaxic and apneustic centers. These have connections between them, and from both to the solitary nucleus.
The pneumotaxic center is located in the upper part of the pons. Its nuclei are the subparabrachial nucleus and the medial parabrachial nucleus. The pneumotaxic center controls both the rate and the pattern of breathing. The pneumotaxic center is considered an antagonist to the apneustic center, (which produces abnormal breathing during inhalation) cyclically inhibiting inhalation. The pneumotaxic center is responsible for limiting inspiration, providing an inspiratory off - switch (IOS). It limits the burst of action potentials in the phrenic nerve, effectively decreasing the tidal volume and regulating the respiratory rate. Absence of the center results in an increase in depth of respiration and a decrease in respiratory rate.
The pneumotaxic center regulates the amount of air that can be taken into the body in each breath. The dorsal respiratory group has rhythmic bursts of activity that are constant in duration and interval. When a faster rate of breathing is needed the pneumotaxic center signals the dorsal respiratory group to speed up. When longer breaths are needed the bursts of activity are elongated. All the information that the body uses to help respiration happens in the pneumotaxic center. If this was damaged or in any way harmed it would make breathing almost impossible.
One study on this subject was on anesthetized paralyzed cats before and after bilateral vagotomy. Ventilation was monitored in awake and anesthetized cats breathing air or CO2. Ventilation was monitored both before and after lesions to the pneumotaxic center region and after subsequent bilateral vagotomy. Cats with pontine lesions had a prolonged inhalation duration. In cats, after anaesthesia and bivagotomy, pontine transection has been described as evoking a long sustained inspiratory discharges interrupted by short expiratory pauses. In rats on the other hand, after anaesthesia, bivagotomy and pontine transection, this breathing pattern was not observed, either in vivo or in vitro. These results suggest interspecies differences between rat and cat in the pontine influences on the medullary respiratory center.
The apneustic center of the lower pons appears to promote inhalation by a constant stimulation of the neurons in the medulla oblongata. The apneustic center sends signals to the dorsal group in the medulla to delay the ' switch off ', the inspiratory off switch (IOS) signal of the inspiratory ramp provided by the pneumotaxic centre. It controls the intensity of breathing, giving positive impulses to the neurons involved with inhalation. The apneustic center is inhibited by pulmonary stretch receptors and also by the pneumotaxic center. It also discharges an inhibitory impulse to the pneumotaxic center.
Breathing is the repetitive process of bringing air into the lungs and taking waste products out. The oxygen brought in from the air is a constant, on - going need of an organism to maintain life. This need is still there during sleep so that the functioning of this process has to be automatic and be part of the autonomic nervous system. The in - breath is followed by the out - breath, giving the respiratory cycle of inhalation and exhalation. The number of cycles per minute is the respiratory rate. The respiratory rate is set in the respiratory center by the dorsal respiratory group, in the medulla, and these neurons are mostly concentrated in the solitary nucleus that extends the length of the medulla.
The basic rhythm of respiration is that of quiet, restful breathing known as eupnea. Quiet breathing only requires the activity of the dorsal group which activates the diaphragm, and the external intercostal muscles. Exhalation is passive and relies on the elastic recoil of the lungs. When the metabolic need for oxygen increases, inspiration becomes more forceful and the neurons in the ventral group are activated to bring about forceful exhalation.
Depression of the respiratory centre can be caused by: brain trauma, brain damage, a brain tumour, or ischemia. A depression can also be caused by drugs including opioids, and sedatives.
The respiratory centre can be stimulated by amphetamine, to produce faster and deeper breaths. Normally at therapeutic doses, this effect is not noticeable, but may be evident when respiration is already compromised.
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the non-african culture that dominated north africa prior to 1500 was | History of North Africa - wikipedia
North Africa is a relatively thin strip of land between the Sahara desert and the Mediterranean, stretching from Moroccan Atlantic coast to Egypt. The region comprises seven countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, and Western Sahara. The history of the region is a mix of influences from many different cultures. The development of sea travel firmly brought the region into the Mediterranean world, especially during the classical period. In the 1st millennium AD, the Sahara became an equally important area for trade as the camel caravans brought goods and people from the south. The region also has a small but crucial land link to the Middle East, and that area has also played a central role in the history of North Africa.
The earliest known humans lived in North Africa around 260,000 BC. Through most of the Stone Age the climate in the region was very different from today, the Sahara being far more moist and savanna like. Home to herds of large mammals, this area could support a large hunter - gatherer population and the Aterian culture that developed was one of the most advanced paleolithic societies.
In the Mesolithic, the Capsian culture dominated the eastern part of North Africa with Neolithic farmers becoming predominant by 6000 BC. Over this period, the Sahara region was steadily drying, creating a barrier between North Africa and the rest of the African continent.
Various populations of pastoralists have left paintings of abundant wildlife, domesticated animals, chariots, and a complex culture that dates back to at least 10,000 BCE in Northern Niger and neighboring parts of Algeria and Libya. Several former northern Nigerian villages and archaeological sites date from the Green Sahara period of 7,500 - 7,000 to 3,500 - 3,000 BCE
The Nile Valley on the Eastern edge of North Africa is one of the richest agricultural areas in the world. The desiccation of the Sahara is believed to have increased the population density in the Nile Valley and large cities developed. Eventually Ancient Egypt unified in one of the world 's first civilizations.
The expanse of the Libyan Desert cut Egypt off from the rest of North Africa. Egyptian boats, while well suited to the Nile, were not usable in the open Mediterranean. Moreover, the Egyptian merchant had far more prosperous destinations on Crete, Cyprus and the Levant.
Greeks from Europe and the Phoenicians from Asia also settled along the coast of Northern Africa. Both societies drew their prosperity from the sea and from ocean - born trade. They found only limited trading opportunities with the native inhabitants, and instead turned to colonization. The Greek trade was based mainly in the Aegean, Adriatic, Black, and Red Seas and they only established major cities in Cyrenaica, directly to the south of Greece. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt and for the next three centuries it was ruled by the Greek Ptolemaic dynasty.
The Phoenicians developed an even larger presence in North Africa with colonies from Tripoli to the Atlantic. One of the most important Phoenician cities was Carthage, which grew into one of the greatest powers in the region. At the height of its power, Carthage controlled the Western Mediterranean and most of North Africa outside of Egypt. However, Rome, Carthage 's major rival to the north, defeated it in a series of wars known as the Punic Wars, resulting in Carthage 's destruction in 146 BC and the annexation of its empire by the Romans. In 30 BC, Roman Emperor Octavian conquered Egypt, officially annexing it to the Empire and, for the first time, unifying the North African coast under a single ruler.
The Carthaginian power had penetrated deep into the Sahara ensuring the quiescence of the nomadic tribes in the region. The Roman Empire was more confined to the coast, yet routinely expropriated Berber land for Roman farmers. They thus faced a constant threat from the south. A network of forts and walls were established on the southern frontier, eventually securing the region well enough for local garrisons to control it without broader Imperial support.
When the Roman Empire began to collapse, North Africa was spared much of the disruption until the Vandal invasion of 429 AD. The Vandals ruled in North Africa until the territories were regained by Justinian of the Eastern Empire in the 6th century. Egypt was never invaded by the Vandals because there was a thousand - mile buffer of desert and because the Eastern Roman Empire was better defended.
The Arab invasion of the Maghrib began in 642 AD when Amr ibn al - As, the governor of Egypt, invaded Cyrenaica, advancing as far as the city of Tripoli by 645 AD. Further expansion into North Africa waited another twenty years, due to the First Islamic civil war. In 670 AD, Uqba ibn Nafi al - Fihiri invaded what is now Tunisia in an attempt to take the region from the Byzantine Empire, but was only partially successful. He founded the town of Kairouan but was replaced by Abul - Muhajir Dinar in 674 AD. Abul - Muhajir successfully advanced into what is now eastern Algeria incorporating the Berber confederation ruled by Kusaila into the Islamic sphere of influence.
In 681 AD Uqba was given command of the Arab forces again and advanced westward again in 682 AD, holding Kusaya as a hostage. He advanced as far as the Atlantic Ocean in the west and penetrated the Draa River Valley and the Sus region in what is now Morocco. However, Kusaila escaped during the campaign and attacked Uqba on his return and killed him near Biskra in what is now Algeria. After Uqba 's death, the Arab armies retreated from Kairouan, which Kusaila took as his capital. He ruled there until he was defeated by an Arab army under Zuhair ibn Kays. Zuhair himself was killed in 688 AD while fighting against the Byzantine Empire who had reoccupied Cyrenaica while he was busy in Tunisia.
In 693 AD, Caliph Abd al - Malik ibn Marwan sent an army of 40,000 men, commanded by Hasan ibn al - Nu'man, into Cyrenaica and Tripolitania in order to remove the Byzantine threat to the Umayyads advance in North Africa. They met no resistance until they reached Tunisia where they captured Carthage and defeated the Byzantines and Berbers around Bizerte.
Soon afterwards, al - Nu'man 's forces came into conflict with the indigenous Berbers of the Jrāwa tribe under the leadership of their queen, Al - Kahina. The Berbers defeated al - Nu'man in two engagements, the first on the river Nini and the second near Gabis, upon which al - Nu'man 's forces retreated to Cyrenaica to wait for reinforcements. Reinforcements arrived in 697 AD and al - Nu'man advanced into what is now Tunisia, again meeting Al - Kahina near Gabis. This time he was successful and Al - Kahina retreated to Tubna where her forces were defeated and she was killed.
al - Nu'man next recaptured Carthage from the Byzantines, who had retaken it when he retreated from Tunisia. He founded the city of Tunis nearby and used it as the base for the Ummayad navy in the Mediterranean Sea. The Byzantines were forced to abandon the Maghreb and retreat to the islands of the Mediterranean Sea. However, in 705 AD he was replaced by Musa bin Nusair, a protégé of then governor of Egypt, Abdul - Aziz ibn Marwan. Nusair attacked what is now Morocco, captured Tangier, and advanced as far as the Sus river and the Tafilalt oasis in a three - year campaign.
In the 11th century, Berbers of the Sahara began a jihad to reform Islam in North Africa and remove any trace of cultural or religious pluralism. This movement created an empire encompassing parts of Spain and North Africa. At its greatest extent, it appears to have included southern and eastern Iberia and roughly all of present - day Morocco. This movement seems to have assisted the southern penetration of Africa, one that was continued by later groups. In addition, the Almoravids are traditionally believed to have attacked and brought about the destruction of the West African Ghana Empire.
However, this interpretation has been questioned. Conrad and Fisher (1982) argued that the notion of any Almoravid military conquest at its core is merely perpetuated folklore, derived from a misinterpretation or naive reliance on Arabic sources while Dierke Lange agrees but argues that this does n't preclude Almoravid political agitation, claiming that Ghana 's demise owed much to the latter.
The Almohads (or Almohadis) were similar to the Almoravids, in that they similarly attacked any alternative beliefs that they saw as corruptions of Islam. They managed to conquer southern Spain, and their North African empire extended further than that of the Almoravids, reaching to Egypt.
The Hafsids were a Masmuda - Berber dynasty ruling Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia) from 1229 to 1574. Their territories were stretched from east of modern Algeria to west of modern Libya during their zenith.
The dynasty was named after Muhammad bin Abu Hafs a Berber from the Masmuda tribe of Morocco. He was appointed governor of Ifriqiya (present day Tunisia) by Muhammad an - Nasir, Caliph of the Almohad empire between 1198 - 1213. The Banu Hafs, were a powerful group amongst the Almohads; their ancestor is Omar Abu Hafs al - Hentati, a member of the council of ten and a close companion of Ibn Tumart. His original name was "Fesga Oumzal '', which later changed to "Abu Hafs Omar ibn Yahya al - Hentati '' (also known as "Omar Inti '') since it was a tradition of Ibn Tumart to rename his close companions once they had adhered to his religious teachings. The Hafsids as governors on behalf of the Almohads faced constant threats from Banu Ghaniya who were descendents of Almoravid princes which the Almohads had defeated and replaced as a ruling dynasty.
Hafsids were Ifriqiya governors of Almohads until 1229, when they declared independence. After the split of the Hafsids from the Almohads under Abu Zakariya (1229 -- 1249), Abu Zakariya organised the administration in Ifriqiya (the Roman province of Africa in modern Maghreb; today 's Tunisia, eastern Algeria and western Libya) and built Tunis up as the economic and cultural centre of the empire. At the same time, many Muslims from Al - Andalus fleeing the Spanish Reconquista of Castile, Aragon, and Portugal were absorbed. He also conquered Tlemcen in 1242 and took Abdalwadids as his vassal. His successor Muhammad I al - Mustansir (1249 -- 1277) took the title of Caliph.
In the 14th century the empire underwent a temporary decline. Although the Hafsids succeeded for a time in subjugating the Kingdom of Tlemcen of the Abdalwadids, between 1347 and 1357 they were twice conquered by the Merinids of Morocco. The Abdalwadids however could not defeat the Bedouin; ultimately, the Hafsids were able to regain their empire. During the same period plague epidemics caused a considerable fall in population, further weakening the empire. Under the Hafsids, commerce with Christian Europe grew significantly, however piracy against Christian shipping grew as well, particularly during the rule of Abd al - Aziz II (1394 -- 1434). The profits were used for a great building programme and to support art and culture. However, piracy also provoked retaliation from Aragon and Venice, which several times attacked Tunisian coastal cities. Under Utman (1435 -- 1488) the Hafsids reached their zenith, as the caravan trade through the Sahara and with Egypt was developed, as well as sea trade with Venice and Aragon. The Bedouins and the cities of the empire became largely independent, leaving the Hafsids in control of only Tunis and Constantine.
In the 16th century the Hafsids became increasingly caught up in the power struggle between Spain and the Ottoman Empire - supported Corsairs. Ottomans conquered Tunis in 1534 and held one year. Due to Ottoman threat, Hafsids were vassal of Spain after 1535. Ottomans again conquered Tunis in 1569 and held it for 4 years. Don Juan of Austria recaptured it in 1573. The latter conquered Tunis in 1574 and the Hafsids accepted becoming a Spanish vassal state to offset the Ottoman threat. Muhammad IV, the last Caliph of the Hafsids was brought to Constantinople and was subsequently executed due to his collaboration with Spain and the desire of the Ottoman Sultan to take the title of Caliph as he now controlled Mecca and Medina. The Hafsid lineage survived the Ottoman massacre by a branch of the family being taken to the Canary Island of Tenerife by the Spanish.
After the Middle Ages, Northern Africa was loosely under the control of the Ottoman Empire, except for the region of Morocco. Ottoman rule was centered on the cities of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli.
During the 18th and 19th century, North Africa was colonized by France, the United Kingdom, Spain and Italy. During the 1950s and 1960s, and into the 1970s, all of the North African states gained independence from their colonial European rulers, except for a few small Spanish colonies on the far northern tip of Morocco, and parts of the Sahara region, which went from Spanish to Moroccan rule.
In modern times the Suez canal in Egypt (constructed in 1869) has caused a great deal of controversy. The Convention of Constantinople in 1888 declared the canal a neutral zone under the protection of the British, after British troops had moved in to protect it in 1882. Under the Anglo - Egyptian Treaty of 1936, the United Kingdom insisted on retaining control over the canal. In 1951 Egypt repudiated the treaty, and by 1954 Great Britain had agreed to pull out.
After the United Kingdom and the United States withdrew their pledge to support the construction of the Aswan Dam, president Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the canal, which caused Britain, France and Israel to invade in the week - long Suez War. As a result of damage and sunken ships, the canal was closed until April 1957, after it had been cleaned up with UN assistance. A United Nations force (UNEF) was established to maintain the neutrality of the canal and the Sinai Peninsula.
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what does the song i see fire mean | I See Fire - wikipedia
"I See Fire '' is a song recorded and produced by English singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran. The song was commissioned for the soundtrack of the 2013 film The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug, where it played over the closing credits. The Hobbit director, Peter Jackson, asked Sheeran to write a song for the movie, after Jackson 's daughter, Katie, suggested Sheeran. Sheeran saw the film, wrote the song, and recorded most of the track elements on the same day.
The song was released as a digital download on 5 November 2013; its music video was released the same day. It entered the UK Singles Chart at number 13 and reached number - one in New Zealand on its sixth week, marking Sheeran 's first number - one single in the country. "I See Fire '' was nominated for a Satellite Award for Best Original Song.
"I See Fire '' plays over the first section of the closing credits of The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug, an epic fantasy adventure film directed by New Zealand filmmaker, Peter Jackson. Released on 13 December 2013, it is the second installment in the three - part film series based on the novel, The Hobbit, by J.R.R. Tolkien. The Hobbit follows the quest of a home - loving hobbit, a fictional, diminutive humanoid, to win a share of the treasure guarded by the dragon, Smaug.
Sheeran has a lifelong devotion to the novel of Tolkien. His grandfather owns a first edition copy. It was the first book Sheeran 's father read to him as a child, and the first book that he read himself. On 5 November 2013, Sheeran announced his involvement in the soundtrack in a series of online posts, which included his thanking Jackson for the opportunity. He is also a fan of Jackson 's films.
Jackson was introduced to Sheeran 's music through his daughter, Katie, who attended Sheeran 's concert in Wellington, New Zealand, in March 2013. Jackson, having learned Sheeran 's regard toward his films, met him over lunch the following day where they exchanged email addresses.
In late 2013, Jackson and Fran Walsh, who co-produced and co-wrote the film, were searching for an artist who would write and record the song. Following Katie 's advice, they decided to tap Sheeran. Jackson sent a message to Sheeran, who was in the Mediterranean island of Ibiza attending a wedding ceremony, asking if he would be interested in the project, which Sheeran accepted. Departing from London, Sheeran and his manager, Stuart, arrived in Wellington within 48 hours.
Sheeran watched the film at an early screening in Park Road Post, a film post-production facility located in Wellington, New Zealand. Jackson advised Sheeran to focus on the film 's ending: "Focus on the last 10 minutes. That 's what the song needs to reflect (...) Write a song that takes the audience by the hand and leads them from Middle - earth back into reality. '' Capturing his reaction to watching the film, Sheeran immediately began writing the lyrics "from the perspective of being a dwarf ''. Jackson required a folk song and Sheeran, who is "known for songs that would n't fit in a Hobbit film '', attempted to follow in that direction.
Sheeran wrote and recorded, in only one day, most of the elements present in the released version. Further revisions were made in a course of three days that Sheeran stayed in the facility. Sheeran revealed he was given complete freedom in the creative process, while receiving ready inputs from Jackson and his co-filmmakers. In particular, Sheeran notes: "(Jackson) knows the colors and templates of what the song should be rather than how the melody should go. ''
Sheeran also produced the song, playing all the instruments except for the cello. Despite having never played the violin, he chose to perform it himself through overdubbing. Flight of the Conchords ' touring cellist Nigel Collins added cello parts as dictated by Sheeran. Pete Cobbin of Abbey Road Studios mixed "I See Fire ''; Cobbin was at Park Road Post at the same time, responsible for mixing the musical score of The Desolation of Smaug.
"I See Fire '' is a folk ballad, characterized with gently strummed acoustic guitar. Sheeran revealed he took inspiration from the 1970s Irish folk band Planxty. According to Entertainment Weekly 's Jodi Walker, the song is "touch reminiscent '' of "The Parting Glass '', an Irish traditional song that is a bonus track in Sheeran 's debut album, +. The themes in The Hobbit are present in the song 's lyrics, which refer to "fire, mountains and brotherhood ''.
"I See Fire '' was released on 5 November 2013 through iTunes, initially in the United States and then worldwide within the next 36 hours. It was later released on 10 December 2013 as part of the film 's soundtrack, The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug, through WaterTower Music and Decca Records. Sheeran released "I See Fire '' while on tour in support of his debut album; it was the first solo record that he released, two years since his last. Initially, the track was announced as a non-inclusion in his next album, subsequently titled x. However, it appeared on the deluxe edition of that album. Sheeran announced the inclusion on 9 April 2014.
The official music video for "I See Fire '' premiered on 5 November 2013, along with the release of the song. The video shows Sheeran performing and recording the vocals, the songwriting and recording of live instruments, behind the scenes, all throughout interspersed with shots from the film. The footage which shows Sheeran performing and recording the song is shot in black - and - white, while the rest shown in full color. The video, which is uploaded in the Warner Bros. Pictures channel in YouTube, had accumulated over 80 million views as of April 2017.
"I See Fire '' attracted critical commentaries. In his review of the single, Nick Catucci of the Entertainment Weekly stated that although looming in the song is a "flame - broiled disaster '', Sheeran "keeps his strumming cool, and a hopeful flame burning for Bilbo ''. For Rolling Stone, Ryan Reed wrote: "The haunting track is right in line with Sheeran 's trademark style, filled with dramatic crooning and quiet acoustic guitars. '' Delia Paunescu of Vulture.com found "I See Fire '' "so calming it may put you to sleep ''.
In December 2013, Sheeran said he would be promoting the song until end of the awards season, in his bid to bagging a nomination at the 2014 Academy Awards (although it was not nominated). "I See Fire '' was nominated for Best Original Song at the 2014 Satellite Awards. It also received nomination for Best Song Written for Visual Media from the 2015 Grammy Award.
Since its release on 5 November 2013, "I See Fire '' has been listed for 727 weeks in 19 different charts. Its first appearance was on 7 November in the Ireland Singles Top 100, where it debuted at number 22. The song was successful in many European countries, with a peak position of number 1 in Norway and Sweden. In Sheeran 's home country, the single peaked at number 13 on the UK Singles Chart, spending 65 weeks on the chart. The British Phonographic Industry certified the single silver on 26 December 2014, denoting sales of 400,000 units.
"I See Fire '' was well received in Oceania. In New Zealand, single peaked at number 1 for three weeks. It was certified triple platinum by the Recorded Music NZ, denoting sales of 45,000 copies. "I See Fire '' is the 6th top - selling single in New Zealand in 2014. In Australia, the single peaked at number 10 for 3 non-consecutive weeks. It has been certified two - time platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association, denoting sales of 140,000 copies as of 2014. In Australia 's 2014 year - end chart, "I See Fire '' was ranked at number 78.
According to commercial streaming company Spotify, "I See Fire '' was the most streamed song from a soundtrack between 2013 and 2014, outperforming other popular contemporaries. In April 2015, Spotify released a report of the most streamed tracks worldwide under the category sleep. "I See Fire '' was placed at number 4, joining Sheeran 's other 6 songs ranked in the top 20. Sleep is one of Spotify 's most popular categories "that people also use for general relaxation and to help themselves unwind ''. The Guardian columnist Tim Dowling suggests that the report is an indication of "very popular, slightly mellow songs that keep cropping up on sleep playlists '' but not a list of a "carefully curated journey to unconsciousness ''.
American singer - songwriter Peter Hollens recorded a version of the song. Hollens had previously recorded "Misty Mountain '' off the soundtrack for the first installment of The Hobbit series. His version of "I See Fire '' features "98 different sound tracks '' layered onto "8 -- 14 vocal parts '' that Hollens recorded.
Norwegian DJ and record producer Kygo released a remixed version of the song which became viral. Kygo 's success is attributed largely in part to the reception of his remixed version of "I See Fire ''. Less than two years later, the remix had been played 26 million plays on SoundCloud. As of May 2018, the version has been played over 62 million times on SoundCloud.
New Zealand musical trio Sole Mio released a cover of "I See Fire '' in support of New Zealand 's participation at the 2015 Rugby World Cup.
An Australian singer - songwriter, Joe Moore, auditioned for the fourth series of The Voice Australia with a cover of "I See Fire ''. The cover was included as a bonus track and was released on his debut studio album A Thousand Lifetimes.
Irish musical ensemble Celtic Woman performed a cover of the song on their album Destiny, sung by debuting member Mairead Carlin.
The German heavy metal guitarist Axel Rudi Pell has released a power ballad version of the song on his compilation album The Ballads V in 2017.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who played will turner in pirates of the caribbean | Will Turner - wikipedia
Father Formerly: Blacksmith
William "Will '' Turner, Jr. is a fictional character in the Pirates of the Caribbean films. He appears in The Curse of the Black Pearl (2003), Dead Man 's Chest (2006), At World 's End (2007), and Dead Men Tell No Tales (2017). He is portrayed by Orlando Bloom (and as a child by Dylan Smith in the prologue of The Curse of the Black Pearl).
William Turner is a blacksmith 's apprentice working in Port Royal, Jamaica. He secretly loves the governor 's daughter, Elizabeth Swann (played by Keira Knightley), although he occupies a lower social class than she does. Will is the son of Bootstrap Bill Turner, and he works to free his father from service to Davy Jones. He marries Elizabeth Swann in At World 's End, and they have a son named Henry.
Will 's final costume in Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl is reminiscent of Errol Flynn 's swashbuckler movie roles. There is also a nod to Douglas Fairbanks when Turner uses his knife to glide down the ship 's sail in Dead Man 's Chest, just as Fairbanks did in the 1926 film, The Black Pirate.
In one scene in Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl when Turner and Jack are fighting in the blacksmith 's shop, there is a glimpse of Orlando Bloom 's wrist tattoo of the Elvish word for "nine ''. Bloom and the other actors except John Rhys - Davies who comprised the nine "Fellowship of the Ring '' members in The Lord of the Rings trilogy have this same tattoo to commemorate their participation in the films. While some felt his tattoo should have been covered for his "Pirates '' role, the producers simply stated, "Will has a ' pretty ' tattoo on his wrist. ''
According to the audio commentary from the first Pirates of the Caribbean DVD (featuring the scriptwriters), Will Turner is the best swordsman in the Pirates universe. According to the commentary, Barbossa 's skills are equal to James Norrington (Jack Davenport) and exceeded only by Will Turner. Jack Sparrow 's skills trail closely behind Barbossa 's.
Will is the only child of "Bootstrap '' Bill Turner (portrayed by Stellan Skarsgaard). According to Jack Sparrow, Will strongly resembles his father, both in appearance and ability. However, his father was absent during his early childhood in England. Will grew up believing his father to be a merchant seaman. Following his mother 's death, Will, then about twelve years old, emigrated to Port Royal.
Weatherby Swann and his daughter Elizabeth sail to Port Royal after Weatherby is appointed governor. Elizabeth spots Will clinging to a floating piece of a shipwreck. She discovers a gold medallion around his neck, and hides it to prevent anyone from believing that Will is a pirate.
Over the next eight years, Will and Elizabeth maintain a respectful friendship, although Will conceals his romantic feelings for her. He is now a blacksmith 's apprentice in Port Royal. Will has developed into a master craftsman of fine swords, although his often - drunk master usually claims credit for Will 's exquisite workmanship. Will is also an exceptional, self - taught swordsman. The DVD commentary states that he is the best among the characters in the film, including Barbossa, Norrington, and Jack Sparrow. When Jack Sparrow attempts to flee from British forces, Will engages him in a duel. Sparrow outwits Will in a sword fight; Will claims Jack "cheated '' by ignoring the "rules of engagement. ''
Will learns that his father was the pirate Bootstrap Bill Turner, who served aboard the Black Pearl when it was commanded by Captain Jack Sparrow. Despite Sparrow 's comments that Bootstrap was "a good man, '' Will remains deeply conflicted over the fact that his father was a pirate. Will learns that when First Mate Barbossa and the crew mutinied and marooned Sparrow, only Bootstrap defended him, infuriated by Barbossa 's betrayal.
Barbossa and his crew had looted a chest of Aztec gold. This resulted in them becoming undead and unable to feel physical pleasure. It was only after they had thrown Bootstrap overboard that they learned how to break the curse: they needed to return all of the gold pieces, and each pirate who took the gold had to make a blood offering as a form of repayment. Because Bootstrap only had one child, Barbossa decides to track down and kidnap the child in order to lift the curse.
It is revealed that the pirate 's medallion stolen by Elizabeth is one of the pieces of Aztec gold. Believing her to be the daughter of Bootstrap Bill, Barbossa kidnaps her. After Elizabeth is kidnapped, Will forms an alliance with Sparrow. He helps Sparrow escape from prison. They commandeer a ship and recruit a crew in Tortuga. They sail to Isla de Muerta, where Barbossa has taken Elizabeth. Unbeknownst to Will, Sparrow intends to use him to bargain back the Black Pearl. When Will learns his role in lifting the curse, he barters himself to Barbossa to free Elizabeth and the crew. In the end, Sparrow and Will succeed in lifting the curse; Sparrow kills Barbossa, and the pirate crew is defeated. At Sparrow 's execution in Port Royal, Will declares his love for Elizabeth before attempting to rescue Sparrow from the gallows. They are quickly subdued by redcoats, but Will refuses to abandon Sparrow. Elizabeth intervenes and saves Will by declaring her love for him and vouching for Sparrow. Will is pardoned, while Sparrow escapes by falling off the rampart and into the bay where the Black Pearl awaits.
Will returns with the other main characters from Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl. In this film, his appearance has become more pirate - like, reminiscent of Errol Flynn 's swashbuckler movie characters.
For aiding Jack Sparrow 's escape, Will and Elizabeth are arrested just prior to their wedding ceremony by Lord Cutler Beckett, a man made wealthy and powerful by profits from the East India Trading Company. Beckett threatens Will and Elizabeth with execution for aiding Sparrow 's escape, but offers clemency if Will can find Sparrow 's compass for Beckett 's use. This magical compass will allow Beckett to find the heart of Davy Jones. Beckett also possesses a Letter of Marque with which he intends to recruit Jack as a privateer.
To save Elizabeth, Will hunts for Jack Sparrow and the Black Pearl. He finds the crew captive on Pelegosto, a cannibal - inhabited island. They escape, and are unexpectedly reunited with Pintel and Ragetti. Jack agrees to give Will his compass if he helps him find a key, though he has no idea what it unlocks. Jack seeks out Tia Dalma, a voodoo priestess who takes a particular interest in Will, proclaiming he has a "touch of destiny. '' Dalma says the key is to the Dead Man 's Chest containing the heart of Davy Jones. Sparrow had once struck a bargain with Davy Jones to raise the Black Pearl from the ocean bottom and to make Jack captain for 13 years. Sparrow would then serve aboard the Dutchman for a century. When Jones attempts to collect on this deal, Jack reneges on the bargain.
The crew searches for Jones, and Will soon finds himself stranded on a wrecked vessel that Jack deviously claimed was Jones ' ghost ship, the Flying Dutchman. When the real Flying Dutchman suddenly arrives, Jack attempts to barter Will to Davy Jones to repay his blood debt, but Jones refuses, saying one soul is unequal to another. Instead, he keeps Will as a "good faith '' payment and demands an additional 99 souls. Otherwise, Jack must surrender or face the Kraken.
Will, now an indentured sailor aboard Jones ' ghost ship, meets his father "Bootstrap '' Bill Turner. When Will challenges Davy Jones to Liar 's Dice, betting his soul against the key to the Dead Man 's Chest, Bootstrap joins in and purposely loses to save his son from eternal enslavement. With Bootstrap 's help, Will steals the key from Jones and escapes in a longboat, vowing to one day free his father. A passing ship rescues Will, but Jones summons the Kraken to destroy it. Will survives and stows back aboard the Dutchman, now headed for Isla Cruces where the Dead Man 's Chest containing Jones ' heart is buried.
On Isla Cruces, Will is reunited with Elizabeth, who has escaped jail and joined Jack Sparrow 's crew. Also present are Sparrow and former Commodore James Norrington, who has also joined the crew. They locate the chest. Will, Jack, and Norrington each claim the heart for their own purposes. Norrington ultimately steals the heart and the Letters of Marque, escaping just as Davy Jones ' crew attacks.
The Black Pearl flees, outrunning the Flying Dutchman, but Davy Jones again summons the Kraken. Will leads the crew in temporarily fending it off, gaining enough time to abandon ship. When Elizabeth realizes that Sparrow is the Kraken 's sole prey, she distracts him with a passionate kiss while handcuffing him to the mast. Unbeknownst to her, Will witnesses this and believes Elizabeth now loves Sparrow. From the longboat, the crew watches the Kraken drag the Pearl and Sparrow to Davy Jones ' Locker.
Will, Elizabeth, and the crew seek refuge with Tia Dalma. Gibbs proposes a toast to their fallen captain, to which Will glumly raises his mug. Seeing Elizabeth 's tears and believing she loves Sparrow, he tries comforting her. Will and the crew agree to attempt to rescue Sparrow from the Locker.
Will is next seen in Singapore with Elizabeth, Barbossa, Tia Dalma, and the Black Pearl crew. They attempt bargain with Sao Feng, the Pirate Lord of the South China Sea, for the navigational charts leading to World 's End and Davy Jones ' Locker, so that they can rescue Jack Sparrow. Will had already attempted to steal the charts, but was captured. Ostensibly, the group 's mission is to rescue Jack Sparrow from the Locker, but, like the others, Will has a secret motive: to retrieve the Black Pearl and free his father from Davy Jones. When Mercer and the East India Trading Company soldiers attack Sao Feng 's bathhouse, Feng strikes a secret bargain with Will: Jack Sparrow in exchange for the Black Pearl. Will and the others journey to World 's End on Feng 's ship, sailing over an enormous waterfall into the Locker. There, they find Jack aboard the Pearl. Jack sets sail with them, although he and Barbossa dispute who is captain. Will learns that Elizabeth sacrificed Jack to the Kraken. And though he now understands why Elizabeth has been distant and despondent, she believes that her unrelenting guilt over causing Sparrow 's doom is her burden alone to bear. Will tells her their relationship will not endure if they lack trust in one another and make their choices alone.
Sao Feng betrays Will in lieu of another bargain with Lord Beckett, though Beckett double - crosses Feng. Feng then offers Barbossa the Black Pearl in exchange for Elizabeth, who he mistakenly believes is the sea goddess, Calypso. Elizabeth is stunned that Will betrayed Jack Sparrow to achieve his goal. Ignoring Will, she agrees to Feng 's terms in exchange for the crew 's safety. Jack tosses Will in the brig, but he soon escapes. Still plotting to obtain the Pearl, Will leaves a trail of bodies for Lord Beckett to follow to Shipwreck Cove, the Brethren Court stronghold. Jack catches him, but surprisingly hands Will his magical compass before pushing him overboard. Clinging to a floating barrel, Will drifts towards Beckett 's ship, Endeavour.
Will is exchanged for Jack during parley with Beckett and Davy Jones. Elizabeth tells Will she now understands the burden he bears, but having been aboard the Dutchman, she believes Bootstrap can no longer be saved, although Will disagrees. When Barbossa releases Calypso from her human form, Will tells her that Davy Jones betrayed her to the First Brethren Court. This causes her to turn her fury against both the pirates and Jones, forming a giant maelstrom.
During the maelstrom battle, Will proposes to Elizabeth, convincing her this may be their only opportunity to wed. Barbossa performs an impromptu wedding as the battle continues.
Will defends Elizabeth from Davy Jones. He stabs Jones, but Jones is unharmed. Jones mortally wounds Will. Jack, who now possesses Jones ' heart guides Will 's hand to stab the heart and kill Jones. Bootstrap carves out his son 's heart and places it in the Dead Man 's Chest. Will becomes the Flying Dutchman 's immortal captain. Now under Will 's command, the Flying Dutchman resurfaces, and the crew has reverted to human form. Will commands the Dutchman against the Endeavour and the combined firepower of the Black Pearl and the Flying Dutchman destroy the Endeavour, killing Cutler Beckett. The remaining armada retreats without a fight.
Will is now a psychopomp, bound to ferrying souls of those who died at sea to the next world. Will is allowed one day ashore before beginning his ten - year duty aboard the Dutchman. Bootstrap Bill decides to remain on the crew with his son. Elizabeth, a mortal, is unable to accompany them. Will spends his one day with Elizabeth on an island where they consummate their marriage. Before returning to the Dutchman at sunset, he entrusts the Dead Man 's Chest containing his beating heart to her care. The Flying Dutchman disappears from the horizon amid the Green Flash.
Will returns ten years later, where he meets Elizabeth and their son, Henry.
Orlando Bloom reprises his role as Will Turner in the fifth film, seen with barnacles forming upon his face, implying he 's failed at the responsibilities as Captain of the Flying Dutchman. At the start of the film, Henry Turner deliberately attempts to drown himself to lure in the Dutchman, believing that he has found a way to cure his father of his curse, but Will rejects this idea, certain that there is no way to free him from his duty, asking Henry to forget him. Nine years later, Jack Sparrow recruits Henry, his small crew, a girl named Carina Smyth (who is secretly the daughter of Barbossa) and Barbossa to help him find the Trident of Poseidon, the destruction of the Trident breaking all curses imposed by the sea, including the curse that binds Will to the Dutchman. At the film 's conclusion, Will is reunited with Elizabeth, but a post-credits sequence reveals that the Trident 's destruction has also resurrected Davy Jones, who now seeks revenge against him, Jack and Elizabeth.
Will Turner appears in the Pirates of the Caribbean world, Port Royal, of Kingdom Hearts II. In the Japanese version of Kingdom Hearts II as well as in the movies he 's voiced by Daisuke Hirakawa, who was also the Japanese voice for Legolas, another famous character portrayed by Bloom. Crispin Freeman provided the voice of Will for the U.S. version of the game since Orlando Bloom was unavailable due to the filming of Dead Man 's Chest and At World 's End. Freeman was also the voice of Will in the video game Pirates of the Caribbean: The Legend of Jack Sparrow and in the video game adaptation of Pirates of the Caribbean: At World 's End.
Will Turner appears in the video game Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man 's Chest and in Lego Pirates of the Caribbean: The Video Game as a playable character in both games and was again voiced by Crispin Freeman. He also appears in the game Pirates of the Caribbean Online game as the character who gives the player their first sword. In the earlier versions of the game, Will urges the player to run and locate Tia Dalama after soldiers can be heard banging on his door. Will stays behind to confront them, drawing his sword. In the newer version, undead skeletons appear inside instead.
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who sang you dropped a bomb on me | You Dropped a bomb on Me - wikipedia
"You Dropped a Bomb on Me '' is an electrofunk song performed by The Gap Band, released in 1982 on producer Lonnie Simmons ' label, Total Experience Records. It reached # 2 on the Billboard R&B charts, # 39 on the dance charts and # 31 on the Billboard Hot 100. In addition to the single release, the song was featured on the band 's 1982 album Gap Band IV.
A notable feature of the song is its use of a synthesizer to imitate the whistling sound of a bomb dropping. This is first heard immediately before the first verse, and throughout the song from the fourth chorus onward, also Timpani & Bass drum rolls.
In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks, the song was one of those named on the 2001 Clear Channel memorandum of "lyrically questionable '' songs.
The song is featured in a Walmart Christmas holiday television commercial which started airing in October 2017.
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who is the author of the book india wins freedom | Abul Kalam Azad - Wikipedia
Maulana Sayyid Abul Kalam Ghulam Muhiyuddin Ahmed bin Khairuddin AlHussaini Azad (pronunciation (help info); 11 November 1888 -- 22 February 1958) was an Indian scholar and the senior Muslim leader of the Indian National Congress during the Indian independence movement. Following India 's independence, he became the first Minister of Education in the Indian government. He is commonly remembered as Maulana Azad; the word Maulana is an honorific meaning ' Our Master ', and he had adopted Azad (Free) as his pen name. His contribution to establishing the education foundation in India is recognised by celebrating his birthday as "National Education Day '' across India.
As a young man, Azad composed poetry in Urdu language, as well as treaties on religion and philosophy. He rose to prominence through his work as a journalist, publishing works critical of the British Raj and espousing the causes of Indian nationalism. Azad became the leader of the Khilafat Movement, during which he came into close contact with the Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi. Azad became an enthusiastic supporter of Gandhi 's ideas of non-violent civil disobedience, and worked to organise the non-co - operation movement in protest of the 1919 Rowlatt Acts. Azad committed himself to Gandhi 's ideals, including promoting Swadeshi (indigenous) products and the cause of Swaraj (Self - rule) for India. In 1923, at an age of 35, he became the youngest person to serve as the President of the Indian National Congress.
In October 1920, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was elected as a member of foundation committee to establish Jamia Millia Islamia at Aligarh in U.P. without taking help from British colonial government. He helped a lot in shifting of the campus of the university to New Delhi from Aligarh in 1934. The main gate (Gate No. 7) to main campus of the university is named after him.
Azad was one of the main organizers of the Dharasana Satyagraha in 1931, and emerged as one of the most important national leaders of the time, prominently leading the causes of Hindu - Muslim unity as well as espousing secularism and socialism. He served as Congress president from 1940 to 1945, during which the Quit India rebellion was launched. Azad was imprisoned, together with the entire Congress leadership.
Amidst communal turmoil following the partition of India, he worked for religious harmony. As India 's Education Minister, Azad oversaw the establishment of a national education system with free primary education and modern institutions of higher education. He is also credited with the establishment of the Indian Institutes of Technology and the foundation of the University Grants Commission, an important institution to supervise and advance the higher education in the nation.
National Education Day (India) an annual observance in India to commemorate the birth anniversary of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the first education minister of independent India, who served from 15 August 1947 until 2 February 1958. National Education Day of India is celebrated on 11 November every year in India. He also worked for Hindu - Muslim unity through the Al - Hilal newspaper.
Azad was born on 11 November 1888 in Mecca, then a part of the Ottoman Empire. His real name was Sayyid Ghulam Muhiyuddin Ahmed bin Khairuddin AlHussaini, but he eventually became known as Maulana AbulKalam Azad. Azad 's father was a scholar who lived in Delhi with his maternal grandfather, as his father had died at a very young age. During the Sepoy Mutiny, he left India and settled in Mecca. His father Maulana Sayyid Muhammad Khairuddin bin Ahmed AlHussaini wrote twelve books, had thousands of disciples, and claimed ancestry from Imam Hussain, while his mother was Sheikha Alia bint Mohammad, the daughter of Sheikh Mohammad bin Zaher AlWatri, himself a reputed scholar from Medina who had a reputation that extended even outside of Arabia.
Maulana Azad returned to Calcutta with his family in 1890. Azad began to master several languages, including Urdu, Hindi, Persian, Bengali, Arabic, and English. He was also trained in the Mazahibs of Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali fiqh, Shariat, mathematics, philosophy, world history, and science by tutors hired by his family. An avid and determined student, the precocious Azad was running a library, a reading room, and a debating society before he was twelve; wanted to write on the life of Ghazali at twelve; was contributing learned articles to Makhzan (a literary magazine) at fourteen; was teaching a class of students, most of whom were twice his age, when he was fifteen; and completed the traditional course of study at the age of sixteen, nine years ahead of his contemporaries, and brought out a magazine at the same age. In fact, he was publishing a poetical journal (Nairang - e-Aalam) and was already an editor of a weekly (Al - Misbah) in 1900, at the age of twelve and, in 1903, brought out a monthly journal, Lissan - us - Sidq, which soon gained popularity. At the age of thirteen, he was married to a young Muslim girl, Zulaikha Begum. Azad compiled many treatises interpreting the Qur'an, the Hadis, and the principles of Fiqh and Kalam.
Azad developed political views considered radical for most Muslims of the time and became a full - fledged Indian nationalist. He fiercely criticised the British for racial discrimination and ignoring the needs of common people across India. He also criticised Muslim politicians for focusing on communal issues before the national interest and rejected the All India Muslim League 's communal separatism. Azad developed curiosity and interest in the pan-Islamic doctrines of Jamal al - Din al - Afghani and visited Afghanistan, Iraq, Egypt, Syria and Turkey. But his views changed considerably when he met revolutionary activists in Iraq and was influenced by their fervent anti-imperialism and nationalism. Against common Muslim opinion of the time, Azad opposed the partition of Bengal in 1905 and became increasingly active in revolutionary activities, to which he was introduced by the prominent Hindu revolutionaries Aurobindo Ghosh and Shyam Sundar Chakravarty. Azad initially evoked surprise from other revolutionaries, but Azad won their praise and confidence by working secretly to organise revolutionaries activities and meetings in Bengal, Bihar and Bombay (now called Mumbai).
