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who started the bethel african methodist episcopal church in philadelphia | Mother Bethel A.M.E. Church - wikipedia
The Mother Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church is a historic church and congregation at 419 South 6th Street in Center City Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. The congregation, founded in 1794, is the oldest African Methodist Episcopal congregation in the nation. Its present church, completed in 1890, is the oldest church property in the United States to be continuously owned by African Americans. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1972.
The church was organized by African - American members of St. George 's Methodist Church who walked out due to racial segregation in the worship services. Mother Bethel was one of the first African - American churches in the United States, dedicated July 29, 1794, by Bishop Francis Asbury. On October 12, 1794, Reverend Robert Blackwell announced that the congregation was received in full fellowship in the Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1816 Rev Richard Allen brought together other black Methodist congregations from the region to organize the new African Methodist Episcopal Church denomination. He was elected bishop of this denomination. After the American Civil War, its missionaries went to the South to help freedmen and planted many new churches in the region.
Allen and his wife, Sarah Allen are both buried in the present church 's crypt. The current church building was constructed in 1888 - 1890, and it has been designated a National Historic Landmark.
The property was acquired for the new congregation in 1794. Its first building was a frame structure originally used as a blacksmith 's shop, which was hauled to the site. This building was later replaced by frame structures in 1805 and 1841. The 1841 church was reported to have a tunnel connecting it with a nearby Quaker meetinghouse to facilitate the movements of fugitive slaves. The present building, completed in 1890, is a three - story masonry structure with Romanesque styling. Its large round - arch windows are adorned with stained glass from Germany.
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windows movie maker what files does it support | Windows Movie Maker - wikipedia
Windows Movie Maker (formerly known as Windows Live Movie Maker in Windows 7) is a discontinued video editing software by Microsoft. It is a part of Windows Essentials software suite and offers the ability to create and edit videos as well as to publish them on OneDrive, Facebook, Vimeo, YouTube, and Flickr.
Movie Maker was officially discontinued on January 10, 2017 and it is replaced by Windows Story Remix which is built with Photos.
The first release of Windows Movie Maker was included with Windows ME on September 14, 2000.
Version 1.1 was included in Windows XP a year later, and included support for creating DV AVI and WMV 8 files. Version 2.0 was released as a free update in November 2002, and added a number of new features. Version 2.1, a minor update, is included in Windows XP Service Pack 2. The Movie Maker in Windows XP Media Center Edition 2005 had more transitions and support for DVD burning.
The next version of Movie Maker was released as part of Windows Vista and -- like most Windows components -- reported version number 6.0. 6000, same as Windows Vista itself. It included new effects and transitions, support for playback on the Xbox 360, and support for the DVR - MS file format that Windows Media Centre records television in. The HD version in Premium and Ultimate editions of Windows Vista also added support for capturing from HDV camcorders. The capture wizard also created DVR - MS type files from HDV tapes. However, the Windows Vista version of Windows Movie Maker removed support for importing video from an analog video source such as an analog camcorder, VCR or from a webcam.
As some older systems might not be able to run the new version of Windows Movie Maker, Microsoft also released an updated older version 2.6 for Windows Vista on Microsoft Download Centre. This version included the old effects and transitions, and is basically the same as Windows Movie Maker 2.1, but without the ability to capture video. Installation requires Windows Vista and is only intended for use on computers where the hardware accelerated version can not be run.
A Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) version of Windows Movie Maker was also included in some development builds of Vista (at the time codenamed "Longhorn ''), but was removed in the development reset in August 2004. After the development reset, the interface for the WPF - based Windows Movie Maker was retained in Windows Vista.
A new version of the software, renamed Windows Live Movie Maker 2009, was released as a beta on September 17, 2008, and officially released as a standalone product through Windows Live Essentials suite on August 19, 2009. This was effectively a completely new software, as it could not read projects created by earlier versions and did not support custom XML transitions written for the previous versions. In addition, a great many features were removed.
Also, Movie Maker 's interface was redesigned in the Windows Live version to use a ribbon toolbar similar to Office 2007; it also added features such as "Auto Movie '' and the ability to export videos directly to DVDs and YouTube. Certain advanced features were also removed from the software, such as image stabilisation and the ability to record voice - overs.
Movie Maker 2009 supported both Windows Vista and Windows 7. As the previous version of Windows Movie Maker was no longer included with the operating system, the only way to obtain Movie Maker on Windows 7 and later was through the Windows Live Essentials suite, although some manufacturers pre-installed the application on new PCs.
An updated version, Windows Live Movie Maker 2011, was released on August 17, 2010, adding features such as webcam capture, support for high - definition video, the ability to upload videos directly to SkyDrive and Facebook, and the ability to add media files stored on network shares to projects.
With the discontinuation of the Windows Live brand (and the re-branding of the Windows Live suite as Windows Essentials), Windows Movie Maker 2012 was released in April 2012. Support for recording voice - overs was restored, along with an audio mixer and integration with several free stock music services. H. 264 / MP4 became the default export format (replacing Windows Media Video, but still can be used), support for uploading to Vimeo was introduced, and hardware accelerated video stabilisation was also added as an exclusive feature for Windows 8 users.
Movie Maker was officially removed for download on January 10, 2017. Like other Windows Essentials apps, Movie Maker is now replaced by Windows Story Remix in Windows 10 's Photos App.
The layout consists of a storyboard view and a timeline view, collections for organizing imported video, and a preview pane. When in Storyboard view, the video project appears as a film strip showing each scene in clips. The storyboard / timeline consists of one ' Video ' (with accompanying ' Audio ' bar), one ' Music / Audio ' bar, and one ' Titles / Credits ' bar. In each bar, clips can be added for editing (e.g., a. WAV music file will belong on the ' Music / Audio ' bar). Still images can also be imported into the timeline and "stretched '' to any desired number of frames. The Video and Music / Audio bars can be "cut '' to any number of short segments, which will play together seamlessly, but the individual segments are isolated editing-wise, so that for example, the music volume can be lowered for just a few seconds while someone is speaking.
When importing footage into the program, a user can either choose to Capture Video (from camera, scanner or other device) or Import into Collections to import existing video files into the user 's collections. The accepted formats for import are. WMV /. ASF,. MPG (MPEG - 1),. AVI (DV - AVI),. WMA,. WAV, and. MP3. Additionally, the Windows Vista Home Premium and Ultimate editions of Movie Maker support importing MPEG - 2 Program streams and DVR - MS formats. Importing of other container formats such as MP4 / 3GP, FLV and MOV, and AAC are also supported if the necessary codecs are installed and the system is running Windows 7 or later.
In the Windows XP version, import and real - time capture of video from an analog source such as a VCR, tape - based analog camcorder or webcam is possible. This feature is based on Windows Image Acquisition. Video support in Windows Image Acquisition was removed in Windows Vista, as a result importing analog footage in Windows Movie Maker is no longer possible.
When importing from a DV tape, if the "Make Clips on Completion '' option is selected, Windows Movie Maker automatically flags the commencement of each scene, so that the tape appears on the editing screen as a collection of short clips, rather than one long recording. That is, at each point where the "Record '' button was pressed, a new "clip '' is generated, although the actual recording on the hard drive is still one continuous file. This feature is also offered after importing files already on the hard drive. In the Windows Vista version, the "Make clips on completion '' option has been removed -- the clips are now automatically created during the capture process.
The efficiency of the importing and editing process is heavily dependent on the amount of file fragmentation of the hard disk. The most reliable results can be obtained by adding an extra hard disk dedicated for scratch space, and regularly re-formatting / defragmenting it, rather than simply deleting the files at the end of the project. Fragmented AVI files result in jerky playback on the editing screen, and make the final rendering process much longer.
Although it is possible to import digital video from cameras through the USB interface, most older cameras only support USB version 1 and the results tend to be poor -- "sub VHS '' -- quality. Newer cameras using USB 2.0 give much better results. A FireWire interface camera will allow recording and playback of images identical in quality to the original recordings if the video is imported and subsequently saved as DV AVI files, although this consumes disk space at about 1 gigabyte every five minutes (12 GB / Hr). Alternatively, most DV cameras allow the final AVI file to be recorded back onto the camera tape for high quality playback. Some standalone DVD recorders will also directly accept DV inputs from video cameras and computers.
After capture, any clip can be dragged and dropped anywhere on the timeline. Once on the timeline, clips can be duplicated, split, repositioned or edited. An AutoMovie feature offers predefined editing styles (titles, effects and transitions) for quickly creating movies.
The original camera file on the hard drive is not modified; the project file is just a list of instructions for reproducing a final output video file from the original file. Thus, several different versions of the same video can be simultaneously made from the original camera footage.
Earlier versions of Windows Movie Maker could only export video in Windows Media Video or DV AVI formats. It includes some predefined profiles, but users can also create custom profiles. Windows XP Media Centre Edition bundled Sonic DVD Burning engine, licensed from Sonic Solutions, allowing video editors to burn their project in DVD - Video format on a DVD. In Windows Vista, Windows Movie Maker passes the video project to Windows DVD Maker.
Windows Movie Maker 2012 introduced the default ability to export in H. 264 MP4 format.
Video can be exported back to the video camera if supported by the camera. Movie Maker also allows users to publish a finished video on video hosting websites.
Windows Movie Maker can also be used to edit and publish audio tracks. If no video or image is present, Movie Maker allows exporting the sound clips in Windows Media Audio format.
Windows Movie Maker supports a large variety of titles, effects and transitions.
Versions 2. x included in Windows XP includes 60 transitions, 37 effects, 34 title and 9 credits animations. The Windows Vista version includes a different set of transitions, effects and title / credits animations while dropping a few older ones. There are in all 49 effects and 63 transitions. They are applied by using a drag and drop interface from the effects or transitions folders.
Early versions (V2 onwards) of Windows Movie Maker had a flexible interface so programming custom effects and other content were possible via XML. The Windows Vista version supports Direct3D - based effects. Microsoft also provides SDK documentation for custom effects and transitions. Since the effects are XML based, users could create and add custom effects and transitions of their own with XML knowledge.
Many custom transitions were commercially available and created additional features such as picture - in - picture.
Windows Movie Maker V6 did not support customisations to effects and transitions in the same way as V2. x and so many customisations had to be re-written. Versions after V6 do not support custom transitions and effects at all.
Movie Maker 1.0, introduced with Windows Me, was widely criticised for being "bare bones '' and suffering "a woeful lack of features ''; and saving movies only in Microsoft 's ASF file format. Critical reception of versions 2.0 and 2.6 has been slightly more positive.
Many longstanding users were disappointed by the removal of so many features in the effective re-writing of the software in Live Movie Maker 2009. Some of those features (such as visualisation of the audio levels) have subsequently been re-added.
In June 2008, a memo purportedly by Bill Gates from January 2003 was circulated on the Internet in which he heavily criticized the downloading process for Movie Maker at the time. The memo was originally made available online as part of the plaintiffs ' evidence in Comes v. Microsoft Corp., an antitrust class - action suit, and was submitted as evidence in that case on January 16, 2007.
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what towns are in southeast middlesex county ma | Middlesex County, Massachusetts - wikipedia
Middlesex County is a county in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, in the United States. As of 2016, the estimated population was 1,589,774, making it the twenty - first most populous county in the United States, and the most populous county in both Massachusetts and New England. As part of the 2010 national census, the Commonwealth 's mean center of population for that year was geo - centered in Middlesex County, in the town of Natick at (42 ° 16 ′ 20 '' N 71 ° 21 ′ 48 '' W / 42.272291 ° N 71.363370 ° W / 42.272291; - 71.363370). (This is not to be confused with the geographic center of Massachusetts, which is in Rutland, in neighboring Worcester, County.) Middlesex County is included in the Census Bureau 's Boston -- Cambridge -- Newton, MA -- NH Metropolitan Statistical Area.
On July 11, 1997, the Massachusetts legislature voted to abolish the executive government of Middlesex County due primarily to the county 's insolvency. Though Middlesex County continues to exist as a geographic boundary it 's used primarily as district jurisdictions within the court system and for other administrative purposes, such as an indicator for elections. The National Weather Service weather alerts (such as severe thunderstorm warning) continue issuances based upon Massachusetts ' counties.
The county was created by the Massachusetts General Court on May 10, 1643, when it was ordered that "the whole plantation within this jurisdiction be divided into four shires. '' Middlesex initially contained Charlestown, Cambridge, Watertown, Sudbury, Concord, Woburn, Medford, Wayland, and Reading. In 1649 the first Middlesex County Registry of Deeds was created in Cambridge.
On April 19th, 1775, Middlesex was site of the first armed conflict of the American Revolutionary War.
In 1855, the Massachusetts State Legislature created a minor Registry of Deeds for the Northern District of Middlesex County in Lowell.
In the late 19th century and early 20th century, Boston annexed several of its adjacent cities and towns including Charlestown and Brighton from Middlesex County, resulting in an enlargement and accretion toward Suffolk County.
Beginning prior to dissolution of the executive county government, the county composed of two regions with separate county seats for administrative purposes:
Since the start of the 21st century much of the current and former county offices have physically decentralized from the Cambridge seat, with the sole exceptions being the Registry of Deeds, and the Middlesex Probate and Family Court which both retain locations in Cambridge and Lowell. During the first quarter of 2008, the Superior Courthouse has been seated in the city of Woburn; the Sheriff 's Office is now administratively seated in the city of Medford and the Cambridge - based Country Jail has since been amalgamated with another county jail facility in Billerica. The Cambridge District Court (which has jurisdiction for Arlington, Belmont and Cambridge); along with the Middlesex County District Attorney 's Office, although not a part of the Middlesex County government, was also relatedly forced to relocate to Medford at the time of the closure of the Superior Courthouse building in Cambridge.
Of the 14 total counties of Massachusetts, Middlesex is currently one of 8, which currently has no county government or county commissioners since July 1, 1998, when county functions were assumed by state agencies at local option following a change in state law. Immediately prior to its dissolution, the Executive branch consisted of three County Commissioners elected at - large to staggered four - year terms. There was a County Treasurer elected to a six - year term. The county derived its revenue primarily from document filing fees at the Registries of Deeds and from a Deeds Excise Tax, also a transfer tax was further assessed on the sales price of real estate that was also collected by the Registries of Deeds.
Budgets as proposed by the County Commissioners were approved by a County Advisory Board that consisted of a single representative of each of the 54 cities and towns in Middlesex County. The votes of the individual members of the Advisory Board were weighted based on the overall valuation of property in their respective communities.
The County Sheriff was elected to a six - year term and two Registers of Deeds, (one for each the Northern District at Lowell, and another for the Southern District at Cambridge), both serve six - year terms. Besides the employees of the Sheriff 's Department, and the two Registries of Deeds; the county had a Maintenance Department, a Security Department, plus some administrative staff in the Treasurer 's and Commissioners ' Offices; and the employees of the hospital.
The country government also owned and operated the Superior Courthouse formerly in the cities of: Cambridge (since 2008 relocated to Woburn.) and also Lowell and the defunct Middlesex County Hospital in the city of Waltham.
The legislation abolishing Middlesex County executive retained the Sheriff and Registers of Deeds as independently elected officials, and transferred the Sheriff 's Department under the state Department of Public Safety and the two Registry of Deeds offices to the Massachusetts Secretary of State 's Office. Additionally, all county maintenance and security employees were absorbed into the corresponding staffs of the Massachusetts Trial Court. The legislation also transferred ownership of the two Superior Courthouses to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The hospital was closed. Finally, the office of County Commissioner was immediately abolished and the office of County Treasurer was abolished as of December 31, 2002. Any county roads became transferred to the Commonwealth as part of the dissolution. The other administrative duties (such as: Sheriff, Department of Deeds and court system, etc.) and all supporting staff were transferred under the Commonwealth as well.
Records of land ownership in Middlesex County continue to be maintained at the two Registries of Deeds. Besides the Sheriff and the two Registers of Deeds, the Middlesex District Attorney, the Middlesex Register of Probate and the Middlesex Clerk of Courts (which were already part of state government before the abolition of Middlesex County government) are all elected countywide to six - year terms.
In Middlesex County (as in the entirety of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts), the governmental functions such as property tax assessment and collection, public education, road repair and maintenance, and elections were all conducted at the municipal city and town level and not of the county government.
In 2012 the 22 - story Superior Court Building in Cambridge which was transferred from the abolished Executive County government was sold by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Due to its transfer from state control, many local residents had tried to force the private developers to reduce the overall height of the structure.
Even following abolition of the executive branch for county government in Middlesex, communities are still granted a right by the Massachusetts state legislature to form their own regional compacts for sharing of services and costs thereof.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 847 square miles (2,190 km), of which 818 square miles (2,120 km) is land and 29 square miles (75 km) (3.5 %) is water. It is the third - largest county in Massachusetts by land area.
It is bounded southeast by the Charles River, and drained by the Merrimack, Nashua, and Concord rivers, and other streams.
The MetroWest region comprises much of the southern portion of the county.
As of 2006, Middlesex County was tenth in the United States on the list of most millionaires per county.
As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 1,503,085 people, 580,688 households, and 366,656 families residing in the county. The population density was 1,837.9 inhabitants per square mile (709.6 / km). There were 612,004 housing units at an average density of 748.3 per square mile (288.9 / km). The racial makeup of the county was 80.0 % white, 9.3 % Asian, 4.7 % black or African American, 0.2 % American Indian, 3.3 % from other races, and 2.5 % from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 6.5 % of the population.
The largest ancestry groups were:
Of the 580,688 households, 31.0 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.5 % were married couples living together, 10.1 % had a female householder with no husband present, 36.9 % were non-families, and 27.8 % of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 3.10. The median age was 38.5 years.
The median income for a household in the county was $77,377 and the median income for a family was $97,382. Males had a median income of $64,722 versus $50,538 for females. The per capita income for the county was $40,139. About 5.1 % of families and 7.6 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.0 % of those under age 18 and 8.0 % of those age 65 or over.
79.6 % spoke English, 4.3 % Spanish, 2.7 % Portuguese, 1.6 % Italian, 1.6 % Chinese including Mandarin and other Chinese dialects and 1.5 % French as their first language. Middlesex County has the largest Irish - American population of any U.S. county with a plurality of Irish ancestry.
The ranking of unincorporated communities that are included on the list are reflective if the census designated locations and villages were included as cities or towns. Data is from the 2007 - 2011 American Community Survey 5 - Year Estimates.
Most municipalities in Middlesex County have a town form of government; the remainder are cities, and are so designated on this list. Villages listed below are census or postal divisions, but have no separate corporate or statutory existence from the cities and towns in which they are located.
Middlesex County is home to the Middlesex County Volunteers, a fife and drum corps that plays music from the 17th, 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. Founded in 1982 at the end of the United States Bicentennial celebration, the group performs extensively throughout New England. They have also performed at the Boston Pops, throughout the British Isles and Western Europe, and at the Edinburgh Military Tattoo 's Salute to Australia in Sydney, Australia.
Coordinates: 42 ° 29 ′ N 71 ° 23 ′ W / 42.49 ° N 71.39 ° W / 42.49; - 71.39
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when was the last time ku was unranked | Kansas Jayhawks men 's basketball - wikipedia
The Kansas Jayhawks men 's basketball program is the intercollegiate men 's basketball program of the University of Kansas. The program is classified in the NCAA 's Division I and the team competes in the Big 12 Conference.
The Jayhawks ' first coach was the inventor of the game, James Naismith, who is the only coach in the program 's history with a losing record. The Kansas basketball program has produced many notable professional players, including Clyde Lovellette, Wilt Chamberlain, Jo Jo White, Danny Manning, Raef LaFrentz, Paul Pierce, Nick Collison, Kirk Hinrich, Mario Chalmers, Andrew Wiggins, Joel Embiid. Politician Bob Dole also played basketball at Kansas. Former players that have gone on to be coaches include Phog Allen, Adolph Rupp, John McLendon, Dean Smith, Dutch Lonborg, Mark Turgeon, and Danny Manning, and former assistants to go on to be notable coaches include John Calipari, Gregg Popovich, and Bill Self. Allen founded the National Association of Basketball Coaches and, with Lonborg, was an early proponent of the NCAA tournament. Four different Jayhawk head coaches are in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame as coaches, Phog Allen, Larry Brown, Roy Williams, and current head coach Bill Self.
In 2008, ESPN ranked Kansas second on a list of the most prestigious programs of the modern college basketball era. Kansas currently has the longest streak of consecutive NCAA tournament appearances of all - time (28), the longest current streak of consecutive NCAA winning seasons (33), the most winning seasons in Division I history (97), the most non-losing seasons (. 500 or better) in NCAA history (100), the most conference championships in Division I history (61), the most consecutive regular season conference titles in Division I (14), the most First Team All Americans in Division I history (22), and the most First Team All American Selections in Division I history (29). The program ranks third in Division I all - time winning percentage (. 724) and second in Division I all - time wins (2,240). Following a 19 -- 11 defeat of William Jewell on February 10, 1908, the Jayhawks had a winning all - time record for the first time. The Jayhawks have n't had a losing all - time record since.
Since the opening of Allen Fieldhouse in 1955, the Jayhawks have earned a well established a home court advantage. Allen Fieldhouse is often considered one of the best home court advantages in college basketball. The Jayhawks have won over 70 percent of their games in Allen Fieldhouse, losing only a little over 100 games in its over 60 year history. Under current head coach Bill Self, the Jayhawks have had three home court winning streaks over 30 games and two streaks that have reached over 50 games.
Kansas ranks second all - time in NCAA Division I wins with 2,198 wins (as of December 31, 2016), against 837 losses (. 724 all time winning %, 3rd all - time). This record includes a 750 -- 109 (. 873) mark at historic Allen Fieldhouse. The Jayhawks are first in NCAA history with 97 winning seasons, and tied for first in NCAA history with 100 non-losing (. 500 or better) seasons with Kentucky. Kansas has the fewest head coaches (8) of any program that has been around 100 years, yet has reached the Final Four under more head coaches (6) than any other program in the nation. Every head coach at Kansas since the inception of the NCAA Tournament has led the program to the Final Four. Kansas has had four head coaches inducted into the Naismith Hall of Fame, more than any other program in the nation. A perennial conference powerhouse, Kansas leads Division I all - time in regular season conference titles with 60 in 110 years of conference play (the MVIAA Conference was created in 1907) through the 2016 -- 17 regular season. The Jayhawks have won a record 17 conference titles and a record 10 conference tournament titles in the 21 years of the Big 12 's existence. The program also owns the best Big 12 records in both those areas with a 274 -- 57 record in conference play and a 41 -- 10 record in tournament play. The Jayhawks won their 2,000 th game in school history when they defeated Texas Tech in the 2009 -- 2010 season, joining the University of Kentucky and the University of North Carolina as the only schools to boast such an achievement at that time.
The men 's basketball program officially began in 1898, following the arrival of Dr. James Naismith to the school, just six years after Naismith had written the sport 's first official rules. Naismith was not initially hired to coach basketball, but rather to be a chapel director and physical education instructor.
During those early years, the majority of the university 's basketball games were played against nearby YMCA teams, with YMCAs across the nation having played an integral part in the birth of basketball. Other common opponents were Haskell Institute and William Jewell College. Under Naismith, the team played just one game against a current Big 12 school, a matchup with rival Kansas State University. Naismith was, ironically, the only coach in the program 's history to have a losing record (55 -- 60).
Including his years as coach, Naismith served as the Athletic Director and a faculty member at Kansas for a total of almost 40 years before retiring in 1937. Naismith died in 1939, and his remains are buried in Lawrence, Kansas. The basketball court in Allen Fieldhouse is named James Naismith Court. Beyond inventing the game, his next greatest basketball legacy may be his coaching tree, whose two trunks are the well - known Phog Allen and the more recently better recognized Kansas native John McLendon. (McLendon attended KU in the 1930s when Allen was head coach, but segregation prevented McLendon from actually playing for Allen. Naismith mentored McLendon from his arrival at Kansas through degree completion and beyond.)
On December 10, 2010, the David Booth family purchased Dr. James Naismith 's 13 Original Rules of the game at a Sotheby 's auction in New York City for the sum of $4.3 million. They brought the founding document of basketball back to KU 's Lawrence campus, where it is currently housed at the DeBruce Center.
In 1907, Kansas hired one of Naismith 's players, Dr. Forrest C. "Phog '' Allen as head coach. Naismith provided Allen with a now infamous piece of wisdom: "You ca n't coach basketball; you just play it. '' Allen would set out to prove the adage wrong and through success and an unrivaled coaching tree has become known as the "Father of Basketball Coaching '', having passed on his knowledge of the game to some of the most well - respected names in the history of college basketball, including National Basketball Hall of Fame coaches Adolph Rupp, Dean Smith, Dutch Lonborg and Ralph Miller (all except Lonborg were born and raised in Kansas). Allen coached the team from 1907 -- 09, but William O. Hamilton coached from 1909 -- 1919, with Allen taking over again in 1919. The team went 125 -- 59 and won five conference championships under Hamilton 's direction.
Allen coached KU for 39 seasons and amassed a record of 590 -- 219, with two retroactively - awarded Helms Foundation national titles and one NCAA Tournament championship in 1952. Numerous basketball greats would play at Kansas during Allen 's era, including Dean Smith, Adolph Rupp, Dutch Lonborg, and Ralph Miller (all future Hall of Fame coaches), Paul Endacott, Bill Johnson, and Clyde Lovellette (Hall of Fame players), two - time Olympic Gold Medalist Bill Hougland, and even former United States Senate Majority Leader Bob Dole.
In 1952, the Jayhawks won the national title with an 80 -- 63 victory in the final game over St. John 's, coached by Frank McGuire. Clyde Lovellette of Kansas was named the tournament 's Most Outstanding Player, and is still the only player to lead the nation in scoring and lead his team to a national title in the same year. This tournament was the first to have a true "Final Four '' format. Seven members of the championship team represented the United States in the 1952 Summer Olympics and brought home a gold medal for the national basketball team. This was especially poignant for Allen, as he had been the driving force for having basketball added to the Olympics in 1936. Allen was forced to retire when he turned 70 in 1956, because he was getting too "old ''. Allen had recruited legendary Wilt Chamberlain to Kansas, but would not get to coach him because freshmen were not eligible to play varsity basketball in 1956.
Following Allen 's retirement, the Jayhawks hired former KU player and assistant, Dick Harp. Under Harp the Jayhawks went 121 -- 82 with two conference titles and two NCAA tournament berths.
Wilt Chamberlain played his varsity years under Harp, making his job a rather easy one for the first two seasons. In his first varsity game, Chamberlain scored 52 points and grabbed 31 rebounds, breaking both all - time college records in an 87 -- 69 win against Northwestern. In 1957, he led the Jayhawks to the championship game against North Carolina, coached by Frank McGuire, whom they had defeated in the 1952 title game when McGuire was at St. John 's. McGuire triple - teamed Chamberlain and, as a result, KU was defeated 54 -- 53 in triple overtime. The game is considered one of the greatest in NCAA history. Chamberlain continued to average 30 + points per game until leaving KU early to play professionally with the Harlem Globetrotters.
Ted Owens took over for Harp in 1964, and would go 348 -- 128 during his tenure, eventually winning six Big Eight Conference titles.
The team advanced to NCAA postseason play seven times under Owens. The 1971 team went 27 -- 3 and advanced to the Final Four before losing to UCLA. In 1974 the team went 23 -- 7 and again advanced to the Final Four before losing to Marquette.
During this era the program produced All - Americans such as Jo Jo White, Walt Wesley, Bud Stallworth, Darnell Valentine, and Dave Robisch.
After 19 years of coaching at University of Kansas, Owens was fired following the 1982 -- 83 season after the Jayhawks posted back - to - back losing seasons.
In 1983, Larry Brown headed to the University of Kansas, after coaching in the NBA. Under Brown, Kansas finished first in the Big Eight in 1986, and second in 1984, 1985, and 1987. In 1988, Kansas got off to a mediocre 12 -- 8 start, including 1 -- 4 in the Big 8. The Jayhawks ' 55 - game homecourt winning streak in Allen Fieldhouse was snapped with a loss to rival Kansas State, and they would also lose 2 more home games to Duke and Oklahoma. Behind the high - scoring of Danny Manning, KU finished 21 -- 11 at the end of the season and entered the NCAA tournament as a # 6 seed. Two early upsets allowed them to face lower seeds, gain momentum, and advance. The Jayhawks would ultimately go on to face the three teams who had given them their three home losses that season. They defeated rival Kansas State in the Elite 8, then defeated Duke in the Final 4, and won the national championship, defeating favored conference rival Oklahoma 83 -- 79 in the final. The 11 losses Kansas accrued in 1988 are more than any other national champion have before or since. The win garnered the team the nickname "Danny and the Miracles ''. Earlier, near the start of the tournament, Dick Vitale had been asked about Kansas ' chances and commented "If Kansas wins, I 'll kiss the Jayhawk on the floor of Allen Fieldhouse. '' Eventually, he did make good on his promise.
During Brown 's tenure, Kansas had five NCAA Tournament appearances, which included two second round appearances, one Sweet 16 appearance, two trips to the Final Four and the national championship. He also compiled a 135 -- 44 (. 754) overall record. Brown left under a cloud, as NCAA sanctions and a postseason probation were levied against Kansas following Brown 's departure in the 1988 -- 1989 season as a result of recruiting violations that took place during Brown 's tenure. The major violation was a plane ticket home for potential transfer Vincent Askew to see his sick grandmother. Prior to the investigation, Askew had already decided not to transfer to Kansas.
Shortly following Brown 's departure, Kansas hired then North Carolina assistant Roy Williams as head coach.
From 1988 -- 2003, under the direction of Williams, the Jayhawks had a record of 418 -- 101, a. 805 winning percentage. Williams ' Kansas teams averaged 27.8 wins per season. Except for his first season at Kansas (when the team was on probation), all of Williams ' teams made the NCAA tournament. From 1990 to 1999 Kansas compiled a 286 -- 60 record, giving them both the most wins and best winning percentage of any team in that decade. From 1994 to 1998, the Jayhawks won 62 consecutive home games at Allen Fieldhouse, which was the longest such streak in the NCAA at the time. The seniors of 1998 (Raef LaFrentz, Billy Thomas, and C.B. McGrath) went 58 -- 0 at home during their KU careers.
Kansas won nine regular - season conference championships over Williams ' last 13 years. In seven years of Big 12 Conference play, his teams went 94 -- 18, capturing the regular - season title in 1997, 1998, 2002 and 2003 and the postseason tournament crown in 1997, 1998 and 1999. In 2001 -- 02, KU became the first, and so far only, team to go undefeated (16 -- 0) in Big 12 play. From 1995 -- 98, Kansas was a combined 123 -- 17 -- an average of 30.8 wins per season. Williams ' teams went 201 -- 17 (. 922) in Allen Fieldhouse, and won 62 consecutive games in Allen from February 1994 to December 1998. Kansas was a regular in the Associated Press Top 25 from 1991 to 1999, placing in the poll for 145 consecutive weeks. Williams ' teams were ranked in the Top 10 in 194 AP polls from 1990.
Kansas led the nation in field goal percentage and scoring in 2002 and in scoring margin in 2003, held opponents to the lowest field goal percentage in the country in 2001 (37.8 percent), and led the nation in winning percentage in 1997 and 2002. The team shot better than 50 percent from the floor for seven different seasons under Williams, and led the country in field goal percentage in 1990 (53.3) and 2002 (50.6). Williams ' teams shot a combined 49.4 percent from the floor during his tenure. Williams - coached teams led the nation in assists in 2001 and 2002 and were seventh in the nation in 2003; scored 100 or more points 71 times (once every 13 games); averaged 82.7 points per game over his 15 seasons as coach; and averaged 90 or more points per game in two seasons (92.1 in 1990 and 90.9 in 2002).
The Jayhawks were in the AP Top 25 in 242 of 268 weekly polls, reached the No. 1 ranking in the country in six different seasons, and reached at least No. 2 in the nation in 11 of William 's 15 seasons as head coach at Kansas.
Under Williams, the team had several deep runs in the NCAA Tournament, making it to four Final Fours and appearing in the national championship game in both 1991 and 2003, losing both, to Duke and Syracuse respectively. Amidst the tournament successes, there were plenty of woes. The 1996 -- 97 team was said by many to be one of the greatest teams in history, featuring future NBA players such as Paul Pierce, Jacque Vaughn, Raef LaFrentz, and Scot Pollard. The team was upset in the Sweet Sixteen by the eventual champion, Arizona Wildcats.
The Jayhawks advanced to the Final Four in 2002 & 2003. Following the national championship loss in 2003, Williams left Kansas and returned to coach at his alma mater, North Carolina.
Bill Self was introduced as the new head coach for the 2003 -- 04 season and in his first season at Kansas, Self inherited Williams ' players and recruits, which often caused turmoil as the style of play differed between the two coaches. Nevertheless, Self led his new Kansas team to the Elite Eight at the NCAA tournament his first year.
The next two seasons did not end on such a high note. Big things were expected of an experienced KU in 2004 -- 05, led by seniors Wayne Simien, Keith Langford, Michael Lee, and Aaron Miles. They began the season ranked # 1 and started off 20 -- 1, but then they slumped and lost six of their final nine games, including a loss to Bucknell in the first round of the NCAA Tournament. The team finished 23 -- 7 and settled for a Big 12 co-championship with Oklahoma.
In 2005 -- 06, little was expected of the freshman / sophomore - dominated Jayhawks, and they began the season 10 -- 6, including 1 -- 2 in the Big 12. Although they did post a 73 -- 46 win over Kentucky, they also saw the end of their 31 - game winning streak over rival Kansas State with a 59 -- 55 loss at Allen Fieldhouse, and two nights later blew a seven - point lead in the final 45 seconds of regulation en route to an 89 -- 86 overtime loss at Missouri. But afterward, the Jayhawks matured rapidly, winning 15 of their final 17 games and avenging the losses to both Kansas State and Missouri. KU played as the # 2 seed in the Big 12 Tournament in Dallas, and avenged an earlier loss to Texas with an 80 -- 68 victory over the Longhorns in the final to clinch the tournament championship and the highlight win of the season. KU was handed a # 4 seed for the NCAA Tournament but stumbled again in the first round with a loss to the Bradley Braves.
In the 2006 -- 07 season, Self led Kansas to the 2007 Big 12 regular - season championship with a 14 -- 2 record, highlighted by beating the Kevin Durant - led Texas Longhorns in come - from - behind victories in the last game of the regular season and in the Big 12 Championship game. At the end of the regular season, Kansas stood at 27 -- 4 and ranked # 2 in the nation in both the AP and coaches ' polls. Kansas received a number 1 seed in the NCAA Tournament, but their tournament run ended in the Elite Eight with a loss to 2 - seed UCLA.
In the 2007 -- 08 season, Self 's Kansas team began the season 20 -- 0 until they suffered their first loss at rival Kansas State, their first loss at Kansas State since 1983. The 2008 Jayhawks won the Big 12 regular - season title and the Big 12 conference tourney. They received a number - one seeding in the NCAA Tournament in the Midwest region. On March 30, 2008, Self led Kansas to a win in an Elite Eight game over upstart Davidson College. KU won by two, 59 -- 57. The Jayhawks played overall number 1 tournament seed North Carolina in the semifinals, a team coached by former KU head man Roy Williams. The Jayhawks opened the game with a 40 -- 12 run over the first 121⁄2 minutes before finally defeating them 84 -- 66. On April 7, 2008, the Jayhawks triumphed over a one - loss Memphis team to claim the national title. With only seconds on the clock, Sherron Collins drove the ball the length of the court and threaded a pass to Mario Chalmers, who connected on a deep three - pointer to force overtime. This shot would later come to be known as "Mario 's Miracle '' in a nod to 1988 championship nickname "Danny and the Miracles ''. Kansas then outplayed Memphis in the overtime to win the NCAA Championship game, 75 -- 68. The Jayhawks finished the season with a 37 -- 3 record, the winningest season in Kansas history.
In the 2008 -- 09 season, despite losing 7 of their top 9 scorers and the entire starting line - up, the Jayhawks earned their 20th consecutive NCAA Tournament bid after going 25 -- 7 (14 -- 2), winning the conference regular season title and extending their home winning streak to 41 straight at Allen Fieldhouse. On March 22, 2009, Kansas defeated Dayton, advancing to their 3rd consecutive Sweet 16 appearance. But the Jayhawks ' season ended on March 27 when Michigan State came from behind in the final minute to defeat Kansas 67 -- 62, ending their year at 27 -- 8. Coach Self 's record, after 6 seasons with the Jayhawks, was 169 -- 40, an. 809 percentage. After the season, Self was named National Coach of the Year by the Associated Press, CBS Sports ' Chevrolet Award, USBWA (Henry Iba Award), and Sporting News.
On April 13, Sherron Collins and Cole Aldrich announced their intent to return for the 2009 -- 10 season. On April 23, top high school recruit Xavier Henry made his commitment to play at Kansas in the fall, prompting ESPN to name the Jayhawks as "the team to beat in 2009 -- 10. '' By the time the fall of 2009 arrived, Kansas was the unanimous preseason # 1 team in all major publications. The Jayhawks finished the regular season with a 29 -- 2 record and continue to hold the Division I record for the current consecutive home winning streak at 59 straight games in Allen Fieldhouse. Kansas passed 2,000 all - time wins in the 2009 -- 10 season, only the third school to do so (finishing the season with a total of 2,003 all - time victories). They won the Big 12 tournament on March 13, clinching their 21st consecutive NCAA Tournament appearance, an active NCAA record. However, despite being named the overall # 1 seed in the tournament, the Jayhawks fell in the second round to # 9 - seeded Northern Iowa, finishing the season at 33 -- 3.
Recruiting began immediately for the 2010 -- 11 season, as Kansas landed the nation 's top recruit Josh Selby in April. By September 2010, both The Sporting News and Athlon Sports had ranked Kansas in their pre-season outlook as # 4 overall and, along with ESPN 's Joe Lunardi, were projected to become a # 1 seed again in the 2011 NCAA Tournament, which they would again do. Blue Ribbon and the USA Today / ESPN coaches polls both placed Kansas at # 7 in the pre-season poll. Josh Selby, became eligible and joined the Jayhawk line - up on December 18. On March 5, the Jayhawks beat Missouri 70 -- 66 to clinch the Big 12 regular - season title for the 7th consecutive time and later went on to finish 29 -- 2 during the regular season, ranked # 2 in both the AP Poll and the USA Today / ESPN Coaches Poll. Bill Self was named Big 12 Coach of the Year and Marcus Morris was named Big 12 Player of the Year. The Jayhawks defeated 16 seed Boston University, 9 seed Illinois and 12 seed Richmond to reach their 3rd Elite Eight in the past 5 seasons before falling to 11 seed Virginia Commonwealth University in the quarterfinal game. During the season, Kansas moved past North Carolina as the 2nd winningest basketball program in history.
After being considered the top team but falling short in both of the previous two seasons, Kansas lost six of their top 8 scorers for the 2011 -- 12 season. The Jayhawks had to rebuild after winning seven straight Big 12 titles. Prior to the season, the NCAA declared that three of the Jayhawks top recruits were ineligible for the season, which included games against perennial powerhouse programs such as Kentucky, Duke, Ohio State, and Georgetown. Despite 7 games against top 10 ranked opponents, Kansas finished the regular season 26 -- 5, earned their 8th consecutive Big 12 title, and advanced to their 14th Final Four in school history. The Jayhawks would face another 2 seed, the Ohio State Buckeyes, in the National Semifinals. Kansas would come back from a 13 - point first half deficit to win the game, 64 -- 62. They then would face the Kentucky Wildcats, who had beaten the Louisville Cardinals on the other side of the bracket, in the championship game. Kansas would fall to the Wildcats, 67 -- 59.
Kansas entered the 2012 -- 13 season with eight straight Big 12 titles in tow. They continued to have the greatest home court advantage in all of sports, ending the season having won 107 of their last 109 games at home. After scoring their ninth consecutive title and winning the Big 12 tournament championship by defeating rival Kansas State for the third time that season, KU set its sights on a sixth national title. They were seeded # 1 in the South bracket, defeating Western Kentucky and North Carolina before losing in overtime to Michigan 87 -- 85 in the Sweet 16.
With star freshmen Andrew Wiggins and Joel Embiid on the roster, Kansas entered the 2013 -- 14 season as the # 5 team in the country. They started off well with five straight wins, including a victory over Duke in the Champions ' Classic. However, the team went 4 -- 4 over its next eight games, including back - to - back losses to Colorado and Florida and an ugly home loss to San Diego State. The team recovered from this rough stretch and began Big 12 play with seven straight wins, ultimately finishing 14 -- 4 to win its 10th consecutive Big 12 title. A back injury to Joel Embiid, however, left the Jayhawks vulnerable on their interior defense, and they fizzled out at season 's end with four losses in their final seven games, including a loss to Iowa State in the Big 12 Tournament quarterfinals in Kansas City and an NCAA Tournament Round of 32 loss to Stanford to end the year. Kansas concluded the year 25 -- 10, the first ten - loss season for Kansas since Roy Williams ' 1999 -- 2000 Jayhawks went 24 -- 10.
After the exodus of Andrew Wiggins and Joel Embiid to the NBA draft, the Jayhawks reloaded with freshmen Kelly Oubre Jr. and Cliff Alexander, the Jayhawks looked poised for another Big 12 season title, which would be their 11th straight. After a disappointing loss in the Champions Classic to Kentucky, the Jayhawks finished 11 -- 2 in the non-conference. In what many regarded as the toughest conference in the nation (Big 12) the Jayhawks won their 11th straight title outright with a record of 13 -- 5, having lost their arguably strongest post presence in Cliff Alexander due to an investigation by the NCAA of improper benefits being given to Alexander. Evidence never clearly materialized, but Alexander was held out and played his last game as a Jayhawk at Kansas State, where they lost by 7. They then lost in the Big 12 Championship game to Iowa State 70 -- 66, and had a final record going into the tournament of 26 -- 8. The Jayhawks were given a two seed in the NCAA Tournament, where they ousted 15 seed New Mexico State by 19 points, but exited the tournament early at the hands of Wichita State by 13 points. Both Oubre Jr. and Alexander declared for the draft shortly after the conclusion of the NCAA tournament.
Kansas played in the 2015 World University Games in South Korea as the United States representatives in July 2015. The Jayhawks went undefeated in the World University Games, winning the championship to give the United States its first gold medal in World University Games men 's basketball since 2005. In August 2017, Self and the Jayhawks traveled to Italy to play four exhibition matches against local professional Italian teams.
* Active streak. Current Official NCAA Records and Awards data.
Despite having a program for almost 120 years, the Jayhawks have only had 8 head coaches. The longest tenured coach was Phog Allen at 39 seasons, while the shortest tenured coach was Larry Brown, who coached for 5 seasons. Allen also has the most wins in Kansas basketball history with 590. The next closest coach is current head coach Bill Self, who has won over 420 games in his 15 seasons with the Jayhawks.
Phog Allen, Dick Harp, Ted Owens, Larry Brown, Roy Williams, and Bill Self have all led Kansas to NCAA Final Four appearances. Of those coaches, Allen, Brown, and Bill Self have led the Jayhawks to NCAA Championships (in 1952, 1988, and 2008, respectively).
Notes:
Updated April 8, 2015
Before 1907 the Jayhawks played in various venues, ranging from the basement of the original Snow Hall (even though the ceiling was only 14 feet high) to the skating rink at the local YMCA. Although a current campus building bears the same name, the original Snow Hall was demolished in 1934.
Robinson Gym was the first athletic building on the KU campus and featured a 2,500 seat auditorium used for basketball purposes. The building was demolished in 1967.
Hoch Auditorium was a 3,500 seat multi-purpose arena in Lawrence, Kansas. It opened in 1927. It was home to the University of Kansas Jayhawks basketball teams until Allen Fieldhouse opened in 1955.
Many of Hoch 's nicknames during the basketball years were "Horrible Hoch '' and "The House of Horrors. '' Such nicknames were in reference to the difficulty opposing teams had in dealing with the tight area surrounding the court and the curved walls and decorative lattice work directly behind the backboards. The curvature of the walls made the backboards appear to be moving causing opponents to miss free throws.
On June 15, 1991, Hoch Auditorium was struck by lightning. The auditorium and stage area were completely destroyed. Only the limestone facade and lobby area were spared. When reconstruction of the building was complete, the rear half of the building was named Budig Hall, for then KU Chancellor Gene Budig. The name on the facade was altered to reflect the presence of three large auditorium - style lecture halls within the building: Hoch Auditoria.
Allen Fieldhouse was dedicated on March 1, 1955 when the Jayhawks defeated in - state rival, Kansas State 77 -- 67.
Since February 20, 1994, the Jayhawks have lost only 14 regular season games in Allen Fieldhouse, a 263 -- 14 record (. 951). Since February 3, 2007, the Jayhawks have gone 140 -- 3 (. 979) at Allen Fieldhouse, as of April 2, 2015, the best home record in all of basketball.
Allen Fieldhouse is also notorious for its noise level as well. On November 4, 2010, ESPN The Magazine named Allen Fieldhouse the loudest college basketball arena in the country, reaching sustained decibel levels over 120. On February 13, 2017 in a game against Big 12 opponent West Virginia, fans at Allen Fieldhouse broke the Guinness World Record for loudest crowd roar at an indoor sporting event with a roar of 130.4 decibels, which had been broken by Kentucky on January 28 against Kansas.
The Booth Family Hall of Athletics is the future home of Dr. Naismith 's Original 13 Rules Of Basketball, purchased at auction by the Booth family for $4.3 million on December 10, 2010. Plans for the document 's enshrinement there are in the early stages.
Kansas won 69 consecutive games at the Fieldhouse between February 3, 2007 and January 17, 2011 until Texas ended the longest streak in NCAA Division I since 1992 with a 74 -- 63 win against Kansas on January 22, 2011. This streak broke Kansas ' previous school record, which lasted from February 26, 1994 through December 18, 1998 (during which time, the Jayhawks, along with the remaining members of the Big Eight Conference merged with the remaining members of the Southwest Conference to become charter members of the Big 12 Conference). The Jayhawks also completed a 55 - game streak between February 22, 1984 through January 30, 1988, which remains a record for the Big 8 era.
Before the start of every Jayhawks home game, before the singing of "The Star - Spangled Banner '', it is a tradition to sing the alma mater, "Crimson and the Blue ''. The song is concluded by the Rock Chalk Chant.
After singing The Star - Spangled Banner, while the opposing team is being introduced, members of the student section take out a copy of the student - run newspaper, The University Daily Kansan, and wave the paper in front of their faces, pretending to be reading it in an effort to show lack of interest in the opposing team. After the opponents are introduced, a short video is shown, detailing the history and the accomplishments of Kansas basketball. As the Jayhawks are introduced, the students rip up their newspapers and throw the confetti pieces of paper in the air as celebration. Whatever confetti remains is typically thrown in the air after the first basket made by the Jayhawks.
If an opposing player fouls out of the game, the fans will "wave the wheat '', waving their arms back and forth, as a sarcastic good - bye to the disqualified player, to the tune of "You Did n't Have Your Wheaties '', from a series of 1970s television commercials promoting Wheaties breakfast cereal. The same waving motion to the tune of "A Hot Time in the Old Town '' follows a Jayhawk victory.
If the Jayhawks are leading comfortably near the end of the game, the crowd begins a slow version of the Rock Chalk Chant, which has become the signature tradition of Allen Fieldhouse.
Fans and students will also line up early for Late Night In The Phog, which is the first practice of the season. The practice is viewable to the public and includes skits with past players as the hosts.
Under Bill Self: This is a list of seasons completed by the Kansas Jayhawks men 's college basketball team.
National champion Postseason invitational champion Conference regular season champion Conference regular season and conference tournament champion Division regular season champion Division regular season and conference tournament champion Conference tournament champion
Updated January 27, 2018
The Jayhawks have won 61 conference championships since their inception, including 14 consecutive. The Jayhawks have belonged to the Big 12 Conference since it formed before the 1996 -- 97 season. Before that, the Jayhawks have belonged to the Missouri Valley Intercollegiate Athletic Association from the 1907 -- 08 to 1927 -- 28 seasons, the Big Six Conference from 1928 -- 29 to 1946 -- 47, the Big Seven Conference from 1947 -- 48 to 1957 -- 58, the Big Eight Conference from 1958 -- 59 up until the end of the 1995 -- 96 season. It should be noted that the Big Six and Big Seven conferences were actually the more often used names of the Missouri Valley Intercollegiate Athletic Association, which existed under that official name until 1964, when it was changed to the Big Eight.
Missouri Valley Intercollegiate Athletic Association / Big Eight Conference (43)
Big 12 Conference (18)
The Big Eight Conference did not regularly have a post-season tournament until after the 1977 season. Prior to that teams usually played in the Big Eight (before that, Big Seven) Holiday Tournament in December. The Holiday tournament ended after the 1979 season.
Big Seven / Big Eight Holiday Tournament (13)
Big Eight Conference (4)
Big 12 Conference (9)
The NCAA began seeding the tournament in 1979.
* -- Overall number one seed. The committee began ranking 1 seeds in 2004.
The Jayhawks have appeared in the NCAA Tournament 46 times. Their combined record is 99 -- 46.
* Following the introduction of the "First Four '' round in 2011, the Round of 64 and Round of 32 were referred to as the Second Round and Third Round, respectively, from 2011 to 2015, then from 2016 moving forward, the Round 64 and Round of 32 will be called the First and Second rounds.
The Jayhawks have appeared in the National Invitation Tournament (NIT) two times. Their combined record is 3 -- 2.
Kansas leads all NCAA teams with 29 consensus First Team All - American selections, 22 different players have received the honor.
‡ indicates player has made at least 2000 points and 1000 rebounds in his college career.
† indicates Academic All - American of the Year
The 46 McDonald 's All - Americans listed below have signed with Kansas. An asterisk, "* '', Indicates player did not finish his college career at Kansas. A cross, "† '', indicates player did not begin his college career at Kansas
Thirty players have had their jersey retired by Kansas. One former announcer, Max Falkenstien, is honored with the retired jersies as well. His number 60 was chosen because that was the number of years he was the radio announcer for the Jayhawks. KU only retires the jerseys, and not the numbers, of past basketball players. Eight players honored played on one of KU 's 5 championship teams.
* Indicates member of 1922 National Championship team † Indicates member of 1923 National Championship team ‡ Indicates member of 1952 championship team # Indicates member of 1988 National Championship team ^ Indicates member of 2008 National Championship team
There are multiple people associated with Kansas basketball in some way that have been enshrined in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame. Some former players have been enshrined as players, while some former players have been enshrined as coaches
The following names are people that were associated with the University of Kansas in some way, but were not enshrined for the reason they were associated with Kansas, for example, former players enshrined as a coach.
Representing the United States men 's national basketball team unless otherwise noted.
* Valentine was selected to the US team, but the USA boycotted the 1980 summer Olympics.
The Jayhawks have multiple connections to the NBA. Below is a list of former players and coaches. People that are currently coaches or in management will show their current job, as well as how they are associated with Kansas basketball.
In 2008, five Jayhawks were drafted: Darrell Arthur, Mario Chalmers, Darnell Jackson, Sasha Kaun and Brandon Rush. This tied the record for most players selected in the draft in one year from one school. Kansas tied with Connecticut in 2006 and Florida in 2007. This record was broken in the 2012 NBA Draft by Kentucky. Players with an asterisk are players that have been assigned to the G - League.
This section is former Jayhawks that were on an NBA roster during the 2016 - 2017 NBA season but are not on an NBA roster.
Territorial Picks From 1947 -- 65 the draft allowed teams not drawing fans to select a local player, in place of their first round pick.
Regular Draft
Division I Head Coaches -- former head coaches
Division I Head Coaches -- former players
Division I Head Coaches -- former players and assistant coaches
Division I head coaches -- former assistants
Division I head coaches -- Kansas alumni
Division I assistants -- former players
Division I assistants -- former assistants
Division II head coaches
As of the conclusion of the 2016 -- 2017 season
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this is big bro taking over the show youtube | Big Brovaz - wikipedia
Big Brovaz were an MOBO award - winning R&B and hip hop music group from London, England. In their seven - year career they released two studio albums and eight singles. There were three line - up changes with two of the original members leaving halfway through. In 2006 the popularity of the group was at a low point due to bad press and the only two female members launching their own band Booty Luv which was taking off following the success of their debut single "Boogie 2nite ''. After their second album failed to chart and with low sales of their last two singles, the band decided to split. In May 2012 the 4 members from the third line - up toured Australia with 3 of the members of S Club 7, the reunion was short lived with no full tour or new material surfacing. The group will reunite again and is scheduled to perform at the Ricoh Arena on October 13th 2018 with Peter Andre and groups Five, S Club and Vengaboys.
The group Big Brovaz originally comprised three women, Cherise (half - Jamaican and half - Irish; won the MOBO best unsigned artist in 2000), Dion, Nadia (born in Reading) and three men, J - Rock (real name John Paul Horsley, born in Washington, D.C.), Flawless (real name Tayo Aisida, born in Lagos) and Randy, plus two producers Skillz, also known as JJC (real name Abdul Bello, born in Kano), who also manages his group 419 Squad, and Fingaz. The group was often referred to as a softer version of the So Solid Crew.
The group was brought together by Fingaz, one of the collective 's producers, who already worked under the title "Big Brovaz ''. The "Big Brovaz '' team asked the individual members to showcase their talent alongside underground London R&B and hip hop artists on a compilation that was being put together, entitled Big Brovaz - Watching You. On the album, rather than giving each member an individual track, the producers decided to make the artists work together and perform on the same tracks. The chemistry between all of the members developed and so the Big Brovaz compilation album in fact became the group.
The Big Brovaz - Watching You compilation was a highly successful underground release and sold over two thousand copies. The live shows to promote the release built up the reputation of the producers and artists on the record.
A track from the album, which featured west London R&B singer Cherise, was picked up by the organizer of the annual MOBO award and she was asked to compete in the annual Mobo Unsigned talent competition where she achieved first place. Cherise was signed and later release her own solo album. Following this, the group was picked up by Sony records.
Female member Cherise released a solo album "Look Inside '' before the debut album from Big Brovaz was released. It only spawned one single, however, "2nd Best '', while the album won a MOBO award.
The group 's breakthrough was in October 2002 when the group 's debut single, "Nu Flow '' became a huge hit all over Europe, particularly in the UK, where it made the top 3, spending over four months inside the top 75. Their debut album of the same name was released on 4 November 2002 to rave reviews. This single was covered in 2006 in a UK Halifax TV advertisement.
The group 's success continued into 2003 with the release of further singles from their debut album. The group 's second single, "OK '' made Number 7 in the UK Singles Chart prompting a re-release of the album with a re-ordered track listing and new tracks on 10 February 2003. However, the album was re-issued yet again one month later, on 24 March 2003, with another re-ordered track listing and a new track entitled "Favourite Things ''. This song became the group 's third single and was famous for sampling the song "My Favourite Things '' from the musical The Sound Of Music. As well as their own interpretation of the classic song, the group decided to include a cover of the original as a hidden bonus track on version three of "Nu Flow ''. "Favourite Things '' became the group 's biggest highest peaking hit to date, peaking at Number 2 in the UK singles chart and spending 3 weeks inside the top 3 of the singles chart
The fourth single taken from the album was "Baby Boy ''. The music video for the single was famous for being inspired by the extremely popular sitcom Friends. "Baby Boy '' became the group 's fourth top 10 hit in a row, peaking at Number 4 in the UK singles chart. The fifth single from the album, "Ai n't What You Do '', which sampled Fun Boy Three and Bananarama 's collaboration It Ai n't What You Do (It 's the Way That You Do It) was the group 's fifth top 15 hit, peaking at Number 15.
The group 's debut album was certified platinum in the UK, a great achievement for UK R&B and hip hop.
The group next appeared on - screen in the 2004 film Scooby - Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed, in which they performed a version of Sly & the Family Stone 's "Thank You (Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin) '' and was featured on the Soundtrack. They also released the single "We Wanna Thank You (The Things You Do) '' as the theme song from the movie in April 2004. Unfortunately this was the collective 's smallest hit to date, peaking at a disappointing Number 17 in the UK singles charts. To add to this disappointment, rapper Flawless (Temi Tayo Aisida) was stopped at LAX airport and was found to be smuggling over 2.2 grams (0.07 ounces) of Cannabis into the UK. This resulted in his sacking from the group in 2004, leaving the remaining 5 group members and two producers to carry on without him.
Later in 2004, one member down, the group released another new single, "Yours Fatally '', which was due to be taken from their second album. Although receiving good reviews, the single did not catch on as much as their record company had hoped and were subsequently dropped by their label due to poor sales in late 2004.
After the disappointing news of being dropped, the group decided to call it a day, split up and pursued solo ventures. The girls from the group were rumoured to be creating a group called "Little Sistaz '' with Futurepop artist Olivia Davies but the group never materialised. The group had gone into relative obscurity as they had disappeared from the commercial hip - hop scene.
In 2006, an announcement on their official website messageboard was made by group member Randy confirming that the group had re-united but as a four - piece. The re-formed group now consisted of Nadia, Cherise, J - Rock and Randy, losing Dion. Dion decided not to reunite with the group in order to pursue a solo career.
The reformed group 's Myspace webpage confirmed that a new single would be released 24 April entitled "Hangin ' Around ''. "Hangin ' Around '' became the group 's lowest charting hit to date, peaking outside the UK top 40. However, despite this setback, the group continued and they announced that their second album "Re-Entry '' (originally due for a May release) would finally be released in early 2007. The third single from the album (as "Yours Fatally '' was to be included), confirmed as "Big Bro Thang '', was announced to have a release before the album. The song won the fan 's voting poll vote on their official website and due to popular demand, was picked as the third single.
The single "Big Bro Thang '' was released with six remixes launching on the iTunes website between 26 February 2007 and 19 March 2007 with the album Re-Entry finally released on 9 April 2007. In an interview with online magazine Popjustice, Nadia and Cherise confirmed that all promotion for Re-Entry had finished, meaning "Big Bro Thang '' was the third and final single from the album.
In May 2012, the four surviving original members of the band set off on a tour of Australia with three members of pop group S Club 7.
Nadia and Cherise are now also performing under the name Booty Luv. Their first single, a cover of Tweet 's "Boogie 2nite '' was released in the UK via the Hed Kandi label on 27 November 2006. The single received good reviews and became a favourite on the UK club scene. It peaked at Number 2 in its third week in the UK Singles Chart, spending eleven weeks in the Top 15 and sixteen weeks in the Top 40.
Four more singles have since been released, with Shine, a cover of the Luther Vandross song, peaking at Number 10 in the UK singles chart. Third and fourth singles "Do n't Mess with My Man '', a cover of the Lucy Pearl song, and an original song "Some Kinda Rush '' both reached the Top 20, peaking at number 11 and 19. "Dance Dance '' was the fifth single to be taken from the album. Booty Luv 's début album Boogie 2nite was released on 17 September 2007, and reached number 11 in the UK Albums Chart.
J - Rock and Randy also went on to form their own group, Party Dark, falling into the Party / House and Rap genres and were signed to Champion Records in 2009. On 15 March 2010 they released their first single, "Is That You? '', which was well received by DJs such as Huw Stephens, Bobby Friction and Eddie Temple - Morris and the music video reached Number 1 in the MTV Dancefloor Charts four weeks in a row.
Party Dark released a second single in the later part of 2010 called "Let 's Go ''. This was announced via a teaser trailer on YouTube and a remix competition on their own and their label 's websites.
J - Rock was the protagonist of a All 4 documentary entitled Giving Up the Weed.
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who plays faramir in lord of the rings | David Wenham - Wikipedia
David Wenham (born 21 September 1965) is an Australian actor who has appeared in movies, television series and theatre productions. He is known in Hollywood for his roles as Faramir in The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, Carl in Van Helsing, Dilios in 300 and its sequel 300: Rise of an Empire, Neil Fletcher in Australia, Al Parker in Top of the Lake, and Lieutenant John Scarfield in Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales. He is also known in his native Australia for his role as Diver Dan in SeaChange.
Wenham was born in Marrickville, Sydney, the son of Kath and Bill Wenham. He has five older sisters; Helen, Anne, Carmel, Kathryn, and Maree; and one older brother, Peter. He was raised in the Roman Catholic faith and attended Christian Brothers ' High School, Lewisham.
Wenham started his career as an actor after graduating from Theatre Nepean at the University of Western Sydney with a Bachelor of Arts (Performing Arts) in 1987. Wenham 's television credits include several telemovies, such as his AFI award - winning role in the 1996 telemovie Simone de Beauvoir 's Babies; and his role as the outwardly laid back but deeply enigmatic diver Dan Della Bosca in the 1998 and 1999 seasons of the highly successful ABC television series SeaChange. His role as "Diver Dan '' has made the actor something of a sex symbol, although he dislikes thinking of himself as such, and he has been voted Australia 's "sexiest man alive ''. A portrait of Wenham by artist Adam Cullen won the Archibald Prize in 2000. Wenham is signed to Storm Model Management in London.
Australian films Wenham has starred in include the critically acclaimed The Boys (1998) based on the play of the same name premiered at Griffin Theatre Company and in turn based on the murder of Anita Cobby; Molokai (1999), based on the life of Father Damien; The Bank (2001); Gettin ' Square (2003); Stiff (2004); The Brush Off (2004) and Three Dollars (2005). Wenham has periodically appeared in Hollywood films; he is known for playing Faramir, son of Denethor II, in New Line Cinema 's The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers and The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King.
He was also seen in Van Helsing playing Hugh Jackman 's sidekick, Friar Carl. His character, Dilios, narrated and appeared in the movie 300. Minor roles of Wenham 's in overseas films include in The Crocodile Hunter as a park ranger, and briefly in Moulin Rouge! as Audrey. Wenham stars in the music video for Alex Lloyd 's single "Brand New Day ''. In 2008 's Australia, he reunited with Hugh Jackman playing antagonist Neil Fletcher who seeks to acquire the ranch Jackman 's character is employed with.
In both Lord of the Rings: Return of the King and 300, Wenham 's character is the sole survivor returned from an ill - fated battle (the Battle at Osgiliath and the Battle of Thermopylae, respectively). He reprises his role of Dilios in the videogame 300: March to Glory for Sony PlayStation Portable, which contains a substantial amount of new dialogue.
In 2009, he again took to the stage, this time as the lead actor, Jerry Springer, in the British musical Jerry Springer: The Opera. During its 6 - day run at the Sydney Opera House he played in sold - out performances alongside ARIA award - winning singer Kate Miller - Heidke.
In 2010, Wenham starred as the disgraced Melbourne lawyer Andrew Fraser in the Australian TV series Killing Time. This ten - part series shows Fraser 's fall from grace as he defends many Melbourne criminals during the 1980s and 1990s. It was shown on TV1 in late 2011.
Wenham plays New Zealand detective Al Parker alongside Elisabeth Moss in the 2013 BBC series Top of the Lake.
In 2013, Wenham returned to the stage to play the lead role of John Proctor, in the Melbourne Theatre Company 's mid-year production of Arthur Miller 's The Crucible.
In 2014, Wenham starred as Patrick Jones in Paper Planes, released on 15 January 2015. That same year, Wenham voiced the role Jacko a frilled - neck lizard, in Blinky Bill the Movie.
Wenham played the role of Harold Meachum in the Netflix original TV series Iron Fist, which premiered in March 2017.
He has two daughters, Eliza Jane and Millie, with his longtime girlfriend, Kate Agnew.
Wenham read a poem by Rupert McCall at the memorial service for Steve Irwin. The poem was entitled "The Crocodiles are Crying ''.
Wenham is a Sydney Swans supporter.
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who won the space race between usa and ussr | Space Race - Wikipedia
The Space Race refers to the 20th - century competition between two Cold War rivals, the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States (US), for dominance in spaceflight capability. It had its origins in the missile - based nuclear arms race between the two nations that occurred following World War II, aided by captured German missile technology and personnel from the Aggregat program. The technological superiority required for such dominance was seen as necessary for national security, and symbolic of ideological superiority. The Space Race spawned pioneering efforts to launch artificial satellites, uncrewed space probes of the Moon, Venus, and Mars, and human spaceflight in low Earth orbit and to the Moon.
The Space Race began on August 2, 1955, when the Soviet Union responded to the US announcement four days earlier of intent to launch artificial satellites for the International Geophysical Year, by declaring they would also launch a satellite "in the near future ''. The Soviet Union beat the US to this, with the October 4, 1957, orbiting of Sputnik 1, and later beat the US to the first human in space, Yuri Gagarin, on April 12, 1961. The "race '' peaked with the July 20, 1969, US landing of the first humans on the Moon with Apollo 11. The USSR tried but failed crewed lunar missions, and eventually canceled them and concentrated on Earth orbital space stations.
A period of détente followed with the April 1972 agreement on a co-operative Apollo -- Soyuz Test Project, resulting in the July 1975 rendezvous in Earth orbit of a US astronaut crew with a Soviet cosmonaut crew. The end of the Space Race is harder to pinpoint than its beginning, but it was over by the December 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, after which true spaceflight cooperation between the US and Russia began.
The Space Race has left a legacy of Earth communications and weather satellites, and continuing human space presence on the International Space Station. It has also sparked increases in spending on education and research and development, which led to beneficial spin - off technologies.
The origins of the Space Race can be traced to Germany, beginning in the 1930s and continuing during World War II when Nazi Germany researched and built operational ballistic missiles capable of sub-orbital spaceflight. Starting in the early 1930s, during the last stages of the Weimar Republic, German aerospace engineers experimented with liquid - fueled rockets, with the goal that one day they would be capable of reaching high altitudes and traversing long distances. The head of the German Army 's Ballistics and Munitions Branch, Lieutenant Colonel Karl Emil Becker, gathered a small team of engineers that included Walter Dornberger and Leo Zanssen, to figure out how to use rockets as long - range artillery in order to get around the Treaty of Versailles ' ban on research and development of long - range cannons. Wernher von Braun, a young engineering prodigy, was recruited by Becker and Dornberger to join their secret army program at Kummersdorf - West in 1932. Von Braun dreamed of conquering outer space with rockets and did not initially see the military value in missile technology.
During the Second World War, General Dornberger was the military head of the army 's rocket program, Zanssen became the commandant of the Peenemünde army rocket center, and von Braun was the technical director of the ballistic missile program. They led the team that built the Aggregate - 4 (A-4) rocket, which became the first vehicle to reach outer space during its test flight program in 1942 and 1943. By 1943, Germany began mass - producing the A-4 as the Vergeltungswaffe 2 ("Vengeance Weapon '' 2, or more commonly, V2), a ballistic missile with a 320 kilometers (200 mi) range carrying a 1,130 kilograms (2,490 lb) warhead at 4,000 kilometers per hour (2,500 mph). Its supersonic speed meant there was no defense against it, and radar detection provided little warning. Germany used the weapon to bombard southern England and parts of Allied - liberated western Europe from 1944 until 1945. After the war, the V - 2 became the basis of early American and Soviet rocket designs.
At war 's end, American, British, and Soviet scientific intelligence teams competed to capture Germany 's rocket engineers along with the German rockets themselves and the designs on which they were based. Each of the Allies captured a share of the available members of the German rocket team, but the United States benefited the most with Operation Paperclip, recruiting von Braun and most of his engineering team, who later helped develop the American missile and space exploration programs. The United States also acquired a large number of complete V2 rockets.
The German rocket center in Peenemünde was located in the eastern part of Germany, which became the Soviet zone of occupation. On Stalin 's orders, the Soviet Union sent its best rocket engineers to this region to see what they could salvage for future weapons systems. The Soviet rocket engineers were led by Sergei Korolev. He had been involved in space clubs and early Soviet rocket design in the 1930s, but was arrested in 1938 during Joseph Stalin 's Great Purge and imprisoned for six years in Gulag. After the war, he became the USSR 's chief rocket and spacecraft engineer, essentially the Soviet counterpart to von Braun. His identity was kept a state secret throughout the Cold War, and he was identified publicly only as "the Chief Designer. '' In the West, his name was only officially revealed when he died in 1966.
After almost a year in the area around Peenemünde, Soviet officials conducted Operation Osoaviakhim and later moved more than 170 of the top captured German rocket specialists to Gorodomlya Island on Lake Seliger, about 240 kilometers (150 mi) northwest of Moscow. They were not allowed to participate in final Soviet missile design, but were used as problem - solving consultants to the Soviet engineers. They helped in the following areas: the creation of a Soviet version of the A-4; work on "organizational schemes ''; research in improving the A-4 main engine; development of a 100 - ton engine; assistance in the "layout '' of plant production rooms; and preparation of rocket assembly using German components. With their help, particularly Helmut Gröttrup 's group, Korolev reverse - engineered the A-4 and built his own version of the rocket, the R - 1, in 1948. Later, he developed his own distinct designs, though many of these designs were influenced by the Gröttrup Group 's G4 - R10 design from 1949. The Germans were eventually repatriated in 1951 -- 53.
The American professor Robert H. Goddard had worked on developing solid - fuel rockets since 1914, and demonstrated a light battlefield rocket to the US Army Signal Corps only five days before the signing of the armistice that ended World War I. He also started developing liquid - fueled rockets in 1921, yet he had not been taken seriously by the public.
Von Braun and his team were sent to the United States Army 's White Sands Proving Ground, located in New Mexico, in 1945. They set about assembling the captured V2s and began a program of launching them and instructing American engineers in their operation. These tests led to the first rocket to take photos from outer space, and the first two - stage rocket, the WAC Corporal - V2 combination, in 1949. The German rocket team was moved from Fort Bliss to the Army 's new Redstone Arsenal, located in Huntsville, Alabama, in 1950. From here, von Braun and his team developed the Army 's first operational medium - range ballistic missile, the Redstone rocket, that in slightly modified versions, launched both America 's first satellite, and the first piloted Mercury space missions. It became the basis for both the Jupiter and Saturn family of rockets.
William E. Burrows, This New Ocean, "The Other World Series '', p. 147
The Cold War (1947 -- 1991) developed between two former allies, the Soviet Union and the United States, soon after the end of the Second World War. It involved a continuing state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition, primarily between the Soviet Union and its satellite states (often referred to as the Eastern Bloc), and the powers of the Western world, particularly the United States. The primary participants ' military forces never clashed directly, but expressed this conflict through military coalitions, strategic conventional force deployments, extensive aid to states deemed vulnerable, proxy wars, espionage, propaganda, a nuclear arms race, and economic and technological competitions, such as the Space Race.
In simple terms, the Cold War could be viewed as an expression of the ideological struggle between communism and capitalism. The United States faced a new uncertainty beginning in September 1949, when it lost its monopoly on the atomic bomb. American intelligence agencies discovered that the Soviet Union had exploded its first atomic bomb, with the consequence that the United States potentially could face a future nuclear war that, for the first time, might devastate its cities. Given this new danger, the United States participated in an arms race with the Soviet Union that included development of the hydrogen bomb, as well as intercontinental strategic bombers and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) capable of delivering nuclear weapons. A new fear of communism and its sympathizers swept the United States during the 1950s, which devolved into paranoid McCarthyism. With communism spreading in China, Korea, and Eastern Europe, Americans came to feel so threatened that popular and political culture condoned extensive "witch - hunts '' to expose communist spies. Part of the American reaction to the Soviet atomic and hydrogen bomb tests included maintaining a large Air Force, under the control of the Strategic Air Command (SAC). SAC employed intercontinental strategic bombers, as well as medium - bombers based close to Soviet airspace (in western Europe and in Turkey) that were capable of delivering nuclear payloads.
For its part, the Soviet Union harbored fears of invasion. Having suffered at least 27 million casualties during World War II after being invaded by Nazi Germany in 1941, the Soviet Union was wary of its former ally, the United States, which until late 1949 was the sole possessor of atomic weapons. The United States had used these weapons operationally during World War II, and it could use them again against the Soviet Union, laying waste to its cities and military centers. Since the Americans had a much larger air force than the Soviet Union, and the United States maintained advance air bases near Soviet territory, in 1947 Stalin ordered the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) in order to counter the perceived American threat.
In 1953, Korolev was given the go - ahead to develop the R - 7 Semyorka rocket, which represented a major advance from the German design. Although some of its components (notably boosters) still resembled the German G - 4, the new rocket incorporated staged design, a completely new control system, and a new fuel. It was successfully tested on August 21, 1957, and became the world 's first fully operational ICBM the following month. It was later used to launch the first satellite into space, and derivatives launched all piloted Soviet spacecraft.
The United States had multiple rocket programs divided among the different branches of the American armed services, which meant that each force developed its own ICBM program. The Air Force initiated ICBM research in 1945 with the MX - 774. However, its funding was cancelled and only three partially successful launches were conducted in 1947. In 1950, von Braun began testing the Air Force PGM - 11 Redstone rocket family at Cape Canaveral. In 1951, the Air Force began a new ICBM program called MX - 1593, and by 1955 this program was receiving top - priority funding. The MX - 1593 program evolved to become the Atlas - A, with its maiden launch occurring June 11, 1957, becoming the first successful American ICBM. Its upgraded version, the Atlas - D rocket, later served as a nuclear ICBM and as the orbital launch vehicle for Project Mercury and the remote - controlled Agena Target Vehicle used in Project Gemini.
With the Cold War as an engine for change in the ideological competition between the United States and the Soviet Union, a coherent space policy began to take shape in the United States during the late 1950s. Korolev took inspiration from the competition as well, achieving many firsts to counter the possibility that the United States might prevail.
In 1955, with both the United States and the Soviet Union building ballistic missiles that could be utilized to launch objects into space, the "starting line '' was drawn for the Space Race. In separate announcements four days apart, both nations publicly announced that they would launch artificial Earth satellites by 1957 or 1958. On July 29, 1955, James C. Hagerty, president Dwight D. Eisenhower 's press secretary, announced that the United States intended to launch "small Earth circling satellites '' between July 1, 1957, and December 31, 1958, as part of their contribution to the International Geophysical Year (IGY). Four days later, at the Sixth Congress of International Astronautical Federation in Copenhagen, scientist Leonid I. Sedov spoke to international reporters at the Soviet embassy, and announced his country 's intention to launch a satellite as well, in the "near future ''. On August 30, 1955, Korolev managed to get the Soviet Academy of Sciences to create a commission whose purpose was to beat the Americans into Earth orbit: this was the de facto start date for the Space Race. The Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union began a policy of treating development of its space program as a classified state secret.
Initially, President Eisenhower was worried that a satellite passing above a nation at over 100 kilometers (62 mi), might be construed as violating that nation 's sovereign airspace. He was concerned that the Soviet Union would accuse the Americans of an illegal overflight, thereby scoring a propaganda victory at his expense. Eisenhower and his advisors believed that a nation 's airspace sovereignty did not extend into outer space, acknowledged as the Kármán line, and he used the 1957 -- 58 International Geophysical Year launches to establish this principle in international law. Eisenhower also feared that he might cause an international incident and be called a "warmonger '' if he were to use military missiles as launchers. Therefore, he selected the untried Naval Research Laboratory 's Vanguard rocket, which was a research - only booster. This meant that von Braun 's team was not allowed to put a satellite into orbit with their Jupiter - C rocket, because of its intended use as a future military vehicle. On September 20, 1956, von Braun and his team did launch a Jupiter - C that was capable of putting a satellite into orbit, but the launch was used only as a suborbital test of nose cone reentry technology.
Korolev received word about von Braun 's 1956 Jupiter - C test, but thinking it was a satellite mission that failed, he expedited plans to get his own satellite in orbit. Since his R - 7 was substantially more powerful than any of the American boosters, he made sure to take full advantage of this capability by designing Object D as his primary satellite. It was given the designation ' D ', to distinguish it from other R - 7 payload designations ' A ', ' B ', ' V ', and ' G ' which were nuclear weapon payloads. Object D dwarfed the proposed American satellites, by having a weight of 1,400 kilograms (3,100 lb), of which 300 kilograms (660 lb) would be composed of scientific instruments that would photograph the Earth, take readings on radiation levels, and check on the planet 's magnetic field. However, things were not going along well with the design and manufacturing of the satellite, so in February 1957, Korolev sought and received permission from the Council of Ministers to create a prosteishy sputnik (PS - 1), or simple satellite. The Council also decreed that Object D be postponed until April 1958. The new sputnik was a shiny sphere that would be a much lighter craft, weighing 83.8 kilograms (185 lb) and having a 58 - centimeter (23 in) diameter. The satellite would not contain the complex instrumentation that Object D had, but had two radio transmitters operating on different short wave radio frequencies, the ability to detect if a meteoroid were to penetrate its pressure hull, and the ability to detect the density of the Earth 's thermosphere.
Korolev was buoyed by the first successful launches of his R - 7 rocket in August and September, which paved the way for him to launch his sputnik. Word came that the Americans were planning to announce a major breakthrough at an International Geophysical Year conference at the National Academy of Sciences in Washington D.C., with a paper entitled "Satellite Over the Planet '', on October 6, 1957. Korolev anticipated that von Braun might launch a Jupiter - C with a satellite payload on or around October 4 or 5, in conjunction with the paper. He hastened the launch, moving it to October 4. The launch vehicle for PS - 1, was a modified R - 7 -- vehicle 8K71PS number M1 - PS -- without much of the test equipment and radio gear that was present in the previous launches. It arrived at the Soviet missile base Tyura - Tam in September and was prepared for its mission at launch site number one. On Friday, October 4, 1957, at exactly 10: 28: 34 pm Moscow time, the R - 7, with the now named Sputnik 1 satellite, lifted off the launch pad, and placed this artificial "moon '' into an orbit a few minutes later. This "fellow traveler, '' as the name is translated in English, was a small, beeping ball, less than two feet in diameter and weighing less than 200 pounds. But the celebrations were muted at the launch control center until the down - range far east tracking station at Kamchatka received the first distinctive beep... beep... beep sounds from Sputnik 1 's radio transmitters, indicating that it was on its way to completing its first orbit. About 95 minutes after launch, the satellite flew over its launch site, and its radio signals were picked up by the engineers and military personnel at Tyura - Tam: that 's when Korolev and his team celebrated the first successful artificial satellite placed into Earth - orbit.
The Soviet success raised a great deal of concern in the United States. For example, economist Bernard Baruch wrote in an open letter titled "The Lessons of Defeat '' to the New York Herald Tribune: "While we devote our industrial and technological power to producing new model automobiles and more gadgets, the Soviet Union is conquering space... It is Russia, not the United States, who has had the imagination to hitch its wagon to the stars and the skill to reach for the moon and all but grasp it. America is worried. It should be. ''
Eisenhower ordered project Vanguard to move up its timetable and launch its satellite much sooner than originally planned. The December 6, 1957 Project Vanguard launch failure occurred at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida, broadcast live in front of a US television audience. It was a monumental failure, exploding a few seconds after launch, and it became an international joke. The satellite appeared in newspapers under the names Flopnik, Stayputnik, Kaputnik, and Dudnik. In the United Nations, the Russian delegate offered the US representative aid "under the Soviet program of technical assistance to backwards nations. '' Only in the wake of this very public failure did von Braun 's Redstone team get the go - ahead to launch their Jupiter - C rocket as soon as they could. In Britain, the US 's Western Cold War ally, the reaction was mixed: some celebrated the fact that the Soviets had reached space first, while others feared the destructive potential that military uses of spacecraft might bring.
On January 31, 1958, nearly four months after the launch of Sputnik 1, von Braun and the United States successfully launched its first satellite on a four - stage Juno I rocket derived from the US Army 's Redstone missile, at Cape Canaveral. The satellite Explorer 1 was 30.66 pounds (13.91 kg) in mass. The payload of Explorer 1 weighed 18.35 pounds (8.32 kg). It carried a micrometeorite gauge and a Geiger - Müller tube. It passed in and out of the Earth - encompassing radiation belt with its 194 - by - 1,368 - nautical - mile (360 by 2,534 km) orbit, therefore saturating the tube 's capacity and proving what Dr. James Van Allen, a space scientist at the University of Iowa, had theorized. The belt, named the Van Allen radiation belt, is a doughnut - shaped zone of high - level radiation intensity around the Earth above the magnetic equator. Van Allen was also the man who designed and built the satellite instrumentation of Explorer 1. The satellite measured three phenomena: cosmic ray and radiation levels, the temperature in the spacecraft, and the frequency of collisions with micrometeorites. The satellite had no memory for data storage, therefore it had to transmit continuously. In March 1958 a second satellite was sent into orbit with augmented cosmic ray instruments.
On April 2, 1958, President Eisenhower reacted to the Soviet space lead in launching the first satellite, by recommending to the US Congress that a civilian agency be established to direct nonmilitary space activities. Congress, led by Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson, responded by passing the National Aeronautics and Space Act, which Eisenhower signed into law on July 29, 1958. This law turned the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics into the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). It also created a Civilian - Military Liaison Committee, chaired by the President, responsible for coordinating the nation 's civilian and military space programs.
On October 21, 1959, Eisenhower approved the transfer of the Army 's remaining space - related activities to NASA. On July 1, 1960, the Redstone Arsenal became NASA 's George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, with von Braun as its first director. Development of the Saturn rocket family, which when mature, gave the US parity with the Soviets in terms of lifting capability, was thus transferred to NASA.
In 1958, Korolev upgraded the R - 7 to be able to launch a 400 - kilogram (880 lb) payload to the Moon. Three secret 1958 attempts to launch Luna E-1 - class impactor probes failed. The fourth attempt, Luna 1, launched successfully on January 2, 1959, but missed the Moon. The fifth attempt on June 18 also failed at launch. The 390 - kilogram (860 lb) Luna 2 successfully impacted the Moon on September 14, 1959. The 278.5 - kilogram (614 lb) Luna 3 successfully flew by the Moon and sent back pictures of its far side on October 6, 1959.
The US reacted to the Luna program by embarking on the Ranger program in 1959, managed by NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The Block I Ranger 1 and Ranger 2 suffered Atlas - Agena launch failures in August and November 1961. The 727 - pound (330 kg) Block II Ranger 3 launched successfully on January 26, 1962, but missed the Moon. The 730 - pound (330 kg) Ranger 4 became the first US spacecraft to reach the Moon, but its solar panels and navigational system failed near the Moon and it impacted the far side without returning any scientific data. Ranger 5 ran out of power and missed the Moon by 725 kilometers (391 nmi) on October 21, 1962. The first successful Ranger mission was the 806 - pound (366 kg) Block III Ranger 7 which impacted on July 31, 1964.
By 1959, American observers believed that the Soviet Union would be the first to get a human into space, because of the time needed to prepare for Mercury 's first launch. On April 12, 1961, the USSR surprised the world again by launching Yuri Gagarin into a single orbit around the Earth in a craft they called Vostok 1. They dubbed Gagarin the first cosmonaut, roughly translated from Russian and Greek as "sailor of the universe ''. Although he had the ability to take over manual control of his capsule in an emergency by opening an envelope he had in the cabin that contained a code that could be typed into the computer, it was flown in an automatic mode as a precaution; medical science at that time did not know what would happen to a human in the weightlessness of space. Vostok 1 orbited the Earth for 108 minutes and made its reentry over the Soviet Union, with Gagarin ejecting from the spacecraft at 7,000 meters (23,000 ft), and landing by parachute. The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (International Federation of Aeronautics) credited Gagarin with the world 's first human space flight, although their qualifying rules for aeronautical records at the time required pilots to take off and land with their craft. For this reason, the Soviet Union omitted from their FAI submission the fact that Gagarin did not land with his capsule. When the FAI filing for Gherman Titov 's second Vostok flight in August 1961 disclosed the ejection landing technique, the FAI committee decided to investigate, and concluded that the technological accomplishment of human spaceflight lay in the safe launch, orbiting, and return, rather than the manner of landing, and revised their rules, keeping Gagarin 's and Titov 's records intact.
Gagarin became a national hero of the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc, and a worldwide celebrity. Moscow and other cities in the USSR held mass demonstrations, the scale of which was second only to the World War II Victory Parade of 1945. April 12 was declared Cosmonautics Day in the USSR, and is celebrated today in Russia as one of the official "Commemorative Dates of Russia. '' In 2011, it was declared the International Day of Human Space Flight by the United Nations.
The radio communication between the launch control room and Gagarin included the following dialogue at the moment of rocket launch:
Korolev: "Preliminary stage... intermediate... main... lift off! We wish you a good flight. Everything is all right. ''
Gagarin: "Поехали! '' (Poyekhali! - Let 's go!).
Gagarin 's informal poyekhali! became a historical phrase in the Eastern Bloc, used to refer to the beginning of the human space flight era.
The US Air Force had been developing a program to launch the first man in space, named Man in Space Soonest. This program studied several different types of one - man space vehicles, settling on a ballistic re-entry capsule launched on a derivative Atlas missile, and selecting a group of nine candidate pilots. After NASA 's creation, the program was transferred over to the civilian agency and renamed Project Mercury on November 26, 1958. NASA selected a new group of astronaut (from the Greek for "star sailor '') candidates from Navy, Air Force and Marine test pilots, and narrowed this down to a group of seven for the program. Capsule design and astronaut training began immediately, working toward preliminary suborbital flights on the Redstone missile, followed by orbital flights on the Atlas. Each flight series would first start uncrewed, then carry a non-human primate, then finally humans.
On May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard became the first American in space, launched in a ballistic trajectory on Mercury - Redstone 3, in a spacecraft he named Freedom 7. Though he did not achieve orbit like Gagarin, he was the first person to exercise manual control over his spacecraft 's attitude and retro - rocket firing. After his successful return, Shepard was celebrated as a national hero, honored with parades in Washington, New York and Los Angeles, and received the NASA Distinguished Service Medal from President John F. Kennedy.
... if we are to win the battle that is now going on around the world between freedom and tyranny, the dramatic achievements in space which occurred in recent weeks should have made clear to us all, as did the Sputnik in 1957, the impact of this adventure on the minds of men everywhere, who are attempting to make a determination of which road they should take... Now it is time to take longer strides -- time for a great new American enterprise -- time for this nation to take a clearly leading role in space achievement, which in many ways may hold the key to our future on Earth.
... Recognizing the head start obtained by the Soviets with their large rocket engines, which gives them many months of lead - time, and recognizing the likelihood that they will exploit this lead for some time to come in still more impressive successes, we nevertheless are required to make new efforts on our own.
John F. Kennedy, Special Message to Congress on Urgent National Needs, May 25, 1961
Before Gagarin 's flight, US President John F. Kennedy 's support for America 's crewed space program was lukewarm. Jerome Wiesner of MIT, who served as a science advisor to presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy, and himself an opponent of crewed space exploration, remarked, "If Kennedy could have opted out of a big space program without hurting the country in his judgment, he would have. '' As late as March 1961, when NASA administrator James E. Webb submitted a budget request to fund a Moon landing before 1970, Kennedy rejected it because it was simply too expensive. Some were surprised by Kennedy 's eventual support of NASA and the space program because of how often he had attacked the Eisenhower administration 's inefficiency during the election.
Gagarin 's flight changed this; now Kennedy sensed the humiliation and fear on the part of the American public over the Soviet lead. Additionally, the Bay of Pigs invasion, planned before his term began but executed during it, was an embarrassment to his administration due to the colossal failure of the American forces. Looking for something to save political face, he sent a memo dated April 20, 1961, to Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, asking him to look into the state of America 's space program, and into programs that could offer NASA the opportunity to catch up. The two major options at the time seemed to be, either establishment of an Earth orbital space station, or a crewed landing on the Moon. Johnson, in turn, consulted with von Braun, who answered Kennedy 's questions based on his estimates of US and Soviet rocket lifting capability. Based on this, Johnson responded to Kennedy, concluding that much more was needed to reach a position of leadership, and recommending that the crewed Moon landing was far enough in the future that the US had a fighting chance to achieve it first.
Kennedy ultimately decided to pursue what became the Apollo program, and on May 25 took the opportunity to ask for Congressional support in a Cold War speech titled "Special Message on Urgent National Needs ''. Full text
He justified the program in terms of its importance to national security, and its focus of the nation 's energies on other scientific and social fields. He rallied popular support for the program in his "We choose to go to the Moon '' speech, on September 12, 1962, before a large crowd at Rice University Stadium, in Houston, Texas, near the construction site of the new Manned Spacecraft Center facility. Full text
Khrushchev responded to Kennedy 's implicit challenge with silence, refusing to publicly confirm or deny the Soviets were pursuing a "Moon race ''. As later disclosed, they pursued such a program in secret over the next nine years.
American Virgil "Gus '' Grissom repeated Shepard 's suborbital flight in Liberty Bell 7 on July 21, 1961. Almost a year after the Soviet Union put a human into orbit, astronaut John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth, on February 20, 1962. His Mercury - Atlas 6 mission completed three orbits in the Friendship 7 spacecraft, and splashed down safely in the Atlantic Ocean, after a tense reentry, due to what falsely appeared from the telemetry data to be a loose heat - shield. As the first American in orbit, Glenn became a national hero, and received a ticker - tape parade in New York City, reminiscent of that given for Charles Lindbergh. On February 23, 1962, President Kennedy escorted him in a parade at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, where he awarded Glenn with the NASA service medal.
The United States launched three more Mercury flights after Glenn 's: Aurora 7 on May 24, 1962, duplicated Glenn 's three orbits; Sigma 7 on October 3, 1962, six orbits; and Faith 7 on May 15, 1963, 22 orbits (32.4 hours), the maximum capability of the spacecraft. NASA at first intended to launch one more mission, extending the spacecraft 's endurance to three days, but since this would not beat the Soviet record, it was decided instead to concentrate on developing Project Gemini.
Gherman Titov became the first Soviet cosmonaut to exercise manual control of his Vostok 2 craft on August 6, 1961. The Soviet Union demonstrated 24 - hour launch pad turnaround and the capability to launch two piloted spacecraft, Vostok 3 and Vostok 4, in essentially identical orbits, on August 11 and 12, 1962. The two spacecraft came within approximately 6.5 kilometers (4.0 mi) of one another, close enough for radio communication. Vostok 4 also set a record of nearly four days in space. Though the two craft 's orbits were as nearly identical as possible given the accuracy of the launch rocket 's guidance system, slight variations still existed which drew the two craft at first as close to each other as 6.5 kilometers (3.5 nautical miles), then as far apart as 2,850 kilometers (1,540 nautical miles). There were no maneuvering rockets on the Vostok to permit space rendezvous, required to keep two spacecraft a controlled distance apart.
The Soviet Union duplicated its dual - launch feat with Vostok 5 and Vostok 6 (June 16, 1963). This time they launched the first woman (also the first civilian), Valentina Tereshkova, into space on Vostok 6. Launching a woman was reportedly Korolev 's idea, and it was accomplished purely for propaganda value. Tereshkova was one of a small corps of female cosmonauts who were amateur parachutists, but Tereshkova was the only one to fly. The USSR did n't again open its cosmonaut corps to women until 1980, two years after the United States opened its astronaut corps to women.
The Soviets kept the details and true appearance of the Vostok capsule secret until the April 1965 Moscow Economic Exhibition, where it was first displayed without its aerodynamic nose cone concealing the spherical capsule. The "Vostok spaceship '' had been first displayed at the July 1961 Tushino air show, mounted on its launch vehicle 's third stage, with the nose cone in place. A tail section with eight fins was also added, in an apparent attempt to confuse western observers. This spurious tail section also appeared on official commemorative stamps and a documentary.
On September 20, 1963, in a speech before the United Nations General Assembly, President Kennedy proposed that the United States and the Soviet Union join forces in an effort to reach the Moon. Kennedy thus changed his mind regarding the desirability of the space race, preferring instead to ease tensions with the Soviet Union by cooperating on projects such as a joint lunar landing. Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev initially rejected Kennedy 's proposal. However, on October 2, 1997, it was reported that Khrushchev 's son Sergei claimed Khrushchev was poised to accept Kennedy 's proposal at the time of Kennedy 's assassination on November 22, 1963. During the next few weeks he reportedly concluded that both nations might realize cost benefits and technological gains from a joint venture, and decided to accept Kennedy 's offer based on a measure of rapport during their years as leaders of the world 's two superpowers, but changed his mind and dropped the idea since he did not have the same trust for Kennedy 's successor, Lyndon Johnson.
As President, Johnson steadfastly pursued the Gemini and Apollo programs, promoting them as Kennedy 's legacy to the American public. One week after Kennedy 's death, he issued an executive order renaming the Cape Canaveral and Apollo launch facilities after Kennedy.
Focused by the commitment to a Moon landing, in January 1962 the US announced Project Gemini, a two - man spacecraft that would support the later three - man Apollo by developing the key spaceflight technologies of space rendezvous and docking of two craft, flight durations of sufficient length to simulate going to the Moon and back, and extra-vehicular activity to accomplish useful work outside the spacecraft.
Meanwhile, Korolev had planned further, long - term missions for the Vostok spacecraft, and had four Vostoks in various stages of fabrication in late 1963 at his OKB - 1 facilities. At that time, the Americans announced their ambitious plans for the Project Gemini flight schedule. These plans included major advancements in spacecraft capabilities, including a two - person spacecraft, the ability to change orbits, the capacity to perform an extravehicular activity (EVA), and the goal of docking with another spacecraft. These represented major advances over the previous Mercury or Vostok capsules, and Korolev felt the need to try to beat the Americans to many of these innovations. Korolev already had begun designing the Vostok 's replacement, the next - generation Soyuz spacecraft, a multi-cosmonaut spacecraft that had at least the same capabilities as the Gemini spacecraft. Soyuz would not be available for at least three years, and it could not be called upon to deal with this new American challenge in 1964 or 1965. Political pressure in early 1964 -- which some sources claim was from Khrushchev while other sources claim was from other Communist Party officials -- pushed him to modify his four remaining Vostoks to beat the Americans to new space firsts in the size of flight crews, and the duration of missions.
The greater advances of the Soviet space program at the time allowed their space program to achieve other significant firsts, including the first EVA "spacewalk '' and the first mission performed by a crew in shirt - sleeves. Gemini took a year longer than planned to accomplish its first flight, allowing the Soviets to achieve another first, launching Voskhod 1 on October 12, 1964, the first spacecraft with a three - cosmonaut crew. The USSR touted another technological achievement during this mission: it was the first space flight during which cosmonauts performed in a shirt - sleeve - environment. However, flying without spacesuits was not due to safety improvements in the Soviet spacecraft 's environmental systems; rather this innovation was accomplished because the craft 's limited cabin space did not allow for spacesuits. Flying without spacesuits exposed the cosmonauts to significant risk in the event of potentially fatal cabin depressurization. This feat was not repeated until the US Apollo Command Module flew in 1968; this later mission was designed from the outset to safely transport three astronauts in a shirt - sleeve environment while in space.
Between October 14 -- 16, 1964, Leonid Brezhnev and a small cadre of high - ranking Communist Party officials, deposed Khrushchev as Soviet government leader a day after Voskhod 1 landed, in what was called the "Wednesday conspiracy ''. The new political leaders, along with Korolev, ended the technologically troublesome Voskhod program, cancelling Voskhod 3 and 4, which were in the planning stages, and started concentrating on the race to the Moon. Voskhod 2 ended up being Korolev 's final achievement before his death on January 14, 1966, as it became the last of the many space firsts that demonstrated the USSR 's domination in spacecraft technology during the early 1960s. According to historian Asif Siddiqi, Korolev 's accomplishments marked "the absolute zenith of the Soviet space program, one never, ever attained since. '' There was a two - year pause in Soviet piloted space flights while Voskhod 's replacement, the Soyuz spacecraft, was designed and developed.
On March 18, 1965, about a week before the first American piloted Project Gemini space flight, the USSR accelerated the competition, by launching the two - cosmonaut Voskhod 2 mission with Pavel Belyayev and Alexey Leonov. Voskhod 2 's design modifications included the addition of an inflatable airlock to allow for extravehicular activity (EVA), also known as a spacewalk, while keeping the cabin pressurized so that the capsule 's electronics would not overheat. Leonov performed the first - ever EVA as part of the mission. A fatality was narrowly avoided when Leonov 's spacesuit expanded in the vacuum of space, preventing him from re-entering the airlock. In order to overcome this, he had to partially depressurize his spacesuit to a potentially dangerous level. He succeeded in safely re-entering the ship, but he and Belyayev faced further challenges when the spacecraft 's atmospheric controls flooded the cabin with 45 % pure oxygen, which had to be lowered to acceptable levels before re-entry. The reentry involved two more challenges: an improperly timed retrorocket firing caused the Voskhod 2 to land 386 kilometers (240 mi) off its designated target area, the town of Perm; and the instrument compartment 's failure to detach from the descent apparatus caused the spacecraft to become unstable during reentry.
Though delayed a year to reach its first flight, Gemini was able to take advantage of the USSR 's two - year hiatus after Voskhod, which enabled the US to catch up and surpass the previous Soviet lead in piloted spaceflight. Gemini achieved several significant firsts during the course of ten piloted missions:
Most of the novice pilots on the early missions would command the later missions. In this way, Project Gemini built up spaceflight experience for the pool of astronauts for the Apollo lunar missions.
Korolev 's design bureau produced two prospectuses for circumlunar spaceflight (March 1962 and May 1963), the main spacecraft for which were early versions of his Soyuz design. Soviet Communist Party Central Committee Command 655 - 268 officially established two secret, competing crewed programs for circumlunar flights and lunar landings, on August 3, 1964. The circumlunar flights were planned to occur in 1967, and the landings to start in 1968.
The circumlunar program (Zond), created by Vladimir Chelomey 's design bureau OKB - 52, was to fly two cosmonauts in a stripped - down Soyuz 7K - L1, launched by Chelomey 's Proton UR - 500 rocket. The Zond sacrificed habitable cabin volume for equipment, by omitting the Soyuz orbital module. Chelomey gained favor with Khruschev by employing members of his family.
Korolev 's lunar landing program was designated N1 / L3, for its N1 super rocket and a more advanced Soyuz 7K - L3 spacecraft, also known as the lunar orbital module ("Lunniy Orbitalny Korabl '', LOK), with a crew of two. A separate lunar lander ("Lunniy Korabl '', LK), would carry a single cosmonaut to the lunar surface.
The N1 / L3 launch vehicle had three stages to Earth orbit, a fourth stage for Earth departure, and a fifth stage for lunar landing assist. The combined space vehicle was roughly the same height and takeoff mass as the three - stage US Apollo / Saturn V and exceeded its takeoff thrust by 28 %, but had only roughly half the translunar injection payload capability.
Following Khruschev 's ouster from power, Chelomey 's Zond program was merged into the N1 / L3 program.
The US and USSR began discussions on the peaceful uses of space as early as 1958, presenting issues for debate to the United Nations, which created a Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space in 1959.
On May 10, 1962, Vice President Johnson addressed the Second National Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Space revealing that the United States and the USSR both supported a resolution passed by the Political Committee of the UN General Assembly on December 1962, which not only urged member nations to "extend the rules of international law to outer space, '' but to also cooperate in its exploration. Following the passing of this resolution, Kennedy commenced his communications proposing a cooperative American / Soviet space program.
The UN ultimately created a Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, which was signed by the United States, USSR, and the United Kingdom on January 27, 1967, and went into force the following October 10.
This treaty:
The treaty remains in force, signed by 107 member states. -- As of July 2017
In 1967, both nations faced serious challenges that brought their programs to temporary halts. Both had been rushing at full - speed toward the first piloted flights of Apollo and Soyuz, without paying due diligence to growing design and manufacturing problems. The results proved fatal to both pioneering crews.
On January 27, 1967, the same day the US and USSR signed the Outer Space Treaty, the crew of the first crewed Apollo mission, Command Pilot Virgil "Gus '' Grissom, Senior Pilot Ed White, and Pilot Roger Chaffee, were killed in a fire that swept through their spacecraft cabin during a ground test, less than a month before the planned February 21 launch. An investigative board determined the fire was probably caused by an electrical spark, and quickly grew out of control, fed by the spacecraft 's pure oxygen atmosphere. Crew escape was made impossible by inability to open the plug door hatch cover against the greater - than - atmospheric internal pressure. The board also found design and construction flaws in the spacecraft, and procedural failings, including failure to appreciate the hazard of the pure - oxygen atmosphere, as well as inadequate safety procedures. All these flaws had to be corrected over the next twenty - two months until the first piloted flight could be made. Mercury and Gemini veteran Grissom had been a favored choice of Deke Slayton, NASA 's Director of Flight Crew Operations, to make the first piloted landing.
On April 24, 1967, the single pilot of Soyuz 1, Vladimir Komarov, became the first in - flight spaceflight fatality. The mission was planned to be a three - day test, to include the first Soviet docking with an unpiloted Soyuz 2, but the mission was plagued with problems. Early on, Komarov 's craft lacked sufficient electrical power because only one of two solar panels had deployed. Then the automatic attitude control system began malfunctioning and eventually failed completely, resulting in the craft spinning wildly. Komarov was able to stop the spin with the manual system, which was only partially effective. The flight controllers aborted his mission after only one day. During the emergency re-entry, a fault in the landing parachute system caused the primary chute to fail, and the reserve chute became tangled with the drogue chute, causing descent speed to reach as high as 40 m / s (140 km / h; 89 mph). Shortly thereafter, Soyuz 1 impacted the ground 3 km (1.9 mi) west of Karabutak, exploding into a ball of flames. The official autopsy states Komarov died of blunt force trauma on impact, and that the subsequent heat mutilation of his corpse was a result of the explosive impact. Fixing the spacecraft 's faults caused an eighteen - month delay before piloted Soyuz flights could resume.
The United States recovered from the Apollo 1 fire, fixing the fatal flaws in an improved version of the Block II command module. The US proceeded with unpiloted test launches of the Saturn V launch vehicle (Apollo 4 and Apollo 6) and the Lunar Module (Apollo 5) during the latter half of 1967 and early 1968. Apollo 1 's mission to check out the Apollo Command / Service Module in Earth orbit was accomplished by Grissom 's backup crew commanded by Walter Schirra on Apollo 7, launched on October 11, 1968. The eleven - day mission was a total success, as the spacecraft performed a virtually flawless mission, paving the way for the United States to continue with its lunar mission schedule.
The Soviet Union also fixed the parachute and control problems with Soyuz, and the next piloted mission Soyuz 3 was launched on October 26, 1968. The goal was to complete Komarov 's rendezvous and docking mission with the un-piloted Soyuz 2. Ground controllers brought the two craft to within 200 meters (660 ft) of each other, then cosmonaut Georgy Beregovoy took control. He got within 40 meters (130 ft) of his target, but was unable to dock before expending 90 percent of his maneuvering fuel, due to a piloting error that put his spacecraft into the wrong orientation and forced Soyuz 2 to automatically turn away from his approaching craft. The first docking of Soviet spacecraft was finally realized in January 1969 by the Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5 missions. It was the first - ever docking of two crewed spacecraft, and the first transfer of crew from one space vehicle to another.
The Soviet Zond spacecraft was not yet ready for piloted circumlunar missions in 1968, after five unsuccessful and partially successful automated test launches: Cosmos 146 on March 10, 1967; Cosmos 154 on April 8, 1967; Zond 1967A September 27, 1967; Zond 1967B on November 22, 1967. Zond 4 was launched on March 2, 1968, and successfully made a circumlunar flight. After its successful flight around the Moon, Zond 4 encountered problems with its Earth reentry on March 9, and was ordered destroyed by an explosive charge 15,000 meters (49,000 ft) over the Gulf of Guinea. The Soviet official announcement said that Zond 4 was an automated test flight which ended with its intentional destruction, due to its recovery trajectory positioning it over the Atlantic Ocean instead of over the USSR.
During the summer of 1968, the Apollo program hit another snag: the first pilot - rated Lunar Module (LM) was not ready for orbital tests in time for a December 1968 launch. NASA planners overcame this challenge by changing the mission flight order, delaying the first LM flight until March 1969, and sending Apollo 8 into lunar orbit without the LM in December. This mission was in part motivated by intelligence rumors the Soviet Union might be ready for a piloted Zond flight during late 1968. In September 1968, Zond 5 made a circumlunar flight with tortoises on board and returned to Earth, accomplishing the first successful water landing of the Soviet space program in the Indian Ocean. It also scared NASA planners, as it took them several days to figure out that it was only an automated flight, not piloted, because voice recordings were transmitted from the craft en route to the Moon. On November 10, 1968, another automated test flight, Zond 6 was launched, but this time encountered difficulties in its Earth reentry, and depressurized and deployed its parachute too early, causing it to crash - land only 16 kilometers (9.9 mi) from where it had been launched six days earlier. It turned out there was no chance of a piloted Soviet circumlunar flight during 1968, due to the unreliability of the Zonds.
On December 21, 1968, Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William Anders became the first humans to ride the Saturn V rocket into space on Apollo 8. They also became the first to leave low - Earth orbit and go to another celestial body, and entered lunar orbit on December 24. They made ten orbits in twenty hours, and transmitted one of the most watched TV broadcasts in history, with their Christmas Eve program from lunar orbit, that concluded with a reading from the biblical Book of Genesis. Two and a half hours after the broadcast, they fired their engine to perform the first trans - Earth injection to leave lunar orbit and return to the Earth. Apollo 8 safely landed in the Pacific Ocean on December 27, in NASA 's first dawn splashdown and recovery.
The American Lunar Module was finally ready for a successful piloted test flight in low Earth orbit on Apollo 9 in March 1969. The next mission, Apollo 10, conducted a "dress rehearsal '' for the first landing in May 1969, flying the LM in lunar orbit as close as 47,400 feet (14.4 km) above the surface, the point where the powered descent to the surface would begin. With the LM proven to work well, the next step was to attempt the landing.
Unknown to the Americans, the Soviet Moon program was in deep trouble. After two successive launch failures of the N1 rocket in 1969, Soviet plans for a piloted landing suffered delay. The launch pad explosion of the N - 1 on July 3, 1969, was a significant setback. The rocket hit the pad after an engine shutdown, destroying itself and the launch facility. Without the N - 1 rocket, the USSR could not send a large enough payload to the Moon to land a human and return him safely.
Apollo 11 was prepared with the goal of a July landing in the Sea of Tranquility. The crew, selected in January 1969, consisted of commander (CDR) Neil Armstrong, Command Module Pilot (CMP) Michael Collins, and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) Edwin "Buzz '' Aldrin. They trained for the mission until just before the launch day. On July 16, 1969, at exactly 9: 32 am EDT, the Saturn V rocket, AS - 506, lifted off from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39 in Florida.
The trip to the Moon took just over three days. After achieving orbit, Armstrong and Aldrin transferred into the Lunar Module, named Eagle, and after a landing gear inspection by Collins remaining in the Command / Service Module Columbia, began their descent. After overcoming several computer overload alarms caused by an antenna switch left in the wrong position, and a slight downrange error, Armstrong took over manual flight control at about 180 meters (590 ft), and guided the Lunar Module to a safe landing spot at 20: 18: 04 UTC, July 20, 1969 (3: 17: 04 pm CDT). The first humans on the Moon waited six hours before they left their craft. At 02: 56 UTC, July 21 (9: 56 pm CDT July 20), Armstrong became the first human to set foot on the Moon.
The first step was witnessed by at least one - fifth of the population of Earth, or about 723 million people. His first words when he stepped off the LM 's landing footpad were, "That 's one small step for (a) man, one giant leap for mankind. '' Aldrin joined him on the surface almost 20 minutes later. Altogether, they spent just under two and one - quarter hours outside their craft. The next day, they performed the first launch from another celestial body, and rendezvoused back with Columbia.
Apollo 11 left lunar orbit and returned to Earth, landing safely in the Pacific Ocean on July 24, 1969. When the spacecraft splashed down, 2,982 days had passed since Kennedy 's commitment to landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth before the end of the decade; the mission was completed with 161 days to spare. With the safe completion of the Apollo 11 mission, the Americans won the race to the Moon.
NASA had ambitious follow - on human spaceflight plans as it reached its lunar goal, but soon discovered it had expended most of its political capital to do so.
The first landing was followed by another, precision landing on Apollo 12 in November 1969. NASA had achieved its first landing goal with enough Apollo spacecraft and Saturn V launchers left for eight follow - on lunar landings through Apollo 20, conducting extended - endurance missions and transporting the landing crews in Lunar Roving Vehicles on the last five. They also planned an Apollo Applications Program to develop a longer - duration Earth orbital workshop (later named Skylab) to be constructed in orbit from a spent S - IVB upper stage, using several launches of the smaller Saturn IB launch vehicle. But planners soon decided this could be done more efficiently by using the two live stages of a Saturn V to launch the workshop pre-fabricated from an S - IVB (which was also the Saturn V third stage), which immediately removed Apollo 20. Belt - tightening budget cuts soon led NASA to cut Apollo 18 and 19 as well, but keep three extended / Lunar Rover missions. Apollo 13 encountered an in - flight spacecraft failure and had to abort its lunar landing in April 1970, returning its crew safely but temporarily grounding the program again. It resumed with four successful landings on Apollo 14 (February 1971), Apollo 15 (July 1971), Apollo 16 (April 1972), and Apollo 17 (December 1972).
In February 1969, President Richard M. Nixon convened a Space Task Group to set recommendations for the future US civilian space program, headed by his Vice President Spiro T. Agnew. Agnew was an enthusiastic proponent of NASA 's follow - on plans, and the STG recommended plans to develop a reusable Space Transportation System including a Space Shuttle, which would facilitate development of permanent space stations in Earth and lunar orbit, perhaps a base on the lunar surface, and the first human flight to Mars as early as 1986 or as late as 2000. Nixon had a better sense of the declining political support in Congress for a new Apollo - style program, which had disappeared with the achievement of the landing, and he intended to pursue detente with the USSR and China, which he hoped might ease Cold War tensions. He cut the spending proposal he sent to Congress to include funding for only the Space Shuttle, with perhaps an option to pursue the Earth orbital space station for the foreseeable future.
The USSR continued trying to perfect their N1 rocket, finally canceling it in 1976, after two more launch failures in 1971 and 1972.
Having lost the race to the Moon, the USSR decided to concentrate on orbital space stations. During 1969 and 1970, they launched six more Soyuz flights after Soyuz 3, then launched the first space station, the Salyut 1 laboratory designed by Kerim Kerimov, on April 19, 1971. Three days later, the Soyuz 10 crew attempted to dock with it, but failed to achieve a secure enough connection to safely enter the station. The Soyuz 11 crew of Vladislav Volkov, Georgi Dobrovolski and Viktor Patsayev successfully docked on June 7, and completed a record 22 - day stay. The crew became the second in - flight space fatality during their reentry on June 30. They were asphyxiated when their spacecraft 's cabin lost all pressure, shortly after undocking. The disaster was blamed on a faulty cabin pressure valve, that allowed all the air to vent into space. The crew was not wearing pressure suits and had no chance of survival once the leak occurred.
Salyut 1 's orbit was increased to prevent premature reentry, but further piloted flights were delayed while the Soyuz was redesigned to fix the new safety problem. The station re-entered the Earth 's atmosphere on October 11, after 175 days in orbit. The USSR attempted to launch a second Salyut - class station designated Durable Orbital Station - 2 (DOS - 2) on July 29, 1972, but a rocket failure caused it to fail to achieve orbit. After the DOS - 2 failure, the USSR attempted to launch four more Salyut - class stations up to 1975, with another failure due to an explosion of the final rocket stage, which punctured the station with shrapnel so that it would not hold pressure. All of the Salyuts were presented to the public as non-military scientific laboratories, but some of them were covers for the military Almaz reconnaissance stations.
The United States launched the orbital workstation Skylab 1 on May 14, 1973. It weighed 169,950 pounds (77,090 kg), was 58 feet (18 m) long by 21.7 feet (6.6 m) in diameter, with a habitable volume of 10,000 cubic feet (280 m). Skylab was damaged during the ascent to orbit, losing one of its solar panels and a meteoroid thermal shield. Subsequent crewed missions repaired the station, and the final mission 's crew, Skylab 4, set the Space Race endurance record with 84 days in orbit when the mission ended on February 8, 1974. Skylab stayed in orbit another five years before reentering the Earth 's atmosphere over the Indian Ocean and Western Australia on July 11, 1979.
In May 1972, President Richard M. Nixon and Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev negotiated an easing of relations known as detente, creating a temporary "thaw '' in the Cold War. In the spirit of good sportsmanship, the time seemed right for cooperation rather than competition, and the notion of a continuing "race '' began to subside.
The two nations planned a joint mission to dock the last US Apollo craft with a Soyuz, known as the Apollo - Soyuz Test Project (ASTP). To prepare, the US designed a docking module for the Apollo that was compatible with the Soviet docking system, which allowed any of their craft to dock with any other (e.g. Soyuz / Soyuz as well as Soyuz / Salyut). The module was also necessary as an airlock to allow the men to visit each other 's craft, which had incompatible cabin atmospheres. The USSR used the Soyuz 16 mission in December 1974 to prepare for ASTP.
The joint mission began when Soyuz 19 was first launched on July 15, 1975, at 12: 20 UTC, and the Apollo craft was launched with the docking module six and a half hours later. The two craft rendezvoused and docked on July 17 at 16: 19 UTC. The three astronauts conducted joint experiments with the two cosmonauts, and the crew shook hands, exchanged gifts, and visited each other 's craft.
In the 1970s, the United States began developing a new generation of reusable orbital spacecraft known as the Space Shuttle, and launched a range of uncrewed probes. The USSR continued to develop space station technology with the Salyut program and Mir (' Peace ' or ' World ', depending on the context) space station, supported by Soyuz spacecraft. They developed their own large space shuttle under the Buran program. The USSR dissolved in 1991 and the remains of its space program mainly passed to Russia. The United States and Russia worked together in space with the Shuttle -- Mir Program, and again with the International Space Station.
The Russian R - 7 rocket family, which launched the first Sputnik at the beginning of the Space Race, is still in use today. It services the International Space Station (ISS) as the launcher for both the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft. It also ferries both Russian and American crews to and from the station.
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what episode does izzy cut the lvad wire | Losing My Religion (Grey 's Anatomy) - wikipedia
"Losing My Religion '' is the twenty - seventh and final episode of the second season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, and the show 's 36th episode overall. Written by Shonda Rhimes and directed by Mark Tinker, the episode was originally broadcast with "Deterioration of the Fight or Flight Response '', in a two - hour season finale event on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States on May 15, 2006. Grey 's Anatomy centers around a group of young doctors in training. In this episode, Dr. Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl) and her fellow interns have to plan a prom for Dr. Richard Webber 's (James Pickens, Jr.) niece Camille Travis (Tessa Thompson). Further storylines include Dr. Preston Burke (Isaiah Washington) recovering from his gunshot wound and Denny Duquette 's (Jeffrey Dean Morgan) death following his seemingly successful heart transplant surgery.
The episode marked Sara Ramirez 's (Dr. Callie Torres) final appearance with recurring billing, as she would be upgraded to a series regular in season three. Morgan, Ramirez, Thompson, Brooke Smith, Sarah Utterback, Loretta Devine, and Chris O'Donnell reprised their roles as guest stars, while Hallee Hirsh and Tiffany Hines made their first and only appearances. The episode received mixed to negative reviews from television critics, who disapproved of the storyline involving Grey and Shepherd and the show 's lack of repercussions for the interns, but lauded Dr. Cristina Yang 's (Sandra Oh) storyline along with Heigl 's performance. "Losing My Religion '' was also included in several "best episodes '' lists. Upon its initial airing, the episode was viewed 22.50 million Americans, garnered an 8.0 / 22 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic, ranking fifth for the week in terms of viewership, and registering as the week 's second highest - rated drama.
Dr. Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) and Dr. Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.) finish Dr. Preston Burke 's (Isaiah Washington) surgery to remove a pseudo-aneurysm in the subclavian artery that threatened the functioning of his arm and which was caused by a gunshot wound. At the same time, Dr. Erica Hahn (Brooke Smith) successfully transplants a heart into Denny Duquette (Jeffrey Dean Morgan). The interns face Webber, who orders them to plan a prom for his dying niece, Camille Travis (Tessa Thompson), until the one who cut Duquette 's left ventricular assist device (LVAD) comes forward. With the instructions of Camille 's friends, Claire (Hallee Hirsh) and Natalie (Tiffany Hines), they prepare the prom as they each struggle with their own personal problems. Trying to recover from his injury, Burke finds a tremor in his right hand.
Dr. Meredith Grey 's (Ellen Pompeo) love interest Dr. Finn Dandrige (Chris O'Donnell), the vet of Doc -- the dog she shares with Shepherd -- informs her that Doc has had several seizures due to his bone cancer and that she and Shepherd have to make a decision. Webber interrogates the interns individually about Duquette 's LVAD wire, but only learns about their personal problems instead. Dr. Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl) finally accepts Duquette 's marriage proposal. At Dandridge 's office, Grey and Shepherd, joined by Dr. Addison Montgomery - Shepherd (Kate Walsh), decide to put Doc to sleep.
The hospital staff begins to arrive at the prom and Dr. Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) and Dr. George O'Malley (T.R. Knight) discuss the status of their relationship, which leads to the former admitting her love and commitment. During the dance, Grey and Shepherd escape Dandridge and Montgomery to have a heated argument that leads to sexual intercourse. In the meantime, as Duquette waits for Stevens alone in his room, he experiences a sudden sense of pain, and unexpectedly dies. While Webber is sitting in the operating room gallery and reflecting on his career, Dr. Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) announces Duquette 's death.
News of the death spreads, and the interns hurry to his room to find a shocked Stevens, lying on the bed, clinging to his still form. As they each try to comfort her, the cause of his death is revealed to have been a blood clot that led to a fatal stroke. Stevens says that if she had taken less time to dress, she would have arrived at his room sooner and could have been with him while he died. Dr. Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) then talks to Stevens, picking her up and hugging her. Afterward, Dr. Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), who did not know how to handle Burke 's situation, goes to his room and puts her hand on his to show him her support. As the episode ends, Stevens confesses to Webber that she was the one responsible for the LVAD wire cut, and claiming she can not be a surgeon, quits the program. After everyone begins going their separate ways, Grey remains torn on who she should follow: Shepherd or Dandridge.
The episode was written by series creator Shonda Rhimes and directed by filmmaker Mark Tinker, while Ed Ornelas edited it. It was the last episode to feature Sara Ramirez as a guest star, as she began receiving star billing in the season three premiere. Morgan, Ramirez, Thompson, Smith, Utterback, Devine, and O'Donnell reprised their roles as Duquette, Torres, Travis, Hahn, Harper, Adele, and Dandridge, respectively, while Hirsh and Hines made their first and only appearances as Claire and Natalie, respectively. The soundtrack of the episode consisted of Pete Droge 's "Under the Waves '', Dressy Bessy 's "Side 2 '', Amos Lee 's "Colors '', Masha Qrella 's "Destination Vertical '', Kate Havnevik 's "Grace '', and Snow Patrol 's "Chasing Cars ''. The American profile of Northern Irish band Snow Patrol increased after their single was used in this episode. Lead singer Gary Lightbody was initially uncertain about licensing a song for the soundtrack, but has since admitted that the publicity had a positive effect.
Rhimes entitled the episode "Losing My Religion '' because she felt "that is what happens to each intern in this episode. Each intern lets go of the things they 've held onto all season. George lets go of loving Meredith. Cristina lets go of her well - checked emotions. Izzie is forced to let go of her idealism. And that leads to her letting go of medicine. Alex lets go of his rage against Izzie. And Meredith... well, Meredith just lets go. '' The costumes were designed by Mimi Melgaard; Rhimes noted that everyone was dressed in dark funeral colors to the prom, except Stevens who was dressed in pink. Stevens ' dress was an Amsale creation. Monologues done by the five main characters were used in this episode. Rhimes commented: "this was something we 'd never done and I was n't sure would work. But you place those pages into the hands of the actors and each and every one of them layered their characters ' souls right into the dialogue. '' The episode 's theme was the prom; Rhimes said she wanted to do it since the beginning of the season.
"Losing My Religion '' was originally broadcast on May 15, 2006 in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), along with "Deterioration of the Fight or Flight Response ''. The episodes were watched by a total of 22.50 million Americans. It represents a slight decrease in comparison to the episode airing the previous night, "17 Seconds '', which garnered 22.60 million viewers. The episode received an 8.0 / 22 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic, ranking fifth for the week in terms of viewership, and registering as the week 's second highest - rated drama. The episode 's rating outranked CBS 's The New Adventures of Old Christine and CSI: Miami, the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) 's The Apprentice, and the Fox Broadcasting Company 's 24.
The episode received mixed to negative reviews among critics. Joel Keller of The Huffington Post expressed mixed opinions on the episode, putting the emphasis on Yang 's development, whom he deemed "transformed '' by the end of the episode. He applauded Torres ' evolution throughout the episode, and also praised Heigl 's performance and dress. Keller criticized the non-realism of the punishment the interns received, Grey and Shepherd 's storyline being tiresome, and the cliffhanger, calling it a "lame cliché ''. Writing for the Chicago Tribune, Maureen Ryan gave a negative review of the episode, stating: "overall, the whole thing just fell a little flat. '' Though Ryan appreciated the scene of Doc 's death, she was critical of Torres ' underdevelopment, the lack of chemistry with O'Malley, and her prom dress. Abigail Chao of Television Without Pity was also critical of Torres ' dress, but liked Heigl 's pink dress. She also applauded Karev 's intervening to calm Stevens down, and agreed that Grey 's cliffhanger was not good.
Eyder Peralta of The Houston Chronicle criticized Stevens ' ethics for cutting Duquette 's LVAD wire, writing that she "should not be practising medicine ''. Alan Sepinwall, a former television columnist for The Star - Ledger, commented favorably on Karev "finally displaying some humanity '' in the scene following Duquette 's death. He was critical of Shepherd 's arc, however, and on the absence of severe consequences for Stevens having cut the LVAD wire, an action he called "insane and dangerous ''. This episode was included on the list for the "25 Sexiest TV Shows on DVD '' by magazine Entertainment Weekly. It was also listed in Entertainment Weekly 's "20 Unforgettable Proms '' and in Starpulse 's "Top Ten TV Proms ''. AOL TV placed the hook - up scene involving Grey and Shepherd on its Top 20 of TV 's Sexiest Scenes. In 2009, TV Guide ranked "Losing My Religion '' # 63 on its list of the 100 Greatest Episodes. In 2013, the magazine named Duquette 's death one of TV 's Most Heartbreaking Deaths. In December 2011, Wetpaint named "Losing My Religion '' one of the five best episodes of the series.
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spirit - i got a line on you (1984) original video | I Got a Line on You - wikipedia
"I Got a Line on You '' is a rock song by American rock band Spirit, originally recorded during the sessions for their second album, The Family That Plays Together, between March 11 and September 18, 1968. The song was composed by guitarist / singer Randy California, recorded in sessions produced by Lou Adler. The single credits engineering by Eric Wienbang. Released as a single ahead of the album by Ode Records in the US in October 1968, it began a slow rise up the charts.
It was picked up by college radio in late November. It was the second single released by the band. The B - side was "She Smiled '' (Ode catalog number ZS7 - 115). 2: 37 in length, the song finally peaked at # 25 on the U.S. Top 100 on March 15, 1969, and # 28 in Canada, March 24th.
Some international versions were released later in 1968 and early 1969, distributed by CBS Records or Columbia Records. Some were produced in psychedelic colored vinyl patterns, while the Ode release was on plain black vinyl with a plain yellow label. The album version was slightly longer at 2: 39, while the greatest hits version is timed at 2: 41. A 7: 34 version appears on the band 's final reunion album, 1984 's The Thirteenth Dream.
A Billboard review brief called it "the near definitive rock single ''. Matthew Greenwald of AllMusic said it is "Driven by a fabulously funky guitar riff and some very accessible lyrics, the song is a rock classic from beginning to end. ''
The song has been covered by Blackfoot, Patrick Cowley, Alice Cooper, Jeff Healey, Juicy Lucy, Who Watchiz Ze Watchmain, Ile Kallio, Kim Mitchell, Mushroom with Gary Floyd, The Woggles, and most recently by the supergroup Hollywood Vampires. Cover versions by Joe Moss and the Danish band Lost and Found were released as "I 've Got A Line On You ''. Country band 1880 released a version titled "I Gotta Line on You ''. Because of the lyrics, occasionally "Babe '' has been added to the end of the song title.
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why is south african rugby team called springboks | South Africa national Rugby Union team - wikipedia
The South Africa national rugby union team, commonly known as the Springboks, is governed by the South African Rugby Union. The Springboks play in green and gold jerseys with white shorts, and their emblems are the Springbok and the King Protea. The team has been representing South Africa in international rugby union since 30 July 1891, when they played their first test match against a British Isles touring team.
Although South Africa was instrumental in the creation of the Rugby World Cup competition, the Springboks did not compete in the first two World Cups in 1987 and 1991 because of anti-apartheid sporting boycotts of South Africa. The team made its World Cup debut in 1995, when the newly democratic South Africa hosted the tournament. The Springboks defeated the All Blacks 15 -- 12 in the final, which is now remembered as one of the greatest moments in South Africa 's sporting history, and a watershed moment in the post-Apartheid nation - building process. South Africa regained their title as champions 12 years later, when they defeated England 15 -- 6 in the 2007 final. As a result of the 2007 World Cup tournament the Springboks were promoted to first place in the IRB World Rankings, a position they held until July the following year when New Zealand regained the top spot. They were named 2008 World Team of the Year at the Laureus World Sports Awards.
The Springboks also compete in the annual Rugby Championship (formerly the Tri-Nations), along with southern - hemisphere counterparts Argentina, Australia and New Zealand. They have won this championship on three occasions in sixteen years. They also play Test matches against the various rugby - playing nations. Their position in the World Rugby Rankings has varied between the No. 1 and No. 7 positions.
The first British Isles tour took place in 1891, at Diocesan College. These were the first representative games played by South African sides. The tourists won all twenty matches they played, conceding only one point. The British Isles ' success continued on their tour of 1896, winning three out of four tests against South Africa. South Africa 's play greatly improved from 1891, and their first test win in the final game was a pointer to the future. In 1903 the British Isles lost a series for the first time in South Africa, drawing the opening two tests before losing the last 8 -- 0. Rugby was given a huge boost by the early Lions tours, which created great interest in the South African press. South Africa would not lose another series -- home or away -- until 1956.
The first South African team to tour the British Isles and France occurred during 1906 -- 07. The team played tests against all four Home Nations. England managed a draw, but Scotland was the only one of the Home unions to gain a victory. The trip instilled a sense of national pride among South Africans. The South Africans played an unofficial match against a ' France ' team while the official French team were in England; the Springboks won 55 -- 6. It was during this tour that the nickname Springboks was first used.
The 1910 British Isles tour of South Africa was the first to include representatives from all four Home unions. The tourists won just one of their three tests. The Boks ' second European tour took place in 1912 -- 13. They beat the four Home nations to earn their first Grand Slam, and also defeated France.
By the first World War, New Zealand and South Africa had established themselves as rugby 's two greatest powers. A Springbok tour to New Zealand and Australia in 1921 was billed as "The World Championship of Rugby ''. The All Blacks won the first Test 13 -- 5, The Springboks recovered to win the second Test 9 -- 5, and the final Test was drawn 0 -- 0, resulting in a series draw.
The 1924 British and Irish Lions team to South Africa lost all four Tests to the Springboks. This was the first side to pick up the name Lions, apparently picked up from the Lions embroidered on their ties. The All Blacks first toured South Africa in 1928, and again the Test series finished level. The Springboks won the first Test 17 -- 0 to inflict the All Blacks ' heaviest defeat since 1893. The All Blacks rebounded to win the second Test 7 -- 6. After a Springbok win in the third Test, the All Blacks won 13 -- 5 to draw the series.
Despite winning South Africa 's second Grand Slam, the Springbok tourists of 1931 -- 32 were an unloved team, due to their tactics of kicking for territory. It was successful however, winning against England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales, as well as defeating all their Welsh opponents for the first time.
In 1933, Australia toured South Africa, with the Springboks winning the series 3 -- 2.
In 1937 South Africa toured New Zealand and Australia and their 2 -- 1 series win prompted them to be called "the best team to ever leave New Zealand ''.