Azad 's education had been shaped for him to become a cleric, but his rebellious nature and affinity for politics turned him towards journalism.
Maulana Azad worked for "Vakil '', a newspaper from Amritsar. As per Allama Mashriqi 's book titled "Dahulbab '' "(Translation) In 1903, Maulvi Shibli Nomani... sent the respected Abul Kalam Azad... to Qibla - au - Kaaba (Khan Ata) in Amritsar so that he could shape his (Azad) future. Therefore he (Azad) stayed with him (Khan Ata) for five years and was part of the editorial team of the... Vakil. '' For further information, visit: https://www.facebook.com/TheVakilAmritsar
He established an Urdu weekly newspaper in 1912 called Al - Hilal, and openly attacked British policies while exploring the challenges facing common people, but it was banned in 1914. Espousing the ideals of Indian nationalism, Azad 's publications were aimed at encouraging young Muslims into fighting for independence and Hindu - Muslim unity. His work helped improve the relationship between Hindus and Muslims in Bengal, which had been soured by the controversy surrounding the partition of Bengal and the issue of separate communal electorates.
With the onset of World War I, the British stiffened censorship and restrictions on political activity. Azad 's Al - Hilal was consequently banned in 1914 under the Press Act. Azad started a new journal, the Al - Balagh, which increased its active support for nationalist causes and communal unity. In this period Azad also became active in his support for the Khilafat agitation to protect the position of the Sultan of Ottoman Turkey, who was considered the Caliph or Khalifa for Muslims worldwide. The Sultan had sided against the British in the war and the continuity of his rule came under serious threat, causing distress amongst Muslim conservatives. Azad saw an opportunity to energise Indian Muslims and achieve major political and social reform through the struggle. With his popularity increasing across India, the government outlawed Azad 's second publication under the Defence of India Regulations Act and arrested him. The governments of the Bombay Presidency, United Provinces, Punjab and Delhi prohibited his entry into the provinces and Azad was moved to a jail in Ranchi, where he was incarcerated until 1 January 1920.
Maulana Azad is considered one of the greatest Urdu writers of the 20th century. He has written many books including India Wins Freedom, Ghubar - e-Khatir, Tazkirah, Tarjumanul Quran, etc.
Ghubar - e-Khatir (Sallies of Mind), (Urdu: غُبارِخاطِر ) is one of the most important works of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, written primarily during 1942 to 1946 when he was imprisoned in Ahmednagar Fort in Maharashtra by British Raj while he was in Bombay (now Mumbai) to preside over the meeting of All India Congress Working Committee.
The book is basically a collection of 24 letters he wrote addressing his close friend Maulana Habibur Rahman Khan Sherwani. These letters were never sent to him because there was no permission for that during the imprisonment and after the release in 1946, he gave all these letters to his friend Ajmal Khan who let it published for the first time in 1946.
Although the book is a collection of letters but except one or two letters, all other letters are unique and most of the letters deal with complex issues such as existence of God, the origin of religions, the origin of music and its place in religion, etc.
The book is primarily an Urdu language book; however, there are over five hundred of couplets, mostly in Persian and Arabic languages. It is because, Maulana was born in a family where Arabic and Persian were used more frequently than Urdu. He was born in Mekkah, given formal education in Persian and Arabic languages but he was never taught Urdu.
It is often said that his book India wins Freedom is about his political life and Ghubar - e-Khatir deals with his social and spiritual life.
Upon his release, Azad returned to a political atmosphere charged with sentiments of outrage and rebellion against British rule. The Indian public had been angered by the passage of the Rowlatt Acts in 1919, which severely restricted civil liberties and individual rights. Consequently, thousands of political activists had been arrested and many publications banned. The killing of unarmed civilians at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar on 13 April 1919 had provoked intense outrage all over India, alienating most Indians, including long - time British supporters, from the authorities. The Khilafat struggle had also peaked with the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I and the raging Turkish War of Independence, which had made the caliphate 's position precarious. India 's main political party, the Indian National Congress came under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, who had aroused excitement all over India when he led the farmers of Champaran and Kheda in a successful revolt against British authorities in 1918. Gandhi organised the people of the region and pioneered the art of Satyagraha -- combining mass civil disobedience with complete non-violence and self - reliance.
Taking charge of the Congress, Gandhi also reached out to support the Khilafat struggle, helping to bridge Hindu - Muslim political divides. Azad and the Ali brothers - Maulana Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali - warmly welcomed Congress support and began working together on a programme of non-co - operation by asking all Indians to boycott British - run schools, colleges, courts, public services, the civil service, police and military. Non-violence and Hindu - Muslim unity were universally emphasised, while the boycott of foreign goods, especially clothes were organised. Azad joined the Congress and was also elected president of the All India Khilafat Committee. Although Azad and other leaders were soon arrested, the movement drew out millions of people in peaceful processions, strikes and protests.
This period marked a transformation in Azad 's own life. Along with fellow Khilafat leaders Dr. Mukhtar Ahmad Ansari, Hakim Ajmal Khan and others, Azad grew personally close to Gandhi and his philosophy. The three men founded the Jamia Millia Islamia in Delhi as an institution of higher education managed entirely by Indians without any British support or control. Both Azad and Gandhi shared a deep passion for religion and Azad developed a close friendship with him. He adopted the Prophet Muhammad 's ideas by living simply, rejecting material possessions and pleasures. He began to spin his own clothes using khadi on the charkha, and began frequently living and participating in the ashrams organised by Gandhi. Becoming deeply committed to ahimsa (non-violence) himself, Azad grew close to fellow nationalists like Jawaharlal Nehru, Chittaranjan Das and Subhas Chandra Bose. He strongly criticised the continuing suspicion of the Congress amongst the Muslim intellectuals from the Aligarh Muslim University and the Muslim League.
The movement had a sudden decline with rising incidences of violence; a nationalist mob killed 22 policemen in Chauri Chaura in 1922. Fearing degeneration into violence, Gandhi asked Indians to suspend the revolt and undertook a five - day fast to repent and encourage others to stop the rebellion. Although the movement stopped all over India, several Congress leaders and activists were disillusioned with Gandhi. The following year, the caliphate was overthrown by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and the Ali brothers grew distant and critical of Gandhi and the Congress. Azad 's close friend Chittaranjan Das co-founded the Swaraj Party, breaking from Gandhi 's leadership. Despite the circumstances, Azad remained firmly committed to Gandhi 's ideals and leadership. In 1923, he became the youngest man to be elected Congress president. Azad led efforts to organise the Flag Satyagraha in Nagpur. Azad served as president of the 1924 Unity Conference in Delhi, using his position to work to re-unite the Swarajists and the Khilafat leaders under the common banner of the Congress. In the years following the movement, Azad travelled across India, working extensively to promote Gandhi 's vision, education and social reform.
Azad became an inspiring personality in the field of politics. Azad became an important national leader, and served on the Congress Working Committee and in the offices of general secretary and president many times. The political environment in India re-energised in 1928 with nationalist outrage against the Simon Commission appointed to propose constitutional reforms. The commission included no Indian members and did not even consult Indian leaders and experts. In response, the Congress and other political parties appointed a commission under Motilal Nehru to propose constitutional reforms from Indian opinions. In 1928, Azad endorsed the Nehru Report, which was criticised by the Ali brothers and Muslim League politician Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Azad endorsed the ending of separate electorates based on religion, and called for an independent India to be committed to secularism. At the 1928 Congress session in Guwahati, Azad endorsed Gandhi 's call for dominion status for India within a year. If not granted, the Congress would adopt the goal of complete political independence for India. Despite his affinity for Gandhi, Azad also drew close to the young radical leaders Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Bose, who had criticised the delay in demanding full independence. Azad developed a close friendship with Nehru and began espousing socialism as the means to fight inequality, poverty and other national challenges. Azad decided the name of Muslim political party Majlis - e-Ahrar - ul - Islam. He was also a friend of Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari, founder of All India Majlis - e-Ahrar. When Gandhi embarked on the Dandi Salt March that inaugurated the Salt Satyagraha in 1930, Azad organised and led the nationalist raid, albeit non-violent on the Dharasana salt works to protest the salt tax and restriction of its production and sale. The biggest nationalist upheaval in a decade, Azad was imprisoned along with millions of people, and would frequently be jailed from 1930 to 1934 for long periods of time. Following the Gandhi - Irwin Pact in 1931, Azad was amongst millions of political prisoners released. When elections were called under the Government of India Act 1935, Azad was appointed to organise the Congress election campaign, raising funds, selecting candidates and organising volunteers and rallies across India. Azad had criticised the Act for including a high proportion of un-elected members in the central legislature, and did not himself contest a seat. He again declined to contest elections in 1937, and helped head the party 's efforts to organise elections and preserve co-ordination and unity amongst the Congress governments elected in different provinces.
At the 1936 Congress session in Lucknow, Azad was drawn into a dispute with Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Dr. Rajendra Prasad and Chakravaachari regarding the espousal of socialism as the Congress goal. Azad had backed the election of Nehru as Congress president, and supported the resolution endorsing socialism. In doing so, he aligned with Congress socialists like Nehru, Subhash Bose and Jayaprakash Narayan. Azad also supported Nehru 's re-election in 1937, at the consternation of many conservative Congressmen. Azad supported dialogue with Jinnah and the Muslim League between 1935 and 1937 over a Congress - League coalition and broader political co-operation. Less inclined to brand the League as obstructive, Azad nevertheless joined the Congress 's vehement rejection of Jinnah 's demand that the League be seen exclusively as the representative of Indian Muslims.
In 1938, Azad served as an intermediary between the supporters of and the Congress faction led by Congress president Subhash Bose, who criticised Gandhi for not launching another rebellion against the British and sought to move the Congress away from Gandhi 's leadership. Azad stood by Gandhi with most other Congress leaders, but reluctantly endorsed the Congress 's exit from the assemblies in 1939 following the inclusion of India in World War II. Nationalists were infuriated that Viceroy Lord Linlithgow had entered India into the war without consulting national leaders. Although willing to support the British effort in return for independence, Azad sided with Gandhi when the British ignored the Congress overtures. Azad 's criticism of Jinnah and the League intensified as Jinnah called Congress rule in the provinces as "Hindu Raj '', calling the resignation of the Congress ministries as a "Day of Deliverance '' for Muslims. Jinnah and the League 's separatist agenda was gaining popular support amongst Muslims. Muslim religious and political leaders criticised Azad as being too close to the Congress and placing politics before Muslim welfare. As the Muslim League adopted a resolution calling for a separate Muslim state (Pakistan) in its session in Lahore in 1940, Azad was elected Congress president in its session in Ramgarh. Speaking vehemently against Jinnah 's Two - Nation Theory -- the notion that Hindus and Muslims were distinct nations -- Azad lambasted religious separatism and exhorted all Muslims to preserve a united India, as all Hindus and Muslims were Indians who shared deep bonds of brotherhood and nationhood. In his presidential address, Azad said:
"... Full eleven centuries have passed by since then. Islam has now as great a claim on the soil of India as Hinduism. If Hinduism has been the religion of the people here for several thousands of years Islam also has been their religion for a thousand years. Just as a Hindu can say with pride that he is an Indian and follows Hinduism, so also we can say with equal pride that we are Indians and follow Islam. I shall enlarge this orbit still further. The Indian Christian is equally entitled to say with pride that he is an Indian and is following a religion of India, namely Christianity. ''
In face of increasing popular disenchantment with the British across India, Gandhi and Patel advocated an all - out rebellion demanding immediate independence. Azad was wary and sceptical of the idea, aware that India 's Muslims were increasingly looking to Jinnah and had supported the war. Feeling that a struggle would not force a British exit, Azad and Nehru warned that such a campaign would divide India and make the war situation even more precarious. Intensive and emotional debates took place between Azad, Nehru, Gandhi and Patel in the Congress Working Committee 's meetings in May and June 1942. In the end, Azad became convinced that decisive action in one form or another had to be taken, as the Congress had to provide leadership to India 's people and would lose its standing if it did not.
Supporting the call for the British to "Quit India '', Azad began exhorting thousands of people in rallies across the nation to prepare for a definitive, all - out struggle. As Congress president, Azad travelled across India and met with local and provincial Congress leaders and grass - roots activists, delivering speeches and planning the rebellion. Despite their previous differences, Azad worked closely with Patel and Dr. Rajendra Prasad to make the rebellion as effective as possible. On 7 August 1942 at the Gowalia Tank in Mumbai, Congress president Azad inaugurated the struggle with a vociferous speech exhorting Indians into action. Just two days later, the British arrested Azad and the entire Congress leadership. While Gandhi was incarcerated at the Aga Khan Palace in Pune, Azad and the Congress Working Committee were imprisoned at a fort in Ahmednagar, where they would remain under isolation and intense security for nearly four years. Outside news and communication had been largely prohibited and completely censored. Although frustrated at their incarceration and isolation, Azad and his companions attested to feeling a deep satisfaction at having done their duty to their country and people.
Azad occupied the time playing bridge and acting as the referee in tennis matches played by his colleagues. In the early mornings, Azad began working on his classic Urdu work, the Ghubhar - i - Khatir. Sharing daily chores, Azad also taught the Persian and Urdu languages, as well as Indian and world history to several of his companions. The leaders would generally avoid talking of politics, unwilling to cause any arguments that could exacerbate the pain of their imprisonment. However, each year on 26 January, which was then considered Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence) Day, the leaders would gather to remember their cause and pray together. Azad, Nehru and Patel would briefly speak about the nation and the future. Azad and Nehru proposed an initiative to forge an agreement with the British in 1943. Arguing that the rebellion had been mistimed, Azad attempted to convince his colleagues that the Congress should agree to negotiate with the British and call for the suspension of disobedience if the British agreed to transfer power. Although his proposal was overwhelmingly rejected, Azad and a few others agreed that Gandhi and the Congress had not done enough. When they learnt of Gandhi holding talks with Jinnah in Mumbai in 1944, Azad criticised Gandhi 's move as counter-productive and ill - advised.
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With the end of the war, the British agreed to transfer power to Indian hands. All political prisoners were released in 1946 and Azad led the Congress in the elections for the new Constituent Assembly of India, which would draft India 's constitution. He headed the delegation to negotiate with the British Cabinet Mission, in his sixth year as Congress president. While attacking Jinnah 's demand for Pakistan and the mission 's proposal of 16 June 1946 that envisaged the partition of India, Azad became a strong proponent of the mission 's earlier proposal of 16 May. The proposal advocated a federal system with a limited central government and autonomy for the provinces. The central government would have Defence, Foreign Affairs and Communication while the provinces would win all other subjects unless they voluntarily relinquished selected subjects to the Central Government. Additionally, the proposal called for the "grouping '' of provinces on religious lines, which would informally band together the Muslim - majority province in the West as Group B, Muslim - majority provinces of Bengal and Assam as Group C and the rest of India as Group A. While Gandhi and others expressed scepticism of this clause, Azad argued that Jinnah 's demand for Pakistan would be buried and the concerns of the Muslim community would be assuaged. Under Azad and Patel 's backing, the Working Committee approved the resolution against Gandhi 's advice. Azad also managed to win Jinnah 's agreement to the proposal citing the greater good of all Indian Muslims.
Azad had been the Congress president since 1939, so he volunteered to resign in 1946. He nominated Nehru, who replaced him as Congress president and led the Congress into the interim government. Azad was appointed to head the Department of Education. However, Jinnah 's Direct Action Day agitation for Pakistan, launched on 16 August sparked communal violence across India. Thousands of people were killed as Azad travelled across Bengal and Bihar to calm the tensions and heal relations between Muslims and Hindus. Despite Azad 's call for Hindu - Muslim unity, Jinnah 's popularity amongst Muslims soared and the League entered a coalition with the Congress in December, but continued to boycott the constituent assembly. Later in his autobiography, Azad indicated Patel having become more pro-partition than the Muslim League, largely due to the League 's not co-operating with the Congress in the provisional government on any issue.
Azad had grown increasingly hostile to Jinnah, who had described him as the "Muslim Lord Haw - Haw '' and a "Congress Showboy. '' Muslim League politicians accused Azad of allowing Muslims to be culturally and politically dominated by the Hindu community. Azad continued to proclaim his faith in Hindu - Muslim unity:
"I am proud of being an Indian. I am part of the indivisible unity that is Indian nationality. I am indispensable to this noble edifice and without me this splendid structure is incomplete. I am an essential element, which has gone to build India. I can never surrender this claim. ''
Amidst more incidences of violence in early 1947, the Congress - League coalition struggled to function. The provinces of Bengal and Punjab were to be partitioned on religious lines, and on 3 June 1947 the British announced a proposal to partition India on religious lines, with the princely states free to choose between either dominion. The proposal was hotly debated in the All India Congress Committee, with Muslim leaders Saifuddin Kitchlew and Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan expressing fierce opposition. Azad privately discussed the proposal with Gandhi, Patel and Nehru, but despite his opposition was unable to deny the popularity of the League and the unworkability of any coalition with the League. Faced with the serious possibility of a civil war, Azad abstained from voting on the resolution, remaining silent and not speaking throughout the AICC session, which ultimately approved the plan.
India 's partition and independence on 15 August 1947 brought with it a scourge of violence that swept the Punjab, Bihar, Bengal, Delhi and many other parts of India. Millions of Hindus and Sikhs fled the newly created Pakistan for India, and millions of Muslims fled for West Pakistan and East Pakistan, created out of East Bengal. Violence claimed the lives of an estimated one million people, almost entirely in Punjab. Azad took up responsibility for the safety of Muslims in India, touring affected areas in Bengal, Bihar, Assam and the Punjab, guiding the organisation of refugee camps, supplies and security. Azad gave speeches to large crowds encouraging peace and calm in the border areas and encouraging Muslims across the country to remain in India and not fear for their safety and security. Focusing on bringing the capital of Delhi back to peace, Azad organised security and relief efforts, but was drawn into a dispute with the Deputy prime minister and Home Minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel when he demanded the dismissal of Delhi 's police commissioner, who was a Sikh accused by Muslims of overlooking attacks and neglecting their safety. Patel argued that the commissioner was not biased, and if his dismissal was forced it would provoke anger amongst Hindus and Sikhs and divide the city police. In Cabinet meetings and discussions with Gandhi, Patel and Azad clashed over security issues in Delhi and Punjab, as well as the allocation of resources for relief and rehabilitation. Patel opposed Azad and Nehru 's proposal to reserve the houses vacated by Muslims who had departed for Pakistan for Muslims in India displaced by the violence. Patel argued that a secular government could not offer preferential treatment for any religious community, while Azad remained anxious to assure the rehabilitation of Muslims in India, secularism, religious freedom and equality for all Indians. He supported provisions for Muslim citizens to make avail of Muslim personal law in courts.
Azad remained a close confidante, supporter and advisor to prime minister Nehru, and played an important role in framing national policies. Azad masterminded the creation of national programmes of school and college construction and spreading the enrolment of children and young adults into schools, to promote universal primary education. Elected to the lower house of the Indian Parliament, the Lok Sabha in 1952 and again in 1957, Azad supported Nehru 's socialist economic and industrial policies, as well as the advancing social rights and economic opportunities for women and underprivileged Indians. In 1956, he served as president of the UNESCO General Conference held in Delhi. Azad spent the final years of his life focusing on writing his book India Wins Freedom, an exhaustive account of India 's freedom struggle and its leaders, which was published in 1959.
As India 's first Minister of Education, he emphasised on educating the rural poor and girls. As Chairman of the Central Advisory Board of Education, he gave thrust to adult literacy, universal primary education, free and compulsory for all children up to the age of 14, girls education, and diversification of secondary education and vocational training. Addressing the conference on All India Education on 16 January 1948, Maulana Azad emphasised,
We must not for a moment forget, it is a birthright of every individual to receive at least the basic education without which he can not fully discharge his duties as a citizen.
He oversaw the setting up of the Central Institute of Education, Delhi, which later became the Department of Education of the University of Delhi as "a research centre for solving new educational problems of the country ''. Under his leadership, the Ministry of Education established the first Indian Institute of Technology in 1951 and the University Grants Commission in 1953., He also laid emphasis on the development of the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and the Faculty of Technology of the Delhi University. He foresaw a great future in the IITs for India:
I have no doubt that the establishment of this Institute will form a landmark in the progress of higher technological education and research in the country.
During his life and in contemporary times, Maulana Azad has been criticised for not doing enough to prevent the partition of India although he was committed to united India till his last attempt. He was condemned by the advocates of Pakistan, especially Muslim League.
Azad is remembered as one of the leading Indian nationalists of his time. His firm belief in Hindu - Muslim unity earned him the respect of the Hindu community and he still remains one of the most important symbols of communal harmony in modern India. His work for education and social uplift in India made him an important influence in guiding India 's economic and social development.
The Ministry of Minority Affairs of the central Government of India set up the Maulana Azad Education Foundation in 1989 on the occasion of his birth centenary to promote education amongst educationally backward sections of the Society. The Ministry also provides the Maulana Abul Kalam Azad National Fellowship, an integrated five - year fellowship in the form of financial assistance to students from minority communities to pursue higher studies such as M. Phil and PhD
Numerous institutions across India have also been named in his honour. Some of them are the Maulana Azad Medical College in New Delhi, the Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology in Bhopal, the Maulana Azad National Urdu University in Hyderabad, Maulana Azad Centre for Elementary and Social Education (MACESE Delhi University), the Maulana Azad College, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies, and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology, in Kolkata, Bab - e - Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (Gate No. 7), Jamia Millia Islamia, A Central (Minority) University in New Delhi, the Maulana Azad library in the Aligarh Muslim University in Aligarh and Maulana Azad Stadium in Jammu. His home housed the Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies earlier, and is now the Maulana Azad Museum.
He is celebrated as one of the founders and greatest patrons of the Jamia Millia Islamia. Azad 's tomb is located next to the Jama Masjid in Delhi. In recent years great concern has been expressed by many in India over the poor maintenance of the tomb. On 16 November 2005 the Delhi High Court ordered that the tomb of Maulana Azad in New Delhi be renovated and restored as a major national monument. Azad 's tomb is a major landmark and receives large numbers of visitors annually.
Jawaharlal Nehru referred to him as Mir - i - Karawan (the caravan leader), "a very brave and gallant gentleman, a finished product of the culture that, in these days, pertains to few ''. Mahatma Gandhi remarked about Azad by counting him as "a person of the calibre of Plato, Aristotle and Pythagorus ''.
Azad was portrayed by actor Virendra Razdan in the 1982 biographical film, Gandhi, directed by Richard Attenborough.
His birthday, 11 November is celebrated as National Education Day in India.
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when was the last time the cowboys won in the playoffs | List of Dallas Cowboys seasons - wikipedia
This article is a list of seasons completed by the Dallas Cowboys American football franchise of the National Football League (NFL). The list documents the season - by - season records of the Cowboys ' franchise from 1960 to present, including postseason records, and league awards for individual players or head coaches. The Cowboys franchise was founded in 1960 as an expansion team. The team has earned 31 postseason appearances, tied for second place with the Pittsburgh Steelers, the longest consecutive streak of winning seasons with 20, the second-most appearances in the NFC Championship Game (14, behind the San Francisco 49ers ' 15) and the second-most Super Bowl appearances (8 with the Denver Broncos and Steelers). The Cowboys have played for 10 NFL Championships and have won 5, all five being Super Bowls.
The Cowboys won Super Bowl VI, XII, XXVII, XXVIII and XXX. They also played in and lost Super Bowl V, X, and XIII.
The franchise has experienced two major periods of continued success in their history. The first period of success came from 1966 -- 1985 when the Cowboys played in the postseason 18 times. During this period, they played in two NFL Championships and five Super Bowls, winning two of them, winning a total of 20 playoff games. The second period of success was between 1991 -- 1996 when the Cowboys captured five straight NFC East Division titles and won three Super Bowls going 11 -- 2 in the postseason.
The Cowboys have also experienced failure in their history. The most notable period of failure was from their 1960 inaugural season to 1965, during which the Cowboys did not have a single postseason appearance. They did not win a single game during their first season, compiling an 0 -- 11 -- 1 record that is still the worst in franchise history. Also, they did not have a single winning record in this period. Between 1986 and 1990 the Cowboys had losing records in each season as veteran coach Landry retired and the team was radically overhauled, with the low point being the NFL 's second 15 - loss season (after the 1980 Saints) in 1989. After losing a Divisional playoff Game in 1996, the Cowboys between 1997 and 2008 lost five consecutive playoff games, one after a franchise - record 13 -- 3 season in 2007, during which most predicted the Cowboys would break this streak. This streak finally came to an end when the Cowboys finally beat their bitter rival, the Philadelphia Eagles 34 -- 14 after an 11 -- 5 season in 2009.
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when was how to lose a guy in 10 days filmed | How to Lose a Guy in 10 Days - Wikipedia
How to Lose a Guy in 10 Days is a 2003 romantic comedy film directed by Donald Petrie, starring Kate Hudson and Matthew McConaughey. It is based on a short cartoon book of the same name by Michele Alexander and Jeannie Long.
Andie Anderson (Kate Hudson) is a writer for a women 's magazine called Composure as the "How to... '' girl. She is bored and wishes she could write more about important things such as politics, economics, religion, poverty; stuff she actually cares about. After Andie 's best friend Michelle (Kathryn Hahn) experiences yet another break - up, Andie is inspired to write a new article titled "How to Lose a Guy in 10 Days ''; she will start dating a guy and eventually drive him away using only the "classic mistakes women make '' in relationships.
At the same time, advertising executive Benjamin Barry (Matthew McConaughey) is striving for a pitch to advertise a new diamond campaign. When his boss questions Ben 's knowledge about romance, Ben bets he could make any woman fall in love with him if he wanted to. His boss accepts the bet and confirms that if he can make any woman fall in love with him before the upcoming company ball, in just 10 days, he will allow Ben to head the advertising for the new diamond company. Ben 's rival co-workers, Judy Spears (Michael Michele) and Judy Green (Shalom Harlow), who were at Composure magazine earlier in the day and are aware of Andie 's new assignment, set Ben up to have him pick Andie as the girl to test his theory on.
Ben and Andie meet and soon their quests, neither revealing their true intentions. Andie works hard to drive Ben insane and make him break up with her in order to complete her article, but Ben continues to stick around in hopes of making her fall in love with him. Andie gets Ben knocked out in a movie theater by talking aloud while watching a chick flick, rapidly moves her things into his apartment, acts overly possessive and sensitive and clingy, ruins his boys ' poker night for him and his friends, and takes him to a Celine Dion concert when he was under the assumption he was going to see a New York Knicks basketball game.
Ben stays with her despite everything, and after coming very close to breaking up they attend couples counseling, led by Andie 's friend Michelle. They agree, as a solution to their "problems '', to visit Ben 's family in Staten Island for the weekend. While holidaying together, Ben and Andie begin to form a genuine bond, and upon arriving home Ben even refers to Andie as his girlfriend. Andie then tries to explain to boss Lana (Bebe Neuwirth) that she can not continue writing and publishing this article as she has "really got to know this guy '', but Lana remains insistent upon it. Around the same time, Andie and Ben go to the company ball together where Ben 's boss, Phillip (Robert Klein), meets Andie and tells Ben that he "met her, she loves you, you win ''.
Seeing Ben 's good news, Judy and Judy are instantly envious and set about to ruin it for their co-worker. They tell his close colleagues, Tony (Adam Goldberg) and Thayer (Thomas Lennon), that Andie knew about the bet all along and was playing along to help Ben win. Tony and Thayer then rush to Andie 's side and beg her to keep quiet, when they do not realize she is still blissfully unaware of the bet. Almost simultaneously, Lana, who is unaware of Ben 's role in Andie 's "How To '' article, reveals Andie 's true intentions to Ben. Upon learning of Ben 's bet, Andie attempts to humiliate Ben in front of everyone at the party, and the pair argue on stage.
They go their separate ways before Ben is shown Andie 's article and encouraged to read it. She explains in it how she "lost the one person she ever fell for '', and when he hears she quit her job at Composure and is on her way to Washington, D.C. for an interview, he chases her taxi and stops her. Once he accuses her of running away, they reveal their true feelings for each other and the film ends with Ben instructing the taxi driver to return Andie 's belongings to her home, and then they kiss.
Gwyneth Paltrow was originally going to star as Andie Anderson but later pulled out before pre-production began, and Kate Hudson replaced her.
The yellow gown Kate Hudson wore in the movie was designed by celebrity designer Dina Bar - El. The necklace she wears with the yellow gown is called, in the film, the "Isadora Diamond '' named after Isadora Duncan. The 80 - carat yellow diamond in the necklace was designed by Harry Winston and is worth $6 million.
How to Lose a Guy in 10 Days received mixed reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a rating of 42 %, based on 161 reviews, with an average rating of 5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Matthew McConaughey and Kate Hudson are charming together, but they ca n't overcome How to Lose a Guy in 10 Days ' silly premise and predictable script. '' Metacritic gave the film a score of 45 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
The film was released on February 7, 2003 and earned $23,774,850 in its first weekend. Its final gross is $105,813,373 in the US and $71,558,068 overseas.
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which of the following is true of u.s. net exports prior to the 1960s | Foreign trade of the United States - Wikipedia
Foreign trade of the United States comprises the international imports and exports of the United States, one of the world 's most significant economic markets. The country is among the top three global importers and exporters.
The regulation of trade is constitutionally vested in the United States Congress. After the Great Depression, the country emerged as among the most significant global trade policy - makers, and it is now a partner to a number of international trade agreements, including the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Gross U.S. assets held by foreigners were $16.3 trillion as of the end of 2006 (over 100 % of GDP).
The country has trade relations with many other countries. Within that, the trade with Europe and Asia is predominant. To fulfill the demands of the industrial sector, the country has to import mineral oil and iron ore on a large scale. Machinery, cotton yarn, toys, mineral oil, lubricants, steel, tea, sugar, coffee, and many more items are traded. The country 's export list includes food grains like wheat, corn, and soybean. Aeroplane, cars, computers, paper, and machine tools required for different industries. In 2016 United States current account balance was - $469,400,000,000.
The Constitution gives Congress express power over the imposition of tariffs and the regulation of international trade. As a result, Congress can enact laws including those that: establish tariff rates; implement trade agreements; provide remedies against unfairly traded imports; control exports of sensitive technology; and extend tariff preferences to imports from developing countries. Over time, and under carefully prescribed circumstances, Congress has delegated some of its trade authority to the Executive Branch. Congress, however, has, in some cases, kept tight reins on the use of this authority by requiring that certain trade laws and programs be renewed; and by requiring the Executive Branch to issue reports to Congress to monitor the implementation of the trade laws and programs.
The authority of Congress to regulate international trade is set out in Article I, Section 8, Paragraph 1 of the United States Constitution:
The Congress shall have power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and to promote the general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;
The Embargo Act of 1807 was designed to force Britain to rescind its restrictions on American trade, but failed, and was repealed in early 1809.
During the Civil War period, leaders of the Confederacy were confident that Britain would come to their aid because of British reliance on Southern cotton. The Union was able to avoid this, through skillful use of diplomacy and threats to other aspects of European - U.S. trade relations.
According to Michael Lind, protectionism was America 's de facto policy from the passage of the Tariff of 1816 to World War II, "switching to free trade only in 1945 ''. It has been argued that one of the underlying motivations for the American Revolution itself was a desire to industrialize, and reverse the trade deficit with Britain, which had grown by a factor of ten in the space of a few decades, from £ 67,000 (1721 -- 30) to £ 739,000 (1761 -- 70).
According to Paul Bairoch, since the end of the 18th century, the United States has been "the homeland and bastion of modern protectionism ''. In fact, the United States never adhered to free trade until 1945. A very protectionist policy was adopted as soon as the presidency of George Washington by Alexander Hamilton, the first US Secretary of the Treasury from 1789 to 1795 and author of the text Report on Manufactures which called for customs barriers to allow American industrial development and to help protect infant industries, including bounties (subsidies) derived in part from those tariffs. This text was one of the references of the German economist Friedrich List (1789 -- 1846). The United States has become the main opposition to free trade and this policy remained throughout the 19th century and the overall level of tariffs was very high (close to 50 % in 1830). The victory of the protectionist states of the North over the free trade southern states at the end of the Civil War (1861 -- 1865) perpetuated this trend, even during periods of free trade in Europe (1860 -- 1880).
Hamilton explained that despite an initial "increase of price '' caused by regulations that control foreign competition, once a "domestic manufacture has attained to perfection... it invariably becomes cheaper. '' George Washington signed the Tariff Act of 1789, making it the Republic 's second ever piece of legislation. Increasing the domestic supply of manufactured goods, particularly war materials, was seen as an issue of national security. Washington and Hamilton believed that political independence was predicated upon economic independence.
In the 19th century, statesmen such as Senator Henry Clay continued Hamilton 's themes within the Whig Party under the name "American System. '' The fledgling Republican Party led by Abraham Lincoln, who called himself a "Henry Clay tariff Whig '', strongly opposed free trade, and implemented a 44 - percent tariff during the Civil War -- in part to pay for railroad subsidies and for the war effort, and to protect favored industries.
From 1871 to 1913, "the average U.S. tariff on dutiable imports never fell below 38 percent (and) gross national product (GNP) grew 4.3 percent annually, twice the pace in free trade Britain and well above the U.S. average in the 20th century, '' notes Alfred Eckes Jr., chairman of the U.S. International Trade Commission under President Reagan.
In 1896, the GOP platform pledged to "renew and emphasize our allegiance to the policy of protection, as the bulwark of American industrial independence, and the foundation of development and prosperity. This true American policy taxes foreign products and encourages home industry. It puts the burden of revenue on foreign goods; it secures the American market for the American producer. It upholds the American standard of wages for the American workingman. ''
While the United States has always participated in international trade, it did not take a leading role in global trade policy - making until the Great Depression. Congress and The Executive Branch came into conflict in deciding the mix of trade promotion and protectionism. In order to stimulate employment, Congress passed the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act of 1934, allowing the executive branch to negotiate bilateral trade agreements for a fixed period of time. During the 1930s the amount of bilateral negotiation under this act was fairly limited, and consequently did little to expand global trade.
Near the end of the Second World War U.S. policy makers began to experiment on a broader level. In the 1940s, working with the British government, the United States developed two innovations to expand and govern trade among nations: the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the International Trade Organization (ITO). GATT was a temporary multilateral agreement designed to provide a framework of rules and a forum to negotiate trade barrier reductions among nations.
The growing importance of international trade led to the establishment of the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative in 1963 by Executive Order 11075, originally called The Office of the Special Representative for Trade Negotiations.
United States trade policy has varied widely through various American historical and industrial periods. As a major developed nation, the U.S. has relied heavily on the import of raw materials and the export of finished goods. Because of the significance for American economy and industry, much weight has been placed on trade policy by elected officials and business leaders.
The 1920s marked a decade of economic growth in the United States following a Classical supply side policy. U.S. President Warren Harding signed the Emergency Tariff of 1921 and the Fordney -- McCumber Tariff of 1922. Harding 's policies reduced taxes and protected U.S. business and agriculture. Following the Great Depression and World War II, the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference brought the Bretton Woods currency agreement followed by the economy of the 1950s and 1960s. In 1971, President Richard Nixon ended U.S. ties to Bretton Woods, leaving the U.S. with a floating fiat currency. The stagflation of the 1970s saw a U.S. economy characterized by slower GDP growth. In 1988, the United States ranked first in the world in the Economist Intelligence Unit "quality of life index '' and third in the Economic Freedom of the World Index.
Over the long run, nations with trade surpluses tend also to have a savings surplus. The U.S. generally has developed lower savings rates than its trading partners, which have tended to have trade surpluses. Germany, France, Japan, and Canada have maintained higher savings rates than the U.S. over the long run.
Some economists believe that GDP and employment can be dragged down by an over-large deficit over the long run. Others believe that trade deficits are good for the economy. The opportunity cost of a forgone tax base may outweigh perceived gains, especially where artificial currency pegs and manipulations are present to distort trade.
In 2006, the primary economic concerns focused on: high national debt ($9 trillion), high non-bank corporate debt ($9 trillion), high mortgage debt ($9 trillion), high financial institution debt ($12 trillion), high unfunded Medicare liability ($30 trillion), high unfunded Social Security liability ($12 trillion), high external debt (amount owed to foreign lenders) and a serious deterioration in the United States net international investment position (NIIP) (− 24 % of GDP), high trade deficits, and a rise in illegal immigration.
These issues have raised concerns among economists and unfunded liabilities were mentioned as a serious problem facing the United States in the President 's 2006 State of the Union address. On June 26, 2009, Jeff Immelt, the CEO of General Electric, called for the U.S. to increase its manufacturing base employment to 20 % of the workforce, commenting that the U.S. has outsourced too much in some areas and can no longer rely on the financial sector and consumer spending to drive demand.
In 1985, the U.S. had just begun a growing trade deficit with China. During the 1990s, the U.S. trade deficit became a more excessive long - run trade deficit, mostly with Asia. By 2012, the U.S. trade deficit, fiscal budget deficit, and federal debt increased to record or near - record levels following the implementation of broad unconditional or unilateral U.S. free trade policies and formal trade agreements in the preceding decades.
The US last had a trade surplus in 1975. However, recessions may cause short - run anomalies to rising trade deficits. The balance of trade in the United States has been a concern among economists and business people. Warren Buffett, founder of Berkshire Hathaway, was quoted in the Associated Press (January 20, 2006) as saying "The U.S. trade deficit is a bigger threat to the domestic economy than either the federal budget deficit or consumer debt and could lead to political turmoil... Right now, the rest of the world owns $3 trillion more of us than we own of them. ''
In both a 1987 guest editorial to the Omaha - World Herald and a more detailed 2003 Fortune article, Buffett proposed a tool called Import Certificates as a solution to the United States ' problem and ensure balanced trade. "The rest of the world owns a staggering $2.5 trillion more of the U.S. than we own of other countries. Some of this $2.5 trillion is invested in claim checks -- U.S. bonds, both governmental and private -- and some in such assets as property and equity securities. ''
In 2013 the United States ' largest trading partner was Canada. China has seen substantial economic growth in the past 50 years and though a nuclear - security summit that took place in early 2010 President Obama hoped to insure another 50 years of growth between the two countries. On April 19, 2010, President Obama met with China 's President Hu Jintao to discuss trade policies between the two countries.
Though the US trade deficit has been stubborn, and tends to be the largest by dollar volume of any nation, even the most extreme months as measured by percent of GDP there are nations that are far more noteworthy. Case in point, post 2015 Nepal earthquake, Nepal 's trade gap (in goods & services) was a shocking 33.3 % of GDP although heavy remittances considerably offset that number. According to the US Department of Commerce Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA), January 27, 2017 report, the GDP "increased 4.0 percent, or $185.5 billion, in the fourth quarter of 2016 to a level of $18,860.8 billion. ''
The main customs territory of the United States includes the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and the territory of Puerto Rico, with the exception of over 200 foreign trade zones designated to encourage economic activity. People and goods entering this territory are subject to inspection by U.S. Customs and Border Protection. The remaining insular areas are separate customs territories administered largely by local authorities:
Transportation of certain living things or agricultural products may be prohibited even within a customs territory. This is enforced by U.S. Customs and Border Protection, the federal Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, and even state authorities such as the California Department of Food and Agriculture.
Gross U.S. assets held by foreigners were $16.3 trillion as of the end of 2006 (over 100 % of GDP). The U.S. net international investment position (NIIP) became a negative $2.5 trillion at the end of 2006, or about minus 19 % of GDP.
This figure rises as long as the US maintains an imbalance in trade, when the value of imports substantially outweighs the value of exports. This external debt does not result mostly from loans to Americans or the American government, nor is it consumer debt owed to non-US creditors. It is an accounting entry that largely represents US domestic assets purchased with trade dollars and owned overseas, largely by US trading partners.
For countries like the United States, a large net external debt is created when the value of foreign assets (debt and equity) held by domestic residents is less than the value of domestic assets held by foreigners. In simple terms, as foreigners buy property in the US, this adds to the external debt. When this occurs in greater amounts than Americans buying property overseas, nations like the United States are said to be debtor nations, but this is not conventional debt like a loan obtained from a bank.
If the external debt represents foreign ownership of domestic assets, the result is that rental income, stock dividends, capital gains and other investment income is received by foreign investors, rather than by U.S. residents. On the other hand, when American debt is held by overseas investors, they receive interest and principal repayments. As the trade imbalance puts extra dollars in hands outside of the U.S., these dollars may be used to invest in new assets (foreign direct investment, such as new plants) or be used to buy existing American assets such as stocks, real estate and bonds. With a mounting trade deficit, the income from these assets increasingly transfers overseas.
Of major concern is the magnitude of the NIIP (or net external debt), which is larger than those of most national economies. Fueled by the sizable trade deficit, the external debt is so large that economists are concerned over whether the current account deficit is unsustainable. A complicating factor is that trading partners such as China, depend for much of their economy on exports, especially to America. There are many controversies about the current trade and external debt situation, and it is arguable whether anyone understands how these dynamics will play out in a historically unprecedented floating exchange rate system. While various aspects of the U.S. economic profile have precedents in the situations of other countries (notably government debt as a percentage of GDP), the sheer size of the U.S., and the integral role of the US economy in the overall global economic environment, create considerable uncertainty about the future.
According to economists such as Larry Summers and Paul Krugman, the enormous inflow of capital from China is one of the causes of the global financial crisis of 2008 -- 2009. China had been buying huge quantities of dollar assets to keep its currency value low and its export economy humming, which caused American interest rates and saving rates to remain artificially low. These low interest rates, in turn, contributed to the United States housing bubble because when mortgages are cheap, house prices are inflated as people can afford to borrow more.
2008 Exports, Imports 2009 Exports, Imports
The United States is a partner to many trade agreements, shown in the chart below and the map to the right.
The United States has also negotiated many Trade and Investment Framework Agreements, which are often precursors to free trade agreements. It has also negotiated many bilateral investment treaties, which concern the movement of capital rather than goods.
The U.S. is a member of several international trade organizations. The purpose of joining these organizations is to come to agreement with other nations on trade issues, although there is domestic political controversy to whether or not the U.S. government should be making these trade agreements in the first place. These organizations include:
American foreign trade is regulated internally by:
Proportion of US exports to imports 1960 -- 2004
US exports of goods and services 1960 -- 2004
US imports of goods and services 1960 -- 2004
US exported $1.44 trillion to other countries in 2014
US exports of goods by country in 2004 (does not include exports of services)
US imports of goods by country in 2004 (does not include imports of services)
US imported $2.13 trillion from other countries in 2014
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what cities are in the northwest suburbs of chicago | Chicago metropolitan area - Wikipedia
The Chicago metropolitan area, or Chicagoland, is the metropolitan area that includes the city of Chicago, Illinois, and its suburbs. With an estimated MSA population of 9.5 million people and CSA population of 9.9 million people, it is the third largest metropolitan area in the United States.
The Chicago metropolitan area is one of the world 's largest and most diversified economies, with more than four million employees and generating an annual gross regional product (GRP) of over $561 billion. The region is home to more than 400 major corporate headquarters, including 31 in the Fortune 500.