The British Isles toured South Africa again in 1938, winning the majority of their tour matches. The Springboks secured easy victories in the first two tests. However, the Lions bounced back to record a win in the third test, for the first Lions win on South Africa soil since 1910.
Danie Craven was appointed coach in 1949, and started his coaching career winning ten matches in a row, including a 4 -- 0 whitewash of New Zealand on their 1949 tour to South Africa.
The 1951 -- 52 team that toured Europe was considered amongst the finest Springbok sides to tour. The team won the Grand Slam as well as defeating France. Hennie Muller captained the side. The South African highlight of the tour was a 44 -- 0 defeat of Scotland. The team finished with only one loss, to London Counties, from 31 matches.
In 1953, Australia toured South Africa for the second time and although they lost the series they defeated South Africa 18 -- 14 in the second test. This was the first Springbok defeat for 15 years. The 1955 British Lions tour to South Africa four - test series ended in a draw.
In 1956, Springboks toured Australasia the All Blacks won its first series over the Springboks, in "the most bitterly fought series in history. ''
When France toured South Africa in 1958 they were not expected to compete. France exceeded expectations and drew 3 -- 3. The French then secured a Test series victory with a 9 -- 5 victory.
In 1960, international criticism of apartheid grew in the wake of The Wind of Change speech and the Sharpeville massacre. The Springboks increasingly became the target of international protest. The All Blacks toured South Africa in 1960, despite a 150,000 signature petition opposing it. The Springboks avenged their 1956 series defeat by winning the four - match test series 2 -- 1 with one draw. Later that same year the Springboks toured Europe, and they defeated all four Home unions for their fourth Grand Slam.
The 1962 British Lions tour to South Africa lost all three tests. In 1963 the touring Wallabies beat the Springboks in consecutive tests, the first team to do so since the 1896 British team. In 1964, in Wales ' first overseas tour they played one test match against South Africa, losing 24 -- 3, their biggest defeat in 40 years.
South Africa had a poor year in 1965, losing matches in a tour of Ireland and Scotland, and in a tour of Australia and New Zealand.
The planned 1967 tour by the All Blacks was cancelled by the New Zealand Rugby Football Union after the South African government refused to allow Maori players. In 1968 the Lions toured and lost three Tests and drew one.
Next year in the 1969 -- 70 Springbok tour to the UK and Ireland the Springboks lost test matches against England and Scotland, and drew against Ireland. Throughout the tour however, large anti-apartheid demonstrations meant that several matches had to be played behind barbed wire fences.
In 1970 the All Blacks toured South Africa once again -- after the South African government agreed to treat Maoris in the team and Maori spectators as ' honorary whites '. The Springboks won the test series 3 -- 1.
In the Springbok tour of Australia in 1971, the Springboks won all three tests. As in Britain three years before, however, massive anti-apartheid demonstrations greeted the team, and they had to be transported by the Royal Australian Air Force after the trade unions refused to service planes or trains transporting them. A planned tour of New Zealand for 1973 was blocked by New Zealand Prime Minister Norman Kirk on the grounds of public safety.
The Lions team that toured South Africa in 1974 triumphed 3 -- 0 (with one drawn) in the test series. A key feature was the Lions ' infamous ' 99 call '. Lions management had decided that the Springboks dominated their opponents with physical aggression, so decided "to get their retaliation in first ''. At the call of ' 99 ' each Lions player would attack their nearest rival player. The "battle of Boet Erasmus Stadium '' was one of the most violent matches in rugby history.
The 1976 All Blacks tour of South Africa went ahead, and the Springboks won by three Tests to one, but coming shortly after the Soweto riots the tour attracted international condemnation. Twenty eight countries boycotted the 1976 Summer Olympics in protest, and in 1977 the Gleneagles Agreement discouraged any Commonwealth sporting contact with South Africa. In response to the growing pressure, the segregated South African rugby unions merged in 1977. A planned 1979 Springbok tour of France was blocked by the French government.
The Lions toured South Africa in 1980, losing the first three tests before winning the last one.
The 1981 Springbok tour of New Zealand went ahead in defiance of the Gleneagles Agreement. South Africa lost the series 2 -- 1. The tour and the massive civil disruption in New Zealand had ramifications far beyond rugby. In 1981, Errol Tobias became the first non-white South African to represent his country when he took the field against Ireland. South Africa sought to counteract its sporting isolation by inviting the South American Jaguars to tour. The team contained mainly Argentinian players. Eight matches were played between the two teams in the early 1980s -- all awarded Test status. In 1984, England toured losing both test matches; of the players selected, only Ralph Knibbs of Bristol refused to tour for political reasons.
Due to the isolation from apartheid, from 1985 to 1991, South Africa did not play a single test match against an established country, although South Africa did play some matches against makeshift teams. In 1985, a planned All Black tour of South Africa was stopped by the New Zealand High Court. A rebel tour took place the next year by a team known as the Cavaliers, which consisted of all but two of the original squad. The Springboks won the series 3 -- 1. In 1989, a World XV sanctioned by the International Rugby Board went on a mini-tour of South Africa; all traditional rugby nations bar New Zealand supplied players to the team. South Africa was not permitted by the International Rugby Board to compete in the inaugural 1987 Rugby World Cup, nor in the following 1991 Rugby World Cup.
Apartheid was abolished during 1990 -- 91, and the Springboks were readmitted to international rugby in 1992. They struggled to return to their pre-isolation standards in their first games after readmission. During the 1992 All Blacks tour, the first to South Africa since 1976, the Springboks were defeated 27 -- 24 by New Zealand, and suffered a 26 -- 3 loss to Australia the following month.
South Africa hosted the 1995 Rugby World Cup, with a surge of support for the Springboks among the white and black communities behind the slogan "one team, one country. '' This was the first major international sports event to be held in the Rainbow Nation. By the time they hosted the 1995 World Cup, the Springboks, coached by Kitch Christie, were seeded ninth. They won their pool by defeating Australia, Romania, and Canada. Wins in the quarterfinal against Western Samoa (42 -- 14) and in the semifinal against France (19 -- 15) sent the Springboks to the final. South Africa won the 1995 Rugby World Cup Final against the All Blacks 15 -- 12 in extra-time. President Nelson Mandela, wearing a Springbok shirt, presented the trophy to captain Francois Pienaar, a white Afrikaner. The gesture was widely seen as a major step towards the reconciliation of white and black South Africans.
A series of crises followed in 1995 through 1997. Christie resigned in 1996 due to leukaemia. South Africa struggled in the new Tri-Nations competition, the All Blacks won a test series in South Africa for the first time in 1996, and the Lions won their 1997 South African tour test series two games to one. Coach Andre Markgraaff was fired in 1997 over a racial comment he made. The team suffered successive defeats in the Lions 1997 tour and the 1997 Tri Nations Series.
In 1997, coach Nick Mallett coached South Africa 's unbeaten 1997 tour of Europe, and in 1998 the Boks tied the then - existing record for longest test winning streak, winning 17 consecutive tests, including the 1998 Tri-Nations. At the 1999 Rugby World Cup the Springboks reached the semi-finals of the competition, where they lost to eventual champions Australia.
During the 2002 and 2003 seasons, the Springboks lost by record margins to England (53 -- 3), France, Scotland and New Zealand. At the 2003 Rugby World Cup, they were eliminated in the quarter final round -- their worst showing to date.
Following wins during the June 2004 tours, the Boks won the 2004 Tri Nations Series. The Springboks won the 2004 IRB International Team of the Year award. The Springboks finished second in the 2005 Tri-Nations.
The 2006 Springboks lost to France, ending their long undefeated home record. A poor 2006 Tri Nations Series included two losses to the Wallabies. Coach Jake White told the press in July 2006 that he had been unable to pick some white players for his squad "because of transformation '' -- a reference to the ANC government 's policies to redress racial imbalances.
At the 2007 Rugby World Cup in France, the Springboks won their pool. The Springboks then defeated Fiji 37 -- 20 in the quarterfinals, and Argentina 37 -- 13 in the semi-finals. In the final they prevailed 15 -- 6 over England to lift the Webb Ellis Cup for a second time.
In January 2008, Peter de Villiers was appointed as the first non-white coach of the Springboks. De Villiers 's first squad included ten of colour. The team finishes last in the Tri Nations, but notched several wins during their 2008 end of year tour.
The 2009 season was more successful. The Boks earned a 2 -- 1 series win over the Lions, and then won the 2009 Tri Nations Series. However, during the November tests they lost their top spot in the IRB rankings with losses to France and Ireland. Nonetheless, the Boks were named IRB International Team of the Year.
The Boks ' June 2010 test campaign included a win over France (their first victory over the French since 2005). However, the Boks performed poorly in the 2010 Tri Nations campaign, sliding to third in the world rankings. In the 2011 Tri Nations the Boks rested a number of players in preparation for the upcoming World Cup. At the 2011 Rugby World Cup, the Springboks topped their group before falling to Australia 11 -- 9 in the quarter - final.
Even before the apartheid laws were introduced to South Africa in 1948 the Springboks had been an all - white team. The team became a symbol of racial division within South Africa, and following the first open elections in 1994, the ruling African National Congress (ANC) instituted a policy of transformation in South African sport. In this context transformation can be defined as "a complete alternation of the appearance or character of South African rugby '', and one aim is to transform the Springboks into a team more representative of South Africa 's race and class.
South Africa 's World Cup winning side of 1995 fielded only one non-white player (Chester Williams). This continued in the team 's biggest matches of the 1999 and 2003 World Cups, and in the 2007 World Cup final the team fielded two non-white players (Bryan Habana and JP Pietersen). South African Rugby Union president Oregan Hoskins considered the number of non-white players in the 2007 World Cup squad too low, and in 2008 the first non-white coach of the side was appointed. The political pressure on rugby coaches and administrators to select non-white players is strong; 16 of the 35 new Springboks appointed by former coach Jake White were non-white. ANC Minister of Parliament Butana Komphela expressed a view held by many politicians in the country when he said "Sport can not be excluded from imperatives of empowerment and transformation. '' Currently, 15 of the 49 players in training for the World Cup are non-white.
Since the demise of apartheid the ruling African National Congress has wanted to replace the Springbok across all national teams, as emblem of the racially segregated sporting codes, with a neutral symbol that would represent a decisive break with a repressive past. The King Protea as South Africa 's national flower was chosen for this purpose, so that the national cricket team became known as the Proteas, for example. A similar change was envisioned for the national rugby squad 's springbok emblem. Paul Roos 's team had first introduced the Springbok in 1906, and it had promoted a measure of unity among white English and Afrikaans - speaking players after the two Anglo - Boer Wars of the late 19th century.
The Springbok was regarded as representing both the exclusion of players who were not designated white under apartheid legislation and, by extension, of apartheid itself. Although the Springbok was adopted briefly by the first coloured national rugby team in 1939 and by their first black counterparts in 1950, it became exclusively associated with segregated sporting codes afterwards. South African rugby officials in particular, and the national rugby team itself, have an historical association with racism from 1906 on. The first rugby Springboks initially refused to play against a Devon side that included Jimmy Peters, the first black player to represent England. Legendary official, national coach, and Springbok scrumhalf Danie Craven had acquiesced with government officials who had demanded that Māori players be excluded from visiting All Black teams. Craven had also indicated that the Springbok was exclusively tied to the white identity of the national rugby team.
As a result of political pressure the national rugby team jersey from 1992 on featured a king protea alongside the springbok. As portrayed in the film Invictus, pressure to replace the Springbok as emblem for the rugby team came to a head in 1994, just before the Rugby World Cup that would take place in South Africa. As a result of Nelson Mandela 's direct interference (Mandela himself was a devoted fan of the Springbok rugby team), the ANC 's executive decided not to do away with the emblem at the time, but to reappropriate it. After the national team won the 1995 Rugby World Cup, black rugby pioneer Dan Qeqe said that "The Springboks play for all of us ''.
In March 2004 the South African Sports Commission ratified a decision that the protea be the official rugby emblem on blazers and caps, with the concession that the springbok could remain on the team jersey and the traditional Springbok colours. And in November 2007 the ANC 's special conference at Polokwane again endorsed the need for a single symbol for all sporting codes. While critics like Qondisa Ngwenya foresaw a loss of revenue from dumping the springbok emblem, others like Cheeky Watson urged the need for an alternative, unifying symbol. In 2015 for the 2015 Rugby World Cup, the springbok was moved from the front of the jersey to the right sleeve while the Protea remained on the front. This was due to World Cup regulations stating that only the IRB logo and the main team logo could go on the front of the shirt. Several South African rugby fans voiced their disappointment and anger at the reveal of the 2015 shirt as a result of the springbok not being on the front of the shirt.
South Africa play in green jerseys with a gold collar and trim, white shorts and green socks. The jersey is embroidered with the SA Rugby logo on the wearer 's left chest and the springbok logo on the right chest. Japanese company ASICS is the kit provider for all the South Africa rugby teams, through and agreement signed with the SARU until 2019. South Africa 's shirt sponsor is local mobile phone provider MTN Group. Additional uniform sponsors are FNB on the back above the numbers, and Land Rover, FlySafair, and Southern Palace rotating on the rear hems of the shorts.
Historically, the green jersey was first adopted when the British Isles toured South Africa in 1896. On their first tour to Great Britain and Ireland in 1906 -- 07 South Africa wore a green jersey with white collar, blue shorts, and blue socks taken from the Diocesan College rugby kit at the time. A replica shirt was worn in 2006 against Ireland in Dublin to mark the centenary of the tour. When Australia first toured South Africa in 1933, the visitors wore sky blue jerseys to avoid confusion, as at the time, both wore dark green jerseys. In 1953, when Australia toured again, the Springboks wore white jerseys for the test matches. In 1961 Australia changed their jersey to gold to avoid further colour clashes. 2017 saw the Springboks wear a red change jersey at Argentina as part of an Asics promotion where the Springboks and Blitzboks wore jerseys in all the colours of the South African flag during the course of the season -- the main side wore green, white, and red shirts, while the sevens team turned out in gold, blue and black uniforms.
The Springbok nickname and logo also dates from the 1906 -- 7 tour of Britain. The springbok was chosen to represent the team by tour captain Paul Roos in an attempt to prevent the British press from inventing their own name. The logo was not restricted to the white team alone -- the first coloured national team used the springbok in 1939 and the first black team in 1950. After the fall of apartheid in 1992 a wreath of proteas was added to the logo. When the ANC was elected in 1994 the team 's name was not changed to the Proteas, like that of the South African Cricket team, due in part to the intervention of then - President Nelson Mandela.
In December 2008, the SARU decided to place the protea on the left side of the Boks ' jersey, in line with other South African national teams, and move the springbok to the right side of the jersey. The new jersey was worn for the first time during the British and Irish Lions ' 2009 tour of South Africa.
* In a 2001 autumn international against France in Saint - Denis, the logo on their kit was replaced by Charles because of the Evin law, which prohibits alcohol companies from advertising during sports events in France.
The Springboks do not use a national stadium as their home, but play out of a number of venues throughout South Africa. The 60,000 seat Ellis Park Stadium in Johannesburg was the main venue for the 1995 World Cup, where the Springboks defeated the All Blacks in the final. Other regular venues for tests include Pretoria 's Loftus Versfeld Stadium, Newlands Stadium in Cape Town, Kings Park Stadium in Durban, Free State Stadium in Bloemfontein, and Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium in Port Elizabeth. The Springboks played their first test match at Soccer City on 21 August 2010, a Tri Nations match against New Zealand.
Other stadiums which have been used for test matches include Buffalo City Stadium in East London, the Royal Bafokeng Sports Palace outside of Rustenburg, Mbombela Stadium in Nelspruit and Puma Stadium in Witbank.
The first South African international took place at Port Elizabeth 's St George 's Park Cricket Ground in 1891. Ellis Park was built in 1928, and in 1955 hosted a record 100,000 people in a Test between South Africa and the British and Irish Lions.
The Springboks are said to have a notable advantage over touring sides when playing at high altitude on the Highveld. Games at Ellis Park, Loftus Versfeld, or Vodacom Park are said to present physical problems, and to influence a match in a number of other ways, such as the ball travelling further when kicked. Experts disagree on whether touring team 's traditionally poor performances at altitude are more due to a state of mind rather than an actual physical challenge.
List of South Africa national rugby union team records
South Africa 's only annual tournament is The Rugby Championship (formerly Tri-Nations), involving Australia and New Zealand since 1996, with Argentina joining the competition in 2012. South Africa has won the tournament three times; in 1998 and 2004 and 2009. South Africa also participates in the Mandela Challenge Plate with Australia, and the Freedom Cup with New Zealand as part of the Rugby Championship.
Updated: 8 October 2017 Source: espnscrum.com
South Africa did not participate in the 1987 and 1991 World Cups because of the sporting boycott that apartheid brought against them. South Africa 's introduction to the event was as hosts. They defeated defending champions Australia 27 -- 18 in the opening match, and went on to defeat the All Blacks 15 -- 12 after extra time in the 1995 Rugby World Cup Final, with a drop goal from 40 metres by Joel Stransky.
In 1999 South Africa suffered their first World Cup loss when they were defeated 21 -- 27 by Australia in their semi-final; they went on to defeat the All Blacks 22 -- 18 in the third - fourth play - off match. The worst ever South African performance at a World Cup was in 2003 when they lost a pool game to England, and then were knocked out of the tournament by the All Blacks in their quarter - final. In 2007 the Springboks defeated Fiji in the quarter - finals and Argentina in the semi-finals. They then defeated England in the final 15 -- 6 to win the tournament for a second time. In 2011 the Springboks were defeated by Australia 9 -- 11 in the quarter - finals after winning all four of their pool games.
In 2015 World Cup South Africa suffered a 32 -- 34 loss to Japan in their first pool match on 19 September. BBC reported the game as arguably the biggest upset in rugby union history.
Until the 1990s South Africa were considered one of the most successful rugby nations in Test match history, with a positive win - loss ratio against every Test playing nation including their traditional rivals, New Zealand. Since that time, the Springboks have lost their winning record against two teams: the New Zealand All Blacks, and at the 2015 Rugby World Cup the Springboks lost against Japan in these two teams ' first ever test. South Africa are currently ranked number 5 in the world rankings (as of 18 June 2018). When the ranking system was introduced in October 2003 South Africa were ranked sixth. Their ranking fluctuated until victory in the 2007 Rugby World Cup briefly sent them to the top of the rankings.
Below is test matches played by South Africa up until 25 August 2018. Only fixtures recognised as test matches by the South African Rugby Union are listed.
± The Cavaliers was the name given to an unofficial (rebel) New Zealand team which toured South Africa in 1986. The New Zealand Rugby Union did not sanction the team and do not recognise the side as a New Zealand representative team.
On 6 August 2018, head coach Rassie Erasmus named a 35 - man squad for South Africa 's Rugby Championship campaign.
Cyle Brink withdrew from the squad on 16 August 2018 after sustaining a knee injury in training.
Appearances correct as of 25 August 2018.
South Africa 's most capped player is Victor Matfield with 127 caps. The most - capped back is Bryan Habana. Montgomery also holds the South African record for Test points with 893, which at the time of his international retirement placed him sixth on the all - time list of Test point scorers (he now stands ninth).
John Smit was the world 's most - capped captain, having captained South Africa in 82 of his 111 Tests, but has since been overtaken. Smit also played a record 46 consecutive matches for South Africa.
The record try scorer is Bryan Habana with 67 tries.
Eleven former South African international players have been inducted into either the International Rugby Hall of Fame or the IRB Hall of Fame. Six are members of the International Rugby Hall of Fame only; two are members of the IRB Hall of Fame only, and four are members of both Halls of Fame.
The current coaching staff of the South African national team was revealed on 1 March 2018:
The role and definition of the South Africa coach has varied significantly over the team 's history. Hence a comprehensive list of coaches, or head selectors, is impossible. The following table is a list of coaches since the 1949 All Blacks tour to South Africa. Both World Cup - winning coaches, Christie and White, were inducted into the IRB Hall of Fame in 2011 alongside all other World Cup - winning head coaches through the 2007 edition.
Traditionally, most of the test matches (and all until 1987) against other countries happened during tours. The first team to visit South Africa, was the British Lions in 1891. The first Springbok overseas tour was arranged in 1906 -- 07 to Europe.
The combined exploits of Mandela and the Springboks in helping unify the country through rugby union was later chronicled in John Carlin 's book Playing the Enemy: Nelson Mandela and the Game that Made a Nation, which in turn inspired Clint Eastwood 's 2009 Academy Award - nominated film Invictus starring Matt Damon as Pienaar and Morgan Freeman as Mandela.
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the value of pressure represented by 1 mm of hg | Millimeter of mercury - wikipedia
A millimeter of mercury is a manometric unit of pressure, formerly defined as the extra pressure generated by a column of mercury one millimetre high and now defined as precisely 7002133322387415000 ♠ 133.322 387 415 pascals. It is denoted by the symbol mmHg or mm Hg.
Although not an SI unit, the millimeter of mercury is still routinely used in medicine, meteorology, aviation, and many other scientific fields.
One millimeter of mercury is approximately 1 Torr, which is 1 / 760 of standard atmospheric pressure (7005101325000000000 ♠ 101 325 / 760 = 7002133322368421053 ♠ 133.322 368 421 053 pascals). The two units are not exactly equal; however, the relative difference (less than 0.000 015 %) is negligible for most practical uses.
Mercury manometers were the first accurate pressure gauges; they are less used today due to mercury 's toxicity, the mercury column 's sensitivity to temperature and local gravity, and the greater convenience of other instrumentation. They displayed the pressure difference between two fluids as a vertical difference between the mercury levels in two connected reservoirs.
An actual mercury column reading may be converted to more fundamental units of pressure by multiplying the difference in height between two mercury levels by the density of mercury and the local gravitational acceleration. Because the density of mercury depends on temperature and surface gravity, both of which vary with local conditions, specific standard values for these two parameters were adopted. This resulted in defining a "millimeter of mercury '' as the pressure exerted at the base of a column of mercury 1 millimeter high with a precise density of 13595.1 kg / m when the acceleration due to gravity is exactly 9.80665 m / s.
The density 13595.1 kg / m chosen for this definition is the approximate density of mercury at 0 ° C (32 ° F), and 9.80665 m / s is standard gravity. The use of an actual column of mercury to measure pressure normally requires correction for the density of mercury at the actual temperature and the sometimes marked variation of gravity with location, and may be further corrected to take account of the density of the measured air, water or other fluid.
The precision of modern transducers is often insufficient to show the difference between the torr and the millimetre of mercury. The torr is about one part in seven million or 0.000 015 % less.
In medicine, pressure is still generally measured in millimeters of mercury. These measurements are in general given relative to the current atmospheric pressure: for example, a blood pressure of 120 mmHg, when the current atmospheric pressure is 760 mmHg, means 880 mmHg relative to perfect vacuum.
Routine pressure measurements in medicine include:
In physiology manometric units are used to measure Starling forces.
≡ 10 dyn / cm
≈ 1 mmHg
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what is the meaning of the name desiree | Désirée (given name) - wikipedia
Desiree or Desirée / ˈdɛ. zi. reɪ / is a female given name. It is an anglicization of the French name Désirée meaning desired. The Puritans used the name Desire as a given name for females.
People with the given name Desiree, Desirae, or Désirée:
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what does the word evil mean in the bible | Evil - wikipedia
Evil, in a general context, is the absence or opposite of that which is described as being good. Often, evil denotes profound immorality. In certain religious contexts, evil has been described as a supernatural force. Definitions of evil vary, as does the analysis of its motives. However, elements that are commonly associated with evil involve unbalanced behavior involving anger, revenge, fear, hatred, psychological trauma, expediency, selfishness, ignorance, or neglect.
In cultures with an Abrahamic religious influence, evil is usually perceived as the dualistic antagonistic opposite of good, in which good should prevail and evil should be defeated. In cultures with Buddhist spiritual influence, both good and evil are perceived as part of an antagonistic duality that itself must be overcome through achieving Śūnyatā meaning emptiness in the sense of recognition of good and evil being two opposing principles but not a reality, emptying the duality of them, and achieving a oneness.
The philosophical question of whether morality is absolute, relative, or illusory leads to questions about the nature of evil, with views falling into one of four opposed camps: moral absolutism, amoralism, moral relativism, and moral universalism.
While the term is applied to events and conditions without agency, the forms of evil addressed in this article presume an evildoer or doers.
The modern English word evil (Old English yfel) and its cognates such as the German Übel and Dutch euvel are widely considered to come from a Proto - Germanic reconstructed form of * ubilaz, comparable to the Hittite huwapp - ultimately from the Proto - Indo - European form * wap - and suffixed zero - grade form * up - elo -. Other later Germanic forms include Middle English evel, ifel, ufel, Old Frisian evel (adjective and noun), Old Saxon ubil, Old High German ubil, and Gothic ' ubils '.
The root meaning of the word is of obscure origin though shown to be akin to modern German Das Übel (although evil is normally translated as Das Böse) with the basic idea of transgressing.
As with Buddhism, in Confucianism or Taoism there is no direct analogue to the way good and evil are opposed although reference to demonic influence is common in Chinese folk religion. Confucianism 's primary concern is with correct social relationships and the behavior appropriate to the learned or superior man. Thus evil would correspond to wrong behavior. Still less does it map into Taoism, in spite of the centrality of dualism in that system, but the opposite of the cardinal virtues of Taoism, compassion, moderation, and humility can be inferred to be the analogue of evil in it.
Benedict de Spinoza states
1. By good, I understand that which we certainly know is useful to us. 2. By evil, on the contrary I understand that which we certainly know hinders us from possessing anything that is good.
Spinoza assumes a quasi-mathematical style and states these further propositions which he purports to prove or demonstrate from the above definitions in part IV of his Ethics:
Friedrich Nietzsche, in a rejection of the Judeo - Christian morality, addresses this in two works Beyond Good and Evil and On the Genealogy of Morals where he essentially says that the natural, functional non-good has been socially transformed into the religious concept of evil by the slave mentality of the weak and oppressed masses who resent their masters (the strong).
Carl Jung, in his book Answer to Job and elsewhere, depicted evil as the dark side of God. People tend to believe evil is something external to them, because they project their shadow onto others. Jung interpreted the story of Jesus as an account of God facing his own shadow.
Even though the book may have had a sudden birth, its gestation period in Jung ' 's unconscious was long. The subject of God, and what Jung saw as the dark side of God, was a lifelong preoccupation. An emotional and theoretical struggle with the core nature of deity is evident in Jung ' 's earliest fantasies and dreams, as well as in his complex relationships with his father (a traditional minister), his mother (who had a strong spiritual - mystical dimension), and the Christian church itself. Jung ' 's account of his childhood in his quasi-autobiography, Memories, Dreams, Reflections (New York: Vintage, 1963; henceforth MDR), provides deep, personal background about his early religious roots -- and conflicts.
In 2007, Philip Zimbardo suggested that people may act in evil ways as a result of a collective identity. This hypothesis, based on his previous experience from the Stanford prison experiment, was published in the book The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil.
The Bahá'í Faith asserts that evil is non-existent and that it is a concept for lack of good, just as cold is the state of no heat, darkness is the state of no light, forgetfulness the lacking of memory, ignorance the lacking of knowledge. All of these are states of lacking and have no real existence.
Thus, evil does not exist, and is relative to man. ` Abdu'l - Bahá, son of the founder of the religion, in Some Answered Questions states:
"Nevertheless a doubt occurs to the mind -- that is, scorpions and serpents are poisonous. Are they good or evil, for they are existing beings? Yes, a scorpion is evil in relation to man; a serpent is evil in relation to man; but in relation to themselves they are not evil, for their poison is their weapon, and by their sting they defend themselves. ''
Thus, evil is more of an intellectual concept than a true reality. Since God is good, and upon creating creation he confirmed it by saying it is Good (Genesis 1: 31) evil can not have a true reality.
Evil in the religion of Ancient Egypt is known as Isfet, "disorder / violence ''. It is the opposite of Maat, "order '', and embodied by the serpent god Apep, who routinely attempts to kill the sun god Ra and is stopped by nearly every other deity. Isfet is not a primordial force, but the consequence of free will and an individual 's struggle against the non-existence embodied by Apep, as evidenced by the fact that it was born from Ra 's umbilical cord instead of being recorded in the religion 's creation myths.
The primal duality in Buddhism is between suffering and enlightenment, so the good vs. evil splitting has no direct analogue in it. One may infer however from the general teachings of the Buddha that the catalogued causes of suffering are what correspond in this belief system to ' evil.
Practically this can refer to 1) the three selfish emotions -- desire, hate and delusion; and 2) to their expression in physical and verbal actions. See ten unvirtuous actions in Buddhism. Specifically, evil means whatever harms or obstructs the causes for happiness in this life, a better rebirth, liberation from samsara, and the true and complete enlightenment of a buddha (samyaksambodhi).
"What is evil? Killing is evil, lying is evil, slandering is evil, abuse is evil, gossip is evil: envy is evil, hatred is evil, to cling to false doctrine is evil; all these things are evil. And what is the root of evil? Desire is the root of evil, illusion is the root of evil. '' Gautama Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism, 563 -- 483 BC.
In Hinduism the concept of Dharma or righteousness clearly divides the world into good and evil, and clearly explains that wars have to be waged sometimes to establish and protect Dharma, this war is called Dharmayuddha. This division of good and evil is of major importance in both the Hindu epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata. However, the main emphasis in Hinduism is on bad action, rather than bad people. The Hindu holy text, the Bhagavad Gita, speaks of the balance of good and evil. When this balance goes off, divine incarnations come to help to restore this balance.
In adherence to the core principle of spiritual evolution, the Sikh idea of evil changes depending on one 's position on the path to liberation. At the beginning stages of spiritual growth, good and evil may seem neatly separated. However, once one 's spirit evolves to the point where it sees most clearly, the idea of evil vanishes and the truth is revealed. In his writings Guru Arjan explains that, because God is the source of all things, what we believe to be evil must too come from God. And because God is ultimately a source of absolute good, nothing truly evil can originate from God.
Nevertheless, Sikhism, like many other religions, does incorporate a list of "vices '' from which suffering, corruption, and abject negativity arise. These are known as the Five Thieves, called such due to their propensity to cloud the mind and lead one astray from the prosecution of righteous action. These are:
One who gives in to the temptations of the Five Thieves is known as "Manmukh '', or someone who lives selfishly and without virtue. Inversely, the "Gurmukh, who thrive in their reverence toward divine knowledge, rise above vice via the practice of the high virtues of Sikhism. These are:
There is no concept of absolute evil in Islam, as a fundamental universal principle that is independent from and equal with good in a dualistic sense. Within Islam, it is considered essential to believe that all comes from Allah, whether it is perceived as good or bad by individuals; and things that are perceived as evil or bad are either natural events (natural disasters or illnesses) or caused by humanity 's free will. Much more the behavior of beings with free will, then they disobey Allah 's orders, harming others or putting themselves over Allah or others, is considered to be evil.
According to the Ahmadiyya understanding of Islam, evil does not have a positive existence in itself and is merely the lack of good, just as darkness is the result of lack of light.
In Judaism, evil is not real, it is per se not part of God 's creation, but comes into existence through man 's bad actions. Human beings are responsible for their choices. However Jews and non-Jews have the free will to choose good (life in olam haba) or bad (death in heaven). (Deuteronomy 28: 20) Judaism stresses obedience to God 's 613 commandments of the Written Torah (see also Tanakh) and the collective body of Jewish religious laws expounded in the Oral Torah and Shulchan Aruch (see also Mishnah and the Talmud). In Judaism, there is no prejudice in one 's becoming good or evil at time of birth, since full responsibility comes with Bar and Bat Mitzvah, when Jewish boys become 13, and girls become 12 years old.
Evil according to a Christian worldview is any action, thought or attitude that is contrary to the character or will of God. This is shown through the law given in both the Old and New Testament. There is no moral action given in the Bible that is contrary to God 's character or God 's will. Therefore, evil in a Christian world view is contrasted by and in conflict with God 's character or God 's will. This evil shows itself through deviation from the character or will of God.
Christian theology draws its concept of evil from the Old and New Testaments. The Christian Bible exercises "the dominant influence upon ideas about God and evil in the Western world. '' In the Old Testament, evil is understood to be an opposition to God as well as something unsuitable or inferior such as the leader of the fallen angels Satan In the New Testament the Greek word poneros is used to indicate unsuitability, while kakos is used to refer to opposition to God in the human realm. Officially, the Catholic Church extracts its understanding of evil from its canonical antiquity and the Dominican theologian, Thomas Aquinas, who in Summa Theologica defines evil as the absence or privation of good. French - American theologian Henri Blocher describes evil, when viewed as a theological concept, as an "unjustifiable reality. In common parlance, evil is ' something ' that occurs in experience that ought not to be. ''
In Mormonism, mortal life is viewed as a test of faith, where one 's choices are central to the Plan of Salvation. See Agency (LDS Church). Evil is that which keeps one from discovering the nature of God. It is believed that one must choose not to be evil to return to God.
Christian Science believes that evil arises from a misunderstanding of the goodness of nature, which is understood as being inherently perfect if viewed from the correct (spiritual) perspective. Misunderstanding God 's reality leads to incorrect choices, which are termed evil. This has led to the rejection of any separate power being the source of evil, or of God as being the source of evil; instead, the appearance of evil is the result of a mistaken concept of good. Christian Scientists argue that even the most evil person does not pursue evil for its own sake, but from the mistaken viewpoint that he or she will achieve some kind of good thereby.
In the originally Persian religion of Zoroastrianism, the world is a battle ground between the god Ahura Mazda (also called Ormazd) and the malignant spirit Angra Mainyu (also called Ahriman). The final resolution of the struggle between good and evil was supposed to occur on a day of Judgement, in which all beings that have lived will be led across a bridge of fire, and those who are evil will be cast down forever. In afghan belief, angels and saints are beings sent to help us achieve the path towards goodness.
A fundamental question is whether there is a universal, transcendent definition of evil, or whether evil is determined by one 's social or cultural background. C.S. Lewis, in The Abolition of Man, maintained that there are certain acts that are universally considered evil, such as rape and murder. However the numerous instances in which rape or murder is morally affected by social context call this into question. Up until the mid-19th century, the United States -- along with many other countries -- practiced forms of slavery. As is often the case, those transgressing moral boundaries stood to profit from that exercise. Arguably, slavery has always been the same and objectively evil, but men with a motivation to transgress will justify that action.
The Nazis, during World War II, considered genocide to be acceptable, as did the Hutu Interahamwe in the Rwandan genocide. One might point out, though, that the actual perpetrators of those atrocities probably avoided calling their actions genocide, since the objective meaning of any act accurately described by that word is to wrongfully kill a selected group of people, which is an action that at least their victims will understand to be evil. Universalists consider evil independent of culture, and wholly related to acts or intents. Thus, while the ideological leaders of Nazism and the Hutu Interhamwe accepted (and considered it moral) to commit genocide, the belief in genocide as fundamentally or universally evil holds that those who instigated this genocide are actually evil. Other universalists might argue that although the commission of an evil act is always evil, those who perpetrate may not be wholly evil or wholly good entities. To say that someone who has stolen a candy bar, for instance, becomes wholly evil is a rather untenable position. However, universalists might also argue that a person can choose a decidedly evil or a decidedly good life career, and genocidal dictatorship plainly falls on the side of the former.
Views on the nature of evil tend to fall into one of four opposed camps:
Plato wrote that there are relatively few ways to do good, but there are countless ways to do evil, which can therefore have a much greater impact on our lives, and the lives of other beings capable of suffering.
One school of thought that holds that no person is evil, and that only acts may be properly considered evil. Psychologist and mediator Marshall Rosenberg claims that the root of violence is the very concept of evil or badness. When we label someone as bad or evil, Rosenberg claims, it invokes the desire to punish or inflict pain. It also makes it easy for us to turn off our feelings towards the person we are harming. He cites the use of language in Nazi Germany as being a key to how the German people were able to do things to other human beings that they normally would not do. He links the concept of evil to our judicial system, which seeks to create justice via punishment -- punitive justice -- punishing acts that are seen as bad or wrong. He contrasts this approach with what he found in cultures where the idea of evil was non-existent. In such cultures when someone harms another person, they are believed to be out of harmony with themselves and their community, are seen as sick or ill and measures are taken to restore them to a sense of harmonious relations with themselves and others.
Psychologist Albert Ellis agrees, in his school of psychology called Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy, or REBT. He says the root of anger, and the desire to harm someone, is almost always related to variations of implicit or explicit philosophical beliefs about other human beings. He further claims that without holding variants of those covert or overt belief and assumptions, the tendency to resort to violence in most cases is less likely.
American psychiatrist M. Scott Peck on the other hand, describes evil as militant ignorance. The original Judeo - Christian concept of sin is as a process that leads one to miss the mark and not achieve perfection. Peck argues that while most people are conscious of this at least on some level, those that are evil actively and militantly refuse this consciousness. Peck describes evil as a malignant type of self - righteousness which results in a projection of evil onto selected specific innocent victims (often children or other people in relatively powerless positions). Peck considers those he calls evil to be attempting to escape and hide from their own conscience (through self - deception) and views this as being quite distinct from the apparent absence of conscience evident in sociopaths.
According to Peck, an evil person:
He also considers certain institutions may be evil, as his discussion of the My Lai Massacre and its attempted coverup illustrate. By this definition, acts of criminal and state terrorism would also be considered evil.
Martin Luther argued that there are cases where a little evil is a positive good. He wrote, "Seek out the society of your boon companions, drink, play, talk bawdy, and amuse yourself. One must sometimes commit a sin out of hate and contempt for the Devil, so as not to give him the chance to make one scrupulous over mere nothings... ''
According to certain schools of political philosophy, leaders should be indifferent to good or evil, taking actions based only upon practicality; this approach to politics was put forth by Niccolò Machiavelli, a 16th - century Florentine writer who advised politicians "... it is far safer to be feared than loved. ''
The international relations theories of realism and neorealism, sometimes called realpolitik advise politicians to explicitly ban absolute moral and ethical considerations from international politics, and to focus on self - interest, political survival, and power politics, which they hold to be more accurate in explaining a world they view as explicitly amoral and dangerous. Political realists usually justify their perspectives by laying claim to a higher moral duty specific to political leaders, under which the greatest evil is seen to be the failure of the state to protect itself and its citizens. Machiavelli wrote: "... there will be traits considered good that, if followed, will lead to ruin, while other traits, considered vices which if practiced achieve security and well being for the Prince. ''
Anton LaVey, founder of the Church of Satan, was a materialist and claimed that evil is actually good. He was responding to the common practice of describing sexuality or disbelief as evil, and his claim was that when the word evil is used to describe the natural pleasures and instincts of men and women, or the skepticism of an inquiring mind, the things called evil are really good.
Notes
Further reading
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why is texas call the lone star state | Texas - wikipedia
Texas (/ ˈtɛksəs /, locally / ˈtɛksɪz /; Spanish: Texas or Tejas, pronounced (ˈtexas)) is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Geographically located in the South Central region of the country, Texas shares borders with the U.S. states of Louisiana to the east, Arkansas to the northeast, Oklahoma to the north, New Mexico to the west, and the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the southwest, while the Gulf of Mexico is to the southeast.
Houston is the most populous city in Texas and the fourth largest in the U.S., while San Antonio is the second most populous in the state and seventh largest in the U.S. Dallas -- Fort Worth and Greater Houston are the fourth and fifth largest metropolitan statistical areas in the country, respectively. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U.S., and El Paso. Texas is nicknamed "The Lone Star State '' to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the state 's struggle for independence from Mexico. The "Lone Star '' can be found on the Texas state flag and on the Texan state seal. The origin of Texas 's name is from the word "Tejas, '' which means "friends '' in the Caddo language.
Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, Texas contains diverse landscapes that resemble both the U.S. Southern and Southwestern regions. Although Texas is popularly associated with the U.S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 % of Texas ' land area is desert. Most of the population centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests, and the coastline. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, and finally the desert and mountains of the Big Bend.
The term "six flags over Texas '' refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas. France held a short - lived colony. Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the union as the 28th state. The state 's annexation set off a chain of events that led to the Mexican -- American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U.S. in early 1861, and officially joined the Confederate States of America on March 2 of the same year. After the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation.
Historically four major industries shaped the Texas economy prior to World War II: cattle and bison, cotton, timber, and oil. Before and after the U.S. Civil War the cattle industry, which Texas came to dominate, was a major economic driver for the state, thus creating the traditional image of the Texas cowboy. In the later 19th century cotton and lumber grew to be major industries as the cattle industry became less lucrative. It was ultimately, though, the discovery of major petroleum deposits (Spindletop in particular) that initiated an economic boom which became the driving force behind the economy for much of the 20th century. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy and high tech industry in the mid-20th century. As of 2015, it is second on the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with 54. With a growing base of industry, the state leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace, and biomedical sciences. Texas has led the nation in state export revenue since 2002, and has the second - highest gross state product. If it were a country, Texas would be the 10th largest economy in the world.
The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning "friends '' or "allies '', was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in East Texas.
During Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas: La Provincia de Texas.
Texas is the second largest U.S. state, after Alaska, with an area of 268,820 square miles (696,200 km). Though 10 % larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile and Zambia.
Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers. The Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south. The Red River forms a natural border with Oklahoma and Arkansas to the north. The Sabine River forms a natural border with Louisiana to the east. The Texas Panhandle has an eastern border with Oklahoma at 100 ° W, a northern border with Oklahoma at 36 ° 30 ' N and a western border with New Mexico at 103 ° W. El Paso lies on the state 's western tip at 32 ° N and the Rio Grande.
With 10 climatic regions, 14 soil regions and 11 distinct ecological regions, regional classification becomes problematic with differences in soils, topography, geology, rainfall, and plant and animal communities. One classification system divides Texas, in order from southeast to west, into the following: Gulf Coastal Plains, Interior Lowlands, Great Plains, and Basin and Range Province.
The Gulf Coastal Plains region wraps around the Gulf of Mexico on the southeast section of the state. Vegetation in this region consists of thick piney woods. The Interior Lowlands region consists of gently rolling to hilly forested land and is part of a larger pine - hardwood forest.
The Great Plains region in central Texas is located in spans through the state 's panhandle and Llano Estacado to the state 's hill country near Austin. This region is dominated by prairie and steppe. "Far West Texas '' or the "Trans - Pecos '' region is the state 's Basin and Range Province. The most varied of the regions, this area includes Sand Hills, the Stockton Plateau, desert valleys, wooded mountain slopes and desert grasslands.
Texas has 3,700 named streams and 15 major rivers, with the Rio Grande as the largest. Other major rivers include the Pecos, the Brazos, Colorado, and Red River. While Texas has few natural lakes, Texans have built over 100 artificial reservoirs.
The size and unique history of Texas make its regional affiliation debatable; it can be fairly considered a Southern or a Southwestern state, or both. The vast geographic, economic, and cultural diversity within the state itself prohibits easy categorization of the whole state into a recognized region of the United States. Notable extremes range from East Texas which is often considered an extension of the Deep South, to Far West Texas which is generally acknowledged to be part of the interior Southwest.
Texas is the southernmost part of the Great Plains, which ends in the south against the folded Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico. The continental crust forms a stable Mesoproterozoic craton which changes across a broad continental margin and transitional crust into true oceanic crust of the Gulf of Mexico. The oldest rocks in Texas date from the Mesoproterozoic and are about 1,600 million years old.
These Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks underlie most of the state, and are exposed in three places: Llano uplift, Van Horn, and the Franklin Mountains, near El Paso. Sedimentary rocks overlay most of these ancient rocks. The oldest sediments were deposited on the flanks of a rifted continental margin, or passive margin that developed during Cambrian time.
This margin existed until Laurasia and Gondwana collided in the Pennsylvanian subperiod to form Pangea. This is the buried crest of the Appalachian Mountains -- Ouachita Mountains zone of Pennsylvanian continental collision. This orogenic crest is today buried beneath the Dallas -- Waco -- Austin -- San Antonio trend.
The late Paleozoic mountains collapsed as rifting in the Jurassic period began to open the Gulf of Mexico. Pangea began to break up in the Triassic, but seafloor spreading to form the Gulf of Mexico occurred only in the mid and late Jurassic. The shoreline shifted again to the eastern margin of the state and the Gulf of Mexico passive margin began to form. Today 9 to 12 miles (14 to 19 km) of sediments are buried beneath the Texas continental shelf and a large proportion of remaining US oil reserves are located here. At the start of its formation, the incipient Gulf of Mexico basin was restricted and seawater often evaporated completely to form thick evaporite deposits of Jurassic age. These salt deposits formed salt dome diapirs, and are found in East Texas along the Gulf coast.
East Texas outcrops consist of Cretaceous and Paleogene sediments which contain important deposits of Eocene lignite. The Mississippian and Pennsylvanian sediments in the north; Permian sediments in the west; and Cretaceous sediments in the east, along the Gulf coast and out on the Texas continental shelf contain oil. Oligocene volcanic rocks are found in far west Texas in the Big Bend area. A blanket of Miocene sediments known as the Ogallala formation in the western high plains region is an important aquifer. Located far from an active plate tectonic boundary, Texas has no volcanoes and few earthquakes.
A wide range of animals and insects live in Texas. It is the home to 65 species of mammals, 213 species of reptiles and amphibians, and the greatest diversity of bird life in the United States -- 590 native species in all. At least 12 species have been introduced and now reproduce freely in Texas.
Texas plays host to several species of wasps. Texas is one of the regions that has the highest abundance of Polistes exclamans. Additionally, Texas has provided an important ground for the study of Polistes annularis.
During the spring Texas wildflowers such as the state flower, the bluebonnet, line highways throughout Texas. During the Johnson Administration the first lady, Lady Bird Johnson, worked to draw attention to Texas wildflowers.
The large size of Texas and its location at the intersection of multiple climate zones gives the state highly variable weather. The Panhandle of the state has colder winters than North Texas, while the Gulf Coast has mild winters. Texas has wide variations in precipitation patterns. El Paso, on the western end of the state, averages 8.7 inches (220 mm) of annual rainfall, while parts of southeast Texas average as much as 64 inches (1,600 mm) per year. Dallas in the North Central region averages a more moderate 37 inches (940 mm) per year.
Snow falls multiple times each winter in the Panhandle and mountainous areas of West Texas, once or twice a year in North Texas, and once every few years in Central and East Texas. Snow falls south of San Antonio or on the coast in rare circumstances only. Of note is the 2004 Christmas Eve snowstorm, when 6 inches (150 mm) of snow fell as far south as Kingsville, where the average high temperature in December is 65 ° F.
Maximum temperatures in the summer months average from the 80s ° F (26 ° C) in the mountains of West Texas and on Galveston Island to around 100 ° F (38 ° C) in the Rio Grande Valley, but most areas of Texas see consistent summer high temperatures in the 90 ° F (32 ° C) range.
Night - time summer temperatures range from the upper 50s ° F (14 ° C) in the West Texas mountains to 80 ° F (27 ° C) in Galveston.
The table below consists of averages for August (generally the warmest month) and January (generally the coldest) in selected cities in various regions of the state. El Paso and Amarillo are exceptions with July and December respectively being the warmest and coldest months respectively, but with August and January only being narrowly different.
Thunderstorms strike Texas often, especially the eastern and northern portions of the state. Tornado Alley covers the northern section of Texas. The state experiences the most tornadoes in the United States, an average of 139 a year. These strike most frequently in North Texas and the Panhandle. Tornadoes in Texas generally occur in the months of April, May, and June.
Some of the most destructive hurricanes in U.S. history have impacted Texas. A hurricane in 1875 killed about 400 people in Indianola, followed by another hurricane in 1886 that destroyed the town. These events allowed Galveston to take over as the chief port city. The 1900 Galveston hurricane subsequently devastated that city, killing about 8,000 people or possibly as many as 12,000. This makes it the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history.
Other devastating Texas hurricanes include the 1915 Galveston hurricane, Hurricane Audrey in 1957 which killed over 600 people, Hurricane Carla in 1961, Hurricane Beulah in 1967, Hurricane Alicia in 1983, Hurricane Rita in 2005, Hurricane Ike in 2008, and Hurricane Harvey in 2017. Tropical storms have also caused their share of damage: Allison in 1989 and again during 2001, and Claudette in 1979 among them.
Texas emits the most greenhouse gases in the U.S. The state emits nearly 1.5 trillion pounds (680 billion kg) of carbon dioxide annually. As an independent nation, Texas would rank as the world 's seventh - largest producer of greenhouse gases. Causes of the state 's vast greenhouse gas emissions include the state 's large number of coal power plants and the state 's refining and manufacturing industries. In 2010, there were 2,553 "emission events '' which poured 44.6 million pounds of contaminants into the Texas sky.
Texas lies between two major cultural spheres of Pre-Columbian North America: the Southwestern and the Plains areas. Archaeologists have found that three major indigenous cultures lived in this territory, and reached their developmental peak before the first European contact. These were:
No culture was dominant in the present - day Texas region, and many peoples inhabited the area. Native American tribes that lived inside the boundaries of present - day Texas include the Alabama, Apache, Atakapan, Bidai, Caddo, Coahuiltecan, Comanche, Choctaw, Coushatta, Hasinai, Jumano, Karankawa, Kickapoo, Kiowa, Tonkawa, and Wichita. The name Texas derives from táyshaʔ, a word in the Caddoan language of the Hasinai, which means "friends '' or "allies ''.
Whether a Native American tribe was friendly or warlike was critical to the fates of European explorers and settlers in that land. Friendly tribes taught newcomers how to grow indigenous crops, prepare foods, and hunt wild game. Warlike tribes made life difficult and dangerous for Europeans through their attacks and resistance to the newcomers.
The first historical document related to Texas was a map of the Gulf Coast, created in 1519 by Spanish explorer Alonso Álvarez de Pineda. Nine years later, shipwrecked Spanish explorer Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and his cohort became the first Europeans in what is now Texas. Cabeza de Vaca reported that in 1528, when the Spanish landed in the area, "half the natives died from a disease of the bowels and blamed us. '' Cabeza de Vaca also made observations about the way of life of the Ignaces Natives of Texas: "They went about with a firebrand, setting fire to the plains and timber so as to drive off the mosquitos, and also to get lizards and similar things which they eat, to come out of the soil. In the same manner they kill deer, encircling them with fires, and they do it also to deprive the animals of pasture, compelling them to go for food where the Indians want. ''
Francisco Vázquez de Coronado describes his 1541 encounter with "Two kinds of people travel around these plains with the cows; one is called Querechos and the others Teyas; they are very well built, and painted, and are enemies of each other. They have no other settlement or location than comes from traveling around with the cows. They kill all of these they wish, and tan the hides, with which they clothe themselves and make their tents, and they eat the flesh, sometimes even raw, and they also even drink the blood when thirsty. The tents they make are like field tents, and they set them up over some poles they have made for this purpose, which come together and are tied at the top, and when they go from one place to another they carry them on some dogs they have, of which they have many, and they load them with the tents and poles and other things, for the country is so level, as I said, that they can make use of these, because they carry the poles dragging along on the ground. The sun is what they worship most. ''
European powers ignored the area until accidentally settling there in 1685. Miscalculations by René - Robert Cavelier de La Salle resulted in his establishing the colony of Fort Saint Louis at Matagorda Bay rather than along the Mississippi River. The colony lasted only four years before succumbing to harsh conditions and hostile natives.
In 1690 Spanish authorities, concerned that France posed competitive threat, constructed several missions in East Texas. After Native American resistance, the Spanish missionaries returned to Mexico. When France began settling Louisiana, mostly in the southern part of the state, in 1716 Spanish authorities responded by founding a new series of missions in East Texas. Two years later, they created San Antonio as the first Spanish civilian settlement in the area.
Hostile native tribes and distance from nearby Spanish colonies discouraged settlers from moving to the area. It was one of New Spain 's least populated provinces. In 1749, the Spanish peace treaty with the Lipan Apache angered many tribes, including the Comanche, Tonkawa, and Hasinai. The Comanche signed a treaty with Spain in 1785 and later helped to defeat the Lipan Apache and Karankawa tribes. With more numerous missions being established, priests led a peaceful conversion of most tribes. By the end of the 18th century only a few nomadic tribes had not converted to Christianity.
When the United States purchased Louisiana from France in 1803, American authorities insisted that the agreement also included Texas. The boundary between New Spain and the United States was finally set at the Sabine River in 1819, at what is now the border between Texas and Louisiana. Eager for new land, many United States settlers refused to recognize the agreement. Several filibusters raised armies to invade the area west of the Sabine River. In 1821, the Mexican War of Independence included the Texas territory, which became part of Mexico. Due to its low population, Mexico made the area part of the state of Coahuila y Tejas.
Hoping that more settlers would reduce the near - constant Comanche raids, Mexican Texas liberalized its immigration policies to permit immigrants from outside Mexico and Spain. Under the Mexican immigration system, large swathes of land were allotted to empresarios, who recruited settlers from the United States, Europe, and the Mexican interior. The first grant, to Moses Austin, was passed to his son Stephen F. Austin after his death.
Austin 's settlers, the Old Three Hundred, made places along the Brazos River in 1822. Twenty - three other empresarios brought settlers to the state, the majority of whom were from the United States. The population of Texas grew rapidly. In 1825, Texas had about 3,500 people, with most of Mexican descent. By 1834, the population had grown to about 37,800 people, with only 7,800 of Mexican descent. Most of these early settlers who arrived with Austin and soon after were persons less than fortunate in life, as Texas was devoid of the comforts found elsewhere in Mexico and the United States during that time period. Early Texas settler David B. Edwards described his fellow Texans as being "banished from the pleasures of life. ''
Many immigrants openly flouted Mexican law, especially the prohibition against slavery. Combined with United States ' attempts to purchase Texas, Mexican authorities decided in 1830 to prohibit continued immigration from the United States. New laws also called for the enforcement of customs duties angering both native Mexican citizens (Tejanos) and recent immigrants.
The Anahuac Disturbances in 1832 were the first open revolt against Mexican rule and they coincided with a revolt in Mexico against the nation 's president. Texians sided with the federalists against the current government and drove all Mexican soldiers out of East Texas. They took advantage of the lack of oversight to agitate for more political freedom. Texians met at the Convention of 1832 to discuss requesting independent statehood, among other issues. The following year, Texians reiterated their demands at the Convention of 1833.
Within Mexico, tensions continued between federalists and centralists. In early 1835, wary Texians formed Committees of Correspondence and Safety. The unrest erupted into armed conflict in late 1835 at the Battle of Gonzales. This launched the Texas Revolution, and over the next two months, the Texians defeated all Mexican troops in the region. Texians elected delegates to the Consultation, which created a provisional government. The provisional government soon collapsed from infighting, and Texas was without clear governance for the first two months of 1836.
During this time of political turmoil, Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna personally led an army to end the revolt. The Mexican expedition was initially successful. General José de Urrea defeated all the Texian resistance along the coast culminating in the Goliad massacre. Santa Anna 's forces, after a thirteen - day siege, overwhelmed Texian defenders at the Battle of the Alamo. News of the defeats sparked panic amongst Texas settlers.
The newly elected Texian delegates to the Convention of 1836 quickly signed a Declaration of Independence on March 2, forming the Republic of Texas. After electing interim officers, the Convention disbanded. The new government joined the other settlers in Texas in the Runaway Scrape, fleeing from the approaching Mexican army. After several weeks of retreat, the Texian Army commanded by Sam Houston attacked and defeated Santa Anna 's forces at the Battle of San Jacinto. Santa Anna was captured and forced to sign the Treaties of Velasco, ending the war.
While Texas had won its independence, political battles raged between two factions of the new Republic. The nationalist faction, led by Mirabeau B. Lamar, advocated the continued independence of Texas, the expulsion of the Native Americans, and the expansion of the Republic to the Pacific Ocean. Their opponents, led by Sam Houston, advocated the annexation of Texas to the United States and peaceful co-existence with Native Americans. The conflict between the factions was typified by an incident known as the Texas Archive War.
Mexico launched two small expeditions into Texas in 1842. The town of San Antonio was captured twice and Texans were defeated in battle in the Dawson massacre. Despite these successes, Mexico did not keep an occupying force in Texas, and the republic survived. The republic 's inability to defend itself added momentum to Texas 's eventual annexation into the United States.
As early as 1837, the Republic made several attempts to negotiate annexation with the United States. Opposition within the republic from the nationalist faction, along with strong abolitionist opposition within the United States, slowed Texas 's admission into the Union. Texas was finally annexed when the expansionist James K. Polk won the election of 1844. On December 29, 1845, Congress admitted Texas to the U.S. as a constituent state of the Union.
The population of the new state was quite small at first and there was a strong mix between the English - speaking American settlers that dominated in the eastern / northeastern portions of the state and the Spanish - speaking former Mexicans that dominated in the southern and western portions of the state. Statehood brought many new settlers. Because of the long Spanish presence in Mexico and various failed colonization efforts by the Spanish and Mexicans in northern Mexico, there were large herds of Longhorn cattle that roamed the state. Hardy by nature but also suitable for slaughtering and consumption, they represented an economic opportunity that many entrepreneurs seized upon, thus creating the cowboy culture for which Texas is famous. While in the early days of the republic cattle and bison were slaughtered for their hides, soon a beef industry was established with cattle being shipped all over the U.S. and the Caribbean (within a few decades, beef had become a staple of the American diet).
After Texas 's annexation, Mexico broke diplomatic relations with the United States. While the United States claimed that Texas 's border stretched to the Rio Grande, Mexico claimed it was the Nueces River. While the former Republic of Texas could not enforce its border claims, the United States had the military strength and the political will to do so. President Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor south to the Rio Grande on January 13, 1846. A few months later Mexican troops routed an American cavalry patrol in the disputed area in the Thornton Affair starting the Mexican -- American War. The first battles of the war were fought in Texas: the Siege of Fort Texas, Battle of Palo Alto and Battle of Resaca de la Palma. After these decisive victories, the United States invaded Mexican territory ending the fighting in Texas.
After a series of United States victories, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the two - year war. In return, for US $18,250,000, Mexico gave the U.S. undisputed control of Texas, ceded the Mexican Cession in 1848, most of which today is called the American Southwest, and Texas 's borders were established at the Rio Grande.
The Compromise of 1850 set Texas 's boundaries at their present form. U.S. Senator James Pearce of Maryland drafted the final proposal where Texas ceded its claims to land which later became half of present - day New Mexico, a third of Colorado, and small portions of Kansas, Oklahoma, and Wyoming to the federal government, in return for the assumption of $10 million of the old republic 's debt. Post-war Texas grew rapidly as migrants poured into the cotton lands of the state.
They also brought or purchased enslaved African Americans, whose numbers tripled in the state from 1850 to 1860, from 58,000 to 182,566.
Texas was at war again after the election of 1860. At this time, blacks comprised 30 percent of the state 's population, and they were overwhelmingly enslaved. When Abraham Lincoln was elected, South Carolina seceded from the Union. Five other Lower South states quickly followed. A State Convention considering secession opened in Austin on January 28, 1861. On February 1, by a vote of 166 -- 8, the Convention adopted an Ordinance of Secession from the United States. Texas voters approved this Ordinance on February 23, 1861. Texas joined the newly created Confederate States of America on March 4, 1861 ratifying the permanent C.S. Constitution on March 23.
Not all Texans favored secession initially, although many of the same would later support the Southern cause. Texas 's most notable Unionist was the state Governor, Sam Houston. Not wanting to aggravate the situation, Houston refused two offers from President Lincoln for Union troops to keep him in office. After refusing to swear an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy, Houston was deposed as governor.
While far from the major battlefields of the American Civil War, Texas contributed large numbers of men and equipment to the rest of the Confederacy. Union troops briefly occupied the state 's primary port, Galveston. Texas 's border with Mexico was known as the "backdoor of the Confederacy '' because trade occurred at the border, bypassing the Union blockade. The Confederacy repulsed all Union attempts to shut down this route, but Texas 's role as a supply state was marginalized in mid-1863 after the Union capture of the Mississippi River. The final battle of the Civil War was fought near Brownsville, Texas at Palmito Ranch with a Confederate victory.
Texas descended into anarchy for two months between the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia and the assumption of authority by Union General Gordon Granger. Violence marked the early months of Reconstruction. Juneteenth commemorates the announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation in Galveston by General Gordon Granger, almost two and a half years after the original announcement. President Johnson, in 1866, declared the civilian government restored in Texas. Despite not meeting reconstruction requirements, Congress resumed allowing elected Texas representatives into the federal government in 1870. Social volatility continued as the state struggled with agricultural depression and labor issues.
Like most of the South, the Texas economy was devastated by the War. However, since the state had not been as dependent on slaves as other parts of the South it was able to recover more quickly. The culture in Texas during the later 19th century exhibited many facets of a frontier territory. The state became notorious as a haven for people from other parts of the country who wanted to escape debt, criminal prosecution, or other problems. Indeed, "Gone to Texas '' was a common expression for those fleeing the law in other states. Nevertheless, the state also attracted many businessmen and other settlers with more legitimate interests as well.
The cattle industry continued to thrive though it gradually became less profitable. Cotton and lumber became major industries creating new economic booms in various regions of the state. Railroad networks grew rapidly as did the port at Galveston as commerce between Texas and the rest of the U.S. (and the rest of the world) expanded. As with some other states before, the lumber industry quickly decimated the forests of Texas such that by the early 20th century the major of the forest population in Texas was gone (later conservation efforts restored some of it but never to the level it once was).
In 1900, Texas suffered the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history during the Galveston hurricane. On January 10, 1901, the first major oil well in Texas, Spindletop, was found south of Beaumont. Other fields were later discovered nearby in East Texas, West Texas, and under the Gulf of Mexico. The resulting "oil boom '' transformed Texas. Oil production eventually averaged three million barrels per day at its peak in 1972.
In 1901, the Democratic - dominated state legislature passed a bill requiring payment of a poll tax for voting, which effectively disenfranchised most blacks, and many poor whites and Latinos. In addition, the legislature established white primaries, ensuring that minorities were excluded from the formal political process. The number of voters dropped dramatically, and the Democrats crushed competition from the Republican and Populist parties. The Socialist Party became the second largest party in Texas after 1912, coinciding with a large socialist upsurge in the United States during fierce battles in the labor movement and the popularity of national heroes like Eugene V. Debs. The Socialists ' popularity soon waned after their vilification by the United States government for their opposition to US involvement in World War I.
The Great Depression and the Dust Bowl dealt a double blow to the state 's economy, which had significantly improved since the Civil War. Migrants abandoned the worst hit sections of Texas during the Dust Bowl years. Especially from this period on, blacks left Texas in the Great Migration to get work in the Northern United States or California and to escape the oppression of segregation. In 1940, Texas was 74 percent Anglo, 14.4 percent black, and 11.5 percent Hispanic.
World War II had a dramatic impact on Texas, as federal money poured in to build military bases, munitions factories, POW detention camps and Army hospitals; 750,000 young men left for service; the cities exploded with new industry; the colleges took on new roles; and hundreds of thousands of poor farmers left the fields for much better paying war jobs, never to return to agriculture. Texas manufactured 3.1 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking eleventh among the 48 states.
Texas modernized and expanded its system of higher education through the 1960s. The state created a comprehensive plan for higher education, funded in large part by oil revenues, and a central state apparatus designed to manage state institutions more efficiently. These changes helped Texas universities receive federal research funds.
On November 22, 1963, President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas.
Beginning around the mid-20th century, Texas began to transform from a rural and agricultural state to one that was urban and industrialized. The state 's population grew quickly during this period, with large levels of migration from outside the state. As a part of the Sun Belt Texas experienced strong economic growth, particularly during the 1970s and early 1980s. Texas 's economy diversified, lessening its reliance on the petroleum industry. By 1990, Hispanics overtook blacks to become the largest minority group in the state.
During the late 20th century, the Republican Party replaced the Democratic Party as the dominant party in the state, as the latter became more politically liberal and as demographic changes favored the former.
The current Texas Constitution was adopted in 1876. Like many states, it explicitly provides for a separation of powers. The state 's Bill of Rights is much larger than its federal counterpart, and has provisions unique to Texas.
Texas has a plural executive branch system limiting the power of the governor, which is a weak executive compared to some other states. Except for the Secretary of State, voters elect executive officers independently; thus candidates are directly answerable to the public, not the governor. This election system has led to some executive branches split between parties and reduced the ability of the governor to carry out a program. When Republican President George W. Bush served as Texas 's governor, the state had a Democratic lieutenant governor, Bob Bullock. The executive branch positions consist of the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Comptroller of Public Accounts, Land Commissioner, Attorney General, Agriculture Commissioner, the three - member Texas Railroad Commission, the State Board of Education, and the Secretary of State.
The bicameral Texas Legislature consists of the House of Representatives, with 150 members, and a Senate, with 31 members. The Speaker of the House leads the House, and the lieutenant governor, the Senate. The Legislature meets in regular session biennially for just over 100 days, but the governor can call for special sessions as often as desired (notably, the Legislature can not call itself into session). The state 's fiscal year spans from the previous calendar year 's September 1 to the current year 's August 31. Thus, the FY 2015 dates from September 1, 2014 through August 31, 2015.
The judiciary of Texas is one of the most complex in the United States, with many layers and overlapping jurisdictions. Texas has two courts of last resort: the Texas Supreme Court, for civil cases, and the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals. Except for some municipal benches, partisan elections select judges at all levels of the judiciary; the governor fills vacancies by appointment. Texas is notable for its use of capital punishment, having led the country in executions since capital punishment was reinstated in the Gregg v. Georgia case (see Capital punishment in Texas).
The Texas Ranger Division of the Texas Department of Public Safety is a law enforcement agency with statewide jurisdiction. Over the years, the Texas Rangers have investigated crimes ranging from murder to political corruption. They have acted as riot police and as detectives, protected the Texas governor, tracked down fugitives, and functioned as a paramilitary force both for the republic and the state. The Texas Rangers were unofficially created by Stephen F. Austin in 1823 and formally constituted in 1835. The Rangers were integral to several important events of Texas history and some of the best - known criminal cases in the history of the Old West.
The Texas constitution defines the responsibilities of county governments, which serve as agents of the state. What are called commissioners court and court judges are elected to serve as the administrative arm. Most cities in the state, those over 5,000 in population, have home - rule governments. The vast majority of these have charters for council - manager forms of government, by which voters elect council members, who hire a professional city manager as operating officer.
In the 1870s, white Democrats wrested power back in the state legislature from the biracial coalition at the end of Reconstruction. In the early 20th century, the legislature passed bills to impose poll taxes, followed by white primaries; these measures effectively disfranchised most blacks, poor whites and Mexican Americans. In the 1890s, 100,000 blacks voted in the state; by 1906, only 5,000 could vote. As a result, the Democratic Party dominated Texas politics from the turn of the century, imposing racial segregation and white supremacy. It held power until after passage in the mid-1960s of national civil rights legislation enforcing constitutional rights of all citizens.
Although Texas was essentially a one - party state during this time and the Democratic primary was viewed as "the real election, '' the Democratic Party had conservative and liberal factions, which became more pronounced after the New Deal. Additionally, several factions of the party briefly split during the 1930s and 1940s.
The state 's conservative white voters began to support Republican presidential candidates by the mid-20th century. After this period, they supported Republicans for local and state offices as well, and most whites became Republican Party members. The party also attracted some minorities, but many have continued to vote for Democratic candidates. The shift to the Republican Party is much - attributed to the fact that the Democratic Party became increasingly liberal during the 20th century, and thus increasingly out - of - touch with the average Texas voter. As Texas was always a conservative state, voters switched to the GOP, which now more closely reflected their beliefs. Commentators have also attributed the shift to Republican political consultant Karl Rove, who managed numerous political campaigns in Texas in the 1980s and 1990s. Other stated reasons included court - ordered redistricting and the demographic shift in relation to the Sun Belt that favored the Republican Party and conservatism.
The 2003 Texas redistricting of Congressional districts led by Republican Tom DeLay, was called by the New York Times "an extreme case of partisan gerrymandering ''. A group of Democratic legislators, the "Texas Eleven '', fled the state in a quorum - busting effort to prevent the legislature from acting, but was unsuccessful. The state had already redistricted following the 2000 census. Despite these efforts, the legislature passed a map heavily in favor of Republicans, based on 2000 data and ignoring the estimated nearly one million new residents in the state since that date. Career attorneys and analysts at the Department of Justice objected to the plan as diluting the votes of African American and Hispanic voters, but political appointees overrode them and approved it. Legal challenges to the redistricting reached the national Supreme Court in the case League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry (2006), but the court ruled in favor of the state (and Republicans).
In the 2014 Texas elections, the Tea Party movement made large gains, with numerous Tea Party favorites being elected into office, including Dan Patrick as lieutenant governor, Ken Paxton as attorney general, in addition to numerous other candidates including conservative Republican Greg Abbott as governor.
Texas voters lean toward fiscal conservatism, while enjoying the benefits of huge federal investment in the state in military and other facilities achieved by the power of the Solid South in the 20th century. They also tend to have socially conservative values.
Since 1980, most Texas voters have supported Republican presidential candidates. In 2000 and 2004, Republican George W. Bush won Texas with 60.1 percent of the vote, partly due to his "favorite son '' status as a former governor of the state. John McCain won the state in 2008, but with a smaller margin of victory compared to Bush at 55 percent of the vote. Austin, Dallas, Houston, and San Antonio consistently lean Democratic in both local and statewide elections.
Residents of counties along the Rio Grande closer to the Mexico - United States border, where there are many Latino residents, generally vote for Democratic Party candidates, while most other rural and suburban areas of Texas have shifted to voting for Republican Party candidates.
As of the general elections of 2014, a large majority of the members of Texas 's U.S. House delegation are Republican, along with both U.S. Senators. In the 114th United States Congress, of the 36 Congressional districts in Texas, 25 are held by Republicans and 11 by Democrats. Texas 's Senators are John Cornyn and Ted Cruz. Since 1994, Texans have not elected a Democrat to a statewide office. The state 's Democratic voters are made up primarily by liberal and minority groups in Austin, San Antonio, Dallas, Houston, Beaumont, and El Paso, as well as minority voters in East Texas and South Texas.
Texas has 254 counties -- the most nationwide. Each county runs on Commissioners ' Court system consisting of four elected commissioners (one from each of four precincts in the county, roughly divided according to population) and a county judge elected at large from the entire county. County government runs similar to a "weak '' mayor - council system; the county judge has no veto authority, but votes along with the other commissioners.
Although Texas permits cities and counties to enter "interlocal agreements '' to share services, the state does not allow consolidated city - county governments, nor does it have metropolitan governments. Counties are not granted home rule status; their powers are strictly defined by state law. The state does not have townships -- areas within a county are either incorporated or unincorporated. Incorporated areas are part of a municipality. The county provides limited services to unincorporated areas and to some smaller incorporated areas. Municipalities are classified either "general law '' cities or "home rule ''. A municipality may elect home rule status once it exceeds 5,000 population with voter approval.
Texas also permits the creation of "special districts '', which provide limited services. The most common is the school district, but can also include hospital districts, community college districts, and utility districts (one utility district located near Austin was the plaintiff in a landmark Supreme Court case involving the Voting Rights Act).
Municipal, school district, and special district elections are nonpartisan, though the party affiliation of a candidate may be well - known. County and state elections are partisan.
Texas has a reputation of very harsh criminal punishment for criminal offenses. It is one of the 32 states that practice capital punishment, and since the US Supreme Court allowed capital punishment to resume in 1976, 40 % of all US executions have taken place in Texas. As of 2008, Texas had the 4th highest incarceration rate in the US. Texas also has strong self defense laws, allowing citizens to use lethal force to defend themselves, their families, or their property.
As of 2014, Texas had a gross state product (GSP) of $1.648 trillion, the second highest in the U.S. Its GSP is greater than the GDPs of Australia and South Korea, which are the world 's 12th - and 13th - largest economies, respectively. Texas ' economy is the fourth - largest of any country subdivision globally, behind England (as part of the UK), California, and Tokyo Prefecture. Its Per Capita personal income in 2009 was $36,484, ranking 29th in the nation.
Texas 's large population, abundance of natural resources, thriving cities and leading centers of higher education have contributed to a large and diverse economy. Since oil was discovered, the state 's economy has reflected the state of the petroleum industry. In recent times, urban centers of the state have increased in size, containing two - thirds of the population in 2005. The state 's economic growth has led to urban sprawl and its associated symptoms.
As of April 2013, the state 's unemployment rate is 6.4 percent.
In 2010, Site Selection Magazine ranked Texas as the most business - friendly state in the nation, in part because of the state 's three - billion - dollar Texas Enterprise Fund. Texas has the joint - highest number of Fortune 500 company headquarters in the United States, along with California.
In 2010, there were 346,000 millionaires in Texas, constituting the second - largest population of millionaires in the nation.
Texas has a "low taxes, low services '' reputation. According to the Tax Foundation, Texans ' state and local tax burdens rank among the lowest in the nation, 7th lowest nationally; state and local taxes cost $3,580 per capita, or 8.4 percent of resident incomes. Texas is one of seven states that lack a state income tax.
Instead, the state collects revenue from property taxes (though these are collected at the county, city, and school district level; Texas has a state constitutional prohibition against a state property tax) and sales taxes. The state sales tax rate is 6.25 percent, but local taxing jurisdictions (cities, counties, special purpose districts, and transit authorities) may also impose sales and use tax up to 2 percent for a total maximum combined rate of 8.25 percent.
Texas is a "tax donor state ''; in 2005, for every dollar Texans paid to the federal government in federal income taxes, the state got back about $0.94 in benefits. To attract business, Texas has incentive programs worth $19 billion per year (2012); more than any other US state.
Texas has the most farms and the highest acreage in the United States. The state is ranked # 1 for revenue generated from total livestock and livestock products. It is ranked # 2 for total agricultural revenue, behind California. At $7.4 billion or 56.7 percent of Texas ' annual agricultural cash receipts, beef cattle production represents the largest single segment of Texas agriculture. This is followed by cotton at $1.9 billion (14.6 percent), greenhouse / nursery at $1.5 billion (11.4 percent), broilers at $1.3 billion (10 percent), and dairy products at $947 million (7.3 percent).
Texas leads the nation in the production of cattle, horses, sheep, goats, wool, mohair and hay. The state also leads the nation in production of cotton which is the number one crop grown in the state in terms of value. The state grows significant amounts of cereal crops and produce. Texas has a large commercial fishing industry. With mineral resources, Texas leads in creating cement, crushed stone, lime, salt, sand and gravel.
Texas throughout the 21st century has been hammered by drought. This has cost the state billions of dollars in livestock and crops.
Ever since the discovery of oil at Spindletop, energy has been a dominant force politically and economically within the state. If Texas were its own country it would be the sixth largest oil producer in the world.
The Railroad Commission of Texas, contrary to its name, regulates the state 's oil and gas industry, gas utilities, pipeline safety, safety in the liquefied petroleum gas industry, and surface coal and uranium mining. Until the 1970s, the commission controlled the price of petroleum because of its ability to regulate Texas 's oil reserves. The founders of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) used the Texas agency as one of their models for petroleum price control.
Texas has known petroleum deposits of about 5 billion barrels (790,000,000 m), which makes up about one - fourth of the known U.S. reserves. The state 's refineries can process 4.6 million barrels (730,000 m) of oil a day. The Baytown Refinery in the Houston area is the largest refinery in America. Texas also leads in natural gas production, producing one - fourth of the nation 's supply. Several petroleum companies are based in Texas such as: Anadarko Petroleum Corporation, Conoco - Phillips, Exxon - Mobil, Halliburton, Marathon Oil, Tesoro, and Valero, Western Refining.
According to the Energy Information Administration, Texans consume, on average, the fifth most energy (of all types) in the nation per capita and as a whole, following behind Wyoming, Alaska, Louisiana, North Dakota, and Iowa.
Unlike the rest of the nation, most of Texas is on its own alternating current power grid, the Texas Interconnection. Texas has a deregulated electric service. Texas leads the nation in total net electricity production, generating 437,236 MWh in 2014, 89 % more MWh than Florida, which ranked second. As an independent nation, Texas would rank as the world 's eleventh - largest producer of electricity, after South Korea, and ahead of the United Kingdom.
The state is a leader in renewable energy commercialization; it produces the most wind power in the nation. In 2014, 10.6 % of the electricity consumed in Texas came from wind turbines. The Roscoe Wind Farm in Roscoe, Texas, is one of the world 's largest wind farms with a 781.5 megawatt (MW) capacity. The Energy Information Administration states that the state 's large agriculture and forestry industries could give Texas an enormous amount biomass for use in biofuels. The state also has the highest solar power potential for development in the nation.
With large universities systems coupled with initiatives like the Texas Enterprise Fund and the Texas Emerging Technology Fund, a wide array of different high tech industries have developed in Texas. The Austin area is nicknamed the "Silicon Hills '' and the north Dallas area the "Silicon Prairie ''. Texas has the headquarters of many high technology companies, such as Dell, Inc., Texas Instruments, Perot Systems, Rackspace and AT&T.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration 's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (NASA JSC) located in Southeast Houston, sits as the crown jewel of Texas 's aeronautics industry. Fort Worth hosts both Lockheed Martin 's Aeronautics division and Bell Helicopter Textron. Lockheed builds the F - 16 Fighting Falcon, the largest Western fighter program, and its successor, the F - 35 Lightning II in Fort Worth.
Texas 's affluence stimulates a strong commercial sector consisting of retail, wholesale, banking and insurance, and construction industries. Examples of Fortune 500 companies not based on Texas traditional industries are AT&T, Kimberly - Clark, Blockbuster, J.C. Penney, Whole Foods Market, and Tenet Healthcare. Nationally, the Dallas -- Fort Worth area, home to the second shopping mall in the United States, has the most shopping malls per capita of any American metropolitan area.
Mexico, the state 's largest trading partner, imports a third of the state 's exports because of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). NAFTA has encouraged the formation of controversial maquiladoras on the Texas / Mexico border.
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Texas was 27,469,114 on July 1, 2015, a 9.24 percent increase since the 2010 United States Census.
As of 2004, the state had 3.5 million foreign - born residents (15.6 percent of the state population), of which an estimated 1.2 million are illegal. Texas from 2000 to 2006 had the fastest growing illegal immigration rate in the nation. In 2010, illegal immigrants constituted an estimated 6.0 percent of the population. This was the fifth highest percentage of any state in the country. In 2015, the population of illegal immigrants living in Texas was around 800,000.
Texas ' Rio Grande Valley has seen significant migration from across the U.S. - Mexico border. During the 2014 crisis, many Central Americans, including unaccompanied minors traveling alone from Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador, reached the state, overwhelming Border Patrol resources for a time. Many sought asylum in the United States.
In 2009, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security estimated that 1.68 million illegal immigrants lived in Texas. While the number of illegals living in the U.S. has declined since 2009, in Texas there was no change in population between 2009 and 2014.
Texas 's population density is 90.5 people per square mile which is slightly higher than the average population density of the U.S. as a whole, at 80.6 people per square mile. In contrast, while Texas and France are similarly sized geographically, the European country has a population density of 301.8 people per square mile.
Two - thirds of all Texans live in a major metropolitan area such as Houston. The Dallas - Fort Worth Metropolitan Area is the largest in Texas. While Houston is the largest city in Texas and the fourth largest city in the United States, the Dallas - Fort Worth metropolitan area is larger than that of Houston.
As of the 2015 Texas Population Estimate Program, the population of the state was 27,469,114 non-Hispanic whites 11,505,371 (41.9 %); Black Americans 3,171,043 (11.5 %); other races 1,793,580 (6.5 %); and Hispanics and Latinos (of any race) 10,999,120 (40.0 %).
According to the 2010 United States census, the racial composition of Texas was the following:
In addition, 37.6 percent of the population are Hispanic or Latino (of any race) (31.6 percent Mexican, 0.9 percent Salvadoran, 0.5 percent Puerto Rican, 0.4 percent Honduran, 0.3 percent Guatemalan 0.3 percent Spaniard, 0.2 percent Colombian, 0.2 percent Cuban)
As of 2011, 69.8 % of the population of Texas younger than age 1 were minorities (meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white).
German, Irish, and English Americans are the three largest European ancestry groups in Texas. German Americans make up 11.3 percent of the population, and number over 2.7 million members. Irish Americans make up 8.2 percent of the population, and number over 1.9 million members. There are roughly 600,000 French Americans and 472,000 Italian Americans residing in Texas; these two ethnic groups make up 2.5 percent and 2.0 percent of the population respectively. In the 1980 United States Census the largest ancestry group reported in Texas was English with 3,083,323 Texans citing that they were of English or mostly English ancestry making them 27 percent of the state at the time. Their ancestry primarily goes back to the original thirteen colonies and thus many of them today identify as "American '' in ancestry, though they are of predominately British stock. There are nearly 200,000 Czech - Americans living in Texas, the largest number of any state.
African Americans are the largest racial minority in Texas. Their proportion of population has declined since the early 20th century, after many left the state in the Great Migration. Blacks of both Hispanic and non-Hispanic origin make up 11.5 percent of the population; blacks of non-Hispanic origin form 11.3 percent of the populace. African Americans of both Hispanic and non-Hispanic origin number at roughly 2.7 million individuals.
Native Americans are a smaller minority in the state. Native Americans make up 0.5 percent of Texas ' population, and number over 118,000 individuals. Native Americans of non-Hispanic origin make up 0.3 percent of the population, and number over 75,000 individuals. Cherokee made up 0.1 percent of the population, and numbered over 19,400 members. In contrast, only 583 identified as Chippewa.
Asian Americans are a sizable minority group in Texas. Americans of Asian descent form 3.8 percent of the population, with those of non-Hispanic descent making up 3.7 percent of the populace. They total more than 808,000 individuals. Non-Hispanic Asians number over 795,000. Just over 200,000 Indian Americans make Texas their home. Texas is also home to over 187,000 Vietnamese and 136,000 Chinese. In addition to 92,000 Filipinos and 62,000 Koreans, there are 18,000 Japanese Americans living in the state. Lastly, over 111,000 people are of other Asian ancestry groups, such as Cambodian, Thai, and Hmong. Sugar Land, a city within the Houston metropolitan area, and Plano, located within the Dallas metropolitan area, both have high concentrations of ethnic Chinese and Korean residents. The Houston and Dallas areas, and to a lesser extent, the Austin metropolitan area, all contain substantial Vietnamese communities.
Americans with origins from the Pacific are the smallest minority in Texas. According to the survey, only 18,000 Texans are Pacific Islanders; 16,400 are of non-Hispanic descent. There are roughly 5,400 Native Hawaiians, 5,300 Guamanians, and 6,400 people from other groups. Samoan Americans were scant; only 2,920 people were from this group. The city of Euless, a suburb of Fort Worth, contains a sizable population of Tongan Americans, at nearly 900 people, over one percent of the city 's population. Killeen has a sufficient population of Samoans and Guamanian, and people of Pacific Islander descent surpass one percent of the city 's population.
Multiracial individuals are also a visible minority in Texas. People identifying as multiracial form 1.9 percent of the population, and number over 448,000 people. Almost 80,000 Texans claim African and European heritage, and make up 0.3 percent of the population. People of European and Native American heritage number over 108,800 (close to the number of Native Americans), and make up 0.5 percent of the population. People of European and Asian heritage number over 57,600, and form just 0.2 percent of the population. People of African and Native American heritage were even smaller in number (15,300), and make up just 0.1 percent of the total population.
Hispanics and Latinos are the second largest group in Texas after non-Hispanic European Americans. Over 8.5 million people claim Hispanic or Latino ethnicity. This group forms over 37 percent of Texas ' population. People of Mexican descent alone number over 7.9 million, and make up 31.6 percent of the population. The vast majority of the Hispanic / Latino population in the state is of Mexican descent, the next two largest groups are Salvadorans and Puerto Ricans. There are over 222,000 Salvadorans and over 130,000 Puerto Ricans in Texas. Other groups with large numbers in Texas include Hondurans, Guatemalans, Nicaraguans and Cubans, among others. The Hispanics in Texas are more likely than in some other states (such as California) to identify as white; according to the 2010 U.S. Census, Texas is home to 6,304,207 White Hispanics and 2,594,206 Hispanics of "some other race '' (usually mestizo).
German descendants inhabit much of central and southeast - central Texas. Over one - third of Texas residents are of Hispanic origin; while many have recently arrived, some Tejanos have ancestors with multi-generational ties to 18th century Texas. In addition to the descendants of the state 's former slave population, many African American college graduates have come to the state for work recently in the New Great Migration. Recently, the Asian population in Texas has grown -- primarily in Houston and Dallas. Other communities with a significantly growing Asian American population is in Austin, Corpus Christi, and the Sharyland area next McAllen, Texas. Three federally recognized Native American tribes reside in Texas: the Alabama - Coushatta Tribe, the Kickapoo Traditional Tribe, and the Ysleta Del Sur Pueblo.
In 2010, 49 percent of all births were Hispanics; 35 percent were non-Hispanic whites; 11.5 percent were non-Hispanic blacks, and 4.3 percent were Asians / Pacific Islanders. Based on Census Bureau data released on February 2011, for the first time in recent history, Texas ' white population is below 50 percent (45 percent) and Hispanics grew to 38 percent. Between 2000 and 2010, the total population growth by 20.6 percent, but Hispanics growth by 65 percent, whereas non-Hispanic whites only grew by 4.2 percent. Texas has the fifth highest rate of teenage births in the nation and a plurality of these are to Hispanics.
The state has three cities with populations exceeding one million: Houston, San Antonio, and Dallas. These three rank among the 10 most populous cities of the United States. As of 2010, six Texas cities had populations greater than 600,000 people. Austin, Fort Worth, and El Paso are among the 20 largest U.S. cities. Texas has four metropolitan areas with populations greater than a million: Dallas -- Fort Worth -- Arlington, Houston -- Sugar Land -- Baytown, San Antonio -- New Braunfels, and Austin -- Round Rock -- San Marcos. The Dallas -- Fort Worth and Houston metropolitan areas number about 6.3 million and 5.7 million residents, respectively.
Three interstate highways -- I - 35 to the west (Dallas -- Fort Worth to San Antonio, with Austin in between), I - 45 to the east (Dallas to Houston), and I - 10 to the south (San Antonio to Houston) define the Texas Urban Triangle region. The region of 60,000 square miles (160,000 km) contains most of the state 's largest cities and metropolitan areas as well as 17 million people, nearly 75 percent of Texas 's total population. Houston and Dallas have been recognized as beta world cities. These cities are spread out amongst the state. Texas has 254 counties, which is more than any other state by 95 (Georgia).
In contrast to the cities, unincorporated rural settlements known as colonias often lack basic infrastructure and are marked by poverty. The office of the Texas Attorney General stated, in 2011, that Texas had about 2,294 colonias and estimates that about 500,000 lived in the colonias. Hidalgo County, as of 2011, has the largest number of colonias. Texas has the largest number of people of all states, living in colonias.
The most common accent and / or dialect spoken by natives throughout Texas is sometimes referred to as Texan English, which itself is a sub-variety of a broader category of American English known as Southern American English. Creole language is spoken in East Texas. In some areas of the state -- particularly in the large cities -- Western American English and General American English, have been on the increase. Chicano English -- due to a growing Hispanic population -- is widespread in South Texas, while African American Vernacular English, is especially notable in historically minority areas of urban Texas.
As of 2010, 65.8 % (14,740,304) of Texas residents age 5 and older spoke only English at home, while 29.2 % (6,543,702) spoke Spanish, 0.75 percent (168,886) Vietnamese, and Chinese (which includes Cantonese and Mandarin) was spoken by 0.56 % (122,921) of the population over the age of five.
Other languages spoken include German (including Texas German) by 0.33 % (73,137,) Tagalog with 0.29 % (73,137) speakers, and French (including Cajun French) was spoken by 0.25 % (55,773) of Texans. Reportedly, Cherokee is the most widely spoken Native American language in Texas.
In total, 34.2 % (7,660,406) of Texas 's population aged five and older spoke a language at home other than English.
The 2014 Pew Religious Landscape Survey showed the religious makeup of the state was as follows:
The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2010 were the Roman Catholic Church (4,673,500); the Southern Baptist Convention (3,721,318); the United Methodist Church with (1,035,168); and Islam (421,972).
Known as the buckle of the Bible Belt, East Texas is socially conservative. The Dallas -- Fort Worth metroplex is home to three major evangelical seminaries and a host of Bible schools. Lakewood Church in Houston, boasts the largest attendance in the nation averaging more than 43,000 weekly.
Adherents of many other religions reside predominantly in the urban centers of Texas. In 1990, the Islamic population was about 140,000 with more recent figures putting the current number of Muslims between 350,000 and 400,000. The Jewish population is around 128,000. Around 146,000 adherents of religions such as Hinduism and Sikhism live in Texas. It is the fifth - largest Muslim - populated state in the country.
Historically, Texas culture comes from a blend of Southern (Dixie), Western (frontier), and Southwestern (Mexican / Anglo fusion) influences, varying in degrees of such from one intrastate region to another. Texas is placed in the Southern United States by the United States Census Bureau. A popular food item, the breakfast burrito, draws from all three, having a soft flour tortilla wrapped around bacon and scrambled eggs or other hot, cooked fillings. Adding to Texas 's traditional culture, established in the 18th and 19th centuries, immigration has made Texas a melting pot of cultures from around the world.
Texas has made a strong mark on national and international pop culture. The state is strongly associated with the image of the cowboy shown in westerns and in country western music. The state 's numerous oil tycoons are also a popular pop culture topic as seen in the hit TV series Dallas.
The internationally known slogan "Do n't Mess with Texas '' began as an anti-littering advertisement. Since the campaign 's inception in 1986, the phrase has become "an identity statement, a declaration of Texas swagger ''.
Texas - sized is an expression that can be used in two ways: to describe something that is about the size of the U.S. state of Texas, or to describe something (usually but not always originating from Texas) that is large compared to other objects of its type. Texas was the largest U.S. state, until Alaska became a state in 1959. The phrase, "everything is bigger in Texas, '' has been in regular use since at least 1950; and was used as early as 1913.
Houston is one of only five American cities with permanent professional resident companies in all of the major performing arts disciplines: the Houston Grand Opera, the Houston Symphony Orchestra, the Houston Ballet, and The Alley Theatre. Known for the vibrancy of its visual and performing arts, the Houston Theater District -- a 17 - block area in the heart of Downtown Houston -- ranks second in the country in the number of theater seats in a concentrated downtown area, with 12,948 seats for live performances and 1,480 movie seats.
Founded in 1892, Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, also called "The Modern '', is Texas 's oldest art museum. Fort Worth also has the Kimbell Art Museum, the Amon Carter Museum, the National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame, the Will Rogers Memorial Center, and the Bass Performance Hall downtown. The Arts District of Downtown Dallas has arts venues such as the Dallas Museum of Art, the Morton H. Meyerson Symphony Center, the Margot and Bill Winspear Opera House, the Trammell & Margaret Crow Collection of Asian Art, and the Nasher Sculpture Center.
The Deep Ellum district within Dallas became popular during the 1920s and 1930s as the prime jazz and blues hotspot in the Southern United States. The name Deep Ellum comes from local people pronouncing "Deep Elm '' as "Deep Ellum ''. Artists such as Blind Lemon Jefferson, Robert Johnson, Huddie "Lead Belly '' Ledbetter, and Bessie Smith played in early Deep Ellum clubs.
Austin, The Live Music Capital of the World, boasts "more live music venues per capita than such music hotbeds as Nashville, Memphis, Los Angeles, Las Vegas or New York City. '' The city 's music revolves around the nightclubs on 6th Street; events like the film, music, and multimedia festival South by Southwest; the longest - running concert music program on American television, Austin City Limits; and the Austin City Limits Music Festival held in Zilker Park.
Since 1980, San Antonio has evolved into "The Tejano Music Capital Of The World. '' The Tejano Music Awards have provided a forum to create greater awareness and appreciation for Tejano music and culture.
The second president of the Republic of Texas, Mirabeau B. Lamar, is the Father of Texas Education. During his term, the state set aside three leagues of land in each county for equipping public schools. An additional 50 leagues of land set aside for the support of two universities would later become the basis of the state 's Permanent University Fund. Lamar 's actions set the foundation for a Texas - wide public school system.
Between 2006 and 2007, Texas spent $7,275 per pupil ranking it below the national average of $9,389. The pupil / teacher ratio was 14.9, below the national average of 15.3. Texas paid instructors $41,744, below the national average of $46,593. The Texas Education Agency (TEA) administers the state 's public school systems. Texas has over 1,000 school districts - all districts except the Stafford Municipal School District are independent from municipal government and many cross city boundaries. School districts have the power to tax their residents and to assert eminent domain over privately owned property. Due to court - mandated equitable school financing for school districts, the state has a controversial tax redistribution system called the "Robin Hood plan ''. This plan transfers property tax revenue from wealthy school districts to poor ones. The TEA has no authority over private or home school activities.
Students in Texas take the State of Texas Assessments of Academic Readiness (STAAR) in primary and secondary school. STAAR assess students ' attainment of reading, writing, mathematics, science, and social studies skills required under Texas education standards and the No Child Left Behind Act. The test replaced the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) test in the 2011 -- 2012 school year.
Although unusual in the West, school corporal punishment is not uncommon in more conservative areas of the state, with 28,569 public school students paddled at least one time, according to government data for the 2011 -- 2012 school year. The rate of school corporal punishment in Texas is surpassed only by Mississippi, Alabama, and Arkansas.
The state 's two most widely recognized flagship universities are The University of Texas at Austin and Texas A&M University, ranked as the 52nd and 69th best universities in the nation according to the 2014 edition of U.S. News & World Report 's "Best Colleges '', respectively. Some observers also include the University of Houston and Texas Tech University as tier one flagships alongside UT Austin and A&M. The Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board (THECB) ranks the state 's public universities into three distinct tiers:
Texas 's controversial alternative affirmative action plan, Texas House Bill 588, guarantees Texas students who graduated in the top 10 percent of their high school class automatic admission to state - funded universities. The bill encourages demographic diversity while avoiding problems stemming from the Hopwood v. Texas (1996) case.
Thirty - six (36) separate and distinct public universities exist in Texas, of which 32 belong to one of the six state university systems. Discovery of minerals on Permanent University Fund land, particularly oil, has helped fund the rapid growth of the state 's two largest university systems: the University of Texas System and the Texas A&M System. The four other university systems: the University of Houston System, the University of North Texas System, the Texas State System, and the Texas Tech System are not funded by the Permanent University Fund.
The Carnegie Foundation classifies three of Texas 's universities as Tier One research institutions: The University of Texas at Austin, the Texas A&M University, and the University of Houston. The University of Texas at Austin and Texas A&M University are flagship universities of the state of Texas. Both were established by the Texas Constitution and hold stakes in the Permanent University Fund. The state has been putting effort to expand the number of flagship universities by elevating some of its seven institutions designated as "emerging research universities. '' The two that are expected to emerge first are the University of Houston and Texas Tech University, likely in that order according to discussions on the House floor of the 82nd Texas Legislature.
The state is home to various private institutions of higher learning -- ranging from liberal arts colleges to a nationally recognized top - tier research university. Rice University in Houston is one of the leading teaching and research universities of the United States and is ranked the nation 's 17th - best overall university by U.S. News & World Report. Trinity University, a private, primarily undergraduate liberal arts university in San Antonio, has ranked first among universities granting primarily bachelor 's and select master 's degrees in the Western United States for 20 consecutive years by U.S. News. Private universities include Austin College, Baylor University, University of Mary Hardin -- Baylor, and Southwestern University.
Universities in Texas host three presidential libraries: George Bush Presidential Library at Texas A&M University, the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum at The University of Texas at Austin, and the George W. Bush Presidential Library at Southern Methodist University.
Notwithstanding the concentration of elite medical centers located in the state, The Commonwealth Fund ranks the Texas healthcare system the third worst in the nation. Texas ranks close to last in access to healthcare, quality of care, avoidable hospital spending, and equity among various groups. Causes of the state 's poor rankings include politics, a high poverty rate, and the highest rate of illegal immigration in the nation. In May 2006, Texas initiated the program "code red '' in response to the report that the state had 25.1 percent of the population without health insurance, the largest proportion in the nation. Texas also has controversial non-economic damages caps for medical malpractice lawsuits, set at $250,000, in an attempt to "curb rising malpractice premiums, and control escalating healthcare costs ''.
The Trust for America 's Health ranked Texas 15th highest in adult obesity, with 27.2 percent of the state 's population measured as obese. The 2008 Men 's Health obesity survey ranked four Texas cities among the top 25 fattest cities in America; Houston ranked 6th, Dallas 7th, El Paso 8th, and Arlington 14th. Texas had only one city, Austin, ranked 21st, in the top 25 among the "fittest cities '' in America. The same survey has evaluated the state 's obesity initiatives favorably with a "B + ''. The state is ranked forty - second in the percentage of residents who engage in regular exercise.
Texas has the highest maternal mortality rate in the developed world, and the rate by which Texas women died from pregnancy related complications doubled from 2010 to 2014, to 23.8 per 100,000. A rate unmatched in any other U.S. state or economically developed country.
Many elite research medical centers are located in Texas. The state has nine medical schools, three dental schools, and two optometry schools. Texas has two Biosafety Level 4 (BSL - 4) laboratories: one at The University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB) in Galveston, and the other at the Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research in San Antonio -- the first privately owned BSL - 4 lab in the United States.
The Texas Medical Center in Houston, holds the world 's largest concentration of research and healthcare institutions, with 47 member institutions. Texas Medical Center performs the most heart transplants in the world. The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center in Houston is a highly regarded academic institution that centers around cancer patient care, research, education and prevention.
San Antonio 's South Texas Medical Center facilities rank sixth in clinical medicine research impact in the United States. The University of Texas Health Science Center is another highly ranked research and educational institution in San Antonio.
Both the American Heart Association and the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center call Dallas home. The Southwestern Medical Center ranks "among the top academic medical centers in the world ''. The institution 's medical school employs the most medical school Nobel laureates in the world.
Texans have historically had difficulties traversing Texas due to the state 's large size and rough terrain. Texas has compensated by building both America 's largest highway and railway systems in length. The regulatory authority, the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) maintains the state 's immense highway system, regulates aviation, and public transportation systems.
Located centrally in North America, the state is an important transportation hub. From the Dallas / Fort Worth area, trucks can reach 93 percent of the nation 's population within 48 hours, and 37 percent within 24 hours. Texas has 33 foreign trade zones (FTZ), the most in the nation. In 2004, a combined total of $298 billion of goods passed though Texas FTZs.
The first Texas freeway was the Gulf Freeway opened in 1948 in Houston. As of 2005, 79,535 miles (127,999 km) of public highway crisscrossed Texas (up from 71,000 miles (114,263 km) in 1984). To fund recent growth in the state highways, Texas has 17 toll roads (see list) with several additional tollways proposed. In central Texas, the southern section of the State Highway 130 toll road has a speed limit of 85 miles per hour (137 km / h), the highest in the nation. All federal and state highways in Texas are paved.
Texas has 730 airports, second most of any state in the nation. Largest in Texas by size and passengers served, Dallas / Fort Worth International Airport (DFW) is the second largest by area in the United States, and fourth in the world with 18,076 acres (73.15 km). In traffic, DFW is the busiest in the state, the fourth busiest in the United States, and sixth worldwide. American Airlines Group 's American / American Eagle, the world 's largest airline in total passengers - miles transported and passenger fleet size, uses DFW as its largest and main hub. Southwest Airlines, headquartered in Dallas, has its operations at Dallas Love Field. It ranks as the largest airline in the United States by number of passengers carried domestically per year and the largest airline in the world by number of passengers carried.
Texas 's second - largest air facility is Houston 's George Bush Intercontinental Airport (IAH). It served as the largest hub for the former Continental Airlines, which was based in Houston; it serves as the largest hub for United Airlines, the world 's third - largest airline, by passenger - miles flown. IAH offers service to the most Mexican destinations of any U.S. airport. The next five largest airports in the state all serve over 3 million passengers annually; they include Austin - Bergstrom International Airport, William P. Hobby Airport, San Antonio International Airport, Dallas Love Field and El Paso International Airport. The smallest airport in the state to be designated an international airport is Del Rio International Airport.
Around 1,150 seaports dot Texas 's coast with over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) of channels. Ports employ nearly one - million people and handle an average of 317 million metric tons. Texas ports connect with the rest of the U.S. Atlantic seaboard with the Gulf section of the Intracoastal Waterway. The Port of Houston today is the busiest port in the United States in foreign tonnage, second in overall tonnage, and tenth worldwide in tonnage. The Houston Ship Channel spans 530 feet (160 m) wide by 45 feet (14 m) deep by 50 miles (80 km) long.
Part of the state 's tradition of cowboys is derived from the massive cattle drives which its ranchers organized in the nineteenth century to drive livestock to railroads and markets in Kansas, for shipment to the East. Towns along the way, such as Baxter Springs, the first cow town in Kansas, developed to handle the seasonal workers and tens of thousands of head of cattle being driven.
The first railroad to operate in Texas was the Buffalo Bayou, Brazos and Colorado Railway, opening in August 1853. The first railroad to enter Texas from the north, completed in 1872, was the Missouri -- Kansas -- Texas Railroad. With increasing railroad access, the ranchers did not have to take their livestock up to the Midwest, and shipped beef out from Texas. This caused a decline in the economies of the cow towns.
Since 1911, Texas has led the nation in length of railroad miles within the state. Texas railway length peaked in 1932 at 17,078 miles (27,484 km), but declined to 14,006 miles (22,540 km) by 2000. While the Railroad Commission of Texas originally regulated state railroads, in 2005 the state reassigned these duties to TxDOT.
Both Dallas and Houston feature light rail systems. Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) built the first light rail system in the Southwest United States, completed in 1996. The Trinity Railway Express (TRE) commuter rail service, which connects Fort Worth and Dallas, is provided by the Fort Worth Transportation Authority (the T) and DART. In the Austin area, Capital Metropolitan Transportation Authority operates a commuter rail service known as Capital MetroRail to the northwestern suburbs. The Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County, Texas (METRO) operates light rail lines in the Houston area.
Amtrak provides Texas with limited intercity passenger rail service. Three scheduled routes serve the state: the daily Texas Eagle (Chicago -- San Antonio); the tri-weekly Sunset Limited (New Orleans -- Los Angeles), with stops in Texas; and the daily Heartland Flyer (Fort Worth -- Oklahoma City).
Terminal D at DFW Airport in Dallas.
Terminal E at George Bush Intercontinental Airport in Houston.
Port of Houston along the Houston Ship Channel
METRORail in Houston
DART Rail in Dallas
Capital MetroRail in Austin
While American football has long been considered "king '' in the state, Texans today enjoy a wide variety of sports.
Texans can cheer for a plethora of professional sports teams. Within the "Big Four '' professional leagues, Texas has two NFL teams (the Dallas Cowboys and the Houston Texans), two Major League Baseball teams (the Texas Rangers and the Houston Astros), three NBA teams (the Houston Rockets, the San Antonio Spurs, and the Dallas Mavericks), and one National Hockey League team (the Dallas Stars). The Dallas -- Fort Worth Metroplex is one of only twelve American metropolitan areas that hosts sports teams from all the "Big Four '' professional leagues. Outside of the "Big Four '' leagues, Texas also has one WNBA team (the San Antonio Stars) and two Major League Soccer teams (the Houston Dynamo and FC Dallas).
Collegiate athletics have deep significance in Texas culture, especially football. The state has ten Division I - FBS schools, the most in the nation. Four of the state 's universities, the Baylor Bears, Texas Longhorns, TCU Horned Frogs, and Texas Tech Red Raiders, compete in the Big 12 Conference. The Texas A&M Aggies left the Big 12 and joined the Southeastern Conference in 2012, which led the Big 12 to invite TCU to join; TCU was previously in the Mountain West Conference. The Houston Cougars and the SMU Mustangs compete in the American Athletic Conference. The Texas State Bobcats and the UT Arlington Mavericks compete in the Sun Belt Conference. Four of the state 's schools claim at least one national championship in football: the Texas Longhorns, the Texas A&M Aggies, the TCU Horned Frogs, and the SMU Mustangs.
According to a survey of Division I-A coaches the rivalry between the University of Oklahoma and the University of Texas at Austin, the Red River Shootout, ranks the third best in the nation. The TCU Horned Frogs and SMU Mustangs also share a rivalry and compete annually in the Battle for the Iron Skillet. A fierce rivalry, the Lone Star Showdown, also exists between the state 's two largest universities, Texas A&M University and the University of Texas at Austin. The athletics portion of the Lone Star Showdown rivalry has been put on hold after the Texas A&M Aggies joined the Southeastern Conference.
The University Interscholastic League (UIL) organizes most primary and secondary school competitions. Events organized by UIL include contests in athletics (the most popular being high school football) as well as artistic and academic subjects.
Texans also enjoy the rodeo. The world 's first rodeo was hosted in Pecos, Texas. The annual Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo is the largest rodeo in the world. It begins with trail rides that originate from several points throughout the state that convene at Reliant Park. The Southwestern Exposition and Livestock Show in Fort Worth is the oldest continuously running rodeo incorporating many of the state 's most historic traditions into its annual events. Dallas hosts the State Fair of Texas each year at Fair Park.
Texas Motor Speedway hosts annual NASCAR Cup Series and IndyCar Series auto races since 1997. Since 2012, Austin 's Circuit of the Americas plays host to a round of the Formula 1 World Championship -- the first at a permanent road circuit in the United States since the 1980 Grand Prix at Watkins Glen International --, as well as Grand Prix motorcycle racing, FIA World Endurance Championship and United SportsCar Championship races.
AT&T Stadium, home of the Dallas Cowboys
Playoff game between the San Antonio Spurs and the Los Angeles Lakers in 2007
The Ballpark in Arlington, home of the Texas Rangers
BBVA Compass Stadium, home of the Houston Dynamo
State government
U.S. Government
Coordinates: 31 ° N 100 ° W / 31 ° N 100 ° W / 31; - 100
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what's the minimum wage in dominican republic | List of minimum wages by country - wikipedia
This is a list of official minimum wage rates of the 193 United Nations member states, the Chinese special administrative region Hong Kong and the following states with limited recognition: Taiwan (Republic of China), Northern Cyprus, Kosovo, and Palestine.
Some countries may have a very complicated minimum wage system; for example, India has more than 1202 minimum wage rates.
The minimum wages given refer to a gross amount, that is before deduction of taxes and social security contributions, which vary from one country to another. Also excluded from calculations are regulated paid days off, including public holidays, sick pay, annual leave and social insurance contributions paid by the employer.
For the sake of comparison, an annual wage column is provided in international dollars, a hypothetical unit of currency calculated based on the purchasing power parity of household final consumption expenditure. For calculating the annual wage, the lowest general minimum wage was used.
7003300100000000000 ♠ 3,001
7000144000000000000 ♠ 1.44
7003479000000000000 ♠ 4,790
7000230000000099999 ♠ 2.3
7003590800000000000 ♠ 5,908
7000284000000000000 ♠ 2.84
7003196100000000000 ♠ 1,961
6999940000000000000 ♠ 0.94
7003766100000000000 ♠ 7,661
7000368000000000000 ♠ 3.68
7004206270000000000 ♠ 20,627
7000826000000000000 ♠ 8.26
7003326500000000000 ♠ 3,265
7000157000000000000 ♠ 1.57
7004229240000000000 ♠ 22,924
7001116000000000000 ♠ 11.6
7003433600000000000 ♠ 4,336
7000208000000000000 ♠ 2.08
7003944800000000000 ♠ 9,448
7000454000000000000 ♠ 4.54
7003323500000000000 ♠ 3,235
7000130000000000000 ♠ 1.3
7003529200000000000 ♠ 5,292
7000254000000000000 ♠ 2.54
7000100000000000000 ♠ 1
5000000000000000000 ♠ 0
7004200560000000000 ♠ 20,056
7001101500000000000 ♠ 10.15
7003673700000000000 ♠ 6,737
7000288000000000000 ♠ 2.88
7003210200000000000 ♠ 2,102
7000101000000000000 ♠ 1.01
7003208200000000000 ♠ 2,082
7000100000000000000 ♠ 1
7003699000000000000 ♠ 6,990
7000280000000099999 ♠ 2.8
7003457500000000000 ♠ 4,575
7000220000000000000 ♠ 2.2
7003127900000000000 ♠ 1,279
6999510000000000000 ♠ 0.51
7003596200000000000 ♠ 5,962
7000261000000000000 ♠ 2.61
7003786700000000000 ♠ 7,867
7000378000000000000 ♠ 3.78
7003187700000000000 ♠ 1,877
6999900000000000000 ♠ 0.9
7003181200000000000 ♠ 1,812
6999870000000000000 ♠ 0.87
7004170220000000000 ♠ 17,022
7000818000000000000 ♠ 8.18
7003281200000000000 ♠ 2,812
7000123000000000000 ♠ 1.23
7003145500000000000 ♠ 1,455
6999700000000000000 ♠ 0.7
7003340600000000000 ♠ 3,406
7000168000000000000 ♠ 1.68
7003725300000000000 ♠ 7,253
7000310000000000000 ♠ 3.1
7003313900000000000 ♠ 3,139
7000151000000000000 ♠ 1.51
7003685300000000000 ♠ 6,853
7000275000000000000 ♠ 2.75
7003307000000000000 ♠ 3,070
7000148000000000000 ♠ 1.48
7002762000000000000 ♠ 762
6999330000000000000 ♠ 0.33
7003604300000000000 ♠ 6,043
7000291000000000000 ♠ 2.91
7003660300000000000 ♠ 6,603
7000265000000000000 ♠ 2.65
7003185800000000000 ♠ 1,858
6999890000000000000 ♠ 0.89
7003895500000000000 ♠ 8,955
7000430990000099999 ♠ 4.31
7003947600000000000 ♠ 9,476
7000455990000099999 ♠ 4.56
7003418000000000000 ♠ 4,180
7000200999999999999 ♠ 2.01
7003187900000000000 ♠ 1,879
6999820009999900000 ♠ 0.82
7003848500000000000 ♠ 8,485
7000408000000000000 ♠ 4.08
7003219400000000000 ♠ 2,194
6999960000000000000 ♠ 0.96
7003424400000000000 ♠ 4,244
7000170000000000000 ♠ 1.7
7003917000000000000 ♠ 9,170
7000441000000000000 ♠ 4.41
7003462400000000000 ♠ 4,624
7000185000000000000 ♠ 1.85
7004200810000000000 ♠ 20,081
7001110300000000000 ♠ 11.03
7003733600000000000 ♠ 7,336
7000353000000000000 ♠ 3.53
7003110900000000000 ♠ 1,109
6999440000000000000 ♠ 0.44
7002284000000000000 ♠ 284
6999140000000000000 ♠ 0.14
7004222360000000000 ♠ 22,236
7001105600000000000 ♠ 10.56
7003168700000000000 ♠ 1,687
6999810000000000000 ♠ 0.81
7004117250000000000 ♠ 11,725
7000564000000000000 ♠ 5.64
7003719700000000000 ♠ 7,197
7000288000000000000 ♠ 2.88
7002939000000000000 ♠ 939
6999400000000000000 ♠ 0.4
7003356000000000000 ♠ 3,560
7000171000000000000 ♠ 1.71
7003154800000000000 ♠ 1,548
6999620000000000000 ♠ 0.62
7003443100000000000 ♠ 4,431
7000194000000000000 ♠ 1.94
7004112480000000000 ♠ 11,248
7000541000000000000 ♠ 5.41
7004102880000000000 ♠ 10,288
7000495000000000000 ♠ 4.95
7003259000000000000 ♠ 2,590
7000104000000000000 ♠ 1.04
7003270700000000000 ♠ 2,707
7000130000000000000 ♠ 1.3
7002994000000000000 ♠ 994
6999430000000000000 ♠ 0.43
7003504900000000000 ♠ 5,049
7000243000000000000 ♠ 2.43
7004182470000000000 ♠ 18,247
7000900000000000000 ♠ 9
7004136080000000000 ♠ 13,608
7000609000000000000 ♠ 6.09
7003408600000000000 ♠ 4,086
7000196000000000000 ♠ 1.96
7004135100000000000 ♠ 13,510
7000650000000000000 ♠ 6.5
7003779500000000000 ♠ 7,795
7000312000000000000 ♠ 3.12
7003273000000000000 ♠ 2,730
7000131000000000000 ♠ 1.31
7003147300000000000 ♠ 1,473
6999540000000000000 ♠ 0.54
7004131400000000000 ♠ 13,140
7000632000000000000 ♠ 6.32
7003592800000000000 ♠ 5,928
7000285000000000000 ♠ 2.85
7003373300000000000 ♠ 3,733
7000150000000000000 ♠ 1.5
7002558000000000000 ♠ 558
6999270000000000000 ♠ 0.27
7003519300000000000 ♠ 5,193
7000208000000000000 ♠ 2.08
7003764700000000000 ♠ 7,647
7000368000000000000 ♠ 3.68
7003872200000000000 ♠ 8,722
7000349000000000000 ♠ 3.49
7003318500000000000 ♠ 3,185
7000136000000000000 ♠ 1.36
7002823000000000000 ♠ 823
6999330000000000000 ♠ 0.33
7003945700000000000 ♠ 9,457
7000455000000000000 ♠ 4.55
7003842100000000000 ♠ 8,421
7000405000000000000 ♠ 4.05
7004240240000000000 ♠ 24,024
7001115500000000000 ♠ 11.55
7003534700000000000 ♠ 5,347
7000257000000099999 ♠ 2.57
7003167600000000000 ♠ 1,676
6999790000000000000 ♠ 0.79
7003124400000000000 ♠ 1,244
6999500000000000000 ♠ 0.5
7003584000000000000 ♠ 5,840
7000234000000000000 ♠ 2.34
7003151300000000000 ♠ 1,513
6999610000000000000 ♠ 0.61
7004137010000000000 ♠ 13,701
7000659000000000000 ♠ 6.59
7003398100000000000 ♠ 3,981
7000191000000000000 ♠ 1.91
7003381000000000000 ♠ 3,810
7000183000000000000 ♠ 1.83
7003161800000000000 ♠ 1,618
6999690009999900000 ♠ 0.69
7003240100000000000 ♠ 2,401
6999960000000000000 ♠ 0.96
7003183800000000000 ♠ 1,838
6999880000000000000 ♠ 0.88
7003275500000000000 ♠ 2,755
7000132000000000000 ♠ 1.32
7003498000000000000 ♠ 4,980
7000239000000000000 ♠ 2.39
7003858000000000000 ♠ 8,580
7000375000000000000 ♠ 3.75
7003215000000000000 ♠ 2,150
7000103000000000000 ♠ 1.03
7003314300000000000 ♠ 3,143
7000137000000000000 ♠ 1.37
7003281500000000000 ♠ 2,815
7000112990000099999 ♠ 1.13
7004203400000000000 ♠ 20,340
7000978000000099999 ♠ 9.78
7004203060000000000 ♠ 20,306
7000976000000000000 ♠ 9.76
7003347400000000000 ♠ 3,474
7000138990000099999 ♠ 1.39
7003161500000000000 ♠ 1,615
6999780000000000000 ♠ 0.78
7003199600000000000 ♠ 1,996
6999960000000000000 ♠ 0.96
7004195060000000000 ♠ 19,506
7000834000000000000 ♠ 8.34
7003574800000000000 ♠ 5,748
7000230000000099999 ♠ 2.3
7003589800000000000 ♠ 5,898
7000284000000000000 ♠ 2.84
7003513100000000000 ♠ 5,131
7000206000000000000 ♠ 2.06
7003334300000000000 ♠ 3,343
7000146000000000000 ♠ 1.46
7003866100000000000 ♠ 8,661
7000347000000000000 ♠ 3.47
7003601400000000000 ♠ 6,014
7000241000000000000 ♠ 2.41
7003662300000000000 ♠ 6,623
7000265000000000000 ♠ 2.65
7004124660000000000 ♠ 12,466
7000599000000000000 ♠ 5.99
7003984400000000000 ♠ 9,844
7000473000000000000 ♠ 4.73
7003899400000000000 ♠ 8,994
7000432000000000000 ♠ 4.32
7003310600000000000 ♠ 3,106
7000149000000000000 ♠ 1.49
7003889800000000000 ♠ 8,898
7000428000000000000 ♠ 4.28
7003329800000000000 ♠ 3,298
7000159000000000000 ♠ 1.59
7003224000000000000 ♠ 2,240
7000108000000000000 ♠ 1.08
7004266730000000000 ♠ 26,673
7001136800000000000 ♠ 13.68
((List of minimum wages by country / Row Saudi Arabia 3000 monthly 48 2 February 2013 comment = 3,000 Saudi riyals ($720) per month for public sector; does not apply to foreign workers. There are no minimum wage in private sector.
7003161000000000000 ♠ 1,610
6999770000000000000 ♠ 0.77
7003733800000000000 ♠ 7,338
7000353000000000000 ♠ 3.53
7003628700000000000 ♠ 6,287
7000302000000000000 ♠ 3.02
7003248000000000000 ♠ 2,480
7000119000000000000 ♠ 1.19
7003867700000000000 ♠ 8,677
7000417000000000000 ♠ 4.17
7004144010000000000 ♠ 14,401
7000692000000000000 ♠ 6.92
7002948000000000000 ♠ 948
6999410009999900000 ♠ 0.41
7004130970000000000 ♠ 13,097
7000630000000000000 ♠ 6.3
7003249900000000000 ♠ 2,499
7000107000000000000 ♠ 1.07
7003126600000000000 ♠ 1,266
6999610000000000000 ♠ 0.61
7004181990000000000 ♠ 18,199
7000875000000000000 ♠ 8.75
7003144400000000000 ♠ 1,444
6999690009999900000 ♠ 0.69
7002616000000000000 ♠ 616
6999260000000000000 ♠ 0.26
7003722300000000000 ♠ 7,223
7000289000000000000 ♠ 2.89
7003206200000000000 ♠ 2,062
6999900000000000000 ♠ 0.9
7003178900000000000 ♠ 1,789
6999860000000000000 ♠ 0.86
7003559800000000000 ♠ 5,598
7000269000000000000 ♠ 2.69
7003308500000000000 ♠ 3,085
7000124000000000000 ♠ 1.24
7004127790000000000 ♠ 12,779
7000546000000000000 ♠ 5.46
7003455600000000000 ♠ 4,556
7000219000000000000 ♠ 2.19
7001610000000000000 ♠ 61
6998300000000000000 ♠ 0.03
7003730300000000000 ♠ 7,303
7000351000000000000 ♠ 3.51
7004185770000000000 ♠ 18,577
7000938000000000000 ♠ 9.38
7004150800000000000 ♠ 15,080
7000725000000000000 ♠ 7.25
7003576600000000000 ♠ 5,766
7000231000000000000 ♠ 2.31
7003141700000000000 ♠ 1,417
6999680000000000000 ♠ 0.68
7003302900000000000 ♠ 3,029
7000146000000000000 ♠ 1.46
7002134000000000000 ♠ 134
6998600000000000000 ♠ 0.06
7003325900000000000 ♠ 3,259
7000157000000000000 ♠ 1.57
7003194800000000000 ♠ 1,948
6999780000000000000 ♠ 0.78
|
who wrote the book how stella got her groove back | Terry McMillan - wikipedia
Terry McMillan (born October 18, 1951) is an American author. Her work is characterized by relatable female protagonists.
McMillan was born in Port Huron, Michigan. She received a B.A. in journalism in 1977 from the University of California, Berkeley. She also attended the Master of Fine Arts program in film at Columbia University.
McMillan 's first book, Mama, was published in 1987. Unsatisfied with her publisher 's limited promotion of Mama, McMillian promoted her own debut novel by writing thousands of booksellers, particularly African - American bookstores, and the book soon sold out of its initial first hardcover printing of 5,000 copies. She achieved national attention in 1992 with her third novel, Waiting to Exhale. The book remained on The New York Times bestseller list for many months and by 1995 it had sold over three million copies. The novel contributed to a shift in Black popular cultural consciousness and the visibility of a female Black middle - class identity in popular culture. McMillan was credited with having introduced the interior world of Black women professionals in their thirties who are successful, alone, available, and unhappy. In 1995, the novel was adapted into a film directed by Forest Whitaker and starring Whitney Houston, Angela Bassett, Loretta Devine, and Lela Rochon.
In 1998, another of McMillan 's novels, How Stella Got Her Groove Back, was adapted into a film starring Angela Bassett and Taye Diggs. McMillan 's novel Disappearing Acts was subsequently produced as a direct - to - cable feature, starring Wesley Snipes and Sanaa Lathan and directed by Gina Prince - Bythewood. In 2014, Lifetime brought McMillan 's A Day Late and a Dollar Short to television audiences, starring Whoopi Goldberg and an ensemble cast featuring Ving Rhames, Tichina Arnold, Mekhi Phifer, Anika Noni Rose, and Kimberly Elise. McMillan also wrote The Interruption of Everything and Getting to Happy, the sequel to Waiting to Exhale.
McMillan married Jonathan Plummer in 1998, the inspiration for her novel How Stella Got Her Groove Back. In March 2005, she filed for divorce.
On July 13, 2012, she sold her 7,000 - square home in Danville, California, before moving to Los, Angeles, California.
McMillan has one child, a son, Solomon.
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who was the fifth prime minister of canada | List of Prime Ministers of Canada - Wikipedia
The Prime Minister of Canada is an official who serves as the primary minister of the Crown, chair of the Cabinet, and thus head of government of Canada. Officially, the prime minister is appointed by the Governor General of Canada, but by constitutional convention, the prime minister must have the confidence of the elected House of Commons. Normally, this is the leader of the party caucus with the greatest number of seats in the house. But, if that leader lacks support of the majority, the governor general can appoint another leader who has that support or may dissolve parliament and call a new election. By constitutional convention, a prime minister holds a seat in parliament and, since the early 20th century, this has more specifically meant the House of Commons.
The office is not outlined in any of the documents that constitute the written portion of the Constitution of Canada; executive authority is formally vested in the sovereign and exercised on his or her behalf by the governor general. The prime ministership is part of Canada 's constitutional convention tradition. The office was modelled after that which existed in Britain at the time. Sir John A. Macdonald was commissioned by the Viscount Monck on May 24, 1867 to form the first government of the Canadian Confederation. On July 1, 1867, the first ministry assumed office.
The date for which a prime minister begins his or her term has been determined by the date that he or she is sworn into his or her portfolio, as an oath of office as prime minister is not required. However, since 1957, the incoming prime minister has sworn an oath as prime minister. Before 1920, prime ministers ' resignations were accepted immediately by the governor general and the last day of the ministries were the date he died or the date of resignation. Since 1920, the outgoing prime minister has only formally resigned when the new government is ready to be formed. The Interpretation Act of 1967 states that "where an appointment is made effective or terminates on a specified day, that appointment is considered to be effective or to terminate after the end of the previous day. '' Thus, although the outgoing prime minister formally resigns only hours before the incoming ministry swears their oaths, both during the day, the ministries are effectively changed at midnight the night before. Some sources, including the Parliament of Canada, apply this convention as far back as 1917.
As of October 2017, there are seven living former Prime Ministers of Canada, the oldest being John Turner (born 1929). The most recent former Prime Minister to die was Pierre Trudeau (1968 -- 1979, 1980 -- 1984), on 28 September 2000. John A. Macdonald (1867 -- 1873, 1878 -- 1891) and John Thompson (1892 -- 1894) are the only serving Prime Ministers to have died in office.
Joe Clark Served: 1979 -- 1980 Age: 78
John Turner Served: 1984 Age: 88
Brian Mulroney Served: 1984 -- 1993 Age: 78
Kim Campbell Served: 1993 Age: 70
Jean Chrétien Served: 1993 -- 2003 Age: 83
Paul Martin Served: 2003 -- 2006 Age: 79
Stephen Harper Served: 2006 -- 2015 Age: 58
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when did australia go off the gold standard | Gold standard - Wikipedia
A gold standard is a monetary system in which the standard economic unit of account is based on a fixed quantity of gold. Three types can be distinguished: specie, bullion, and exchange.
Most nations abandoned the gold standard as the basis of their monetary systems at some point in the 20th century, although many hold substantial gold reserves. A survey of leading American economists showed that they unanimously reject that a return to the gold standard would benefit the average American.
The gold specie standard arose from the widespread acceptance of gold as currency. Various commodities have been used as money; typically, the one that loses the least value over time becomes the accepted form. Chemically, gold is of all major metals the one most resistant to corrosion.
The use of gold as money began thousands of years ago in Asia Minor.
During the early and high Middle Ages, the Byzantine gold solidus, commonly known as the bezant, was used widely throughout Europe and the Mediterranean. However, as the Byzantine Empire 's economic influence declined, so too did the use of the bezant. In its place, European territories chose silver as their currency over gold, leading to the development of silver standards.
Silver pennies based on the Roman denarius became the staple coin of Mercia in Great Britain around the time of King Offa, circa CE 757 -- 796. Similar coins, including Italian denari, French deniers, and Spanish dineros circulated in Europe. Spanish explorers discovered silver deposits in Mexico in 1522 and at Potosí in Bolivia in 1545. International trade came to depend on coins such as the Spanish dollar, the Maria Theresa thaler, and later, the United States trade dollar.
In modern times, the British West Indies was one of the first regions to adopt a gold specie standard. Following Queen Anne 's proclamation of 1704, the British West Indies gold standard was a de facto gold standard based on the Spanish gold doubloon. In 1717, Sir Isaac Newton, the master of the Royal Mint, established a new mint ratio between silver and gold that had the effect of driving silver out of circulation and putting Britain on a gold standard.
A formal gold specie standard was first established in 1821, when Britain adopted it following the introduction of the gold sovereign by the new Royal Mint at Tower Hill in 1816. The United Province of Canada in 1853, Newfoundland in 1865, and the United States and Germany (de jure) in 1873 adopted gold. The United States used the eagle as its unit, Germany introduced the new gold mark, while Canada adopted a dual system based on both the American gold eagle and the British gold sovereign.
Australia and New Zealand adopted the British gold standard, as did the British West Indies, while Newfoundland was the only British Empire territory to introduce its own gold coin. Royal Mint branches were established in Sydney, Melbourne and Perth for the purpose of minting gold sovereigns from Australia 's rich gold deposits.
The gold specie standard came to an end in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire with the outbreak of World War I.
From 1750 to 1870, wars within Europe as well as an ongoing trade deficit with China (which sold to Europe but had little use for European goods) drained silver from the economies of Western Europe and the United States. Coins were struck in smaller and smaller numbers, and there was a proliferation of bank and stock notes used as money.
In the 1790s, the United Kingdom suffered a silver shortage. It ceased to mint larger silver coins and instead issued "token '' silver coins and overstruck foreign coins. With the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Bank of England began the massive recoinage programme that created standard gold sovereigns, circulating crowns, half - crowns and eventually copper farthings in 1821. The recoinage of silver after a long drought produced a burst of coins. The United Kingdom struck nearly 40 million shillings between 1816 and 1820, 17 million half crowns and 1.3 million silver crowns.
The 1819 Act for the Resumption of Cash Payments set 1823 as the date for resumption of convertibility, which was reached by 1821. Throughout the 1820s, small notes were issued by regional banks. This was restricted in 1826, while the Bank of England was allowed to set up regional branches. In 1833 however, Bank of England notes were made legal tender and redemption by other banks was discouraged. In 1844, the Bank Charter Act established that Bank of England notes were fully backed by gold and they became the legal standard. According to the strict interpretation of the gold standard, this 1844 act marked the establishment of a full gold standard for British money.
In the 1780s, Thomas Jefferson, Robert Morris and Alexander Hamilton recommended to Congress the value of a decimal system. This system would also apply to monies in the United States. The question was what type of standard: gold, silver or both. The United States adopted a silver standard based on the Spanish milled dollar in 1785.
From 1860 to 1871 various attempts to resurrect bi-metallic standards were made, including one based on the gold and silver franc; however, with the rapid influx of silver from new deposits, the expectation of scarce silver ended.