There are several definitions of the area, including the area defined by the United States Office of Management and Budget (OMB) as the Chicago -- Joliet -- Naperville, IL -- IN -- WI Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA), and the area under the jurisdiction of the Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning (CMAP) (a metropolitan planning organization).
The Chicago Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) was originally designated by the United States Census Bureau in 1950. It comprised the Illinois counties of Cook, DuPage, Kane, Lake and Will, along with Lake County in Indiana. As surrounding counties saw an increase in their population densities and the number of their residents employed within Cook County, they met Census criteria to be added to the MSA. The Chicago MSA, now defined as the Chicago - Naperville - Elgin, IL - IN - WI Metropolitan Statistical Area, is the third largest MSA by population in the United States. The 2015 census estimate for the MSA was 9,532,569, a decline from 9,543,893 in the 2014 census estimate. This loss of population has been attributed to taxes, political issues, and other factors.
The Chicago MSA is further subdivided by state boundaries into the Chicago - Naperville - Joliet, IL Metropolitan Division, corresponding roughly to the CMAP region; the Gary, IN Metropolitan Division consisting of the Indiana counties of Lake and Porter, as well as two surrounding counties; and the Lake County - Kenosha County, IL - WI Metropolitan Division.
A breakdown of the 2009 estimated populations of the three Metropolitan Divisions of the MSA are as follows:
The OMB also defines a slightly larger region as a Combined Statistical Area (CSA). The Chicago -- Naperville, IL -- IN -- WI Combined Statistical Area combines the metropolitan areas of Chicago, Michigan City (in Indiana), and Kankakee (in Illinois). This area represents the extent of the labor market pool for the entire region. The CSA has a population of 9,928,312 (2014 estimate).
The Chicago urban agglomeration, according to the United Nations World Urbanization Prospects report (2011 revision), lists a population of 9,545,000. The term "urban agglomeration '' refers to the population contained within the contours of a contiguous territory inhabited at urban density levels. It usually incorporates the population in a city plus that in the surrounding area.
Chicagoland is an informal name for the Chicago metropolitan area. The term Chicagoland has no official definition, and the region is often considered to include areas beyond the corresponding MSA, as well as portions of the greater CSA.
Colonel Robert R. McCormick, editor and publisher of the Chicago Tribune, usually gets credit for placing the term in common use. McCormick 's conception of Chicagoland stretched all the way to nearby parts of four states (Indiana, Wisconsin, Michigan, and Iowa). The first usage was in the Tribune 's July 27, 1926 front page headline, "Chicagoland 's Shrines: A Tour of Discoveries '', for an article by reporter James O'Donnell Bennett. He stated that Chicagoland comprised everything in a 200 - mile (320 km) radius in every direction and reported on many different places in the area. The Tribune was the dominant newspaper in a vast area stretching to the west of the city, and that hinterland was closely tied to the metropolis by rail lines and commercial links.
Today, the Chicago Tribune 's usage includes the city of Chicago, the rest of Cook County, eight nearby Illinois counties (Lake, McHenry, DuPage, Kane, Kendall, Grundy, Will, and Kankakee), and the two Indiana counties of Lake and Porter. Illinois Department of Tourism literature uses Chicagoland for suburbs in Cook, Lake, DuPage, Kane, and Will counties, treating the city separately. The Chicagoland Chamber of Commerce defines it as all of Cook, DuPage, Kane, Lake, McHenry, and Will counties.
Differing viewpoints exist, of course. For example, many residents who live in some of the more distant satellite counties nonetheless refer to themselves as being "from Chicago '' or "Chicagoans ''. Until recently, DeKalb County was not considered part of the region proper, but as the highly developed area has continued to expand, it is now commonly defined as the "far suburbs '' of the city.
In addition, company marketing programs such as Construction Data Company 's "Chicago and Vicinity '' region and the Chicago Automobile Trade Association 's "Chicagoland and Northwest Indiana '' advertising campaign are directed at the MSA itself, as well as LaSalle, Winnebago (Rockford), Boone, and Ogle counties in Illinois, in addition to Jasper, Newton, and La Porte counties in Indiana and Kenosha, Racine, and Walworth counties in Wisconsin, and even as far northeast as Berrien County, Michigan. The region is part of the Great Lakes Megalopolis, containing an estimated 54 million people.
Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning (CMAP) is an Illinois state agency responsible for transportation infrastructure, land use, and long term economic development planning for the areas under its jurisdiction within Illinois. The planning area has a population of over 8 million, which includes the following locations in Illinois:
The city of Chicago lies in the Chicago Plain, a flat and broad area characterized by little topographical relief. The few low hills are sand ridges. North of the Chicago Plain, steep bluffs and ravines run alongside Lake Michigan.
Along the southern shore of the Chicago Plain, sand dunes run alongside the lake. The tallest dunes reach up to near 200 feet (61 m) and are found in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. Surrounding the low plain are bands of moraines in the south and west suburbs. These areas are higher and hillier than the Chicago Plain. A continental divide, separating the Mississippi River watershed from that of the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River, runs through the Chicago area.
A 2012 survey of the urban trees and forests in the seven county Illinois section of the Chicago area found that 21 % of the land is covered by the tree and shrub canopy, made up of about 157,142,000 trees. The five most common tree species are buckthorn, green ash, boxelder, black cherry, and American elm. These resources perform important functions in carbon storage, water recycling, and energy saving.
As of the 2010 Census, the metropolitan area had a population of 9,729,825. The population density was 1,318 per square mile. The racial makeup was 52.8 % Non-Latino White, 22.1 % were Latino, 16.7 % were Non-Latino African Americans, and 6.4 % were Asian. Other ethnic groups such as Native Americans and Pacific Islanders made up just 2.0 % of the population. The suburbs, surrounded by easily annexed flat ground, have been expanding at a tremendous rate since the early 1960s. Aurora, Elgin, Joliet, and Naperville are noteworthy for being four of the few boomburbs outside the Sun Belt, West Coast and Mountain States regions, and exurban Kendall County ranked as the fastest - growing county (among counties with a population greater than 10,000) in the United States between the years 2000 and 2007.
Settlement patterns in the Chicago metropolitan area tend to follow those in the city proper: the northern suburbs along the shore of Lake Michigan are comparatively affluent, while the southern suburbs (sometimes known as Chicago Southland) are less so, with lower median incomes and a lower cost of living. However, there is a major exception to this. While Chicago 's West Side is the poorest section of the city, the western and northwestern suburbs contain many affluent areas. According to the 2000 Census, DuPage County had the highest median household income of any county in the Midwestern United States.
According to the 2000 U.S. Census, poverty rates of the largest counties from least poverty to most are as follows: McHenry 3.70 %, Dupage 5.9 %, Will 6.7 %, Lake 6.9 %, Kane 7.4 %, Cook 14.5 %.
In an in - depth historical analysis, Keating (2004, 2005) examined the origins of 233 settlements that by 1900 had become suburbs or city neighborhoods of the Chicago metropolitan area. The settlements began as farm centers (41 %), industrial towns (30 %), residential railroad suburbs (15 %), and recreational / institutional centers (13 %). Although relations between the different settlement types were at times contentious, there also was cooperation in such undertakings as the construction of high schools.
As the Chicago metropolitan area has grown, more counties have been partly or totally assimilated with the taking of each decennial census.
Counties highlighted in gray were not included in the MSA for that census. The CSA totals in blue are the totals of all the counties listed above, regardless of whether they were included in the Chicago Combined Statistical Area at the time.
Within the boundary of the 16 - county Chicago Consolidated Statistical Area lies the Chicago urban area, as well as 27 smaller urban areas and clusters. Smallest gap indicates the shortest distance between the given urban area or cluster and the Chicago urban area.
The formerly distinct urban areas of Aurora, Elgin, Joliet, and Waukegan were absorbed into the Chicago UA as of the 2000 census.
† These urban areas and urban clusters are expected to be joined to the Chicago Urban Area by the next census in 2010.
^ The Round Lake Beach - McHenry - Grayslake, IL - WI UA extends into Walworth County, WI, which lies in the Milwaukee CSA.
^ ^ The Michigan City - LaPorte, IN - MI UA extends into Berrien County, MI, which lies (for the moment) outside the Chicago CSA.
^ ^ ^ The Sandwich, IL UC extends into LaSalle County, IL, which lies (for the moment) outside the Chicago CSA.
^ ^ ^ ^ The Genoa City, WI - IL UC extends into Walworth County, WI, which lies in the Milwaukee CSA.
The Chicago metropolitan area is home to the corporate headquarters of 57 Fortune 1000 companies, which includes Boeing, McDonald 's, Motorola, Discover Financial Services, United Continental Holdings, Walgreens, and Aon among others, representing a diverse group of industries. The area is a major global financial center, and Chicago is home to the largest futures exchange in the world, the CME Group (Chicago Mercantile Exchange). In March 2008, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange announced its acquisition of NYMEX Holdings Inc, the parent company of the New York Mercantile Exchange and Commodity Exchange. CME 'S acquisition of NYMEX was completed in August 2008.
A key piece of infrastructure for several generations was the Union Stock Yards of Chicago, which from 1865 until 1971 penned and slaughtered millions of cattle and hogs into standardized cuts of beef and pork.
The Chicago area, meanwhile, began to produce significant quantities of telecommunications gear, electronics, steel, crude oil derivatives, automobiles, and industrial capital goods.
By the early 2000s, Illinois ' economy had moved toward a dependence on high - value - added services, such as financial trading, higher education, logistics, and health care. In some cases, these services clustered around institutions that hearkened back to Illinois 's earlier economies. For example, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange, a trading exchange for global derivatives, had begun its life as an agricultural futures market.
In 2007, the area ranked first among U.S. metro areas in the number of new and expanded corporate facilities. It ranked third in 2008, behind the Houston -- Sugar Land -- Baytown and Dallas -- Fort Worth metropolitan areas, and ranked second behind the New York metropolitan area in 2009.
The Wall Street Journal summarized the Chicago area 's economy in November 2006 with the comment that "Chicago has survived by repeatedly reinventing itself. ''
In addition to the Chicago Loop, the metro area is home to a few important subregional corridors of commercial activities. Among them are:
Listing of the professional sports teams in the Chicago metropolitan area
Major league professional teams:
Other professional teams:
The Chicagoland Speedway oval track has hosted NASCAR Cup Series and IndyCar Series races. The Chicago Marathon is one of the World Marathon Majors. The Western Open and BMW Championship are PGA Tour tournaments that have been held primarily at golf courses near Chicago.
NCAA Division 1 College Sports Teams:
The two main newspapers are the Chicago Tribune and the Chicago Sun - Times. Local television channels broadcasting to the Chicago market include WBBM - TV 2 (CBS), WMAQ - TV 5 (NBC), WLS - TV 7 (ABC), WGN - TV 9 (CW), WTTW 11 (PBS), WYCC 20 (PBS), MeTV 23, WCIU 26 (Ind), WFLD 32 (FOX), WCPX - TV 38 (Ion), WSNS - TV 44 (Telemundo) WPWR - TV 50 (MyNetworkTV), and WJYS - TV 62 (The Way). CLTV is a 24 / 7 local news provider available only to cable subscribers. Radio stations serving the area include: WBEZ, WMBI, WLS - AM, and WSCR.
Elementary and secondary education within the Chicago metropolitan area is provided by dozens of different school districts, of which by far the largest is the Chicago Public Schools with 400,000 students. Numerous private and religious school systems are also found in the region, as well as a growing number of charter schools. Racial inequalities in education in the region remain widespread, often breaking along district boundaries; for instance, educational prospects vary widely for students in the Chicago Public Schools compared to those in some neighboring suburban schools.
Historically, the Chicago metropolitan area has been at the center of a number of national educational movements, from the free - flowing Winnetka Plan to the regimented Taylorism of the Gary Plan. In higher education, University of Chicago founder William Rainey Harper was a leading early advocate of the junior college movement; Joliet Junior College is the nation 's oldest continuously - operating junior college today. Later U of C president Robert Maynard Hutchins was central to the Great Books movement, and programs of dialogic education arising from that legacy can be found today at the U of C, at Shimer College, and in the City Colleges of Chicago and Oakton Community College in the Northwest suburbs.
From 1947 until 1988, the Illinois portion of the Chicago metro area was served by a single area code, 312, which abutted the 815 area code. In 1988 the 708 area code was introduced and the 312 area code became exclusive to the city of Chicago.
It became common to call suburbanites "708'ers '', in reference to their area code.
The 708 area code was partitioned in 1996 into three area codes, serving different portions of the metro area: 630, 708, and 847.
At the same time that the 708 area code was running out of phone numbers, the 312 area code in Chicago was also exhausting its supply of available numbers. As a result, the city of Chicago was divided into two area codes, 312 and 773. Rather than divide the city by a north / south area code, the central business district retained the 312 area code, while the remainder of the city took the new 773 code.
In 2002, the 847 area code was supplemented with the overlay area code 224. In February 2007, the 815 area code (serving outlying portions of the metro area) was supplemented with the overlay area code 779. In October 2007, the overlay area code 331 was implemented to supplement the 630 area with additional numbers.
Plans are in place for overlay codes in the 708, 773, and 312 regions as those area codes become exhausted in the future.
Coordinates: 41 ° 54 ′ N 87 ° 39 ′ W / 41.900 ° N 87.650 ° W / 41.900; - 87.650
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when will the warriors new arena be done | Chase Center (arena) - wikipedia
Chase Center is a multi-purpose arena under construction in the Mission Bay neighborhood of San Francisco that will open before the 2019 -- 20 NBA season. Groundbreaking of the arena happened during the 2016 - 17 NBA season. It will mainly be used for basketball, becoming the new home of the Golden State Warriors of the National Basketball Association (NBA). The Warriors, who have been located in the San Francisco Bay Area since 1962, have played their home games at Oracle Arena in Oakland since 1971.
The name of Chase Center was announced on January 28, 2016, as part of an agreement with JPMorgan Chase. The planned location for the arena, which would house the Golden State Warriors, is in San Francisco at Third St and 16th St. The location will have an overlook of the water. The arena will have multiple layers and floors and will have a seating capacity of 18,000 people. It will also include a multi-purpose area that includes a theater configuration with an entrance overlooking a newly built park. It will contain 580,000 square feet (54,000 m) of office and lab space and have 100,000 square feet (9,300 m) of retail space. There will also be a public plaza that is 35,000 square feet. The construction will include a parking facility of about 950 spaces and will be accessible to the public transportation around the area. A new subway line is also under construction that will link the arena and the University of California, San Francisco to downtown hotels, convention centers and subway and commuter rail lines that serve the entire Bay Area. With a one - billion - dollar investment, Chase Center will anchor a district of 11 acres of restaurants, cafés, offices, public plazas and a new five - and - a-half - acre public waterfront park.
The plan for building a new arena was announced on May 22, 2012, at a Golden State Warriors press conference at the proposed site, attended by San Francisco Mayor Ed Lee, then - NBA Commissioner David Stern, California Lt. Governor Gavin Newsom, owners Joe Lacob and Peter Guber, and Warriors staff and city officials. A new privately financed, $500 million 17,000 to 19,000 - seat arena was planned to be located on Pier 30 - 32 along the San Francisco Bay waterfront, situated between the San Francisco Ferry Building and AT&T Park. A month after the proposal, the South Beach - Rincon - Mission Bay Neighborhood Association criticized the site and said that a second major league sport venue in the area would make it no longer "family friendly ''. Former San Francisco mayor Art Agnos began speaking to dozens of community gatherings in opposition to the proposed arena, stating that the project was pushed by two out - of - town billionaires and would severely impact traffic and city views. On December 30, 2013, a ballot proposition was submitted to the city titled the "Waterfront Height Limit Right to Vote Act ''. The initiative made it onto the June 2014 ballot as Proposition B, and its passage would affect three major waterfront developments, including the proposed Warriors arena.
On April 19, 2014, the Warriors abandoned plans for the pier site and purchased a 12 - acre site owned by Salesforce.com at the Mission Bay neighborhood for an undisclosed amount. The arena project will be financed privately. The architect for the project is MANICA Architecture and the current plan for Chase Center is to have it built by 2019 before the NBA season starts. The plan for Chase Center to open earlier was pushed back multiple times due to many complaints about the location. Construction on the arena began in January 2017.
In April 2015, the Mission Bay site was opposed by the Mission Bay Alliance, which cited traffic, lack of parking, and use of space that could go to UCSF expansion among other things as their reasons for opposition. Their complaint is that Chase Center will be located near UCSF Benioff Children 's Hospital and AT&T Park and will create more traffic in San Francisco. Others say that this area can be used to expand the campus of UCSF. To avoid the plan to build Chase Center being voided, representatives of the project have been working to address these issues such as traffic and parking.
The Golden State Warriors had the official groundbreaking ceremony for Chase Center on January 17, 2017.
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why was right to property abolished in india | Fundamental rights in India - Wikipedia
"Fundamental Rights '' are the basic rights of the common people and inalienable rights of the people who enjoy it under the charter of rights contained in Part III (Article 12 to 35) of Constitution of India. It guarantees civil liberties such that all Indians can lead their lives in peace and harmony as citizens of India. These include individual rights common to most liberal democracies, such as equality before law freedom of speech and expression, religious and cultural freedom and peaceful assembly, freedom to practice religion, and the right to constitutional remedies for the protection of civil rights by means of writs such as habeas corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari and Quo Warranto. Violation of these rights result in punishments as prescribed in the Indian Penal Code or other special laws, subject to discretion of the judiciary. The Fundamental Rights are defined as basic human freedoms that every Indian citizen has the right to enjoy for a proper and harmonious development of personality. These rights universally apply to all citizens, irrespective of race, place of birth, religion, caste or gender. Though the rights conferred by the constitution other than fundamental rights are equally valid and their enforcement in case of violation shall be secured from the judiciary in a time consuming legal process. However, in case of fundamental rights violation, Supreme court of India can be approached directly for ultimate justice per Article 32. The Rights have their origins in many sources, including England 's Bill of Rights, the United States Bill of Rights and France 's Declaration of the Rights of Man.
The six fundamental rights recognised by the Indian constitution are the right to equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights, right to constitutional remedies. The right to equality includes equality before law, prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, gender or place of birth, and equality of opportunity in matters of employment, abolition of untouchability and abolition of titles. The right to freedom includes freedom of speech and expression, assembly, association or union or cooperatives, movement, residence, and right to practice any profession or occupation, right to life and liberty, protection in respect to conviction in offences and protection against arrest and detention in certain cases. The right against exploitation prohibits all forms of forced labour, child labour and trafficking of human beings. The right to freedom of religion includes freedom of conscience and free profession, practice, and propagation of religion, freedom to manage religious affairs, freedom from certain taxes and freedom from religious instructions in certain educational institutes. Cultural and educational rights preserve the right of any section of citizens to conserve their culture, language or script, and right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice. The right to constitutional remedies is present for enforcement of Fundamental Rights. The right to privacy is an intrinsic part of Article 21 (Right to Freedom) that protects life and liberty of the citizens.
Fundamental rights for Indians have also been aimed at overturning the inequalities of pre-independence social practices. Specifically, they have also been used to abolish untouchability and thus prohibit discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. They also forbid trafficking of human beings and forced labour (a crime). They also protect cultural and educational rights of religious and linguistic minorities by allowing them to preserve their languages and also establish and administer their own education institutions. They are covered in Part III (Articles 12 to 35) of Indian constitution.
The development of constitutionally guaranteed fundamental human rights in India was inspired by historical examples such as England 's Bill of Rights (1689), the United States Bill of Rights (approved on 17 September 1787, final ratification on 15 December 1791) and France 's Declaration of the Rights of Man (created during the revolution of 1789, and ratified on 26 August 1789).
In 1919, the Rowlatt Act gave extensive powers to the British government and police, and allowed indefinite arrest and detention of individuals, warrant-less searches and seizures, restrictions on public gatherings, and intensive censorship of media and publications. The public opposition to this act eventually led to mass campaigns of non-violent civil disobedience throughout the country demanding guaranteed civil freedoms, and limitations on government power. Indians, who were seeking independence and their own government, were particularly influenced by the independence of Ireland and the development of the Irish constitution. Also, the directive principles of state policy in Irish constitution were looked upon by the people of India as an inspiration for the independent India 's government to comprehensively tackle complex social and economic challenges across a vast, diverse nation and population.
In 1928, the Nehru Commission composing of representatives of Indian political parties proposed constitutional reforms for India that apart from calling for dominion status for India and elections under universal suffrage, would guarantee rights deemed fundamental, representation for religious and ethnic minorities, and limit the powers of the government. In 1931, the Indian National Congress (the largest Indian political party of the time) adopted resolutions committing itself to the defence of fundamental civil rights, as well as socio - economic rights such as the minimum wage and the abolition of untouchability and serfdom. Committing themselves to socialism in 1936, the Congress leaders took examples from the Constitution of the Soviet Union, which inspired the fundamental duties of citizens as a means of collective patriotic responsibility for national interests and challenges.
Task of developing a constitution for the nation was undertaken by the Constituent Assembly of India, composing of elected representatives. The Constituent Assembly first met on 9 December 1946 under the presidency of Dr. Sachidanand later Dr. Rajendra Prasad was made its president. While members of Congress composed of a large majority, Congress leaders appointed persons from diverse political backgrounds to responsibilities of developing the constitution and national laws. Notably, Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar became the chairperson of the drafting committee, while Jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became chairpersons of committees and sub-committees responsible for different subjects. A notable development during that period having significant effect on the Indian constitution took place on 10 December 1948 when the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and called upon all member states to adopt these rights in their respective constitutions.
The fundamental rights were included in the First Draft Constitution (February 1948), the Second Draft Constitution (17 October 1948) and final Third Draft Constitution (26 November 1949), prepared by the Drafting Committee.
The fundamental rights were included in the constitution because they were considered essential for the development of the personality of every individual and to preserve human dignity. The writers of the constitution regarded democracy of no avail if civil liberties, like freedom of speech and religion were not recognised and protected by the State. According to them, "democracy '' is, in essence, a government by opinion and therefore, the means of formulating public opinion should be secured to the people of a democratic nation. For this purpose, the constitution guaranteed to all the citizens of India the freedom of speech and expression and various other freedoms in the form of the fundamental rights.
All people, irrespective of race, religion, caste or sex, have been given the right to petition directly the Supreme Court or the High Courts for the enforcement of their fundamental rights. It is not necessary that the aggrieved party has to be the one to do so. Poverty stricken people may not have the means to do so and therefore, in the public interest, anyone can commence litigation in the court on their behalf. This is known as "Public interest litigation ''. In some cases, High Court judges have acted suo moto on their own on the basis of newspaper reports.
These fundamental rights help not only in protection but also the prevention of gross violations of human rights. They emphasise on the fundamental unity of India by guaranteeing to all citizens the access and use of the same facilities, irrespective of background. Some fundamental rights apply for persons of any nationality whereas others are available only to the citizens of India. The right to life and personal liberty is available to all people and so is the right to freedom of religion. On the other hand, freedoms of speech and expression and freedom to reside and settle in any part of the country are reserved to citizens alone, including non-resident Indian citizens. The right to equality in matters of public employment can not be conferred to overseas citizens of India.
Fundamental rights primarily protect individuals from any arbitrary state actions, but some rights are enforceable against individuals. For instance, the Constitution abolishes untouchability and also prohibits begar. These provisions act as a check both on state action as well as the action of private individuals. However, these rights are not absolute or uncontrolled and are subject to reasonable restrictions as necessary for the protection of general welfare. They can also be selectively curtailed. The Supreme Court has ruled that all provisions of the Constitution, including fundamental rights can be amended. However, the Parliament can not alter the basic structure of the constitution. Since the fundamental rights can be altered only by a constitutional amendment, their inclusion is a check not only on the executive branch but also on the Parliament and state legislatures.
A state of national emergency has an adverse effect on these rights. Under such a state, the rights conferred by Article 19 (freedoms of speech, assembly and movement, etc.) remain suspended. Hence, in such a situation, the legislature may make laws that go against the rights given in Article 19. Also, the President may by order suspend the right to move court for the enforcement of other rights as well.
Right to equality is an important and meaningful right provided in Articles 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 of the constitution. It is the principal foundation of all other rights and liberties, and guarantees the following:
The Constitution of India contains the right to freedom, given in articles 19, 20, 21, 21A, and 22, and with the view of guaranteeing individual rights that were considered vital by the framers of the constitution. It is a cluster of four main laws. The right to freedom in Article 19 guarantees the following six freedoms:
Article 21A gives education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine.
The constitution also imposes restrictions on these rights. The government restricts these freedoms in the interest of the independence, sovereignty and integrity of India. In the interest of morality and public order, the government can also impose restrictions. However, the right to life and personal liberty can not be suspended. The six freedoms are also automatically suspended or have restrictions imposed on them during a state of emergency.
Right to Information (RTI)
Right to Information has been given the status of a fundamental right under Article 19 (1) of the Constitution in 2005. Article 19 (1) under which every citizen has freedom of speech and expression and have the right to know how the government works, what role does it play, what are its functions and so on.
The right against exploitation, given in Articles 23 and 24, provides for two provisions, namely the abolition of trafficking in human beings and Begar (forced labour), and abolition of employment of children below the age of 14 years in dangerous jobs like factories, mines, etc. Child labour is considered a gross violation of the spirit and provisions of the constitution. Begar, practised in the past by landlords, has been declared a crime and is punishable by law. Trafficking in humans for the purpose of slave trade or prostitution is also prohibited by law. An exception is made in employment without payment for compulsory services for public purposes. Compulsory military conscription is covered by this provision.
Right to freedom of religion, covered in Articles 25, 26, 27 and 28, provides religious freedom to all citizens of India. The objective of this right is to sustain the principle of secularism in India. According to the Constitution, all religions are equal before the State and no religion shall be given preference over the other. Citizens are free to preach, practice and propagate any religion of their choice.
Religious communities can set up charitable institutions of their own. However, activities in such institutions that are not religious are performed according to the laws laid down by the government. Establishing a charitable institution can also be restricted in the interest of public order, morality and health. No person shall be compelled to pay taxes for the promotion of a particular religion. A State run institution can not be impart education that is pro-religion. Also, nothing in this article shall affect the operation of any existing law or prevent the State from making any further law regulating or restricting any economic, financial, political or other secular activity that may be associated with religious practice, or providing for social welfare and reform.
The constitution guarantees the right to life and personal liberty, which in turn cites specific provisions in which these rights are applied and enforced:
As India is a country of many languages, religions, and cultures, the Constitution provides special measures, in Articles 29 and 30, to protect the rights of the minorities. Any community that has a language and a script of its own has the right to conserve and develop it. No citizen can be discriminated against for admission in State or State aided institutions.
All minorities, or linguistic, can set up their own educational institutions to preserve and develop their own culture. In granting aid to institutions, the State can not discriminate against any institution on the basis of the fact that it is administered by a minority institution. But the right to administer does not mean that the State can not interfere in case of maladministration. In a precedent - setting judgement in 1980, the Supreme Court held that the State can certainly take regulatory measures to promote the efficiency and excellence of educational standards. It can also issue guidelines for ensuring the security of the services of the teachers or other employees of the institution. In another landmark judgement delivered on 31 October 2002, the Supreme Court ruled that in case of aided minority institutions offering professional courses, admission could be only through a common entrance test conducted by State or a university. Even an unaided minority institution ought not to ignore the merit of the students for admission.
Right to constitutional remedies (Article 32 to 35) empowers the citizens to move to a court of law in case of any denial of the fundamental rights. For instance, in case of imprisonment, any citizen can ask the court to see if it is according to the provisions of the law of the country by lodging a PIL. If the court finds that it is not, the person will have to be freed. This procedure of asking the courts to preserve or safeguard the citizens ' fundamental rights can be done in various ways. The courts can issue various kinds of rights. These rights are:
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar rightly declared Right to constitutional remedies as "the heart and soul '' of Indian constitution. When a national or state emergency is declared, this right is suspended by the central government.
The right to privacy is protected as an intrinsic part of the right to life and personal liberty under Article 21 and as a part of the freedoms guaranteed by Part III of the Constitution. It protects the inner sphere of the individual from interference from both State, and non-State actors and allows the individuals to make autonomous life choices. On 24 August 2017 the Supreme Court ruled that:
"Right to Privacy is an integral part of Right to Life and Personal Liberty guaranteed in Article 21 of the Constitution, ''
The fundamental rights have been revised for many reasons. Political groups have demanded that the right to work, the right to economic assistance in case of unemployment, old age, and similar rights be enshrined as constitutional guarantees to address issues of poverty and economic insecurity, though these provisions have been enshrined in the Directive Principles of state policy. The right to freedom and personal liberty has a number of limiting clauses, and thus have been criticised for failing to check the sanctioning of powers often deemed "excessive ''. There is also the provision of preventive detention and suspension of fundamental rights in times of Emergency. The provisions of acts like the Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA), Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act and the National Security Act (NSA) are a means of countering the fundamental rights, because they sanction excessive powers with the aim of fighting internal and cross-border terrorism and political violence, without safeguards for civil rights. The phrases "security of State '', "public order '' and "morality '' are of wide implication. People of alternate sexuality are criminalised in India with prison term up to 10 years. The meaning of phrases like "reasonable restrictions '' and "the interest of public order '' have not been explicitly stated in the constitution, and this ambiguity leads to unnecessary litigation. The freedom to assemble peaceably and without arms is exercised, but in some cases, these meetings are broken up by the police through the use of non-fatal methods.
"Freedom of press '' has not been included in the right to freedom, which is necessary for formulating public opinion and to make freedom of expression more legitimate. Employment of child labour in hazardous job environments has been reduced, but their employment even in non-hazardous jobs, including their prevalent employment as domestic help violates the spirit and ideals of the constitution. More than 16.5 million children are employed and working in India. India was ranked 88 out of 159 in 2005, according to the degree to which corruption is perceived to exist among public officials and politicians worldwide. But in 2014, India has improved marginally to a rank of 85. The right to equality in matters regarding public employment shall not be conferred to overseas citizens of India, according to the Citizenship (Amendment) Bill, 2003.
As per Article 19 of Part III of the Indian constitution, the fundamental rights of people such as freedom of speech and expression, gathering peaceably without arms and forming associations or unions shall not effect the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of India but not unity of India. The words sovereignty and integrity are the qualities to be cultivated / emulated by Indian people as urged by the Indian constitution but not used related to territory of India. Article 1 of Part 1 of the Indian constitution, defines India (Bharat) as union of states. In nutshell, India is its people not its land as enshrined in its constitution.
Since speedy trial is not the constitutional right of the citizens, the cases involving violations of fundamental rights take inordinate time for resolution by the Supreme Court which is against the legal maxim ' justice delayed is justice denied '.
Changes to the fundamental rights require a constitutional amendment, which has to be passed by a special majority of both houses of Parliament. This means that an amendment requires the approval of two - thirds of the members present and voting. However, the number of members voting in support of the amendment shall not be less than the simple majority of the total members of a house -- whether the Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha.
While deciding the Golaknath case in February 1967, Supreme Court ruled that the Parliament has no power to curtail the fundamental rights. They were made permanent and sacrosanct reversing the Supreme Court 's earlier decision which had upheld Parliament 's power to amend all parts of the Constitution, including Part III related to Fundamental Rights. Up till the 24th constitutional amendment in 1971, the fundamental rights given to the people were permanent and can not be repealed or diluted by the Parliament. 24th constitutional amendment introduced a new Article 13 (4) enabling Parliament to legislate on the subjects of Part III of the constitution using its constituent powers per Article 368 (1). In the year 1973, the 13 member constitutional bench of supreme court also upheld with majority the validity of 24th constitutional amendment. However it ruled that Basic structure of the constitution which is built on the basic foundation representing the dignity and freedom of the individual, can not be altered. This is of supreme importance and can not be destroyed by any form of amendment to the constitution. Many constitutional amendments to Part III of the constitution were made deleting or adding or diluting the fundamental rights before the judgement of Golaknath case (Constitutional amendments 1, 4, 7 and 16) and after the validity of 24th constitutional amendment is upheld by the Supreme Court (Constitutional amendments 25, 42, 44, 50, 77, 81, 85, 86, 93 and 97).
Articles 31A and Article 31B are added by First constitutional amendment in 1951. Article 31B says that any acts and regulations included in the Ninth Schedule of the constitution by the Parliament can override the fundamental rights and such laws can not be repealed or made void by the judiciary on the grounds of violating fundamental rights. Thus fundamental rights given in Part III are not equally applicable in each state / region and can be made different by making additions / deletions to Ninth Schedule by constitutional amendments. In 2007, Supreme Court ruled that there could not be any blanket immunity from judicial review for the laws inserted in the Ninth Schedule. Apex court also stated it shall examine laws included in the Ninth Schedule after 1973 for any incompatibility with the basic structure doctrine.
Section 4 of the 42nd Amendment, had changed Article 31C of the constitution to accord precedence to the Directive Principles (earlier applicable only to clauses b & c of Article 39) over the fundamental rights of individuals. In Minerva Mills v. Union of India case, supreme court ruled that the amendment to the Article 31C is not valid and ultra vires.
The Constitution originally provided for the right to property under Articles 19 and 31. Article 19 guaranteed to all citizens the right to acquire, hold and dispose of property. Article 31 provided that "no person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law. '' It also provided that compensation would be paid to a person whose property has been taken for public purposes.
The provisions relating to the right to property were changed a number of times. The Forty - Fourth Amendment of 1978 deleted the right to property from the list of fundamental rights A new provision, Article 300 - A, was added to the constitution, which provided that "no person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law ''. Thus if a legislature makes a law depriving a person of his property, there would be no obligation on the part of the State to pay anything as compensation. The aggrieved person shall have no right to move the court under Article 32. Thus, the right to property is no longer a fundamental right, though it is still a constitutional right. If the government appears to have acted unfairly, the action can be challenged in a court of law by aggrieved citizens.
The liberalisation of the economy and the government 's initiative to set up special economic zones has led to many protests by farmers and have led to calls for the reinstatement of the fundamental right to private property. The Supreme Court has sent a notice to the government questioning why the right should not be brought back but in 2010 the court rejected the PIL
The right to education at elementary level has been made one of the fundamental rights in 2002 under the Eighty - Sixth Amendment of 2002. However this right was brought in to implementation after eight years in 2010. Article 21A -- On 2 April 2010, India joined a group of few countries in the world, with a historic law making education a fundamental right of every child coming into force. Making elementary education an entitlement for children in the 6 -- 14 age group, the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act will directly benefit children who do not go to school at present. This act provides for appointment of teachers with the requisite entry and academic qualifications.
The former Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh announced the operationalisation of the Act. Children, who had either dropped out of schools or never been to any educational institution, will get elementary education as it will be binding on the part of the local and State governments to ensure that all children in the 6 -- 14 age group get schooling. As per the Act, private educational institutions should reserve 25 per cent seats for children from the weaker sections of society. The Centre and the States have agreed to share the financial burden in the ratio of 55: 45, while the Finance Commission has given Rs. 250 billion to the States for implementing the Act. The Centre has approved an outlay of Rs. 150 billion for 2010 -- 2011.
The school management committee or the local authority will identify the drop - outs or out - of - school children aged above six and admit them in classes appropriate to their age after giving special training.
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who drinks water and who owns the zebra answer | Zebra puzzle - wikipedia
The zebra puzzle is a well - known logic puzzle. Many versions of the puzzle exist, including a version published in Life International magazine on December 17, 1962. The March 25, 1963, issue of Life contained the solution and the names of several hundred solvers from around the world.
The puzzle is often called Einstein 's Puzzle or Einstein 's Riddle because it is said to have been invented by Albert Einstein as a boy; it is also sometimes attributed to Lewis Carroll. However, there is no known evidence for Einstein 's or Carroll 's authorship and the Life International version of the puzzle mentions brands of cigarette, such as Kools, that did not exist during Carroll 's lifetime or Einstein 's boyhood.
It is often claimed that only 2 % of the population can solve the puzzle.
The following version of the puzzle appeared in Life International in 1962:
Now, who drinks water? Who owns the zebra?
In the interest of clarity, it must be added that each of the five houses is painted a different color, and their inhabitants are of different national extractions, own different pets, drink different beverages and smoke different brands of American cigarets (sic). One other thing: in statement 6, right means your right.
Assuming that one person drinks water and one owns a zebra, then it is possible not only to deduce the answers to the two questions, but to figure out a complete solution of who lives where, in what color house, keeping what pet, drinking what drink, and smoking what brand of cigarettes. By considering the clues a few at a time, it is possible to slowly build inferences that incrementally complete the puzzle 's unique correct solution. For example, by clue 10, the Norwegian lives in house # 1, and by clue 15, house # 2 must be blue. The Norwegian 's house therefore can not be blue, nor can it be red, where the Englishman lives (clue 2), or green or ivory, which are next to each other (clue 6). It must therefore be yellow, which means the Norwegian also smokes Kools (clue 8).
Note that clue 10 mentions the "first '' house, without specifying whether it is the house on the extreme left or extreme right if standing in front of them. However, selecting either side as the first house does not change the outcome as to who drinks the water and who has the zebra.
The March 25, 1963 issue of Life International contained the following solution, and the names of several hundred solvers from around the world.
Other versions of the puzzle have various differences from the Life International puzzle, in which various colors, nationalities, cigarette brands, drinks, and pets are substituted, or the clues are given in a different order. These do not change the logic of the puzzle. Einstein 's Riddle, in a particular version, asks ' Who owns the fish? ' as the overarching question.
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when do you get a free kick in nfl | Fair catch kick - wikipedia
The fair catch kick is a rule at the professional and high school levels of American football that allows a team that has just made a fair catch to attempt a free kick from the spot of the catch. The kick must be either a place kick or a drop kick, and if it passes over the crossbar and between the goalposts of the defensive team 's goal, a field goal, worth three points, is scored to the offensive team.
The fair catch kick has its origins in rugby football. The rule is considered to be obscure and unusual, as most fair catches are made well out of field goal range, and in most cases a team that has a fair catch within theoretical range will attempt a normal drive to score a touchdown. The fair catch kick is generally used when a team has fair caught a ball within field goal range and there is insufficient time to score a touchdown. At the professional level, the last successful fair catch kick was made in 1976.
The fair catch kick rule states that, after a player has successfully made a fair catch or has been awarded a fair catch (as the result of a penalty such as kick catch interference), their team can attempt a kick from the spot of the catch; the NFHS also allows a kick to be made if the down following the fair catch or awarded fair catch has to be replayed. Prior to the kick, the opposing team must be lined up at least ten yards beyond the spot of the ball. The kick itself can be either a place kick or drop kick; a kicking tee can not be used at the professional level, but use of a tee up to two inches in height is permitted at the high school level. Like other field goal attempts, the kicking team is awarded three points if the kick goes above the crossbar and between the goalposts of the opposing team 's goal and did not touch a player of the offensive team after the kick. If the attempt fails, the opposing team is awarded control of the ball from the spot of the kick. The opposing team can also return the kick if it does not go out of bounds.
In the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS) rulebook, the fair catch kick is specifically defined as a free kick. The National Football League (NFL) rulebook specifically states that the fair catch kick is not a free kick, instead considering the fair catch kick to be a distinct type of kick. Despite this, reporters at both levels describe the fair catch kick as a free kick.
The fair catch kick found in American football originated in rugby football. A similar rule in rugby, the goal from mark, allowed a player who had fair caught a ball to attempt an uncontested free kick from the spot of the fair catch. Both major codes of rugby have eliminated the rule; rugby league abolished the goal from mark in 1922, and rugby union removed it in 1977. Australian rules football has retained the rule, and it is a vital part of the Australian game; a "fair catch '' of a ball kicked more than 15 metres in the air is called a "mark '', and the player making the mark is then awarded a free kick. The fair catch kick has been present in the National Football League (NFL) rulebook since the league 's inception, and also remains in the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS) rulebook. The fair catch kick is not legal in National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) football; the NCAA abolished the fair catch in 1950, but re-added it a year later. When the fair catch returned to the rulebook, however, the option to attempt a kick after the fair catch was removed.
The fair catch kick rule is very rarely invoked, and is one of the rarest plays in football. The rule has been regarded as "obscure '', "bizarre '', and "quirky ''. A unique set of circumstances is required for a fair catch kick to be a viable option. For one, the fair catch would need to be made at a point on the field where a field goal attempt has a reasonable chance of being successful; most fair catches are made well outside of field goal range (even more so since 1974, when the goal posts were moved back to the end line, adding 10 yards to such attempts). Furthermore, for a fair catch kick to be a viable option near the end of the fourth quarter, the team attempting the kick needs to be either tied or behind by three points or fewer; even if a game is tied, a fair catch kick might be unpalatable, as it is possible the ball lands in the field of play and the opponent returns it for a touchdown (hence why, when the possibility of a 75 - yard fair catch kick arose in Super Bowl LI, the idea was nixed). In exceptional circumstances a team might try the kick at the end of the first half if only a few seconds remained, but Art McNally, who led the officiating department of the National Football League from 1968 to 1990, notes that, even in the event a fair catch is made within field goal range, most teams would attempt to score a touchdown unless there is not enough time left to score one. Accordingly, most fair catch kick attempts occur when a team has fair - caught a ball from a punt from deep in their opponent 's territory, and there is not enough time left in the half to go for a touchdown.
Despite its drawbacks, there are several advantages to using the fair catch kick. Because the defense is required to be ten yards beyond the spot of the kick, the kicker can take a running start before kicking as opposed to the typical two steps taken on regular field goal attempts. Similarly, the kicker does not have to worry about a low snap because the ball is not snapped. The defense is not able to block the kick, allowing the kicker to give the ball a lower trajectory than usual. The fair catch kick would also be of a shorter distance than a normal field goal attempt from the same spot, because the fair catch kick is taken from the spot of the catch, while a typical field goal is taken seven yards back from the line of scrimmage.
The following tables contain all confirmed fair catch kick attempts in the NFL; the NFL does not keep a record of fair catch kick attempts, so the true number of attempts is unknown. Out of the twenty - four recorded fair catch kick attempts in non-exhibition games, only six were successful; all five known attempts in exhibition games were unsuccessful. With the exception of the second recorded attempt, which was made in the 3rd quarter, all fair catch kick attempts were made within the last thirty seconds of either the 2nd or 4th quarter. The last successful attempt was made in 1976 by Ray Wersching of the San Diego Chargers (45 yards), and the longest successful attempt was made in 1964 by Paul Hornung of the Green Bay Packers (52 yards). The most recent fair catch kick attempt was by San Francisco 49ers kicker Phil Dawson, who missed a 71 - yard fair catch kick on September 26, 2013. In 2017, with 3 seconds left in the fourth quarter of Super Bowl LI, the New England Patriots declined an opportunity to attempt a 75 - yard fair catch kick, which would have won the game if successful, because of the risk of a return if the kick came up short.
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what geographical challenges did china's early rulers face | History of the Ming dynasty - wikipedia
The Ming dynasty (January 23, 1368 -- April 25, 1644), officially the Great Ming or Empire of the Great Ming, founded by the peasant rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang, known as the Hongwu Emperor, was an imperial dynasty of China. It was the successor to the Yuan dynasty and the predecessor of the short - lived Shun dynasty, which was in turn succeeded by the Qing dynasty. At its height, the Ming dynasty had a population of 160 million people, while some assert the population could actually have been as large as 200 million.
Ming rule saw the construction of a vast navy and a standing army of 1,000,000 troops. Although private maritime trade and official tribute missions from China took place in previous dynasties, the size of the tributary fleet under the Muslim eunuch admiral Zheng He in the 15th century surpassed all others in grandeur. There were enormous projects of construction, including the restoration of the Grand Canal, the restoration of the Great Wall as it is seen today, and the establishment of the Forbidden City in Beijing during the first quarter of the 15th century. The Ming dynasty is, for many reasons, generally known as a period of stable effective government. It had long seen the most secure and unchallenged ruling house that China had known up until that time. Its institutions were generally preserved by the following Qing dynasty. The civil service dominated government to an unprecedented degree at this time. During the Ming dynasty, the territory of China expanded (and in some cases also retracted) greatly. For a brief period during the Ming dynasty northern Vietnam was included in the Ming dynasty 's territory. Other important developments include the moving of the capital from Nanjing to Beijing.
Outside of metropolitan areas, Ming China was divided into thirteen provinces for administrative purposes. These provinces were divided along traditional and to a degree also natural lines. These include Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Huguang, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Shandong, Henan, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Yunnan and Guizhou. These provinces were vast areas, each being at least as large as England. The longest Ming reign was that of the Wanli Emperor, who ruled for forty eight years. (1572 -- 1620). The shortest was his son 's reign, the Taichang Emperor, who ruled for only one month (in 1620).
The Mongol - led Yuan dynasty (1279 -- 1368) ruled before the establishment of the Ming dynasty. Alongside institutionalized ethnic discrimination against Han Chinese that stirred resentment and rebellion, other explanations for the Yuan 's demise included overtaxing areas hard - hit by crop failure, inflation, and massive flooding of the Yellow River as a result of the abandonment of irrigation projects. Consequently, agriculture and the economy were in shambles and rebellion broke out among the hundreds of thousands of peasants called upon to work on repairing the dikes of the Yellow River.
A number of Han Chinese groups revolted, including the Red Turbans in 1351. The Red Turbans were affiliated with the Buddhist secret society of the White Lotus, which propagated Manichean beliefs in the struggle of good against evil and worship of the Maitreya Buddha. Zhu Yuanzhang was a penniless peasant and Buddhist monk who joined the Red Turbans in 1352, but soon gained a reputation after marrying the foster daughter of a rebel commander. In 1356 Zhu 's rebel force captured the city of Nanjing, which he would later establish as the capital of the Ming dynasty. Zhu enlisted the aid of many able advisors, including the artillery specialists Jiao Yu and Liu Bowen.
Zhu cemented his power in the south by eliminating his arch rival and rebel leader Chen Youliang in the Battle of Lake Poyang in 1363. This battle was -- in terms of personnel -- one of the largest naval battles in history. After the dynastic head of the Red Turbans suspiciously died in 1367 while hosted as a guest of Zhu, the latter made his imperial ambitions known by sending an army toward the Yuan capital in 1368. The last Yuan emperor fled north into Mongolia and Zhu declared the founding of the Ming dynasty after razing the Yuan palaces in Dadu (present - day Beijing) to the ground.
Instead of the traditional way of naming a dynasty after the first ruler 's home district, Zhu Yuanzhang 's choice of ' Ming ' or ' Brilliant ' for his dynasty followed a Mongol precedent of an uplifting title. Zhu Yuanzhang also took ' Hongwu ', or ' Vastly Martial ' as his reign title. Although the White Lotus had fomented his rise to power, the emperor later denied that he had ever been a member of their organization and suppressed the religious movement after he became emperor.
Zhu Yuanzhang, founder of the Ming dynasty, drew on both past institutions and new approaches in order to create ' jiaohua ' (meaning ' civilization ') as an organic Chinese governing process. This included a building of schools at all levels and an increased study of the classics as well as books on morality. Also included was the distribution of Neo-Confucian ritual manuals and a new civil service examination system for recruitment into the bureaucracy.
The Hongwu Emperor immediately set to rebuilding state infrastructure. He built a 48 km (30 mi) long wall around Nanjing, as well as new palaces and government halls. The Ming Shi states that as early as 1364 Zhu Yuanzhang had begun drafting a new Confucian law code known as the Daming Lu, which was completed by 1397 and repeated certain clauses found in the old Tang Code of 653. The Hongwu Emperor organized a military system known as the weisuo, which was similar to the fubing system of the Tang dynasty (618 -- 907). The goal was to have soldiers become self - reliant farmers in order to sustain themselves while not fighting or training. This system was also similar to the Yuan dynasty military organization of a hereditary caste of soldiers and a hereditary nobility of commanders. The system of the self - sufficient agricultural soldier, however, was largely a farce; infrequent rations and awards were not enough to sustain the troops, and many deserted their ranks if they were n't located in the heavily supplied frontier.
Although a Confucian, the Hongwu Emperor had a deep distrust for the scholar - officials of the gentry class and was not afraid to have them beaten in court for offenses. In favor of Confucian learning and the civil service, the emperor ordered every county magistrate to open a Confucian school in 1369 -- following the tradition of a nationwide school system first established by Emperor Ping of Han (9 BC -- 5 AD). However, he halted the civil service examinations in 1373 after complaining that the 120 scholar - officials who obtained a jinshi degree were incompetent ministers. After the examinations were reinstated in 1384, he had the chief examiner executed after it was discovered that he allowed only candidates from the south to be granted jinshi degrees. In 1380, the Hongwu Emperor had the Chancellor Hu Weiyong executed upon suspicion of a conspiracy plot to overthrow him; after that the emperor abolished the Chancellery and assumed this role as chief executive and emperor. With a growing amount of suspicion for his ministers and subjects, the Hongwu Emperor established the Jinyiwei, a network of secret police drawn from his own palace guard. They were partly responsible for the loss of 100,000 lives in several major purges over three decades of his rule.
Multiple conflicts arose with the Ming dynasty fighting against the Uyghur Kingdom of Turpan and Oirat Mongols on the Northwestern Border, near Gansu, Turpan, and Hami. The Ming dynasty took control of Hami (under a small kingdom called Qara Del) in 1404 and turned it into Hami Prefecture In 1406, the Ming dynasty defeated the ruler of Turpan., which would lead to a lengthy war. The Moghul ruler of Turpan Yunus Khan, also known as Ḥājjī ` Ali (ruled 1462 -- 78), unified Moghulistan (roughly corresponding to today 's Eastern Xinjiang) under his authority in 1472. Asserting his newfound power, Ḥājjī ` Ali sought redress of old grievances between the Turpanians and Ming China began over the restrictive tributary trade system. Tensions rose, and in 1473 he led a campaign east to confront China, even succeeding in capturing Hami from the Oirat Mongol ruler Henshen. Ali traded control of Hami with the Ming, then Henshen 's Mongols, in numerous battles spanning the reigns of his son Ahmed and his grandson Mansur in a drawn - out and complex series of conflicts now known as the Ming -- Turpan conflict.
In 1381, the Ming dynasty annexed the areas of the southwest that had once been part of the Kingdom of Dali, which was annihilated by the Mongols in the 1250s and became established as the Yunnan Province under Yuan dynasty later on. By the end of the 14th century, some 200,000 military colonists settled some 2,000,000 mu (350,000 acres) of land in what is now Yunnan and Guizhou. Roughly half a million more Chinese settlers came in later periods; these migrations caused a major shift in the ethnic make - up of the region, since more than half of the roughly 3,000,000 inhabitants at the beginning of the Ming dynasty were non-Han peoples. In this region, the Ming government adopted a policy of dual administration. Areas with majority ethnic Chinese were governed according to Ming laws and policies; areas where native tribal groups dominated had their own set of laws while tribal chiefs promised to maintain order and send tribute to the Ming court in return for needed goods. From 1464 to 1466, the Miao and Yao people of Guangxi, Guangdong, Sichuan, Hunan, and Guizhou revolted against what they saw as oppressive government rule; in response, the Ming government sent an army of 30,000 troops (including 1,000 Mongols) to join the 160,000 local troops of Guangxi and crushed the rebellion. After the scholar and philosopher Wang Yangming (1472 -- 1529) suppressed another rebellion in the region, he advocated joint administration of Chinese and local ethnic groups in order to bring about sinification in the local peoples ' culture.
The Mingshi -- the official history of the Ming dynasty compiled later by the Qing court in 1739 -- states that the Ming established itinerant commanderies overseeing Tibetan administration while also renewing titles of ex-Yuan dynasty officials from Tibet and conferring new princely titles on leaders of Tibet 's Buddhist sects. However, Turrell V. Wylie states that censorship in the Mingshi in favor of bolstering the Ming emperor 's prestige and reputation at all costs obfuscates the nuanced history of Sino - Tibetan relations during the Ming era. Modern scholars still debate on whether or not the Ming dynasty really had sovereignty over Tibet at all, as some believe it was a relationship of loose suzerainty which was largely cut off when the Jiajing Emperor (r. 1521 -- 1567) persecuted Buddhism in favor of Daoism at court. Helmut Hoffman states that the Ming upheld the facade of rule over Tibet through periodic missions of "tribute emissaries '' to the Ming court and by granting nominal titles to ruling lamas, but did not actually interfere in Tibetan governance. Wang Jiawei and Nyima Gyaincain disagree, stating that Ming China had sovereignty over Tibetans who did not inherit Ming titles, but were forced to travel to Beijing to renew them. Melvyn C. Goldstein writes that the Ming had no real administrative authority over Tibet since the various titles given to Tibetan leaders already in power did not confer authority as earlier Mongol Yuan titles had; according to him, "the Ming emperors merely recognized political reality. '' Some scholars argue that the significant religious nature of the relationship of the Ming court with Tibetan lamas is underrepresented in modern scholarship. Others underscore the commercial aspect of the relationship, noting the Ming dynasty 's insufficient number of horses and the need to maintain the tea - horse trade with Tibet. Scholars also debate on how much power and influence -- if any -- the Ming dynasty court had over the de facto successive ruling families of Tibet, the Phagmodru (1354 -- 1436), Rinbung (1436 -- 1565), and Tsangpa (1565 -- 1642).
The Ming initiated sporadic armed intervention in Tibet during the 14th century, while at times the Tibetans also used successful armed resistance against Ming forays. Patricia Ebrey, Thomas Laird, Wang Jiawei, and Nyima Gyaincain all point out that the Ming dynasty did not garrison permanent troops in Tibet, unlike the former Mongol Yuan dynasty. The Wanli Emperor (r. 1572 -- 1620) made attempts to reestablish Sino - Tibetan relations in the wake of a Mongol - Tibetan alliance initiated in 1578, the latter of which affected the foreign policy of the subsequent Manchu Qing dynasty (1644 -- 1912) of China in their support for the Dalai Lama of the Yellow Hat sect. By the late 16th century, the Mongols proved to be successful armed protectors of the Yellow Hat Dalai Lama after their increasing presence in the Amdo region, culminating in Güshi Khan 's (1582 -- 1655) conquest of Tibet in 1642.
In the first half of the Ming era, scholar - officials would rarely mention the contribution of merchants in society while writing their local gazetteer; officials were certainly capable of funding their own public works projects, a symbol of their virtuous political leadership. However, by the second half of the Ming era it became common for officials to solicit money from merchants in order to fund their various projects, such as building bridges or establishing new schools of Confucian learning for the betterment of the gentry. From that point on the gazetteers began mentioning merchants and often in high esteem, since the wealth produced by their economic activity produced resources for the state as well as increased production of books needed for the education of the gentry. Merchants began taking on the highly cultured, connoisseur 's attitude and cultivated traits of the gentry class, blurring the lines between merchant and gentry and paving the way for merchant families to produce scholar - officials. The roots of this social transformation and class indistinction could be found in the Song dynasty (960 -- 1279), but it became much more pronounced in the Ming. Writings of family instructions for lineage groups in the late Ming period display the fact that one no longer inherited his position in the categorization of the four occupations (in descending order): gentry, farmers, artisans, and merchants.
The Hongwu Emperor believed that only government couriers and lowly retail merchants should have the right to travel far outside their home town. Despite his efforts to impose this view, his building of an efficient communication network for his military and official personnel strengthened and fomented the rise of a potential commercial network running parallel to the courier network. The shipwrecked Korean Ch'oe Pu (1454 -- 1504) remarked in 1488 how the locals along the eastern coasts of China did not know the exact distances between certain places, which was virtually exclusive knowledge of the Ministry of War and courier agents. This was in stark contrast to the late Ming period, when merchants not only traveled further distances to convey their goods, but also bribed courier officials to use their routes and even had printed geographical guides of commercial routes that imitated the couriers ' maps.
The scholar - officials ' dependence upon the economic activities of the merchants became more than a trend when it was semi-institutionalized by the state in the mid Ming era. Qiu Jun (1420 -- 1495), a scholar - official from Hainan, argued that the state should only mitigate market affairs during times of pending crisis and that merchants were the best gauge in determining the strength of a nation 's riches in resources. The government followed this guideline by the mid Ming era when it allowed merchants to take over the state monopoly of salt production. This was a gradual process where the state supplied northern frontier armies with enough grain by granting merchants licenses to trade in salt in return for their shipping services. The state realized that merchants could buy salt licenses with silver and in turn boost state revenues to the point where buying grain was not an issue.
Silver mining was increased dramatically during the reign of the Yongle Emperor (1402 -- 1424); production of mined silver rose from 3007 kg (80,185 taels) in 1403 to 10,210 kg (272,262 taels) in 1409. The Hongxi Emperor (r. 1424 -- 1425) attempted to scale back silver mining to restore the discredited paper currency, but this was a failure which his immediate successor, the Xuande Emperor (r. 1425 -- 1435), remedied by continuing the Yongle Emperor 's silver mining scheme. The governments of the Hongwu and Zhengtong (r. 1435 -- 1449) emperors attempted to cut the flow of silver into the economy in favor of paper currency, yet mining the precious metal simply became a lucrative illegal pursuit practiced by many.
The failure of these stern regulations against silver mining prompted ministers such as the censor Liu Hua (jinshi graduate in 1430) to support the baojia system of communal self - defense units to patrol areas and arrest ' mining bandits ' (kuangzei). Deng Maoqi (died 1449), an overseer in this baojia defense units in Sha County of Fujian, abused local landlords who attempted to have him arrested; Deng responded by killing the local magistrate in 1447 and started a rebellion. By 1448, Deng 's forces took control of several counties and were besieging the prefectural capital. The mobilization of local baojia units against Deng was largely a failure; in the end it took 50,000 government troops (including later Mongol rebels who sided with Cao Qin 's rebellion in 1461), with food supplies supported by local wealthy elites, to put down Deng 's rebellion and execute the so - called "King Who Eliminates Evil '' in the spring of 1449. Many ministers blamed ministers such as Liu Hua for promoting the baojia system and thus allowing this disaster to occur. The historian Tanaka Masatoshi regarded "Deng 's uprising as the first peasant rebellion that resisted the class relationship of rent rather than the depredations of officials, and therefore as the first genuinely class - based ' peasant warfare ' in Chinese history. ''
The Hongwu Emperor was unaware of economic inflation even as he continued to hand out multitudes of banknotes as awards; by 1425, paper currency was worth only 0.025 % to 0.014 % its original value in the 14th century. The value of standard copper coinage dropped significantly as well due to counterfeit minting; by the 16th century, new maritime trade contacts with Europe provided massive amounts of imported silver, which increasingly became the common medium of exchange. As far back as 1436, a portion of the southern grain tax was commuted to silver, known as the Gold Floral Silver (jinhuayin). This was an effort to aid tax collection in counties where transportation of grain was made difficult by terrain, as well as provide tax relief to landowners. In 1581 the Single Whip Reform installed by Grand Secretary Zhang Juzheng (1525 -- 1582) finally assessed taxes on the amount of land paid entirely in silver.
The Hongwu Emperor 's grandson, Zhu Yunwen, assumed the throne as the Jianwen Emperor (1398 -- 1402) after the Hongwu Emperor 's death in 1398. In a prelude to a three - year - long civil war beginning in 1399, The Jianwen Emperor became engaged in a political showdown with his uncle Zhu Di, the Prince of Yan. The emperor was aware of the ambitions of his princely uncles, establishing measures to limit their authority. The militant Zhu Di, given charge over the area encompassing Beijing to watch the Mongols on the frontier, was the most feared of these princes. After the Jianwen Emperor arrested many of Zhu Di 's associates, Zhu Di plotted a rebellion. Under the guise of rescuing the young Jianwen Emperor from corrupt officials, Zhu Di personally led forces in the revolt; the palace in Nanjing was burned to the ground, along with the Jianwen Emperor, his wife, mother, and courtiers. Zhu Di assumed the throne as the Yongle Emperor (1402 -- 1424); his reign is universally viewed by scholars as a "second founding '' of the Ming dynasty since he reversed many of his father 's policies.
The Yongle Emperor demoted Nanjing as a secondary capital and in 1403 announced the new capital of China was to be at his power base in Beijing. Construction of a new city there lasted from 1407 to 1420, employing hundreds of thousands of workers daily. At the center was the political node of the Imperial City, and at the center of this was the Forbidden City, the palatial residence of the emperor and his family. By 1553, the Outer City was added to the south, which brought the overall size of Beijing to 4 by 41⁄2 miles.
After lying dormant and dilapidated for decades, the Grand Canal was restored under the Yongle Emperor 's rule from 1411 -- 1415. The impetus for restoring the canal was to solve the perennial problem of shipping grain north to Beijing. Shipping the annual 4,000,000 shi (one shi is equal to 107 liters) was made difficult with an inefficient system of shipping grain through the East China Sea or by several different inland canals that necessitated the transferring of grain onto several different barge types in the process, including shallow and deep - water barges. William Atwell quotes Ming dynasty sources that state the amount of collected tax grain was actually 30 million shi (93 million bushels), much larger than what Brook notes. The Yongle Emperor commissioned some 165,000 workers to dredge the canal bed in western Shandong and built a series of fifteen canal locks. The reopening of the Grand Canal had implications for Nanjing as well, as it was surpassed by the well - positioned city of Suzhou as the paramount commercial center of China. Despite greater efficiency, there were still factors which the government could not control that limited the transportation of taxed grain; for example, in 1420 a widespread crop failure and poor harvest dramatically reduced the tax grain delivered to the central government.
Although the Yongle Emperor ordered episodes of bloody purges like his father -- including the execution of Fang Xiaoru, who refused to draft the proclamation of his succession -- the emperor had a different attitude about the scholar - officials. He had a selection of texts compiled from the Cheng - Zhu school of Confucianism -- or Neo-Confucianism -- in order to assist those who studied for the civil service examinations. The Yongle Emperor commissioned two thousand scholars to create a 50 - million - word (22,938 - chapter) long encyclopedia -- the Yongle Encyclopedia -- from seven thousand books. This surpassed all previous encyclopedias in scope and size, including the 11th - century compilation of the Four Great Books of Song. Yet the scholar - officials were not the only political group that the Yongle Emperor had to cooperate with and appease. Historian Michael Chang points out that the Yongle Emperor was an "emperor on horseback '' who often traversed between two capitals like in the Mongol tradition and constantly led expeditions into Mongolia. This was opposed by the Confucian establishment while it served to bolster the importance of eunuchs and military officers whose power depended upon the emperor 's favor.
Beginning in 1405, the Yongle Emperor entrusted his favored eunuch commander Zheng He (1371 -- 1433) as the naval admiral for a gigantic new fleet of ships designated for international tributary missions. The Chinese had sent diplomatic missions over land and west since the Han dynasty (202 BC -- 220 AD) and had been engaged in private overseas trade leading all the way to East Africa for centuries -- culminating in the Song and Yuan dynasties -- but no government - sponsored tributary mission of this grandeur size had ever been assembled before. To service seven different tributary missions abroad, the Nanjing shipyards constructed two thousand vessels from 1403 to 1419, which included the large Chinese treasure ships that measured 112 m (370 ft) to 134 m (440 ft) in length and 45 m (150 ft) to 54 m (180 ft) in width. The first voyage from 1405 to 1407 contained 317 vessels with a staff of 70 eunuchs, 180 medical personnel, 5 astrologers, and 300 military officers commanding a total estimated force of 26,800 men.
The enormous tributary missions were discontinued after the death of Zheng He, yet his death was only one of many culminating factors which brought the missions to an end. The Ming Empire had conquered and annexed Vietnam in 1407, but Ming troops were pushed out in 1428 with significant costs to the Ming treasury; in 1431 the new Lê dynasty of Vietnam was recognized as an independent tribute state. There was also the threat and revival of Mongol power on the northern steppe which drew court attention away from other matters. The Yongle Emperor had staged enormous invasions deep into Mongol territory, competing with Korea for lands in Manchuria as well. To face the Mongol threat to the north, a massive amount of funds were used to build the Great Wall after 1474. The Yongle Emperor 's moving of the capital from Nanjing to Beijing was largely in response to the court 's need of keeping a closer eye on the Mongol threat in the north. Scholar - officials also associated the lavish expense of the fleets with eunuch power at court, and so halted funding for these ventures as a means to curtail further eunuch influence.
The Oirat Mongol leader Esen Tayisi launched an invasion into Ming China in July 1449. The chief eunuch Wang Zhen encouraged the Zhengtong Emperor (r. 1435 -- 1449) to personally lead a force to face the Mongols after a recent Ming defeat; marching off with 50,000 troops, the emperor left the capital and put his half - brother Zhu Qiyu in charge of affairs as temporary regent. In the battle that ensued, his force of 50,000 troops were decimated by Esen 's army. On 3 September 1449, the Zhengtong Emperor was captured and held in captivity by the Mongols -- an event known as the Tumu Crisis. After the Zhengtong Emperor 's capture, Esen 's forces plundered their way across the countryside and all the way to the suburbs of Beijing. Following this was another plundering of the Beijing suburbs in November of that year by local bandits and Ming dynasty soldiers of Mongol descent who dressed as invading Mongols. Many Han Chinese also took to brigandage soon after the Tumu incident.
The Mongols held the Zhengtong Emperor for ransom. However, this scheme was foiled once the emperor 's younger brother assumed the throne as the Jingtai Emperor (r. 1449 -- 1457); the Mongols were also repelled once the Jingtai Emperor 's confidant and defense minister Yu Qian (1398 -- 1457) gained control of the Ming armed forces. Holding the Zhengtong Emperor in captivity was a useless bargaining chip by the Mongols as long as another sat on his throne, so they released him back into Ming China. The Zhengtong Emperor was placed under house arrest in the palace until the coup against the Jingtai Emperor in 1457, which is known as the "Wresting the Gate Incident ''. The Zhengtong Emperor retook the throne as the Tianshun Emperor (r. 1457 -- 1464).
The Mongol threat to China was at its greatest level in the 15th century, although periodic raiding continued throughout the dynasty. Like in the Tumu Crisis, the Mongol leader Altan Khan (r. 1470 -- 1582) invaded China and raided as far as the outskirts of Beijing. Interestingly enough, the Ming employed troops of Mongol descent to fight back Altan Khan 's invasion, as well as Mongol military officers against Cao Qin 's abortive coup of 1461. Mongol troops were also employed in the suppression of the Li people of Hainan in the early 16th century as well as the Liu Brothers and Tiger Yang in a 1510 rebellion. The Mongol incursions prompted the Ming authorities to construct the Great Wall from the late 15th century to the 16th century; John Fairbank notes that "it proved to be a futile military gesture but vividly expressed China 's siege mentality. '' Yet the Great Wall was not meant to be a purely defensive fortification; its towers functioned rather as a series of lit beacons and signalling stations to allow rapid warning to friendly units of advancing enemy troops.
The Tianshun Emperor 's reign was a troubled one and Mongol forces within the Ming military structure continued to be problematic. Mongols serving the Ming military also became increasingly circumspect as the Chinese began to heavily distrust their Mongol subjects after the Tumu Crisis. One method to ensure that Mongols could not band together in significant numbers in the north was a scheme of relocation and sending their troops on military missions to southern China. In January 1450, two thousand Mongol troops stationed in Nanjing were sent to Fujian in order to suppress a brigand army. The grand coordinator of Jiangxi, Yang Ning (1400 -- 1458), suggested to the Jingtai Emperor that these Mongols be dispersed amongst the local battalions, a proposal that the emperor agreed to (the exact number of Mongols resettled in this fashion is unknown). Despite this, Mongols continued to migrate to Beijing. A massive drought in August 1457 forced over five hundred Mongol families living on the steppe to seek refuge in China, entering through the Piantou Pass of northwestern Shanxi. According to the official report by the chief military officer of Piantou Pass, all of these Mongol families populated Beijing, where they were granted lodging and stipends. In July 1461, after Mongols had staged raids in June into Ming territory along the northern tracts of the Yellow River, the Minister of War Ma Ang (1399 -- 1476) and General Sun Tang (died 1471) were appointed to lead a force of 15,000 troops to bolster the defenses of Shaanxi. Historian David M. Robinson states that "these developments must also have fed suspicion about Mongols living in North China, which in turn exacerbated Mongol feelings of insecurity. However, no direct link can be found between the decision by the Ming Mongols in Beijing to join the (1461) coup and activities of steppe Mongols in the northwest. ''
On August 7, 1461, the Chinese general Cao Qin (died 1461) and his Ming troops of Mongol descent staged a coup against the Tianshun Emperor out of fear of being next on his purge - list of those who aided him in the Wresting the Gate Incident. On the previous day, the emperor issued an edict telling his nobles and generals to be loyal to the throne; this was in effect a veiled threat to Cao Qin, after the latter had his associate in the Jinyiwei beaten to death to cover up crimes of illegal foreign transactions. Due to the earlier demise of General Shi Heng in 1459, in a similar warning involving an imperial edict, Cao Qin was to take no chances in allowing himself to be ruined in similar fashion. The loyalty of Cao 's Mongol - officer clients was secure due to circumstances of thousands of military officers who had to accept demotions in 1457 because of earlier promotions in aiding the Jingtai Emperor 's succession. Robinson states that "Mongol officers no doubt expected that if Cao fell from power, they would soon follow. '' Cao either planned to kill Ma Ang and Sun Tang as they were to depart the capital with 15,000 troops to Shaanxi on the morning of August 7, or he simply planned to take advantage of their leave. The conspirators are said to have planned to place their heir apparent on the throne and demote the Tianshun Emperor 's position to "grand senior emperor '', the title granted to him during the years of his house arrest.
After a failed plot to have Grand Secretary Li Xian send a memorial to the throne to pardon Cao Qin for killing Lu Gao, head of the Jinyiwei who had been investigating him, Cao Qin began the assault on Dongan Gate, East Chang'an Gate, and West Chang'an Gate, setting fire to the western and eastern gates; these fires were extinguished later in the day by pouring rain. Ming troops poured into the area outside the Imperial City to counterattack. By midday, Sun Tang 's forces had killed two of Cao Qin 's brothers and severely wounded Cao in both his arms; his forces took up position in the Great Eastern Market and Lantern Market northeast of Dongan Gate, while Sun deployed artillery units against the rebels. Cao lost his third brother, Cao Duo, while attempting to flee out of Beijing by the Chaoyang Gate. Cao fled with his remaining forces to fortify his residential compound in Beijing; Ming troops stormed the residence and Cao Qin committed suicide by throwing himself down a well. As promised by Li Xian before they stormed the residence, imperial troops were allowed to confiscate the property of Cao Qin for themselves.
Ming rulers faced the challenge of balancing Central Asian trade and military threats against dangerous but profitable sea powers. The questions were cultural, political, and economic. The historian Arthur Waldron declares that the early rulers faced the question "Was the Ming to be essentially a Chinese version of the Yuan, or was it to be something new? '' The Tang dynasty provided an example of cosmopolitan and culturally flexible rule, but the Sung dynasty, which never controlled key areas of Central Asia, offered an example that was culturally Han Chinese. The dynasty was basically reshaped by it successes and frustrations in dealing with the two sides of the outside world.
The early Ming emperors from the Hongwu Emperor to the Zhengde Emperor continued Yuan practices such as hereditary military institutions, demanding Korean and Muslim concubines and eunuchs, having Mongols serve in the Ming military, patronizing Tibetan Buddhism, with the early Ming Emperors seeking to project themselves as "universal rulers '' to various peoples such as Central Asian Muslims, Tibetans, and Mongols. The Yongle Emperor cited Emperor Taizong of Tang as a model for being familiar with both China and the steppe people.
In 1479, the vice president of the Ministry of War burned the court records documenting Zheng He 's voyages; it was one of many events signalling China 's shift to an inward foreign policy. Shipbuilding laws were implemented that restricted vessels to a small size; the concurrent decline of the Ming navy allowed the growth of piracy along China 's coasts. Japanese pirates -- or wokou -- began staging raids on Chinese ships and coastal communities, although much of the acts of piracy were carried out by native Chinese.
Instead of mounting a counterattack, Ming authorities chose to shut down coastal facilities and starve the pirates out; all foreign trade was to be conducted by the state under the guise of formal tribute missions. These were known as the hai jin laws, a strict ban on private maritime activity until its formal abolishment in 1567. In this period government - managed overseas trade with Japan was carried out exclusively at the seaport of Ningbo, trade with the Philippines exclusively at Fuzhou, and trade with Indonesia exclusively at Guangzhou. Even then the Japanese were only allowed into port once every ten years and were allowed to bring a maximum of three hundred men on two ships; these laws encouraged many Chinese merchants to engage in widespread illegal trade and smuggling.
The low point in relations between Ming China and Japan occurred during the rule of the great Japanese warlord Hideyoshi, who in 1592 announced he was going to conquer China. In two campaigns (now known collectively as the Imjin War) the Japanese fought with the Korean and Ming armies. Though initially successful, the Japanese forces were pushed back southward after the intervention of Ming China. With the combined strength of Ming and Korean forces on land, and the naval prowess of Korean admiral Yi Sun - sin at sea, the campaign ended in defeat for the Japanese and their armies were forced to withdraw from the Korean peninsula. However, the victory came at relatively large cost to the Ming government 's treasury: some 26,000,000 ounces of silver.
The History of Ming, compiled during the early Qing dynasty, describes how the Hongwu Emperor met with an alleged merchant of Fu lin (拂 菻; i.e. the Byzantine Empire) named "Nieh - ku - lun '' (捏 古 倫). In September 1371 he had this man sent back to his native country with a letter announcing the founding of the Ming dynasty to his ruler (i.e. John V Palaiologos). It is speculated that the merchant was actually a former bishop of Khanbaliq (Beijing) called Nicolaus de Bentra, sent by Pope John XXII to replace archbishop John of Montecorvino in 1333. The History of Ming goes on to explain that contacts between China and Fu lin ceased after this point, whereas diplomats and other people of the great western sea (i.e. the Mediterranean Sea) did not appear in China again until the 16th century, with the Italian Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci.
Although Jorge Álvares was the first to land on Lintin Island in the Pearl River Delta in May 1513, it was Rafael Perestrello -- a cousin of the famed Christopher Columbus -- who became the first known European explorer to land on the southern coast of mainland China and trade in Guangzhou in 1516, commanding a Portuguese vessel with a crew from a Malaysian junk that had sailed from Malacca. However, Chinese records maintain that a Roman embassy, perhaps only a group of Roman merchants, arrived at the Han capital city Luoyang by way of Jiaozhi (northern Vietnam) in 166 AD, during the reigns of emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161 -- 180 AD) and Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146 -- 168 AD). Although it could be coincidental, Antonine Roman golden medallions dated to the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and his predecessor Antoninus Pius have been discovered at Oc Eo, Vietnam (among other Roman artefacts in the Mekong Delta), a site that is one of the suggested locations for the port city of "Cattigara '' along the Magnus Sinus (i.e. Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea) in Ptolemy 's Geography. A much earlier Republican - era Roman glass bowl has been unearthed from a Western Han tomb of Guangzhou, along the South China Sea.
The Portuguese sent a large subsequent expedition in 1517 to enter port at Guangzhou to trade with the Chinese merchants there. During this expedition the Portuguese attempted to send an inland delegation in the name of Manuel I of Portugal to the court of the Zhengde Emperor. Although Fernão Pires de Andrade was able to meet the Zhengde Emperor while the latter was touring Nanjing in May 1520, Pires de Andrade 's mission waited in Beijing to meet the Zhengde Emperor once more, but the emperor died in 1521. The new Grand Secretary Yang Tinghe rejected eunuch influence at court and rejected this new foreign embassy by the Portuguese once Malaccan ambassadors arrived in China damning the Portuguese for deposing their king; the Portuguese diplomatic mission languished in a Chinese prison where they died. Simão de Andrade, brother to ambassador Fernão Pires de Andrade, had also stirred Chinese speculation that the Portuguese were kidnapping Chinese children to cook and eat them; Simão had purchased children as slaves who were later found by Portuguese authorities in Diu, India. In 1521, Ming dynasty naval forces fought and repulsed Portuguese ships at Tuen Mun, where some of the first breech - loading culverins were introduced to China, and again fought off the Portuguese in 1522.
Despite initial hostilities, by 1549 the Portuguese were sending annual trade missions to Shangchuan Island. In the early 1550s, Leonel de Sousa -- a later Governor of Macau -- reestablished a positive image of Portuguese in the eyes of the Chinese and reopened relations with Ming officials. The Portuguese friar Gaspar da Cruz (c. 1520 -- February 5, 1570) traveled to Guangzhou in 1556 and wrote the first book on China and the Ming dynasty that was published in Europe (fifteen days after his death); it included information on its geography, provinces, royalty, official class, bureaucracy, shipping, architecture, farming, craftsmanship, merchant affairs, clothing, religious and social customs, music and instruments, writing, education, and justice. In 1557 the Portuguese managed to convince the Ming court to agree on a legal port treaty that would establish Macau as a Portuguese trade colony on the coasts of the South China Sea. The Chinese found the Portuguese settlement useful in expelling hostile Japanese sailors, as well as a useful tool to control other aggressive European powers since the Portuguese repelled Dutch invasions of Macau in 1601, 1607, and 1622. The Dutch had even blockaded Zhangzhou 's Moon Harbor in 1623 in order to force local authorities there to allow them to trade, while local Chinese merchants sent urgent petitions to the provincial governor pleading for him to allow the Dutch entry into port. China defeated the Dutch in the Sino -- Dutch conflicts in 1622 -- 1624 over the Penghu islands and again defeated the Dutch at the Battle of Liaoluo Bay in 1633. Chinese trade relations with the Dutch began to improve after 1637 and in 1639 the Japanese cut off trade with the Portuguese due to the Shimabara Rebellion, thus impoverishing Macau and leading to its decline as a major port.
From China the major exports were silk and porcelain. The Dutch East India Company alone handled the trade of 6 million porcelain items from China to Europe between the years 1602 to 1682. After noting the variety of silk goods traded to Europeans, Ebrey writes of the considerable size of commercial transactions:
In one case a galleon to the Spanish territories in the New World carried over 50,000 pairs of silk stockings. In return China imported mostly silver from Peruvian and Mexican mines, transported via Manila. Chinese merchants were active in these trading ventures, and many emigrated to such places as the Philippines and Borneo to take advantage of the new commercial opportunities.
After the Chinese had banned direct trade by Chinese merchants with Japan, the Portuguese filled this commercial vacuum as intermediaries between China and Japan. The Portuguese bought Chinese silk and sold it to the Japanese in return for Japanese - mined silver; since silver was more highly valued in China, the Portuguese could then use Japanese silver to buy even larger stocks of Chinese silk. However, by 1573 -- after the Spanish established a trading base in Manila -- the Portuguese intermediary trade was trumped by the prime source of incoming silver to China from the Spanish Americas. Although it is unknown just how much silver flowed from the Philippines to China, it is known that the main port for the Mexican silver trade -- Acapulco -- shipped between 150,000 and 345,000 kg (4 to 9 million taels) of silver annually from 1597 to 1602.
Although the bulk of imports to China were silver, the Chinese also purchased New World crops from the Spanish Empire. This included sweet potatoes, maize, and peanuts, foods that could be cultivated in lands where traditional Chinese staple crops -- wheat, millet, and rice -- could n't grow, hence facilitating a rise in the population of China. In the Song dynasty (960 -- 1279), rice had become the major staple crop of the poor; after sweet potatoes were introduced to China around 1560, it gradually became the traditional food of the lower classes.
The beginning of relations between the Spanish and Chinese were much warmer than when the Portuguese were first given a reception in China. In the Philippines, the Spanish defeated the fleet of the infamous Chinese pirate Limahong in 1575, an act greatly appreciated by the Ming admiral who had been sent to capture Limahong. In fact, the Chinese admiral invited the Spanish to board his vessel and travel back to China, a trip which included two Spanish soldiers and two Christian friars eager to spread the faith. However, the friars returned to the Philippines after it became apparent that their preaching was unwelcome; Matteo Ricci would fare better in his trip of 1582. The Augustinian monk Juan Gonzáles de Mendoza wrote an influential work on China in 1585, remarking that the Ming dynasty was the best - governed kingdom he was aware of in the known world.
Displaying a multitude of items exported from China to the Spanish base at Manila, Brook quotes Antonio de Morga (1559 -- 1636), president of the audencia of Manila, who precariously mentions porcelain only once, even though at this time it is becoming one of the greatest export items to Europe from China. From his observation of textiles in the Manila inventory, the Spanish were buying:
... raw silk in bundles... fine untwisted silk, white and of all colors... quantities of velvets, some plain and some embroidered in all sorts of figures, colors, and fashions, with body of gold and embroidered with gold; woven stuff and brocades, of gold and silver upon silk of various colors and patterns... damasks, satins, taffetas...
Other goods that Antonio de Morga mentioned included were:
... musk, benzoin and ivory; many bed ornaments, hangings, coverlets and tapestries of embroidered velvet... tablecloths, cushions, and carpets; horse - trappings of the same stuffs, and embroidered with glass beads and seed - pearls; also pearls and rubies, sapphires and crystals; metal basins, copper kettles and other copper and cast - iron pots... wheat flour, preserves made of orange, peach, pair, nutmeg and ginger, and other fruits of China; salt pork and other salt meats; live fowl of good breed and many fine capons... chestnuts, walnuts... little boxes and writing cases; beds, tables, chairs, and gilded benches, painted in many figures and patterns. They bring domestic buffaloes; geese that resemble swans; horses, some mules and asses; even caged birds, some of which talk, while others sing, and they make them play innumerable tricks... pepper and other spices.
The financial drain of the Imjin War in Korea against the Japanese was one of the many problems -- fiscal or other -- facing Ming China during the reign of the Wanli Emperor (r. 1572 -- 1620). In the beginning of his reign, the emperor surrounded himself with able advisors and made a conscientious effort to handle state affairs. His Grand Secretary Zhang Juzheng (in office from 1572 to 1582) built up an effective network of alliances with senior officials. However, there was no one after him skilled enough to maintain the stability of these alliances; officials soon banded together in opposing political factions. Over time, the Wanli Emperor grew tired of court affairs and frequent political quarreling amongst his ministers, preferring to stay behind the walls of the Forbidden City and out of his officials ' sight.
Officials aggravated the Wanli Emperor about which of his sons should succeed to the throne; he also grew equally disgusted with senior advisors constantly bickering about how to manage the state. There were rising factions at court and across the intellectual sphere of China stemming from the philosophical debate for or against the teaching of Wang Yangming (1472 -- 1529), the latter of whom rejected some of the orthodox views of Neo-Confucianism. Annoyed by all of this, the Wanli Emperor began neglecting his duties, remaining absent from court audiences to discuss politics, lost interest in studying the Confucian Classics, refused to read petitions and other state papers, and stopped filling the recurrent vacancies of vital upper level administrative posts. Scholar - officials lost prominence in administration as eunuchs became intermediaries between the aloof emperor and his officials; any senior official who wanted to discuss state matters had to persuade powerful eunuchs with a bribe simply to have his demands or message relayed to the emperor.
It was said that the Hongwu Emperor forbade eunuchs to learn how to read or engage in politics. Whether or not these restrictions were carried out with absolute success in his reign, eunuchs in the Yongle era and after managed huge imperial workshops, commanded armies, and participated in matters of appointment and promotion of officials. The eunuchs developed their own bureaucracy that was organized parallel to but was not subject to the civil service bureaucracy. Although there were several dictatorial eunuchs throughout the Ming, such as Wang Zhen, Wang Zhi, and Liu Jin, excessive tyrannical eunuch power did not become evident until the 1590s when the Wanli Emperor increased their rights over the civil bureaucracy and granted them power to collect provincial taxes.
The eunuch Wei Zhongxian (1568 -- 1627) dominated the court of the Tianqi Emperor (r. 1620 -- 1627) and had his political rivals tortured to death, mostly the vocal critics from the faction of the "Donglin Society ''. He ordered temples built in his honor throughout the Ming Empire, and built personal palaces created with funds allocated for building the previous emperor 's tombs. His friends and family gained important positions without qualifications. Wei also published a historical work lambasting and belitting his political opponents. The instability at court came right as natural calamity, pestilence, rebellion, and foreign invasion came to a peak. Although the Chongzhen Emperor (r. 1627 -- 1644) had Wei dismissed from court -- which led to Wei 's suicide shortly after -- the problem with court eunuchs persisted until the dynasty 's collapse less than two decades later.
During the last years of the Wanli Emperor 's reign and those of his two successors, an economic crisis developed that was centered around a sudden widespread lack of the empire 's chief medium of exchange: silver. The Protestant powers of the Dutch Republic and the Kingdom of England staged frequent raids and acts of piracy against the Catholic - based empires of Spain and Portugal in order to weaken their global economic power. Meanwhile, Philip IV of Spain (r. 1621 -- 1665) began cracking down on illegal smuggling of silver from Mexico and Peru across the Pacific towards China, in favor of shipping American - mined silver directly from Spain to Manila. In 1639, the new Tokugawa regime of Japan shut down most of its foreign trade with European powers, causing a halt of yet another source of silver coming into China. However, the greatest stunt to the flow of silver came from the Americas, while Japanese silver still came into China in limited amounts. Some scholars even assert that the price of silver rose in the 17th century due to a falling demand for goods, not declining silver stocks.
These events occurring at roughly the same time caused a dramatic spike in the value of silver and made paying taxes nearly impossible for most provinces. People began hoarding precious silver as there was progressively less of it, forcing the ratio of the value of copper to silver into a steep decline. In the 1630s, a string of one thousand copper coins was worth an ounce of silver; by 1640 this was reduced to the value of half an ounce; by 1643 it was worth roughly one - third of an ounce. For peasants this was an economic disaster, since they paid taxes in silver while conducting local trade and selling their crops with copper coins.
In this early half of the 17th century, famines became common in northern China because of unusual dry and cold weather that shortened the growing season; these were effects of a larger ecological event now known as the Little Ice Age. Famine, alongside tax increases, widespread military desertions, a declining relief system, and natural disasters such as flooding and inability of the government to properly manage irrigation and flood - control projects caused widespread loss of life and normal civility. The central government was starved of resources and could do very little to mitigate the effects of these calamities. Making matters worse, a widespread epidemic spread across China from Zhejiang to Henan, killing a large but unknown number of people. The famine and drought in late 1620s and 1630s contributed to the rebellions that broke out in Shaanxi led by rebel leader such as Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong.
A remarkable tribal leader named Nurhaci (r. 1616 -- 1626), starting with just a small tribe, rapidly gained control over all the Manchurian tribes. During the Imjin War he offered to lead his tribes in support of the Ming army. This offer was declined, but he was granted honorific Ming titles for his gesture. Recognizing the weakness in the Ming authority north of their border, he took control over all of the other unrelated tribes surrounding his homeland. In 1610 he broke relations with the Ming court; in 1618 he demanded the Ming pay tribute to him to redress the seven grievances which he documented and sent to the Ming court. This was, in a very real sense, a declaration of war as the Ming were not about to pay money to the Manchu.