The interaction between central banking and currency basis formed the primary source of monetary instability during this period. The combination of a restricted supply of notes, a government monopoly on note issuance and indirectly, a central bank and a single unit of value produced economic stability. Deviation from these conditions produced monetary crises.
Devalued notes or leaving silver as a store of value caused economic problems. Governments, demanding specie as payment, could drain the money out of the economy. Economic development expanded need for credit. The need for a solid basis in monetary affairs produced a rapid acceptance of the gold standard in the period that followed.
Following Germany 's decision after the 1870 -- 1871 Franco - Prussian War to extract reparations to facilitate a move to the gold standard, Japan gained the needed reserves after the Sino - Japanese War of 1894 -- 1895. For Japan, moving to gold was considered vital for gaining access to Western capital markets.
In 1792, Congress passed the Mint and Coinage Act. It authorized the federal government 's use of the Bank of the United States to hold its reserves, as well as establish a fixed ratio of gold to the U.S. dollar. Gold and silver coins were legal tender, as was the Spanish real. In 1792 the market price of gold was about 15 times that of silver. Silver coins left circulation, exported to pay for the debts taken on to finance the American Revolutionary War. In 1806 President Jefferson suspended the minting of silver coins. This resulted in a derivative silver standard, since the Bank of the United States was not required to fully back its currency with reserves. This began a long series of attempts by the United States to create a bi-metallic standard.
The intention was to use gold for large denominations, and silver for smaller denominations. A problem with bimetallic standards was that the metals ' absolute and relative market prices changed. The mint ratio (the rate at which the mint was obligated to pay / receive for gold relative to silver) remained fixed at 15 ounces of silver to 1 ounce of gold, whereas the market rate fluctuated from 15.5 to 1 to 16 to 1. With the Coinage Act of 1834, Congress passed an act that changed the mint ratio to approximately 16 to 1. Gold discoveries in California in 1848 and later in Australia lowered the gold price relative to silver; this drove silver money from circulation because it was worth more in the market than as money. Passage of the Independent Treasury Act of 1848 placed the U.S. on a strict hard - money standard. Doing business with the American government required gold or silver coins.
Government accounts were legally separated from the banking system. However, the mint ratio (the fixed exchange rate between gold and silver at the mint) continued to overvalue gold. In 1853, the US reduced the silver weight of coins to keep them in circulation and in 1857 removed legal tender status from foreign coinage. In 1857 the final crisis of the free banking era began as American banks suspended payment in silver, with ripples through the developing international financial system. Due to the inflationary finance measures undertaken to help pay for the US Civil War, the government found it difficult to pay its obligations in gold or silver and suspended payments of obligations not legally specified in specie (gold bonds); this led banks to suspend the conversion of bank liabilities (bank notes and deposits) into specie. In 1862 paper money was made legal tender. It was a fiat money (not convertible on demand at a fixed rate into specie). These notes came to be called "greenbacks ''.
After the Civil War, Congress wanted to reestablish the metallic standard at pre-war rates. The market price of gold in greenbacks was above the pre-War fixed price ($20.67 per ounce of gold) requiring deflation to achieve the pre-War price. This was accomplished by growing the stock of money less rapidly than real output. By 1879 the market price matched the mint price of gold. The coinage act of 1873 (also known as the Crime of ' 73) demonetized silver. This act removed the 412.5 grain silver dollar from circulation. Subsequently silver was only used in coins worth less than $1 (fractional currency). With the resumption of convertibility on June 30, 1879 the government again paid its debts in gold, accepted greenbacks for customs and redeemed greenbacks on demand in gold. Greenbacks were therefore perfect substitutes for gold coins. During the latter part of the nineteenth century the use of silver and a return to the bimetallic standard were recurrent political issues, raised especially by William Jennings Bryan, the People 's Party and the Free Silver movement. In 1900 the gold dollar was declared the standard unit of account and a gold reserve for government issued paper notes was established. Greenbacks, silver certificates, and silver dollars continued to be legal tender, all redeemable in gold.
The US had a gold stock of 1.9 million ounces (59 t) in 1862. Stocks rose to 2.6 million ounces (81 t) in 1866, declined in 1875 to 1.6 million ounces (50 t) and rose to 2.5 million ounces (78 t) in 1878. Net exports did not mirror that pattern. In the decade before the Civil War net exports were roughly constant; postwar they varied erratically around pre-war levels, but fell significantly in 1877 and became negative in 1878 and 1879. The net import of gold meant that the foreign demand for American currency to purchase goods, services, and investments exceeded the corresponding American demands for foreign currencies. In the final years of the greenback period (1862 -- 1879), gold production increased while gold exports decreased. The decrease in gold exports was considered by some to be a result of changing monetary conditions. The demands for gold during this period were as a speculative vehicle, and for its primary use in the foreign exchange markets financing international trade. The major effect of the increase in gold demand by the public and Treasury was to reduce exports of gold and increase the Greenback price of gold relative to purchasing power.
Towards the end of the 19th century, some silver standard countries began to peg their silver coin units to the gold standards of the United Kingdom or the United States. In 1898, British India pegged the silver rupee to the pound sterling at a fixed rate of 1s 4d, while in 1906, the Straits Settlements adopted a gold exchange standard against sterling, fixing the silver Straits dollar at 2s 4d.
Around the start of the 20th century, the Philippines pegged the silver peso / dollar to the U.S. dollar at 50 cents. This move was assisted by the passage of the Philippines Coinage Act by the United States Congress on March 3, 1903. Around the same time Mexico and Japan pegged their currencies to the dollar. When Siam adopted a gold exchange standard in 1908, only China and Hong Kong remained on the silver standard.
When adopting the gold standard, many European nations changed the name of their currency, for instance from Daler (Sweden and Denmark) or Gulden (Austria - Hungary) to Crown, since the former names were traditionally associated with silver coins and the latter with gold coins.
Governments with insufficient tax revenue suspended convertibility repeatedly in the 19th century. The real test, however, came in the form of World War I, a test which "it failed utterly '' according to economist Richard Lipsey.
By the end of 1913, the classical gold standard was at its peak but World War I caused many countries to suspend or abandon it. According to Lawrence Officer the main cause of the gold standard 's failure to resume its previous position after World War 1 was "the Bank of England 's precarious liquidity position and the gold - exchange standard. '' A run on sterling caused Britain to impose exchange controls that fatally weakened the standard; convertibility was not legally suspended, but gold prices no longer played the role that they did before. In financing the war and abandoning gold, many of the belligerents suffered drastic inflations. Price levels doubled in the US and Britain, tripled in France and quadrupled in Italy. Exchange rates changed less, even though European inflations were more severe than America 's. This meant that the costs of American goods decreased relative to those in Europe. Between August 1914 and spring of 1915, the dollar value of US exports tripled and its trade surplus exceeded $1 billion for the first time.
Ultimately, the system could not deal quickly enough with the large balance of payments deficits and surpluses; this was previously attributed to downward wage rigidity brought about by the advent of unionized labor, but is now considered as an inherent fault of the system that arose under the pressures of war and rapid technological change. In any case, prices had not reached equilibrium by the time of the Great Depression, which served to kill off the system completely.
For example, Germany had gone off the gold standard in 1914, and could not effectively return to it because War reparations had cost it much of its gold reserves. During the Occupation of the Ruhr the German central bank (Reichsbank) issued enormous sums of non-convertible marks to support workers who were on strike against the French occupation and to buy foreign currency for reparations; this led to the German hyperinflation of the early 1920s and the decimation of the German middle class.
The US did not suspend the gold standard during the war. The newly created Federal Reserve intervened in currency markets and sold bonds to "sterilize '' some of the gold imports that would have otherwise increased the stock of money. By 1927 many countries had returned to the gold standard. As a result of World War 1 the United States, which had been a net debtor country, had become a net creditor by 1919.
The gold specie standard ended in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire at the outbreak of World War I, when Treasury notes replaced the circulation of gold sovereigns and gold half sovereigns. Legally, the gold specie standard was not repealed. The end of the gold standard was successfully effected by the Bank of England through appeals to patriotism urging citizens not to redeem paper money for gold specie. It was only in 1925, when Britain returned to the gold standard in conjunction with Australia and South Africa that the gold specie standard was officially ended.
The British Gold Standard Act 1925 both introduced the gold bullion standard and simultaneously repealed the gold specie standard. The new standard ended the circulation of gold specie coins. Instead, the law compelled the authorities to sell gold bullion on demand at a fixed price, but "only in the form of bars containing approximately four hundred ounces troy (12 kg) of fine gold ''. John Maynard Keynes, citing deflationary dangers, argued against resumption of the gold standard. By fixing the price at the pre-war rate of $4.86, Churchill is argued to have made an error that led to depression, unemployment and the 1926 general strike. The decision was described by Andrew Turnbull as a "historic mistake ''.
Many other countries followed Britain in returning to the gold standard, this was followed by a period of relative stability but also deflation. This state of affairs lasted until the Great Depression (1929 -- 1939) forced countries off the gold standard. In September 19, 1931, speculative attacks on the pound forced Britain to abandon the gold standard. Loans from American and French Central Banks of £ 50,000,000 were insufficient and exhausted in a matter of weeks, due to large gold outflows across the Atlantic. The British benefited from this departure. They could now use monetary policy to stimulate the economy. Australia and New Zealand had already left the standard and Canada quickly followed suit.
The interwar partially backed gold standard was inherently unstable, because of the conflict between the expansion of liabilities to foreign central banks and the resulting deterioration in the Bank of England 's reserve ratio. France was then attempting to make Paris a world class financial center, and it received large gold flows as well.
In May 1931 a run on Austria 's largest commercial bank caused it to fail. The run spread to Germany, where the central bank also collapsed. International financial assistance was too late and in July 1931 Germany adopted exchange controls, followed by Austria in October. The Austrian and German experiences, as well as British budgetary and political difficulties, were among the factors that destroyed confidence in sterling, which occurred in mid-July 1931. Runs ensued and the Bank of England lost much of its reserves.
Some economic historians, such as Barry Eichengreen, blame the gold standard of the 1920s for prolonging the economic depression which started in 1929 and lasted for about a decade. In the United States, adherence to the gold standard prevented the Federal Reserve from expanding the money supply to stimulate the economy, fund insolvent banks and fund government deficits that could "prime the pump '' for an expansion. Once off the gold standard, it became free to engage in such money creation. The gold standard limited the flexibility of the central banks ' monetary policy by limiting their ability to expand the money supply. In the US, the central bank was required by the Federal Reserve Act (1913) to have gold backing 40 % of its demand notes. Others including former Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke and Nobel Prize - winner Milton Friedman place the blame for the severity and length of the Great Depression at the feet of the Federal Reserve, mostly due to the deliberate tightening of monetary policy even after the gold standard. They blamed the US major economic contraction in 1937 on tightening of monetary policy resulting in higher cost of capital, weaker securities markets, reduced net government contribution to income, the undistributed profits tax and higher labor costs. The money supply peaked in March 1937, with a trough in May 1938.
Higher interest rates intensified the deflationary pressure on the dollar and reduced investment in U.S. banks. Commercial banks converted Federal Reserve Notes to gold in 1931, reducing its gold reserves and forcing a corresponding reduction in the amount of currency in circulation. This speculative attack created a panic in the U.S. banking system. Fearing imminent devaluation many depositors withdrew funds from U.S. banks. As bank runs grew, a reverse multiplier effect caused a contraction in the money supply. Additionally the New York Fed had loaned over $150 million in gold (over 240 tons) to European Central Banks. This transfer contracted the US money supply. The foreign loans became questionable once Britain, Germany, Austria and other European countries went off the gold standard in 1931 and weakened confidence in the dollar.
The forced contraction of the money supply resulted in deflation. Even as nominal interest rates dropped, inflation - adjusted real interest rates remained high, rewarding those who held onto money instead of spending it, further slowing the economy. Recovery in the United States was slower than in Britain, in part due to Congressional reluctance to abandon the gold standard and float the U.S. currency as Britain had done.
In the early 1930s, the Federal Reserve defended the dollar by raising interest rates, trying to increase the demand for dollars. This helped attract international investors who bought foreign assets with gold.
Congress passed the Gold Reserve Act on 30 January 1934; the measure nationalized all gold by ordering Federal Reserve banks to turn over their supply to the U.S. Treasury. In return the banks received gold certificates to be used as reserves against deposits and Federal Reserve notes. The act also authorized the president to devalue the gold dollar. Under this authority the president, on 31 January 1934, changed the value of the dollar from $20.67 to the troy ounce to $35 to the troy ounce, a devaluation of over 40 %.
Other factors in the prolongation of the Great Depression include trade wars and the reduction in international trade caused by barriers such as Smoot -- Hawley Tariff in the US and the Imperial Preference policies of Great Britain, the failure of central banks to act responsibly, government policies designed to prevent wages from falling, such as the Davis -- Bacon Act of 1931, during the deflationary period resulting in production costs dropping slower than sales prices, thereby injuring business profits and increases in taxes to reduce budget deficits and to support new programs such as Social Security. The US top marginal income tax rate went from 25 % to 63 % in 1932 and to 79 % in 1936, while the bottom rate increased over tenfold, from. 375 % in 1929 to 4 % in 1932. The concurrent massive drought resulted in the US Dust Bowl.
The Austrian School asserted that the Great Depression was the result of a credit bust. Alan Greenspan wrote that the bank failures of the 1930s were sparked by Great Britain dropping the gold standard in 1931. This act "tore asunder '' any remaining confidence in the banking system. Financial historian Niall Ferguson wrote that what made the Great Depression truly ' great ' was the European banking crisis of 1931. According to Fed Chairman Marriner Eccles, the root cause was the concentration of wealth resulting in a stagnating or decreasing standard of living for the poor and middle class. These classes went into debt, producing the credit explosion of the 1920s. Eventually the debt load grew too heavy, resulting in the massive defaults and financial panics of the 1930s.
Under the Bretton Woods international monetary agreement of 1944, the gold standard was kept without domestic convertibility. The role of gold was severely constrained, as other countries ' currencies were fixed in terms of the dollar. Many countries kept reserves in gold and settled accounts in gold. Still they preferred to settle balances with other currencies, with the American dollar becoming the favorite. The International Monetary Fund was established to help with the exchange process and assist nations in maintaining fixed rates. Within Bretton Woods adjustment was cushioned through credits that helped countries avoid deflation. Under the old standard, a country with an overvalued currency would lose gold and experience deflation until the currency was again valued correctly. Most countries defined their currencies in terms of dollars, but some countries imposed trading restrictions to protect reserves and exchange rates. Therefore, most countries ' currencies were still basically inconvertible. In the late 1950s, the exchange restrictions were dropped and gold became an important element in international financial settlements.
After the Second World War, a system similar to a gold standard and sometimes described as a "gold exchange standard '' was established by the Bretton Woods Agreements. Under this system, many countries fixed their exchange rates relative to the U.S. dollar and central banks could exchange dollar holdings into gold at the official exchange rate of $35 per ounce; this option was not available to firms or individuals. All currencies pegged to the dollar thereby had a fixed value in terms of gold.
Starting in the 1959 -- 1969 administration of President Charles de Gaulle and continuing until 1970, France reduced its dollar reserves, exchanging them for gold at the official exchange rate, reducing US economic influence. This, along with the fiscal strain of federal expenditures for the Vietnam War and persistent balance of payments deficits, led U.S. President Richard Nixon to end international convertibility of the U.S. dollar to gold on August 15, 1971 (the "Nixon Shock '').
This was meant to be a temporary measure, with the gold price of the dollar and the official rate of exchanges remaining constant. Revaluing currencies was the main purpose of this plan. No official revaluation or redemption occurred. The dollar subsequently floated. In December 1971, the "Smithsonian Agreement '' was reached. In this agreement, the dollar was devalued from $35 per troy ounce of gold to $38. Other countries ' currencies appreciated. However, gold convertibility did not resume. In October 1973, the price was raised to $42.22. Once again, the devaluation was insufficient. Within two weeks of the second devaluation the dollar was left to float. The $42.22 par value was made official in September 1973, long after it had been abandoned in practice. In October 1976, the government officially changed the definition of the dollar; references to gold were removed from statutes. From this point, the international monetary system was made of pure fiat money.
An estimated total of 174,100 tonnes of gold have been mined in human history, according to GFMS as of 2012. This is roughly equivalent to 5.6 billion troy ounces or, in terms of volume, about 9,261 cubic metres (327,000 cu ft), or a cube 21 metres (69 ft) on a side. There are varying estimates of the total volume of gold mined. One reason for the variance is that gold has been mined for thousands of years. Another reason is that some nations are not particularly open about how much gold is being mined. In addition, it is difficult to account for the gold output in illegal mining activities.
World production for 2011 was circa 2,700 tonnes. Since the 1950s, annual gold output growth has approximately kept pace with world population growth (i.e. a doubling in this period) although it has lagged behind world economic growth (approximately 8-fold increase since the 1950s, and 4x since 1980).
Commodity money is inconvenient to store and transport in large amounts. Furthermore, it does not allow a government to manipulate the flow of commerce with the same ease that a fiat currency does. As such, commodity money gave way to representative money and gold and other specie were retained as its backing.
Gold was a preferred form of money due to its rarity, durability, divisibility, fungibility and ease of identification, often in conjunction with silver. Silver was typically the main circulating medium, with gold as the monetary reserve. Commodity money was anonymous, as identifying marks can be removed. Commodity money retains its value despite what may happen to the monetary authority. After the fall of South Vietnam, many refugees carried their wealth to the West in gold after the national currency became worthless.
Under commodity standards currency itself has no intrinsic value, but is accepted by traders because it can be redeemed any time for the equivalent specie. A US silver certificate, for example, could be redeemed for an actual piece of silver.
Representative money and the gold standard protect citizens from hyperinflation and other abuses of monetary policy, as were seen in some countries during the Great Depression. Commodity money conversely led to deflation and bank runs.
Countries that left the gold standard earlier than other countries recovered from the Great Depression sooner. For example, Great Britain and the Scandinavian countries, which left the gold standard in 1931, recovered much earlier than France and Belgium, which remained on gold much longer. Countries such as China, which had a silver standard, almost entirely avoided the depression (due to the fact it was then barely integrated into the global economy). The connection between leaving the gold standard and the severity and duration of the depression was consistent for dozens of countries, including developing countries. This may explain why the experience and length of the depression differed between national economies.
A full or 100 % - reserve gold standard exists when the monetary authority holds sufficient gold to convert all the circulating representative money into gold at the promised exchange rate. It is sometimes referred to as the gold specie standard to more easily distinguish it. Opponents of a full standard consider it difficult to implement, saying that the quantity of gold in the world is too small to sustain worldwide economic activity at or near current gold prices; implementation would entail a many-fold increase in the price of gold. Gold standard proponents have said, "Once a money is established, any stock of money becomes compatible with any amount of employment and real income. '' While prices would necessarily adjust to the supply of gold, the process may involve considerable economic disruption, as was experienced during earlier attempts to maintain gold standards.
In an international gold - standard system (which is necessarily based on an internal gold standard in the countries concerned), gold or a currency that is convertible into gold at a fixed price is used to make international payments. Under such a system, when exchange rates rise above or fall below the fixed mint rate by more than the cost of shipping gold, inflows or outflows occur until rates return to the official level. International gold standards often limit which entities have the right to redeem currency for gold.
According to research produced by the Bank of Canada, the emerging Bitcoin economy has many similarities with the economy based on gold standard, in particular:
Edward Hadas and Michael Hiltzik noted that monetary systems based on Bitcoin and gold have some similar disadvantages:
George Gilder, a proponent of gold standard, proposed breaking "the government monopoly on money '' by using a combination of Bitcoin for the internet and treating gold in tax terms as currency.
A return to the gold standard was considered by the US Gold Commission back in 1982, but found only minority support. In 2001 Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir bin Mohamad proposed a new currency that would be used initially for international trade among Muslim nations, using the Islamic gold dinar, defined as 4.25 grams of pure (24 - carat) gold. Mahathir claimed it would be a stable unit of account and a political symbol of unity between Islamic nations. This would purportedly reduce dependence on the US dollar and establish a non-debt - backed currency in accord with Sharia law that prohibited the charging of interest. As of 2013 the global monetary system continued to rely on the US dollar as the main reserve currency.
Former U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman, Alan Greenspan acknowledged he was one of "a small minority '' within the central bank that had some positive view on the gold standard. In a 1966 essay he contributed to a book by Ayn Rand, titled "Gold and Economic Freedom '', Greenspan argued the case for returning to a ' pure ' gold standard; in that essay he described supporters of fiat currencies as "welfare statists '' intending to use monetary policy to finance deficit spending. More recently he claimed that by focusing on targeting inflation "central bankers have behaved as though we were on the gold standard '', rendering a return to the standard unnecessary.
Similarly, economists like Robert Barro argued that whilst some form of "monetary constitution '' is essential for stable, depoliticized monetary policy, the form this constitution takes -- for example, a gold standard, some other commodity - based standard, or a fiat currency with fixed rules for determining the quantity of money -- is considerably less important.
The gold standard is supported by many followers of the Austrian School of Economics, free - market libertarians and some supply - siders.
In the United States, strict constitutionalists object to the government issuing fiat currency through central banks. Some gold - standard advocates also call for a mandated end to fractional - reserve banking. Many similar alternatives have been suggested, including energy - based currencies, collections of currencies or commodities, with gold as one component.
Former congressman Ron Paul is a long - term, high - profile advocate of a gold standard, but has also expressed support for using a standard based on a basket of commodities that better reflects the state of the economy.
In 2011 the Utah legislature passed a bill to accept federally issued gold and silver coins as legal tender to pay taxes. As federally issued currency, the coins were already legal tender for taxes, although the market price of their metal content currently exceeds their monetary value. Similar legislation is under consideration in other US states. The bill was initiated by newly elected Republican Party legislators associated with the Tea Party movement and was driven by anxiety over the policies of President Barack Obama.
In 2013, the Arizona Legislature passed SB 1439, which would have made gold and silver coin a legal tender in payment of debt, but the bill was vetoed by the Governor.
In 2015, some candidates for the 2016 presidential election advocated for a gold standard, based on concern that the Federal Reserve 's attempts to increase economic growth may create inflation. Economic historians did not agree with candidate 's assertions that the gold standard would benefit the US economy.
In 2012 a poll of 40 U.S. economists in the IGM Economic Experts Panel found that none of them agreed with a claim that a return to the gold standard would result in "price - stability and employment outcomes (that) would be better for the average American. '' The panel of polled economists included past Nobel Prize winners, former economic advisers to both Republican and Democratic presidents, and senior faculty from Harvard, Chicago, Stanford, MIT, and other well - known research universities. (The specific question posed to the economists was: "If the US replaced its discretionary monetary policy regime with a gold standard, defining a ' dollar ' as a specific number of ounces of gold, the price - stability and employment outcomes would be better for the average American. '')
The economist Allan H. Meltzer of Carnegie Mellon University presented arguments against Ron Paul 's advocacy of the gold standard since the 1970s. He sometimes summarizes his opposition by stating simply, "(W) e do n't have the gold standard. It 's not because we do n't know about the gold standard, it 's because we do. ''
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who plays marnie in she's out of my league | She 's Out of My League - wikipedia
She 's Out of My League is a 2010 American romantic comedy film directed by Jim Field Smith and written by Sean Anders and John Morris. The film stars Jay Baruchel and Alice Eve, and was produced by Jimmy Miller and David Householter for Paramount Pictures and DreamWorks Pictures and filmed in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Production on the film finished in 2008. The film received its wide theatrical release on March 12, 2010. It is the first feature film directed by Smith.
Kirk Kettner is a TSA officer at Pittsburgh International Airport, along with his friends, Stainer, Devon, and Jack. Kirk is hoping to reconcile with his ex-girlfriend Marnie, to the chagrin of his friends, who point out that she has a new boyfriend and treated Kirk poorly while they were dating. An attractive woman, Molly McCleish, arrives at the passenger terminal to board a flight to New York City. She garners unwanted flirting from several male TSA officers, while Kirk is the only one to treat Molly courteously. On the airplane, Molly realizes that she accidentally left her cellphone at airport security. Using her friend 's phone, Molly calls her phone and arranges a time for Kirk to return it to her the following evening.
The next night, Devon and Kirk arrive at the Andy Warhol Museum and return Molly 's phone, but after accidentally spilling a drink on the museum director they are told to leave. Molly, the event 's planner, feels sorry about what happened and offers Kirk tickets to a hockey game. Kirk brings Stainer to the game, where they meet Molly and her best friend Patty. Kirk assumes Molly meant to set him up with Patty, until Patty explicitly tells Kirk that Molly is interested in him. Later, Molly directly asks Kirk out and he agrees. Stainer predicts their relationship will fail, as he deems Molly a "10 '' in a scale of attractiveness, and Kirk only a "5 '', and the gap is too large to overcome. Separately, Patty believes Molly has only chosen Kirk because he is "safe '', after being hurt by her last boyfriend. While on their date, Kirk confides in Molly that he dreams of becoming a pilot, while Molly shares her story of how she was once a lawyer before realizing her love for event planning.
Molly accompanies Kirk to a family lunch, where she charms the men in the home and creates jealousy in Marnie who is quickly ignored by the men when Molly arrives. This causes Marnie to take a sudden interest in Kirk again. After returning to Molly 's apartment, Kirk ejaculates prematurely in his pants while the two are making out, just as Molly 's parents arrive for a surprise visit. Desperate to conceal the stain on his pants, Kirk seems discourteous by avoiding to stand up and shake hands, and quickly leaves Molly 's apartment. Believing he fled to avoid meeting her parents, Molly begins ignoring Kirk 's calls. At Jack 's urging, Kirk admits the true reasons for his leaving, and their relationship resumes. While celebrating the birthday of Molly 's sister, Kirk is troubled when Molly is intentionally vague about Kirk 's line of work to her parents. Additionally, Molly 's ex, Cam, arrives at her parent 's request, and deliberately alludes to Molly having a physical "defect ''.
After the party, both of them go back to Molly 's apartment where Kirk discovers Molly 's "defect '' is slightly webbed toes, which Kirk considers so minor that he decides that she is indeed too perfect for him. Upset with Kirk over his insecurities and wishing that there was something wrong with her to justify them being together, Molly confesses that Cam had the same problem and ultimately cheated on her. Molly admits she asked Kirk out because she considered him safe, which causes Kirk to break up with her and leave. Afterward, Kirk agrees to resume his relationship with Marnie, and makes plans to attend a family vacation together.
Stainer and Patty realize they caused the break - up by telling Kirk and Molly they were too opposite physically to be together, and agree to work together to fix the mistake. Patty brings Molly to the airport, while Stainer has Jack sabotage the plane so that Kirk can not leave. Kirk rejects Marnie and meets Molly at the terminal gate, where she confesses her true feelings about Kirk and his insecurities, as well as her desire to be with him regardless. Kirk and Molly then make up and resume their relationship.
Principal photography for the film commenced on March 31, 2008 at the Mellon Arena, now the former home of the Pittsburgh Penguins hockey team. Filming continued in various locations around Pittsburgh until the end of May 2008, including the Pittsburgh International Airport and The Andy Warhol Museum. Mount Washington, the downtown Regional Enterprise Tower, PNC Park, Market Square, Century III Mall, and area sound stages were also used as locations for the film. Pluma 's Restaurant in Irwin, Pennsylvania was used for bar scenes when shooting at Mellon Arena became impossible due to the Penguins advancement to the 2008 Stanley Cup Finals. The film was co-produced by Jimmy Miller of Mosaic Media Group, a native of Castle Shannon, Pennsylvania and the brother of comedian Dennis Miller.
She 's Out of My League grossed $32 million in North America and $17.8 million in other territories for a total gross of $49.8 million, against a budget of $20 million.
The film opened at No. 3, behind Alice in Wonderland and Green Zone, with an estimated $9.6 million gross.
She 's Out of My League received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a rating of 58 %, based on 130 reviews, with an average rating of 5.6 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "She 's Out of My League has moments of humor and insight, but it 's bogged down by excessive vulgarity and cartoonishness. '' On Metacritic the film has score of 46 out of 100, based on 28 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Critic Roger Ebert gave the film three stars out of four saying, "The movie is not a comedy classic. But in a genre where so many movies struggle to lift themselves from zero to one, it 's about, oh, a six point five. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film three stars out of four, commenting, "This R - rated blend of the sweet and the raunchy has its heart in the right place. '' Jake Tomlinson of Shave Magazine gave the movie four and a half stars out of five and praised the movie "for not throwing in cheap obstacles '' and for the "good soundtrack. '' Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post was less enthused, giving the film one star out of four: "The movie clearly aspires to rise to the smutty - but - sweet synergy of other, better films. But She 's Out of My League ca n't touch them. ''
She 's Out of My League was released on DVD and Blu - ray on June 22, 2010. As of October 2015, it has grossed $12.5 million in home video sales.
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what is the second oldest brewery in america | August Schell Brewing Company - wikipedia
The August Schell Brewing Company is a brewing company in New Ulm, Minnesota. It was founded by German immigrant August Schell in 1860. It is the second oldest family - owned brewery in America (after D.G. Yuengling & Son) and became the oldest and largest brewery in Minnesota when the company bought the Grain Belt rights in 2002. In September 2010, it celebrated its 150th Anniversary with a two - day festival. Every year Schell 's also celebrates traditional German holidays with Bock Fest and Oktoberfest.
August Schell (February 15, 1828, in Durbach, Grand Duchy of Baden -- September 20, 1891, in New Ulm, Minnesota) emigrated to the United States in 1868. He worked in Cincinnati as a machinist before moving to New Ulm, where he established a mill and then a brewery. The brewery grew in size and production. When August Schell died, he passed ownership to his son Otto Schell; Otto Schell died in 1911. George Marti, August Schell 's son - in - law, took over the brewery, and it has been in the hands of the Marti family since that time.
These beers fill the spot left by Schell 's Stout in their year - round lineup. They are both available for roughly six months, and as of release are classified as "year - round '' beers by Schell 's.
Seasonal beers include:
A collection of specialty beers, all Berlin - style wheat beers or Berliner Weisse, aged in rare cypress fermentation tanks Schell 's bought in 1936. Noble Stars are available in select liquor stores and are hand - filled, hand - labeled and bottle - conditioned.
* 1995 - 1997 Beers were called Blizzard Ale
* * 1992 Beer was called Xmas Brew
Coordinates: 44 ° 17 ′ 20 '' N 94 ° 27 ′ 2 '' W / 44.28889 ° N 94.45056 ° W / 44.28889; - 94.45056
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who is buried under the dome of the rock | Dome of the Rock - wikipedia
The Dome of the Rock (Arabic: قبة الصخرة Qubbat al - Sakhrah, Hebrew: כיפת הסלע Kippat ha - Sela) is an Islamic shrine located on the Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusalem.
It was initially completed in 691 CE at the order of Umayyad Caliph Abd al - Malik during the Second Fitna, built on the site of the Roman temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, which had in turn been built on the site of the Second Jewish Temple, destroyed during the Roman Siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE. The original dome collapsed in 1015 and was rebuilt in 1022 -- 23. The Dome of the Rock is in its core one of the oldest extant works of Islamic architecture.
Its architecture and mosaics were patterned after nearby Byzantine churches and palaces, although its outside appearance has been significantly changed in the Ottoman period and again in the modern period, notably with the addition of the gold - plated roof, in 1959 -- 61 and again in 1993. The octagonal plan of the structure may also have been influenced by the Byzantine Church of the Seat of Mary (also known as Kathisma in Greek and al - Qadismu in Arabic) built between 451 and 458 on the road between Jerusalem and Bethlehem.
The site 's great significance for Muslims derives from traditions connecting it to the creation of the world and to the belief that the Prophet Muhammad 's Night Journey to heaven started from the rock at the center of the structure. The rock also bears great significance for Jews as the purported site of Abraham 's attempted sacrifice of his son.
It has been called "Jerusalem 's most recognizable landmark, '' and it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, along with two nearby Temple Mount structures, the Western Wall, and the "Resurrection Rotunda '' in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
The Dome of the Rock is situated in the center of the Temple Mount, the site of the Temple of Solomon and the Jewish Second Temple, which had been greatly expanded under Herod the Great in the 1st century BCE. Herod 's Temple was destroyed in 70 CE by the Romans, and after the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, a Roman temple to Jupiter Capitolinus was built at the site.
Jerusalem was ruled by the Christian Byzantine Empire throughout the 4th to 6th centuries. During this time, Christian pilgrimage to Jerusalem began to develop. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built under Constantine in the 320s, but the Temple Mount was left undeveloped after a failed project of restoration of the temple under Julian the Apostate.
The Dome of the Rock is now mostly assumed to have been built by the order of Umayyad Caliph Abd al - Malik and his son and successor Al - Walid I. According to Sibt ibn al - Jawzi, construction started in 687. Construction cost was reportedly seven times the yearly tax income of Egypt. A dedicatory inscription in Kufic script is preserved inside the dome. The date is recorded as AH 72 (691 / 2 CE), the year historians believe the construction of the original Dome was completed. In this inscription, the name of al - Malik was deleted and replaced by the name of Abbasid caliph Al - Ma'mun. This alteration of the original inscription was first noted by Melchior de Vogüé in 1864. Some scholars have suggested that the dome was added to an existing building, built either by Muawiyah I (r. 661 -- 680), or indeed a Byzantine building dating to before the Muslim conquest, built under Heraclius (r. 610 -- 641).
Its architecture and mosaics were patterned after nearby Byzantine churches and palaces. The two engineers in charge of the project were Raja ibn Haywah, a Muslim theologian from Beit She'an and Yazid Ibn Salam, a non-Arab who was Muslim and a native of Jerusalem.
Shelomo Dov Goitein of the Hebrew University has argued that the Dome of the Rock was intended to compete with the many fine buildings of worship of other religions: "The very form of a rotunda, given to the Qubbat as - Sakhra, although it was foreign to Islam, was destined to rival the many Christian domes. '' K.A.C. Creswell in his book The Origin of the Plan of the Dome of the Rock notes that those who built the shrine used the measurements of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The diameter of the dome of the shrine is 20.20 m (66.3 ft) and its height 20.48 m (67.2 ft), while the diameter of the dome of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is 20.90 m (68.6 ft) and its height 21.05 m (69.1 ft).
The structure was basically octagonal. It comprised a wooden dome, approximately 20 m (66 ft) in diameter, which was mounted on an elevated drum consisting of a circle of 16 piers and columns. Surrounding this circle was an octagonal arcade of 24 piers and columns.
The original construction was surrounded by open arcades, like the Dome of the Chain. Under Abbasid caliph Al - Ma'mun (r. 813 -- 833), an octagonal wall was added.
The building was severely damaged by earthquakes in 808 and again in 846. The dome collapsed in an earthquake in 1015 and was rebuilt in 1022 -- 23. The mosaics on the drum were repaired in 1027 -- 28.
For centuries Christian pilgrims were able to come and experience the Temple Mount, but escalating violence against pilgrims to Jerusalem (Al - Hakim bi-Amr Allah, who ordered the destruction of the Holy Sepulchre, was an example) instigated the Crusades. The Crusaders captured Jerusalem in 1099 and the Dome of the Rock was given to the Augustinians, who turned it into a church, while the Al - Aqsa Mosque became a royal palace. The Knights Templar, active from c. 1119, identified the Dome of the Rock as the site of the Temple of Solomon and set up their headquarters in the Al - Aqsa Mosque adjacent to the Dome for much of the 12th century. The Templum Domini, as they called the Dome of the Rock, featured on the official seals of the Order 's Grand Masters (such as Everard des Barres and Renaud de Vichiers), and soon became the architectural model for round Templar churches across Europe.
Jerusalem was recaptured by Saladin on 2 October 1187, and the Dome of the Rock was reconsecrated as a Muslim shrine. The cross on top of the dome was replaced by a crescent, and a wooden screen was placed around the rock below. Saladin 's nephew al - Malik al - Mu'azzam Isa carried out other restorations within the building, and added the porch to the Al - Aqsa Mosque.
The Dome of the Rock was the focus of extensive royal patronage by the sultans during the Mamluk period, which lasted from 1250 until 1510.
During the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent (1520 -- 1566) the exterior of the Dome of the Rock was covered with tiles. This work took seven years.
The interior of the dome is lavishly decorated with mosaic, faience and marble, much of which was added several centuries after its completion. It also contains Qur'anic inscriptions. Surah Ya Sin (the "Heart of the Quran '') is inscribed across the top of the tile work and was commissioned in the 16th century by Suleiman the Magnificent. Al - Isra, the Surah 17 which tells the story of the Isra or Night Journey, is inscribed above this.
Adjacent to the Dome of the Rock, the Ottomans built the free - standing Dome of the Prophet in 1620. Large - scale renovation was undertaken during the reign of Mahmud II in 1817.
In a major restoration project undertaken in 1874 -- 75 during the reign of the Ottoman Sultan Abdülaziz, all the tiles on the west and southwest walls of the octagonal part of the building were removed and replaced by copies that had been made in Turkey.
View from the north, Francis Bedford (1862)
West front in 1862. By this date many of the 16th century tiles were missing.
Interior showing mosaic decoration (1914)
Tiled façade (2013)
Interior showing rock (1915)
Haj Amin al - Husseini, appointed Grand Mufti by the British during the 1917 mandate of Palestine, along with Yaqub al - Ghusayn, implemented the restoration of the Dome of the Rock and the Al - Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.
The Dome of the Rock was badly shaken during the 11 July 1927 Jericho earthquake, damaging many of the repairs that had taken place over previous years.
In 1955, an extensive program of renovation was begun by the government of Jordan, with funds supplied by Arab governments and Turkey. The work included replacement of large numbers of tiles dating back to the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, which had become dislodged by heavy rain. In 1965, as part of this restoration, the dome was covered with a durable aluminium bronze alloy made in Italy that replaced the lead exterior. Before 1959, the dome was covered in blackened lead. In the course of substantial restoration carried out from 1959 to 1962, the lead was replaced by aluminum - bronze plates covered with gold leaf.
A few hours after the Israeli flag was hoisted over the Dome of the Rock in 1967 during the Six - Day War, Israelis lowered it on the orders of Moshe Dayan and invested the Muslim waqf (religious trust) with the authority to manage the Temple Mount / Haram al - Sharif, in order to "keep the peace ''.
In 1993, the golden dome covering was refurbished following a donation of USD 8.2 million by King Hussein of Jordan who sold one of his houses in London to fund the 80 kilograms of gold required.
The Dome of the Rock is depicted on the reverse of the Iranian 1000 rials banknote.
The Dome is maintained by the Ministry of Awqaf in Amman, Jordan.
Until the mid-twentieth century, non-Muslims were not permitted in the area. Since 1967, non-Muslims have been permitted limited access; however non-Muslims are not permitted to pray on the Temple Mount, bring prayer books, or wear religious apparel. The Israeli police help enforce this. Israel restricted access for a short time during 2012 of Palestinian residents of the West Bank to the Temple Mount. West Bank Palestinian men had to be over 35 to be eligible for a permit. Palestinian residents of Jerusalem, who hold Israeli residency cards, and Palestinians with Israeli citizenship are permitted unrestricted access.
Some Orthodox rabbis encourage Jews to visit the site, while most forbid entry to the compound lest there be a violation of Jewish law. Even rabbis who encourage entrance to the Temple Mount prohibit entrance to the actual Dome of the Rock.
According to some Islamic scholars, the rock is the spot from which the Islamic prophet Muhammad ascended to Heaven accompanied by the angel Gabriel. Further, Muhammad was taken here by Gabriel to pray with Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Other Islamic scholars believe that the Prophet ascended to Heaven from the Al - Aqsa Mosque.
Muslims believe the location of the Dome of the Rock to be the site mentioned in Sura 17 of the Qur'an, which tells the story of the Isra and Mi'raj, the miraculous Night Journey of Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to "the farthest mosque '', where he leads prayers and rises to heaven to receive instructions from Allah. The Night Journey is mentioned in the Qur'an in a very brief form and is further elaborated by the hadiths. Caliph Umar ibn Al - Khattab (579 -- 644) was advised by Ka'ab al - Ahbar, a Jewish rabbi who converted to Islam, that "the farthest mosque '' is identical with the site of the former Jewish Temples in Jerusalem.
The Foundation Stone and its surroundings is the holiest site in Judaism. Though Muslims now pray towards the Kaaba at Mecca, they once faced the Temple Mount as the Jews do. Muhammad changed the direction of prayer for Muslims after a revelation from Allah. Jews traditionally regarded the location of the stone as the holiest spot on Earth, the site of the Holy of Holies during the Temple Period.
According to Jewish tradition, the stone is the site where Abraham prepared to sacrifice his son Isaac.
On the walls of the Dome of the Rock is an inscription in a mosaic frieze that includes an explicit rejection of the divinity of Christ, from Quran (19: 33 -- 35):
33. "So peace is upon me the day I was born, and the day I die, and the day I shall be raised alive! '' 34. Such is Jesus, son of Mary. It is a statement of truth, about which they doubt. 35. It is not befitting to (the majesty of) Allah that He should take himself a child. Glory be to Him! when He determines a matter, He only says to it, "Be '', and it is.
According to Goitein, the inscriptions decorating the interior clearly display a spirit of polemic against Christianity, whilst stressing at the same time the Qur'anic doctrine that Jesus was a true prophet. The formula la sharika lahu ("God has no companion '') is repeated five times; the verses from Sura Maryam 19: 35 -- 37, which strongly reaffirm Jesus ' prophethood to God, are quoted together with the prayer: Allahumma salli ala rasulika wa'abdika ' Isa bin Maryam -- "O Lord, send your blessings to your Prophet and Servant Jesus son of Mary. '' He believes that this shows that rivalry with Christendom, together with the spirit of Muslim mission to the Christians, was at work at the time of construction.
The Temple Institute wishes to relocate the Dome to another site and replace it with a Third Temple. Many Israelis are ambivalent about the Movement 's wishes. Some religious Jews, following rabbinic teaching, believe that the Temple should only be rebuilt in the messianic era, and that it would be presumptuous of people to force God 's hand. However, some Evangelical Christians consider rebuilding of the Temple to be a prerequisite to Armageddon and the Second Coming. Jeremy Gimpel, a US - born candidate for Habayit Hayehudi in the 2013 Israeli elections, caused a controversy when he was recorded telling a Fellowship Church evangelical group in Florida in 2011 to imagine the incredible experience that would follow were the Dome to be destroyed. All Christians would be immediately transported to Israel, he opined.
The Dome of the Rock has inspired the architecture of a number of buildings. These include the octagonal Church of St. Giacomo in Italy, the Mausoleum of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent in Istanbul, the octagonal Moorish Revival style Rumbach Street Synagogue in Budapest, and the New Synagogue in Berlin, Germany. It was long believed by Christians that the Dome of the Rock echoed the architecture of the Temple in Jerusalem, as can be seen in Raphael 's The Marriage of the Virgin and in Perugino 's Marriage of the Virgin.
Gates 1. Jaffa 2. Zion 3. Dung 4. Golden 5. Lions 6. Herod 7. Damascus 8. New (Double, Single, Tanners ') Al - Mawazin
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what font was used in the declaration of independence | Caslon - wikipedia
Caslon is the name given to serif typefaces designed by William Caslon I (c. 1692 -- 1766) in London, or inspired by his work.
Caslon worked as an engraver of punches, the masters used to stamp the moulds or matrices used to cast metal type. He worked in the tradition of what is now called old - style serif letter design, that produced letters with a relatively organic structure resembling handwriting with a pen. Caslon established a tradition of engraving type in London, which previously had not been common, and so he was influenced by the imported Dutch Baroque typefaces that were popular in England at the time. His typefaces established a strong reputation for their quality and their attractive appearance, suitable for extended passages of text.
The letterforms of Caslon 's roman, or upright type include an ' A ' with a concave hollow at top left and a ' G ' without a downwards - pointing spur at bottom right. The sides of the ' M ' are straight. The ' W ' has three terminals at the top and the ' b ' has a small tapered stroke ending at bottom left. Ascenders and descenders are relatively short and the level of stroke contrast is modest in body text sizes. However, Caslon created subtly different designs of letter at different sizes, with increasing levels of fine detail and sharp contrast in stroke weight at larger sizes. Caslon 's larger - size roman fonts have two serifs on the ' C ', while his smaller - size versions have one half - arrow serif only at top right. In italic, Caslon 's h folds inwards and the A is sharply slanted. The Q, T v, w, and z all have flourishes or swashes in the original design, something not all revivals follow. The italic ' J ' has a crossbar and a rotated version was used by Caslon in many sizes on his specimens to form the pound sign.
Caslon 's typefaces were popular in his lifetime and beyond, and after a brief period of eclipse in the early nineteenth century returned to popularity, particularly for setting printed body text and books. Many revivals exist, with varying faithfulness to Caslon 's original design. Modern Caslon revivals also often add features such as a matching boldface and ' lining ' numbers at the height of capital letters, neither of which were used in Caslon 's time. William Berkson, designer of a revival of Caslon, describes Caslon in body text as "comfortable and inviting ''.
Caslon began his career in London as an apprentice engraver of ornamental designs on firearms and other metalwork. According to printer and historian John Nichols, the main source on Caslon 's life, the accuracy of his work came to the attention of prominent London printers, who advanced him money to carve steel punches for printing, first for exotic languages and then as his reputation developed for the Latin alphabet. Punchcutting was a difficult technique and many of the techniques used were kept secret by punchcutters or passed on from father to son. Caslon would later follow this practice himself, according to Nichols teaching his son his methods privately while locked in a room where nobody could watch them. As British printers had little success or experience of making their own types, they were forced to use equipment bought from the Netherlands, or France, and Caslon 's types are therefore clearly influenced by the popular Dutch typefaces of his period. James Mosley summarises his early work: "Caslon 's pica... was based very closely indeed on a pica roman and italic that appears on the specimen sheet of the widow of the Amsterdam printer Dirck Voskens, c. 1695, and which Bowyer had used for some years. Caslon 's pica replaces it in his printing from 1725... Caslon 's Great Primer roman, first used in 1728, a type that was much admired in the twentieth century, is clearly related to the Text Romeyn of Voskens, a type of the early seventeenth century used by several London printers and now attributed to the punch - cutter Nicolas Briot of Gouda. '' Mosley also describes several other Caslon faces as "intelligent adaptations '' of the Voskens Pica.
Caslon 's type rapidly built up a reputation for workmanship, being described by Henry Newman in 1733 as "the work of that Artist who seems to aspire to outvying all the Workmen in his way in Europe, so that our Printers send no more to Holland for the Elzevir and other Letters which they formerly valued themselves much. '' Mosley describes Caslon 's Long Primer No. 1 type as "type with generous proportions and it was normally cast with letter - spacing that was not too tight, characteristics that are needed in types on a small body. And yet it is so soundly made that words that are set in it keep their shape and are comfortably readable... It is a type that works best in the narrow measure of a two - column page or in quite modest octavos. '' Caslon sold a French Canon face he did not engrave that may to have been the work of Joseph Moxon with some modifications, and his larger - size faces follow this high - contrast model. Compared to the more delicate, stylised and experimental designs that developed in Europe during Caslon 's life, notably the romain du roi type and the work of Fleischmann in Amsterdam, and the Baskerville type of John Baskerville in Birmingham that appeared towards the end of Caslon 's career, Caslon 's type was quite conservative. Johnson notes that his 1764 specimen "might have been produced a hundred years earlier ''. Stanley Morison described Caslon 's type as "a happy archaicism ''.
While not used extensively in Europe, Caslon types were distributed throughout the British Empire, including British North America, where they were used on the printing the U.S. Declaration of Independence. After William Caslon I 's death, the use of his types diminished, but had a revival between 1840 -- 80 as a part of the British Arts and Crafts movement.
Besides regular text fonts, Caslon cut blackletter or ' Gothic ' types (and sold some earlier ones from older foundries), which were also printed on his specimen. These could be used for purposes such as title pages, emphasis and drop caps. Bold type did not exist in Caslon 's time, although some of his larger - size fonts are quite bold.
One criticism of some Caslon - style typefaces has been a concern that the capitals are too thick in design and stand out too much, making for an uneven colour on the page. Printer and typeface designer Frederic Goudy was a critic: "the strong contrast between the over-black stems of the capitals and the light weight stems in the lower - case... makes a ' spotty ' page ''. He cited dissatisfaction with the style as an incentive for becoming more involved in type design around 1911, when he created Kennerley Old Style as an alternative.
Caslon 's types fell out of interest in the late eighteenth century, due to the arrival of "transitional '' - style typefaces like Baskerville and then "Didone '' or modern designs. His type foundry remained in business at Chiswell Street, London, but began to sell alternative and additional designs, some cut by his son William Caslon II. His grandson, William Caslon III, broke away from the family to establish a competitor foundry at Salisbury Square, by buying up the company of the late Joseph Jackson. Justin Howes suggests that there may have been some attempt to update some of Caslon 's types towards the newer style starting before 1816, noting that Caslon type cast by the 1840s included "a handful of sorts, Q, (an open - form italic) h, sh, Q, T and Y, which would have been unfamiliar to Caslon, and which may have been cut at the end of the eighteenth century in a modest attempt to bring Old Face up to date. The h, sh and T are to be seen (in a book from) 1816, large parts of which appear to have been printed from well - worn standing type. ''
Even as Caslon 's type itself largely fell out of use, his reputation remained strong within the printing community. The printer and social reformer Thomas Curson Hansard wrote in 1825:
At the commencement of the 18th century the native talent of the founders was so little prized by the printers of the metropolis, that they were in the habit of importing founts from Holland,... and the printers of the present day might still have been driven to the inconvenience of importation had not a genius, in the person of William Caslon, arisen to rescue his country from the disgrace of typographical inferiority.
Similarly, Edward Bull in 1842 called Caslon "the great chief and father of English type. ''
Interest in eighteenth - century printing returned in the nineteenth century with the rise of the arts and crafts movement, and Caslon 's types returned to popularity in books and fine printing among companies such as the Chiswick Press, as well as display use in situations such as advertising.
Fine printing presses, notably the Chiswick Press, bought original Caslon type from the Caslon foundry; copies of these matrices were also made by electrotyping. From the 1860s new types began to appear in a style similar to Caslon 's, starting from Miller & Richard 's Modernised Old Style of c. 1860. The Caslon foundry itself covertly cut new swash capitals and replaced some sizes with new, cleaner versions.
In the United States, Caslons became almost a genre, modified expanded with new styles such as bold, condensed, inline or with modifications such as shortened descenders to fit American common line, or lining figures. Many foundries cut (or, in many cases, pirated) their own versions. By the 1920s, American Type Founders offered a large range of styles, some numbered rather than named. (Bookman Old Style is a descendant of one of these American Caslon revivals. A series of modifications has given most modern Bookman digitisations a somewhat exaggerated appearance with extremely high x-height very unlike the original Caslon.) The hot metal typesetting companies Linotype, Monotype, Intertype and Ludlow, which sold machines that cast type under the control of a keyboard, brought out their own Caslon releases.
According to book designer Hugh Williamson, a second decline in Caslon 's popularity in Britain did, however, set in during the twentieth century due to the arrival of revivals of other old - style and transitional designs from Monotype and Linotype. These included Bembo, Garamond and related faces such as Plantin, Baskerville and Times New Roman.
Caslon type again entered a new technology with phototypesetting, mostly in the 1960s and 1970s, and then again with digital typesetting technology. There are many typefaces called "Caslon '' as a result of that and the lack of an enforceable trademark on the name "Caslon '' by itself, which reproduce the original designs in varying degrees of faithfulness.
Many of Caslon 's original punches and matrices survived in the collection of the Caslon company (along with many replacement and additional characters), and are now part of the St Bride Library and Type Museum collections in Britain. Copies held by the Paris office of the Caslon company, the Fonderie Caslon, were transferred to the collection of the Musée de l'Imprimerie in Nantes. Scholarly research on Caslon 's type has been carried out by historians including Alfred F. Johnson, Harry Carter, James Mosley and Justin Howes.
The H.W. Caslon & Sons foundry reissued Caslon 's original types as Caslon Old Face from the original (or, at least, early) matrices. The last lineal descendent of Caslon, Henry William Caslon, brought in Thomas White Smith as a new manager shortly before Caslon 's death in 1874. Smith took over the company and instructed his sons to change their surnames to Caslon in order to provide an appearance of continuity. The foundry operated an ambitious promotional programme, issuing a periodical, "Caslon 's Circular ''. It continued to issue specimens from top printers including George W. Jones until the 1920s.
Some Caslon faces were augmented by adding new features, in particular swash capitals for historicist printing. From around 1887 the type was sold with additional swash capitals. Howes describes these as "based rather closely on François Guyot 's (popular 22pt) italic of around 1557... found in English printing until the early years of the eighteenth century. '' From around 1893 the company started to additionally recut some letters to make the type more regular and create matrices which could be cast by machine. Due to the cachet of the Caslon name, some of the recuttings and modifications of the original Caslon types were apparently not publicly admitted. The H.W. Caslon company also licensed to other printers matrices made by electrotyping, although some companies may also have made unauthorized copies.
In 1937, the H.W. Caslon & Sons foundry was also acquired by Stephenson Blake & Co, who thereafter added ' the Caslon Letter Foundry ' to their name.
The hot metal typesetting companies Monotype and Linotype offered "Caslon Old Face '' releases that were based (or claimed to be based) on Caslon 's original typefaces. Linotype 's has been digitised and released by Bitstream.
Caslon # 471 was the release of the "original '' Caslon type sold by American Type Founders. American Type Founders advertised it as "the Caslon Oldstyle Romans and Italics precisely as Mr. Caslon left them in 1766. It was apparently cast from electrotypes held by American Type Founders ' precursors.
Caslon 540 was a second American Type Founders version with shortened descenders to allow tighter linespacing. The italic was distributed by Letraset with a matching set of swashes. As a result, this often became sold or used without the regular or roman style of this revival.
A slighter bolder version of Caslon 540, released by American Type Founders in 1905. BitStream sells Caslon 3 under the name of Caslon Bold with its Caslon 540 release. Russian studio ParaType have released both with Cyrillic glyphs.
A decorative openface serif typeface with very high ascenders, popular in the United States. Despite the name, it has no connection to Caslon: it was an import of the French typeface "Le Moreau - le - Jeune '', created by Fonderie Peignot in Paris, by ATF branch Barnhart Brothers & Spindlers.
The British Monotype company produced three Caslon revivals.
A more regular adaptation of Caslon by the British branch of Monotype was commissioned by the London publishers of The Imprint, a short - lived printing trade periodical that published during 1913. It had a higher x-height and was intended to offer an italic more complementary to the roman. It has remained popular since and has been digitised by Monotype.
Ludlow had a wide variety of Caslon - types.
A heavy version of Caslon 540, released by American Type Founders in 1966.
Caslon 223 and 224 were phototypesetting families designed by Ed Benguiat of Lubalin, Smith, Carnase and then ITC. Like many ITC families, they have an aggressive, advertising - oriented bold structure, not closely related to Caslon 's original work. 223 was the first version (named for LSC 's street number), a companion version with more body text - oriented proportions followed sequentially numbered 224.
Adobe Caslon is a very popular revival designed by Carol Twombly. It is based on Caslon 's own specimen pages printed between 1734 and 1770 and is a member of the Adobe Originals programme. It added many features now standard in high - quality digital fonts, such as small caps, old style figures, swash letters, ligatures, alternate letters, fractions, subscripts and superscripts, and matching ornaments.
Adobe Caslon is used for body text in The New Yorker and is one of the two official typefaces of the University of Virginia. A modification is used on U. VA 's logo. It is also available with Adobe 's Typekit programme, in some weights for free.
Big Caslon by Matthew Carter is inspired by the "funkiness '' of the three largest sizes of type from the Caslon foundry. These have a unique design with dramatic stroke contrast, complementary but very different to Caslon 's text faces; one was apparently originally created by Joseph Moxon rather than Caslon. The typeface is intended for use at 18pt and above. The standard weight is bundled with Apple 's macOS operating system in a release including small caps and alternates such as the long s. Initially published by his company Carter & Cone, in 2014 Carter revisited the design adding bold and black designs with matching italics, and republished it through Font Bureau. It is used by Boston magazine and the Harvard Crimson.
LTC Caslon is a digitisation of the Lanston Type Company 's 14 point size Caslon 337 of 1915 (itself a revival of the original Caslon types). This family include fonts in regular and bold weights, with fractions, ligatures, small caps (regular and regular italic only), swashes (regular italic weight only), and Central European characters. An notable feature is that like some hot metal releases of Caslon, two separate options for descenders are provided for all styles: long descenders (creating a more elegant designs) or short (allowing tighter linespacing).
To celebrate its release, LTC included in early sales a CD of music by The William Caslon Experience, a downtempo electronic act, along with a limited edition upright italic design, ' LTC Caslon Remix '.
A modern attempt to capture the spirit of Caslon by William Berkson, intended for use in body text. Although not aimed at being fully authentic in every respect, the typeface closely follows Caslon 's original specimen sheet in many respects. The weight is heavier than many earlier revivals, to compensate for changes in printing processes, and the italic is less slanted (with variation in stroke angle) than on many other Caslon releases. Berkson described his design choices in an extensive article series.
Released by Font Bureau, it includes bold and bold italic designs, and a complete feature set across all weights, including bold small caps and swash italic alternates as well as optional shorter descenders and a ' modernist ' italic option to turn off swashes on lower - case letters and reduce the slant on the ' A ' for a more spare appearance. It is currently used in Boston magazine and by Foreign Affairs.
A notable feature of Caslon 's structure is its widely splayed T, which can space awkwardly with an ' h ' afterwards. Accordingly, an emerging tradition among digital releases is to offer a ' Th ' ligature, inspired by a tradition in calligraphy, to achieve tighter letterspacing. Adobe Caslon, LTC Caslon, Williams Caslon and Big Caslon (italics only, in the Font Bureau release) all offer a ' Th ' ligature as default or as an alternate.
A number of Caslon revivals are ' distressed ' in style, adding intentional irregularities to capture the worn, jagged feel of metal type.
ITC Founder 's Caslon was digitized by Justin Howes. He used the resources of the St Bride Library in London to thoroughly research William Caslon and his types. Unlike previous digital revivals, this family closely follows the tradition of building separate typefaces intended for different sizes. Distressing varies by style, matching the effect of metal type, with large optical sizes offering the cleanest appearance.
This family was released by ITC in December 1998. Following the original Caslon types, it does not include bold typefaces, but uses old style figures for all numbers.
Following the release of ITC Founder 's Caslon, Justin Howes revived the H.W. Caslon & Company name, and released an expanded version of the ITC typefaces under the Founders Caslon name.
Caslon Old Face is a typeface with multiple optical sizes, including 8, 10, 12, 14, 18, 22, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 60, 72, 96 points. Each font has small capitals, long esses and swash characters. The 96 point font came in roman only and without small capitals. Caslon Old Face was released in July 2001.
Caslon Ornaments is a typeface containing ornament glyphs.
These typefaces are packaged in the following formats:
However, following the death of Justin Howes, the revived H.W. Caslon & Company went out of business.
An exuberant parody of Caslon italics created by Mark Andresen, this 1995 Emigre font was created by blending together samples of Caslon from "bits and pieces of dry transfer lettering: flakes, nicks, and all ''.
This 2006 creation by P22 is based on the pages produced by Benjamin Franklin circa 1750. It has a distressed appearance.
This decorative serif typeface was originally called Fifteenth Century, but later renamed Caslon Antique. It is not generally considered to be a member of the Caslon family of typefaces, because its design appears unrelated, and the Caslon name was only applied retroactively.
The following two authors based their writings entirely on these three publications.
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institute of engineering & technology mjp rohilkhand university bareilly | Institute of engineering & Technology, Bareilly - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 28 ° 22 ′ 3 '' N 79 ° 27 ′ 26 '' E / 28.36750 ° N 79.45722 ° E / 28.36750; 79.45722
The Institute of Engineering & Technology, Bareilly (IET) is a state government - funded engineering college in Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India. It is located within the campus of M.J.P. Rohilkhand University. It is one of the prestigious engineering institution located in bareilly of uttar pradesh having various branches. Initially (from 1995 - 2007) the admissions were through M.J.P Rohilkhand University 's own Engineering Entrance Exam conducted at All India level. Later in 2008 it changed to All India level AIEEE examination. At present (from 2009 and onwards) admissions are given through UPTU - SEE exam.
All the departments are having very well qualified teaching faculties drawn from research and development organizations, industries, government and educational institutes. The curriculum has accordingly been designed in consultation with reputed academicians of BHU Varanasi and IIT, Roorkee.
All the departments are also well equipped with modern labs, state - of -- art teaching materials including multimedia projectors / OHP and other visual teaching aids.
The focus of learning in all departments has been application of engineering & technology to industrial problems. Students are encouraged to do innovative type of projects with emphasis being placed on team project work. They are well trained to deliver lectures in seminars, preparation of seminar reports & project reports. Departments conduct technical quiz, technical seminar, group discussions and guest lectures on related burning issues. Departments believe in "Sound Mind in Sound Body '' conducting annual sports, yoga & meditation training programs. All these activities provide a training ground to a greater depth of understanding of concepts, broader knowledge base, improved communication and interpersonal skills, enhanced leadership skills and increased creativity of the students.
Engineering students pass - out from I.E.T.M.J.P. Rohilkhand University are working with Government of India (IES / IAS / IPS etc.), State governments of India (UP - CSES, UP - PCS etc.), Organisations like ISRO, DRDO, BARC, Indian Railways, and Public Sector Undertaking like NTPC, EIL, BHEL, ONGC, Delhi Metro, GAIL, HAL, SAIL, NPCIL, MTNL, HPCL, DVC, AAI, BEL, National Aluminium Company, PowerGrid Corporation of India, IFFCO, IOCL, Coal India KRIBHCO, UPPCL, UP Jal Nigam, SJVNL, Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, Public sector banks in India and reputed MNCs companies like Intel, Microsoft, Adobe, Amazon, NEC, RIL, FIS Global, Infosys, TCS, Wipro, HCL, IBM, MphasiS, Tech Mahindra Genpact, Oracle corporation, HP, Deloitte, SAP Labs, Cadence, ST Microelectronics, Nokia, SIEMENS, ALSTOM, TOSHIBA, ABB, AREVA, Tata Motors, Deutsche Bank, ICICI Bank, RBS and many more. A number of students are pursuing their post graduate and doctoral degrees from Indian Institutes of Technology. They are across as well as outside the country. Although due to location the campus recruitment is low, still alumni have made their place into by giving commendable competition to students from all over the country in off - campus drives. Most of them qualified GATE, GRE, PSUs and pursuing M. Tech from reputed institutes such as IITs, BHU Varansi, AMU Aligarh, etc. and also other reputed universities abroad.
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where was the film high plains drifter filmed | High Plains Drifter - wikipedia
High Plains Drifter is a 1973 American Western film directed by and starring Clint Eastwood, written by Ernest Tidyman, and produced by Robert Daley for Malpaso Company and Universal Pictures. Eastwood plays a mysterious, prepotent stranger, meting out justice in a corrupt frontier mining town. The film was influenced by the work of Eastwood 's two major collaborators, film directors Sergio Leone and Don Siegel.
The film was shot on location on the shores of Mono Lake, California. Dee Barton wrote the film score. The film was critically acclaimed at the time of its initial release and remains popular today, holding a score of 96 % at the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes.
A mysterious stranger rides out of the desert into the isolated mining town of Lago, on the shore of a small lake in an unnamed western territory. Three men follow him into the saloon, taunting him, then follow him to the barbershop. When they challenge him, he kills all three with little effort. Attractive townswoman Callie Travers deliberately bumps into him in the street, knocks his cigar from his mouth, and loudly insults him. He drags her into the livery stable and rapes her.
That night, in his hotel room, the Stranger dreams of a man being brutally whipped. Then, in a flashback, Jim Duncan, a federal marshal, is whipped to death in front of the hotel by outlaws Stacey Bridges and brothers Dan and Cole Carlin as the citizens look on.