Under the brilliant commander Yuan Chonghuan (1584 -- 1630), the Ming were able to repeatedly fight off the Manchus, notably in 1626 at the Battle of Ningyuan and in 1628. Under Yuan 's command the Ming had securely fortified the Shanhai Pass, thus blocking the Manchus from crossing the pass to attack the Liaodong Peninsula. Using European firearms acquired from his cook, he was able to stave off Nurhaci 's advances along the Liao River. Although he was named field marshal of all the northeastern forces in 1628, he was executed in 1630 on trumped - up charges of colluding with the Manchus as they staged their raids. Succeeding generals proved unable to eliminate the Manchu threat.
Unable to attack the heart of Ming directly, the Manchu instead bided their time, developing their own artillery and gathering allies. They were able to enlist Ming government officials and generals as their strategic advisors. A large part of the Ming Army deserted to the Manchu banner. In 1632, they had conquered much of Inner Mongolia, resulting in a large scale recruitment of Mongol troops under the Manchu banner and the securing of an additional route into the Ming heartland.
Han defectors played a massive role in the Qing conquest of China. Han Chinese Generals who defected to the Manchu were often given women from the Imperial Aisin Gioro family in marriage while the ordinary soldiers who defected were given non-royal Manchu women as wives. The Manchu leader Nurhaci married one of his granddaughters to the Ming General Li Yongfang after he surrendered Fushun in Liaoning to the Manchu in 1618 and a mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto and Hongtaiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups. Jurchen (Manchu) women married most the Han Chinese defectors in Liaodong. Aisin Gioro women were married to the sons of the Han Chinese Generals Sun Sike, Geng Jimao, Shang Kexi, and Wu Sangui.
Geng Zhongming, a Han bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan, and his son Geng Jingmao managed to have both his sons Geng Jingzhong and Geng Zhaozhong become court attendants under Shunzhi and get married to Aisin Gioro women, with Haoge 's (a son of Hong Taiji) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong and Prince Abatai 's (Hong Taiji) granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong.
By 1636, the Manchu ruler Huang Taiji renamed his dynasty from the "Later Jin '' to Great Qing at Shenyang, which had fallen to the Manchu in 1621 and was made their capital in 1625. Huang Taiji also adopted the Chinese imperial title huangdi instead of khan, took the imperial title Chongde ("Revering Virtue ''), and changed the ethnic name of his people from Jurchen to Manchu. In 1638 the Manchu defeated and conquered Ming China 's traditional ally Korea with an army of 100,000 troops in the Second Manchu invasion of Korea. Shortly after the Koreans renounced their long - held loyalty to the Ming dynasty.
A peasant soldier named Li Zicheng (1606 -- 1644) mutinied with his fellow soldiers in western Shaanxi in the early 1630s after the government failed to ship much - needed supplies there. In 1634 he was captured by a Ming general and released only on the terms that he return to service. The agreement soon broke down when a local magistrate had thirty - six of his fellow rebels executed; Li 's troops retaliated by killing the officials and continued to lead a rebellion based in Rongyang, central Henan province by 1635. By the 1640s, an ex-soldier and rival to Li -- Zhang Xianzhong (1606 -- 1647) -- had created a firm rebel base in Chengdu, Sichuan, while Li 's center of power was in Hubei with extended influence over Shaanxi and Henan.
In 1640, masses of Chinese peasants who were starving, unable to pay their taxes, and no longer in fear of the frequently defeated Chinese army, began to form into huge bands of rebels. The Chinese military, caught between fruitless efforts to defeat the Manchu raiders from the north and huge peasant revolts in the provinces, essentially fell apart. Unpaid, unfed, the army was defeated by Li Zicheng -- now self - styled as the Prince of Shun -- and deserted the capital without much of a fight. Li 's forces were allowed into the city when the gates were treacherously opened from within. On May 26, 1644, Beijing fell to a rebel army led by Li Zicheng; during the turmoil, the Chongzhen Emperor hanged himself on a tree in the imperial garden right outside the Forbidden City.
Seizing opportunity, the Manchus crossed the Great Wall after the Ming border general Wu Sangui (1612 -- 1678) opened the gates at Shanhai Pass. This occurred shortly after he learned about the fate of the capital and an army of Li Zicheng marching towards him; weighing his options of alliance, he decided to side with the Manchus. The Manchu army under the Manchu Prince Dorgon (1612 -- 1650) and Wu Sangui approached Beijing after the army sent by Li was destroyed at Shanhaiguan; the Prince of Shun 's army fled the capital on the fourth of June. On June 6 the Manchus and Wu entered the capital and proclaimed the young Shunzhi Emperor ruler of China. After being forced out of Xi'an by the Manchus, chased along the Han River to Wuchang, and finally along the northern border of Jiangxi province, Li Zicheng died there in the summer of 1645, thus ending the Shun dynasty. One report says his death was a suicide; another states that he was beaten to death by peasants after he was caught stealing their food. Zhang Xianzhong was killed in January 1647 when one of his own officers, Liu Jinzhong defected to the Qing and pointed Zhang out to a Manchu archer after he fled Chengdu and employed a scorched earth policy.
The Qing differentiated between Han Bannermen and ordinary Han civilians. Han Bannermen were made out of Han Chinese who defected to the Qing up to 1644 and joined the Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges in addition to being acculturated to Manchu culture. So many Han defected to the Qing and swelled up the ranks of the Eight Banners that ethnic Manchus became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16 % in 1648, with Han Bannermen dominating at 75 %. It was this multi-ethnic force in which Manchus were only a minority, which conquered China for the Qing.
It was Han Chinese Bannermen who were responsible for the successful Qing conquest of China, they made up the majority of governors in the early Qing and were the ones who governed and administered China after the conquest, stabilizing Qing rule. Han Bannermen dominated the post of governor - general in the time of the Shunzhi and Kangxi emperors, and also the post of governors, largely excluding ordinary Han civilians from the posts.
The Qing showed that the Manchus valued military skills in propaganda targeted towards the Ming military to get them to defect to the Qing, since the Ming civilian political system discriminated against the military. The three Liaodong Han Bannermen officers who played a massive role in the conquest of southern China from the Ming were Shang Kexi, Geng Zhongming, and Kong Youde and they governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing after their conquests. Normally the Manchu Bannermen acted as only reserve forces while the Qing foremost used defected Han Chinese troops to fight as the vanguard during the entire conquest of China.
Among the Banners, gunpowder weapons like muskets and artillery were specifically wielded by the Chinese Banners.
To promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree from Shunzhi allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners, it was only later in the dynasty that these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with.
Scattered Ming remnants still existed after 1644, including those of Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) who established the Kingdom of Tungning on Taiwan (Formosa). Despite the loss of Beijing and the death of the Chongzhen Emperor, Ming power was by no means totally destroyed. Nanjing, Fujian, Guangdong, Shanxi, and Yunnan were all strongholds of Ming resistance. However, there were several pretenders for the Ming throne, and their forces were divided. Each bastion of resistance was individually defeated by the Qing until 1662, when the last southern Ming emperor died, the Yongli Emperor, Zhu Youlang. The last Ming princes to hold out were the Prince of Ningjing Zhu Shugui and Prince Zhu Honghuan (朱弘桓), son of Zhu Yihai, who stayed with Koxinga 's Ming loyalists in the Kingdom of Tungning until 1683. Koxinga 's grandson Zheng Keshuang surrendered to the Qing dynasty in 1683 and was rewarded by the Kangxi Emperor with the title "Duke of Haicheng '' (海 澄 公) and he and his soldiers were inducted into the Eight Banners,
The Qing sent the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives. Despite the Ming defeat, smaller loyalist movements continued until the proclamation of the Republic of China.
In 1725, the Yongzheng Emperor of the Qing dynasty bestowed the hereditary title of Marquis on a descendant of the Ming dynasty imperial family, Zhu Zhiliang, who received a salary from the Qing government and whose duty was to perform rituals at the Ming tombs, and was also inducted the Chinese Plain White Banner in the Eight Banners. Later the Qianlong Emperor bestowed the title Marquis of Extended Grace posthumously on Zhu Zhuliang in 1750, and the title passed on through twelve generations of Ming descendants until the end of the Qing dynasty in 1912. The last Marquis of Extended Grance was Zhu Yuxun.
In 1912, after the overthrow of the Qing dynasty in the Xinhai Revolution, some advocated that a Han be installed as Emperor, either the descendant of Confucius, who was the Duke Yansheng, or the Ming dynasty Imperial family descendant, the Marquis of Extended Grace.
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continuous directed evolution for strain and protein engineering | Directed evolution - wikipedia
Directed evolution (DE) is a method used in protein engineering that mimics the process of natural selection to steer proteins or nucleic acids toward a user - defined goal. It consists of subjecting a gene to iterative rounds of mutagenesis (creating a library of variants), selection (expressing those variants and isolating members with the desired function), and amplification (generating a template for the next round). It can be performed in vivo (in living organisms), or in vitro (in cells or free in solution). Directed evolution is used both for protein engineering as an alternative to rationally designing modified proteins, as well as studies of fundamental evolutionary principles in a controlled, laboratory environment.
Directed evolution has its origins in the 1960s with the evolution of RNA molecules in the "Spiegelman 's Monster '' experiment. The concept was extended to protein evolution via evolution of bacteria under selection pressures that favoured the evolution of a single gene in its genome.
Early phage display techniques in the 1980s allowed targeting of mutations and selection to a single protein. This enabled selection of enhanced binding proteins, but was not yet compatible with selection for catalytic activity of enzymes. Methods to evolve enzymes were developed in the 1990s and brought the technique to a wider scientific audience. The field rapidly expanded with new methods for making libraries of gene variants and for screening their activity. The development of directed evolution methods was honored in 2018 with the awarding of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Frances Arnold for evolution of enzymes, and George Smith and Gregory Winter for phage display.
Directed evolution is a mimic of the natural evolution cycle in a laboratory setting. Evolution requires three things to happen: variation between replicators, that the variation causes fitness differences upon which selection acts, and that this variation is heritable. In DE, a single gene is evolved by iterative rounds of mutagenesis, selection or screening, and amplification. Rounds of these steps are typically repeated, using the best variant from one round as the template for the next to achieve stepwise improvements.
The likelihood of success in a directed evolution experiment is directly related to the total library size, as evaluating more mutants increases the chances of finding one with the desired properties.
The first step in performing a cycle of directed evolution is the generation of a library of variant genes. The sequence space for random sequence is vast (10 possible sequences for a 100 amino acid protein) and extremely sparsely populated by functional proteins. Neither experimental, nor natural evolution can ever get close to sampling so many sequences. Of course, natural evolution samples variant sequences close to functional protein sequences and this is imitated in DE by mutagenising an already functional gene. Some calculations suggest it is entirely feasible that for all practical (i.e. functional and structural) purposes, protein sequence space has been fully explored during the course of evolution of life on Earth.
The starting gene can be mutagenised by random point mutations (by chemical mutagens or error prone PCR) and insertions and deletions (by transposons). Gene recombination can be mimicked by DNA shuffling of several sequences (usually of more than 70 % homology) to jump into regions of sequence space between the shuffled parent genes. Finally, specific regions of a gene can be systematically randomised for a more focused approach based on structure and function knowledge. Depending on the method, the library generated will vary in the proportion of functional variants it contains. Even if an organism is used to express the gene of interest, by mutagenising only that gene, the rest of the organism 's genome remains the same and can be ignored for the evolution experiment (to the extent of providing a constant genetic environment).
The majority of mutations are deleterious and so libraries of mutants tend to mostly have variants with reduced activity. Therefore, a high - throughput assay is vital for measuring activity to find the rare variants with beneficial mutations that improve the desired properties. Two main categories of method exist for isolating functional variants. Selection systems directly couple protein function to survival of the gene, whereas screening systems individually assay each variant and allow a quantitative threshold to be set for sorting a variant or population of variants of a desired activity. Both selection and screening can be performed in living cells (in vivo evolution) or performed directly on the protein or RNA without any cells (in vitro evolution).
During in vivo evolution, each cell (usually bacteria or yeast) is transformed with a plasmid containing a different member of the variant library. In this way, only the gene of interest differs between the cells, with all other genes being kept the same. The cells express the protein either in their cytoplasm or surface where its function can be tested. This format has the advantage of selecting for properties in a cellular environment, which is useful when the evolved protein or RNA is to be used in living organisms. When performed without cells, DE involves using in vitro transcription translation to produce proteins or RNA free in solution or compartmentalised in artificial microdroplets. This method has the benefits of being more versatile in the selection conditions (e.g. temperature, solvent), and can express proteins that would be toxic to cells. Furthermore, in vitro evolution experiments can generate far larger libraries (up to 10) because the library DNA need not be inserted into cells (often a limiting step).
Selection for binding activity is conceptually simple. The target molecule is immobilised on a solid support, a library of variant proteins is flowed over it, poor binders are washed away, and the remaining bound variants recovered to isolate their genes. Binding of an enzyme to immobilised covalent inhibitor has been also used as an attempt to isolate active catalysts. This approach, however, only selects for single catalytic turnover and is not a good model of substrate binding or true substrate reactivity. If an enzyme activity can be made necessary for cell survival, either by synthesizing a vital metabolite, or destroying a toxin, then cell survival is a function of enzyme activity. Such systems are generally only limited in throughput by the transformation efficiency of cells. They are also less expensive and labour - intensive than screening, however they are typically difficult to engineer, prone to artefacts and give no information on the range of activities present in the library.
An alternative to selection is a screening system. Each variant gene is individually expressed and assayed to quantitatively measure the activity (most often by a colourgenic or fluorogenic product). The variants are then ranked and the experimenter decides which variants to use as templates for the next round of DE. Even the most high throughput assays usually have lower coverage than selection methods but give the advantage of producing detailed information on each one of the screened variants. This disaggregated data can also be used to characterise the distribution of activities in libraries which is not possible in simple selection systems. Screening systems, therefore, have advantages when it comes to experimentally characterising adaptive evolution and fitness landscapes.
When functional proteins have been isolated, it is necessary that their genes are too, therefore a genotype - phenotype link is required. This can be covalent, such as mRNA display where the mRNA gene is linked to the protein at the end of translation by puromycin. Alternatively the protein and its gene can be co-localised by compartmentalisation in living cells or emulsion droplets. The gene sequences isolated are then amplified by PCR or by transformed host bacteria. Either the single best sequence, or a pool of sequences can be used as the template for the next round of mutagenesis. The repeated cycles of Diversification - Selection - Amplification generate protein variants adapted to the applied selection pressures.
Rational design of a protein relies on an in - depth knowledge of the protein structure, as well as its catalytic mechanism. Specific changes are then made by site - directed mutagenesis in an attempt to change the function of the protein. A drawback of this is that even when the structure and mechanism of action of the protein are well known, the change due to mutation is still difficult to predict. Therefore, an advantage of DE is that there is no need to understand the mechanism of the desired activity or how mutations would affect it.
A restriction of directed evolution is that a high - throughput assay is required in order to measure the effects of a large number of different random mutations. This can require extensive research and development before it can be used for directed evolution. Additionally, such assays are often highly specific to monitoring a particular activity and so are not transferable to new DE experiments.
Additionally, selecting for improvement in the assayed function simply generates improvements in the assayed function. To understand how these improvements are achieved, the properties of the evolving enzyme have to be measured. Improvement of the assayed activity can be due to improvements in enzyme catalytic activity or enzyme concentration. There is also no guarantee that improvement on one substrate will improve activity on another. This is particularly important when the desired activity can not be directly screened or selected for and so a ' proxy ' substrate is used. DE can lead to evolutionary specialisation to the proxy without improving the desired activity. Consequently, choosing appropriate screening or selection conditions is vital for successful DE.
Combined, ' semi-rational ' approaches are being investigated to address the limitations of both rational design and directed evolution. Beneficial mutations are rare, so large numbers of random mutants have to be screened to find improved variants. ' Focused libraries ' concentrate on randomising regions thought to be richer in beneficial mutations for the mutagenesis step of DE. A focused library contains fewer variants than a traditional random mutagenesis library and so does not require such high - throughput screening.
Creating a focused library requires some knowledge of which residues in the structure to mutate. For example, knowledge of the active site of an enzyme may allow just the residues known to interact with the substrate to be randomised. Alternatively, knowledge of which protein regions are variable in nature can guide mutagenesis in just those regions.
Directed evolution is frequently used for protein engineering as an alternative to rational design, but can also be used to investigate fundamental questions of enzyme evolution.
As a protein engineering tool, DE has been most successful in three areas:
The study of natural evolution is traditionally based on extant organisms and their genes. However, research is fundamentally limited by the lack of fossils (and particularly the lack of ancient DNA sequences) and incomplete knowledge of ancient environmental conditions. Directed evolution investigates evolution in a controlled system of genes for individual enzymes, ribozymes and replicators (similar to experimental evolution of eukaryotes, prokaryotes and viruses).
DE allows control of selection pressure, mutation rate and environment (both the abiotic environment such as temperature, and the biotic environment, such as other genes in the organism). Additionally, there is a complete record of all evolutionary intermediate genes. This allows for detailed measurements of evolutionary processes, for example epistasis, evolvability, adaptive constraint fitness landscapes, and neutral networks.
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in 1905 who founded the servants of india society aimed at promoting education | Servants of India Society - Wikipedia
The Servants of India Society was formed in Pune, Maharashtra, on June 12, 1905 by Gopal Krishna Gokhale, who left the Deccan Education Society to form this association. Along with him were a small group of educated Indians, as Natesh Appaji Dravid, Gopal Krishna Deodhar and Anant Patwardhan who wanted to promote social and human development and overthrow the British rule in India. The Society organized many campaigns to promote education, sanitation, health care and fight the social evils of untouchability and discrimination, alcoholism, poverty, oppression of women and domestic abuse. The publication of The Hitavada, the organ of the Society in English from Nagpur commenced in 1911.
Prominent Indians were its members and leaders. It chose to remain away from political activities and organizations like the Indian National Congress.
The base of the Society shrank after Gokhale 's death in 1915, and in the 1920s with the rise of Mahatma Gandhi as president of Congress, who launched social reform campaigns on a mass scale throughout the nation and attracted young Indians to the cause. However, it still continues its activities albeit with a small membership. It has its H.Q. in the city of Pune, Maharashtra. It has its branches in various other states like Uttar Pradesh, Odisha and Uttarakhand. It has its Branch office at Allahabad, U.P.. It runs Primary Schools, Residential Hostel for Tribal Boys, Ashram Type Schools for tribal girls, chreche centres etc. in U.P..
In Uttarakhand the Servants of India Society runs Primary Schools, Ashram Type School for girls, Buxa Boys Hostel for tribal boys, a Secondary School, a Senior Secondary School, chreche centres etc. In Uttarakhand its central office is in the town of Bazpur, in the Udham Singh Nagar District.
In Odisha it has its centres at Cuttak, Choudwar and Rayagada. It runs an orphanage in Odisha.
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what are the children's names in the cat in the hat | The Cat in the Hat - wikipedia
The Cat in the Hat is a children 's book written and illustrated by Theodor Geisel under the pen name Dr. Seuss and first published in 1957. The story centers on a tall anthropomorphic cat, who wears a red and white - striped hat and a red bow tie. The Cat shows up at the house of Sally and her unnamed brother one rainy day when their mother is away. Ignoring repeated objections from the children 's fish, the Cat shows the children a few of his tricks in an attempt to entertain them. In the process he and his companions, Thing One and Thing Two, wreck the house. The children and the fish become more and more alarmed until the Cat produces a machine that he uses to clean everything up. He then says his goodbyes and disappears just before the children 's mother walks in.
Geisel created the book in response to a debate in the United States about literacy in early childhood and the ineffectiveness of traditional primers such as those featuring Dick and Jane. Geisel was asked to write a more entertaining primer by William Spaulding, whom he had met during World War II and who was then director of the education division at Houghton Mifflin. However, because Geisel was already under contract with Random House, the two publishers agreed to a deal: Houghton Mifflin published the education edition, which was sold to schools, and Random House published the trade edition, which was sold in bookstores.
Geisel gave varying accounts of how he created The Cat in the Hat, but in the version he told most often he was so frustrated with the word list from which he could choose words to write his story that he decided to scan the list and create a story based on the first two words he found that rhymed. The words he found were cat and hat. The book was met with immediate critical and commercial success. Reviewers praised it as an exciting alternative to traditional primers. Three years after its debut, the book had already sold over a million copies, and in 2001 Publishers Weekly listed the book at number nine on its list of best - selling children 's books of all time. The book 's success led to the creation of Beginner Books, a publishing house centered on producing similar books for young children learning to read. In 1983, Geisel said, "It is the book I 'm proudest of because it had something to do with the death of the Dick and Jane primers. '' The book was adapted into a 1971 animated television special and a 2003 live - action film. Adrian Edmondson read the book as part of his audiobook collection for HarperCollins, alongside Fox in Socks, Green Eggs and Ham and the sequel book to The Cat in the Hat, The Cat in the Hat Comes Back.
The story begins as a girl named Sally and her unnamed brother, who serves as the narrator of the book, sit alone in their house on a cold, rainy day, staring wistfully out the window. Then they hear a loud bump which is quickly followed by the arrival of the Cat in the Hat, a tall anthropomorphic cat in a red and white striped hat and a red bow tie. The Cat proposes to entertain the children with some tricks that he knows. The children 's pet fish refuses, insisting that the Cat should leave. The Cat responds by balancing the fish on the tip of his umbrella. The game quickly becomes increasingy trickier, as the Cat balances himself on a ball and tries to balance lots of household items on his limbs until he falls on his head, dropping everything he was holding. The fish admonishes him again, but the Cat in the Hat just proposes another game.
The Cat brings in a big red box from outside, from which he releases two identical creatures with blue hair and red suits called Thing One and Thing Two. The Things cause more trouble, such as flying kites in the house, knocking pictures off the wall and picking up the children 's mother 's new polka - dotted gown. All this comes to an end when the fish spots the children 's mother out the window. In response, Sally 's brother catches the Things in a net, and the Cat, apparently ashamed, stores them back in the big red box. He takes it out the front door as the fish and the children survey the mess he has made. But the Cat soon returns, riding a machine that picks everything up and cleans the house, delighting the fish and the children. The Cat then leaves just before their mother arrives, and the fish and the children are back where they started at the beginning of the story. As she steps in, the mother asks the children what they did while she was out, but the children are hesitant and do not answer. The story ends with the question, "What would you do if your mother asked you? ''
Theodor Geisel, writing as Dr. Seuss, created The Cat in the Hat partly in response to the May 24, 1954, Life magazine article by John Hersey titled "Why Do Students Bog Down on First R? A Local Committee Sheds Light on a National Problem: Reading ''. In the article, Hersey was critical of school primers like those featuring Dick and Jane:
In the classroom boys and girls are confronted with books that have insipid illustrations depicting the slicked - up lives of other children... All feature abnormally courteous, unnaturally clean boys and girls... In bookstores anyone can buy brighter, livelier books featuring strange and wonderful animals and children who behave naturally, i.e., sometimes misbehave... Given incentive from school boards, publishers could do as well with primers.
After detailing many issues contributing to the dilemma connected with student reading levels, Hersey asked toward the end of the article:
Why should (school primers) not have pictures that widen rather than narrow the associative richness the children give to the words they illustrate -- drawings like those of the wonderfully imaginative geniuses among children 's illustrators, Tenniel, Howard Pyle, "Dr. Seuss '', Walt Disney?
This article caught the attention of William Spaulding, who had met Geisel during the war and who was then the director of Houghton Mifflin 's education division. Spaulding had also read the best - selling 1955 book Why Johnny Ca n't Read by Rudolf Flesch. Flesch, like Hersey, criticized primers as boring but also criticized them for teaching reading through word recognition rather than phonics. In 1955, Spaulding invited Geisel to dinner in Boston where he proposed that Geisel create a book "for six - and seven - year olds who had already mastered the basic mechanics of reading ''. He reportedly challenged, "Write me a story that first - graders ca n't put down! ''
At the back of Why Johnny Ca n't Read, Flesch had included 72 lists of words that young children should be able to read, and Spaulding provided Geisel with a similar list. Geisel later told biographers Judith and Neil Morgan that Spaulding had supplied him with a list of 348 words that every six - year - old should know and insisted that the book 's vocabulary be limited to 225 words. However, according to Philip Nel, Geisel gave varying numbers in interviews from 1964 to 1969. He variously claimed that he could use between 200 and 250 words from a list of between 300 and 400; the finished book contains 236 different words.
Geisel gave varying accounts of how he conceived of The Cat in the Hat. According to the story Geisel told most often, he was so frustrated with the word list that William Spaulding had given him that he finally decided to scan the list and create a story out of the first two words he found that rhymed. The words he found were cat and hat. Near the end of his life, Geisel told his biographers, Judith and Neil Morgan, that he conceived the beginnings of the story while he was with Spaulding, in an elevator in the Houghton Mifflin offices in Boston. It was an old, shuddering elevator and was operated by a "small, stooped woman wearing ' a leather half - glove and a secret smile ' ''. Anita Silvey, recounting a similar story, described the woman as "a very elegant, very petite African - American woman named Annie Williams ''. Geisel told Silvey that, when he sketched the Cat in the Hat, he thought of Williams and gave the character Williams ' white gloves and "sly, even foxy smile ''.
Geisel gave two conflicting, partly fictionalized accounts of the book 's creation in two articles, "How Orlo Got His Book '' in The New York Times Book Review and "My Hassle with the First Grade Language '' in the Chicago Tribune, both published on November 17, 1957. In "My Hassle with the First Grade Language '', he wrote about his proposal to a "distinguished schoolbook publisher '' to write a book for young children about "scaling the peaks of Everest at 60 degrees below ''. The publisher was intrigued but informed him that, because of the word list, "you ca n't use the word scaling. You ca n't use the word peaks. You ca n't use Everest. You ca n't use 60. You ca n't use degrees. You ca n't... '' Geisel gave a similar account to Robert Cahn for an article in the July 6, 1957, edition of The Saturday Evening Post. In "My Hassle With the First Grade Language '', he also told a story of the "three excruciatingly painful weeks '' in which he worked on a story about a King Cat and a Queen Cat. However, "queen '' was not on the word list, nor did his first grade nephew, Norval, recognize it. So Geisel returned to the work but could then think only of words that started with the letter "q '', which did not appear in any word on the list. He then had a similar fascination with the letter "z '', which also did not appear in any word on the list. When he did finally finish the book and showed it to his nephew, Norval had already graduated from the first grade and was learning calculus. Philip Nel notes, in his dissection of the article, that Norval was Geisel 's invention. Geisel 's niece, Peggy Owens, did have a son, but he was only a one - year - old when the article was published.
In "How Orlo Got His Book '', he described Orlo, a fictional, archetypal young child who was turned off of reading by the poor selection of simple reading material. To save Orlo the frustration, Geisel decided to write a book for children like Orlo but found the task "not dissimilar to... being lost with a witch in a tunnel of love ''. He tried to write a story called "The Queen Zebra '' but found that both words did not appear on the list. In fact, like Geisel wrote in "My Hassle with the First Grade Language '', the letters "q '' and "z '' did not appear on the list at all. He then tried to write a story about a bird, without using the word bird as it did not appear on the list. He decided to call it a "wing thing '' instead but struggled as he discovered that it "could n't have legs or a beak or a tail. Neither a left foot or a right foot. '' On his approach to writing The Cat in the Hat he wrote, "The method I used is the same method you use when you sit down to make apple stroodle (sic) without stroodles. ''
Geisel variously stated that the book took between nine and 18 months to create. Donald Pease notes that he worked on it primarily alone, unlike with previous books, which had been more collaborative efforts between Geisel and his wife, Helen. This marked a general trend in his work and life. As Robert L. Bernstein later said of that period, "The more I saw of him, the more he liked being in that room and creating all by himself. '' Pease points to Helen 's recovery from Guillain -- Barré syndrome, which she was diagnosed with in 1954, as the marker for this change.
Geisel agreed to write The Cat in the Hat at the request of William Spaulding of Houghton Mifflin; however, because Geisel was under contract with Random House, the head of Random House, Bennett Cerf, made a deal with Houghton Mifflin. Random House retained the rights to trade sales, which encompassed copies of the book sold at book stores, while Houghton Mifflin retained the education rights, which encompassed copies sold to schools.
The Houghton Mifflin edition was released in January or February 1957, and the Random House edition was released on March 1. The two editions featured different covers but were otherwise identical. The first edition can be identified by the "200 / 200 '' mark in the top right corner of the front dust jacket flap, signifying the $2.00 selling price. The price was reduced to $1.95 on later editions.
According to Judith and Neil Morgan, the book sold well immediately. The trade edition initially sold an average of 12,000 copies a month, a figure which rose rapidly. Bullock 's department store in Los Angeles, California, sold out of its first, 100 - copy order of the book in a day and quickly reordered 250 more. The Morgans attribute these sales numbers to "playground word - of - mouth '', asserting that children heard about the book from their friends and nagged their parents to buy it for them. However, Houghton Mifflin 's school edition did not sell as well. As Geisel noted in Jonathan Cott 's 1983 profile of him, "Houghton Mifflin... had trouble selling it to the schools; there were a lot of Dick and Jane devotees, and my book was considered too fresh and irreverent. But Bennett Cerf at Random House had asked for trade rights, and it just took off in the bookstores. '' Geisel told the Morgans, "Parents understood better than school people the necessity for this kind of reader. ''
After three years in print, The Cat in the Hat had sold nearly one million copies. By then, the book had been translated into French, Chinese, Swedish, and Braille. In 2001, Publishers Weekly placed it at number nine on its list of the best - selling children 's books of all time. As of 2007, more than 10 million copies of The Cat in the Hat have been printed, and it has been translated into more than 12 different languages, including Latin, under the title Cattus Petasatus. In 2007, on the occasion of the book 's fiftieth anniversary, Random House released The Annotated Cat: Under the Hats of Seuss and His Cats, which includes both The Cat in the Hat and its sequel, with annotations and an introduction by Philip Nel.
The book was published to immediate critical acclaim. Some reviewers praised the book as an exciting way to learn to read, particularly compared to the primers that it supplanted. Ellen Lewis Buell, in her review for The New York Times Book Review, noted the book 's heavy use of one - syllable words and lively illustrations. She wrote, "Beginning readers and parents who have been helping them through the dreary activities of Dick and Jane and other primer characters are due for a happy surprise. '' Helen Adams Masten of the Saturday Review called the book Geisel 's tour de force and wrote, "Parents and teachers will bless Mr. Geisel for this amusing reader with its ridiculous and lively drawings, for their children are going to have the exciting experience of learning that they can read after all. '' Polly Goodwin of the Chicago Sunday Tribune predicted that The Cat in the Hat would cause seven - and eight - year - olds to "look with distinct distaste on the drab adventures of standard primer characters ''.
Both Helen E. Walker of Library Journal and Emily Maxwell of The New Yorker felt that the book would appeal to older children as well as to its target audience of first - and second - graders. The reviewer for The Bookmark concurred, writing, "Recommended enthusiastically as a picture book as well as a reader ''. In contrast, Heloise P. Mailloux wrote in The Horn Book Magazine, "This is a fine book for remedial purposes, but self - conscious children often refuse material if its seems meant for younger children. '' She felt that the book 's limited vocabulary kept it from reaching "the absurd excellence of early Seuss books ''.
Based on a 2007 online poll, the National Education Association named The Cat in the Hat one of its "Teachers ' Top 100 Books for Children ''. In 2012 it was ranked number 36 among the "Top 100 Picture Books '' in a survey published by School Library Journal -- the third of five Dr. Seuss books on the list. It was awarded the Early Readers BILBY Award in 2004 and 2012.
The book 's fiftieth anniversary in 2007 prompted a reevaluation of the book from some critics. Yvonne Coppard, reviewing the fiftieth anniversary edition in Carousel magazine, wondered if the popularity of the Cat and his "delicious naughty behavior '' will endure another fifty years. Coppard wrote, "The innocent ignorance of bygone days has given way to an all - embracing, almost paranoid awareness of child protection issues. And here we have the mysterious stranger who comes in, uninvited, while your mother is out. ''
Philip Nel places the book 's title character in the tradition of con artists in American art, including the title characters from Meredith Willson 's The Music Man and L. Frank Baum 's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Nel also contends that Geisel identified with the Cat, pointing to a self portrait of Geisel in which he appears as the Cat, which was published alongside a profile about him in The Saturday Evening Post on July 6, 1957. Michael K. Frith, who worked as Geisel 's editor, concurs, arguing that "The Cat in the Hat and Ted Geisel were inseparable and the same. I think there 's no question about it. This is someone who delighted in the chaos of life, who delighted in the seeming insanity of the world around him. '' Ruth MacDonald asserts that the Cat 's primary goal in the book is to create fun for the children. The Cat calls it "fun that is funny '', which MacDonald distinguishes from the ordinary, serious fun that parents subject their children to. In an article titled "Was the Cat in the Hat Black? '', Philip Nel draws connections between the Cat and stereotyped depictions of African - Americans, including minstrel shows, Geisel 's own minstrel - inspired cartoons from early in his career, and the use of the term "cat '' to refer to jazz musicians. According to Nel, "Even as (Geisel) wrote books designed to challenge prejudice, he never fully shed the cultural assumptions he grew up with, and was likely unaware of the ways in which his visual imagination replicated the racial ideologies he consciously sought to reject. ''
Geisel once called the fish "my version of Cotton Mather '', the Puritan moralist who advised the prosecutors during the Salem witch trials. Betty Mensch and Alan Freeman support this view, writing, "Drawing on old Christian symbolism (the fish was an ancient sign of Christianity) Dr. Seuss portrays the fish as a kind of ever - nagging superego, the embodiment of utterly conventionalized morality. '' Philip Nel notes that other critics have also compared the fish to the superego. Anna Quindlen called the Cat "pure id '' and marked the children, as mediators between the Cat and the fish, as the ego. Mensch and Freeman, however, argue that the Cat shows elements of both id and ego.
In her analysis of the fish, MacDonald asserts that it represents the voice of the children 's absent mother. Its conflict with the Cat, not only over the Cat 's uninvited presence but also their inherent predator - prey relationship, provides the tension of the story. She points out that on the last page, while the children are hesitant to tell their mother about what happened in her absence, the fish gives a knowing look to the readers to assure them "that something did go on but that silence is the better part of valor in this case ''. Alison Lurie agrees, writing, "there is a strong suggestion that they might not tell her. '' She argues that, in the Cat 's destruction of the house, "the kids -- and not only those in the story, but those who read it -- have vicariously given full rein to their destructive impulses without guilt or consequences. '' For a 1983 article, Geisel told Jonathan Cott, "The Cat in the Hat is a revolt against authority, but it 's ameliorated by the fact that the Cat cleans up everything at the end. It 's revolutionary in that it goes as far as Kerensky and then stops. It does n't go quite as far as Lenin. ''
Donald Pease notes that The Cat in the Hat shares some structural similarities with other Dr. Seuss books. Like earlier books, The Cat in the Hat starts with "a child 's feeling of discontent with his mundane circumstances '' which is soon enhanced by make believe. The book starts in a factual, realistic world, which crosses over into the world of make believe with the loud bump that heralds the arrival of the Cat. However, this is the first Dr. Seuss book in which the fantasy characters, i.e. the Cat and his companions, are not products of the children 's imagination. It also differs from previous books in that Sally and her brother actively participate in the fantasy world; they also have a changed opinion of the Cat and his world by the story 's end.
Ruth MacDonald asserts, "The Cat in the Hat is the book that made Dr. Seuss famous. Without The Cat, Seuss would have remained a minor light in the history of children 's literature. '' Donald Pease concurs, writing, "The Cat in the Hat is the classic in the archive of Dr. Seuss stories for which it serves as a cornerstone and a linchpin. Before writing it Geisel was better known for the ' Quick, Henry, the Flit! ' ad campaign than for his nine children 's books. '' The publication and popularity of the book thrust Geisel into the center of the United States literacy debate, what Pease called "the most important academic controversy '' of the Cold War era. Academic Louis Menand contends that "The Cat in the Hat transformed the nature of primary education and the nature of children 's books. It not only stood for the idea that reading ought to be taught by phonics; it also stood for the idea that language skills -- and many other subjects -- ought to be taught through illustrated storybooks, rather than primers and textbooks. '' In 1983, Geisel told Jonathan Cott, "It is the book I 'm proudest of because it had something to do with the death of the Dick and Jane primers. ''
The book led directly to the creation of Beginner Books, a publishing house centered on producing books like The Cat in the Hat for beginning readers. According to Judith and Neil Morgan, when the book caught the attention of Phyllis Cerf, the wife of Geisel 's publisher, Bennett Cerf, she arranged for a meeting with Geisel, where the two agreed to create Beginner Books. Geisel became the president and editor, and the Cat in the Hat served as their mascot. Geisel 's wife, Helen, was made third partner. Random House served as distributor until 1960, when Random House purchased Beginner Books. Geisel wrote multiple books for the series, including The Cat in the Hat Comes Back (1958), Green Eggs and Ham (1960), Hop on Pop (1963), and Fox in Socks (1965). He initially used word lists of limited vocabularies to create these books, as he had with The Cat in the Hat, but moved away from the lists as he came to believe "that a child could learn any amount of words if fed them slowly and if the books were amply illustrated ''. Other authors also contributed notable books to the series, including A Fly Went By (1958), Sam and the Firefly (1958), Go, Dog. Go! (1961), and The Big Honey Hunt (1962).
The book, or elements of it, has been mentioned multiple times in United States politics. The image of the Cat balancing many objects on his body while in turn balancing himself on a ball has been included in political cartoons and articles. Political caricaturists have portrayed both Bill Clinton and George W. Bush in this way. In 2004, MAD magazine published "The Strange Similarities Between the Bush Administration and the World of Dr. Seuss '', an article which matched quotes from White House officials to excerpts taken from Dr. Seuss books, and in which George W. Bush 's State of the Union promises were contrasted with the Cat vowing (in part), "I can hold up the cup and the milk and the cake! I can hold up these books! And the fish on a rake! '' In 2007, during the 110th Congress, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid compared the impasse over a bill to reform immigration with the mess created by the Cat. He read lines of the book from the Senate floor. He then carried forward his analogy hoping the impasse would be straightened out for "If you go back and read Dr. Seuss, the cat manages to clean up the mess. '' In 1999, the United States Postal Service issued a stamp featuring the Cat in the Hat.
The Cat in the Hat 's popularity also led to increased popularity and exposure for Geisel 's previous children 's books. For example, 1940 's Horton Hatches the Egg had sold 5,801 copies in its opening year and 1,645 the following year. In 1958, the year after the publication of The Cat in the Hat, 27,643 copies of Horton were sold, and by 1960 the book had sold a total of over 200,000 copies.
The Cat in the Hat has been adapted for various media, including theater, television, film, and educational software. The animated musical TV special premiered in 1971 and starred Allan Sherman as the Cat. In 2003, a live - action film adaptation was released, starring Mike Myers as the Cat, Spencer Breslin as Conrad, and Dakota Fanning as Sally. Boxoffice.com reports that the film grossed $133,960,541 worldwide on an estimated $109 million budget. In 2012, following the financial success of The Lorax, the animated film adaptation of the Dr. Seuss book of the same name, Universal Pictures and Illumination Entertainment announced plans to produce a CGI adaptation of the book. Rob Lieber was set to write the script, with Chris Meledandri as producer, and Audrey Geisel as the executive producer. However, the project never came into fruition. On January 24, 2018, it was announced that Warner Animation Group was in development of an animated Cat in the Hat film as part of a creative partnership with Seuss Enterprises.
In 2009, the Royal National Theatre created a stage version of the book, adapted and directed by Katie Mitchell. Seussical, a musical adaptation that incorporates aspects of many Dr. Seuss works, features the Cat in the Hat as narrator. The musical received weak reviews when it opened, in November 2001, but eventually became a staple in regional and school theaters. The Cat also stars in the 1982 television film The Grinch Grinches the Cat in the Hat and the 2010 animated television series The Cat in the Hat Knows a Lot About That!. A ride at Universal Studios ' Islands of Adventure park in Orlando, Florida, has a Cat in the Hat theme.
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the japan current is an ocean current that | Kuroshio Current - wikipedia
The Kuroshio (黒潮,, "くろしお '', (kɯɾoɕio) "Black Tide '', "Japan Current '') is a north - flowing ocean current on the west side of the North Pacific Ocean. It is similar to the Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic and is part of the North Pacific ocean gyre. Like the Gulf stream, it is a strong western boundary current.
It begins off the east coast of Luzon, Philippines, Taiwan and flows northeastward past Japan, where it merges with the easterly drift of the North Pacific Current. It is analogous to the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean, transporting warm, tropical water northward toward the polar region. It is sometimes known as the Black Stream -- the English translation of kuroshio and an allusion to the deep blue of its water -- and also as the "Japan Current '' (日本 海流, Nihon Kairyū).
The path of Kuroshio south of Japan is reported every day. Its counterparts are the North Pacific Current to the north, the California Current to the east, and the North Equatorial Current to the south. The warm waters of the Kuroshio Current sustain the coral reefs of Japan, the northernmost coral reefs in the world. The branch into the Sea of Japan is called Tsushima Current (対馬 海流, Tsushima Kairyū).
Western boundary currents transport organisms long distances rapidly and a variety of commercially important marine organisms migrate in these currents in the course of completing their lives. Subtropical gyres occupy a large fraction of the world 's ocean and are more productive than originally thought. In addition, their fixation of carbon dioxide is an important factor in the global budget for carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Satellite images of the Kuroshio Current illustrate how the current path meanders and forms isolated rings or eddies on the order of 100 to 300 kilometres (60 to 190 mi). Eddies retain their unique form for several months and have their own biological characteristics that depend on where they form. If the eddies are formed between the current and coastline of Japan, they may impinge on the continental shelf; their high kinetic energy has the effect of drawing large volumes of water off the shelf on one side of the ring, while adding water to the other side. The eddies size and strength decline with distance from major ocean currents. The amount of energy decreases from the rings associated with the major currents and down to eddies remote from those currents. Cyclonic eddies have the potential to cause upwelling that would affect the global primary - production budget. Upwelling brings cold, nutrient - rich water to the surface resulting in an increase in productivity. The biological consequences for young fish populations that inhabit the shelf are quite large.
The Kuroshio is a warm current -- 24 ° C (75 ° F) annual average sea - surface temperature -- about 100 kilometres (62 mi) wide and produces frequent small to meso - scale eddies. The Kuroshio Current is ranked as a moderately high productivity ecosystem -- with primary production of 150 to 300 grams (5 to 11 oz) -- of carbon per square meter per year -- based on SeaWiFS global primary productivity estimates. The coastal areas are highly productive and the maximum chlorophyll value is found around 100 metres (330 ft) depth.
There are indications that eddies contribute to the preservation and survival of fish larvae transported by the Kuroshio. Plankton biomass fluctuates yearly and is typically highest in the eddy area of the Kuroshio 's edge. Warm - core rings are not known for having high productivity. However, the biology of the warm - core rings from the Kuroshio Current show results of productivity equally distributed throughout for a couple of reasons. One is upwelling at the periphery; the other is the convective mixing caused by the cooling of surface water as the ring moves north of the current. The thermostad is the deep mixed layer that has discrete boundaries and uniform temperature. Within this layer, nutrient - rich water is brought to the surface, which generates a burst of primary production. Given that the water in the core of a ring has a different temperature regime than the shelf waters, there are times when a warm - core ring is undergoing its spring bloom while the surrounding shelf waters are not.
There are many complex interactions with the warm - core ring and thus lifetime productivity is not very different from the surrounding shelf water. A study in 1998 found that the primary productivity within a warm - core ring was almost the same as in the cold jet outside it, with evidence of upwelling of nutrients within the ring. In addition, there was discovery of dense populations of phytoplankton at the nutricline in a ring, presumably supported by upward mixing of nutrients. Furthermore, there have been acoustic studies in the warm - core ring, which showed intense sound scattering from zooplankton and fish populations in the ring and very sparse acoustic signals outside of it.
Copepods have been used as indicator - species of water masses. It has been suggested that copepods have been transported from the Kuroshio Current into southwest Taiwan through the Luzon Strait. The Kuroshio intrusion through the Luzon Strait and further into the South China Sea may explain why copepods show a very high diversity in adjacent waters of the intrusion areas. The Kuroshio Current intrusion has a major influence on C. sinicus and E. concinna, which are two copepod species with higher index values for winter and originate from the East China Sea. During the southwestern monsoon, the South China Sea Surface Current moves northward during the summer toward the Kuroshio Current. As a result of this water circulation, the zooplankton communities in the boundary waters are unique and diverse.
The biomass of fish stocks depends on the biomass of lower trophic levels, primary production and on oceanic and atmospheric conditions. In the Kuroshio - Oyashio region, the fish catches depend on oceanographic conditions, such as the Oyashio 's southward intrusion and the Kuroshio 's large meander south of Honshu. The Oyashio Current contains subarctic water that is much colder and fresher than the resident water east of Honshu. Thus, the fish intrusion affects recruitment, biomass, and catch of species such as pollock, sardine, and anchovy. When the Oyashio is well developed and protrudes southward, the cold waters are favorable for sardine production. The Kuroshio large meander development correlates with sardine recruitment and catch due to the proximity of the Kuroshio meander to the southern spawning grounds of sardine.
The Japanese squid Todarodes pacificus has three stocks that breed in winter, summer, and autumn. The winter spawning group is associated with the Kuroshio Current. After spawning in January to April in the East China Sea, the larvae and juveniles travel north with the Kuroshio Current. They are turned inshore and are caught between the islands of Honshu and Hokkaido during the summer. The summer spawning is in another part of the East China Sea, from which the larvae are entrained into the Tsushima current that flows north between the islands of Japan and the mainland. Afterward, the current meets a southward flowing cold coastal current, the Liman Current, and the summer - spawned squid are fished along the boundary between the two. This illustrates the use of these western boundary currents as a rapid transport that enable the eggs and larvae to develop during winter in warm water, while the adults travel with minimum energy expenditure to exploit the rich northern feeding grounds. Studies have reported that annual catches in Japan have gradually increased since the late 1980s and it has been proposed that changing environmental conditions have caused the autumn and winter spawning areas in the Tsushima Strait and near the Goto Islands to overlap. In addition, winter spawning sites over the continental shelf and slope in the East China Sea are expanding.
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a tornado cloud that does not touch the ground is called | Tornado warning - wikipedia
A tornado warning (SAME code: TOR) is an alert issued by national weather forecasting agencies to warn the public that severe thunderstorms with tornadoes are imminent or occurring. It can be issued after a tornado, funnel cloud and rotation in the clouds has been spotted by the public, storm chasers, emergency management or law enforcement.
When this happens, the tornado sirens may sound in that area if any sirens are present, informing people that a tornado has been sighted or may be forming nearby (because sirens are not intended to be heard indoors, residents should not completely depend on them). The issuance of a tornado warning indicates that residents should take immediate safety precautions.
It is a higher level of alert than a tornado watch, but (in the United States) it can be surpassed by an even higher alert known as a tornado emergency.
The first official tornado forecast -- and tornado warning -- was made by United States Air Force Capt. (later Col.) Robert C. Miller and Major Ernest Fawbush, on March 25, 1948. The first such forecast came after the events that transpired five days earlier on March 20, 1948; Miller -- a California native who became stationed at Tinker Air Force Base three weeks earlier -- was assigned to work the late shift as a forecaster for the base 's Air Weather Service office that evening, analyzing U.S. Weather Bureau surface maps and upper - air charts that failed to note atmospheric instability and moisture content present over Oklahoma that would be suitable for producing thunderstorm activity, erroneously forecasting dry conditions for that night. Thunderstorms soon developed southwest of Oklahoma City, and at 9: 30 p.m., forecasters from Will Rogers Airport sent a warning to Tinker that the storm encroaching the city was producing wind gusts of 92 miles per hour (148 km / h) and a "Tornado South on Ground Moving NE! '' Base personnel received an alert written by the Staff Sarg. on duty with Miller, minutes before the twister struck Tinker several minutes later around 10: 00 p.m., damaging several military aircraft (with total damage estimated at $10 million) that could not be secured in time before it crossed the base grounds.
Following an inquiry the next day before a tribunal of five generals who traveled to Tinker from Washington, D.C., who ruled that the March 20 tornado was an "act of God (...) not forecastable given the present state of the art '', base commander Gen. Fred Borum tasked Miller and Fawbush to follow up on the board 's suggestion to consider methods of forecasting tornadic thunderstorms. Over the next three days, Miller and Fawbush studied reports and charts from previous tornado events to determine the atmospheric conditions favorable for the development of tornadic activity, in an effort to predict such events with some degree of accuracy. At the time, there had not been studies on how tornadoes formed; however, military radars were being adapted for forecasting use, allowing forecasters to see the outlines of storms but not their internal attributes such as rotation. Miller and Fawbush 's findings on atmospheric phenomenon present in past outbreaks would aid in their initial forecast, as the day 's surface and upper - air analysis charts determined the same conditions present on March 20 were present on the 25th, concluded that central Oklahoma would have the highest risk for tornadoes during the late - afternoon and evening.
Borum, who had put together a severe weather safety plan for base personnel, then suggested that Miller and Fawbush issue a severe thunderstorm forecast, and then asked the men if they would issue a tornado forecast based on the similarities between the conditions that produced the tornado which hit the base five days earlier, which they were reluctant to do. Fawbush wrote the forecast message that Miller would type and issued it to base operations at 2: 50 p.m. as thunderstorms were approaching from North Texas. Defying the high odds of two tornadoes hitting the same area in five days, one hit the Tinker campus around 6: 00 p.m., to the surprise of Miller (who left the base an hour earlier, believing their forecast would not pan out), who found out about the storm (produced by two thunderstorms that merged to the southwest of Tinker) via a radio report. Miller and Fawbush would not put out another tornado forecast until March 25, 1949, when they successfully predicted tornadic activity would occur in southeastern Oklahoma.
Miller and Fawbush soon would distribute their tornado forecasts to the American Red Cross and Oklahoma Highway Patrol, after giving William Maughan, chief meteorologist at the U.S. Weather Bureau 's Oklahoma City office (who provided them with additional archived weather data to help fine - tune their forecasts), permission to relay their forecasts to those agencies. The relative accuracy of the forecasts restarted a debate over their reliability and whether military or civilian agencies should have jurisdiction over the issuance of weather warnings. The USAF had pioneered tornado forecasting and tornado warnings, although John P. Finley had developed the first experimental tornado forecasts in 1885, before he and other officials with the agency were prohibited by the United States Signal Service 's weather service from using the word "tornado '' in forecasts two years later, directing Finley to instead reference "severe local storms '', a move motivated by concerns by businessmen in the Great Plains that Finley 's forecasts would hurt economic development if potential investors believed their areas were tornado - prone. This position on tornado forecasting would be shared with the U.S. Weather Bureau after it was formation in 1890, fearing that it would incite panic among the public if tornadoes were predicted to occur; the side effect of this was that the lack of warning resulted in a steady increase in the number of tornado - related fatalities through the 1950s, with some events prior to 1948 (such as the deadliest tornado in U.S. history, the Tri-State Tornado in March 1925, and the Glazier -- Higgins -- Woodward tornadoes in April 1947) having death tolls that exceeded well over 100.
In 1938, the Weather Bureau rescinded its ban on the usage of the word "tornado '' in weather products disseminated to emergency management personnel. The Bureau would develop a network of volunteer storm spotters in the early 1940s during World War II, to provide warning of tornadoes to workers in munitions plants and strategic factories. The ban on issuing tornado warnings to the general public would not be revoked until Chief of Bureau Francis W. Reichelderfer officially lifted the ban in a Circular Letter issued on July 12, 1950 to all first order stations: "Weather Bureau employees should avoid statements that can be interpreted as a negation of the Bureau 's willingness or ability to make tornado forecasts '', and that a "good probability of verification '' exist when issuing such forecasts due to the difficulty in accurately predicting tornadic activity. The American Meteorological Society agreed to have Miller and Fawbush present their methodology for forecasting tornadoes during the organization 's 1950 meeting in St. Louis; after garnering press coverage for their successful prediction of past tornadoes, AMS representatives decided to open the presentation to the public.
The Air Force began issuing severe weather forecasts relayed to Weather Bureau offices and emergency personnel in tornado - prone regions through the formation of the Severe Weather Warning Center in 1951, before the Bureau 's contention that the USAF intruded on its responsibility to relay such forecasts led to the SWWC limiting the release of its tornado forecasts to military personnel; however, the move to prohibit the USAF from widespread releasing of tornado forecasts led to disapproval and heavy criticism from Oklahoma media outlets, given the agency 's continued refusal to provide public tornado warnings. The Weather Bureau issued its first experimental public tornado forecast in March 1952, which proved inaccurate and was released too late to become widely available for public consumption; however, a forecast issued the following evening managed to predict an outbreak of tornadoes across most of the warned seven - state area (from Texas to Indiana).
Even after the U.S. Weather Bureau lifted their ban on tornado warnings, the Federal Communications Commission continued to ban television and radio outlets from broadcasting tornado warnings on - air for the same reasoning cited in the Bureau 's abolished ban. Broadcast media followed this ban until 1954, when meteorologist Harry Volkman broadcast the first televised tornado warning over WKY - TV (now KFOR - TV) in Oklahoma City, due to his belief that the banning of tornado warnings over broadcast media cost lives. Through an alert issued by the USAF Severe Weather Warning Center, Volkman opted to interrupt regular programming to warn viewers of a reported tornado approaching the Oklahoma City area; although station management and U.S. Weather Bureau officials were displeased with his move, WKY - TV received numerous telephone calls and letters thanking Volkman for the warning.
For many years until the early 1980s, an intermediate type of tornado advisory known as a tornado alert was defined by the National Weather Service and issued by the agency 's local forecast offices, indicating that tornado formation was imminent. In theory, tornado alerts covered situations such as visible rotation in clouds and certain other phenomena which are portents of funnel cloud formation. The National Weather Service 's use of this advisory began to decline after 1974, although it was still listed on public information materials issued by various media outlets, local NWS offices and other entities for another decade or so.
The criteria which called for tornado alerts in the past now generally result in a tornado warning with clarifying verbiage specifying that the warning was issued because rotation was detected in one way or another, that a wall cloud has formed or a tornado has been spotted or detected. The preferred response to both the tornado alerts and warnings is to take shelter immediately, so distinguishing them could be seen as splitting hairs, especially since storm prediction methods have improved.
The tornado alert was finally eliminated outright because it was made largely obsolete by the advent of Doppler weather radar, which can detect rotational funnel cloud formations earlier than is typically possible by trained spotters and members of the public. With fewer false - positives, radar also helped reduce public confusion over storm types, strengths and precise locations. The last tornado alert to be officially issued was discussed in earnest following the 1974 Super Outbreak.
The National Weather Service has the option of issuing a tornado emergency, a severe weather statement with unofficial, enhanced wording that is disseminated when a large, extremely violent tornado is about to impact a densely populated area. This category of weather statement is the highest and most urgent level relating to tornadoes, albeit an unofficial alert product. The first tornado emergency was declared on May 3, 1999, when an F5 tornado struck southern portions of the Oklahoma City metropolitan area, causing major damage exceeding $1 billion. In some cases, such as an F3 tornado that struck the Indianapolis, Indiana metropolitan area on September 20, 2002, a tornado emergency has been declared within the initial issuance of the tornado warning. Not all confirmed tornadoes will be considered a "tornado emergency '', and such statements are commonly declared when it is believed that the tornado is at a severity in which it would cause a significant threat to life and property.
The levels of severity increase as follows:
Tornado warnings can also be intensified by added wording mentioning that the storm is life - threatening, that it is an extremely dangerous situation, that a large, violent and / or destructive tornado is on the ground or is capable of causing significant property damage.
A tornado warning is issued when any of the following conditions has occurred:
A tornado warning means there is immediate danger for the warned area and immediate surrounding locations -- if not from the relatively narrow tornado itself, from the severe thunderstorm producing (or likely to produce) it. Those in the path of such a storm are urged to take cover immediately, as it is a life - threatening situation. A warning is different from a tornado watch (issued in the United States by a national guidance center, the Storm Prediction Center) which only indicates that conditions are favorable for the formation of tornadoes.
Generally (but not always), a tornado warning also indicates that the potential is there for severe straight - line winds and / or large hail (in the United States, winds exceeding 58 miles per hour (93 km / h) and hail larger than 1 inch (2.5 cm) are the respective defined criteria to classify such phenomena as severe; the criteria varies in other countries) from the thunderstorm. A severe thunderstorm warning can be upgraded suddenly to a tornado warning should conditions warrant.
In the United States, local offices of the National Weather Service outline warnings for tornadoes and severe thunderstorms in polygonal shapes for map - based weather hazard products, which are used to delineate sections of a county, parish or other jurisdiction that the warning covers (which are also referenced in NWS text warning products by the specified sections of the affected jurisdictions), based on the projected path of a storm as determined by Doppler radar at the time of the warning 's issuance; however, entire counties / parishes are sometimes included in the warning polygon, especially if they encompass a small geographical area. Prior to October 2007, warnings were issued by the National Weather Service on a per - county basis. Storm Prediction Center and National Weather Service products as well as severe weather alert displays used by some television stations highlight tornado warnings with a red polygon or filled county / parish outline.
In Canada, similar criteria are used and warnings are issued by regional offices of the Meteorological Service of Canada branch of Environment Canada in Vancouver, Edmonton, Winnipeg, Toronto, Montreal and Halifax (in the province of Ontario, Emergency Management Ontario recently began issuing red alerts for areas of the province that are already under an Environment Canada - issued tornado warning; these red alerts sometimes override the tornado warning if local government or media are participating in the program).
Tornado warnings are generated via the Advance Weather Interactive Processing System (AWIPS) and then disseminated through various communication routes accessed by the media and various agencies, on the internet, to NOAA satellites, and on NOAA Weather Radio. Tornado sirens are also usually activated for the affected areas if present (the actual areas where sirens are activated may vary depending on the relay structure of a given jurisdiction 's siren network, with some municipalities activating all sirens within their network even in areas not referenced as being included in the warning). Local police or fire departments may dispatch crews not assigned to an existing emergency call to travel within a designated area to warn residents to take tornado safety precautions if sirens are disabled due to technical problems or are not present, while automated phone calls may be made to residents for the same purpose in some areas should such disruptions occur. Additionally, if it is deemed necessary, the National Weather Service has the option of requesting activation of the Emergency Alert System to interrupt television and radio broadcasts to get the bulletin out quickly.
Advances in technology, both in identifying conditions and in distributing warnings effectively, have been credited with reducing the death toll from tornadoes. The average warning times have increased substantially from - 10 to - 15 minutes in 1974 to about 15 minutes as of 2013 (in some cases, the lead time can extend to more than an hour 's warning of impending tornadoes). In the United States, the tornado death rate has declined from 1.8 deaths per million people per year in 1925 to only 0.11 per million in 2000. Much of this change is credited to improvements in the tornado warning system, via the various advances in the detection of severe local storms, along with an increase in reports visually confirming severe weather activity via storm spotters, public officials and citizens.
The SKYWARN program, which trains citizens on how to spot tornadoes, funnel clouds, wall clouds, and other severe weather phenomena, is offered by the National Weather Service. Used in tandem with Doppler radar information, eyewitness reports can be very helpful for warning the public of an impending tornado, especially when used for ground truthing.
Other spotter groups such as the Amateur Radio Emergency Service, news media, local law enforcement agencies / emergency management organizations, cooperative observers, and the general public also relay information to the National Weather Service for ground truthing.
Below is an example of a Tornado Warning issued by the National Weather Service office in Norman, Oklahoma, using the new experimental Impact Based Warning (IBW) format.
Below is an example of an Environment Canada - issued tornado warning for southeastern Saskatchewan.
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who is the author of who was helen keller | Helen Keller - wikipedia
Helen Adams Keller (June 27, 1880 -- June 1, 1968) was an American author, political activist, and lecturer. She was the first deaf - blind person to earn a bachelor of arts degree. The story of how Keller 's teacher, Anne Sullivan, broke through the isolation imposed by a near complete lack of language, allowing the girl to blossom as she learned to communicate, has become widely known through the dramatic depictions of the play and film The Miracle Worker. Her birthplace in West Tuscumbia, Alabama, is now a museum and sponsors an annual "Helen Keller Day ''. Her birthday on June 27 is commemorated as Helen Keller Day in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and was authorized at the federal level by presidential proclamation by President Jimmy Carter in 1980, the 100th anniversary of her birth.
A prolific author, Keller was well - traveled and outspoken in her convictions. A member of the Socialist Party of America and the Industrial Workers of the World, she campaigned for women 's suffrage, labor rights, socialism, antimilitarism, and other similar causes. She was inducted into the Alabama Women 's Hall of Fame in 1971 and was one of twelve inaugural inductees to the Alabama Writers Hall of Fame on June 8, 2015. Keller proved to the world that deaf people could all learn to communicate and that they could survive in the hearing world. She also taught that deaf people are capable of doing things that hearing people can do. One of the most famous deaf people in history, she is an idol to many deaf people in the world.
Helen Adams Keller was born on June 27, 1880, in Tuscumbia, Alabama. Her family lived on a homestead, Ivy Green, that Helen 's grandfather had built decades earlier. She had two siblings, Mildred Campbell and Phillip Brooks Keller, and two older half - brothers from her father 's prior marriage, James and William Simpson Keller.
Her father, Arthur H. Keller, spent many years as an editor for the Tuscumbia North Alabamian, and had served as a captain for the Confederate Army. Her paternal grandmother was second cousins with Robert E. Lee. Her mother, Kate Adams, was the daughter of Charles W. Adams, a Confederate general. Though originally from Massachusetts, Charles Adams also fought for the Confederate Army during the American Civil War, earning the rank of colonel (and acting brigadier - general). Her paternal lineage was traced to Casper Keller, a native of Switzerland. One of Helen 's Swiss ancestors was the first teacher for the deaf in Zurich. Keller reflected on this coincidence in her first autobiography, stating "that there is no king who has not had a slave among his ancestors, and no slave who has not had a king among his. ''
Helen Keller was born with the ability to see and hear. At 19 months old, she contracted an unknown illness described by doctors as "an acute congestion of the stomach and the brain '', which might have been scarlet fever or meningitis. The illness left her both deaf and blind. At that time, she was able to communicate somewhat with Martha Washington, the six - year - old daughter of the family cook, who understood her signs; by the age of seven, Keller had more than 60 home signs to communicate with her family. Even though blind and deaf, Helen Keller had passed through many obstacles and she learned to live with her disabilities. She learned how to tell which person was walking by from the vibrations their footsteps would make. The sex and age of the person could be identified by how strong and continuous the steps were.
In 1886, Keller 's mother, inspired by an account in Charles Dickens ' American Notes of the successful education of another deaf and blind woman, Laura Bridgman, dispatched the young Keller, accompanied by her father, to seek out physician J. Julian Chisolm, an eye, ear, nose, and throat specialist in Baltimore, for advice. Chisholm referred the Kellers to Alexander Graham Bell, who was working with deaf children at the time. Bell advised them to contact the Perkins Institute for the Blind, the school where Bridgman had been educated, which was then located in South Boston. Michael Anagnos, the school 's director, asked 20 - year - old former student Anne Sullivan, herself visually impaired, to become Keller 's instructor. It was the beginning of a 49 - year - long relationship during which Sullivan evolved into Keller 's governess and eventually her companion.
Sullivan arrived at Keller 's house in March 1887, and immediately began to teach Helen to communicate by spelling words into her hand, beginning with "d-o-l-l '' for the doll that she had brought Keller as a present. Keller was frustrated, at first, because she did not understand that every object had a word uniquely identifying it. In fact, when Sullivan was trying to teach Keller the word for "mug '', Keller became so frustrated she broke the mug. Keller 's breakthrough in communication came the next month, when she realized that the motions her teacher was making on the palm of her hand, while running cool water over her other hand, symbolized the idea of "water ''; she then nearly exhausted Sullivan demanding the names of all the other familiar objects in her world.
Helen Keller was viewed as isolated, but was very in touch with the outside world. She was able to enjoy music by feeling the beat and she was able to have a strong connection with animals through touch. She was delayed at picking up language, but that did not stop her from having a voice.
In May 1888, Keller started attending the Perkins Institute for the Blind. In 1894, Keller and Sullivan moved to New York to attend the Wright - Humason School for the Deaf, and to learn from Sarah Fuller at the Horace Mann School for the Deaf. In 1896, they returned to Massachusetts, and Keller entered The Cambridge School for Young Ladies before gaining admittance, in 1900, to Radcliffe College, where she lived in Briggs Hall, South House. Her admirer, Mark Twain, had introduced her to Standard Oil magnate Henry Huttleston Rogers, who, with his wife Abbie, paid for her education. In 1904, at the age of 24, Keller graduated from Radcliffe, becoming the first deaf blind person to earn a Bachelor of Arts degree. She maintained a correspondence with the Austrian philosopher and pedagogue Wilhelm Jerusalem, who was one of the first to discover her literary talent.
Determined to communicate with others as conventionally as possible, Keller learned to speak, and spent much of her life giving speeches and lectures on aspects of her life. She learned to "hear '' people 's speech by reading their lips with her hands -- her sense of touch had heightened. She became proficient at using braille and reading sign language with her hands as well. Shortly before World War I, with the assistance of the Zoellner Quartet, she determined that by placing her fingertips on a resonant tabletop she could experience music played close by.
On January 22, 1916, Keller and Sullivan traveled to the small town of Menomonie in western Wisconsin to deliver a lecture at the Mabel Tainter Memorial Building. Details of her talk were provided in the weekly Dunn County News on January 22, 1916:
A message of optimism, of hope, of good cheer, and of loving service was brought to Menomonie Saturday -- a message that will linger long with those fortunate enough to have received it. This message came with the visit of Helen Keller and her teacher, Mrs. John Macy, and both had a hand in imparting it Saturday evening to a splendid audience that filled The Memorial. The wonderful girl who has so brilliantly triumphed over the triple afflictions of blindness, dumbness and deafness, gave a talk with her own lips on "Happiness, '' and it will be remembered always as a piece of inspired teaching by those who heard it.
When part of the account was reprinted in the January 20, 2016, edition of the paper under the heading "From the Files '', the column compiler added
According to those who attended, Helen Keller spoke of the joy that life gave her. She was thankful for the faculties and abilities that she did possess and stated that the most productive pleasures she had were curiosity and imagination. Keller also spoke of the joy of service and the happiness that came from doing things for others... Keller imparted that "helping your fellow men were one 's only excuse for being in this world and in the doing of things to help one 's fellows lay the secret of lasting happiness. '' She also told of the joys of loving work and accomplishment and the happiness of achievement. Although the entire lecture lasted only a little over an hour, the lecture had a profound impact on the audience.
Anne Sullivan stayed as a companion to Helen Keller long after she taught her. Sullivan married John Macy in 1905, and her health started failing around 1914. Polly Thomson (February 20, 1885 -- March 21, 1960) was hired to keep house. She was a young woman from Scotland who had no experience with deaf or blind people. She progressed to working as a secretary as well, and eventually became a constant companion to Keller.
Keller moved to Forest Hills, Queens, together with Sullivan and Macy, and used the house as a base for her efforts on behalf of the American Foundation for the Blind. "While in her thirties Helen had a love affair, became secretly engaged, and defied her teacher and family by attempting an elopement with the man she loved. '' He was "Peter Fagan, a young Boston Herald reporter who was sent to Helen 's home to act as her private secretary when lifelong companion, Anne, fell ill. ''
Anne Sullivan died in 1936 after a coma as a result of coronary thrombosis, with Keller holding her hand. Keller and Thomson moved to Connecticut. They traveled worldwide and raised funds for the blind. Thomson had a stroke in 1957 from which she never fully recovered, and died in 1960. Winnie Corbally, a nurse whom they originally hired to care for Thomson in 1957, stayed on after her death and was Keller 's companion for the rest of her life.
Keller went on to become a world - famous speaker and author. She is remembered as an advocate for people with disabilities, amid numerous other causes. The Deaf community was widely impacted by her. She traveled to twenty - five different countries giving motivational speeches about Deaf people 's conditions. She was a suffragette, pacifist, radical socialist, birth control supporter, and opponent of Woodrow Wilson. In 1915 she and George A. Kessler founded the Helen Keller International (HKI) organization. This organization is devoted to research in vision, health and nutrition. In 1920, she helped to found the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). Keller traveled to over 40 countries with Sullivan, making several trips to Japan and becoming a favorite of the Japanese people. Keller met every U.S. President from Grover Cleveland to Lyndon B. Johnson and was friends with many famous figures, including Alexander Graham Bell, Charlie Chaplin and Mark Twain. Keller and Twain were both considered radicals at the beginning of the 20th century, and as a consequence, their political views have been forgotten or glossed over in the popular mind.
Keller was a member of the Socialist Party and actively campaigned and wrote in support of the working class from 1909 to 1921. Many of her speeches and writings were about women 's right to vote and the impacts of war. She had speech therapy in order to have her voice heard better by the public. When the Rockefeller - owned press refused to print her articles, she protested until her work was finally published. She supported Socialist Party candidate Eugene V. Debs in each of his campaigns for the presidency. Before reading Progress and Poverty, Helen Keller was already a socialist who believed that Georgism was a good step in the right direction. She later wrote of finding "in Henry George 's philosophy a rare beauty and power of inspiration, and a splendid faith in the essential nobility of human nature. ''
Keller claimed that newspaper columnists who had praised her courage and intelligence before she expressed her socialist views now called attention to her disabilities. The editor of the Brooklyn Eagle wrote that her "mistakes sprung out of the manifest limitations of her development. '' Keller responded to that editor, referring to having met him before he knew of her political views:
At that time the compliments he paid me were so generous that I blush to remember them. But now that I have come out for socialism he reminds me and the public that I am blind and deaf and especially liable to error. I must have shrunk in intelligence during the years since I met him... Oh, ridiculous Brooklyn Eagle! Socially blind and deaf, it defends an intolerable system, a system that is the cause of much of the physical blindness and deafness which we are trying to prevent.
Keller joined the Industrial Workers of the World (the IWW, known as the Wobblies) in 1912, saying that parliamentary socialism was "sinking in the political bog ''. She wrote for the IWW between 1916 and 1918. In Why I Became an IWW, Keller explained that her motivation for activism came in part from her concern about blindness and other disabilities:
I was appointed on a commission to investigate the conditions of the blind. For the first time I, who had thought blindness a misfortune beyond human control, found that too much of it was traceable to wrong industrial conditions, often caused by the selfishness and greed of employers. And the social evil contributed its share. I found that poverty drove women to a life of shame that ended in blindness.
The last sentence refers to prostitution and syphilis, the former a frequent cause of the latter, and the latter a leading cause of blindness. In the same interview, Keller also cited the 1912 strike of textile workers in Lawrence, Massachusetts for instigating her support of socialism.
Keller supported eugenics. In 1915 she wrote in favor of refusing life - saving medical procedures to infants with severe mental impairments or physical deformities, stating that their lives were not worthwhile and they would likely become criminals. Keller also expressed concerns about human overpopulation.
Keller wrote a total of 12 published books and several articles.
One of her earliest pieces of writing, at age 11, was The Frost King (1891). There were allegations that this story had been plagiarized from The Frost Fairies by Margaret Canby. An investigation into the matter revealed that Keller may have experienced a case of cryptomnesia, which was that she had Canby 's story read to her but forgot about it, while the memory remained in her subconscious.
At age 22, Keller published her autobiography, The Story of My Life (1903), with help from Sullivan and Sullivan 's husband, John Macy. It recounts the story of her life up to age 21 and was written during her time in college.
Keller wrote The World I Live In in 1908, giving readers an insight into how she felt about the world. Out of the Dark, a series of essays on socialism, was published in 1913.
When Keller was young, Anne Sullivan introduced her to Phillips Brooks, who introduced her to Christianity, Keller famously saying: "I always knew He was there, but I did n't know His name! ''
Her spiritual autobiography, My Religion, was published in 1927 and then in 1994 extensively revised and re-issued under the title Light in My Darkness. It advocates the teachings of Emanuel Swedenborg, the Christian revelator and theologian who gives a spiritual interpretation of the teachings of the Bible and who claims that the second coming of Jesus Christ has already taken place. Adherents use several names to describe themselves, including Second Advent Christian, Swedenborgian, and New Church.
Keller described the progressive views of her belief in these words:
But in Swedenborg 's teaching it (Divine Providence) is shown to be the government of God 's Love and Wisdom and the creation of uses. Since His Life can not be less in one being than another, or His Love manifested less fully in one thing than another, His Providence must needs be universal... He has provided religion of some kind everywhere, and it does not matter to what race or creed anyone belongs if he is faithful to his ideals of right living.
Keller suffered a series of strokes in 1961 and spent the last years of her life at her home.
On September 14, 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom, one of the United States ' two highest civilian honors. In 1965 she was elected to the National Women 's Hall of Fame at the New York World 's Fair.
Keller devoted much of her later life to raising funds for the American Foundation for the Blind. She died in her sleep on June 1, 1968, at her home, Arcan Ridge, located in Easton, Connecticut, a few weeks short of her eighty - eighth birthday. A service was held in her honor at the National Cathedral in Washington, D.C., her body was cremated and her ashes were placed there next to her constant companions, Anne Sullivan and Polly Thomson. She was buried at the Washington National Cathedral in Washington, D.C.
Keller 's life has been interpreted many times. She appeared in a silent film, Deliverance (1919), which told her story in a melodramatic, allegorical style.
She was also the subject of the documentaries Helen Keller in Her Story, narrated by Katharine Cornell, and The Story of Helen Keller, part of the Famous Americans series produced by Hearst Entertainment.
The Miracle Worker is a cycle of dramatic works ultimately derived from her autobiography, The Story of My Life. The various dramas each describe the relationship between Keller and Sullivan, depicting how the teacher led her from a state of almost feral wildness into education, activism, and intellectual celebrity. The common title of the cycle echoes Mark Twain 's description of Sullivan as a "miracle worker. '' Its first realization was the 1957 Playhouse 90 teleplay of that title by William Gibson. He adapted it for a Broadway production in 1959 and an Oscar - winning feature film in 1962, starring Anne Bancroft and Patty Duke. It was remade for television in 1979 and 2000.
In 1984, Keller 's life story was made into a TV movie called The Miracle Continues. This film that entailed the semi-sequel to The Miracle Worker recounts her college years and her early adult life. None of the early movies hint at the social activism that would become the hallmark of Keller 's later life, although a Disney version produced in 2000 states in the credits that she became an activist for social equality.
The Bollywood movie Black (2005) was largely based on Keller 's story, from her childhood to her graduation.
A documentary called Shining Soul: Helen Keller 's Spiritual Life and Legacy was produced by the Swedenborg Foundation in the same year. The film focuses on the role played by Emanuel Swedenborg 's spiritual theology in her life and how it inspired Keller 's triumph over her triple disabilities of blindness, deafness and a severe speech impediment.
On March 6, 2008, the New England Historic Genealogical Society announced that a staff member had discovered a rare 1888 photograph showing Helen and Anne, which, although previously published, had escaped widespread attention. Depicting Helen holding one of her many dolls, it is believed to be the earliest surviving photograph of Anne Sullivan Macy.
Video footage showing Helen Keller learning to mimic speech sounds also exists.
A biography of Helen Keller was written by the German Jewish author H.J. Kaeser.
A 10 - by - 7 - foot painting titled The Advocate: Tribute to Helen Keller was created by three artists from Kerala as a tribute to Helen Keller. The Painting was created in association with a non-profit organization Art d'Hope Foundation, artists groups Palette People and XakBoX Design & Art Studio. This painting was created for a fundraising event to help blind students in India and was inaugurated by M.G. Rajamanikyam, IAS (District Collector Ernakulam) on Helen Keller day (June 27, 2016). The painting depicts the major events of Helen Keller 's life and is one of the biggest paintings done based on Helen Keller 's life.
A preschool for the deaf and hard of hearing in Mysore, India, was originally named after Helen Keller by its founder, K.K. Srinivasan. In 1999, Keller was listed in Gallup 's Most Widely Admired People of the 20th century.
In 2003, Alabama honored its native daughter on its state quarter. The Alabama state quarter is the only circulating U.S. coin to feature braille.
The Helen Keller Hospital in Sheffield, Alabama, is dedicated to her.
Streets are named after Helen Keller in Zürich, Switzerland, in the USA, in Getafe, Spain, in Lod, Israel, in Lisbon, Portugal, and in Caen, France.
A stamp was issued in 1980 by the United States Postal Service depicting Keller and Sullivan, to mark the centennial of Keller 's birth.
On October 7, 2009, a bronze statue of Helen Keller was added to the National Statuary Hall Collection, as a replacement for the State of Alabama 's former 1908 statue of the education reformer Jabez Lamar Monroe Curry. It is displayed in the United States Capitol Visitor Center and depicts Keller as a seven - year - old child standing at a water pump. The statue represents the seminal moment in Keller 's life when she understood her first word: W-A-T-E-R, as signed into her hand by teacher Anne Sullivan. The pedestal base bears a quotation in raised Latin and braille letters: "The best and most beautiful things in the world can not be seen or even touched, they must be felt with the heart. '' The statue is the first one of a person with a disability and of a child to be permanently displayed at the U.S. Capitol.
Archival material of Helen Keller stored in New York was lost when the Twin Towers were destroyed in the September 11 attacks.
The Helen Keller Archives are owned by the American Foundation for the Blind.
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who did bette midler play in fiddler on the roof | Fiddler on the Roof - wikipedia
Fiddler on the Roof is a musical with music by Jerry Bock, lyrics by Sheldon Harnick, and book by Joseph Stein, set in the Pale of Settlement of Imperial Russia in 1905. It is based on Tevye and his Daughters (or Tevye the Dairyman) and other tales by Sholem Aleichem. The story centers on Tevye, the father of five daughters, and his attempts to maintain his Jewish religious and cultural traditions as outside influences encroach upon the family 's lives. He must cope both with the strong - willed actions of his three older daughters, who wish to marry for love -- each one 's choice of a husband moves further away from the customs of his faith -- and with the edict of the Tsar that evicts the Jews from their village.
The original Broadway production of the show, which opened in 1964, had the first musical theatre run in history to surpass 3,000 performances. Fiddler held the record for the longest - running Broadway musical for almost 10 years until Grease surpassed its run. It remains Broadway 's sixteenth longest - running show in history. The production was extraordinarily profitable and highly acclaimed. It won nine Tony Awards, including Best Musical, score, book, direction and choreography. It spawned five Broadway revivals and a highly successful 1971 film adaptation, and the show has enjoyed enduring international popularity. It is also a very popular choice for school and community productions.
Fiddler on the Roof is based on Tevye and his Daughters (or Tevye the Dairyman), a series of stories by Sholem Aleichem that he wrote in Yiddish between 1894 and 1914 about Jewish life in a village in the Pale of Settlement of Imperial Russia at the turn of the 20th century. It is also influenced by Life Is with People, by Mark Zborowski and Elizabeth Herzog. Aleichem wrote a dramatic adaptation of the stories that he left unfinished at his death, but which was produced in Yiddish in 1919 by the Yiddish Art Theater and made into a film in the 1930s. In the late 1950s, a musical based on the stories, called Tevye and his Daughters, was produced Off - Broadway by Arnold Perl. Rodgers and Hammerstein and then Mike Todd briefly considered bringing this musical to Broadway but dropped the idea.
Investors and some in the media worried that Fiddler on the Roof might be considered "too Jewish '' to attract mainstream audiences. Other critics considered that it was too culturally sanitized, "middlebrow '' and superficial; Philip Roth, writing in The New Yorker, called it shtetl kitsch. For example, it portrays the local Russian officer as sympathetic, instead of brutal and cruel, as Sholom Aleichem had described him. Aleichem 's stories ended with Tevye alone, his wife dead and his daughters scattered; at the end of Fiddler, the family members are alive, and most are emigrating together to America. The show found the right balance for its time, even if not entirely authentic, to become "one of the first popular post-Holocaust depictions of the vanished world of Eastern European Jewry ''. Harold Prince replaced the original producer Fred Coe and brought in director / choreographer Jerome Robbins. The writers and Robbins considered naming the musical Tevye, before landing on a title suggested by various paintings by Marc Chagall that also inspired the original set design. Contrary to popular belief, the "title of the musical does not refer to any specific painting ''. During rehearsals, one of the stars, Jewish actor Zero Mostel, feuded with Robbins, whom he held in contempt because Robbins had testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee and hid his Jewish heritage from the public. Other cast members also had run - ins with Robbins, who reportedly "abused the cast, drove the designers crazy (and) strained the good nature of Hal Prince ''.
Tevye, a poor Jewish milkman with five daughters, explains the customs of the Jews in the Russian shtetl of Anatevka in 1905, where their lives are as precarious as the perch of a fiddler on a roof ("Tradition ''). At Tevye 's home, everyone is busy preparing for the Sabbath meal. His sharp - tongued wife, Golde, orders their daughters, Tzeitel, Hodel, Chava, Shprintze and Bielke, about their tasks. Yente, the village matchmaker, arrives to tell Golde that Lazar Wolf, the wealthy butcher, a widower older than Tevye, wants to wed Tzeitel, the eldest daughter. The next two daughters, Hodel and Chava, are excited about Yente 's visit, but Tzeitel is unenthusiastic ("Matchmaker, Matchmaker ''). A girl from a poor family must take whatever husband Yente brings, but Tzeitel wants to marry her childhood friend, Motel the tailor.
Tevye is delivering milk, pulling the cart himself, as his horse is lame. He asks God: Whom would it hurt "If I Were a Rich Man ''? Avram, the bookseller, has news from the outside world about pogroms and expulsions. A stranger, Perchik, hears their conversation and scolds them for doing nothing more than talk. The men dismiss Perchik as a radical, but Tevye invites him home for the Sabbath meal and offers him food and a room in exchange for tutoring his two youngest daughters. Golde tells Tevye to meet Lazar after the Sabbath but does not tell him why, knowing that Tevye does not like Lazar. Tzeitel is afraid that Yente will find her a husband before Motel asks Tevye for her hand. But Motel resists: he is afraid of Tevye 's temper, and tradition says that a matchmaker arranges marriages. Motel is also very poor and is saving up to buy a sewing machine before he approaches Tevye, to show that he can support a wife. The family gathers for the "Sabbath Prayer. ''
After the Sabbath, Tevye meets Lazar at Mordcha 's inn, assuming mistakenly that Lazar wants to buy his cow. Once the misunderstanding is cleared up, Tevye agrees to let Lazar marry Tzeitel -- with a rich butcher, his daughter will never want for anything. All join in the celebration of Lazar 's good fortune; even the Russian youths at the inn join in the celebration and show off their dancing skills ("To Life ''). Outside the inn, Tevye happens upon the Russian Constable, who has jurisdiction over the Jews in the town. The Constable warns him that there is going to be a "little unofficial demonstration '' in the coming weeks (a euphemism for a minor pogrom). The Constable has sympathy for the Jewish community but is powerless to prevent the violence.
The next morning, after Perchik 's lessons with her young sisters, Tevye 's second daughter Hodel mocks Perchik 's Marxist interpretation of a Bible story. He, in turn, criticizes her for hanging on to the old traditions of Judaism, noting that the world is changing. To illustrate this, he dances with her, defying the prohibition against opposite sexes dancing together. The two begin to fall in love. Later, a hungover Tevye announces that he has agreed that Tzeitel will marry Lazar Wolf. Golde is overjoyed, but Tzeitel is devastated and begs Tevye not to force her. Motel arrives and tells Tevye that he is the perfect match for Tzeitel and that he and Tzeitel gave each other a pledge to marry. He promises that Tzeitel will not starve as his wife. Tevye is stunned and outraged at this breach of tradition, but impressed at the timid tailor 's display of backbone. After some soul - searching ("Tevye 's Monologue ''), Tevye agrees to let them marry, but he worries about how to break the news to Golde. An overjoyed Motel celebrates with Tzeitel ("Miracle of Miracles '').
In bed with Golde, Tevye pretends to be waking from a nightmare. Golde offers to interpret his dream, and Tevye "describes '' it ("Tevye 's Dream ''). Golde 's grandmother Tzeitel returns from the grave to bless the marriage of her namesake, but to Motel, not to Lazar Wolf. Lazar 's formidable late wife, Fruma - Sarah, rises from her grave to warn, in graphic terms, of severe retribution if Tzeitel marries Lazar. The superstitious Golde is terrified, and she quickly counsels that Tzeitel must marry Motel. While returning from town, Tevye 's third daughter, the bookish Chava, is teased and intimidated by some gentile youths. One, Fyedka, protects her, dismissing the others. He offers Chava the loan of a book, and a secret relationship begins.
The wedding day of Tzeitel and Motel arrives, and all the Jews join the ceremony ("Sunrise, Sunset '') and the celebration ("The Wedding Dance ''). Lazar gives a fine gift, but an argument arises with Tevye over the broken agreement. Perchik ends the tiff by breaking another tradition: he crosses the barrier between the men and women to dance with Tevye 's daughter Hodel. The celebration ends abruptly when a group of Russians rides into the village to perform the "demonstration ''. They disrupt the party, damaging the wedding gifts and wounding Perchik, who attempts to fight back, and wreak more destruction in the village. Tevye instructs his family to clean up the mess.
Months later, Perchik tells Hodel he must return to Kiev to work for the revolution. He proposes marriage, admitting that he loves her, and says that he will send for her. She agrees ("Now I Have Everything ''). They tell Tevye that they are engaged, and he is appalled that they are flouting tradition by making their own match, especially as Perchik is leaving. When he forbids the marriage, Perchik and Hodel inform him that they do not seek his permission, only his blessing. After more soul searching, Tevye relents -- the world is changing, and he must change with it ("Tevye 's Rebuttal ''). He informs the young couple that he gives them his blessing and his permission.
Tevye explains these events to an astonished Golde. "Love, '' he says, "it 's the new style. '' Tevye asks Golde, despite their own arranged marriage, "Do You Love Me? '' After dismissing Tevye 's question as foolish, she eventually admits that, after 25 years of living and struggling together and raising five daughters, she does. Meanwhile, Yente tells Tzeitel that she saw Chava with Fyedka. News spreads quickly in Anatevka that Perchik has been arrested and exiled to Siberia ("The Rumor / I Just Heard ''), and Hodel is determined to join him there. At the railway station, she explains to her father that her home is with her beloved, wherever he may be, although she will always love her family ("Far From the Home I Love '').