Sheriff Sam Shaw approaches the Stranger and offers him the job previously held by the men he killed: defending the town from Bridges and the Carlins, who are about to be released from jail. He declines. Shaw, in desperation, offers him anything he wants in return. The Stranger learns that the townspeople were complicit in Duncan 's murder; they hired the outlaws to kill him after he discovered that the town 's only source of income, the mine, was on government land. They then double - crossed the murderers and turned them in.
Upon learning this, the Stranger accepts the job, and takes full advantage of the deal. He appoints barbershop employee Mordecai as sheriff and mayor, and provides an Indian and his children with supplies at the shopkeeper 's expense. He orders the hotel owner and his guests to vacate the premises, leaving him its sole occupant. When Belding 's wife Sarah objects, he drags her, kicking and screaming, into her bedroom. The next morning, Sarah tells the Stranger that Duncan can not rest in peace, because he is buried in an unmarked grave outside of town.
The Stranger instructs the townspeople in defensive tactics, but they clearly lack the skills or courage for the job. He also orders that every building in town be painted blood red. Then, without explanation, he mounts his horse and rides out of town, pausing to replace "Lago '' on the town sign with "Hell ''.
Meanwhile, Bridges and his gang are on their way to Lago. The Stranger harasses them with dynamite and long - range rifle fire, leaving them to ponder the identity of their attacker. Returning to Lago, the Stranger inspects the preparations -- town painted red, townsmen with rifles stationed on rooftops, picnic tables laden with food and drink, and a big "WELCOME '' banner overhead -- then he remounts and departs again.
The Bridges gang arrives and easily overcomes the inept resistance of the townspeople. Bridges shoots several of the civic leaders who double - crossed them. By nightfall the town is in flames, and the terrified citizens are huddled in the saloon. A mysterious sound is heard in the street; when Cole Carlin walks outside to investigate, everyone listens in horror as he is whipped to death. Dan Carlin is found dead too, hanging from another whip. At last the Stranger reveals himself, beats Bridges to the draw, and kills him.
On his way out of town the following morning, the Stranger pauses at the cemetery as Mordecai is finishing a new grave marker. "I never did know your name '', Mordecai says. "Yes, you do '', the Stranger replies. As he rides past a bewildered Mordecai into the desert, the writing on the new headstone is revealed: Marshal Jim Duncan -- Rest in Peace.
Eastwood reportedly liked the offbeat quality of the film 's original nine - page proposal, and approached Universal with the idea of directing it. Under a joint production between Malpaso and Universal, the original screenplay was written by Ernest Tidyman, who had won a Best Screenplay Oscar for The French Connection. Tidyman 's screenplay was inspired by the real - life murder of Kitty Genovese in Queens in 1964, which eyewitnesses reportedly stood by and watched. Holes in the plot were filled in with black humor and allegory, influenced by Sergio Leone. An uncredited rewrite of the script was provided by Dean Riesner, screenwriter of other Eastwood projects.
Universal wanted Eastwood to shoot the feature on its back lot, but Eastwood opted instead to film on location. After scouting locations alone in a pickup truck in Oregon, Nevada and California, he settled on the "highly photogenic '' Mono Lake area. Over 50 technicians and construction workers built an entire town -- 14 houses, a church, and a two - story hotel -- in 18 days, using 150,000 feet of timber. Complete buildings, rather than facades, were built, so that Eastwood could shoot interior scenes on the site. Additional scenes were filmed at Reno, Nevada 's Winnemucca Lake and California 's Inyo National Forest. The film was completed in six weeks, two days ahead of schedule, and under budget.
The character of Marshal Duncan was played by Buddy Van Horn, Eastwood 's long - time stunt double, to suggest that he and the Stranger could be the same person. In an interview, Eastwood said that earlier versions of the script made the Stranger the dead marshal 's brother. He favored a less explicit and more supernatural interpretation, and excised the reference. The Italian, Spanish, French and German dubbings restored it. "It 's just an allegory, '' he said, "a speculation on what happens when they go ahead and kill the sheriff and somebody comes back and calls the town 's conscience to bear. There 's always retribution for your deeds. '' The graveyard set featured in the film 's final scene included tombstones inscribed "Sergio Leone '' and "Don Siegel '' as a humorous tribute to the two influential directors.
Universal released the R - rated High Plains Drifter in the United States in April 1973, and the film eventually grossed $15.7 million domestically, ultimately making it the sixth - highest grossing Western in North America in the decade of the 1970s and the 20th highest - grossing film released in 1973. The film was well received by many critics, and rates 96 % positive on Rotten Tomatoes.
The film had its share of detractors. A number of critics thought Eastwood 's directing derivative; Arthur Knight in Saturday Review remarked that Eastwood had "absorbed the approaches of Siegel and Leone and fused them with his own paranoid vision of society ''. Jon Landau of Rolling Stone concurred, noting "thematic shallowness '' and "verbal archness ''; but he expressed approval of the dramatic scenery and cinematography. John Wayne criticized the film 's iconoclastic approach; in a letter to Eastwood, he wrote, "That is n't what the West was all about. That is n't the American people who settled this country. '' The New York Times described the movie as "part ghost story, part revenge Western, more than a little silly, and often quite entertaining in a way that may make you wonder if you have lost your good sense ''.
The film was recognized by American Film Institute in 2008 on AFI 's 10 Top 10 in the category "Nominated Western Film ''.
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how much area india lost in kargil war | Kargil war - wikipedia
Decisive Indian victory
Indian official figures
Pakistani claims
Independent figures
Pakistani figures
Other Pakistani claims
Indian claims
The Kargil War (Hindi: करगिल युद्ध, kargil yuddh, Urdu: کرگل جنگ kargil jang), also known as the Kargil conflict, was an armed conflict between India and Pakistan that took place between May and July 1999 in the Kargil district of Kashmir and elsewhere along the Line of Control (LOC). In India, the conflict is also referred to as Operation Vijay (Hindi: विजय, literally "Victory '') which was the name of the Indian operation to clear the Kargil sector.
The cause of the war was the infiltration of Pakistani soldiers disguised as Kashmiri militants into positions on the Indian side of the LOC, which serves as the de facto border between the two states. During the initial stages of the war, Pakistan blamed the fighting entirely on independent Kashmiri insurgents, but documents left behind by casualties and later statements by Pakistan 's Prime Minister and Chief of Army Staff showed involvement of Pakistani paramilitary forces, led by General Ashraf Rashid. The Indian Army, later supported by the Indian Air Force, recaptured a majority of the positions on the Indian side of the LOC infiltrated by the Pakistani troops and militants. Facing international diplomatic opposition, the Pakistani forces withdrew from the remaining Indian positions along the LOC.
The war is one of the most recent examples of high - altitude warfare in mountainous terrain, which posed significant logistical problems for the combating sides. It is also one of the very few instances of direct, conventional warfare between nuclear states (i.e., those possessing nuclear weapons). India had conducted its first successful test in 1974; Pakistan, which had been developing its nuclear capability in secret since around the same time, conducted its first known tests in 1998, just two weeks after a second series of tests by India.
Before the Partition of India in 1947, Kargil was part of the Baltistan district of Ladakh, a sparsely populated region with diverse linguistic, ethnic and religious groups, living in isolated valleys separated by some of the world 's highest mountains. The First Kashmir War (1947 -- 48) concluded with the LOC bisecting the Baltistan district, with the town and district of Kargil lying on the Indian side in the Ladakh subdivision of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. After Pakistan 's defeat in the Indo - Pakistani War of 1971, the two nations signed the Simla Agreement promising not to engage in armed conflict with respect to that boundary.
The town of Kargil is located 205 km (127 mi) from Srinagar, facing the Northern Areas across the LOC. Like other areas in the Himalayas, Kargil has a continental climate. Summers are cool with frigid nights, while winters are long and chilly with temperatures often dropping to − 48 ° C (− 54 ° F).
An Indian national highway (NH 1D) connecting Srinagar to Leh cuts through Kargil. The area that witnessed the infiltration and fighting is a 160 km long stretch of ridges overlooking this only road linking Srinagar and Leh. The military outposts on the ridges above the highway were generally around 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) high, with a few as high as 5,485 metres (18,000 ft). Apart from the district capital, Kargil, the populated areas near the front line in the conflict included the Mushko Valley and the town of Drass, southwest of Kargil, as well as the Batalik sector and other areas, northeast of Kargil.
Kargil was targeted partly because the terrain was conducive to the preemptive seizure of several unoccupied military positions. With tactically vital features and well - prepared defensive posts atop the peaks, a defender on the high ground would enjoy advantages akin to a fortress. Any attack to dislodge a defender from high ground in mountain warfare requires a far higher ratio of attackers to defenders, and the difficulties would be exacerbated by the high altitude and freezing temperatures.
Kargil is just 173 km (107 mi) from the Pakistani - controlled town of Skardu, which was capable of providing logistical and artillery support to Pakistani combatants. A road between Kargil and Skardu exists, which was closed in 1949.
After the Indo - Pakistani War of 1971, there had been a long period with relatively few direct armed conflicts involving the military forces of the two neighbours -- notwithstanding the efforts of both nations to control the Siachen Glacier by establishing military outposts on the surrounding mountains ridges and the resulting military skirmishes in the 1980s. During the 1990s, however, escalating tensions and conflict due to separatist activities in Kashmir, some of which were supported by Pakistan, as well as the conducting of nuclear tests by both countries in 1998, led to an increasingly belligerent atmosphere. In an attempt to defuse the situation, both countries signed the Lahore Declaration in February 1999, promising to provide a peaceful and bilateral solution to the Kashmir conflict.
During the winter of 1998 -- 1999, some elements of the Pakistani Armed Forces were covertly training and sending Pakistani troops and paramilitary forces, some allegedly in the guise of mujahideen, into territory on the Indian side of the LOC. The infiltration was codenamed "Operation Badr ''; its aim was to sever the link between Kashmir and Ladakh, and cause Indian forces to withdraw from the Siachen Glacier, thus forcing India to negotiate a settlement of the broader Kashmir dispute. Pakistan also believed that any tension in the region would internationalise the Kashmir issue, helping it to secure a speedy resolution. Yet another goal may have been to boost the morale of the decade - long rebellion in Indian Administered Kashmir by taking a proactive role.
Pakistani Lieutenant general Shahid Aziz, and then head of ISI analysis wing, has confirmed there were no mujahideen but only regular Pakistan Army soldiers who took part in the Kargil War. "There were no Mujahideen, only taped wireless messages, which fooled no one. Our soldiers were made to occupy barren ridges, with hand held weapons and ammunition '', Lt Gen Aziz wrote in his article in The Nation daily in January 2013.
Some writers have speculated that the operation 's objective may also have been retaliation for India 's Operation Meghdoot in 1984 that seized much of Siachen Glacier.
According to India 's then army chief Ved Prakash Malik, and many scholars, much of the background planning, including construction of logistical supply routes, had been undertaken much earlier. On several occasions during the 1980s and 1990s, the army had given Pakistani leaders (Zia ul Haq and Benazir Bhutto) similar proposals for infiltration into the Kargil region, but the plans had been shelved for fear of drawing the nations into all - out war.
Some analysts believe that the blueprint of attack was reactivated soon after Pervez Musharraf was appointed chief of army staff in October 1998. After the war, Nawaz Sharif, Prime Minister of Pakistan during the Kargil conflict, claimed that he was unaware of the plans, and that he first learned about the situation when he received an urgent phone call from Atal Bihari Vajpayee, his counterpart in India. Sharif attributed the plan to Musharraf and "just two or three of his cronies '', a view shared by some Pakistani writers who have stated that only four generals, including Musharraf, knew of the plan. Musharraf, however, asserted that Sharif had been briefed on the Kargil operation 15 days ahead of Vajpayee 's journey to Lahore on 20 February.
There were three major phases to the Kargil War. First, Pakistan infiltrated forces into the Indian - controlled section of Kashmir and occupied strategic locations enabling it to bring NH1 within range of its artillery fire. The next stage consisted of India discovering the infiltration and mobilising forces to respond to it. The final stage involved major battles by Indian and Pakistani forces resulting in India recapturing most of the territories held by Pakistani forces and the subsequent withdrawal of Pakistani forces back across the Line of Control after international pressure.
During February 1999, the Pakistan Army sent forces to occupy some posts on the Indian side of the LOC. Troops from the elite Special Services Group as well as four to seven battalions of the Northern Light Infantry (a paramilitary regiment not part of the regular Pakistani army at that time) covertly and overtly set up bases on the vantage points of the Indian - controlled region. According to some reports, these Pakistani forces were backed by Kashmiri guerrillas and Afghan mercenaries. According to General Ved Malik, the bulk of the infiltration occurred in April 1999.
Pakistani intrusions took place in the heights of the lower Mushkoh Valley, along the Marpo La ridgeline in Dras, in Kaksar near Kargil, in the Batalik sector east of the Indus River, on the heights above of the Chorbatla sector where the LOC turns North and in the Turtok sector south of the Siachen area.
Initially, these incursions were not detected for a number of reasons: Indian patrols were not sent into some of the areas infiltrated by the Pakistani forces and heavy artillery fire by Pakistan in some areas provided cover for the infiltrators. But by the second week of May, the ambushing of an Indian patrol team led by Capt Saurabh Kalia, who acted on a tip - off by a local shepherd in the Batalik sector, led to the exposure of the infiltration. Initially, with little knowledge of the nature or extent of the infiltration, the Indian troops in the area assumed that the infiltrators were jihadis and claimed that they would evict them within a few days. Subsequent discovery of infiltration elsewhere along the LOC, and the difference in tactics employed by the infiltrators, caused the Indian army to realise that the plan of attack was on a much bigger scale. The total area seized by the ingress is generally accepted to between 130 km2 -- 200 km2;
The Government of India responded with Operation Vijay, a mobilisation of 200,000 Indian troops. However, because of the nature of the terrain, division and corps operations could not be mounted; subsequent fighting was conducted mostly at the regimental or battalion level. In effect, two divisions of the Indian Army, numbering 20,000, plus several thousand from the Paramilitary forces of India and the air force were deployed in the conflict zone. The total number of Indian soldiers that were involved in the military operation on the Kargil - Drass sector was thus close to 30,000. The number of infiltrators, including those providing logistical backup, has been put at approximately 5,000 at the height of the conflict. This figure includes troops from Pakistan - administered Kashmir who provided additional artillery support.
The Indian Air Force launched Operation Safed Sagar in support of the mobilisation of Indian land forces, but its effectiveness during the war was limited by the high altitude and weather conditions, which in turn limited bomb loads and the number of airstrips that could be used.
The Indian Navy also prepared to blockade the Pakistani ports (primarily the Karachi port) to cut off supply routes under Operation Talwar. The Indian Navy 's western and eastern fleets joined in the North Arabian Sea and began aggressive patrols and threatened to cut Pakistan 's sea trade. This exploited Pakistan 's dependence on sea - based oil and trade flows. Later, then - Prime Minister of Pakistan, Nawaz Sharif disclosed that Pakistan was left with just six days of fuel to sustain itself if a full - scale war had broken out.
The terrain of Kashmir is mountainous and at high altitudes; even the best roads, such as National Highway 1D from Leh to Srinagar, are only two lanes. The rough terrain and narrow roads slowed down traffic, and the high altitude, which affected the ability of aircraft to carry loads, made control of NH 1D (the actual stretch of the highway which was under Pakistani fire) a priority for India. From their observation posts, the Pakistani forces had a clear line - of - sight to lay down indirect artillery fire on NH 1D, inflicting heavy casualties on the Indians. This was a serious problem for the Indian Army as the highway was the main logistical and supply route. The Pakistani shelling of the arterial road posed the threat of Leh being cut off, though an alternative (and longer) road to Leh existed via Himachal Pradesh.
The infiltrators, apart from being equipped with small arms and grenade launchers, were also armed with mortars, artillery and anti-aircraft guns. Many posts were also heavily mined, with India later stating to have recovered more than 8,000 anti-personnel mines according to an ICBL report. Pakistan 's reconnaissance was done through unmanned aerial vehicles and AN / TPQ - 36 Firefinder radars supplied by the US. The initial Indian attacks were aimed at controlling the hills overlooking NH 1D, with high priority being given to the stretches of the highway near the town of Kargil. The majority of posts along the Line of Control were adjacent to the highway, and therefore the recapture of nearly every infiltrated post increased both the territorial gains and the security of the highway. The protection of this route and the recapture of the forward posts were thus ongoing objectives throughout the war.
The Indian Army 's first priority was to recapture peaks that were in the immediate vicinity of NH 1D. This resulted in Indian troops first targeting the Tiger Hill and Tololing complex in Dras, which dominated the Srinagar - Leh route. This was soon followed by the Batalik - Turtok sub-sector which provided access to Siachen Glacier. Some of the peaks that were of vital strategic importance to the Pakistani defensive troops were Point 4590 and Point 5353. While 4590 was the nearest point that had a view of NH 1D, point 5353 was the highest feature in the Dras sector, allowing the Pakistani troops to observe NH 1D. The recapture of Point 4590 by Indian troops on 14 June was significant, notwithstanding the fact that it resulted in the Indian Army suffering the most casualties in a single battle during the conflict. Though most of the posts in the vicinity of the highway were cleared by mid-June, some parts of the highway near Drass witnessed sporadic shelling until the end of the war.
Once India regained control of the hills overlooking NH 1D, the Indian Army turned to driving the invading force back across the Line of Control. The Battle of Tololing, amongst other assaults, slowly tilted the combat in India 's favour. The Pakistani troops at Tololing were aided by Pakistani fighters from Kashmir. Some of the posts put up a stiff resistance, including Tiger Hill (Point 5140) that fell only later in the war. Indian troops found well - entrenched Pakistani soldiers at Tiger Hill, and both sides suffered heavy casualties. After a final assault on the peak in which ten Pakistani soldiers and five Indian soldiers were killed, Tiger Hill finally fell. A few of the assaults occurred atop hitherto unheard of peaks -- most of them unnamed with only Point numbers to differentiate them -- which witnessed fierce hand to hand combat.
As the operation was fully underway, about 250 artillery guns were brought in to clear the infiltrators in the posts that were in the line - of - sight. The Bofors FH - 77B field howitzer played a vital role, with Indian gunners making maximum use of the terrain. However, its success was limited elsewhere due to the lack of space and depth to deploy it.
It was in this type of terrain that aerial attacks were used with limited effectiveness. French made Mirage 2000H of the IAF were tasked to drop laser - guided bombs to destroy well - entrenched positions of the Pakistani forces. The IAF lost a MiG - 27 strike aircraft, which it attributed to an engine failure, and a MiG - 21 fighter which was shot down by Pakistan; initially Pakistan said it shot down both jets after they crossed into its territory. One Indian Mi - 8 helicopter was also lost due to Stinger SAMs. On 27 May 1999, Flt. Lt. Nachiketa developed engine trouble in the Batalik sector and bailed out of his craft. Sqn Ldr Ajay Ahuja went out of his way to locate his comrade but was shot down by a shoulder - fired Stinger missile. According to reports, he had bailed out of his stricken plane safely but was apparently killed by his captors as his body was returned riddled with bullet wounds.
In many vital points, neither artillery nor air power could dislodge the outposts manned by the Pakistani soldiers, who were out of visible range. The Indian Army mounted some direct frontal ground assaults which were slow and took a heavy toll given the steep ascent that had to be made on peaks as high as 18,000 feet (5,500 m). Since any daylight attack would be suicidal, all the advances had to be made under the cover of darkness, escalating the risk of freezing. Accounting for the wind chill factor, the temperatures were often as low as − 15 ° C to − 11 ° C (12 ° F to 5 ° F) near the mountain tops. Based on military tactics, much of the costly frontal assaults by the Indians could have been avoided if the Indian Military had chosen to blockade the supply route of the opposing force, creating a siege. Such a move would have involved the Indian troops crossing the LoC as well as initiating aerial attacks on Pakistani soil, a manoeuvre India was not willing to exercise fearing an expansion of the theatre of war and reduced international support for its cause.
Two months into the conflict, Indian troops had slowly retaken most of the ridges that were encroached by the infiltrators; according to the official count, an estimated 75 % -- 80 % of the intruded area and nearly all the high ground were back under Indian control.
Following the outbreak of armed fighting, Pakistan sought American help in de-escalating the conflict. Bruce Riedel, who was then an aide to President Bill Clinton, reported that US intelligence had imaged Pakistani movements of nuclear weapons to forward deployments for fear of the Kargil hostilities escalating into a wider conflict. However, President Clinton refused to intervene until Pakistan had removed all forces from the Indian side of the Line of Control. Following the Washington accord of 4 July 1999, when Sharif agreed to withdraw Pakistani troops, most of the fighting came to a gradual halt, but some Pakistani forces remained in positions on the Indian side of the LOC. In addition, the United Jihad Council (an umbrella for extremist groups) rejected Pakistan 's plan for a climb - down, instead deciding to fight on.
The Indian army launched its final attacks in the last week of July; as soon as the Drass subsector had been cleared of Pakistani forces, the fighting ceased on 26 July. The day has since been marked as Kargil Vijay Diwas (Kargil Victory Day) in India. By the end of the war, Pakistan had to withdraw under international pressure and due to pressure from continued fighting at battle front and left India in control of all territory south and east of the Line of Control, as was established in July 1972 as per the Simla Agreement.
Pakistan was criticised by other countries for instigating the war, as its paramilitary forces and insurgents crossed the Line of Control. Pakistan 's primary diplomatic response, one of plausible deniability linking the incursion to what it officially termed as "Kashmiri freedom fighters '', was in the end not successful. Veteran analysts argued that the battle was fought at heights where only seasoned troops could survive, so poorly equipped "freedom fighters '' would neither have the ability nor the wherewithal to seize land and defend it. Moreover, while the army had initially denied the involvement of its troops in the intrusion, two soldiers were awarded the Nishan - E-Haider (Pakistan 's highest military honour). Another 90 soldiers were also given gallantry awards, most of them posthumously, confirming Pakistan 's role in the episode. India also released taped phone conversations between the Army Chief and a senior Pakistani general where the latter is recorded saying: "the scruff of (the militants) necks is in our hands '', although Pakistan dismissed it as a "total fabrication ''. Concurrently, Pakistan made several contradicting statements, confirming its role in Kargil, when it defended the incursions saying that the LOC itself was disputed. Pakistan also attempted to internationalise the Kashmir issue, by linking the crisis in Kargil to the larger Kashmir conflict but, such a diplomatic stance found few backers on the world stage.
As the Indian counter-attacks picked up momentum, Pakistani prime minister Nawaz Sharif flew to meet US President Bill Clinton on 4 July to obtain support from the United States. Clinton rebuked Sharif, however, and asked him to use his contacts to rein in the militants and withdraw Pakistani soldiers from Indian territory. Clinton would later reveal in his autobiography that "Sharif 's moves were perplexing '' since the Indian Prime Minister had travelled to Lahore to promote bilateral talks aimed at resolving the Kashmir problem and "by crossing the Line of Control, Pakistan had wrecked the (bilateral) talks ''. On the other hand, he applauded Indian restraint for not crossing the LoC and escalating the conflict into an all - out war.
G8 nations supported India and condemned the Pakistani violation of the LOC at the Cologne summit. The European Union also opposed Pakistan 's violation of the LOC. China, a long - time ally of Pakistan, insisted on a pullout of forces to the pre-conflict positions along the LOC and settling border issues peacefully. Other organisations like the ASEAN Regional Forum too supported India 's stand on the inviolability of the LOC.
Faced with growing international pressure, Sharif managed to pull back the remaining soldiers from Indian territory. The joint statement issued by Clinton and Sharif conveyed the need to respect the Line of Control and resume bilateral talks as the best forum to resolve all disputes.
A number of Indian soldiers earned awards for gallantry:
Two Pakistani soldiers received the Nishan - e-Haider, Pakistan 's highest military gallantry award:
The Kargil War was significant for the impact and influence of the mass media on public opinion in both nations. Coming at a time of exploding growth in electronic journalism in India, the Kargil news stories and war footage were often telecast live on TV, and many websites provided in - depth analysis of the war. The conflict became the first "live '' war in South Asia and it was given such detailed media coverage that one effect was the drumming up of jingoistic feelings.
The conflict soon turned into a news propaganda war, in which press briefings given by government officials of each nation produced conflicting claims and counterclaims. The Indian government placed a temporary News Embargo on information from Pakistan, banning the telecast of the state - run Pakistani channel PTV and blocking access to online editions of the Dawn newspaper. The Pakistani media criticised this apparent curbing of freedom of the press in India, while India media claimed it was in the interest of national security. The Indian government ran advertisements in foreign publications including The Times and The Washington Post detailing Pakistan 's role in supporting extremists in Kashmir in an attempt to garner political support for its position.
As the war progressed, media coverage of the conflict was more intense in India than in Pakistan. Many Indian channels showed images from the battle zone in a style reminiscent of CNN 's coverage of the Gulf War (one of the shells fired by Pakistan troops even hit a Doordarshan transmission centre in Kargil while coverage continued). Reasons for India 's increased coverage included the greater number of privately owned electronic media in India compared to Pakistan and relatively greater transparency in the Indian media. At a seminar in Karachi, Pakistani journalists agreed that while the Indian government had taken the press and the people into its confidence, Pakistan had not.
The print media in India and abroad was largely sympathetic to the Indian cause, with editorials in newspapers based in the west and other neutral countries observing that Pakistan was largely responsible for the conflict. Some analysts believe that Indian media, which was both larger in number and more credible, may have acted as a force multiplier for the Indian military operation in Kargil and served as a morale booster. As the fighting intensified, the Pakistani version of events found little backing on the world stage. This helped India gain valuable diplomatic recognition for its position.
Since Pakistan and India each had weapons of mass destruction, many in the international community were concerned that if the Kargil conflict intensified, it could lead to nuclear war. Both countries had tested their nuclear capability in 1998 (India conducted its first test in 1974 while it was Pakistan 's first - ever nuclear test). Many pundits believed the tests to be an indication of the escalating stakes in the scenario in South Asia. When the Kargil conflict started just a year after the nuclear tests, many nations desired to end it before it intensified.
International concerns increased when Pakistani foreign secretary Shamshad Ahmad made a statement on 31 May warning that an escalation of the limited conflict could lead Pakistan to use "any weapon '' in its arsenal. This was immediately interpreted as a threat of nuclear retaliation by Pakistan in the event of an extended war, and the belief was reinforced when the leader of Pakistan 's senate noted, "The purpose of developing weapons becomes meaningless if they are not used when they are needed ''. Many such ambiguous statements from officials of both countries were viewed as warnings of an impending nuclear crisis where the combatants would consider use of their limited nuclear arsenals in "tactical '' nuclear warfare in the belief that it would not have ended in mutual assured destruction, as could have occurred in a nuclear conflict between the United States and the USSR. Some experts believe that following nuclear tests in 1998, the Pakistani military was emboldened by its nuclear deterrent to markedly increase coercion against India.
The nature of the India - Pakistan conflict took a more sinister turn when the United States received intelligence that Pakistani nuclear warheads were being moved towards the border. Bill Clinton tried to dissuade Pakistan prime minister Nawaz Sharif from nuclear brinkmanship, even threatening Pakistan of dire consequences. According to a White House official, Sharif seemed to be genuinely surprised by this supposed missile movement and responded that India was probably planning the same. In a May 2000 article, Sanjay Badri - Maharaj claimed that India too had readied at least five nuclear - tipped ballistic missiles, but could not back up this claim with any official proof.
Sensing a deteriorating military scenario, diplomatic isolation, and the risks of a larger conventional and nuclear war, Sharif ordered the Pakistani army to vacate the Kargil heights. He later claimed in his official biography that General Pervez Musharraf had moved nuclear warheads without informing him. Recently however, Pervez Musharraf revealed in his memoirs that Pakistan 's nuclear delivery system was not operational during the Kargil war; something that would have put Pakistan under serious disadvantage if the conflict went nuclear.
The threat of WMD included chemical and even biological weapons. Pakistan accused India of using chemical weapons and incendiary weapons such as napalm against the Kashmiri fighters. India, on the other hand, showcased a cache of gas masks as proof that Pakistan may have been prepared to use non-conventional weapons. US official and the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons determined that Pakistani allegations of India using banned chemicals in its bombs were unfounded.
From the end of the war until February 2000, the Indian stock market rose by more than 30 %. The next Indian national budget included major increases in military spending.
There was a surge in patriotism, with many celebrities expressing their support for the Kargil cause. Indians were angered by media reports of the death of pilot Ajay Ahuja, especially after Indian authorities reported that Ahuja had been murdered and his body mutilated by Pakistani troops. The war had produced higher than expected fatalities for the Indian military, with a sizeable percentage of them including newly commissioned officers. One month after conclusion of the Kargil War, the Atlantique Incident, in which a Pakistan Navy plane was shot down by India, briefly reignited fears of a conflict between the two countries.
After the war, the Indian government severed ties with Pakistan and increased defence preparedness. India increased its defence budget as it sought to acquire more state of the art equipment. Media reported about military procurement irregularities and criticism of intelligence agencies like Research and Analysis Wing, which failed to predict the intrusions or the identity / number of infiltrators during the war. An internal assessment report by the armed forces, published in an Indian magazine, showed several other failings, including "a sense of complacency '' and being "unprepared for a conventional war '' on the presumption that nuclearism would sustain peace. It also highlighted the lapses in command and control, the insufficient troop levels and the dearth of large - calibre guns like the Bofors. In 2006, retired Air Chief Marshal, A. Y. Tipnis, alleged that the Indian Army did not fully inform the government about the intrusions, adding that the army chief Ved Prakash Malik, was initially reluctant to use the full strike capability of the Indian Air Force, instead requesting only helicopter gunship support. Soon after the conflict, India also decided to complete the project, previously stalled by Pakistan, to fence the entire LOC.
The end of the Kargil conflict was followed by the 13th Indian General Elections to the Lok Sabha, which gave a decisive mandate to the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government. It was re-elected to power in September -- October 1999 with a majority of 303 seats out of 545 in the Lok Sabha. On the diplomatic front, Indo - US relations improved, as the United States appreciated Indian attempts to restrict the conflict to a limited geographic area. Relations with Israel -- which had discreetly aided India with ordnance supply and matériel such as unmanned aerial vehicles, laser - guided bombs, and satellite imagery -- also were bolstered.
Soon after the war the Atal Bihari Vajpayee government set up an inquiry into its causes and to analyse perceived Indian intelligence failures. The high - powered committee was chaired by eminent strategic affairs analyst K. Subrahmanyam and given powers to interview anyone with current or past associations with Indian security, including former Prime Ministers. The committee 's final report (also referred to as the "Subrahmanyam Report '') led to a large - scale restructuring of Indian Intelligence. It, however, came in for heavy criticism in the Indian media for its perceived avoidance of assigning specific responsibility for failures over detecting the Kargil intrusions. The Committee was also embroiled in controversy for indicting Brigadier Surinder Singh of the Indian Army for his failure to report enemy intrusions in time, and for his subsequent conduct. Many press reports questioned or contradicted this finding and claimed that Singh had in fact issued early warnings that were ignored by senior Indian Army commanders and, ultimately, higher government functionaries.
In a departure from the norm the final report was published and made publicly available. Some chapters and all annexures, however, were deemed to contain classified information by the government and not released. K. Subrahmanyam later wrote that the annexures contained information on the development of India 's nuclear weapons program and the roles played by Prime Ministers Rajiv Gandhi, P. V. Narasimha Rao and V. P. Singh.
Shortly after declaring itself a nuclear weapons state, Pakistan had been humiliated diplomatically and militarily. Faced with the possibility of international isolation, the already fragile Pakistan economy was weakened further. The morale of Pakistan forces after the withdrawal declined as many units of the Northern Light Infantry suffered heavy casualties. The government refused to accept the dead bodies of many officers, an issue that provoked outrage and protests in the Northern Areas. Pakistan initially did not acknowledge many of its casualties, but Sharif later said that over 4,000 Pakistani troops were killed in the operation. Responding to this, Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf said, "It hurts me when an ex-premier undermines his own forces '', and claimed that Indian casualties were more than that of Pakistan. The legacy of Kargil war still continues to be debated on Pakistan 's news channels and television political correspondents, which Musharraf repeatedly appeared to justify.
Many in Pakistan had expected a victory over the Indian military based on Pakistani official reports on the war, but were dismayed by the turn of events and questioned the eventual retreat. The military leadership is believed to have felt let down by the prime minister 's decision to withdraw the remaining fighters. However, some authors, including Musharraf 's close friend and former American CENTCOM Commander General Anthony Zinni, and former Prime minister Nawaz Sharif, state that it was General Musharraf who requested Sharif to withdraw the Pakistani troops. In 2012, Musharraf 's senior officer and retired major - general Abdul Majeed Malik maintained that Kargil was a "total disaster '' and bitterly criticised General Musharraf. Pointing out the fact that Pakistan was in no position to fight India in that area; the Nawaz Sharif government initiated the diplomatic process by involving the US President Bill Clinton and got Pakistan out of the difficult scenario. Malik maintained that soldiers were not "Mujaheddin '' but active - duty serving officers and soldiers of the Pakistan Army.
In a national security meeting with Prime minister Nawaz Sharif at the Joint Headquarters, General Musharraf became heavily involved with serious altercations with Chief of Naval Staff Admiral Fasih Bokhari who ultimately called for a court - martial against General Musharraf. Taking participation in the arguments, Chief of Air Staff Air Chief Marshal PQ Mehdi quoted that "any intervention by the Navy and the PAF into disputed land of Indian - controlled Kashmir would be perceived as an escalation to all - out declared war ''. After witnessing Musharraf 's criticism given to his fellow officers, ACM PQ Mehdi decided to give Musharraf a favour after issuing orders to PAF 's F - 16s for the patrolling missions near the Skardu Valley. The Pakistan Navy largely remained camouflaged during the entire conflict, and only submarines were deployed for patrolling missions. With Sharif placing the onus of the Kargil attacks squarely on the army chief Pervez Musharraf, there was an atmosphere of uneasiness between the two. On 12 October 1999, General Musharraf staged a bloodless coup d'état, ousting Nawaz Sharif.
Benazir Bhutto, an opposition leader in the parliament and former prime minister, called the Kargil War "Pakistan 's greatest blunder ''. Many ex-officials of the military and the Inter-Services Intelligence (Pakistan 's principal intelligence agency) also believed that "Kargil was a waste of time '' and "could not have resulted in any advantage '' on the larger issue of Kashmir. A retired Pakistan Army 's Lieutenant - General Ali Kuli Khan, lambasted the war as "a disaster bigger than the East Pakistan tragedy '', adding that the plan was "flawed in terms of its conception, tactical planning and execution '' that ended in "sacrificing so many soldiers ''. The Pakistani media criticised the whole plan and the eventual climbdown from the Kargil heights since there were no gains to show for the loss of lives and it only resulted in international condemnation.
Despite calls by many, no public commission of inquiry was set up in Pakistan to investigate the people responsible for initiating the conflict. The Pakistan Muslim League (PML (N)) published a white paper in 2006, which stated that Nawaz Sharif constituted an inquiry committee that recommended a court martial for General Pervez Musharraf, but Musharraf "stole the report '' after toppling the government, to save himself. The report also claims that India knew about the plan 11 months before its launch, enabling a complete victory for India on military, diplomatic and economic fronts. A statement in June 2008 by a former X Corps commander and Director - General of Military Intelligence (M.I.) that time, Lieutenant - General (retired) Jamshed Gulzar Kiani said that: "As Prime minister, Nawaz Sharif "was never briefed by the army '' on the Kargil attack, reignited the demand for a probe of the episode by legal and political groups.
Though the Kargil conflict had brought the Kashmir dispute into international focus, which was one of Pakistan 's aims, it had done so in negative circumstances that eroded its credibility, since the infiltration came just after a peace process between the two countries was underway. The sanctity of the LOC too received international recognition. President Clinton 's move to ask Islamabad to withdraw hundreds of armed militants from Indian - administered Kashmir was viewed by many in Pakistan as indicative of a clear shift in US policy against Pakistan.
After the war, a few changes were made to the Pakistan armed forces. In recognition of the Northern Light Infantry 's performance in the war, which even drew praise from a retired Indian Lt. General, the regiment was incorporated into the regular army. The war showed that despite a tactically sound plan that had the element of surprise, little groundwork had been done to gauge the politico - diplomatic ramifications. And like previous unsuccessful infiltrations attempts, such as Operation Gibraltar, which sparked the 1965 war, there was little co-ordination or information sharing among the branches of the Pakistani Armed Forces. One US Intelligence study is reported to have stated that Kargil was yet another example of Pakistan 's (lack of) grand strategy, repeating the follies of the previous wars. In 2013, General Musharraf 's close collaborator and confidential subordinate Lieutenant General (retired) Shahid Aziz revealed to Pakistan 's news televisions and electronic media, that "(Kargil) adventure ' was India 's intelligence failure and Pakistan 's miscalculated move, the Kargil operation was known only to General Parvez Musharraf and four of his close collaborators ''.
Pakistan army losses have been difficult to determine. Pakistan confirmed that 453 soldiers were killed. The US Department of State had made an early, partial estimate of close to 700 fatalities. According to numbers stated by Nawaz Sharif there were over 4,000 fatalities. His PML (N) party in its "white paper '' on the war mentioned that more than 3,000 Mujahideens, officers and soldiers were killed. Another major Pakistani political party, the Pakistan Peoples Party, also says that "thousands '' of soldiers and irregulars died. Indian estimates stand at 1,042 Pakistani soldiers killed. Musharraf, in his Hindi version of his memoirs, titled "Agnipath '', differs from all the estimates stating that 357 troops were killed with a further 665 wounded. Apart from General Musharraf 's figure on the number of Pakistanis wounded, the number of people injured in the Pakistan camp is not yet fully known although they are at least more than 400 according to Pakistan army 's website. One Indian pilot was officially captured during the fighting, while there were eight Pakistani soldiers who were captured during the fighting, and were repatriated on 13 August 1999. India gave its official casualty figures as 527 dead and 1,363 wounded.
The Kargil War memorial, built by the Indian Army, is located in Dras, in the foothills of the Tololing Hill. The memorial, located about 5 km from the city centre across the Tiger Hill, commemorates the martyrs of the Kargil War. A poem "Pushp Kii Abhilasha '' (Wish of a Flower) by Makhanlal Chaturvedi, a renowned 20th century neo-romantic Hindi poet, is inscribed on the gateway of the memorial greets visitors. The names of the soldiers who lost their lives in the War are inscribed on the Memorial Wall and can be read by visitors. A museum attached to the Kargil War Memorial, which was established to celebrate the victory of ' Operation Vijay ', houses pictures of Indian soldiers, archives of important war documents and recordings, Pakistani war equipments and gear, and official emblems of the Army from the Kargil war.
A giant national flag, weighing 15 kg was hoisted at the Kargil war memorial to commemorate the 13th anniversary of India 's victory in the war.
The brief conflict provided considerable dramatic material for filmmakers and authors in India. Some documentaries which were shot on the subject were used by the ruling party coalition, led by Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), in furthering its election campaign that immediately followed the war. The following is a list of the major films and dramas on the subject.
Many other movies like Tango Charlie drew heavily upon the Kargil episode, which still continues to be a plot for mainstream movies with a Malayalam movie Keerthi Chakra.
The impact of the war in the sporting arena was visible during the India - Pakistan clash in the 1999 Cricket World Cup, which coincided with the Kargil timeline. The game witnessed heightened passions and was one of the most viewed matches in the tournament.
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where in london is the new american embassy | Embassy of the United States, London - wikipedia
The Embassy of the United States of America in London is the diplomatic mission of the United States in the United Kingdom. It is the largest American embassy in Western Europe and the focal point for events relating to the United States held in the United Kingdom.
The new embassy in Nine Elms, London has been open to the public since 13 December 2017, and was formally opened on 16 January 2018. From 1960 to 2018, it was located in the London Chancery Building in Grosvenor Square, Westminster, London.
The American legation in London was first situated in Great Cumberland Place, later moving to Piccadilly, 98 Portland Place (1863 -- 1866), and 123 Victoria Street in Westminster (1883 -- 1893). The legation was upgraded to an embassy in 1893 and remained at Victoria Street until 1912, when it moved to 4 Grosvenor Gardens. In 1938, the embassy was moved to 1 Grosvenor Square (Macdonald House) (which also used to host part of the Canadian High Commission).
During this time, Grosvenor Square began to accommodate many U.S. government offices, including the headquarters of General Dwight D. Eisenhower and the European headquarters of the United States Navy. Following World War II, the Duke of Westminster donated land for a memorial to wartime President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
The American Embassy London Chancery Building was designed by Finnish American modernist architect Eero Saarinen and constructed in the late 1950s, opening in 1960. The United States paid only a symbolic peppercorn rent to the Duke of Westminster for use of the land. In response to an American offer to buy the site outright, the duke 's trustee requested the return of ancestral lands confiscated following the American Revolutionary War, namely the city of Miami.
The building has nine storeys, three of which are below ground. A large gilded aluminum bald eagle by Theodore Roszak, with a wingspan of over 11 metres (35 feet) is situated on the roof of the Chancery Building, making it a recognizable London landmark. In October 2009, the building was granted Grade II listed status. The building has been described as a modernist classic and architectural gem.
In March 1968, a crowd of some 10,000 demonstrated at Trafalgar Square against US involvement in the Vietnam War, before marching to Grosvenor Square. The Metropolitan Police had attempted to cordon off part of the square nearest to the embassy and there was violence as the crowd broke through the police line. Police horses were used to regain control. 200 demonstrators were arrested and 50 people needed hospital treatment including 25 police officers, one of them with a serious spinal injury. In October of the same year, during a demonstration organised by the Vietnam Solidarity Campaign, a splinter group of 6,000 demonstrators returned to the square. A thousand police officers formed a cordon that the protesters failed to breach and remained relatively peaceful until the crowd began to disperse when there was disorder in the neighbouring streets.
Security at the former embassy was tightened in the 1980s and 1990s following successive terrorist attacks on U.S. embassies and consulates worldwide. However, it was after the September 11 attacks in 2001 that security was significantly increased. A massive security operation at the embassy has seen one side of Grosvenor Square closed to public access by car, and armed roadblocks are stationed outside the building. On August 29, 2002, Kerim Chatty, a Swedish citizen of Tunisian descent, was arrested at Stockholm - Västerås Airport trying to board a Ryanair Flight 685 destined for London Stansted Airport with a loaded gun in his luggage. Anonymous intelligence sources cited in the media claimed that the man was planning to hijack the aircraft and crash it into the United States embassy in London, using the rooftop eagle to identify it from the air. Sweden 's Security Service, Säpo, denied the claims and called the reports "false information ''. The man was subsequently cleared of all terrorism - related charges.
The security threat against the embassy prompted the U.S. government to consider moving the embassy. Several British media outlets reported that the U.S. government had wished to use Kensington Palace as their embassy, which allegedly had been vetoed by Queen Elizabeth II, as several members of the British Royal Family have their residences there. The embassy "strenuously denied '' the reports, and a spokesman for Buckingham Palace reported that no formal request had been made. Another possible option was Chelsea Barracks, for which the U.S. Embassy made an unsuccessful bid in February 2007.
On October 8, 2008, the embassy announced a conditional agreement with the real estate developer Ballymore Group to purchase property for a new embassy site on the South Bank of the River Thames in the Nine Elms area of the London Borough of Wandsworth. The site lies within the Vauxhall / Nine Elms / Battersea Opportunity Area as set out in the London Plan. The proposed plan would only go forward if approved by the United States Congress and by the local planning authority. The Northern line extension to Battersea will have new stations at Battersea and Nine Elms -- combined with major local development. The United States Department of State announced in January 2009 that it was choosing among nine architectural firms, all "modern '' and "upmarket '', to replace the ageing embassy headquarters. In March 2009 the U.S. Department of State 's Bureau of Overseas Buildings Operations announced that four architectural firms had been selected for the final phase of the design competition. By law, the architect for a U.S. embassy must be an American firm with "numerous security clearances ''.
In November 2009, the U.S. government conditionally agreed to sell the lease of the Grosvenor Square Chancery Building to Qatari real - estate investment firm Qatari Diar, which in 2007 purchased the Chelsea Barracks. Though the price was undisclosed, the lease 's worth was estimated at £ 500 million in July 2000. The development value of the property was reduced when the building was given Grade II listed status, requiring developers to maintain its current design. The building is now one of Mayfair 's 238 listed buildings and monuments. In 2016 plans were approved for the conversion of the building into a hotel.
On February 23, 2010, the U.S. government announced that a team led by the firm of KieranTimberlake had won the competition to design the new embassy building and surrounding green spaces. The winning design resembles a crystalline cube, with a semi-circular pond on one side (called a "moat '' by The Times) and surrounded by extensive public green spaces and the Embassy Gardens housing development.
Ground was broken on November 13, 2013, and the building opened to the public on December 13, 2017. US President Donald Trump had been expected to visit in February 2018 to undertake the official opening of the new embassy, but, in January 2018 announced he would not make the trip. Trump publicly criticized the cost of the new embassy and its location, as well as the apparent price received for the sale of the lease of the building in Grosvenor Square, blaming the administration of his predecessor, Barack Obama for making what he referred to as a "bad deal ''. However, the decision to move the embassy was made before the Obama administration.
The United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom is Woody Johnson, who was confirmed by the Senate on August 3, 2017. He was sworn in by Vice President Mike Pence on August 21, 2017.
There are also American consulates general in Belfast and Edinburgh, a Welsh Affairs Office in Cardiff, and a contact centre Glasgow.
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why is the jaguar brazil's national animal | National symbols of Brazil - wikipedia
This list contains national symbols of the Federative Republic of Brazil.
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black ink cree chicago season 4 episode 8 | Black Ink Crew - wikipedia
Black Ink Crew is an American reality television series that airs on VH1 and debuted on January 7, 2013. It chronicles the daily operations and staff drama at an African American - owned and operated tattoo shop in Harlem, New York. The spinoff Black Ink Crew: Chicago premiered October 26, 2015. On October 31, 2017, Black Ink Crew was renewed for a sixth season, which premiered on December 6, 2017. On August 20, 2018, the series was renewed for a seventh season, which will premiere on September 19, 2018.
Black Ink Crew 's second season premiered on September 23, 2013, with the season returning on March 31, 2014, for five more episodes. The third season premiered on January 26, 2015, with the season returning August 24, 2015 for eight more episodes and a reunion special on October 19, 2015. The show was renewed for a fourth season, which premiered on April 4, 2016.
September 19, 2018.
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the lyrics to take me out to the ballgame | Take Me Out to the Ball Game - wikipedia
"Take Me Out to the Ball Game '' is a 1908 Tin Pan Alley song by Jack Norworth and Albert Von Tilzer which has become the unofficial anthem of North American baseball, although neither of its authors had attended a game prior to writing the song. The song 's chorus is traditionally sung during the middle of the seventh inning of a baseball game. Fans are generally encouraged to sing along, and at some ballparks, the words "home team '' are replaced with the team name.
Jack Norworth, while riding a subway train, was inspired by a sign that said "Baseball Today -- Polo Grounds ''. In the song, Katie 's beau calls to ask her out to see a show. She accepts the date, but only if her date will take her out to the baseball game. The words were set to music by Albert Von Tilzer. (Norworth and Von Tilzer finally saw their first Major League Baseball games 32 and 20 years later, respectively.) The song was first sung by Norworth 's then - wife Nora Bayes and popularized by many other vaudeville acts. It was played at a ballpark for the first known time in 1934, at a high - school game in Los Angeles; it was played later that year during the fourth game of the 1934 World Series.
Norworth wrote an alternative version of the song in 1927. (Norworth and Bayes were famous for writing and performing such hits as "Shine On, Harvest Moon ''.) With the sale of so many records, sheet music, and piano rolls, the song became one of the most popular hits of 1908. The Haydn Quartet singing group, led by popular tenor Harry MacDonough, recorded a successful version on Victor Records.
The most famous recording of the song was credited to "Billy Murray and the Haydn Quartet '', even though Murray did not sing on it. The confusion, nonetheless, is so pervasive that, when "Take Me Out to the Ball Game '' was selected by the National Endowment for the Arts and the Recording Industry Association of America as one of the 365 top "Songs of the Century '', the song was credited to Billy Murray, implying his recording of it as having received the most votes among songs from the first decade. The first recorded version was by Edward Meeker. Meeker 's recording was selected by the Library of Congress as a 2010 addition to the National Recording Registry, which selects recordings annually that are "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
Below are the lyrics of the 1908 version, which is out of copyright.
Katie Casey was baseball mad, Had the fever and had it bad. Just to root for the home town crew, Ev'ry sou Katie blew. On a Saturday her young beau Called to see if she 'd like to go To see a show, but Miss Kate said "No, I 'll tell you what you can do: '' Chorus Take me out to the ball game, Take me out with the crowd; Buy me some peanuts and Cracker Jack, I do n't care if I never get back. Let me root, root, root for the home team, If they do n't win, it 's a shame. For it 's one, two, three strikes, you 're out, At the old ball game. Katie Casey saw all the games, Knew the players by their first names. Told the umpire he was wrong, All along, Good and strong. When the score was just two to two, Katie Casey knew what to do, Just to cheer up the boys she knew, She made the gang sing this song:
The term "sou '', a coin of French origin, was at the time common slang for a low - denomination coin. In French the expression "sans le sou '' means penniless. Carly Simon 's version, produced for Ken Burns ' 1994 documentary Baseball, reads "Ev'ry cent / Katie spent ''.
Though not so indicated in the lyrics, the chorus is usually sung with a pause in the middle of the word "Cracker '', giving "Cracker Jack '' a pronunciation "Crac -- - ker Jack ''. Also, there is a noticeable pause between the first and second "root ''.
The song (or at least its chorus) has been recorded or cited countless times in the 100 years since it was written. The original music and 1908 lyrics of the song will not revert to the public domain in the United States and the United Kingdom until September 1, 2029, or 70 years after the composers ' deaths; as well, the copyright to the revised 1927 lyrics still remain in effect. It has been used as an instrumental underscore or introduction to many films or skits having to do with baseball.
Copyright Clarification: Musical works before 1923 are public domain (United States). Recorded songs is another matter. The written music and 1908 lyrics is considered public domain in the United States. However, the UK uses the 70 - years past death rule.
The first verse of the 1927 version is sung by Gene Kelly and Frank Sinatra at the start of the MGM musical film, Take Me Out to the Ball Game (1949), a movie that also features a song about the famous and fictitious double play combination, O'Brien to Ryan to Goldberg.
Bing Crosby included the song in a medley on his album Join Bing and Sing Along (1959)
In the early to mid-1980s, the Kidsongs Kids recorded a different version of this song for A Day at Old MacDonald 's Farm.
In the mid-1990s, a Major League Baseball ad campaign featured versions of the song performed by musicians of several different genres. An alternative rock version by the Goo Goo Dolls was also recorded. Multiple genre Louisiana singer - songwriter Dr. John and pop singer Carly Simon both recorded different versions of the song for the PBS documentary series Baseball, by Ken Burns.
In 2001, Nike aired a commercial featuring a diverse group of Major League Baseball players singing lines of the song in their native languages. The players and languages featured were Ken Griffey, Jr. (American English), Alex Rodriguez (Caribbean Spanish), Chan Ho Park (Korean), Kazuhiro Sasaki (Japanese), Graeme Lloyd (Australian English), Éric Gagné (Québécois French), Andruw Jones (Dutch), John Franco (Italian), Iván Rodríguez (Caribbean Spanish), and Mark McGwire (American English).
The iconic song has been used and alluded to in many different ways:
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law about taking photographs in a public place | Photography and the law - wikipedia
The intellectual property rights on photographs are protected in different jurisdictions by the laws governing copyright and moral rights. In some cases photography may be restricted by civil or criminal law. Publishing certain photographs can be restricted by privacy or other laws. Photography of certain subject matter can be generally restricted in the interests of public morality and the protection of children.
Reactions to photography differ between societies, and even where there are no official restrictions there may be objections to photographing people or places. Reactions may range from complaints to violence for photography which is not illegal.
In the United Kingdom there are no laws forbidding photography of private property from a public place. Photography on private land is not restricted if the landowner has given permission. However, landowners are permitted to impose any conditions they wish upon entry to a property, including forbidding or restricting photography. Two public locations in the UK, Trafalgar Square and Parliament Square, have a specific provision against photography for commercial purposes without the written permission of the Mayor, or the Squares ' Management Team and paying a fee, and permission is needed to photograph or film for commercial purposes in the Royal Parks.
Persistent or aggressive photography of a single individual may come under the legal definition of harassment.
It is contempt of court, a criminal offence, to take a photograph in any court of law of any person, being a judge of the court or a juror or a witness in or a party to any proceedings before the court, whether civil or criminal, or to publish such a photograph. This includes photographs taken in a court building or the precincts of the court. Taking a photograph in a court can be seen as a serious offence, leading to a prison sentence. The prohibition on taking photographs in the precincts is vague. It was designed to prevent the undermining of the dignity of the court, through the exploitation of images in low brow "picture papers ''.
Photography of certain subject matter is restricted in the United Kingdom. In particular, the Protection of Children Act 1978 restricts making or possessing pornography of children under 18, or what looks like pornography of under - 18s. There is no law prohibiting photographing children in public spaces.
It is an offence under the Counter-Terrorism Act 2008 to publish or communicate a photograph of a constable (not including PCSOs), a member of the armed forces, or a member of the security services, which is of a kind likely to be useful to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism. There is a defence of acting with a reasonable excuse; however, the burden of proof is on the defence, under section 58A of the Terrorism Act 2000. A PCSO in 2009 cited Section 44 of the Terrorism Act 2000 to prevent a member of the public photographing him. Section 44 actually concerns stop and search powers. However, in January 2010 the stop - and - search powers granted under Section 44 were ruled illegal by the European Court of Human Rights.
Following a prolonged campaign, including a series of demonstrations by photographers dealt with by police officers and PCSOs, the Metropolitan Police was forced to issue updated legal advice which confirms that "Members of the public and the media do not need a permit to film or photograph in public places and police have no power to stop them filming or photographing incidents or police personnel '' and that "The power to stop and search someone under Section 44 of the Terrorism Act 2000 no longer exists. ''
It is an offence under section 58 of the Terrorism Act 2000 to take a photograph of a kind likely to be useful to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism, or possessing such a photograph. There is an identical defence of reasonable excuse. This offence (and possibly, but not necessarily the s. 58 (a) offence) covers only a photograph as described in s. 2 (3) (b) of the Terrorism Act 2006. As such, it must be of a kind likely to provide practical assistance to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism. Whether the photograph in question is such is a matter for a jury, which is not required to look at the surrounding circumstances. The photograph must contain information of such a nature as to raise a reasonable suspicion that it was intended to be used to assist in the preparation or commission of an act of terrorism. It must call for an explanation. A photograph which is innocuous on its face will not fall foul of the provision if the prosecution adduces evidence that it was intended to be used for the purpose of committing or preparing a terrorist act. The defence may prove a reasonable excuse simply by showing that the photograph is possessed for a purpose other than to assist in the commission or preparation of an act of terrorism, even if the purpose of possession is otherwise unlawful.
Copyright can subsist in an original photograph, i.e. a recording of light or other radiation on any medium on which an image is produced or from which an image by any means be produced, and which is not part of a film. Whilst photographs are classified as artistic works, the subsistence of copyright does not depend on artistic merit. The owner of the copyright in the photograph is the photographer -- the person who creates it, by default. However, where a photograph is taken by an employee in the course of employment, the first owner of the copyright is the employer, unless there is an agreement to the contrary.
Copyright which subsists in a photograph protects not merely the photographer from direct copying of his / her work, but also from indirect copying to reproduce his / her work, where a substantial part of his / her work has been copied.
Copyright in a photograph lasts for 70 years from the end of the year in which the photographer dies. A consequence of this lengthy period of existence of the copyright is that many family photographs which have no market value, but significant emotional value, remain subject to copyright, even when the original photographer can not be traced (a problem known as copyright orphan), has given up photography, or died. In the absence of a licence, it will be an infringement of copyright in the photographs to copy them. When someone dies the rights will have transferred to someone else, perhaps through testamentary deposition (a will) or by inheritance. If there was no will, or if the photographer has not specified where the rights in the material should go, then the normal rules of inheritance will apply (although these rules are not specific to copyright and legal advice should be sought). Scanning old family photographs, without permission, to a digital file for personal use is prima facie an infringement of copyright.
Certain photographs may not be protected by copyright. Section 171 (3) of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 gives courts jurisdiction to refrain from enforcing the copyright which subsists in works on the grounds of public interest. For example, patent diagrams are held to be in the public domain, and are thus not subject to copyright.
Infringement of the copyright which subsists in a photograph can be performed through copying the photograph. This is because the owner of the copyright in the photograph has the exclusive right to copy the photograph. For there to be infringement of the copyright in a photograph, there must be copying of a substantial part of the photograph. A photograph can also be a mechanism of infringement of the copyright which subsists in another work. For example, a photograph which copies a substantial part of an artistic work, such as a sculpture, painting or another photograph (without permission) would infringe the copyright which subsists in those works.
However, the subject matter of a photograph is not necessarily subject to an independent copyright. For example, in the Creation Records case, a photographer, attempting to create a photograph for an album cover, set up an elaborate and artificial scene. A photographer from a newspaper covertly photographed the scene and published it in the newspaper. The court held that the newspaper photographer did not infringe the official photographer 's copyright. Copyright did not subsist in the scene itself -- it was too temporary to be a collage, and could not be categorised as any other form of artistic work.
The protection of photographs in this manner has been criticised on two grounds. Firstly, it is argued that photographs should not be protected as artistic works, but should instead be protected in a manner similar to that of sound recordings and films. In other words, copyright should not protect the subject matter of a photograph as a matter of course as a consequence of a photograph being taken. It is argued that protection of photographs as artistic works is anomalous, in that photography is ultimately a medium of reproduction, rather than creation. As such, it is more similar to a film, or sound recording than a painting or sculpture. Some photographers share this view. For example, Michael Reichmann described photography as an art of disclosure, as opposed to an art of inclusion. Secondly, it is argued that the protection of photographs as artistic works leads to bizarre results. Subject matter is protected irrespective of the artistic merit of a photograph. The subject matter of a photograph is protected even when it is not deserving of protection. For copyright to subsist in photographs as artistic works, the photographs must be original, since the English test for originality is based on skill, labour and judgment. That said, it is possible that the threshold of originality is very low. Essentially, by this, Arnold is arguing that whilst the subject matter of some photographs may deserve protection, it is inappropriate for the law to presume that the subject matter of all photographs is deserving of protection.
It is possible to say with a high degree of confidence that photographs of three - dimensional objects, including artistic works, will be treated by a court as themselves original artistic works, and as such, will be subject to copyright. It is likely that a photograph (including a scan -- digital scanning counts as photography for the purposes of the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988) of a two dimensional artistic work, such as another photograph or a painting will also be subject to copyright if a significant amount of skill, labour and judgment went into its creation.
A right to privacy came into existence in UK law as a consequence of the incorporation of the European Convention on Human Rights into domestic law through the Human Rights Act 1998. This can result in restrictions on the publication of photography.
Whether this right is caused by horizontal effect of the Human Rights Act 1998 or is judicially created is a matter of some controversy. The right to privacy is protected by Article 8 of the convention. In the context of photography, it stands at odds to the Article 10 right of freedom of expression. As such, courts will consider the public interest in balancing the rights through the legal test of proportionality.
A very limited statutory right to privacy exists in the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. This right is held, for example, by someone who hires a photographer to photograph their wedding. The commissioner, irrespective of any copyright which he does or does not hold in the photograph, of a photograph which was commissioned for private and domestic purposes, where copyright subsists in the photograph, has the right not to have copies of the work issued to the public, the work exhibited in public or the work communicated to the public. However, this right will not be infringed if the rightholder gives permission. It will not be infringed if the photograph is incidentally included in an artistic work, film, or broadcast.
Local, state, and national laws govern still and motion photography. Laws vary between jurisdictions, and what is not illegal in one place may be illegal in another. Typical laws in the United States are as follows:
Federal legislation governs the questions of copyright and criminal offences with respect to photography. Otherwise, the common law (except, in the case of Quebec, the Civil Code of Quebec), generally determines when photography can take place.
In some public property owned by government, such as law courts, government buildings, libraries, civic centres and some of the museums in Hong Kong, photography is not allowed without permission from the government. It is illegal to equip or take photographs and recording in a place of public entertainment, such as cinemas and indoor theaters.
In private property, photography may be prohibited or restricted by a property owner on their property.
Photography on private property that is generally open to the public (e.g., a shopping mall) is usually permitted unless explicitly prohibited by posted signs. Even if no such signs are posted, the property owner or agent can ask a person to stop photographing, and if the person refuses to do so, the owner or agent can ask the person to leave; in some jurisdictions, a person who refuses to leave can be arrested for criminal trespass, and many jurisdictions recognize the common - law right to use reasonable force to remove a trespasser; a person who forcibly resists a lawful removal may be liable for battery, assault, or both.
In Hungary, from 15 March 2014 when the long - awaited Civil Code was published, the law re-stated what had been normal practice, namely, that a person had the right to refuse being photographed. However, implied consent exists: it is not illegal to photograph a person who does not actively object.
In Macau, a photographer must not take or publish any photographs of a person against his / her will without legal justification, even in a public place. Besides, everyone has a right to Personality Rights. People are not to be photographed, photographs of them displayed or reproduced without their prior consent. Criminal penalties include imprisonment. Additionally, photography of police officers in Macau is illegal.
In South Africa photographing people in public is legal. Reproducing and selling photographs of people is legal for editorial and limited fair use commercial purposes. There exists no case law to define what the limits on commercial use are. Civil law requires the consent of any identifiable persons for advertorial and promotional purposes. Property, including animals, do not enjoy any special consideration.
During the media coverage of the Nkandla controversy it emerged that there exists a law, the National Key Points Act, 1980, prohibiting the photographing of any "national key points. '' National key points are buildings or structures that serve a strategic or military purpose. Though it was n't revealed what these are as part of state secrecy it was claimed that the presidential residence is one of them and should thus not be shown in media. Subsequent court action resulted in it being ruled that a list of all key points be made public. Although not currently or previously enforced the law is still in effect even after calls for it to be repealed as a relic of apartheid - era secrecy legislation.
Travelers who wish to take any photographs must obtain a photography permit from the Ministry of Interior, Department of Aliens (Sudan) or Ministry of Information (South Sudan).
Regulations apply to land - based photography for certain locations. A permit is required for aerial photography in India, which normally takes over a month to be issued.
Calling oneself a photographer, in line with most other trades in Iceland, requires the person to hold a Journeyman 's or Master 's Certificates in the industry. Exceptions can be made in low population areas, or for people coming from within the EEA.
Taking pictures of police officers in many circumstances was made illegal by a 2015 "Citizens ' Security Law '' with the stated purpose of protecting police officers and their families from harassment. The law has generated controversy because it may be harder to denounce police brutality. A far more limited version of the law had been in effect for several decades regarding when police work related to terrorism. A person was fined under this law for taking and publishing online a photograph of an illegally parked police car.
Mexican law is similar to the law in the United States. Authorities may intimidate or prevent any holder of a camera if they come into close perimeters of Government buildings.
In South Korea, taking pictures of women without their consent, even in public, is considered to be criminal sexual assault, punishable by a fine of under 10 million won and up to 5 years imprisonment. In July 2017 an amendment to the law was voted on in favour of allowing for chemical castration of people taking such photographs.
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who plays arthur in kingsman the golden circle | Kingsman: the Golden Circle - wikipedia
Kingsman: The Golden Circle is a 2017 action - adventure spy comedy film co-produced and directed by Matthew Vaughn and written by Vaughn and Jane Goldman. It is a sequel to Kingsman: The Secret Service (2014) which is based on the comic book series Kingsman, created by Dave Gibbons and Mark Millar. The film features Colin Firth, Taron Egerton, Mark Strong, Edward Holcroft, Hanna Alström and Sophie Cookson reprising their roles from the first film with Julianne Moore, Halle Berry, Pedro Pascal, Elton John, Channing Tatum and Jeff Bridges joining the cast. The plot follows the members of Kingsman needing to team up with their American counterpart, Statesman, after the world is held hostage by Poppy Adams and her drug cartel, "The Golden Circle ''.
Kingsman: The Golden Circle premiered in London on 18 September 2017 and was theatrically released in the United Kingdom on 20 September 2017 in 3D and 2D and in the United States on 22 September 2017 in IMAX. It has grossed $407 million worldwide against a budget of $104 million and received mixed reviews from critics with the use of new characters and over-stylized action being met with a polarized reception and the 141 minute runtime being criticized.
A year has passed since Eggsy Unwin and the secret organisation Kingsman saved the world from Richmond Valentine 's neurological wave broadcast. He has since taken his late mentor Harry Hart 's title of Galahad and lives with Tilde, Crown Princess of Sweden. On his way home from the tailor shop, he is ambushed by Charlie Hesketh, a former Kingsman trainee who lost his arm and vocal cords during the Valentine incident. Eggsy evades Charlie with his henchmen in a car chase across London, but Charlie 's severed cybernetic arm hacks into the Kingsman servers through the car 's computer system. While Eggsy is away in Sweden, a volley of missiles destroy the Kingsman headquarters and wipe out all of the agents in Britain, including Eggsy 's best friend Roxy; his dog JB and his non-agent friend Brandon are also killed.
Being the only surviving agents, Eggsy and Merlin follow an emergency protocol which leads them to Statesman, a secret American organisation posing as a Bourbon whiskey distillery in Kentucky. There, they discover that Harry survived Valentine 's gunshot a year earlier, but is suffering from amnesia and has lost an eye. After a briefing from Statesman head Champagne about a secret terrorist organisation called The Golden Circle, the two agencies begin their mission by targeting Charlie 's ex-girlfriend Clara Von Gluckfberg. When Statesman agent Tequila develops a blue rash, he is replaced by agent Whiskey as Eggsy 's partner. Eggsy manages to plant a tracking device on Clara during an encounter, but his revelation of the mission to Princess Tilde strains their relationship. After several failed attempts to cure Harry 's amnesia, Eggsy triggers Harry 's memories by threatening to shoot a Cairn Terrier puppy that resembles Harry 's late dog.
The Golden Circle proves to be the world 's largest drug cartel. Its leader, Poppy Adams, broadcasts a message telling the world about a toxin she has added to all recreational drugs, which causes users to develop blue rashes before progressing through mania, paralysis, and ultimately, death. She also demonstrates the antidote on a captive Elton John and offers it to the world if the President of the United States ends his country 's War on drugs and grants immunity from prosecution to her cartel. The President decides to have every affected user quarantined, including his Chief of Staff, Fox, with the intention of letting them all die in order to put Poppy out of business. Eggsy, Harry, and Whiskey head to the antidote factory in Italy after intercepting a phone call to Charlie by Clara. Eggsy manages to steal an antidote sample, but it is broken by Whiskey during an ambush by The Golden Circle 's henchmen. During the gunfight, Harry shoots Whiskey in the head, as he suspects that Whiskey is playing both sides, but Eggsy saves him with the same technology that Statesman had used to save Harry. Princess Tilde calls Eggsy in a state of mania, revealing that she has been affected by the blue rash. Eggsy, Harry, and Merlin discover the location of Poppy 's hideout, "Poppy Land '', in Cambodia and fly there to steal the remote control which deploys the antidote drones.
Upon their arrival at Poppy Land, Eggsy steps on a land mine, but Merlin sacrifices himself to save him and Harry, killing the compound 's guards as well. Eggsy and Harry storm through the lair; Eggsy kills Charlie, while Harry destroys Poppy 's robotic attack dogs with the help of Elton. They secure the laptop that controls the drones and inject Poppy with a concentrated dose of her toxin, and Poppy gives them the password before dying from its effects. Whiskey interrupts them before they can deploy the drones, revealing that he is working alone in order to wipe out all drug users; his pregnant wife had died years earlier in a robbery committed by two methamphetamine users. Eggsy and Harry fight and kill Whiskey, then deploy the drones to release the antidote and save the affected victims throughout the world.
In the aftermath, Fox has the President impeached for conspiring to commit genocide on the drug victims. Champagne announces that Statesman has acquired a distillery in Scotland to help rebuild Kingsman. To avoid the confusion of two agents using the "Galahad '' codename, he offers to name either Eggsy or Harry as the new Whiskey. Both of them decline, but tech support specialist Ginger Ale volunteers for the position and is voted in by the membership. Eggsy marries Princess Tilde, and Tequila visits the new Kingsman shop in London after acquiring a formal suit.
Michael Gambon portrays Sir Giles / Arthur, the head of Kingsman and Sophie Cookson reprises her role as Roxanne "Roxy '' Morton / Lancelot. Flashback footage from The Secret Service includes Samuel L. Jackson and Sofia Boutella as Richmond Valentine and Gazelle, respectively. Tobias Bakare and Theo Barklem - Biggs return as Eggsy 's friends Jamal and Ryan, with Thomas Turgoose and Calvin Demba introduced as two of Eggsy 's other friends, Liam and Brandon. Furthermore, Samantha Womack makes a brief return appearance as Michelle Unwin, Eggsy 's mother. Keith Allen and Tom Benedict Knight feature as Charles and Angel, two of Poppy 's henchmen, while Mark Arnold portrays General McCoy, an advisor to the President of the United States. Björn Granath (in his final film performance) and Lena Endre feature as the King and Queen of Sweden, respectively. Shannon Bream and Bill Hemmer of Fox News appear as themselves.
Near the release of Kingsman: The Secret Service, Mark Millar and Matthew Vaughn stated that a sequel would be possible if the first film was to perform well at the box office, and Vaughn expressed interest in returning to direct. Vaughn also noted that he had hoped to have Firth back in the sequel, though it was later stated that Firth would not be returning.
On 29 April 2015, Fox announced that a sequel was in production, but that it was unclear if Vaughn would return due to his interest in directing a Flash Gordon film. On 11 June 2015, Vaughn told Yahoo that he had begun writing the script for the sequel, and that he could return to direct. In September 2015, Millar reiterated that the sequel was in development, and that Vaughn was looking for ways to bring Firth back without sacrificing the integrity of the story. Later that month, The Hollywood Reporter confirmed that Egerton had also signed on for a new Robin Hood film, which was then set to begin shooting in February 2016; Egerton 's schedule was thus in conflict with the Kingsman sequel. However, in mid-October, it was confirmed that scheduling issues had been settled between both studios. Lionsgate began Robin Hood 's production right after Egerton wrapped filming on Kingsman: The Golden Circle, which began in May 2016. The Beige bomber jacket for Channing Tatum 's character and a shearling coat worn by Colin Firth 's Harry Hart were tailored by Cromford Leather, an UK designer brand and maker of luxury leather clothing.
On 17 February 2016, it was revealed that Julianne Moore was in negotiations to play the villain in the film. On 10 March 2016, Halle Berry was cast in the film, in a role that later turned out to be the Statesmen 's tech support. In late March, Vaughn confirmed Berry 's and Moore 's casting, as well as the title, Kingsman: The Golden Circle. On 8 April 2016, Pedro Pascal was cast in the film as Jack Daniels, and on the same day, a promotional poster was released featuring Firth 's character 's glasses, confirming Firth 's return for the film; Firth 's return was later officially confirmed on 11 July 2016. Channing Tatum confirmed his casting through his Twitter account, while Variety reported that Elton John was in talks for a role. In late April, Vaughn talked about writing the sequel, and stated "writing this was the hardest thing I 've ever done. '' Jeff Bridges was added to the cast on 28 May 2016. Vinnie Jones announced on Twitter that he had been cast, though he did not appear in the finished film.
Principal photography on the film began on 15 May 2016 in Birmingham. Filming also took place in Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden. The cable car and antidote factory scenes were shot on Skyway Monte Bianco and Pointe Helbronner, located in Courmayeur, Aosta Valley, in northern Italy and Sri Lanka (dompe pola gawa, biyagama yabaraluwa). On 13 September 2016, Kingsman: The Golden Circle completed initial filming. Additional footage was filmed on location in London in December 2016.
Henry Jackman and Matthew Margeson reunited to compose the music for the film. The soundtrack was released on iTunes on 22 September 2017 by Fox Music and is scheduled for a CD release on October by La - La Land Records.
20th Century Fox originally scheduled Kingsman: The Golden Circle for a summer release date of 16 June 2017 but pushed the film back to 6 October 2017. The film was then moved up to 20 September in the United Kingdom and 22 September 2017 in the United States likely to avoid competition with Blade Runner 2049. The film had an IMAX release.
On 20 July 2017, Fox released an animated Kingsman / Archer crossover short film featuring Eggsy and Sterling Archer. On 18 September, Fox released a TV advert featuring a mock Kingsman board game.
In May 2017, TAG Heuer partnered with Fox to make the TAG Heuer Connected the official watch of the Kingsman agents. In August 2017, FOX partnered with Old Forester to release a Statesman edition of their 95 proof Bourbon whisky for the U.S. market. In addition, GlenDronach released a Kingsman Edition 1991 of their scotch whisky. Director Vaughn cited GlenDronach as his favourite scotch whisky brand, and the distillery used casks from 1991, as it is the fictional year of Eggsy 's birth. Only 240 bottles have been allocated to the U.S. market, all of which are signed by Vaughn. In addition, Berry Bros. & Rudd released a Kingsman edition of their No. 3 London Dry Gin. In September 2017, Hard Rock Cafe introduced the "Poppy Burger '' in their menu to promote the film.
On 8 September 2017, luxury retailer Mr Porter opened its first Kingsman shop between Berry Bros. & Rudd and Lock & Co. Hatters on St James 's Street in Central London. Both the Kingsman shop and Berry Bros. & Rudd were integral locations for this film, while Lock & Co. was featured in the first film.
In August 2017, it was confirmed that Kingsman: The Golden Circle would have a tie - in game to accompany its release, and that it would be a turn - based match - 3 role - playing combat game, released on iOS and Android by the Korean mobile game company NHN PixelCube. The game also includes characters from Kingsman: The Secret Service, and was released globally on 14 September 2017, about a week before the film 's release. Unlike the films, the game does not have graphic violence or explicit language, but it is classified a "12 + '' rating for "mild realistic violence ''. In the days before the film 's release, another mobile game based on the Kingsman franchise, simply titled Kingsman: The Secret Service, was announced to be in development also for iOS and Android, by American mobile game developer YesGnome. The game is a hybrid action adventure - construction simulator, where players construct impregnable secret bases, similar to Fallout Shelter, while infiltrating enemy bases in run - and - gun missions based on the plot of at least the first film. The Android version is currently in early access. Both games are free - to - play, offer in - app purchases, and support online player - versus - player multiplayer, with the former game requiring an Internet connection to play.
The film was released on Blu - ray on 12 December 2017. A Target exclusive gift set includes four whiskey stones. The Walmart exclusive gift set comes with a Funko Pocket Pop! Eggsy keychain. A limited edition steelbook packaging is available exclusively at Best Buy in the U.S., HMV in the UK, and JB Hi - Fi in Australia.
Kingsman: The Golden Circle has grossed $100.2 million in the United States and Canada and $307.6 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $407.8 million against a production budget of $104 million.
In North America, the film was released alongside The Lego Ninjago Movie and Friend Request and was projected to gross $40 -- 45 million from 4,003 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $3.4 million from Thursday night previews at 3,100 theaters up from the $1.4 million made by the first film and $15.3 million on its first day. It went on to open to $39 million, an increase over the first film 's $36.2 million debut and topping the box office, overtaking two - time defender It. In its second week, the film initially made a projected gross of $17 million, finishing second at the box office behind It. However the following day, actual results had the film finishing atop It by a gross of $16.93 million to $16.90 million and also beat out newcomer American Made ($16.8 million). The film made $8.7 million and $5.3 million in its third and fourth weeks, finishing 5th and 7th respectively. The film dropped 47 % in its second weekend, making $5.7 million and falling to 5th.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 51 % based on 239 reviews, and an average rating of 5.3 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads "Kingsman: The Golden Circle offers more of everything that made its predecessor so much fun but lacks the original 's wild creative spark ''. On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 44 out of 100, based on 43 critics indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale, the same score earned by its predecessor.
Writing for Uproxx, Amy Nicholson called the film better than the first writing: "Kingsman: The Golden Circle has matured just enough. Its doubled down on the mayhem and hammered out the tone. Everything is sincere even when it 's insane ''. Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film 2.5 out of 4 stars and wrote "The stunts defy the laws of gravity but are no less fun for that; watch out for the fight on the ski lift. Even when Kingsman: The Golden Circle goes off the rails and it inevitably does, this cracked caper wears you down with action and giggles. Sometimes overkill can hurt so good ''. Christopher Orr from The Atlantic said in his review "The movie is too long, too violent, too silly - too everything. Yet for those who enjoyed the original Kingsman, it is a more than adequate second act. To put it another way: First time satire, second time farce ''.
Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film 1.5 / 4 stars and said "Kingsman: The Golden Circle offers everything -- several bored Oscar winners; two scenes featuring death by meat grinder; Elton John, mugging in close - up -- except a good time ''. Wendy Ide, reviewing the film for The Guardian, gave it 1 / 5 stars and called it "a knowing sneer of a movie that shrugs off its plot holes along with a particularly unsavoury attitude to violence and a tendency to use female characters as the decorative punchline to jokes ''. Writing for RogerEbert.com, Glenn Kenny gave the film 0 / 4 stars saying: "As action - packed as the movie is, it feels like it 's six hours. That 's in part because the pacing is so spavined; the movie lurches twitchily from set piece to set piece and spends inordinate amounts of time on shots of its sharp - dressed characters slow - motioning into the widescreen frames showing off accessories that will be sold to you by various companies in various Kingsman tie - ins all over the Internet ''. Other critics on Rotten Tomatoes have said "The film will find its audience with the arduous fans of the original, if there is such a public and even then they will have to settle for a considerably more vulgar and nonsensical version ''.
Vaughn has stated that he and Goldman have a third Kingsman film planned. In the September 2017 edition of Total Film, Egerton revealed that his personal choice for the role of the villain of Kingsman 3 is Dwayne Johnson. He also went on to suggest that this sequel may be the last as he envisions the Kingsman franchise to be a trilogy.
Vaughn has also revealed that with the success of the Kingsman films, he is interested in making a Statesman spin - off.
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who figured out the mechanics of evolution known as natural selection | Alfred Russel Wallace - wikipedia
Alfred Russel Wallace OM FRS (8 January 1823 -- 7 November 1913) was a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, and biologist. He is best known for independently conceiving the theory of evolution through natural selection; his paper on the subject was jointly published with some of Charles Darwin 's writings in 1858. This prompted Darwin to publish his own ideas in On the Origin of Species. Wallace did extensive fieldwork, first in the Amazon River basin and then in the Malay Archipelago, where he identified the faunal divide now termed the Wallace Line, which separates the Indonesian archipelago into two distinct parts: a western portion in which the animals are largely of Asian origin, and an eastern portion where the fauna reflect Australasia.
He was considered the 19th century 's leading expert on the geographical distribution of animal species and is sometimes called the "father of biogeography ''. Wallace was one of the leading evolutionary thinkers of the 19th century and made many other contributions to the development of evolutionary theory besides being co-discoverer of natural selection. These included the concept of warning colouration in animals, and the Wallace effect, a hypothesis on how natural selection could contribute to speciation by encouraging the development of barriers against hybridisation. Wallace 's 1904 book Man 's Place in the Universe was the first serious attempt by a biologist to evaluate the likelihood of life on other planets. He was also one of the first scientists to write a serious exploration of the subject of whether there was life on Mars.
Wallace was strongly attracted to unconventional ideas (such as evolution). His advocacy of spiritualism and his belief in a non-material origin for the higher mental faculties of humans strained his relationship with some members of the scientific establishment.
Aside from scientific work, he was a social activist who was critical of what he considered to be an unjust social and economic system (capitalism) in 19th - century Britain. His interest in natural history resulted in his being one of the first prominent scientists to raise concerns over the environmental impact of human activity. He was also a prolific author who wrote on both scientific and social issues; his account of his adventures and observations during his explorations in Singapore, Indonesia and Malaysia, The Malay Archipelago, was both popular and highly regarded. Since its publication in 1869 it has never been out of print.
Wallace had financial difficulties throughout much of his life. His Amazon and Far Eastern trips were supported by the sale of specimens he collected and, after he lost most of the considerable money he made from those sales in unsuccessful investments, he had to support himself mostly from the publications he produced. Unlike some of his contemporaries in the British scientific community, such as Darwin and Charles Lyell, he had no family wealth to fall back on, and he was unsuccessful in finding a long - term salaried position, receiving no regular income until he was awarded a small government pension, through Darwin 's efforts, in 1881.
Alfred Wallace was born in the Welsh village of Llanbadoc, near Usk, Monmouthshire. He was the seventh of nine children of Thomas Vere Wallace and Mary Anne Greenell. Mary Anne was English; Thomas Wallace was probably of Scottish ancestry. His family, like many Wallaces, claimed a connection to William Wallace, a leader of Scottish forces during the Wars of Scottish Independence in the 13th century. Thomas Wallace graduated in law, but never practised law. He owned some income - generating property, but bad investments and failed business ventures resulted in a steady deterioration of the family 's financial position. His mother was from a middle - class English family from Hertford, north of London. When Wallace was five years old, his family moved to Hertford. There he attended Hertford Grammar School until financial difficulties forced his family to withdraw him in 1836, when he was aged 14.
Wallace then moved to London to board with his older brother John, a 19 - year - old apprentice builder. This was a stopgap measure until William, his oldest brother, was ready to take him on as an apprentice surveyor. While in London, Alfred attended lectures and read books at the London Mechanics Institute. Here he was exposed to the radical political ideas of the Welsh social reformer Robert Owen and of Thomas Paine. He left London in 1837 to live with William and work as his apprentice for six years.
At the end of 1839, they moved to Kington, Hereford, near the Welsh border, before eventually settling at Neath in Glamorgan in Wales. Between 1840 and 1843, Wallace did land surveying work in the countryside of the west of England and Wales. By the end of 1843, William 's business had declined due to difficult economic conditions, and Wallace, at the age of 20, left in January.
One result of Wallace 's early travels is a modern controversy about his nationality. Since Wallace was born in Monmouthshire, some sources have considered him to be Welsh. However, some historians have questioned this because neither of his parents was Welsh, his family only briefly lived in Monmouthshire, the Welsh people Wallace knew in his childhood considered him to be English, and because Wallace himself consistently referred to himself as English rather than Welsh (even when writing about his time in Wales). One Wallace scholar has stated that the most reasonable interpretation is therefore that he was an Englishman born in Wales.
After a brief period of unemployment, he was hired as a master at the Collegiate School in Leicester to teach drawing, mapmaking, and surveying. Wallace spent many hours at the library in Leicester: he read An Essay on the Principle of Population by Thomas Robert Malthus, and one evening he met the entomologist Henry Bates. Bates was 19 years old, and in 1843 he had published a paper on beetles in the journal Zoologist. He befriended Wallace and started him collecting insects. William died in March 1845, and Wallace left his teaching position to assume control of his brother 's firm in Neath, but his brother John and he were unable to make the business work. After a few months, Wallace found work as a civil engineer for a nearby firm that was working on a survey for a proposed railway in the Vale of Neath.
Wallace 's work on the survey involved spending a lot of time outdoors in the countryside, allowing him to indulge his new passion for collecting insects. Wallace persuaded his brother John to join him in starting another architecture and civil engineering firm, which carried out a number of projects, including the design of a building for the Neath Mechanics ' Institute, founded in 1843. William Jevons, the founder of that institute, was impressed by Wallace and persuaded him to give lectures there on science and engineering. In the autumn of 1846, John and he purchased a cottage near Neath, where they lived with their mother and sister Fanny (his father had died in 1843).
During this period, he read avidly, exchanging letters with Bates about Robert Chambers ' anonymously published evolutionary treatise Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, Charles Darwin 's The Voyage of the Beagle, and Charles Lyell 's Principles of Geology.
Inspired by the chronicles of earlier travelling naturalists, including Alexander von Humboldt, Charles Darwin and especially William Henry Edwards, Wallace decided that he too wanted to travel abroad as a naturalist. In 1848, Wallace and Henry Bates left for Brazil aboard the Mischief. Their intention was to collect insects and other animal specimens in the Amazon Rainforest for their private collections, selling the duplicates to museums and collectors back in Britain in order to fund the trip. Wallace also hoped to gather evidence of the transmutation of species.
Wallace and Bates spent most of their first year collecting near Belém, then explored inland separately, occasionally meeting to discuss their findings. In 1849, they were briefly joined by another young explorer, botanist Richard Spruce, along with Wallace 's younger brother Herbert. Herbert left soon thereafter (dying two years later from yellow fever), but Spruce, like Bates, would spend over ten years collecting in South America.
Wallace continued charting the Rio Negro for four years, collecting specimens and making notes on the peoples and languages he encountered as well as the geography, flora, and fauna. On 12 July 1852, Wallace embarked for the UK on the brig Helen. After 26 days at sea, the ship 's cargo caught fire and the crew was forced to abandon ship. All of the specimens Wallace had on the ship, mostly collected during the last two, and most interesting, years of his trip, were lost. He managed to save a few notes and pencil sketches and little else.
Wallace and the crew spent ten days in an open boat before being picked up by the brig Jordeson, which was sailing from Cuba to London. The Jordeson 's provisions were strained by the unexpected passengers, but after a difficult passage on very short rations the ship finally reached its destination on 1 October 1852.
After his return to the UK, Wallace spent 18 months in London living on the insurance payment for his lost collection and selling a few specimens that had been shipped back to Britain prior to his starting his exploration of the Rio Negro until the Indian town of Jativa on Orinoco River basin and as far west as Micúru (Mitú) on the Uaupés River. He was deeply impressed by the grandeur of the virgin forest, by the variety and beauty of the butterflies and birds, and by his first encounter with Indians on the Uaupés River area, an experience he never forgot. During this period, despite having lost almost all of the notes from his South American expedition, he wrote six academic papers (which included "On the Monkeys of the Amazon '') and two books; Palm Trees of the Amazon and Their Uses and Travels on the Amazon. He also made connections with a number of other British naturalists -- most significantly, Darwin.
From 1854 to 1862, age 31 to 39, Wallace travelled through the Malay Archipelago or East Indies (now Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia), to collect specimens for sale and to study natural history. A set of 80 bird skeletons he collected in Indonesia and associated documentation can be found in the Cambridge University Museum of Zoology. His observations of the marked zoological differences across a narrow strait in the archipelago led to his proposing the zoogeographical boundary now known as the Wallace line.
Wallace collected more than 126,000 specimens in the Malay Archipelago (more than 80,000 beetles alone). Several thousand of them represented species new to science. One of his better - known species descriptions during this trip is that of the gliding tree frog Rhacophorus nigropalmatus, known as Wallace 's flying frog. While he was exploring the archipelago, he refined his thoughts about evolution and had his famous insight on natural selection. In 1858 he sent an article outlining his theory to Darwin; it was published, along with a description of Darwin 's own theory, in the same year.
Accounts of his studies and adventures there were eventually published in 1869 as The Malay Archipelago, which became one of the most popular books of scientific exploration of the 19th century, and has never been out of print. It was praised by scientists such as Darwin (to whom the book was dedicated), and Charles Lyell, and by non-scientists such as the novelist Joseph Conrad, who called it his "favorite bedside companion '' and used it as source of information for several of his novels, especially Lord Jim.
In 1862, Wallace returned to England, where he moved in with his sister Fanny Sims and her husband Thomas. While recovering from his travels, Wallace organised his collections and gave numerous lectures about his adventures and discoveries to scientific societies such as the Zoological Society of London. Later that year, he visited Darwin at Down House, and became friendly with both Charles Lyell and Herbert Spencer. During the 1860s, Wallace wrote papers and gave lectures defending natural selection. He also corresponded with Darwin about a variety of topics, including sexual selection, warning colouration, and the possible effect of natural selection on hybridisation and the divergence of species. In 1865, he began investigating spiritualism.
After a year of courtship, Wallace became engaged in 1864 to a young woman whom, in his autobiography, he would only identify as Miss L. Miss L. was the daughter of Lewis Leslie who played chess with Wallace. However, to Wallace 's great dismay, she broke off the engagement. In 1866, Wallace married Annie Mitten. Wallace had been introduced to Mitten through the botanist Richard Spruce, who had befriended Wallace in Brazil and who was also a good friend of Annie Mitten 's father, William Mitten, an expert on mosses. In 1872, Wallace built the Dell, a house of concrete, on land he leased in Grays in Essex, where he lived until 1876. The Wallaces had three children: Herbert (1867 -- 1874), Violet (1869 -- 1945), and William (1871 -- 1951).
In the late 1860s and 1870s, Wallace was very concerned about the financial security of his family. While he was in the Malay Archipelago, the sale of specimens had brought in a considerable amount of money, which had been carefully invested by the agent who sold the specimens for Wallace. However, on his return to the UK, Wallace made a series of bad investments in railways and mines that squandered most of the money, and he found himself badly in need of the proceeds from the publication of The Malay Archipelago.
Despite assistance from his friends, he was never able to secure a permanent salaried position such as a curatorship in a museum. To remain financially solvent, Wallace worked grading government examinations, wrote 25 papers for publication between 1872 and 1876 for various modest sums, and was paid by Lyell and Darwin to help edit some of their own works.
In 1876, Wallace needed a £ 500 advance from the publisher of The Geographical Distribution of Animals to avoid having to sell some of his personal property. Darwin was very aware of Wallace 's financial difficulties and lobbied long and hard to get Wallace awarded a government pension for his lifetime contributions to science. When the £ 200 annual pension was awarded in 1881, it helped to stabilise Wallace 's financial position by supplementing the income from his writings.
John Stuart Mill was impressed by remarks criticising English society that Wallace had included in The Malay Archipelago. Mill asked him to join the general committee of his Land Tenure Reform Association, but the association dissolved after Mill 's death in 1873. Wallace had written only a handful of articles on political and social issues between 1873 and 1879 when, at the age of 56, he entered the debates over trade policy and land reform in earnest. He believed that rural land should be owned by the state and leased to people who would make whatever use of it that would benefit the largest number of people, thus breaking the often - abused power of wealthy landowners in British society.
In 1881, Wallace was elected as the first president of the newly formed Land Nationalisation Society. In the next year, he published a book, Land Nationalisation; Its Necessity and Its Aims, on the subject. He criticised the UK 's free trade policies for the negative impact they had on working - class people. In 1889, Wallace read Looking Backward by Edward Bellamy and declared himself a socialist, despite his earlier foray as a speculative investor. After reading Progress and Poverty, the best selling book by the progressive land reformist Henry George, Wallace described it as "Undoubtedly the most remarkable and important book of the present century. ''
Wallace opposed eugenics, an idea supported by other prominent 19th - century evolutionary thinkers, on the grounds that contemporary society was too corrupt and unjust to allow any reasonable determination of who was fit or unfit. In the 1890 article "Human Selection '' he wrote, "Those who succeed in the race for wealth are by no means the best or the most intelligent... ''. In 1898, Wallace wrote a paper advocating a pure paper money system, not backed by silver or gold, which impressed the economist Irving Fisher so much that he dedicated his 1920 book Stabilizing the Dollar to Wallace.
Wallace wrote on other social and political topics including his support for women 's suffrage, and repeatedly on the dangers and wastefulness of militarism. In an essay published in 1899 Wallace called for popular opinion to be rallied against warfare by showing people: "... that all modern wars are dynastic; that they are caused by the ambition, the interests, the jealousies, and the insatiable greed of power of their rulers, or of the great mercantile and financial classes which have power and influence over their rulers; and that the results of war are never good for the people, who yet bear all its burthens ''. In a letter published by the Daily Mail in 1909, with aviation in its infancy, he advocated an international treaty to ban the military use of aircraft, arguing against the idea "... that this new horror is "inevitable, '' and that all we can do is to be sure and be in the front rank of the aerial assassins -- for surely no other term can so fitly describe the dropping of, say, ten thousand bombs at midnight into an enemy 's capital from an invisible flight of airships. ''
In 1898, Wallace published a book entitled The Wonderful Century: Its Successes and Its Failures about developments in the 19th century. The first part of the book covered the major scientific and technical advances of the century; the second part covered what Wallace considered to be its social failures including: the destruction and waste of wars and arms races, the rise of the urban poor and the dangerous conditions in which they lived and worked, a harsh criminal justice system that failed to reform criminals, abuses in a mental health system based on privately owned sanatoriums, the environmental damage caused by capitalism, and the evils of European colonialism. Wallace continued his social activism for the rest of his life, publishing the book The Revolt of Democracy just weeks before his death.
Wallace continued his scientific work in parallel with his social commentary. In 1880, he published Island Life as a sequel to The Geographic Distribution of Animals. In November 1886, Wallace began a ten - month trip to the United States to give a series of popular lectures. Most of the lectures were on Darwinism (evolution through natural selection), but he also gave speeches on biogeography, spiritualism, and socio - economic reform. During the trip, he was reunited with his brother John who had emigrated to California years before. He also spent a week in Colorado, with the American botanist Alice Eastwood as his guide, exploring the flora of the Rocky Mountains and gathering evidence that would lead him to a theory on how glaciation might explain certain commonalities between the mountain flora of Europe, Asia and North America, which he published in 1891 in the paper "English and American Flowers ''. He met many other prominent American naturalists and viewed their collections. His 1889 book Darwinism used information he collected on his American trip, and information he had compiled for the lectures.
On 7 November 1913, Wallace died at home in the country house he called Old Orchard, which he had built a decade earlier. He was 90 years old. His death was widely reported in the press. The New York Times called him "the last of the giants belonging to that wonderful group of intellectuals that included, among others, Darwin, Huxley, Spencer, Lyell, and Owen, whose daring investigations revolutionised and evolutionised the thought of the century. '' Another commentator in the same edition said "No apology need be made for the few literary or scientific follies of the author of that great book on the ' Malay Archipelago '. ''
Some of Wallace 's friends suggested that he be buried in Westminster Abbey, but his wife followed his wishes and had him buried in the small cemetery at Broadstone, Dorset. Several prominent British scientists formed a committee to have a medallion of Wallace placed in Westminster Abbey near where Darwin had been buried. The medallion was unveiled on 1 November 1915.
Unlike Darwin, Wallace began his career as a travelling naturalist already believing in the transmutation of species. The concept had been advocated by Jean - Baptiste Lamarck, Geoffroy Saint - Hilaire, Erasmus Darwin, and Robert Grant, among others. It was widely discussed, but not generally accepted by leading naturalists, and was considered to have radical, even revolutionary connotations.
Prominent anatomists and geologists such as Georges Cuvier, Richard Owen, Adam Sedgwick, and Charles Lyell attacked it vigorously. It has been suggested that Wallace accepted the idea of the transmutation of species in part because he was always inclined to favour radical ideas in politics, religion and science, and because he was unusually open to marginal, even fringe, ideas in science.
He was also profoundly influenced by Robert Chambers ' work, Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, a highly controversial work of popular science published anonymously in 1844 that advocated an evolutionary origin for the solar system, the earth, and living things. Wallace wrote to Henry Bates in 1845:
I have a rather more favourable opinion of the ' Vestiges ' than you appear to have. I do not consider it a hasty generalization, but rather as an ingenious hypothesis strongly supported by some striking facts and analogies, but which remains to be proven by more facts and the additional light which more research may throw upon the problem. It furnishes a subject for every student of nature to attend to; every fact he observes will make either for or against it, and it thus serves both as an incitement to the collection of facts, and an object to which they can be applied when collected.
In 1847, he wrote to Bates:
I should like to take some one family (of beetles) to study thoroughly, principally with a view to the theory of the origin of species. By that means I am strongly of opinion that some definite results might be arrived at.
Wallace deliberately planned some of his field work to test the hypothesis that under an evolutionary scenario closely related species should inhabit neighbouring territories. During his work in the Amazon basin, he came to realise that geographical barriers -- such as the Amazon and its major tributaries -- often separated the ranges of closely allied species, and he included these observations in his 1853 paper "On the Monkeys of the Amazon ''. Near the end of the paper he asks the question, "Are very closely allied species ever separated by a wide interval of country? ''
In February 1855, while working in Sarawak on the island of Borneo, Wallace wrote "On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species '', a paper which was published in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History in September 1855. In this paper, he discussed observations regarding the geographic and geologic distribution of both living and fossil species, what would become known as biogeography. His conclusion that "Every species has come into existence coincident both in space and time with a closely allied species '' has come to be known as the "Sarawak Law ''. Wallace thus answered the question he had posed in his earlier paper on the monkeys of the Amazon river basin. Although it contained no mention of any possible mechanisms for evolution, this paper foreshadowed the momentous paper he would write three years later.
The paper shook Charles Lyell 's belief that species were immutable. Although his friend Charles Darwin had written to him in 1842 expressing support for transmutation, Lyell had continued to be strongly opposed to the idea. Around the start of 1856, he told Darwin about Wallace 's paper, as did Edward Blyth who thought it "Good! Upon the whole!... Wallace has, I think put the matter well; and according to his theory the various domestic races of animals have been fairly developed into species. '' Despite this hint, Darwin mistook Wallace 's conclusion for the progressive creationism of the time and wrote that it was "nothing very new... Uses my simile of tree (but) it seems all creation with him. '' Lyell was more impressed, and opened a notebook on species, in which he grappled with the consequences, particularly for human ancestry. Darwin had already shown his theory to their mutual friend Joseph Hooker and now, for the first time, he spelt out the full details of natural selection to Lyell. Although Lyell could not agree, he urged Darwin to publish to establish priority. Darwin demurred at first, then began writing up a species sketch of his continuing work in May 1856.
By February 1858, Wallace had been convinced by his biogeographical research in the Malay Archipelago of the reality of evolution. As he later wrote in his autobiography:
The problem then was not only how and why do species change, but how and why do they change into new and well defined species, distinguished from each other in so many ways; why and how they become so exactly adapted to distinct modes of life; and why do all the intermediate grades die out (as geology shows they have died out) and leave only clearly defined and well marked species, genera, and higher groups of animals?
According to his autobiography, it was while he was in bed with a fever that Wallace thought about Thomas Robert Malthus 's idea of positive checks on human population growth and came up with the idea of natural selection. Wallace said in his autobiography that he was on the island of Ternate at the time; but historians have questioned this, saying that on the basis of the journal he kept at the time, he was on the island of Gilolo. From 1858 to 1861 he rented a house on Ternate from the Dutchman Maarten Dirk van Renesse van Duivenbode. He used this house as a base camp for expeditions to other islands such as Gilolo.
Wallace describes how he discovered natural selection as follows:
It then occurred to me that these causes or their equivalents are continually acting in the case of animals also; and as animals usually breed much more quickly than does mankind, the destruction every year from these causes must be enormous in order to keep down the numbers of each species, since evidently they do not increase regularly from year to year, as otherwise the world would long ago have been crowded with those that breed most quickly. Vaguely thinking over the enormous and constant destruction which this implied, it occurred to me to ask the question, why do some die and some live? And the answer was clearly, on the whole the best fitted live... and considering the amount of individual variation that my experience as a collector had shown me to exist, then it followed that all the changes necessary for the adaptation of the species to the changing conditions would be brought about... In this way every part of an animals organization could be modified exactly as required, and in the very process of this modification the unmodified would die out, and thus the definite characters and the clear isolation of each new species would be explained.
Wallace had once briefly met Darwin, and was one of the correspondents whose observations Darwin used to support his own theories. Although Wallace 's first letter to Darwin has been lost, Wallace carefully kept the letters he received. In the first letter, dated 1 May 1857, Darwin commented that Wallace 's letter of 10 October which he had recently received, as well as Wallace 's paper "On the Law which has regulated the Introduction of New Species '' of 1855, showed that they were both thinking alike and to some extent reaching similar conclusions, and said that he was preparing his own work for publication in about two years time. The second letter, dated 22 December 1857, said how glad he was that Wallace was theorising about distribution, adding that "without speculation there is no good and original observation '' while commenting that "I believe I go much further than you ''. Wallace trusted Darwin 's opinion on the matter and sent him his February 1858 essay, "On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely From the Original Type '', with the request that Darwin would review it and pass it on to Charles Lyell if he thought it worthwhile. Although Wallace had sent several articles for journal publication during his travels through the Malay archipelago, the Ternate essay was in a private letter. On 18 June 1858, Darwin received the essay from Wallace. While Wallace 's essay obviously did not employ Darwin 's term "natural selection '', it did outline the mechanics of an evolutionary divergence of species from similar ones due to environmental pressures. In this sense, it was very similar to the theory that Darwin had worked on for twenty years, but had yet to publish. Darwin sent the manuscript to Charles Lyell with a letter saying "he could not have made a better short abstract! Even his terms now stand as heads of my chapters... he does not say he wishes me to publish, but I shall, of course, at once write and offer to send to any journal. '' Distraught about the illness of his baby son, Darwin put the problem to Charles Lyell and Joseph Hooker, who decided to publish the essay in a joint presentation together with unpublished writings which highlighted Darwin 's priority. Wallace 's essay was presented to the Linnean Society of London on 1 July 1858, along with excerpts from an essay which Darwin had disclosed privately to Hooker in 1847 and a letter Darwin had written to Asa Gray in 1857.
Communication with Wallace in the far - off Malay Archipelago was impossible without months of delay, so he was not part of this rapid publication. Fortunately, Wallace accepted the arrangement after the fact, happy that he had been included at all, and never expressed public or private bitterness. Darwin 's social and scientific status was far greater than Wallace 's, and it was unlikely that, without Darwin, Wallace 's views on evolution would have been taken seriously. Lyell and Hooker 's arrangement relegated Wallace to the position of co-discoverer, and he was not the social equal of Darwin or the other prominent British natural scientists. However, the joint reading of their papers on natural selection associated Wallace with the more famous Darwin. This, combined with Darwin 's (as well as Hooker 's and Lyell 's) advocacy on his behalf, would give Wallace greater access to the highest levels of the scientific community. The reaction to the reading was muted, with the president of the Linnean Society remarking in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any striking discoveries; but, with Darwin 's publication of On the Origin of Species later in 1859, its significance became apparent. When Wallace returned to the UK, he met Darwin. Although some of Wallace 's iconoclastic opinions in the ensuing years would test Darwin 's patience, they remained on friendly terms for the rest of Darwin 's life.
Over the years, a few people have questioned this version of events. In the early 1980s, two books, one written by Arnold Brackman and another by John Langdon Brooks, even suggested not only that there had been a conspiracy to rob Wallace of his proper credit, but that Darwin had actually stolen a key idea from Wallace to finish his own theory. These claims have been examined in detail by a number of scholars who have not found them to be convincing. Research into shipping schedules has shown that, contrary to these accusations, Wallace 's letter could not have been delivered earlier than the date shown in Darwin 's letter to Lyell.
After the publication of Darwin 's On the Origin of Species, Wallace became one of its staunchest defenders on his return to England in 1862. In one incident in 1863 that particularly pleased Darwin, Wallace published the short paper "Remarks on the Rev. S. Haughton 's Paper on the Bee 's Cell, And on the Origin of Species '' in order to rebut a paper by a professor of geology at the University of Dublin that had sharply criticised Darwin 's comments in the Origin on how hexagonal honey bee cells could have evolved through natural selection.
An even lengthier defence of Darwin 's work was "Creation by Law '', a review Wallace wrote in 1867 for the Quarterly Journal of Science of the book The Reign of Law, which had been written by George Campbell, the 8th Duke of Argyll, as a refutation of natural selection. After an 1870 meeting of the British Science Association, Wallace wrote to Darwin complaining that there were "no opponents left who know anything of natural history, so that there are none of the good discussions we used to have. ''
Historians of science have noted that, while Darwin considered the ideas in Wallace 's paper to be essentially the same as his own, there were differences. Darwin emphasised competition between individuals of the same species to survive and reproduce, whereas Wallace emphasised environmental pressures on varieties and species forcing them to become adapted to their local conditions, leading populations in different locations to diverge. Some historians, notably Peter J. Bowler, have suggested the possibility that in the paper he mailed to Darwin, Wallace was not discussing selection of individual variations at all but rather group selection. However, Malcolm Kottler has shown that this notion is incorrect and Wallace was indeed discussing individual variations.
Others have noted that another difference was that Wallace appeared to have envisioned natural selection as a kind of feedback mechanism keeping species and varieties adapted to their environment. They point to a largely overlooked passage of Wallace 's famous 1858 paper:
The action of this principle is exactly like that of the centrifugal governor of the steam engine, which checks and corrects any irregularities almost before they become evident; and in like manner no unbalanced deficiency in the animal kingdom can ever reach any conspicuous magnitude, because it would make itself felt at the very first step, by rendering existence difficult and extinction almost sure soon to follow.
The cybernetician and anthropologist Gregory Bateson would observe in the 1970s that, though writing it only as an example, Wallace had "probably said the most powerful thing that 'd been said in the 19th Century ''. Bateson revisited the topic in his 1979 book Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity, and other scholars have continued to explore the connection between natural selection and systems theory.
In 1867, Darwin wrote to Wallace about a problem he was having understanding how some caterpillars could have evolved conspicuous colour schemes. Darwin had come to believe that sexual selection, an agency to which Wallace did not attribute the same importance as Darwin did, explained many conspicuous animal colour schemes. However, Darwin realised that this could not apply to caterpillars. Wallace responded that he and Henry Bates had observed that many of the most spectacular butterflies had a peculiar odour and taste, and that he had been told by John Jenner Weir that birds would not eat a certain kind of common white moth because they found it unpalatable. "Now, as the white moth is as conspicuous at dusk as a coloured caterpillar in the daylight '', Wallace wrote back to Darwin that it seemed likely that the conspicuous colour scheme served as a warning to predators and thus could have evolved through natural selection. Darwin was impressed by the idea. At a subsequent meeting of the Entomological Society, Wallace asked for any evidence anyone might have on the topic. In 1869, Weir published data from experiments and observations involving brightly coloured caterpillars that supported Wallace 's idea. Warning coloration was one of a number of contributions Wallace made in the area of the evolution of animal coloration in general and the concept of protective coloration in particular. It was also part of a lifelong disagreement Wallace had with Darwin over the importance of sexual selection. In his 1878 book Tropical Nature and Other Essays, he wrote extensively on the coloration of animals and plants and proposed alternative explanations for a number of cases Darwin had attributed to sexual selection. He revisited the topic at length in his 1889 book Darwinism. In 1890, he wrote a critical review in Nature of his friend Edward Bagnall Poulton 's The Colours of Animals which supported Darwin on sexual selection, attacking especially Poulton 's claims on the "aesthetic preferences of the insect world ''.
In 1889, Wallace wrote the book Darwinism, which explained and defended natural selection. In it, he proposed the hypothesis that natural selection could drive the reproductive isolation of two varieties by encouraging the development of barriers against hybridisation. Thus it might contribute to the development of new species. He suggested the following scenario. When two populations of a species had diverged beyond a certain point, each adapted to particular conditions, hybrid offspring would be less well - adapted than either parent form and, at that point, natural selection will tend to eliminate the hybrids. Furthermore, under such conditions, natural selection would favour the development of barriers to hybridisation, as individuals that avoided hybrid matings would tend to have more fit offspring, and thus contribute to the reproductive isolation of the two incipient species. This idea came to be known as the Wallace effect, later referred to as reinforcement. Wallace had suggested to Darwin that natural selection could play a role in preventing hybridisation in private correspondence as early as 1868, but had not worked it out to this level of detail. It continues to be a topic of research in evolutionary biology today, with both computer simulation and empirical results supporting its validity.
In 1864, Wallace published a paper, "The Origin of Human Races and the Antiquity of Man Deduced from the Theory of ' Natural Selection ' '', applying the theory to humankind. Darwin had not yet publicly addressed the subject, although Thomas Huxley had in Evidence as to Man 's Place in Nature. He explained the apparent stability of the human stock by pointing to the vast gap in cranial capacities between humans and the great apes. Unlike some other Darwinists, including Darwin himself, he did not "regard modern primitives as almost filling the gap between man and ape ''. He saw the evolution of humans in two stages: achieving a bipedal posture freeing the hands to carry out the dictates of the brain, and the "recognition of the human brain as a totally new factor in the history of life. Wallace was apparently the first evolutionist to recognize clearly that... with the emergence of that bodily specialization which constitutes the human brain, bodily specialization itself might be said to be outmoded. '' For this paper he won Darwin 's praise.
Shortly afterwards, Wallace became a spiritualist. At about the same time, he began to maintain that natural selection can not account for mathematical, artistic, or musical genius, as well as metaphysical musings, and wit and humour. He eventually said that something in "the unseen universe of Spirit '' had interceded at least three times in history. The first was the creation of life from inorganic matter. The second was the introduction of consciousness in the higher animals. And the third was the generation of the higher mental faculties in humankind. He also believed that the raison d'être of the universe was the development of the human spirit. These views greatly disturbed Darwin, who argued that spiritual appeals were not necessary and that sexual selection could easily explain apparently non-adaptive mental phenomena. While some historians have concluded that Wallace 's belief that natural selection was insufficient to explain the development of consciousness and the human mind was directly caused by his adoption of spiritualism, other Wallace scholars have disagreed, and some maintain that Wallace never believed natural selection applied to those areas. Reaction to Wallace 's ideas on this topic among leading naturalists at the time varied. Charles Lyell endorsed Wallace 's views on human evolution rather than Darwin 's. Wallace 's belief that human consciousness could not be entirely a product of purely material causes was shared by a number of prominent intellectuals in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. However, many, including Huxley, Hooker, and Darwin himself, were critical of Wallace. As the historian of science Michael Shermer has stated, Wallace 's views in this area were at odds with two major tenets of the emerging Darwinian philosophy, which were that evolution was not teleological (purpose driven) and that it was not anthropocentric (human - centred). Much later in his life Wallace returned to these themes, that evolution suggested that the universe might have a purpose and that certain aspects of living organisms might not be explainable in terms of purely materialistic processes, in a 1909 magazine article entitled The World of Life, which he later expanded into a book of the same name; a work that Shermer said anticipated some ideas about design in nature and directed evolution that would arise from various religious traditions throughout the 20th century.
In many accounts of the development of evolutionary theory, Wallace is mentioned only in passing as simply being the stimulus to the publication of Darwin 's own theory. In reality, Wallace developed his own distinct evolutionary views which diverged from Darwin 's, and was considered by many (especially Darwin) to be a leading thinker on evolution in his day, whose ideas could not be ignored. One historian of science has pointed out that, through both private correspondence and published works, Darwin and Wallace exchanged knowledge and stimulated each other 's ideas and theories over an extended period. Wallace is the most - cited naturalist in Darwin 's Descent of Man, occasionally in strong disagreement.
Both Darwin and Wallace agreed on the importance of natural selection, and some of the factors responsible for it: competition between species and geographical isolation. But Wallace believed that evolution had a purpose ("teleology '') in maintaining species ' fitness to their environment, whereas Darwin hesitated to attribute any purpose to a random natural process. Scientific discoveries since the 19th century support Darwin 's viewpoint, by identifying several additional mechanisms and triggers:
Wallace remained an ardent defender of natural selection for the rest of his life. By the 1880s, evolution was widely accepted in scientific circles. In 1889, Wallace published the book Darwinism as a response to the scientific critics of natural selection. Of all Wallace 's books, it is the most cited by scholarly publications.
In 1872, at the urging of many of his friends, including Darwin, Philip Sclater, and Alfred Newton, Wallace began research for a general review of the geographic distribution of animals. He was unable to make much progress initially, in part because classification systems for many types of animals were in flux at the time. He resumed the work in earnest in 1874 after the publication of a number of new works on classification. Extending the system developed by Sclater for birds -- which divided the earth into six separate geographic regions for describing species distribution -- to cover mammals, reptiles and insects as well, Wallace created the basis for the zoogeographic regions still in use today. He discussed all of the factors then known to influence the current and past geographic distribution of animals within each geographical region. These included the effects of the appearance and disappearance of land bridges (such as the one currently connecting North America and South America) and the effects of periods of increased glaciation. He provided maps that displayed factors, such as elevation of mountains, depths of oceans, and the character of regional vegetation, that affected the distribution of animals. He also summarised all the known families and genera of the higher animals and listed their known geographic distributions. The text was organised so that it would be easy for a traveller to learn what animals could be found in a particular location. The resulting two - volume work, The Geographical Distribution of Animals, was published in 1876 and would serve as the definitive text on zoogeography for the next 80 years.
In this book Wallace did not confine himself to the biogeography of living species, but also included evidence from the fossil record to discuss the processes of evolution and migration that had led to the geographical distribution of modern animal species. For example, he discussed how fossil evidence showed that tapirs had originated in the Northern Hemisphere, migrating between North America and Eurasia and then, much more recently, to South America after which the northern species became extinct, leaving the modern distribution of two isolated groups of tapir species in South America and Southeast Asia. Wallace was very aware of, and interested in, the mass extinction of megafauna in the late Pleistocene. In The Geographical Distribution of Animals (1876) he wrote, "We live in a zoologically impoverished world, from which all the hugest, and fiercest, and strangest forms have recently disappeared ''. He added that he believed the most likely cause for the rapid extinctions to have been glaciation, but by the time he wrote World of Life (1911) he had come to believe those extinctions were "due to man 's agency ''.
In 1880, Wallace published the book Island Life as a sequel to The Geographical Distribution of Animals. It surveyed the distribution of both animal and plant species on islands. Wallace classified islands into three different types. Oceanic islands, such as the Galapagos and Hawaiian Islands (then known as the Sandwich Islands) formed in mid-ocean and never part of any large continent. Such islands were characterised by a complete lack of terrestrial mammals and amphibians, and their inhabitants (with the exceptions of migratory birds and species introduced by human activity) were typically the result of accidental colonisation and subsequent evolution. He divided continental islands into two separate classes depending on whether they had recently been part of a continent (like Britain) or much less recently (like Madagascar) and discussed how that difference affected the flora and fauna. He talked about how isolation affected evolution and how that could result in the preservation of classes of animals, such as the lemurs of Madagascar that were remnants of once widespread continental faunas. He extensively discussed how changes of climate, particularly periods of increased glaciation, may have affected the distribution of flora and fauna on some islands, and the first portion of the book discusses possible causes of these great ice ages. Island Life was considered a very important work at the time of its publication. It was discussed extensively in scientific circles both in published reviews and in private correspondence.
Wallace 's extensive work in biogeography made him aware of the impact of human activities on the natural world. In Tropical Nature and Other Essays (1878), he warned about the dangers of deforestation and soil erosion, especially in tropical climates prone to heavy rainfall. Noting the complex interactions between vegetation and climate, he warned that the extensive clearing of rainforest for coffee cultivation in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and India would adversely impact the climate in those countries and lead to their eventual impoverishment due to soil erosion. In Island Life, Wallace again mentioned deforestation and also the impact of invasive species. On the impact of European colonisation on the island of Saint Helena, he wrote:
... yet the general aspect of the island is now so barren and forbidding that some persons find it difficult to believe that it was once all green and fertile. The cause of this change is, however, very easily explained. The rich soil formed by decomposed volcanic rock and vegetable deposits could only be retained on the steep slopes so long as it was protected by the vegetation to which it in great part owed its origin. When this was destroyed, the heavy tropical rains soon washed away the soil, and has left a vast expanse of bare rock or sterile clay. This irreparable destruction was caused, in the first place, by goats, which were introduced by the Portuguese in 1513, and increased so rapidly that in 1588 they existed in the thousands. These animals are the greatest of all foes to trees, because they eat off the young seedlings, and thus prevent the natural restoration of the forest. They were, however, aided by the reckless waste of man. The East India Company took possession of the island in 1651, and about the year 1700 it began to be seen that the forests were fast diminishing, and required some protection. Two of the native trees, redwood and ebony, were good for tanning, and, to save trouble, the bark was wastefully stripped from the trunks only, the remainder being left to rot; while in 1709 a large quantity of the rapidly disappearing ebony was used to burn lime for building fortifications!
Wallace 's comments on environment grew more strident later in his career. In The World of Life (1911) he wrote:
These considerations should lead us to look upon all the works of nature, animate or inanimate, as invested with a certain sanctity, to be used by us but not abused, and never to be recklessly destroyed or defaced. To pollute a spring or a river, to exterminate a bird or beast, should be treated as moral offences and as social crimes;... Yet during the past century, which has seen those great advances in the knowledge of Nature of which we are so proud, there has been no corresponding development of a love or reverence for her works; so that never before has there been such widespread ravage of the earth 's surface by destruction of native vegetation and with it of much animal life, and such wholesale defacement of the earth by mineral workings and by pouring into our streams and rivers the refuse of manufactories and of cities; and this has been done by all the greatest nations claiming the first place for civilisation and religion!
Wallace 's 1904 book Man 's Place in the Universe was the first serious attempt by a biologist to evaluate the likelihood of life on other planets. He concluded that the Earth was the only planet in the solar system that could possibly support life, mainly because it was the only one in which water could exist in the liquid phase. More controversially he maintained that it was unlikely that other stars in the galaxy could have planets with the necessary properties (the existence of other galaxies not having been proved at the time).
His treatment of Mars in this book was brief, and in 1907, Wallace returned to the subject with a book Is Mars Habitable? to criticise the claims made by Percival Lowell that there were Martian canals built by intelligent beings. Wallace did months of research, consulted various experts, and produced his own scientific analysis of the Martian climate and atmospheric conditions. Among other things, Wallace pointed out that spectroscopic analysis had shown no signs of water vapour in the Martian atmosphere, that Lowell 's analysis of Mars 's climate was seriously flawed and badly overestimated the surface temperature, and that low atmospheric pressure would make liquid water, let alone a planet - girding irrigation system, impossible. Richard Milner comments: "It was the brilliant and eccentric evolutionist Alfred Russel Wallace... who effectively debunked Lowell 's illusionary network of Martian canals. '' Wallace originally became interested in the topic because his anthropocentric philosophy inclined him to believe that man would likely be unique in the universe.
Wallace also wrote poetic verse, an example being ' A Description Of Javita ' from his book ' Travels on the Amazon '.
The poem begins:
' Tis where the streams divide, to swell the floods
Of the two mighty rivers of our globe;
Where gushing brooklets in their narrow beds '
It continues then to describe the people of the village and their lives in detail, although it is not an idyllic description:
There is an Indian village; all around,
The dark, eternal, boundless forest spreads
Its varied foliage. Stately palm - trees rise
On every side, and numerous trees unknown
Save by strange names uncouth to English ears.
Here I dwelt awhile the one white man
Among perhaps two hundred living souls.
They pass a peaceful and contented life '
The poem is a lyrical description of the life of a tribe he was living with along the Amazon river. While it has echoes of Tennyson in the rhymes and rhythms the poem itself is not overly Romantic, serving more as a tool to set the scene and then draw contrast between the lives of the people living here and those in England. The poem is a comment on savagery and greed, making the point that some in England were more ' savage ' than those on the Amazon, either by a greed for gold or by their greed for gold driving others into poverty.
Wallace concludes:
I 'd be an Indian here, and live content
To fish, and hunt, and paddle my canoe,
And see my children grow, like young wild fawns,
In health of body and in peace of mind,
Rich without wealth, and happy without gold!
The poem is referenced and partially recited in the BBC television series ' The Ascent of Man '.
In a letter to his brother - in - law in 1861, Wallace wrote:
... I remain an utter disbeliever in almost all that you consider the most sacred truths. I will pass over as utterly contemptible the oft - repeated accusation that sceptics shut out evidence because they will not be governed by the morality of Christianity... I am thankful I can see much to admire in all religions. To the mass of mankind religion of some kind is a necessity. But whether there be a God and whatever be His nature; whether we have an immortal soul or not, or whatever may be our state after death, I can have no fear of having to suffer for the study of nature and the search for truth, or believe that those will be better off in a future state who have lived in the belief of doctrines inculcated from childhood, and which are to them rather a matter of blind faith than intelligent conviction.
Wallace was an enthusiast of phrenology. Early in his career, he experimented with hypnosis, then known as mesmerism. He used some of his students in Leicester as subjects, with considerable success. When he began his experiments with mesmerism, the topic was very controversial and early experimenters, such as John Elliotson, had been harshly criticised by the medical and scientific establishment. Wallace drew a connection between his experiences with mesmerism and his later investigations into spiritualism. In 1893, he wrote:
I thus learnt my first great lesson in the inquiry into these obscure fields of knowledge, never to accept the disbelief of great men or their accusations of imposture or of imbecility, as of any weight when opposed to the repeated observation of facts by other men, admittedly sane and honest. The whole history of science shows us that whenever the educated and scientific men of any age have denied the facts of other investigators on a priori grounds of absurdity or impossibility, the deniers have always been wrong.
Wallace began investigating spiritualism in the summer of 1865, possibly at the urging of his older sister Fanny Sims, who had been involved with it for some time. After reviewing the literature on the topic and attempting to test the phenomena he witnessed at séances, he came to accept that the belief was connected to a natural reality. For the rest of his life, he remained convinced that at least some séance phenomena were genuine, no matter how many accusations of fraud sceptics made or how much evidence of trickery was produced. Historians and biographers have disagreed about which factors most influenced his adoption of spiritualism. It has been suggested by one biographer that the emotional shock he had received a few months earlier, when his first fiancée broke their engagement, contributed to his receptiveness to spiritualism. Other scholars have preferred to emphasise instead Wallace 's desire to find rational and scientific explanations for all phenomena, both material and non-material, of the natural world and of human society.
Spiritualism appealed to many educated Victorians who no longer found traditional religious doctrine, such as that of the Church of England, acceptable yet were unsatisfied with the completely materialistic and mechanical view of the world that was increasingly emerging from 19th - century science. However, several scholars who have researched Wallace 's views in depth have emphasised that, for him, spiritualism was a matter of science and philosophy rather than religious belief. Among other prominent 19th - century intellectuals involved with spiritualism were the social reformer Robert Owen, who was one of Wallace 's early idols, the physicists William Crookes and Lord Rayleigh, the mathematician Augustus De Morgan, and the Scottish publisher Robert Chambers.
During the 1860s the stage magician John Nevil Maskelyne exposed the trickery of the Davenport brothers. Wallace was unable to accept that he had replicated their feats utilizing natural methods, and stated that Maskelyne possessed supernatural powers. However, in one of his writings Wallace dismissed Maskelyne, referring to a lecture exposing his tricks.
In 1874, Wallace visited the spirit photographer Frederick Hudson. A photograph of him with his deceased mother was produced and Wallace declared the photograph genuine, declaring "even if he had by some means obtained possession of all the photographs ever taken of my mother, they would not have been of the slightest use to him in the manufacture of these pictures. I see no escape from the conclusion that some spiritual being, acquainted with my mother 's various aspects during life, produced these recognisable impressions on the plate. '' However, Hudson 's photographs had previously been exposed as fraudulent in 1872.
Wallace 's very public advocacy of spiritualism and his repeated defence of spiritualist mediums against allegations of fraud in the 1870s damaged his scientific reputation. In 1875 Wallace published the evidence he believed proved his position in his book ' On Miracles and Modern Spiritualism ' which is a compilation of essays he wrote over a period of time. In his chapter entitled ' Modern Spiritualism: Evidence of Men of Science ', Wallace refers to "three men of the highest eminence in their respective departments '' who were Professor De Morgan, Professor Hare and Judge Edmonds who all investigated spiritualist phenomena. However, Wallace himself is only quoting their results and was not present at any of their investigations. His vehement defence of spiritualism strained his relationships with previously friendly scientists such as Henry Bates, Thomas Huxley, and even Darwin, who felt he was overly credulous. Evidence of this can be seen in Wallace 's letters dated 22 November and 1 December 1866, to Thomas Huxley asking him if he would be interested in getting involved in scientific spiritualist investigations which Huxley, politely but emphatically, declined on the basis that he had neither the time nor the inclination. Others, such as the physiologist William Benjamin Carpenter and zoologist E. Ray Lankester became openly and publicly hostile to Wallace over the issue. Wallace and other scientists who defended spiritualism, notably William Crookes, were subject to much criticism from the press, with The Lancet as the leading English medical journal of the time being particularly harsh. The controversy affected the public perception of Wallace 's work for the rest of his career. When, in 1879, Darwin first tried to rally support among naturalists to get a civil pension awarded to Wallace, Joseph Hooker responded:
Wallace has lost caste considerably, not only by his adhesion to Spiritualism, but by the fact of his having deliberately and against the whole voice of the committee of his section of the British Association, brought about a discussion on Spiritualism at one of its sectional meetings... This he is said to have done in an underhanded manner, and I well remember the indignation it gave rise to in the B.A. Council.
Hooker eventually relented and agreed to support the pension request.
In 1870, a Flat - Earth proponent named John Hampden offered a £ 500 wager (equivalent to about £ 44000 in present - day terms) in a magazine advertisement to anyone who could demonstrate a convex curvature in a body of water such as a river, canal, or lake. Wallace, intrigued by the challenge and short of money at the time, designed an experiment in which he set up two objects along a six - mile (10 km) stretch of canal. Both objects were at the same height above the water, and he mounted a telescope on a bridge at the same height above the water as well. When seen through the telescope, one object appeared higher than the other, showing the curvature of the earth.
The judge for the wager, the editor of Field magazine, declared Wallace the winner, but Hampden refused to accept the result. He sued Wallace and launched a campaign, which persisted for several years, of writing letters to various publications and to organisations of which Wallace was a member denouncing him as a swindler and a thief. Wallace won multiple libel suits against Hampden, but the resulting litigation cost Wallace more than the amount of the wager and the controversy frustrated him for years.
In the early 1880s, Wallace was drawn into the debate over mandatory smallpox vaccination. Wallace originally saw the issue as a matter of personal liberty; but, after studying some of the statistics provided by anti-vaccination activists, he began to question the efficacy of vaccination. At the time, the germ theory of disease was very new and far from universally accepted. Moreover, no one knew enough about the human immune system to understand why vaccination worked. When Wallace did some research, he discovered instances where supporters of vaccination had used questionable, in a few cases completely phony, statistics to support their arguments. Always suspicious of authority, Wallace suspected that physicians had a vested interest in promoting vaccination, and became convinced that reductions in the incidence of smallpox that had been attributed to vaccination were, in fact, due to better hygiene and improvements in public sanitation.
Another factor in Wallace 's thinking was his belief that, because of the action of natural selection, organisms were in a state of balance with their environment, and that everything in nature, even disease - causing organisms, served a useful purpose in the natural order of things; he feared vaccination might upset that natural balance with unfortunate results. Wallace and other anti-vaccinationists pointed out that vaccination, which at the time was often done in a sloppy and unsanitary manner, could be dangerous.
In 1890, Wallace gave evidence before a Royal Commission investigating the controversy. When the commission examined the material he had submitted to support his testimony, they found errors, including some questionable statistics. The Lancet averred that Wallace and the other anti-vaccination activists were being selective in their choice of statistics, ignoring large quantities of data inconsistent with their position. The commission found that smallpox vaccination was effective and should remain compulsory, though they did recommend some changes in procedures to improve safety, and that the penalties for people who refused to comply be made less severe. Years later, in 1898, Wallace wrote a pamphlet, Vaccination a Delusion; Its Penal Enforcement a Crime, attacking the commission 's findings. It, in turn, was attacked by The Lancet, which stated that it contained many of the same errors as his evidence given to the commission.
As a result of his writing, at the time of his death Wallace had been for many years a well - known figure both as a scientist and as a social activist. He was often sought out by journalists and others for his views on a variety of topics. He received honorary doctorates and a number of professional honours, such the Royal Society 's Royal Medal and Darwin Medal in 1868 and 1890 respectively, and the Order of Merit in 1908. Above all, his role as the co-discoverer of natural selection and his work on zoogeography marked him out as an exceptional figure.
He was undoubtedly one of the greatest natural history explorers of the 19th century. Despite this, his fame faded quickly after his death. For a long time, he was treated as a relatively obscure figure in the history of science. A number of reasons have been suggested for this lack of attention, including his modesty, his willingness to champion unpopular causes without regard for his own reputation, and the discomfort of much of the scientific community with some of his unconventional ideas.