Time passes. Motel has purchased a used sewing machine, and he and Tzeitel have had a baby. Chava finally gathers the courage to ask Tevye to allow her marriage to Fyedka. Again Tevye reaches deep into his soul, but marriage outside the Jewish faith is a line he will not cross. He forbids Chava to speak to Fyedka again. When Golde brings news that Chava has eloped with Fyedka, Tevye wonders where he went wrong ("Chavaleh Sequence ''). Chava returns and tries to reason with him, but he refuses to speak to her and tells the rest of the family to consider her dead. Meanwhile, rumors are spreading of the Russians expelling Jews from their villages. While the villagers are gathered, the Constable arrives to tell everyone that they have three days to pack up and leave the town. In shock, they reminisce about "Anatevka '' and how hard it will be to leave what has been their home for so long.
As the Jews leave Anatevka, Chava and Fyedka stop to tell her family that they are also leaving for Kraków, unwilling to remain among the people who could do such things to others. Tevye still will not talk to her, but when Tzeitel says goodbye to Chava, Tevye prompts her to add "God be with you. '' Motel and Tzeitel go to Poland as well but will join the rest of the family when they have saved up enough money. As Tevye, Golde and their two youngest daughters leave the village for America, the fiddler begins to play. Tevye beckons with a nod, and the fiddler follows them out of the village.
§ The 2004 revival featured a song for Yente and some women of the village (Rivka and Mirala) titled "Topsy Turvy '', discussing the disappearing role of the matchmaker in society. The number replaced "The Rumor / I Just Heard ''.
All of the characters are Jewish, except as noted:
Following its tryout at Detroit 's Fisher Theatre in July and August 1964, then Washington in August to September, the original Broadway production opened on September 22, 1964, at the Imperial Theatre, transferred in 1967 to the Majestic Theatre and in 1970 to The Broadway Theatre, and ran for a record - setting total of 3,242 performances. The production was directed and choreographed by Robbins -- his last original Broadway staging. The set, designed in the style of Marc Chagall 's paintings, was by Boris Aronson. A colorful logo for the production, also inspired by Chagall 's work, was designed by Tom Morrow. Chagall reportedly did not like the musical.
The cast included Zero Mostel as Tevye the milkman, Maria Karnilova as his wife Golde (each of whom won a Tony for their performances), Beatrice Arthur as Yente the matchmaker, Austin Pendleton as Motel, Bert Convy as Perchik the student revolutionary, Gino Conforti as the fiddler, and Julia Migenes as Hodel. Mostel ad - libbed increasingly as the run went on, "which drove the authors up the wall. '' Joanna Merlin originated the role of Tzeitel, which was later assumed by Bette Midler during the original run. Carol Sawyer was Fruma Sarah, Adrienne Barbeau took a turn as Hodel, and Pia Zadora played the youngest daughter, Bielke. Both Peg Murray and Dolores Wilson made extended appearances as Golde, while other stage actors who have played Tevye include Herschel Bernardi, Theodore Bikel and Harry Goz (in the original Broadway run), and Leonard Nimoy. Mostel 's understudy in the original production, Paul Lipson, went on to appear as Tevye in more performances than any other actor (until Chaim Topol), clocking over 2,000 performances in the role in the original run and several revivals. Florence Stanley took over the role of Yente nine months into the run. The production earned $1,574 for every dollar invested in it. It was nominated for ten Tony Awards, winning nine, including Best Musical, score, book, direction and choreography, and acting awards for Mostel and Karnilova.
The original London West End production opened on February 16, 1967, at Her Majesty 's Theatre and played for 2,030 performances. It starred Topol as Tevye, a role he had previously played in Tel Aviv, and Miriam Karlin as Golde. Alfie Bass, Lex Goudsmit and Barry Martin eventually took over as Tevye. Topol later played Tevye in the 1971 film adaptation, for which he was nominated for an Academy Award, and in several revivals over the next four decades. The show was revived in London for short seasons in 1983 at the Apollo Victoria Theatre and in 1994 at the London Palladium.
The first Broadway revival opened on December 28, 1976, and ran for 176 performances at the Winter Garden Theatre. Zero Mostel starred as Tevye. Robbins directed and choreographed. A second Broadway revival opened on July 9, 1981, and played for a limited run (53 performances) at Lincoln Center 's New York State Theater. It starred Herschel Bernardi as Tevye and Karnilova as Golde. Other cast members included Liz Larsen, Fyvush Finkel, Lawrence Leritz and Paul Lipson. Robbins directed and choreographed. The third Broadway revival opened on November 18, 1990, and ran for 241 performances at the George Gershwin Theatre. Topol starred as Tevye, and Marcia Lewis was Golde. Robbins ' production was reproduced by Ruth Mitchell and choreographer Sammy Dallas Bayes. The production won the Tony Award for Best Revival.
A fourth Broadway revival opened on February 26, 2004, and ran for 36 previews and 781 performances at the Minskoff Theatre. Alfred Molina, and later Harvey Fierstein, starred as Tevye, and Randy Graff, and later Andrea Martin and Rosie O'Donnell, was Golde. Barbara Barrie and later Nancy Opel played Yente, Laura Michelle Kelly played Hodel and Lea Michele played Sprintze. It was directed by David Leveaux. This production replaced Yente 's song "The Rumor '' with a song for Yente and two other women called "Topsy - Turvy ''. The production was nominated for six Tonys but did not win any. In June 2014, to celebrate the show 's 50th anniversary, a gala celebration and reunion was held at The Town Hall in New York City to benefit The National Yiddish Theatre -- Folksbiene, with appearances by many of the cast members of the various Broadway productions and the 1971 film.
The fifth Broadway revival began previews on November 20 and opened on December 20, 2015 at the Broadway Theatre, with concept and choreography based on the original by Jerome Robbins. Bartlett Sher directed, and Hofesh Shechter choreographed. The cast starred Danny Burstein as Tevye, with Jessica Hecht as Golde, Alexandra Silber as Tzeitel, Adam Kantor as Motel, Ben Rappaport as Perchik, Samantha Massell as Hodel and Melanie Moore as Chava. Judy Kuhn replaced Hecht as Golde on November 22, 2016, for the last five weeks of the run. Designers include Michael Yeargan (sets), Catherine Zuber (costumes) and Donald Holder (lighting). Initial reviews were mostly positive, finding Burstein and the show touching. The production was nominated for three Tony Awards but won none. It closed on December 31, 2016 after 463 performances.
Fiddler was first revived in London in 1983 at the Apollo Victoria Theatre (a four - month season starring Topol) and again in 1994 at the London Palladium for two months and then on tour, again starring Topol, and directed and choreographed by Sammy Dallas Bayes, recreating the Robbins production.
After a two - month tryout at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England, a London revival opened on May 19, 2007, at the Savoy Theatre starring Henry Goodman as Tevye, Beverley Klein as Golde, Alexandra Silber as Hodel, Damian Humbley as Perchik and Victor McGuire as Lazar Wolf. The production was directed by Lindsay Posner. Robbins ' choreography was recreated by Sammy Dallas Bayes (who did the same for the 1990 Broadway revival), with additional choreography by Kate Flatt.
A 2003 national tour played for seven months, with a radical design, directed by Julian Woolford and choreographed by Chris Hocking. The production 's minimalist set and costumes were monochromatic, and Fruma - Sarah was represented by a 12 - foot puppet. This production was revived in 2008 starring Joe McGann.
The show toured the UK again in 2013 and 2014 starring Paul Michael Glaser as Tevye with direction and choreography by Craig Revel Horwood.
The original Australian production opened on June 16, 1967, at Her Majesty 's Theatre in Sydney. It starred Hayes Gordon as Tevye and Brigid Lenihan as Golde. The production ran for two years. The first professional revival tour was staged by Opera Australia in 1984 with Gordon again playing Tevye. A young Anthony Warlow played Fyedka.
For two years, beginning in 2005, Topol recreated his role as Tevye in an Australian production, with seasons in Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne, Perth, Wellington and Auckland. The musical was revived in Melbourne in December 2015 with Anthony Warlow as Tevye, Sigrid Thornton as Golde and Lior as Motel. The production is scheduled to move to Sydney in March 2016.
Topol in ' Fiddler on the Roof ': The Farewell Tour opened on January 20, 2009, in Wilmington, Delaware. Topol left the tour in November 2009 due to torn muscles in his arms. He was replaced by Harvey Fierstein.
The musical was an international hit, with early productions playing throughout Europe, in South America, Africa and Australia; 100 different productions were mounted in the former West Germany in the first three decades after the musical 's premiere, and within five years after the collapse of the Berlin Wall, 23 productions were staged in the former East Germany; and it was the longest - running musical ever seen in Tokyo.
A Hebrew language staging was produced in Tel Aviv by the Israeli impresario Giora Godik in the 1960s. This version was so successful that Godik soon produced a Yiddish version translated by Shraga Friedman. A 2008 Hebrew language production ran at the Cameri Theatre in Tel Aviv for more than six years. It was directed by Moshe Kepten, choreographed by Dennis Courtney and starred Natan Datner.
Un violon sur le toît was produced in French at Paris 's théâtre Marigny from November 1969 to May 1970, resuming from September to January 1971 (a total of 292 performances) with Ivan Rebroff as Tevye and Maria Murano as Golde. Another adaptation was produced in 2005 at the théâtre Comédia in Paris with Franck Vincent as Tevye and Isabelle Ferron as Golde. The Stratford Shakespeare Festival produced the musical from April to October 2013 at the Festival Theatre directed and choreographed by Donna Feore. It starred Scott Wentworth as Tevye.
The musical receives about 500 amateur productions a year in the US alone.
The film version was released in 1971, directed and produced by Norman Jewison, and Stein adapted his own book for the screenplay. The casting of Chaim Topol over Zero Mostel for the role of Tevye caused controversy at first. The film received mostly positive reviews from film critics and became the highest - grossing film of 1971. Fiddler received eight Oscar nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director for Jewison, Best Actor in a Leading Role for Topol, and Best Actor in a Supporting Role for Leonard Frey (as Motel; in the original Broadway production, Frey was the rabbi 's son). It won three, including best score / adaptation for arranger - conductor John Williams.
In the film version, the character of Yente is reduced, and Perchik 's song to Hodel "Now I Have Everything '' is cut and replaced by a scene in Kiev. The "Chagall color palette '' of the original Broadway production was exchanged for a grittier, more realistic depiction of the village of Anatevka.
Theatre writer John Kenrick writes that the original Broadway cast album released by RCA Victor in 1964, "shimmers -- an essential recording in any show lover 's collection '', praising the cast. The remastered CD includes two recordings not on the original album, the bottle dance from the wedding scene and "Rumor '' performed by Beatrice Arthur. Kenrick writes that while the original Broadway cast version is the clear first choice among recordings of this musical, he also likes the Columbia Records studio cast album with Bernardi as Tevye; the film soundtrack, although he feels that the pace drags a bit; and some of the numerous foreign versions, including the Israeli, German and Japanese casts.
The musical 's popularity has led to numerous references in popular media and elsewhere. The show or its songs have been parodied and covered widely:
Parodies relating to the show have included Antenna on the Roof (Mad Magazine # 156, January 1973), which speculated about the lives of Tevye 's descendants living in an assimilated 1970s suburban America. The H.P. Lovecraft Historical Society published a musical theatre and album parody of Fiddler on the Roof called A Shoggoth on the Roof, which incorporates the works of H.P. Lovecraft. In the film Mrs. Doubtfire (1993), Robin Williams parodies "Matchmaker ''.
References to the musical on television have included a 2005 episode of Gilmore Girls titled "Jews and Chinese Food '', involving a production of the musical. A skit by The Electric Company about a village fiddler with a fear of heights, so he is deemed "Fiddler on the Chair ''. In the Family Guy episode "When You Wish Upon a Weinstein '' (2003), William Shatner is depicted as playing Tevye in a scene from Fiddler. The second episode of Muppets Tonight, in 1996, featured Garth Brooks doing a piece of "If I were a Rich Man '' in which he kicks several chickens off the roof. "The Rosie Show '', a 1996 episode of The Nanny, parodied the dream scene, when Mr. Sheffield fakes a dream to convince Fran not to be a regular on a TV show. A 2011 episode of NBC 's Community, entitled "Competitive Wine Tasting '', included a parody of Fiddler titled, "Fiddler, Please! '', with an all - black cast dressed in Fiddler on the Roof costumes singing "It 's Hard to Be Jewish in Russia, Yo ''. Chabad.org kicked off their 2008 "To Life '' Telethon with a pastiche of the fiddle solo and bottle dance from the musical.
Broadway references have included Spamalot, where a "Grail dance '' sends up the "bottle dance '' in Fiddler 's wedding scene. The Producers (2001) includes a musical number in the style of Jerry Bock that features an actual fiddler on a roof. Also in 2001, Chicago 's Improv Olympic produced a well - received parody, "The Roof Is on Fiddler '', that used most of the original book of the musical but replaced the songs with 1980 's pop songs. The original Broadway cast of the musical Avenue Q and the Broadway 2004 revival cast of Fiddler on the Roof collaborated for a Broadway Cares / Equity Fights AIDS benefit and produced an approximately 10 - minute - long show, "Avenue Jew '', that incorporated characters from both shows, including puppets.
Songs from the musical have been covered by notable artists. For example, in 1964, jazz saxophonist Cannonball Adderley recorded the album Fiddler on the Roof, which featured jazz arrangements of eight songs from the musical. AllMusic awarded the album 4 stars and states "Cannonball plays near his peak; this is certainly the finest album by this particular sextet ''. That same year, Eydie Gormé released a single of "Matchmaker ''. In 1999, Knitting Factory Records released Knitting on the Roof, a compilation CD featuring covers of Fiddler songs by alternative bands such as The Residents, Negativland, and The Magnetic Fields. Indie rock band Bright Eyes recorded an adaptation of "Sunrise, Sunset '' on their 2000 album Fevers and Mirrors. Allmusic gave the album a favorable review, and the online music magazine Pitchfork Media ranked it at number 170 on their list of top 200 albums of the 2000s. In 2005, Melbourne punk band Yidcore released a reworking of the entire show called Fiddling on Ya Roof.
Gwen Stefani and Eve covered "If I Were a Rich Man '' as "Rich Girl '' for Stefani 's 2004 debut solo album Love. Angel. Music. Baby. in 2004. The song was inspired by the 1993 British Louchie Lou & Michie One ragga version of the same name. Stefani 's version reached # 7 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, where it remained for over six months. It was certified gold by the RIAA and nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration. It was also covered in 2008 and 2009 by the Capitol Steps, poking fun at Illinois politics, especially then - Governor Rod Blagojevich. The Santa Clara Vanguard Drum and Bugle Corps performs the "Bottle Dance '' from Fiddler as a "recurring trademark '', including at the Drum Corps International World Championships.
The song "Sunrise, Sunset '' is often played at weddings, and in 2011 Sheldon Harnick wrote two versions of the song, suitable for same - sex weddings, with minor word changes. For example, for male couples, changes include "When did they grow to be so handsome ''.
Fiddler 's original Broadway production in 1964 was nominated for ten Tony Awards, winning nine, including Best Musical, score, and book, and Robbins won for best direction and choreography. Mostel and Karnilova won as best leading actor and best featured actress. In 1972, the show won a special Tony on becoming the longest - running musical in Broadway history.
Its revivals have also been honored. At the 1981 Tony Awards, Bernardi was nominated as best actor. Ten years later, the 1991 revival won for best revival, and Topol was nominated as best actor. The 2004 revival was nominated for six Tony Awards and three Drama Desk Awards but won none. The 2007 West End revival was nominated for Olivier Awards for best revival, and Goodman was nominated as best actor.
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city of central india capital of the state of chhattisgarh | Chhattisgarh - Wikipedia
Chhattisgarh (Chatīsgaṛh, translation: Thirty - Six Forts) is one of the 29 states of India, located in the centre - east of the country. It is the 10th largest state in India, with an area of 135,194 km (52,199 sq mi). With a population of 28 million, Chhattisgarh is the 17th most - populated state in the country. A resource - rich state, it is a source of electricity and steel for the country, accounting for 15 % of the total steel produced. Chhattisgarh is one of the fastest - developing states in India.
The state was formed on 1 November 2000 by partitioning 16 Chhattisgarhi - speaking southeastern districts of Madhya Pradesh. The capital city is Raipur. Chhattisgarh borders the states of Madhya Pradesh in the northwest, Maharashtra in the southwest, Telangana in the south (Bhupalpally district), Odisha in the southeast, Jharkhand in the northeast and Uttar Pradesh in the north. Currently the state comprises 27 districts.
There are several opinions as to the origin of the name Chhattisgarh, which in ancient times was known as Dakshina Kosala (South Kosala). "Chhattisgarh '' was popularized later during the time of the Maratha Empire and was first used in an official document in 1795.
It is claimed that Chhattisgarh takes its name from the 36 ancient forts in the area (chhattis -- thirty - six '' and garh -- fort). The old state had 36 demesnes (feudal territories): Ratanpur, Vijaypur, Kharound, Maro, Kautgarh, Nawagarh, Sondhi, Aukhar, Padarbhatta, Semriya, Champa, Lafa, Chhuri, Kenda, Matin, Aparora, Pendra, Kurkuti - kandri, Raipur, Patan, Simaga, Singarpur, Lavan, Omera, Durg, Saradha, Sirasa, Menhadi, Khallari, Sirpur, Figeswar, Rajim, Singhangarh, Suvarmar, Tenganagarh and Akaltara. However, experts do not agree with this explanation, as 36 forts can not be archaeologically identified in this region.
Another view, more popular with experts and historians, is that Chhattisgarh is the corrupted form of Chedisgarh which means Raj or "Empire of the Chedis ''. In ancient times, Chhattisgarh region had been part of the Chedi dynasty of Kaling, in modern Odisha. In the medieval period up to 1803, a major portion of present eastern Chhattisgarh was part of the Sambalpur Kingdom of Odisha.
The northern and southern parts of the state are hilly, while the central part is a fertile plain. The highest point in the state is the Gaurlata. Deciduous forests of the Eastern Highlands Forests cover roughly 44 % of the state. The state animal is the van bhainsa, or wild water buffalo. The state bird is the pahari myna, or hill myna. The state tree is the Sal (Sarai) found in Bastar division.
In the north lies the edge of the great Indo - Gangetic plain. The Rihand River, a tributary of the Ganges, drains this area. The eastern end of the Satpura Range and the western edge of the Chota Nagpur Plateau form an east - west belt of hills that divide the Mahanadi River basin from the Indo - Gangetic plain. The outline of Chhattisgarh is like a sea horse.
The central part of the state lies in the fertile upper basin of the Mahanadi river and its tributaries. This area has extensive rice cultivation. The upper Mahanadi basin is separated from the upper Narmada basin to the west by the Maikal Hills (part of the Satpuras) and from the plains of Odisha to the east by ranges of hills. The southern part of the state lies on the Deccan plateau, in the watershed of the Godavari River and its tributary, the Indravati River. The Mahanadi is the chief river of the state. The other main rivers are Hasdo (a tributary of Mahanadi), Rihand, Indravati, Jonk, Arpa and Shivnath. It is situated in the east of Madhya Pradesh.
Amrit Dhara Waterfall. The natural beauty of Koriya includes dense forests, mountains, rivers and waterfalls. Amrit Dhara Waterfall in Koriya is among the most famous waterfalls in Koriya. Koriya in Chhattisgarh was a princely state during the British rule in India. Koriya is also known for the rich mineral deposits. Coal is found in abundance in this part of the country. The dense forests are rich in wildlife.
The Amrit Dhara Water fall, Koriya is a natural waterfall which originates from the Hasdo River. The fall is situated at a distance of seven kilometers from Koriya. The waterfall is ideally located on the Manendragarh - Baikunthpur road. The Amrit Dhara Waterfall in Koriya in Chhattisgarh in India falls from a height of 27 m. The waterfall is about 3 -- 4.5 m wide. The point where the water falls, there, a cloudy atmosphere is formed all around. Chirimiri is one of the more popular places, known for its pristine beauty, and healthy climate in Chhattisgarh.
The climate of Chhattisgarh is tropical. It is hot and humid because of its proximity to the Tropic of Cancer and its dependence on the monsoons for rains. Summer temperatures in Chhattisgarh can reach 45 ° C (113 ° F). The monsoon season is from late June to October and is a welcome respite from the heat. Chhattisgarh receives an average of 1,292 millimetres (50.9 in) of rain. Winter is from November to January and it is a good time to visit Chhattisgarh. Winters are pleasant with low temperatures and less humidity.
The temperature varies between 30 and 45 ° C (86 and 113 ° F) in summer and between 0 and 25 ° C (32 and 77 ° F) during winter. However, extremes in temperature can be observed with scales falling to less than 0 ° C to 49 ° C.
Chhattisgarh has coverage of mostly 2 - lane or 1 - lane roads which provides connectivity to major cities. 11 national highways passing through the state which are together 3078.40 km in length. However most national highways are in poor conditions and provides only 2 - lanes for slow moving traffic. Many national highways are on paper and not fully converted into 4 - lane highway. This includes 130A New, 130B New, 130C New, 130D New, 149B New, 163A New, 343 New, 930New... Other national highway includes NH 6, NH 16, NH 43, NH 12A, NH 78, NH 111, NH 200, NH 202, NH 216, NH 217, NH 221, NH30 NH 930 NEW. The state highways and major district roads constitute another network of 8,031 km.
Chhattisgarh has one of the lowest densities of National Highway in Central and South India (12.1 km / 100,000 population) which is similar to the North Eastern state of Assam.
Almost the entire railway network spread over the state comes under the geographical jurisdiction of the South East Central Railway Zone of Indian Railways centred around Bilaspur, which is the zonal headquarters of this zone. The main railway junction is Raipur, Durg and Bilaspur Junction, which is also a starting point of many long distance trains. These three junctions are well - connected to the major cities of India.
The state has the highest freight loading in the country and one - sixth of Indian Railway 's revenue comes from Chhattisgarh. The length of rail network in the state is 1,108 km, while a third track has been commissioned between Durg and Raigarh. Construction of some new railway lines are under process. These include Dalli - Rajhara -- Jagdalpur rail line, Pendra Road - Gevra Road Rail Line rail line, Raigarh - Mand Colliery to Bhupdeopur rail line and Barwadih - Chirmiri rail line. Freight / goods trains provide services mostly to coal and iron ore industries in east - west corridor (Mumbai - Howrah route). There is lack of passenger services to north and south of Chhattisgarh. Current train stations are mostly over crowded and not maintained well for passengers.
Presently, Chhattisgarh has 1,187 km long railway line network, which is less than half of the national average of rail density.
The construction of new 546 km long rail network includes Rajhara - Rowghat rail project, 311 km long East and East - West Rail Corridors and 140 km long Rowghat - Jagdalpur rail project are underway in the state.
The Chhattisgarh government has now decided to form a joint venture company with the Ministry of Railways for the expansion of railway tracks in the state. The decision to form a joint venture company with Ministry of Railways was taken during a meeting of the state cabinet chaired by Chief Minister on 5 February 2016. An MoU will shortly be signed between the state Commerce and Industries Department and the railway ministry in this regard. Under the MoU, the state government will have 51 % share and the railways remaining 49 % share. The proposed joint venture company will identify viable rail projects in the state and implement them.
Major Railway heads are Raipur, Bilaspur, Durg, Champa, Raigarh, Rajnandgaon
Major Railway Station Of Chhattisgarh
The air infrastructure in Chhattisgarh is small compared to other states. Swami Vivekananda Airport in Raipur is its sole airport with scheduled commercial air services. A massive reduction in sales tax on aviation turbine fuel (ATF) from 25 to 4 % in Chhattisgarh in 2003 has contributed to a sharp rise in passenger flow. The passenger flow has increased by 58 % between 2011 and November 2012.
Other major areas in the north and south of state, and industrial cities such as Bilaspur, Korba, Raigarh are not served by any airline. The majority of population in these area is not able take advantage of low cost airlines due to poor road connectivity and high cost of taxi fares. The State Government has signed a MOU with the Airports Authority of India (AAI) in July 2013 to develop Raigarh Airport as the state 's second airport for domestic flights.
Other airstrips
Proposed airstrips
In ancient times, this region was known as Dakshina Kosala. This area also finds mention in Ramayana and Mahabharata. Between the sixth and twelfth centuries, Sharabhpurias, Panduavanshi, Somavanshi, Kalachuri and Nagavanshi rulers dominated this region. The Bastar region of Chhattisgarh was invaded by Rajendra Chola I and Kulothunga Chola I of the Chola dynasty in the 11th century.
Chhattisgarh was under Maratha rule (Bhonsales of Nagpur) from 1741 to 1845 AD. It came under British rule from 1845 to 1947 as the Chhattisgarh Division of the Central Provinces. Raipur gained prominence over the capital Ratanpur with the advent of the British in 1845. In 1905, the Sambalpur district was transferred to Odisha and the estates of Surguja were transferred from Bengal to Chhattisgarh.
The area constituting the new state merged into on 1 November 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, 1956 and remained a part of that state for 44 years. Prior to its becoming a part of the new state of Madhya Pradesh, the region was part of old Madhya Pradesh State, with its capital at Nagpur. Prior to that, the region was part of the Central Provinces and Berar (CP and Berar) under the British rule. Some areas constituting the Chhattisgarh state were princely states under the British rule, but later on were merged into Madhya Pradesh.
The present state of Chhattisgarh was carved out of Madhya Pradesh on 1 November 2000. The demand for a separate state was first raised in the 1920s. Similar demands kept cropping up at regular intervals; however, a well - organized movement was never launched. Several all - party platforms were formed and they usually resolved around petitions, public meetings, seminars, rallies and strikes. A demand for separate Chhattisgarh was raised in 1924 by the Raipur Congress unit and also discussed in the Annual Session of the Indian Congress at Tripuri. A discussion also took place of forming a Regional Congress organization for Chhattisgarh. When the State Reorganisation Commission was set up in 1954, the demand for a separate Chhattisgarh was put forward, but was not accepted. In 1955, a demand for a separate state was raised in the Nagpur assembly of the then state of Madhya Bharat.
The 1990s saw more activity for a demand for the new state, such as the formation of a statewide political forum, especially the Chhattisgarh Rajya Nirman Manch. Chandulal Chadrakar led this forum, several successful region - wide strikes and rallies were organized under the banner of the forum, all of which were supported by major political parties, including the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party.
The new National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government sent the redrafted Separate Chhattisgarh Bill for the approval of the Madhya Pradesh Assembly, where it was once again unanimously approved and then it was tabled in the Lok Sabha. This bill for a separate Chhattisgarh was passed in the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha, paving the way for the creation of a separate state of Chhattisgarh. The President of India gave his consent to the Madhya Pradesh Reorganisation Act 2000 on 25 August 2000. The Government of India subsequently set 1 November 2000, as the day the state of Madhya Pradesh would be divided into Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh.
The State Legislative assembly is composed of 90 members of the Legislative Assembly. There are 11 members of the Lok Sabha from Chhattisgarh. The Rajya Sabha has five members from the state.
Chhattisgarh comprises 27 districts. The following are the list of the districts of Chhattisgarh State:
Chhattisgarh state consists of 27 districts and 5 divisions:
Kasdol
As of 2011 Chhattisgarh state had a Human Development Index value of 0.537 (medium), ranks 23rd in Indian state. The national average is 0.467 according to 2011 Indian NHDR report.
Chhattisgarh has one of the lowest standard of living in India as per the Income Index (0.127) along with the states of Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Rajasthan. These states have incomes below the national average, with Bihar having the lowest income per capita.
Despite these ratings and rankings, we can consider Raipur, the capital of Chhattisgarh to be one of the most developing cities in India. People living here, have high living standards that can be compared to any of those living in rich metro cities. Likes of International Cricket Stadium, top notch malls, various multinational brands and lot more. Even the NSDP (Net STate Domestic Product) ratings suggest that the growth is a decent 12.15 % per annum. The widespread of Chhattisgarh capital, Naya Raipur can also be considered as one of the advanced developments this state will be seeing in near 8 -- 10 years.
Chhattisgarh has an Education Index of 0.526 according to 2011 NHDR which is higher than that of the states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, although lower than the national average of 0.563.
With respect to literacy, the state fared just below the national average. The recent estimates from Census (2011) are also similar, with the literacy rate of 71 % (81.4 % Males & 60.5 % Females), which is close to the all India literacy rate of 74 %.
According to NSS (2007 -- 08), the literacy rate for Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Scheduled Castes (SCs) was better than the corresponding national average.
Among the marginalized groups, STs are at the bottom of the rankings, further emphasizing the lack of social development in the state. Bastar and Dantewada in south Chhattisgarh are the most illiterate districts and the drop out ratio is the highest among all the districts. The reason for this is the extreme poverty in rural areas.
Health Index of Chhattisgarh is less than 0.49, one of the lowest in the country. The Health Index is defined in terms of life expectancy at birth since a higher life expectancy at birth reflects better health outcomes for an individual.
Despite different health related schemes and programmes, the health indicators such as percentage of women with BMI < 18.5, Under Five Mortality Rate and underweight children are poor. This may be due to the difficulty in accessing the remote areas in the state. The prevalence of female malnutrition in Chhattisgarh is higher than the national average -- half of the ST females are malnourished. The performance of SCs is a little better than the corresponding national and state average. The Under Five Mortality Rate among STs is significantly higher than the national average. The percentage of under - weight children in Chhattisgarh is also higher than the national average, further underlining the appalling health condition of the state 's population.
Chhattisgarh is one of the emerging states with relatively high growth rates of NSDP (8.2 % vs. 7.1 % All India over 2002 -- 2008) and per capita NSDP (6.2 % vs. 5.4 % All India over 2002 -- 2008). The growth rates of the said parameters are above the national averages and thus it appears that Chhattisgarh is catching up with other states in this respect. However, the state still has very low levels of per capita income as compared to the other states.
The demographic profile shows that about 80 per cent of the total population lived in rural areas. Raipur being the Capital of the Chhattishgarh, can be considered under Urban City.
There are more than 13 million males and 12.9 million females in Chhattisgarh, which constitutes 2.11 % of the country 's population. The sex ratio in the state is one of the most balanced in India with 991 females per 1,000 males, as is the child sex - ratio with 964 females per 1,000 males (Census 2011)
Chhattisgarh has a fairly high fertility rate (3.1) as compared to All India (2.6) and the replacement rate (2.1). It has rural fertility rate of 3.2 and urban fertility rate of 2.1.
With the exception of the hilly states of the north - east, Chhattisgarh has one of highest shares of Scheduled Tribe (ST) populations within a state, accounting for about 10 per cent of the STs in India. Scheduled Castes and STs together constitute more than 50 per cent of the state 's population. The tribals are an important part of the state population and mainly inhabit the dense forests of Bastar and other districts of south Chhattisgarh. The Scheduled Caste (SC) population of Chhattisgarh is 2,418,722 as per 2001 census constituting 11.6 per cent of the total population (20,833,803). The proportion of Scheduled Castes has increased from 11.6 per cent in 2001 to 12.8 % in 2011. The percentage increase in the population of the scheduled list of tribals during the 2001 -- 2011 decade had been at the rate of 18.23 per cent. The share of the tribal population in the entire state had been 30.62 per cent which was 31.76 per cent during 2001.
The incidence of poverty in Chhattisgarh is very high. The estimated poverty ratio in 2004 -- 5 based on uniform reference period consumption was around 50 per cent, which is approximately double the all India level. The incidence of poverty in the rural and urban areas is almost the same.
More than half of the rural STs and urban SCs are poor. In general, the proportion of poor SC and ST households in the state is higher than the state average and their community 's respective national averages (except for rural SC households). Given that more than 50 per cent of the state 's population is ST and SC, the high incidence of income poverty among them is a matter of serious concern in the state.
This indicates that the good economic performance in recent years has not percolated to this socially deprived group, which is reflected in their poor performance in human development indicators.
In terms of access to improved drinking water sources, at the aggregate level, Chhattisgarh fared better than the national average and the SCs of the state performed better than the corresponding national average. Scheduled Tribes are marginally below the state average, but still better than the STs at the all India level.
The proportion of households with access to improved sources of drinking water in 2008 -- 9 was 91 %. This proportion was over 90 % even in states like Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. This was largely because these states had over 70 % of their households accessing tube wells / handpumps as sources of drinking water.
Sanitation facilities in the state are abysmally low with only about 27 per cent having toilet facilities, which is far below the all - India average of 44 %. The STs are the most deprived section in this regard with only 18 per cent of the ST households having toilet facilities, which is lower than the all India average for STs. The SCs also have a lower proportion of households with toilet facilities as compared to the all India average.
States with low sanitation coverage in 2001 that improved coverage by 4 - 10 % points are (Chhattisgarh), Odisha, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Himachal Pradesh, Daman and Diu, Haryana, Sikkim, Punjab, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Goa and Uttarakhand registered increased coverage by more than 20 percentage points.
Across states, it has been found that teledensity (telephone density) was below 10 per cent in 2010 for Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand, reflecting a lack of access to telephones in these relatively poorer states. But due to development of new technology the teledensity in 2017 is 68.08 per cent which shows improvement of telecom infrastructure. On the other hand, for states like Delhi and Himachal Pradesh and metropolitan cities like Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai, teledensity was over 100 per cent in 2010 implying that individuals have more than one telephone connection.
The road length per 100 km was less than the national average of 81 km (81,000 m) per 100 km in Chhattisgarh. The rural areas of Chhattisgarh failed to meet their targets of constructing new roads under the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) plan.
Chhattisgarh is primarily a rural state with only 20 % of its population (around 5.1 million people in 2011) residing in urban areas. According to a report by the government of India, at least 34 % are Scheduled Tribes, 12 % are Scheduled Castes and over 50 % belong to the official list of Other Backward Classes. The plains are numerically dominated by castes such as Teli, Satnami and Kurmi; while forest areas are mainly occupied by tribes such as Gond, Halbi, Halba and Kamar / Bujia and Oraon. A large community of Bengalis has existed in major cities since the times of the British Raj. They are associated with education, industry and services.
Religion in Chhattisgarh (2011)
According to the 2011 census, 93.25 % of Chhattisgarh 's population practiced Hinduism, while 2 % followed Islam, 1.92 % followed Christianity and smaller number followed Buddhism, Sikhism, Jainism or other religions. Sarnaism is the indigenous religion followed by the indigenous tribes of the state.
In order to bring about social reforms and with a view to discourage undesirable social practices, Chhattisgarh government has enacted the Chhattisgarh Tonhi Atyachar (Niwaran) Act, 2005 against witchery. Much has to be done on the issue of law enforcement by judicial authorities to protect women in this regard, bringing such persecution to an end.
Some sections of tribal population of Chhattisgarh state believe in witchcraft. Women are believed to have access to supernatural forces and are accused of being witches (tonhi) often to settle personal scores.
As of 2010, they are still hounded out of villages on the basis of flimsy accusations by male village sorcerers paid to do so by villagers with personal agendas, such as property and goods acquisition. According to National Geographic Channel 's investigations, those accused are fortunate if they are only verbally bullied and shunned or exiled from their village.
According to the Christian organization, Release International several Christians in Chhattisgarh have been attacked and killed by Hindu nationalists. Lachhu Kashap was killed and his brother, Pastor Shuduru Kashap beaten in Mandala, and several other Christians have been beaten by mobs of up to fifty people. When Chhattisgarh separated from Madhya Pradesh in 2000 it inherited anti conversion laws which were further tightened in 2007. Those wishing to convert to Christianity need to submit an official affidavit, leading to an official police investigation into their reasons for converting. Punishment for contravening the regulations can be up to three years ' prison or fines of up to 20,000 rupees.
The official language of the state is Chhattisgarhi & Hindi. Chhattisgarhi is spoken and understood by the majority of people in Chhattisgarh. Among other languages, Odia is widely spoken by a significant number of Odia population in the eastern part of the state. Marathi and Telugu are also spoken in parts of Chhattishgarh. Chhattisgarhi was known as "Khaltahi '' to the surrounding hill - people and as "Laria '' to Odia speakers.
In addition to Chhattisgarhi, there are several other languages spoken by the tribal people of the Bastar region, geographically equivalent to the former Bastar state, like Halbi, Gondi and Bhatri.
Chhattisgarh has a high female - male sex ratio (991) ranking at the 5th position among other states of India. Although this ratio is small compared to other states, it is unique in India because Chhattisgarh is -- the 10th largest state in India.
The gender ratio (number of females per 1000 males) has been steadily declining over 20th century in Chhattisgarh. But it is conspicuous that Chhattisgarh always had a better female - to - male ratio compared with national average.
Probably, such social composition also results in some customs and cultural practices that seem unique to Chhattisgarh: The regional variants are common in India 's diverse cultural pattern.
Rural women, although poor, are independent, better organized, socially outspoken. According to another local custom, women can choose to terminate a marriage relationship through a custom called chudi pahanana, if she desires. Most of the old temples and shrines here are related to ' women power ' (e.g., Shabari, Mahamaya, Danteshwari) and the existence of these temples gives insight into historical and current social fabric of this state. However, a mention of these progressive local customs in no way suggests that the ideology of female subservience does not exist in Chhattisgarh. On the contrary, the male authority and dominance is seen quite clearly in the social and cultural life.
Detailed information on aspects of women 's status in Chhattisgarh can be found in ' A situational analysis of women and girls in Chhattisgarh ' prepared in 2004 by the National Commission of Women, a statutory body belonging to government of India.
The state hosts many religious sects such as Satnami Panth, Kabirpanth, Ramnami Samaj and others. Champaran (Chhattisgarh) is a small town with religious significance as the birthplace of the Saint Vallabhacharya, increasingly important as a pilgrimage site for the Gujarati community.
Chhattisgarh has a significant role in the life of lord Rama. Lord Rama along with his wife Sita and his younger brother Lakshaman had started his Vanvas (exile) in the Bastar region (more precisely Dandakaranya region) of Chhattisgarh. They lived more than 10 years of their 14 years of Vanvas in different places of Chhattisgarh. One of the remarkable place is Shivrinarayan which is nearby Bilaspur district of Chhattisgarh. Shivrinarayan was named after an old lady Shabari. When Ram visited Shabari she said "I do not have anything to offer other than my heart, but here are some berry fruits. May it please you, my Lord. '' Saying so, Shabari offered the fruits she had meticulously collected to Rama. When Rama was tasting them, Lakshmana raised the concern that Shabari had already tasted them and therefore unworthy of eating. To this Rama said that of the many types of food he had tasted, "nothing could equal these berry fruits, offered with such devotion. You taste them, then alone will you know. Whomsoever offers a fruit, leaf, flower or some water with love, I partake it with great joy. ''
The Odia culture is prominent in the eastern parts of Chhattisgarh bordering Odisha.
Chhattisgarh is a storehouse of literature, performing arts and crafts -- all of which derives its substance and sustenance from the day - to - day life experiences of its people. Religion, mythology, social and political events, nature and folklore are favourite motifs. Traditional crafts include painting, woodcarving, bell metal craft, bamboo ware and tribal jewellery. Chhattisgarh has a rich literary heritage with roots that lie deep in the sociological and historical movements of the region. Its literature reflects the regional consciousness and the evolution of an identity distinct from others in Central India.
Chhattisgarh is known for "Kosa silk '' and "lost wax art ''. Besides saris and salwar suits, the fabric is used to create lehengas, stoles, shawls and menswear including jackets, shirts, achkans and sherwanis. Works by the internationally renowned sculptor, Sushil Sakhuja 's Dhokra Nandi, are available at government 's Shabari handicrafts emporium, Raipur.
Panthi, Rawat Nacha, Pandwani, Chaitra, Kaksar, Saila, Khamb - swang, Bhatra Naat, Rahas, Raai, Maao - Pata and Soowa are the several indigenous dance styles of Chhattisgarh.
Panthi, the folk dance of the Satnami community, has religious overtones. Panthi is performed on Maghi Purnima, tbla
the anniversary of the birth of Guru Ghasidas. The dancers dance around a jaitkhamb set up for the occasion, to songs eulogizing their spiritual head. The songs reflect a view of nirvana, conveying the spirit of their guru 's renunciation and the teachings of saint poets like Kabir, Ramdas and Dadu. Dancers with bent torsos and swinging arms dance, carried away by their devotion. As the rhythm quickens, they perform acrobatics and form human pyramids.
Pandavani is a folk ballad form performed predominantly in Chhattisgarh. It depicts the story of the Pandavas, the leading characters in the epic Mahabharata. The artists in the Pandavani narration consist of a lead artist and some supporting singers and musicians. There are two styles of narration in Pandavani, Vedamati and Kapalik. In the Vedamati style the lead artist narrates in a simple manner by sitting on the floor throughout the performance. The Kaplik style is livelier, where the narrator actually enacts the scenes and characters.
Raut Nacha, the folk dance of cowherds, is a traditional dance of Yaduvanshis (clan of Yadu) as symbol of worship to Krishna from the 4th day of Diwali (Goverdhan Puja) till the time of Dev Uthani Ekadashi (day of awakening of the gods after a brief rest) which is the 11th day after Diwali according to the Hindu calendar. The dance closely resembles Krishna 's dance with the gopis (milkmaids).
In Bilaspur, the Raut Nach Mahotsav folk dance festival is organized annually since 1978. Tens of hundreds of Rautt dancers from remote areas participate.
Soowa or Suwa tribal dance in Chhattisgarh is also known as Parrot Dance. It is a symbolic form of dancing related to worship. Dancers keep a parrot in a bamboo - pot and form a circle around it. Then performers sing and dance, moving around it with clapping. This is one of the main dance form of tribal women of Chhattisgarh.
Tribal groups like Gonds, the Baigas and the Oraons in Chhattisgarh have Karma dance as part of their culture. Both men and women arrange themselves in two rows and follow the rhythmic steps, directed by the singer group. The Karma tribal dance marks the end of the rainy season and the advent of spring season.
Theater is known as Gammat in Chhattisgarh. Pandavani is one of the lyrical forms of this theater. Several acclaimed plays of Habib Tanvir, such as Charandas Chor, are variations of Chhattisgarhi theater.
Chhollywood is Chhattisgarh 's film industries. Every year many Chhattisgarhi film produced by local producers.
The State of Chhattisgarh is known as the rice bowl of India and has a rich tradition of food culture.
Chhattisgarh 's gross state domestic product for 2010 is estimated at INR 60,079 crore in current prices. The economy of Chhattisgarh has grown rapidly in recent years with a growth rate of 11.49 per cent in GDP for 2009 -- 2010. Chhattisgarh 's success factors in achieving high growth rate are growth in agriculture and industrial production.
Chhattisgarh State is ranked as the 17th largest tea production state in India. The districts of Jashpur and Surguja are favorable tea production areas. In Jashpur district, the first tea plantation, Brahmnishthajaya Sogara Ashram was established under the direction of Pujya Pad Gurupad. Tea production started after two years at the Sogara Ashram. A tea processing unit was established in Sogara Ashram and the unit name set as the Aghor Tea Processing Plant. The forestry department has also started a tea plantation motivated by the Sogara Ashram. In Surguja district, a tea nursery is being developed by the Margdarshan Sansthan Agriculture College in Ambikapur, Surguja.
Agriculture is counted as the chief economic occupation of the state. According to a government estimate, net sown area of the state is 4.828 million hectares and the gross sown area is 5.788 million hectares. Horticulture and animal husbandry also engage a major share of the total population of the state. About 80 % of the population of the state is rural and the main livelihood of the villagers is agriculture and agriculture - based small industry.
The majority of the farmers are still practicing the traditional methods of cultivation, resulting in low growth rates and productivity. The farmers have to be made aware of modern technologies suitable to their holdings. Providing adequate knowledge to the farmers is essential for better implementation of the agricultural development plans and to improve the productivity.
Considering this and a very limited irrigated area, the productivity of not only rice but also other crops is low, hence the farmers are unable to obtain economic benefits from agriculture and it has remained as subsistence agriculture till now.
The main crops are rice, maize, kodo - kutki and other small millets and pulses (tuar and kulthi); oilseeds, such as groundnuts (peanuts), soybeans and sunflowers, are also grown. In the mid-1990s, most of Chhattisgarh was still a monocrop belt. Only one - fourth to one - fifth of the sown area was double - cropped. When a very substantial portion of the population is dependent on agriculture, a situation where nearly 80 % of a state 's area is covered only by one crop, immediate attention to turn them into double crop areas is needed. Also, very few cash crops are grown in Chhattisgarh, so there is a need to diversify the agriculture produce towards oilseeds and other cash crops. Chhattisgarh is also called the "rice bowl of central India ''.
In Chhattisgarh, rice, the main crop, is grown on about 77 % of the net sown area. Only about 20 % of the area is under irrigation; the rest depends on rain. Of the three agroclimatic zones, about 73 % of the Chhattisgarh plains, 97 % of the Bastar plateau and 95 % of the northern hills are rainfed. The irrigated area available for double cropping is only 87,000 ha in Chhattisgarh plains and 2300 ha in Bastar plateau and northern hills. Due to this, the productivity of rice and other crops is low, hence the farmers are unable to obtain economic benefits from agriculture and it has remained as subsistence agriculture till now, though agriculture is the main occupation of more than 80 % of the population.
In Chhattisgarh region about 22 % of net cropped area was under irrigation as compared to 36.5 % in Madhya Pradesh in 1998 -- 99, whereas the average national irrigation was about 40 %. The irrigation is characterized by a high order of variability ranging from 1.6 % in Bastar to 75.0 % in Dhamtari. Based on an average growth trend in irrigated area, about 0.43 % additional area is brought under irrigation every year as compared to 1.89 % in Madhya Pradesh and 1.0 % in the country as a whole. Thus, irrigation has been growing at a very low rate in Chhattisgarh and the pace of irrigation is so slow, it would take about 122 years to reach the 75 % level of net irrigated area in Chhattisgarh at the present rate of growth.
Chhattisgarh has a limited irrigation system, with dams and canals on some rivers. Average rainfall in the state is around 1400 mm and the entire state falls under the rice agroclimatic zone. Large variation in the yearly rainfall directly affects the production of rice. Irrigation is the prime need of the state for its overall development and therefore the state government has given top priority to development of irrigation.
A total of four major, 33 medium and 2199 minor irrigation projects have been completed and five major, 9 medium and 312 minor projects are under construction, as of 31 March 2006.
Chhattisgarh is one of the few states of India where the power sector is effectively developed. Based on the current production of surplus electric power, the position of the State is comfortable and profitable. The Chhattisgarh State Electricity Board (CSEB) is in a strong position to meet the electricity requirement of the new state and is in good financial health. Chhattisgarh provides electricity to several other states because of surplus production.
In Chhattisgarh, National Thermal Power Corporation Limited (NTPC) has Sipat Thermal Power Station with a capacity of 2,980 MW at Sipat, Bilaspur; GMR Power in Tilda and Korba Super Thermal Power Station with a capacity of 2,600 MW at Korba, while CSEB 's units have a thermal capacity of 1,780 MW and hydel capacity of 130 MW. Apart from NTPC and CSEB, there are a number of private generation units of large and small capacity. The state government has pursued a liberal policy with regard to captive generation which has resulted in a number of private players coming up.
The state has potential of 61,000 MW of additional thermal power in terms of availability of coal for more than 100 years and more than 2,500 MW hydel capacity. To use this vast potential, substantial additions to the existing generation capacity are already under way.
The steel industry is one of the biggest heavy industries of Chhattisgarh. Bhilai Steel Plant, Bhilai operated by SAIL, with a capacity of 5.4 million tonnes per year, is regarded as a significant growth indicator of the state. More than 100 steel rolling mills, 90 sponge iron plants and ferro - alloy units are in Chhattisgarh. Along with Bhilai, today Raipur, Bilaspur, Korba and Raigarh have become the steel hub of Chhattisgarh. Today, Raipur has become the center of the steel sector, the biggest market for steel in India.
The aluminium industry of Chhattisgarh was established by Bharat Aluminium Company Limited, which has a capacity of around 6 lakh tonnes each year.
Forests occupy 41.33 % of the total area (as per the latest report by the Indian Forest Service) and the rich forest resources include wood, tendu leaves, honey and lac. Approximately 3 % is under very dense forest, 25.97 % is moderately dense, 12.28 % is open forest and 0.09 % is scrub.
Chhattisgarh is rich in minerals. It produces 20 % of the country 's total cement produce. It has the highest output of coal in the country with second highest reserves. It is third in iron ore production and first in tin production. Limestone, dolomite and bauxite are abundant. It is the only tin - ore producing state in India. Other commercially extracted minerals include corandum, garnet, quartz, marble, alexandrite and diamonds.
In recent years, Chhattisgarh is also getting exposure in information technology (IT) projects and consultancy. Its government is also promoting IT and has set up a body to take care of the IT solutions. The body, known as CHIPS, is providing large IT projects such as Choice, Swan, etc.
Major companies with a presence in the state include:
Chhattisgarh 's total exports were US $353.3 million in 2009 - 10. Nearly 75 % of exports comes from Bhilai and the remaining from Urla, Bhanpuri and Sirgitti. The major exports products include steel, handicrafts, handlooms, blended yarn, food and agri - products, iron, aluminium, cement, minerals and engineering products. CSIDC (Chhattisgarh State Industrial Development Corporation Limited) is the nodal agency of the Government of Chhattisgarh for export promotion in the state.
Chhattisgarh, situated in the heart of India, is endowed with a rich cultural heritage and attractive natural diversity. The state is full of ancient monuments, rare wildlife, exquisitely carved temples, Buddhist sites, palaces, water falls, caves, rock paintings and hill plateaus.
There are many Waterfalls, hot springs, caves, temples, dams and National parks and wildlife sanctuaries in Chhattisgarh.
According to the census of 2011, Chhattisgarh 's literacy, the most basic indicator of education was at 71.04 percent. Female literacy is at 60.59 percent.
Data from Census of India, 2011.
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what san diego news stations are owned by sinclair | List of stations owned or operated by Sinclair Broadcast Group - wikipedia
Sinclair Broadcast Group is the largest owner of television stations in the United States, currently owning or operating a total of 173 stations across the country (233 after all currently proposed sales are approved) in nearly 80 markets, ranging from markets as large as Washington, D.C. to as small as Steubenville, Ohio.
The stations are affiliates of various television networks, including ABC, CBS, NBC and Fox as well as numerous specialty channels.
Many stations are owned outright by the company, while others are owned by legally distinct companies but operated by Sinclair through a local marketing agreement, a concept Sinclair pioneered in Pittsburgh in 1991 when the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) forbade duopolies. (The stations involved in the initial deal, WPGH - TV and WPTT -- now WPNT -- are now both owned by Sinclair outright.) Sinclair has established local marketing agreements with various companies, most notably Cunningham Broadcasting and Deerfield Media.
This table includes satellite, semi-satellite, and Class A stations.
A blank affiliation indicates a subchannel not currently operational.
Notes:
Notes:
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when do florida schools get out for summer break | Summer vacation - wikipedia
Summer vacation (also called summer holiday or summer break) is a school holiday in summer between school years and the break in the school year. Students and instructors are off school from doing work typically between 8 and 9 weeks, depending on the country and district. In the United States, summer break is approximately 2.5 to 3 months, with students typically getting out of school between late May and mid-June and starting the new school year between mid-August and early September. In Republic of Ireland, Italy, Greece, Lithuania, Latvia, Lebanon, Romania and Russia, the summer break is normally three months, compared to six to eight weeks in Australia, Britain, Canada, Pakistan, India, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Germany.
In some countries, school summer vacation is only six weeks or two months supposedly so students do n't forget large amounts of information learned in the past year (See: Summer learning loss). Other education reformers believed that children were overstimulated in a system which required 48 weeks of schooling. They believe that over-schooling could lead to nervous disorders, depression, insanity, and separation anxiety towards families. They believe that children need the 2 -- 3 months off to relax and also to take a break from other childhood stresses associated with school such as peer pressure, cliques, bullying, and the pressure of heavy loads of homework.
Some critics of summer vacation point out that American students spend approximately 180 days (26 weeks) per year in school, but Asian students are "in school for 240 to 250 days ''. This is consistent with the conclusions of researchers who suggest that advanced abilities are in proportion to the time spent learning. Summer holidays in Japan start from late July until early September.
In Southern Argentina, the school year ends in early - or mid-December and starts late February or early March. Also the majority of students get two weeks of holidays during winter, which varies depending on the region of the country from early June to late July or mid-July to early August.
In Australia, summer officially lasts from December to February, and therefore includes Christmas and New Year holidays. The dates of Australian school holidays (the term used, rather than "vacation '') are determined by each state 's Department of Education, the Christmas summer holiday being the longest in duration. Typically Christmas summer holiday in Australia last approximately six weeks, usually from late December (depending on school level) to late January. This is significantly shorter than North American summer holiday, but Australian schools also break for 2 weeks at Easter, and in June and September, giving students and teachers a total of twelve weeks of annual holidays. In many public schools, years 10 through 12 will finish before December 15, allowing time to complete exam marking and results. Year 10 commonly finishes at the end of November, Year 11 at the end of October, and year 12 (Senior Year) also at mid or the end of October after 3 weeks of end - of - year exams. This can bring the normal 12 weeks of vacation to 20 weeks of vacation. The intervening periods of school operation without holidays are called "School Terms '', each term lasting approximately ten weeks. All Australian states have relatively similar holiday periods between each term, but there is the ability for this to change, as it did in the Melbourne 2006 Commonwealth Games, when the first term in Victorian schools was shortened to 6 weeks and the other subsequently extended to 12 weeks due to severe disruptions to the public and private bus networks used by school students. Most private schools in Australia have up to four weeks of additional holidays, due to their longer teaching hours during term.
In Austria, summer vacation dates vary by region, however the break lasts nine weeks throughout the whole country. School usually ends in early July and starts in early September. In the regions of Vienna, Lower Austria and the Burgenland summer break starts on the first Saturday in July and one week later in Carinthia, Styria, the Tyrol, Vorarlberg, Salzburg and Upper Austria. School recommences on the first Monday in September in Vienna, Lower Austria and the Burgenland and on the second Monday of September in the other regions.
In Bangladesh, summer vacation begins in mid-May and ends in mid June (4 weeks). According to Bengali calendar summer vacation related with availability of different kinds of summer fruits in the month of Joishtho (mid May to mid June). This is slightly odd for schools to open before the summer solstice begins. Also, it is becoming difficult for children to attend school in high temperatures.
In Barbados, summer holiday dates have varied throughout the years due to the beginning of the hurricane season on June 1st. Because of this, major storms affecting the island can cause schools to remain closed for days resulting in a pushback of vacation dates, for example with Hurricane Tomas in 2010. Currently, summer holiday begins in late June or early July and ends in the second week of September.
In Belgium, summer vacation lasts in general from July 1 until September 1 (2 months). Universities and colleges have longer vacations they also start July 1 but last mostly until mid-September (3 months). This is because there are resits at the end of August and the beginning of September.
In Bolivia, summer vacation runs from early December to early February (2 months).
In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the start of summer break varies by school, but usually starts at the beginning or mid-June. School starts on the first Monday of September. There is also a three - to - four weeks long break during winter (typically starting on 31 December). School is not out on Christmas or Easter, but students who celebrate those holidays are allowed to miss that day of school.
In Brazil, summer break lasts between 50 and 60 days; from late November - early December, to early February, typically February 14 -- 25. In addition, for the majority of Brazilian students there are two to three weeks off for Winter in July.
In Bulgaria, the time of the break differs according to the grade of the students. The following periods are applied:
1st grade: May 24 -- September 15
2nd - 4th grade: May 31 -- September 15
5th - 7th grade: June 15 -- September 15
8th - 11th grade: June 30 -- September 15
12th grade: School year ends in mid-May.
Note that 8th grade classes that focus on intensive language learning 's summer vacation also starts on the 30th of June, rather than the 15th.
In Canada, the first day of summer vacation for public schools is the last Saturday in June. However, in some provinces students get a Professional Activity day on the final Friday of that school week, and their last day would be on the Thursday. Depending on the province, students can get 2 -- 3 months of summer vacation. This may vary in Quebec (earlier due to provincial June 24 holiday). The last day of summer vacation is Labour Day. This can vary in Private schools. School generally resumes the day after Labour Day (in September). Most have two weeks off for Christmas and New Year, and a week off in March or April for Spring Break (sometimes called March Break or Easter Break).
In Chile, summer vacation lasts from early or mid-December until late February or early March (10, 11 or 12 weeks). In addition, schools have two or three weeks off for Winter in July, and one - week - long break for National Holidays in mid-September.
In the People 's Republic of China, summer holidays start in early July and often end in early September (2 months).
In Colombia, summer vacation varies. Because of Colombia 's equatorial climate (see Climate of Colombia for more information), schools run two different calendars. Public schools and some private schools run "Calendar A '' which has a break between June and July. Only some private schools run "Calendar B '' in which there is a long vacation in July and August. On the other hand, "Calendar A '' has a long vacation around Christmas.
In Costa Rica, summer vacation lasts 2 months. Usually begin in late December and end in early February. There are a few schools using the "american '' style, those school usually take vacations in late May and then resume again in early August.
In Croatia, the school year finishes around 10th June and it usually starts on the first Monday of September, but if the first Monday is on 1st or 2nd September, the school year is more likely to start on the second Monday. Winter break usually begins a few days before Christmas and it lasts until mid January. Eastern break lasts 10 days.
In the Czech Republic, summer holiday begins on July 1 and ends on August 31 (2 months).
In Denmark, summer break lasts from the end of June to early or mid-August (6 weeks). High schools (colleges) usually return to school in early August, but for younger students it can be in the middle.
In Ecuador, summer vacation varies. Because of Ecuador 's equatorial climate (see Climate of Ecuador for more information), schools run two different calendars. The Coastal region runs vacation January or February, but in the Sierra region, summer vacation follows the pattern in July and August.
In Egypt, summer break lasts from the beginning or the middle of June until the middle of September (3 Months -- 14 Weeks) in public schools, though length slightly differs according to age. In most private schools, summer break lasts from the middle or end of June to the beginning of September (2.5 Months -- 10 Weeks)
In Estonia, summer holidays start in the beginning of June, the date ranging for different grades. School begins every year on September 1, with a week off in autumn, 2 weeks off at Christmas and a week in spring.
In Ethiopia, the school year usually ends in late May to mid-June and begins in mid-September (8 to 12 weeks).
In Finland, summer vacation starts on Saturday in late May, or in the beginning of June. The vacation lasts for 2 ⁄ to 3 months. Usually, school starts again on August 7 to 18.
In France, summer vacation usually consists of July and August (2 months), though secondary school students finish in mid-June due to the senior 's exams. This may vary for private schools.
In Germany, summer vacation lasts six and a half weeks. The exact dates vary by state as well as from one to the next year, from the earliest (mid-June to late July) to the latest (late July to early September). In Germany the annual holidays are split into winter holidays (about one week), Easter holidays (mostly about two weeks), summer holiday (about six and a half weeks), autumn holidays (about one to two weeks) and Christmas holidays (about one to two weeks). Some states like Bavaria also have holidays for Pentecost. Summed up over the whole year the holidays are about thirteen weeks.
In Greece, the summer vacation lasts for 3 months. Schools close on June 14 and reopen on September 11. Universities generally close in mid-July, but with great differences between faculties.
In Guatemala, the summer holidays start in middle October and end in early January (approx 12 weeks).
In Guyana, the summer holidays start in early July and end in early September (2 months).
In Hungary, summer vacation usually lasts from mid-June to early September (11 or 12 weeks).
In Hong Kong, summer vacation normally begins in mid-July and ends on the beginning of September (6 -- 7 weeks) for most public schools. However, the starting and ending times of international schools are variable. For example, most ESF - based schools start in late June and finish mid-August (7 weeks).
In Iceland, the duration of the summer vacation can vary from one school to another. Typically students start their summer vacation during the first week of June and return to school in the fourth week of August.
India covers a wide spectrum of climates, resulting in a large variation in times and durations of summer vacation. Different parts of the country face different climatic conditions at the same time.
In northern India, summer vacation typically begins in the second week of May and ends by the last week of June, except in Kashmir Valley, where summer vacation is only for ten days, with a long winter break from mid-December to the end of February instead.
In central India, summer vacation begins in mid-April and schools re-open in mid-June.
In the south, schools finish in the last week of March and resume in early June.
In the north - eastern states, a new school year commences before the holidays, in April. A few weeks later, schools finish for summer vacation between May and June, during the hottest months of the year.
Moreover, summer vacation lasts for no more than six weeks in most schools. The duration may decrease to as little as three weeks for older students, with the exception of two month breaks being scheduled to allow some high school and university students to participate in internship and summer school programmes.
In Iran, summer vacation lasts three months. Schools close in late June and reopen in late September.
In Iraq, summer vacation begins in late May and ends in late September, but the 12th grade vacation begins in late June and ends in mid-October.
In the Republic of Ireland, most secondary schools start summer holidays the first week of June, or at the end of the Junior Certificate and Leaving Certificate exams (approximately 20th June), and do n't return until 20 - 26th August. Other holidays include two weeks for Easter and another two for Christmas and New Year, as well as two midterms with one in October / November during the week of Halloween and one usually in the month of February. Primary schools in the Republic of Ireland work sixteen days longer, so they start their summer holiday at the end of June but do not return until the first week of September. Private schools in the Republic of Ireland follow the same pattern.
The start of the summer vacation for middle schools and high schools is on June 20 and the end is August 31 (two months and 10 days) and the summer vacation for primary schools and kindergartens start on June 30 and ends on August 31 (two months and 1 day).
In Italy, summer vacation for elementary, middle and high schools normally starts on the second week of June and lasts until the first week of September included, for a total of three months. For kindergartens, summer vacation starts at the end of May and lasts until the first week of September. Final term examinations for middle school and high school are held until the end of June.
In Jamaica, summer holidays for primary and secondary schools starts in the first week of July and ends in the first week of September which gives a duration of about eight weeks.
These schools also have term breaks at Christmas (typically two weeks) and Easter (typically one and a half weeks), as well as mid-term breaks of a few days each usually around National Heroes Day in the Christmas (First) Term, Ash Wednesday in the Easter (Second) Term and Labour Day in the Summer (Third) term.
At the start of each year The Ministry of Education provides dates for each term and suggested dates for mid-term breaks for primary and secondary schools. These dates might be adjusted based on circumstance such as the loss of teaching time caused by the passage of a hurricane.
Tertiary institutions using the semester system typically have summer holidays starting in May (at the end of examinations) and ending in early September. This can, however, vary among institutions.
In Japan, the summer vacation generally lasts from late July to early September, and due to the way education in Japan is structured, it takes place within a school year.
In Jordan, summer vacation lasts almost 3 months and most schools take summer vacation from mid-June to mid-September.
In Kuwait, summer vacation for elementary and middle school, (1st to 9th grade) starts at the end of May or at the beginning of June and ends at the Beginning to late September, sometimes as far as early October (Public Schools). For high school students, (10th to 12th grade) it starts on June 19 -- 20 and ends at the same time as elementary and middle school.
In Lebanon, summer vacation lasts almost 3 months and most schools take summer vacation from mid-June to mid-September.
In Libya, summer break lasts from the beginning or the middle of June until the middle of September (3 Months -- 14 Weeks). There are 5 other smaller vacations: Mid-year two - week break around February and two Hijri Lunar calendar 3 - Day religious breaks for Eid Fitr (25 June in 217) and Eid Adha (1 Sept in 2017).
In Lithuania, summer vacation starts in 15th learning day of June (Ex. June 21 and ends on September 1 with the start of a new school year (2.5 months).
In Luxembourg, summer vacation starts on July 16 and ends on September 15, lasting a total of two months. There are 5 other smaller vacations: All Saints (1 week), Christmas (2 weeks), Carnival (1 week), Easter (2 weeks), Pentecost (1 week).
In Macedonia, the summer vacation starts on June 10 and ends on September 1 in every school.
In Malta, the summer holidays usually last from the end of June until the end of September (3 months).
In Moldova, summer vacation begins on 1 June and ends in 1 September (3 months).
In Morocco, summer vacation lasts from June 20 until the beginning of September (2 months).
In Mexico, summer vacation starts in early July and finishes in mid-August since 2000. In addition, Mexican children get two or three weeks off for Christmas and New Year (from the third Thursday in December to January 7), and two weeks off in March or April for Spring Break (from the Friday before lazarus Saturday to the Monday after Easter Monday).
However, high school students (from tenth to twelfth grade) and college students have mostly three months of vacation - from late May or early June to early August. Like elementary and middle school students, high school students have in addition two weeks off for Christmas and New Year, and two weeks off in March or April for Spring Break. Moreover, college students get four weeks off for Christmas and New Year (from mid-December to mid-January) but only one week of Spring Break.
In Mongolia, summer vacation usually starts from late May or early June (varies between schools) to the end of August. The school year is divided into 4 terms lasting 8 to 9 weeks each and students take 1 week off after the first and second terms and 2 weeks after the third term.
In Nepal, summer vacation runs from the end of May to the end of July.
In the Netherlands, summer vacation is about 6 weeks for primary school and High school, usually from mid-July to late August. School students officially get the same time off but there often is a one - week period before the vacation during which the student will only have to go to school for 2 days to receive their grade lists and bring back their books making the holiday 7 weeks unofficially for high school students. However, this does not apply to every school.
In New Zealand, the school holidays (the term used, rather than "vacation '') typically start in mid-December, and end in late January, which is usually 6 weeks. Senior secondary school students in Year 11, 12 and 13 finish in late - October for study leave. But the summer holidays still do not start until mid-December. And university students do n't start until early March and finish in late - October. Throughout the year there are 2 week breaks at Easter, in July and in September.
In Nigeria, primary and secondary Schools usually start Summer vacation in mid-July and resume in the early weeks of September. The vacation is also known as the "3rd - term holiday '' and it is the longest break in a school year (typically up to two months). The "first - term break '' starts between one and two weeks prior to Christmas and ends the first or second week in January, lasting for about three weeks. The "first - term break '' is usually the shortest break in a school year. The "second - term break '' usually starts a week before Easter and lasts for another three weeks. This gives a total of about 14 weeks of holiday in a year. The geographical location of the school is also a factor.
Tertiary institutions follow a different pattern, as the holiday in each school depends on various factors which include, the Course of study and the academic calendar of the school. Some tertiary institutions observe their Summer breaks in the normal summer period when elementary and high schools observe theirs, while others do n't. Some courses of study also do n't observe any significant holidays, such programmes include Engineering, Nursing, Medicine and a few others. This is usually as a result of students doing their laboratory work, workshop practice, Practicals, Internship etc. (as the case may be), while the other students in other programmes are on holiday. Tertiary schools observe two semesters; while some schools observe a break after the first semester, many others have their breaks combined to just the summer holidays. This long break helps the students get good jobs during the holiday. The total length of break observed in tertiary institutions in a year is 12 to 14 weeks.
In Norway, summer vacation typically lasts from mid June to mid August, for a minimum of 8 weeks.
In Oman, summer vacation starts in late May and ends in early September (3 months).
In Pakistan, Summer vacation lasts for two to three months depending on the type of school (public or private). Typical summer vacation is from the end of May to mid-August. Many private schools are also open in June and July for 8th to 10th grades under the programmes called "summer camps ''.
In Panama, summer vacation starts in early December on both types of school (public or private), and ends in late February. (3 months)
In Paraguay, summer holidays start in December and end in late February (2 months).
In the Philippines, summer holidays for kindergarten, elementary, and high schools typically start on the third week of March and end in the first to third week of June. This coincides with the country 's tropical dry season months from March to June. Colleges and universities, however, offer summer classes for students who wants to take advanced subjects or those who fail to pass the prerequisites for the next school year. School year begins in the first week of June, the start of Philippines ' wet season.
Select universities have adapted the school year schedule of other countries, starting the school year in September and having the summer holidays from June to August. Some of the schools who complied are still in transition, their academic calendars still beginning in July, others in August, with their summer vacations adjusted accordingly.
In Poland, summer vacation starts on the first Saturday after June 20 and ends on the first weekday of September except Friday or Saturday. Students usually spend 1 -- 1.5 hours at school to pick up their report cards on their last day of school.
In Portugal, summer vacation starts in mid-June, and finishes in the middle of September.
In Russia, summer vacation starts on May 25 with the end of an old school year (for 1st -- 8th and 10th grades) and ends on September 1 with the beginning of a new school year. For 9th and 11th grades, due to exams (EGE), the vacation starts in the middle (9th grade) or in the end (11th grade) of June.
In Romania, summer vacation starts in the second and third week of June and ends September 9 - 16 (3 months). (2)
In Saint Lucia, summer vacation starts in early July and ends on the first Monday of September (6 weeks).
In the school year 2016 -- 2017 the summer break for Saudi Arabian students started from 24th of May till the 17th of September. This means it will be 110 days, 3 Months and a half. In 2018 - 2019, schools will end in May 13th and start early September, this is because the Ministry of Education wants students to finish school before Ramadan begins.
In Serbia, the summer vacation starts around the ending of June, more precisely by the end of 2nd or 3rd week of June. Summer holiday ends on August 31. School officially starts on first working day of September (if September 1 is on Saturday or Sunday, starting of school is delayed until Monday). There are also several other holidays. Two day holiday in the first week of November, Three week holiday from December 31st to the third week of January and finally a two - week break during Easter.
In Slovakia, summer break lasts from July 1 until September 1 (2 months and Constitution Day).
In Slovenia, final exams are usually taken from mid-May to mid-June (high schools) or in June (primary schools). The last day of school is June 24th, and school resumes on September 1st.
In South Africa, summer holidays usually begin in early December and end in mid-January. Winter Break lasts from late June to early July, and there are 10 days of Easter holidays.
In South Korea, summer vacation starts in late July and ends in mid-August. The South Korean summer vacation takes place within a school year. The winter vacation takes place from the last week of December or early January to the first week of February.
In South Sudan, summer vacation starts on December 21 and ends on March 19.
In Spain, the school year finishes in mid or late June and begins in mid-September. Vacation varies by region but often includes a family vacation to cooler temperatures in the north of Spain or south or east to the Mediterranean beaches.
In Suriname, summer vacation usually starts in mid-August and ends in early - October. In 2012, a change of summer vacation was proposed by several legislators having summer vacation the same time as the Caribbean Community. The proposed plan is summer vacation starts from mid-August and ends in early - October.
In Sweden, summer vacation is between the spring and autumn term. Normally it lasts from mid-June to late August (a minimum of 9 -- 10 weeks, differs for each county). In Sweden, students end their term, either at a church or in their school, singing traditional summer songs like Den blomstertid nu kommer (normally only the first two verses).
The winter vacation is between the winter and late winter term. It is typically three weeks long, lasting from late December until early January.
Children in elementary school until high school have a week of vacation in the autumn / winter term and two weeks in the spring / summer term. The one in the autumn is called "Novemberlov '' which means "November vacation / break '' or "Höstlov '' which means "Autumn vacation / break ''. The two in the spring / summer term are called "Sportlov '' which means "Sport break / vacation '' and "Påsklov '' which means "Easter break / vacation ''.
Schools have additional breaks on 1 May (May Day) and 6 June (the National Day of Sweden).
In Switzerland, summer vacation varies in each canton. As an example in Zürich, it lasts five weeks and between mid-July and mid-August. In Ticino, it last about ten weeks between late June and early September.
In Syria, summer vacation lasts 3 months. It starts mid June (for primary and secondary schools) and ends mid September. University students have a vacation from early July to early October. This varies 2 or 3 days by school or year. The mid-term holiday is usually a week long.
In Taiwan, summer vacation starts in early July (late June for University students) and ends in late August (mid-September for University students).
In Thailand, summer vacation begins in late February to early March and ends in mid-May.
Primary and Secondary Schools close the first Friday of July and open on the first Monday of September (giving students two months). This can vary a day or two by school or year. International schools are in link with the British, Canadian, or American systems.
In Turkey, summer vacation starts in mid-June and ends in mid-September (3 months).
In Tunisia, summer vacation for the middle school (7th -- 9th grade) and high school starts on May 30 and ends on September 15. Primary schools are off to vacation on June 1 and end on September 15.
In England and Wales, summer holidays for state schools usually last from the second half of July through to early September which gives a duration of six or seven weeks. In addition, all schools in England and Wales have three one - week - long half - term breaks for each of the three terms, one in the autumn term, one in the spring term and one in the summer term. State schools have two weeks off for Christmas and Easter, which brings the total number of weeks off for state school students per year to 13.
In Scotland, school summer holidays start in late June and last for about six or seven weeks, with most schools returning around mid-August. In addition to summer holidays, Scottish schools have breaks lasting one week in October, two weeks at Christmas and two weeks at Easter. They also have a week off in Mid-February. They have two bank holidays in May / June, and one in September.
In Northern Ireland, most schools ' summer vacation starts in late June and runs through to the beginning of September. Students doing exams (GCSEs and A-Levels) often get "Study - Leave '' from May and do the exams sometime in that month, or early June. Schools also have a two - week break for Christmas and Easter as well as several Bank Holidays, in addition to a week off for Mid Term in Mid February. Some schools, generally integrated, or Catholic, also get time off for St. Patrick 's Day in March. Protestant schools do n't usually get this day off.
In the United Kingdom, holiday dates for independent schools mostly differ from those of state schools; these differences typically take the form of an extra week 's holiday at the beginning and end of each of the long vacations, meaning four weeks for the Christmas and Easter breaks and eight to ten weeks for the summer break, though variations in summer vacation length exist between independent schools themselves. In addition, all schools in the United Kingdom have three week - long half - term breaks for each of the three terms, including one in the autumn term at the end of October, one in the spring term in mid-February and one in the summer term in late May, although these breaks do not always coincide with state school breaks in the Autumn and Spring terms. The summer half term break is determined by the break in public exams at the end of May. Some universities grant an extended "Exam - Leave '' to students which typically commences in early April, so as to give students a good number of weeks to prepare for the summer exam season which usually starts in mid to late May and finishes in early or mid-June. Final - year students at independent schools typically finish their time at school when their last exam in the summer exam season finishes, and as an encore a special event is usually arranged for late June by the school for leavers and staff as a way of providing an opportunity for final farewells to be bid. The universities they go on to typically schedule their first term to commence in early October, giving school leavers an extended summer break between their time of leaving school and starting university.
In the United States, summer vacation lasts two to three months. The dates vary depending on the location of the school district, with two major formats. One is from late May - mid June to early September (in most northern states), the other major format lasting from late May to mid August (in most southern and western states). (Excluding some districts, as some schools may end late June and begin early September).
Summer vacation or break lasts for about 12 weeks, starting anywhere from late May to mid June, and ending anywhere from late August to Labor Day, the first Monday in September. This often depends on the region -- for example, most schools in the Northeastern United States end in June and start the Wednesday after Labor Day (Teachers report back on Tuesday), while the majority of schools in the Southern United States have schools end in May and start again in August.
The origins of the summer holiday break are often believed to be rooted in agriculture. It is widely believed that the school calendar follows the agrarian farming calendar because during the settlement of the United States, the nation primarily consisted of a farming population. This belief maintains that the current school calendar has a two to three - month break so that children could assume the necessary tasks of planting and harvesting crops. However, planting of most crops occurred in the spring and harvest occurred in the fall. Rural schools would often break for spring and fall seasons, but continue schooling throughout the summer.
The modern school calendar has roots in 19th century school reform movements seeking standardization between urban and rural areas; multiple causes lead to the summer break known by modern American students. In fact, schools in the early 1800s held school throughout the summer. As schooling progressed through bureaucracy, society 's population growth and change, as well as improvements in technology, such as better transportation for students and air conditioned buildings, school calendars also changed.
Many citizens of upper and middle classes would vacation outside of the sweltering cities during the hot summers. If school continued into the summer months, families would no longer have time together for summer vacations.
As school systems grew throughout the United States they became more aligned with college and university schedules, which already observed a break during summer. Breaks became more frequent as well. Original schools observed New Year 's Day, Easter, Fourth of July, Thanksgiving, and Christmas. The duration of breaks at these observances varied from school to school. More observances have been honored as time has passed, continually changing the school calendar.
As the nation expanded and grew, the nation saw the need for an educated populace and more public schools were built. But the need for academic breaks from learning was always seen as necessary. Nineteenth century and early twentieth century belief regarded the brain as a muscle, and thought that too much work and strain on the brain could result in injury. Therefore, they believed that students should not receive too much education. This was particularly true of younger children whose minds were still developing. As industrialism led to automation and wealth, and the nation recovered and expanded following the Civil War, leisure activity became more important to Americans. Leading advocates for play such as Henry Curtis believed strongly that children were not having enough time for play. In addition to advocating playground equipment, Curtis also advocated that summer should be spent working with families in gardens, and going camping. Curtis was a large supporter of boy and girl scouts and encouraged children to engage in scouting during the summer. If children lived in the cities and were unable to go camping or tend to gardens, schools were a premier place for children to be, but the emphasis should be on learning lifelong skills; sewing, woodworking, crafts, and manual labor.
In Uruguay, summer holidays usually begin in early December, and finish in early March (3 months). Students have one week for Easter Holidays, another week for Spring Holidays, and two weeks for the Holiday season.
In Venezuela, summer holidays begin in late June or early July and end in late September or early October.
In Vietnam, summer holidays usually begin in late May or early June and last for two months. Vietnamese students also have a week or two weeks off for Lunar New Year which is in late January or mid-February. Students additionally have other holidays including but not limited to Independence Day on September 2, International Labour Day on May 1 and Reunification Day on April 30.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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who sang ever fallen in love with someone | Ever Fallen in Love (with Someone You Should n't 've) - wikipedia
"Ever Fallen in Love (With Someone You Should n't 've) '' is a 1978 song written by Pete Shelley and performed by his group Buzzcocks. It was a number 12 hit on the UK Singles Chart and was included on the album Love Bites.
Sometime during November 1977, the band watched the musical Guys and Dolls in the TV lounge of a guesthouse in Edinburgh, Scotland. It was the dialogue "Have you ever fallen in love with someone you should n't have '' from the film which inspired the song. The following day Shelley wrote the lyrics of the song, in a van outside a post office, with the music following soon after. In an interview, Shelley said that the song was about a man named Francis that he lived with for about seven years.
The music and lyrics, as well as the singing, belong to Pete Shelley. The song uses the verse - chorus formal pattern and is in the key of E major. Both the verse and the chorus start with C# minor chords (sixth degree in E major), which "give (the song) a distinctly downbeat, edgy feel. '' The minor chords and the B - major - to - D - major move in the chorus are unusual for a 1970s punk song, yet they contribute to its ear - catching nature, along with the vocal melody. The verses feature a guitar riff and a double stroke tom - tom drum pattern over the E chord. The vocal melody ranges from G # 3 to baritone F # 4 in the verses and chorus; in the ending, Shelley hits a tenor G4 and then a G # 4.
The lyrics consist of two verses (of which one is repeated) and a chorus. According to music critic Mark Deming, "the lyrics owe less to adolescent self - pity than the more adult realization of how much being in love can hurt -- and how little one can really do about it. ''
The song was ranked at No. 1 among "Tracks of the Year '' for 1978 by NME. Critic Ned Raggett describes the song as a "deservedly well - known masterpiece. '' Mark Deming notes, "Pete Shelley 's basic formula in the Buzzcocks was to marry the speed and emotional urgency of punk with the hooky melodies and boy / girl thematics of classic pop / rock. When he applied this thinking to that most classic of pop themes, unrequited teenage love, he crafted one of his most indelible songs, ' Ever Fallen in Love? ' ''
Remix
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who played grace's boyfriend on grace under fire | Grace Under Fire - wikipedia
Grace Under Fire is an American sitcom that aired on ABC from September 29, 1993, to February 17, 1998. The show starred Brett Butler as a single mother learning how to cope with raising her three children alone after finally divorcing her abusive husband. The series was created by Chuck Lorre and produced by Carsey - Werner Productions.
Grace Under Fire was the highest rated new comedy of the 1993 -- 94 season.
Grace Under Fire, produced by Carsey - Werner International, was part of a wave of shows in the late 1980s and 1990s that were built around a comedian (and in some cases, closely based on his or her comedy routine). As for Carsey - Werner, many of their shows were based on non-traditional, non-nuclear families.
Grace Under Fire followed a similar formula; set in a small Missouri town, Butler starred as Grace Kelly, a divorced single mother and recovering alcoholic. The show begins after the main character divorces her abusive alcoholic husband of eight years in an attempt to start life anew and prevent her children from making the same mistakes she did. The show revolved around Grace; her children, mischievous Quentin (Noah Segan, pilot; Jon Paul Steuer, seasons 1 - 3; Sam Horrigan, seasons 4 - 5), happy - go - lucky Libby (Kaitlin Cullum), and infant Patrick (Dylan and Cole Sprouse); her happily married best friends and neighbors, Nadine and Wade Swoboda (Julie White and Casey Sander); and the town 's bachelor pharmacist, Russell Norton (Dave Thomas). All of them helped Grace keep whatever shreds of sanity she had left.
In the first three seasons, the show had a very blue - collar appeal due to Grace 's chosen line of work, post-divorce; she operated pipelines at the local oil refinery, and had a second family of fellow crew workers down at the plant. Among them were heavy - set Dougie Boudreau (Walter Olkewicz), friendly Vic (Dave Florek), and Carl (Louis Mandylor). Their gruff boss was Bill Davis (Charles Hallahan). Both Bill and Carl were dropped after the first season; while Carl had n't a permanent on - screen replacement, the crew 's new boss was John Shirley (Paul Dooley) starting in the second season.
Russell 's friendship with Grace, and their on - and - off dating rituals, became a running theme in the series. Throughout their friendship they often dated other people; for a time in 1994, Grace dated Ryan Sparks (William Fichtner), a quirky chemist who worked in the oil refinery 's labs. In season three, Grace entered into a relationship with suave plant executive Rick Bradshaw (Alan Autry). As with Ryan, the affair between Grace and Rick occurred despite their radically different places in the company ladder. When the fourth season opened, Grace moved on from the oil refinery and took an entry - level position with an ad agency, working her way up to being a white - collar professional. That job only lasted a month, but she then took on similar business work for a construction company owned by D.C. (Don "D.C. '' Curry). In the final season, Russell found some romantic interest in Dottie (Lauren Tom), a gossiping makeup artist.
Throughout the entire five - year run, Grace 's ex-husband Jimmy Kelly (Geoff Pierson) showed up, sometimes causing problems and at others miraculously clean and sober, trying to win Grace back. A reconciliation never quite happened, but the two did settle on a good friendship for the sake of the kids. In the midst of Jimmy 's attempts to get straight, his father Emmett (guest star Matt Clark) died. In the aftermath of his death, it was revealed that Emmett was gay. At this time, Jimmy 's mother Jean (Peggy Rea), Grace 's disapproving and moralizing former mother - in - law, offered to move in and help Grace raise the kids (Rea had previously guest starred as Jean a few times since the series premiered). Russell eventually reconciled with his estranged dad, Floyd (Tom Poston), who ended up moving in with him and working with him in the pharmacy. As far as Grace 's own kin and past life went, she had a regular source of support from her sister Faith (Valri Bromfield) in the first two seasons. Another development came when Grace was contacted by her first child, Matthew (guest star Tom Everett Scott), whom she gave up for adoption before meeting Jimmy. Matthew had questions about his ancestry and ended up meeting his biological father.
In early 1998, Grace 's old friend Bev Henderson (Julia Duffy) came back to town and ended up moving in with the Kellys. In the intervening years, Bev had become quite successful and wealthy. She briefly moved in with Grace to get in touch with her working - class roots. Grace and Bev 's personal reunion was unexpectedly the last major storyline of the series. Although she was joining the cast full - time, Duffy only appeared in two network - aired episodes of Grace Under Fire before the series was abruptly canceled in mid-February.
The episode "Vega $ '' is part of a crossover with Coach, The Drew Carey Show and Ellen set in Las Vegas. It features Drew Carey as Drew Carey, Joely Fisher as Paige Clark, Jeremy Piven as Spence Kovak and Jerry Van Dyke as Luther Van Damme.
The show was the highest rated new show in its first season. In the month before Grace Under Fire first aired, Showtime broadcast the Carsey Werner - produced Brett Butler Special, a half - hour comedy performance by Butler.
Grace Under Fire was nominated for three Golden Globe awards: Best Performance by an Actress in a TV Series Comedy / Musical in 1995 and 1997 and Best TV Series Comedy / Musical in 1995.
Jean Stapleton was nominated for the 1995 Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy series Emmy Award for playing Aunt Vivian in the episode "The Road to Paris Texas. '' Diane Ladd was nominated for the same award the previous year for playing Louise Burdett in the episode entitled "Things Left Undone '' written by Brett Butler and Wayne Lemon.
As the third season concluded in the spring of 1996, Jon Paul Steuer left the series. Sources have speculated that Steuer 's mother pulled him out of the show after an incident with Butler, who allegedly flashed her breasts at the 12 - year - old actor. At the start of Season 4, Sam Horrigan became the third actor to play Quentin Kelly, and with him in the role, the character 's age advanced to 16.
In the fourth and fifth seasons of the show, Butler was fighting a painkiller addiction, for which she eventually sought medical help. Cast member Julie White left the show after Season 4, also citing Butler 's behavior as the reason. The show, which had been a Top 20 series for its first three seasons, began to take a significant drop in the ratings during season four, from 13th place to 45th.
Butler 's first round of treatment and rehab delayed the start of the 1997 -- 98 season until November. After Grace Under Fire resumed production on season five, a newly clean Butler struggled to stay that way; the morale on the set was little better than in the previous season, due to the star 's erratic behavior. Around the holidays, Butler relapsed again, and although the producers were as committed as ever to continuing the show, ABC was becoming concerned about Butler 's overall health, and was less patient with her accelerated amount of missed tapings.
The show 's ratings continued to fall dramatically, which may have well been attributed to Butler 's reputation in the press, the longer - than - usual hiatus the series took between seasons four and five, and the fact that the character of Grace Kelly no longer went through the kinds of struggles that had made the show successful earlier on. The addition of Julia Duffy several episodes into the fifth season was a last - ditch attempt to improve the ratings, but with Butler in her current state, the network was not inspired to continue on. Rather abruptly, with the February 17, 1998 telecast, ABC canceled the series. The three - month - long final season averaged at # 68 in the 1997 - 98 Nielsen ratings.
The series aired in syndication on the Oxygen Network in the United States, and TVtropolis in Canada. In the United Kingdom, the series was picked up by BBC2 where it aired from 1994 to 1999. The show was added to Hulu on March 1, 2014. The series is currently running on the Laff digital broadcast network that went on the air on April 15, 2015.
On May 4, 2015, it was announced that Visual Entertainment (VEI) had acquired the rights to the series in Region 1.
It was subsequently announced that they will release Grace Under Fire: Complete Collection on DVD on October 6, 2015.
The show was remade in Russia as Lyuba, Children and the Factory in 2005. A Polish adaptation, Hela w opałach (Hela Under Fire; Hela is short form from Helen), aired on TVN in September 2006.
Also there is another Russian adaptation as Ольга (Olga). The show premiered on TNT on September 5, 2016.
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