Recently, he has become a less obscure figure with the publication of several book - length biographies on him, as well as anthologies of his writings. In 2007 a literary critic for New Yorker magazine observed that five such biographies and two such anthologies had been published since 2000. There has also been a web page created that is dedicated to Wallace scholarship. In a 2010 book, the environmentalist Tim Flannery claimed that Wallace was ' the first modern scientist to comprehend how essential cooperation is to our survival, ' and suggested that Wallace 's understanding of natural selection and his later work on the atmosphere be seen as a forerunner to modern ecological thinking.
The Natural History Museum, London, co-ordinated commemorative events for the Wallace centenary worldwide in the ' Wallace100 ' project in 2013. On 24 January, his portrait was unveiled in the Main Hall of the museum by Bill Bailey, a fervent admirer. On the BBC Two programme "Bill Bailey 's Jungle Hero '', first broadcast on 21 April 2013, Bailey revealed how Wallace cracked evolution by revisiting places where Wallace discovered exotic species. Episode one featured orangutans and flying frogs in Bailey 's journey through Borneo. Episode two featured birds of paradise. On 7 November 2013, the 100th anniversary of Wallace 's death, Sir David Attenborough unveiled a statue of Wallace at the museum. The statue was donated by the A.R. Wallace Memorial Fund, and was sculpted by Anthony Smith. It depicts Wallace as a young man, collecting in the jungle. November 2013 also marked the debut of The Animated Life of A.R. Wallace, a paper - puppet animation film dedicated to Wallace 's centennial.
Wallace was a prolific author. In 2002, a historian of science published a quantitative analysis of Wallace 's publications. He found that Wallace had published 22 full - length books and at least 747 shorter pieces, 508 of which were scientific papers (191 of them published in Nature). He further broke down the 747 short pieces by their primary subjects as follows. 29 % were on biogeography and natural history, 27 % were on evolutionary theory, 25 % were social commentary, 12 % were on Anthropology, and 7 % were on spiritualism and phrenology. An online bibliography of Wallace 's writings has more than 750 entries.
A more comprehensive list of Wallace 's publications that are available online, as well as a full bibliography of all of Wallace 's writings, has been compiled by the historian Charles H. Smith at The Alfred Russel Wallace Page.
Corvus enca celebensis, Sula Islands, registered in 1861 at a forerunner of Naturalis Biodiversity Center
Toxorhamphus novaeguineae novaeguineae, Misool, Raja Ampat Islands, 1865
Pitohui ferrugineus leucorhynchus, Waigeo, West - Papua, no year
Nectarinia jugularis clementiae, Seram Island, 1865
Mino anais anais, South West Papua, 1863
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where was the series the west wing filmed | The West Wing - wikipedia
The West Wing is an American serial political drama television series created by Aaron Sorkin that was originally broadcast on NBC from September 22, 1999, to May 14, 2006. The series is set primarily in the West Wing of the White House, where the Oval Office and offices of presidential senior staff are located, during the fictitious Democratic administration of Josiah Bartlet (played by Martin Sheen).
The West Wing was produced by Warner Bros. Television. For the first four seasons, there were three executive producers: Aaron Sorkin (lead writer of almost all of the first four seasons); Thomas Schlamme (primary director); and John Wells. After Sorkin left the series, Wells assumed the role of head writer, with later executive producers being directors Alex Graves and Christopher Misiano (seasons 6 -- 7), and writers Lawrence O'Donnell Jr. and Peter Noah (season 7).
The West Wing is regarded as one of the greatest television series of all - time. It has received praise from critics, political science professors, and former White House staffers and has been the subject of critical analysis. The West Wing received a multitude of awards including two Peabody Awards, three Golden Globe Awards and 26 Emmy Awards, including the award for Outstanding Drama Series, which it won four consecutive times from 2000 through 2003. The show 's ratings waned in later years following the departure of series creator Sorkin after the fourth season (Sorkin wrote or co-wrote 85 of the first 88 episodes), yet it remained popular among high - income viewers, a key demographic for the show and its advertisers, with around 16 million viewers. The Writers Guild of America also ranked it # 10 in its "101 Best - Written TV Series '' list.
The West Wing employed a broad ensemble cast to portray the many positions involved in the daily work of the federal government. The President, the First Lady, and the President 's senior staff and advisers form the core cast. Numerous secondary characters, appearing intermittently, complement storylines that generally revolve around this core group.
Each of the principal actors made approximately $75,000 per episode, with Sheen 's confirmed salary being $300,000. Rob Lowe left the series in the fourth season reportedly due to not getting a salary increase. Disparities in cast salaries led to very public contract disputes, particularly by Janney, Schiff, Spencer, and Whitford. During contract negotiations in 2001, the four were threatened with breach of contract suits by Warner Bros. However, by banding together, they were able to persuade the studio to more than double their salaries. Two years later, the four again demanded a doubling of their salaries, a few months after Warner Bros had signed new licensing deals with NBC and Bravo.
John Spencer died of a heart attack on December 16, 2005, about a year after his character experienced a nearly fatal heart attack on the show. Martin Sheen gave a brief memorial message before "Running Mates '', the first new episode that aired after Spencer 's death. The loss of Spencer 's character was addressed beginning with the episode "Election Day '', which aired on April 2, 2006.
In an interview on the season 1 DVD, Bradley Whitford said that he was originally cast as Sam, even though Aaron Sorkin had created the Josh character specifically for him. In the same interview, Janel Moloney stated she had originally auditioned for the role of C.J. and that Donna, the role for which she was eventually cast, was not meant to be a recurring character. Other actors were seriously considered for other roles, including Alan Alda and Sidney Poitier for the President, Judd Hirsch for Leo, Eugene Levy for Toby, and CCH Pounder for C.J.
The series was created by Aaron Sorkin, who served as executive producer for the pilot episode alongside director Thomas Schlamme and John Wells. Kristin Harms and Llewellyn Wells were producers for the pilot. Michael Hissrich acted as a co-producer.
The first season proper saw the return of all of the pilot production team along with the addition of Ron Osborn and Jeff Reno as consulting producers and Rick Cleveland as a second co-producer with Robert W. Glass as an associate producer. Glass left the production team after only five episodes. Julie Herlocker joined as Associate Producer beginning with episode six. Osborn and Reno departed after nine episodes. Paul Redford served as a story editor throughout the first season. Lawrence O'Donnell worked as executive story editor for the second half of the season.
With the second season, Kevin Falls became a co-executive producer. Cleveland left the production team and Redford and O'Donnell were promoted to co-producer. Peter Parnell and Patrick Caddell became co-producers and Julie Herlocker and Mindy Kanaskie became associate producers. O'Donnell was promoted again to producer five episodes into the season and Hissrich joined him twelve episodes into the season.
The third season saw the departure of Parnell, Caddell, and Herlocker and the temporary absence of O'Donnell. Director Christopher Misiano became a supervising producer, Patrick Ward joined the series as an associate producer, and Eli Attie joined the writing staff as a staff writer. Redford was promoted to producer. With the thirteenth episode of the third season director Alex Graves became an additional supervising producer and Attie became a story editor.
The fourth season marked the temporary departure of Hissrich. Misiano and Graves became co-executive producers alongside Falls. Attie was promoted to executive story editor and Debora Cahn became a staff writer. The fourteenth episode of the season saw Redford promoted to supervising producer and Kanaskie, Ward and Attie promoted to co-producers.
The fifth season saw the departure of both Sorkin and Schlamme as executive producers. Schlamme remained attached to the series as an executive consultant. John Wells remained the sole executive producer and showrunner. Co-executive producer Kevin Falls also left the show. O'Donnell rejoined the production team as a consulting producer. Wells also added Carol Flint, Alexa Junge, Peter Noah, and John Sacret Young as consulting producers. Andrew Stearn came aboard as a producer and Attie was promoted to producer. Cahn became story editor and Josh Singer replaced her as staff writer. With the tenth episode Flint, Junge, Noah and Sacret Young became supervising producers.
With the sixth season Misiano and Graves were promoted to executive producers. Redford and Junge left the production team and Dylan K. Massin became a co-producer. Cahn was promoted to executive story editor and Singer replaced her as story editor. Lauren Schmidt filled the staff writer role. The fourth episode saw the departure of original crew member Llewellyn Wells. Debora Cahn was promoted to co-producer with the fourteenth episode.
The seventh season saw Noah and O'Donnell promoted again, this time becoming additional executive producers. Attie became a supervising producer. Hissrich returned to his role as producer for the final season.
The West Wing, like many serial dramas, stretches storylines over several episodes or entire seasons. In addition to these larger storylines, each episode also contains smaller arcs that usually begin and end within an episode.
Most episodes follow President Bartlet and his staff through particular legislative or political issues. Plots can range from behind - closed - doors negotiating with Congress to personal problems like post-traumatic stress disorder, from which Josh suffers during the second season. The typical episode loosely follows the President and his staff through their day, generally following several plots connected by some idea or theme. A large, fully connected set of the White House allowed the producers to create shots with very few cuts and long, continuous master shots of staff members conversing as they walk through the hallways. These "walk and talks '' became a trademark of the show. The final two seasons presented a narrative change, with the focus of the show divided between plots in the West Wing with President Bartlet and his remaining senior staffers and plots revolving around the rest of the main cast on the campaign trail for the 2006 election.
The series developed following the success of 1995 theatrical film The American President, for which Aaron Sorkin wrote the screenplay, and in which Martin Sheen played the White House Chief of Staff. Unused plot elements from the film and a suggestion from Akiva Goldsman inspired Sorkin to create The West Wing.
According to the DVD commentary, Sorkin intended to center the show on Sam Seaborn and the other senior staff with the President in an unseen or a secondary role. However, Bartlet 's screen time gradually increased, and his role expanded as the series progressed. Positive critical and public reaction to Sheen 's performance raised his character 's profile, decreasing Lowe 's perceived significance. In addition, according to Sorkin, the storylines began to focus less on Sam and more on Josh Lyman, the Deputy Chief of Staff. This shift was one of the reasons for Lowe 's eventual departure from the show in the fourth season.
For the first four seasons, drawing on research materials, scene drafts, and occasionally entire draft scripts from his writing staff, Sorkin wrote almost every episode of the series, occasionally reusing plot elements, episode titles, character names, and actors from his previous work, Sports Night, a sitcom in which he began to develop his signature dialogue style of rhythmic, snappy, and intellectual banter. Fellow executive producer and director Thomas Schlamme championed the walk and talk, a continuous shot tracking in front of the characters as they walk from one place to another that became part of The West Wing 's signature visual style. Sorkin 's hectic writing schedule often led to cost overruns and schedule slips, and he opted to leave the show after the fourth season, following increasing personal problems, including an arrest for possession of hallucinogenic mushrooms. Thomas Schlamme also left the show after the fourth season. John Wells, the remaining executive producer, took the helm after their departure.
The West Wing aired on Wednesdays at 9: 00 pm ET from its debut until the end of its sixth season. NBC elected to move the series to Sundays at 8: 00 pm for its seventh season, a move universally regarded as the beginning of the series ' end (since NBC and the NFL had reached a deal for Sunday Night Football to return to the network in fall 2006), and the series finale aired on May 14, 2006. The West Wing took a large ratings hit with the move, which put it up against ABC 's Top 20 hit Extreme Makeover: Home Edition, and CBS ' Top 30 hit Cold Case in its timeslot.
The West Wing offers a glimpse into the inner workings of the fictional Bartlet White House. The show 's legitimacy, political slant, and idealist representations of Washington, as well as its notable writing and film merits, have generated considerable discussion.
While The West Wing is not completely accurate in its portrayal of the actual West Wing, former White House staffers described the show as capturing the feel of the real West Wing. However, President Gerald Ford 's daughter Susan made the comment "I ca n't watch (the show). They turn left and right where you are not supposed to. ''
Former Senate aide Lawrence O'Donnell and former White House aide and presidential campaign speechwriter Eli Attie were both longtime writers on the show (O'Donnell for seasons 1 -- 2 and 5 -- 7, Attie for seasons 3 -- 7). Former White House Press Secretaries Dee Dee Myers and Marlin Fitzwater and pollsters Patrick Caddell and Frank Luntz also served as consultants, advising the writing staff for part of the show 's run. Other former White House staffers, such as Peggy Noonan and Gene Sperling, served as consultants for brief periods.
A documentary special in the third season compared the show 's depiction of the West Wing to the real thing. Many former West Wing denizens applauded the show 's depiction of the West Wing, including advisor David Gergen, Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, Chief of Staff Leon Panetta, Deputy Chief of Staff Karl Rove, and former Presidents Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, and Bill Clinton.
While critics often praised The West Wing for its writing, others faulted the show as unrealistically optimistic and sentimental. A large part of this criticism came from the perceived naiveté of the characters. Television critic Heather Havrilesky asked, "What rock did these morally pure creatures crawl out from under and, more important, how do you go from innocent millipede to White House staffer without becoming soiled or disillusioned by the dirty realities of politics along the way? ''
Despite acclaim for the veracity of the series, Sorkin believed, "our responsibility is to captivate you for however long we 've asked for your attention. '' Former White House aide Matthew Miller noted that Sorkin "captivates viewers by making the human side of politics more real than life -- or at least more real than the picture we get from the news. '' Miller also noted that by portraying politicians with empathy, the show created a "subversive competitor '' to the cynical views of politics in media. In the essay "The West Wing and the West Wing '', author Myron Levine agreed, stating that the series "presents an essentially positive view of public service and a healthy corrective to anti-Washington stereotypes and public cynicism. ''
Dr. Staci L. Beavers, associate professor of political science at California State University, San Marcos, wrote a short essay, "The West Wing as a Pedagogical Tool ''. She concluded, "While the series ' purpose is for - profit entertainment, The West Wing presents great pedagogical potential. '' The West Wing, in her opinion, gave greater depth to the political process usually espoused only in stilted talking points on shows like Face the Nation and Meet the Press. However, the merits of a particular argument may be obscured by the viewer 's opinion of the character. Beavers also noted that characters with opposing viewpoints were often set up to be "bad people '' in the viewer 's eyes. These characters were assigned undesirable characteristics having nothing to do with their political opinions, such as being romantically involved with a main character 's love interest. In Beavers ' opinion, a critical analysis of the show 's political views can present a worthwhile learning experience to the viewer.
One of the stranger effects of the show occurred on January 31, 2006, when The West Wing was said to have played a hand in defeating a proposal backed by Tony Blair 's government in the British House of Commons, during the so - called "West Wing Plot ''. The plan was allegedly hatched after a Conservative Member of Parliament watched the episode "A Good Day '', in which Democrats block a bill aimed at limiting stem cell research, by appearing to have left Washington D.C. but actually hiding in a congressional office until the Republican Speaker calls the vote.
A number of episodes referred to a practice of the administration having one day each year on which they accepted meetings with people or groups who would not normally receive an audience with high - level White House staffers, referring to the event as "Big Block of Cheese Day ''. The name came from the fact that President Andrew Jackson had a large wheel of cheese placed in the White House from which the public were invited to eat during a reception, while discussing issues of the day with politicians. In 2014, the White House announced that it was to host an online Q&A with Obama administration officials and staff, called a Virtual "Big Block of Cheese day '', on January 29, 2014. The event was promoted with a video featuring stars from The West Wing. The event was repeated on January 21, 2015, again promoted by stars from the show. On April 29, 2016, Allison Janney appeared in character as C.J. Cregg during a White House press briefing.
Jewish Journal columnist Naomi Pfefferman once referred to The West Wing as "The Left Wing... '' because of its portrayal of an ideal liberal administration, and the moniker has also been used by Republican critics of the show. Chris Lehmann, former deputy editor and regular reviewer for The Washington Post 's Book World section, characterized the show as a revisionist look at the Clinton presidency. On the other hand, some Republicans have admired the show since its inception, even before the departure of Sorkin and the show 's resulting shift toward the center. In his 2001 article "Real Liberals versus The West Wing, '' Mackubin Thomas Owens wrote, '' Although his administration is reliably liberal, President Bartlet possesses virtues even a conservative could admire. He obeys the Constitution and the law. He is devoted to his wife and daughters. Being unfaithful to his wife would never cross his mind. He is no wimp when it comes to foreign policy -- no quid pro quo for him. ''
Journalist Matthew Miller wrote, "although the show indeed has a liberal bias on issues, it presents a truer, more human picture of the people behind the headlines than most of today 's Washington journalists. ''
In its first season, The West Wing attracted critical attention in the television community with a record nine Emmy wins. The show has been praised for its high production values and repeatedly recognized for its cinematic achievements. The series had a budget of $2.7 million per episode. The series has also been praised for Sorkin 's rapid - fire and witty scripts.
The West Wing is noted for developing the "walk - and - talk '' -- long Steadicam tracking shots showing characters walking down hallways while involved in long conversations. In a typical "walk - and - talk '' shot, the camera leads two characters down a hallway as they speak to each other. One of these characters generally breaks off and the remaining character is then joined by another character, who initiates another conversation as they continue walking. These "walk - and - talks '' create a dynamic feel for what would otherwise be long expository dialogue, and have become a staple for dialogue - intensive television show scenes.
In its first season, The West Wing garnered nine Emmys, a record for most won by a series in its first season. In addition, the series received the Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series in 2000, 2001, 2002, and 2003, tying Hill Street Blues, L.A. Law and Mad Men for most won in this category. Each of its seven seasons earned a nomination for the award. With its 26 total awards, The West Wing tied with Hill Street Blues as the drama with the most Emmy wins until Game of Thrones broke the record for most wins in 2016, with 35 total awards.
The series shares the Emmy Award record for most acting nominations by regular cast members (excluding the guest performer category) for a single series in one year. (Both Hill Street Blues and L.A. Law also hold that record). For the 2001 -- 2002 season, nine cast members were nominated for Emmys. Allison Janney, John Spencer and Stockard Channing each won an Emmy (for Lead Actress, Supporting Actor and Supporting Actress respectively). The others nominated were Martin Sheen (for Lead Actor), Richard Schiff, Dule Hill and Bradley Whitford (for Supporting Actor), and Janel Moloney and Mary - Louise Parker (for Supporting Actress). In addition, that same year Mark Harmon, Tim Matheson and Ron Silver were each nominated in the Guest Actor category (although none won the award). This gave the series an Emmy Award record for most acting nominations overall (including guest performer category) in a single year, with 12 acting nominations. Twenty individual Emmys were awarded to writers, actors, and crew members. Allison Janney is the record holder for most wins by a cast member, with a total of four Emmys. The West Wing won at least one Emmy in each of its seasons except the sixth.
In addition to its Emmys, the show won two Screen Actors Guild (SAG) Awards, in 2000 and 2001, Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series. Martin Sheen was the only cast member to win a Golden Globe Award, and he and Allison Janney were the only cast members to win SAG Awards. In both 1999 and 2000, The West Wing was awarded the Peabody Award for excellence in broadcasting.
The following table summarizes award wins by cast members:
Many cast members were Emmy - nominated for their work on The West Wing but did not win, including Martin Sheen -- who was nominated for six of the seven seasons of the series without receiving the award -- as well as Janel Moloney, who was nominated twice, and Dulé Hill, Rob Lowe, and Mary - Louise Parker, who were all nominated once. Matthew Perry, Oliver Platt, Ron Silver, Tim Matheson, and Mark Harmon also received Emmy nominations for guest starring on the show.
Tommy Schlamme won two Emmys for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series (in 2000 and 2001), and Christopher Misiano won an Emmy for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series in 2003. The West Wing 's only Emmy for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series was in its first season, when Rick Cleveland and Aaron Sorkin shared the award for "In Excelsis Deo ''.
W.G. Snuffy Walden received an Emmy Award for Outstanding Main Title Theme Music in 2000 for "The West Wing Opening Theme ''.
"The West Wing Documentary Special '' won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Class Program in 2002, with the award shared by Aaron Sorkin, Tommy Schlamme, documentarian Bill Couturie, show writers Eli Attie and Felicia Willson, and others.
Readers of TV Guide voted the cast of The West Wing their Best Drama cast of all time, receiving 37 % of the votes, beating Lost, which received 23 %.
A Wall Street Journal poll in 2016 named Martin Sheen 's Josiah Bartlet as the second greatest fictional president, behind Harrison Ford 's President James Marshall in Air Force One.
The West Wing often featured extensive discussion of current or recent political issues. After the real - world election of Republican President George W. Bush in 2000, many wondered whether the liberal show could retain its relevance and topicality. However, by exploring many of the same issues facing the Bush administration from a Democratic point of view, the show continued to appeal to a broad audience of both Democrats and Republicans.
In the second - season episode "The Midterms '', President Bartlet admonishes fictional radio host Dr. Jenna Jacobs for her views regarding homosexuality at a private gathering at the White House. Dr. Jacobs is a caricature of radio personality Dr. Laura Schlessinger, who strongly disapproves of homosexuality. Many of the President 's biblical references in his comments to Dr. Jacobs appear to have come from an open letter to Dr. Schlessinger, circulated online in early May 2000.
The Bartlet administration experiences a scandal during the second and third seasons that has been compared to the Monica Lewinsky affair. President Bartlet has known that he has relapsing - remitting multiple sclerosis (MS) since 1992. The scandal centers around President Bartlet 's nondisclosure of his illness to the electorate during the election. He is investigated by an opposition Congress for defrauding the public and eventually accepts Congressional censure. Multiple sclerosis advocacy groups praised the show for its accurate portrayal of the symptoms of MS and stressing that it is not fatal. The National MS Society commented:
For the first time on national television or even in film, the public encountered a lead character with both an MS diagnosis and the hope for a continued productive life. Because (The) West Wing is a fictional drama and not a medical documentary, writers could have greatly distorted MS facts to further their story line (but did not).
Following the September 11, 2001 attacks, the start of the third season was postponed for a week, as were most American television premieres that year. A script for a special episode was quickly written and began filming on September 21. The episode "Isaac and Ishmael '' aired on October 3 and addresses the sobering reality of terrorism in America and the wider world, albeit with no specific reference to September 11. While "Isaac and Ishmael '' received mixed critical reviews, it illustrated the show 's flexibility in addressing current events. The cast of the show state during the opening of the episode that it is not part of The West Wing continuity.
While the September 11 attacks are not referenced in The West Wing continuity, the country enters into a variation of the War on Terrorism. Al Qaeda, mentioned briefly by Nancy McNally in the beginning of Season 2, plays no role in the longer terrorism story arcs of Seasons 3, 4 and 5. It is only mentioned again in Seasons 6 and 7. The stand - in used instead is the fictional Bahji terror group who first plots to blow up the Golden Gate Bridge. In response, the President orders the assassination of foreign leader Abdul ibn Shareef, one of Bahji 's primary backers. This storyline has similarities to the real - world U.S. invasion of Afghanistan as well as U.S. relations with Saudi Arabia, as it brings the Middle East to the forefront of U.S. foreign relations and elevates terrorism as a serious threat.
In the middle of the fourth season, Bartlet 's White House is confronted with genocide in the fictional African country of Equatorial Kundu, which was compared to the Rwandan Genocide of 1994. The result is new foreign policy doctrine for the Bartlet Administration and military intervention to stop the violence, which come after much hesitation and reluctance to call the conflict a genocide. In reality, the Clinton Administration did not intervene in Rwanda.
In the sixth and seventh seasons, The West Wing explores a leak of top - secret information by a senior staffer at the White House. This leak has been compared to events surrounding the Valerie Plame affair. In the storyline, the International Space Station is damaged and can no longer produce oxygen for the astronauts to breathe. With no other methods of rescue available, the President is reminded of the existence of a top - secret military space shuttle. Following the President 's inaction, the shuttle story is leaked to a White House reporter, Greg Brock (analogous to Judith Miller), who prints the story in The New York Times. Brock will not reveal his source and goes to jail for failing to do so, as did Miller. In order to stop the investigation, in which authorities suspect Chief of Staff C.J. Cregg, Toby Ziegler admits to leaking the information, and the President is forced to dismiss him. In comparison, the Plame affair resulted in the arrest and conviction of "Scooter '' Libby, the Vice President 's chief of staff. However, Libby was convicted of perjury in testimony to a grand jury. No one was convicted for "blowing the cover '' of Plame. (Richard Armitage, an official in the Bush State Department, acknowledged leaking information about Plame to reporters but was never charged with a crime.) Libby 's two and a half - year prison sentence was later commuted by President Bush, though the other facet of his sentence ($250,000 fine) stood and was duly paid. In the series finale, President Bartlet, as his last official act, pardons Ziegler.
Other issues explored in The West Wing include:
All contemporary domestic government officials in The West Wing universe are fictional. President Bartlet has made three appointments to the fictional Supreme Court and maintains a full cabinet, although not all names and terms of the members are revealed. Some cabinet members, such as the Secretary of Defense, appear more often than others. Many other government officials, such as mayors, governors, judges, representatives, and senators, are mentioned and seen as well.
Fictional locations inside the United States are created to loosely represent certain places:
San Andreo is a fictional California city. It is located near San Diego, has a population of 42,000 and is the location of the San Andreo Nuclear Generating Station. The fictional station was based on the real life San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station in San Diego County.
A near meltdown at the nuclear plant becomes the focus of an October surprise for Republican nominee Senator Arnold Vinick during the 2006 presidential election, due to Vinick 's strong pro-nuclear stance and revelations of his active lobbying for the construction of the plant. This is seen to be a key factor in Vinick 's narrow defeat in the election by Democratic nominee Congressman Matt Santos.
Hartsfield 's Landing is a fictional town in New Hampshire. It is stated to be a very small community of only 63 people, of whom 42 are registered voters, that votes at one minute past midnight on the day of the New Hampshire primary, hours before the rest of the state, and has accurately predicted the winner of every presidential election since William Howard Taft in 1908. It is based on the true New Hampshire communities of Hart 's Location and Dixville Notch, which indeed vote before the rest of the state during the primaries, and also loosely upon the concept of "bellwether states '' in US presidential elections.
Kennison State is a fictional university in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, used as the setting of a bombing in the beginning of the fourth season.
While several real - world leaders exist in the show 's universe, most foreign countries depicted or referred to on the show have fictional rulers. Real people mentioned in The West Wing include Muammar Gaddafi, Yasser Arafat, Fidel Castro, Queen Elizabeth II, King Bhumibol Adulyadej, King Carl XVI Gustaf, Thabo Mbeki and Osama bin Laden. However, when a peace accord is worked out between Israel and the Palestinian Authority at the start of the show 's sixth season, the Chairman of the Palestinian Authority is the fictional Nizar Farad, not Yasser Arafat. (By that time in the real world, Arafat was dead and a successor, Rawhi Fattuh, had been elected.)
Entire countries are invented as composite pictures that epitomize many of the problems that plague real nations in certain areas of the world:
The West Wing universe diverges from history after Richard Nixon 's presidency, although there is occasional overlap; for instance, in the second episode of the series ' second season In the Shadow of Two Gunmen Toby Ziegler speaks to a Secret Service agent outside a building named for Ronald Reagan, although this may have just been a production oversight. Fictional Presidents who are shown to have served between Nixon and Bartlet include one - term Democrat D. Wire Newman (James Cromwell) and two - term Republican Owen Lassiter.
Leo McGarry is mentioned as being Labor Secretary in the administration that was in office in 1993 and 1995. In the first season, an outgoing Supreme Court Justice tells Jed Bartlet that he had been wanting to retire for five years, but waited "for a Democrat '' because he did not want a Republican President to replace him with a conservative justice (the Justice then tells President Bartlet, snidely, "Instead, I got you. ''). The season four episode Debate Camp features a flashback to the days just before Bartlet 's inauguration, as Donna Moss meets with her Republican predecessor, Jeff Johnson. In season six Leo says that the Republicans have been "out of power for eight years '', and Republicans at their convention say "eight (years) is enough ''.
The passage of time on the show relative to that of the real world is somewhat ambiguous when marked by events of shorter duration (e.g., votes, campaigns). Sorkin noted in a DVD commentary track for the second - season episode "18th and Potomac '' that he tried to avoid tying The West Wing to a specific period of time. Despite this, real years are occasionally mentioned, usually in the context of elections and President Bartlet 's two - term administration.
The show 's presidential elections are held in 2002 and 2006, which are the years of the midterm elections in reality (these dates come from the fact that in the season 2 episode "17 People '', Toby specifically mentions 2002 as the year of the President 's reelection campaign). The election timeline in The West Wing matches up with that of the real world until early in the sixth season, when it appears that a year is lost. For example, the filing deadline for the New Hampshire primary, which would normally fall in January 2006, appears in an episode airing in January 2005.
In an interview, John Wells stated that the series began one and a half years into Bartlet 's first term and that the election to replace Bartlet was being held at the correct time. However, the season 1 episode "He Shall from Time to Time '' shows the preparations for Bartlet 's first regular State of the Union address, which would occur one year into his presidency. In the Season 1 episode "Let Bartlet Be Bartlet '', Josh Lyman asks Toby Ziegler, "Our second year is n't going much better than our first year, is it? ''
In the season 5 episode "Access '', it is mentioned that the Casey Creek crisis occurred during Bartlet 's first term and got his presidency off to a calamitous start, and network footage of the crisis carries the date of November 2001.
Bartlet 's first campaign for President is never significantly explored in the series. Bartlet is stated to have won the election with 48 % of the popular vote, 48 million votes, and a 303 -- 235 margin in the Electoral College. Of three debates between Bartlet and his Republican opponent, it is mentioned that Bartlet won the third and final debate, held eight days before election day in St. Louis, Missouri. Josh Lyman says that in the days prior to the election "Bartlet punched through a few walls '' as the result seemed too close to call, before the result broke his way. Leo McGarry says the same thing in "Bartlet for America '' when he says, "It was eight days to go, and we were too close to call ''.
The campaign for the Democratic nomination is extensively addressed. In the episodes "In the Shadow of Two Gunmen, Part I '', "In the Shadow of Two Gunmen, Part II '' and "Bartlet for America '', flashbacks are used to show Bartlet defeating Texas Senator John Hoynes (Tim Matheson) and Washington Senator William Wiley for the Democratic nomination and later choosing Hoynes as his running mate. The flashbacks also show Leo McGarry persuading Bartlet, then Governor of New Hampshire, to run for President.
The West Wing 's 2002 presidential election puts Bartlet and Vice President John Hoynes against Florida Governor Robert Ritchie (James Brolin) and his running mate, Jeff Heston. Bartlet faces no known opposition for renomination, though Democratic Senator Stackhouse launches a brief independent campaign for the presidency. Ritchie, not originally expected to contend for the nomination, emerges from a field of seven other Republican candidates by appealing to the party 's conservative base with simple, "homey '' sound bites.
Bartlet 's staff contemplates replacing Vice President John Hoynes on the ticket with Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral Percy Fitzwallace (John Amos), among others. After it is clear that Ritchie will be the Republican nominee, Bartlet dismisses the idea, declaring that he wants Hoynes in the number two spot because of "four words, '' which he writes down and hands to Hoynes and McGarry to read: "Because I could die. ''
Throughout the season it is anticipated that the race will be close, but a stellar performance by Bartlet in the sole debate between the candidates helps give Bartlet a landslide victory in both the popular and electoral vote.
A speed - up in The West Wing 's timeline, in part due to the expiration of many cast members ' contracts and a desire to continue the program with lower production costs, resulted in the omission of the 2004 midterm elections and an election during the seventh season. The sixth season extensively details the Democratic and Republican primaries. The seventh season covers the lead - up to the general election, the election, and the transition to a new administration. The timeline slows down to concentrate on the general election race. The election, normally held in November, takes place across two episodes originally broadcast on April 2 and 9, 2006.
Congressman Matt Santos (D - TX) (Jimmy Smits) is nominated on the fourth ballot at the Democratic National Convention, during the sixth - season finale. Santos, having planned to leave Congress before being recruited to run for the presidency by Josh Lyman, polls in the low single digits in the Iowa caucus. He is virtually out of the running in the New Hampshire primary before a last - ditch live television commercial vaults him to a third - place finish with 19 % of the vote. Josh Lyman, Santos 's campaign manager, convinces Leo McGarry to become Santos ' running mate.
Senator Arnold Vinick (R - CA) (Alan Alda) secures the Republican nomination, defeating Glen Allen Walken (John Goodman) and the Reverend Don Butler (Don S. Davis), among others. Initially, Vinick wants Butler to become his running mate. However, Butler does not want to be considered because of Vinick 's stance on abortion. Instead, West Virginia Governor Ray Sullivan (Brett Cullen) is chosen as Vinick 's running mate. Vinick is portrayed throughout the sixth season as virtually unbeatable because of his popularity in California, a typically Democratic state, his moderate views, and his wide crossover appeal. Vinick, however, faces difficulty with the pro-life members of his party as a pro-choice candidate, and criticism for his support of nuclear power following a serious accident at a Californian nuclear power station.
On the evening of the election, Leo McGarry suffers a massive heart attack and is pronounced dead at the hospital, with the polls still open on the West Coast. The Santos campaign releases the information immediately, while Arnold Vinick refuses to use Leo 's death as a "stepstool '' to the presidency. Santos emerges as the winner in his home state of Texas, while Vinick wins his home state of California. The election comes down to Nevada, where both candidates need a victory to secure the presidency. Vinick tells his staff repeatedly that he will not allow his campaign to demand a recount of the votes if Santos is declared the winner. Josh Lyman gives Santos the same advice, although the Santos campaign sends a team of lawyers down to Nevada. Santos is pronounced the winner of the election, having won Nevada by 30,000 votes, with an electoral margin of 272 -- 266.
According to executive producer Lawrence O'Donnell, Jr., the writers originally intended for Vinick to win the election. However, the death of Spencer forced him and his colleagues to consider the emotional strain that would result from having Santos lose both his running mate and the election. It was eventually decided by John Wells that the last episodes would be rescripted. Other statements from John Wells, however, have contradicted O'Donnell's claims about a previously planned Vinick victory. The script showing Santos winning was written long before the death of John Spencer. In 2008 O'Donnell stated to camera "We actually planned at the outset for Jimmy Smits to win, that was our... just... plan of how this was all going to work, but the Vinick character came on so strong in the show, and was so effective, it became a real contest... and it became a real contest in the West Wing writer 's room. ''
Similarities between the fictional 2006 election and the real - life 2008 U.S. presidential election have been noted in the media: young ethnic minority Democratic candidate (Matthew Santos on the show, Barack Obama in real life) has a gruelling but successful primary campaign against a more experienced candidate (Bob Russell on the show, Hillary Clinton in real life) and a third candidate who has been damaged by claims of infidelity (John Hoynes on the show, John Edwards in real life) and chooses an experienced Washington insider as his running mate (Leo McGarry on the show, Joe Biden in real life); whereas the Republican contest is determined early in the primary season with an aging "maverick '' senator of a western state being the nominee (Arnold Vinick of California on the show, John McCain of Arizona in real life) after defeating a staunchly pro-life opponent with pastoral experience, among others (Reverend Don Butler on the show, Mike Huckabee in real life), and then choosing a younger, socially conservative running mate in the midst of his or her first term as governor of a sparsely populated, resource - rich state (Ray Sullivan of West Virginia on the show, Sarah Palin of Alaska in real life).
According to David Remnick 's biography of Obama, The Bridge, when writer and former White House aide Eli Attie was tasked with fleshing out the first major Santos storylines, he looked to then - U.S. Senator Obama as a model. Attie called David Axelrod, with whom he had worked in politics, "and grilled him about Obama. '' While Attie says that he "drew inspiration from (Obama) in drawing (the Santos) character, '' actor Jimmy Smits also says that Obama "was one of the people that I looked to draw upon '' for his portrayal of the character. Writer and producer Lawrence O'Donnell says that he partly modeled Vinick after McCain. Obama 's former Chief of Staff, Rahm Emanuel, is said to be the basis of the Josh Lyman character, who becomes Santos ' Chief of Staff. However, O'Donnell denied this claim.
As the series sunsets with Bartlet 's final year in office, little is revealed about Matt Santos ' presidency, with the last few episodes mainly focusing on the Santos team 's transition into the White House. Santos chooses Josh Lyman as Chief of Staff, who in turn calls on former colleague Sam Seaborn to be Deputy Chief of Staff. In need of experienced cabinet members, Santos taps Arnold Vinick as Secretary of State, believing the senior statesman to be one of the best strategists available and respected by foreign leaders. Santos eventually decides on Eric Baker, the Democratic Governor of Pennsylvania and at one point the frontrunner for the Democratic nomination, as his choice for Vice President, and submits his name to Congress under the terms of the 25th Amendment. While the show ends before he can be confirmed, it is implied he may face little opposition from Republicans due to the backing of Secretary of State Vinick.
President Bartlet 's final act as President of the United States is pardoning Toby Ziegler, who had violated federal law by leaking classified information about a military space shuttle. The series ends with Bartlet returning to New Hampshire. Having said his goodbyes to his closest staff, former President Bartlet tells President Santos, "Make me proud, Mr. President, '' to which Santos responds, "I 'll do my best, Mr. President. ''
Several books have been published about The West Wing. One of the first, in 2001, was Paul C. Challe 's Inside the West Wing: An Unauthorized Look at Television 's Smartest Show. In 2002, Newmarket Press published The West Wing Script Book, which included episode scripts from Aaron Sorkin. Also in 2002, Ian Jackman wrote The West Wing (The Official Companion). Analytical books about the series include Peter Rollins ' The West Wing: The American Presidency as Television Drama (2003), The Prime - Time Presidency: The West Wing and U.S. Nationalism by Trevor Parry - Giles and Shawn J. Parry - Giles (2006), The West Wing (TV Milestones Series) by Janet McCabe (2012), and Claire Handscombe 's Walk with Us: How the West Wing Changed Our Lives (2016).
In 2010, Twitter accounts for many of the primary characters on The West Wing began to appear, including accounts for President Bartlet, Josh Lyman, Leo McGarry, Matt Santos and Mrs. Landingham. While Twitter accounts for fictional characters are not uncommon, The West Wing accounts are notable for mixing a fictional timeline and commentary on real world events.
Tweets from the fictional characters have been featured on The Rachel Maddow Show, CNN and questions from the fictional accounts have been answered by Press Secretary Robert Gibbs during a White House Press Conference and from Vice President Joe Biden during a Twitter Town Hall. The success of The West Wing accounts has resulted in several copycats, including accounts from several minor or obscure West Wing characters, including Gail, the fish in C.J. 's office.
In March 2016, The West Wing Weekly podcast hosted by Hrishikesh Hirway and Joshua Malina began. Each episode of the podcast discusses an episode of The West Wing and has featured various cast and crew members from the series.
A major fan convention, "West Wing Weekend '' is planned to take place September 28 - 30, 2018, at the Marriott Hotel in Bethesda, Maryland. The convention will feature guest appearances from some members of the series ' cast, as well as a number of panels, fan - based programming, and special events. A Kickstarter campaign for the convention was started on January 4, 2018, to raise $10,000, and it was fully funded within two days.
Many venues, including Funny or Die, Mad TV, and the Late Night with Seth Meyers have parodied the walk - and - talk cliche of the show, including the "ping - pong '' dialogue, in which one character would speak barely a word before the other said another, and then repeated back and forth.
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the u.s. corporate sentencing guidelines and the sarbanes-oxley act | Sarbanes -- Oxley Act - wikipedia
The Sarbanes -- Oxley Act of 2002 (Pub. L. 107 -- 204, 116 Stat. 745, enacted July 30, 2002), also known as the "Public Company Accounting Reform and Investor Protection Act '' (in the Senate) and "Corporate and Auditing Accountability, Responsibility, and Transparency Act '' (in the House) and more commonly called Sarbanes -- Oxley, Sarbox or SOX, is a United States federal law that set new or expanded requirements for all U.S. public company boards, management and public accounting firms. There are also a number of provisions of the Act that also apply to privately held companies, for example the willful destruction of evidence to impede a Federal investigation.
The bill, which contains eleven sections, was enacted as a reaction to a number of major corporate and accounting scandals, including Enron and WorldCom. The sections of the bill cover responsibilities of a public corporation 's board of directors, adds criminal penalties for certain misconduct, and required the Securities and Exchange Commission to create regulations to define how public corporations are to comply with the law.
In 2002, Sarbanes -- Oxley was named after sponsors U.S. Senator Paul Sarbanes (D - MD) and U.S. Representative Michael G. Oxley (R - OH). As a result of SOX, top management must individually certify the accuracy of financial information. In addition, penalties for fraudulent financial activity are much more severe. Also, SOX increased the oversight role of boards of directors and the independence of the outside auditors who review the accuracy of corporate financial statements.
The bill, which contains eleven sections, was enacted as a reaction to a number of major corporate and accounting scandals, including those affecting Enron, Tyco International, Adelphia, Peregrine Systems, and WorldCom. These scandals cost investors billions of dollars when the share prices of affected companies collapsed, and shook public confidence in the US securities markets.
The act contains eleven titles, or sections, ranging from additional corporate board responsibilities to criminal penalties, and requires the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to implement rulings on requirements to comply with the law. Harvey Pitt, the 26th chairman of the SEC, led the SEC in the adoption of dozens of rules to implement the Sarbanes -- Oxley Act. It created a new, quasi-public agency, the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board, or PCAOB, charged with overseeing, regulating, inspecting, and disciplining accounting firms in their roles as auditors of public companies. The act also covers issues such as auditor independence, corporate governance, internal control assessment, and enhanced financial disclosure. The nonprofit arm of Financial Executives International (FEI), Financial Executives Research Foundation (FERF), completed extensive research studies to help support the foundations of the act.
The act was approved by the House by a vote of 423 in favor, 3 opposed, and 8 abstaining and by the Senate with a vote of 99 in favor and 1 abstaining. President George W. Bush signed it into law, stating it included "the most far - reaching reforms of American business practices since the time of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The era of low standards and false profits is over; no boardroom in America is above or beyond the law. ''
In response to the perception that stricter financial governance laws are needed, SOX - type regulations were subsequently enacted in Canada (2002), Germany (2002), South Africa (2002), France (2003), Australia (2004), India (2005), Japan (2006), Italy (2006), Israel, and Turkey. (See § Similar laws in other countries below.)
Debates continued as of 2007 over the perceived benefits and costs of SOX. Opponents of the bill have claimed it has reduced America 's international competitive edge against foreign financial service providers because it has introduced an overly complex regulatory environment into US financial markets. A study commissioned by NYC Mayor Michael Bloomberg and US Sen. Charles Schumer, (D - NY), cited this as one reason America 's financial sector is losing market share to other financial centers worldwide. Proponents of the measure said that SOX has been a "godsend '' for improving the confidence of fund managers and other investors with regard to the veracity of corporate financial statements.
The 10th anniversary of SOX coincided with the passing of the Jumpstart Our Business Startups (JOBS) Act, designed to give emerging companies an economic boost, and cutting back on a number of regulatory requirements.
A variety of complex factors created the conditions and culture in which a series of large corporate frauds occurred between 2000 -- 2002. The spectacular, highly publicized frauds at Enron, WorldCom, and Tyco exposed significant problems with conflicts of interest and incentive compensation practices. The analysis of their complex and contentious root causes contributed to the passage of SOX in 2002. In a 2004 interview, Senator Paul Sarbanes stated:
"The Senate Banking Committee undertook a series of hearings on the problems in the markets that had led to a loss of hundreds and hundreds of billions, indeed trillions of dollars in market value. The hearings set out to lay the foundation for legislation. We scheduled 10 hearings over a six - week period, during which we brought in some of the best people in the country to testify... The hearings produced remarkable consensus on the nature of the problems: inadequate oversight of accountants, lack of auditor independence, weak corporate governance procedures, stock analysts ' conflict of interests, inadequate disclosure provisions, and grossly inadequate funding of the Securities and Exchange Commission. ''
The House passed Rep. Oxley 's bill (H.R. 3763) on April 24, 2002, by a vote of 334 to 90. The House then referred the "Corporate and Auditing Accountability, Responsibility, and Transparency Act '' or "CAARTA '' to the Senate Banking Committee with the support of President George W. Bush and the SEC. At the time, however, the Chairman of that Committee, Senator Paul Sarbanes (D - MD), was preparing his own proposal, Senate Bill 2673.
Senator Sarbanes 's bill passed the Senate Banking Committee on June 18, 2002, by a vote of 17 to 4. On June 25, 2002, WorldCom revealed it had overstated its earnings by more than $3.8 billion during the past five quarters (15 months), primarily by improperly accounting for its operating costs. Senator Sarbanes introduced Senate Bill 2673 to the full Senate that same day, and it passed 97 -- 0 less than three weeks later on July 15, 2002.
The House and the Senate formed a Conference Committee to reconcile the differences between Sen. Sarbanes 's bill (S. 2673) and Rep. Oxley 's bill (H.R. 3763). The conference committee relied heavily on S. 2673 and "most changes made by the conference committee strengthened the prescriptions of S. 2673 or added new prescriptions. '' (John T. Bostelman, The Sarbanes -- Oxley Deskbook § 2 -- 31.)
The Committee approved the final conference bill on July 24, 2002, and gave it the name "the Sarbanes -- Oxley Act of 2002 ''. The next day, both houses of Congress voted on it without change, producing an overwhelming margin of victory: 423 to 3 in the House and 99 to 0 in the Senate. On July 30, 2002, President George W. Bush signed it into law, stating it included "the most far - reaching reforms of American business practices since the time of Franklin D. Roosevelt ''.
A significant body of academic research and opinion exists regarding the costs and benefits of SOX, with significant differences in conclusions. This is due in part to the difficulty of isolating the impact of SOX from other variables affecting the stock market and corporate earnings. Section 404 of the act, which requires management and the external auditor to report on the adequacy of a company 's internal control on financial reporting, is often singled out for analysis. Conclusions from several of these studies and related criticism are summarized below:
Some have asserted that Sarbanes -- Oxley legislation has helped displace business from New York to London, where the Financial Conduct Authority regulates the financial sector with a lighter touch. In the UK, the non-statutory Combined Code of Corporate Governance plays a somewhat similar role to SOX. See Howell E. Jackson & Mark J. Roe, "Public Enforcement of Securities Laws: Preliminary Evidence '' (Working Paper January 16, 2007). London based Alternative Investment Market claims that its spectacular growth in listings almost entirely coincided with the Sarbanes Oxley legislation. In December 2006 Michael Bloomberg, New York 's mayor, and Charles Schumer, a U.S. senator from New York, expressed their concern.
The Sarbanes -- Oxley Act 's effect on non-U.S. companies cross-listed in the U.S. is different on firms from developed and well regulated countries than on firms from less developed countries according to Kate Litvak. Companies from badly regulated countries see benefits that are higher than the costs from better credit ratings by complying to regulations in a highly regulated country (USA), but companies from developed countries only incur the costs, since transparency is adequate in their home countries as well. On the other hand, the benefit of better credit rating also comes with listing on other stock exchanges such as the London Stock Exchange.
Piotroski and Srinivasan (2008) examine a comprehensive sample of international companies that list onto U.S. and U.K. stock exchanges before and after the enactment of the Act in 2002. Using a sample of all listing events onto U.S. and U.K. exchanges from 1995 -- 2006, they find that the listing preferences of large foreign firms choosing between U.S. exchanges and the LSE 's Main Market did not change following SOX. In contrast, they find that the likelihood of a U.S. listing among small foreign firms choosing between the Nasdaq and LSE 's Alternative Investment Market decreased following SOX. The negative effect among small firms is consistent with these companies being less able to absorb the incremental costs associated with SOX compliance. The screening of smaller firms with weaker governance attributes from U.S. exchanges is consistent with the heightened governance costs imposed by the Act increasing the bonding - related benefits of a U.S. listing.
Under Sarbanes -- Oxley, two separate sections came into effect -- one civil and the other criminal. 15 U.S.C. § 7241 (Section 302) (civil provision); 18 U.S.C. § 1350 (Section 906) (criminal provision).
Section 302 of the Act mandates a set of internal procedures designed to ensure accurate financial disclosure. The signing officers must certify that they are "responsible for establishing and maintaining internal controls '' and "have designed such internal controls to ensure that material information relating to the company and its consolidated subsidiaries is made known to such officers by others within those entities, particularly during the period in which the periodic reports are being prepared ''. 15 U.S.C. § 7241 (a) (4). The officers must "have evaluated the effectiveness of the company 's internal controls as of a date within 90 days prior to the report '' and "have presented in the report their conclusions about the effectiveness of their internal controls based on their evaluation as of that date ''. Id...
The SEC interpreted the intention of Sec. 302 in Final Rule 33 -- 8124. In it, the SEC defines the new term "disclosure controls and procedures, '' which are distinct from "internal controls over financial reporting ''. Under both Section 302 and Section 404, Congress directed the SEC to promulgate regulations enforcing these provisions.
External auditors are required to issue an opinion on whether effective internal control over financial reporting was maintained in all material respects by management. This is in addition to the financial statement opinion regarding the accuracy of the financial statements. The requirement to issue a third opinion regarding management 's assessment was removed in 2007.
A Lord & Benoit report, titled ' Bridging the Sarbanes - Oxley Disclosure Control Gap ' was filed with the SEC Subcommittee on internal controls which reported that those companies with ineffective internal controls, the expected rate of full and accurate disclosure under Section 302 will range between 8 and 15 percent. A full 9 out of every 10 companies with ineffective Section 404 controls self reported effective Section 302 controls in the same period end that an adverse Section 404 was reported, 90 % in accurate without a Section 404 audit. http://www.section404.org/UserFiles/File/Lord_Benoit_Report_1_Bridging_the_Disclosure_Control_Gap.pdf
a. Rules To Prohibit. It shall be unlawful, in contravention of such rules or regulations as the Commission shall prescribe as necessary and appropriate in the public interest or for the protection of investors, for any officer or director of an issuer, or any other person acting under the direction thereof, to take any action to fraudulently influence, coerce, manipulate, or mislead any independent public or certified accountant engaged in the performance of an audit of the financial statements of that issuer for the purpose of rendering such financial statements materially misleading.
b. Enforcement. In any civil proceeding, the Commission shall have exclusive authority to enforce this section and any rule or regulation issued under this section.
c. No Preemption of Other Law. The provisions of subsection (a) shall be in addition to, and shall not supersede or preempt, any other provision of law or any rule or regulation issued thereunder.
d. Deadline for Rulemaking. The Commission shall -- 1. propose the rules or regulations required by this section, not later than 90 days after the date of enactment of this Act; and 2. issue final rules or regulations required by this section, not later than 270 days after that date of enactment. (2)
The bankruptcy of Enron drew attention to off - balance sheet instruments that were used fraudulently. During 2010, the court examiner 's review of the Lehman Brothers bankruptcy also brought these instruments back into focus, as Lehman had used an instrument called "Repo 105 '' to allegedly move assets and debt off - balance sheet to make its financial position look more favorable to investors. Sarbanes - Oxley required the disclosure of all material off - balance sheet items. It also required an SEC study and report to better understand the extent of usage of such instruments and whether accounting principles adequately addressed these instruments; the SEC report was issued June 15, 2005. Interim guidance was issued in May 2006, which was later finalized. Critics argued the SEC did not take adequate steps to regulate and monitor this activity.
The most contentious aspect of SOX is Section 404, which requires management and the external auditor to report on the adequacy of the company 's internal control on financial reporting (ICFR). This is the most costly aspect of the legislation for companies to implement, as documenting and testing important financial manual and automated controls requires enormous effort.
Under Section 404 of the Act, management is required to produce an "internal control report '' as part of each annual Exchange Act report. See 15 U.S.C. § 7262. The report must affirm "the responsibility of management for establishing and maintaining an adequate internal control structure and procedures for financial reporting ''. 15 U.S.C. § 7262 (a). The report must also "contain an assessment, as of the end of the most recent fiscal year of the Company, of the effectiveness of the internal control structure and procedures of the issuer for financial reporting ''. To do this, managers are generally adopting an internal control framework such as that described in COSO.
To help alleviate the high costs of compliance, guidance and practice have continued to evolve. The Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) approved Auditing Standard No. 5 for public accounting firms on July 25, 2007. This standard superseded Auditing Standard No. 2, the initial guidance provided in 2004. The SEC also released its interpretive guidance on June 27, 2007. It is generally consistent with the PCAOB 's guidance, but intended to provide guidance for management. Both management and the external auditor are responsible for performing their assessment in the context of a top - down risk assessment, which requires management to base both the scope of its assessment and evidence gathered on risk. This gives management wider discretion in its assessment approach. These two standards together require management to:
SOX 404 compliance costs represent a tax on inefficiency, encouraging companies to centralize and automate their financial reporting systems. This is apparent in the comparative costs of companies with decentralized operations and systems, versus those with centralized, more efficient systems. For example, the 2007 Financial Executives International (FEI) survey indicated average compliance costs for decentralized companies were $1.9 million, while centralized company costs were $1.3 million. Costs of evaluating manual control procedures are dramatically reduced through automation.
The cost of complying with SOX 404 impacts smaller companies disproportionately, as there is a significant fixed cost involved in completing the assessment. For example, during 2004 U.S. companies with revenues exceeding $5 billion spent 0.06 % of revenue on SOX compliance, while companies with less than $100 million in revenue spent 2.55 %.
This disparity is a focal point of 2007 SEC and U.S. Senate action. The PCAOB intends to issue further guidance to help companies scale their assessment based on company size and complexity during 2007. The SEC issued their guidance to management in June, 2007.
After the SEC and PCAOB issued their guidance, the SEC required smaller public companies (non-accelerated filers) with fiscal years ending after December 15, 2007 to document a Management Assessment of their Internal Controls over Financial Reporting (ICFR). Outside auditors of non-accelerated filers however opine or test internal controls under PCAOB (Public Company Accounting Oversight Board) Auditing Standards for years ending after December 15, 2008. Another extension was granted by the SEC for the outside auditor assessment until years ending after December 15, 2009. The reason for the timing disparity was to address the House Committee on Small Business concern that the cost of complying with Section 404 of the Sarbanes -- Oxley Act of 2002 was still unknown and could therefore be disproportionately high for smaller publicly held companies. On October 2, 2009, the SEC granted another extension for the outside auditor assessment until fiscal years ending after June 15, 2010. The SEC stated in their release that the extension was granted so that the SEC 's Office of Economic Analysis could complete a study of whether additional guidance provided to company managers and auditors in 2007 was effective in reducing the costs of compliance. They also stated that there will be no further extensions in the future.
On September 15, 2010 the SEC issued final rule 33 - 9142 the permanently exempts registrants that are neither accelerated nor large accelerated filers as defined by Rule 12b - 2 of the Securities and Exchange Act of 1934 from Section 404 (b) internal control audit requirement.
Section 802 (a) of the SOX, 18 U.S.C. § 1519 states:
Section 806 of the Sarbanes - Oxley Act, also known as the whistleblower - protection provision, prohibits any "officer, employee, contractor, subcontractor, or agent '' of a publicly traded company from retaliating against "an employee '' for disclosing reasonably perceived potential or actual violations of the six enumerated categories of protected conduct in Section 806 (securities fraud, shareholder fraud, bank fraud, a violation of any SEC rule or regulation, mail fraud, or wire fraud). Section 806 prohibits a broad range of retaliatory adverse employment actions, including discharging, demoting, suspending, threatening, harassing, or in any other manner discriminating against a whistleblower. Recently a federal court of appeals held that merely "outing '' or disclosing the identity of a whistleblower is actionable retaliation.
Remedies under Section 806 include:
(B) the amount of back pay, with interest; and
(C) compensation for any special damages sustained as a result of the discrimination, including litigation costs, expert witness fees, and reasonable attorney fees.
Prevailing SOX whistleblowers have received significant jury verdicts, including:
$11 million jury verdict to a former Bio-Rad Laboratories Inc. General Counsel who was terminated after reporting potential violations of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act;
$6 million jury verdict to a former Playboy accounting executive who alleged that her employment was terminated in retaliation for disclosing to her former employer 's Chief Financial Officer and Chief Compliance Officer concerns about accruing discretionary executive bonuses without Board approval; and
$5 million jury verdict to a former senior manager at Progenics Pharmaceuticals, Inc. who was terminated in retaliation for his disclosure to executives that the company was committing fraud against shareholders by making inaccurate representations about the results of a clinical trial.
§ 1350. Section 906 states: Failure of corporate officers to certify financial reports
(a) Certification of Periodic Financial Reports. -- Each periodic report containing financial statements filed by an issuer with the Securities Exchange Commission pursuant to section 13 (a) or 15 (d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (15 U.S.C. 78m (a) or 78o (d)) shall be accompanied by a written statement by the chief executive officer and chief financial officer (or equivalent thereof) of the issuer.
(b) Content. -- The statement required under subsection (a) shall certify that the periodic report containing the financial statements fully complies with the requirements of section 13 (a) or 15 (d) of the Securities Exchange Act of (1) 1934 (15 U.S.C. 78m or 78o (d)) and that information contained in the periodic report fairly presents, in all material respects, the financial condition and results of operations of the issuer.
(c) Criminal Penalties. -- Whoever -- (1) certifies any statement as set forth in subsections (a) and (b) of this section knowing that the periodic report accompanying the statement does not comport with all the requirements set forth in this section shall be fined not more than $1,000,000 or imprisoned not more than 10 years, or both; or
(2) willfully certifies any statement as set forth in subsections (a) and (b) of this section knowing that the periodic report accompanying the statement does not comport with all the requirements set forth in this section shall be fined not more than $5,000,000, or imprisoned not more than 20 years, or both. (3)
Section 1107 of the SOX 18 U.S.C. § 1513 (e) states:
One of the highlights of the law was a provision that allowed the SEC to force a company 's CEO or CFO to disgorge any executive compensation (such as bonus pay or proceeds from stock sales) earned within a year of misconduct that results in an earnings restatement. However, according to Gretchen Morgenson of The New York Times, such clawbacks have actually been rare, due in part to the requirement that the misconduct must be either deliberate or reckless. The SEC did not attempt to claw back any executive compensation until 2007, and as of December 2013 had only brought 31 cases, 13 of which were begun after 2010. However, according to Dan Whalen of the accounting research firm Audit Analytics, the threat of clawbacks, and the time - consuming litigation associated with them, has forced companies to tighten their financial reporting standards.
Congressman Ron Paul and others such as former Arkansas governor Mike Huckabee have contended that SOX was an unnecessary and costly government intrusion into corporate management that places U.S. corporations at a competitive disadvantage with foreign firms, driving businesses out of the United States. In an April 14, 2005 speech before the U.S. House of Representatives, Paul stated
These regulations are damaging American capital markets by providing an incentive for small US firms and foreign firms to deregister from US stock exchanges. According to a study by a researcher at the Wharton Business School, the number of American companies deregistering from public stock exchanges nearly tripled during the year after Sarbanes -- Oxley became law, while the New York Stock Exchange had only 10 new foreign listings in all of 2004. The reluctance of small businesses and foreign firms to register on American stock exchanges is easily understood when one considers the costs Sarbanes -- Oxley imposes on businesses. According to a survey by Korn / Ferry International, Sarbanes -- Oxley cost Fortune 500 companies an average of $5.1 million in compliance expenses in 2004, while a study by the law firm of Foley and Lardner found the Act increased costs associated with being a publicly held company by 130 percent.
A research study published by Joseph Piotroski of Stanford University and Suraj Srinivasan of Harvard Business School titled "Regulation and Bonding: Sarbanes Oxley Act and the Flow of International Listings '' in the Journal of Accounting Research in 2008 found that following the act 's passage, smaller international companies were more likely to list in stock exchanges in the U.K. rather than U.S. stock exchanges.
During the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2010, critics blamed Sarbanes -- Oxley for the low number of Initial Public Offerings (IPOs) on American stock exchanges during 2008. In November 2008, Newt Gingrich and co-author David W. Kralik called on Congress to repeal Sarbanes -- Oxley.
According to the National Venture Capital Association, in all of 2008 there have been just six companies that have gone public. Compare that with 269 IPOs in 1999, 272 in 1996, and 365 in 1986. '' (According to Hoover 's IPO Scorecard, however, 31, not six companies went public on the major U.S. stock exchanges in 2008, a year when the economy was much worse than 2007 (when 209 companies went public) or 2006 (205 IPOs).)
However, the number of IPOs had declined to 87 in 2001, well down from the highs, but before Sarbanes -- Oxley was passed. In 2004, IPOs were up 195 % from the previous year to 233. There were 196 IPOs in 2005, 205 in 2006 (with a sevenfold increase in deals over $1 billion) and 209 in 2007.
A 2012 Wall St. Journal editorial stated, "One reason the U.S. economy is n't creating enough jobs is that it 's not creating enough employers... For the third year in a row the world 's leading exchange for new stock offerings was located not in New York, but in Hong Kong... Given that the U.S. is still home to the world 's largest economy, there 's no reason it should n't have the most vibrant equity markets -- unless regulation is holding back the creation of new public companies. On that score it 's getting harder for backers of the Sarbanes - Oxley accounting law to explain away each disappointing year since its 2002 enactment as some kind of temporary or unrelated setback. ''
Former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan praised the Sarbanes -- Oxley Act in 2005: "I am surprised that the Sarbanes -- Oxley Act, so rapidly developed and enacted, has functioned as well as it has... the act importantly reinforced the principle that shareholders own our corporations and that corporate managers should be working on behalf of shareholders to allocate business resources to their optimum use. ''
SOX has been praised by a cross-section of financial industry experts, citing improved investor confidence and more accurate, reliable financial statements. The CEO and CFO are now required to unequivocally take ownership for their financial statements under Section 302, which was not the case prior to SOX. Further, auditor conflicts of interest have been addressed, by prohibiting auditors from also having lucrative consulting agreements with the firms they audit under Section 201. SEC Chairman Christopher Cox stated in 2007: "Sarbanes -- Oxley helped restore trust in U.S. markets by increasing accountability, speeding up reporting, and making audits more independent. ''
The Financial Executives International (FEI) 2007 study and research by the Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA) also indicate SOX has improved investor confidence in financial reporting, a primary objective of the legislation. The IIA study also indicated improvements in board, audit committee, and senior management engagement in financial reporting and improvements in financial controls.
Financial restatements increased significantly in the wake of the SOX legislation, as companies "cleaned up '' their books. Glass, Lewis & Co. LLC is a San Francisco - based firm that tracks the volume of do - overs by public companies. Its March 2006 report, "Getting It Wrong the First Time, '' shows 1,295 restatements of financial earnings in 2005 for companies listed on U.S. securities markets, almost twice the number for 2004. "That 's about one restatement for every 12 public companies -- up from one for every 23 in 2004, '' says the report.
One fraud uncovered by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) in November 2009 may be directly credited to Sarbanes - Oxley. The fraud, which spanned nearly 20 years and involved over $24 million, was committed by Value Line (NASDAQ: VALU) against its mutual fund shareholders. The fraud was first reported to the SEC in 2004 by the then Value Line Fund (NASDAQ: VLIFX) portfolio manager and Chief Quantitative Strategist, Mr. John (Jack) R. Dempsey of Easton, Connecticut, who was required to sign a Code of Business Ethics as part of SOX. Restitution totaling $34 million was placed in a fair fund and returned to the affected Value Line mutual fund investors. The Commission ordered Value Line to pay a total of $43,705,765 in disgorgement, prejudgment interest and civil penalty, and ordered Buttner, CEO and Henigson, COO to pay civil penalties of $1,000,000 and $250,000, respectively. The Commission further imposed officer and director bars and broker - dealer, investment adviser, and investment company associational bars ("Associational Bars '') against Buttner and Henigson. No criminal charges were filed.
The Sarbanes -- Oxley Act has been praised for nurturing an ethical culture as it forces top management to be transparent and employees to be responsible for their acts whilst protecting whistleblowers. Indeed, courts have held that top management may be in violation of its obligation to assess and disclose material weaknesses in its internal control over financial reporting when it ignores an employee 's concerns that could impact the company 's SEC filings.
A lawsuit (Free Enterprise Fund v. Public Company Accounting Oversight Board) was filed in 2006 challenging the constitutionality of the PCAOB. The complaint argues that because the PCAOB has regulatory powers over the accounting industry, its officers should be appointed by the President, rather than the SEC. Further, because the law lacks a "severability clause, '' if part of the law is judged unconstitutional, so is the remainder. If the plaintiff prevails, the U.S. Congress may have to devise a different method of officer appointment. Further, the other parts of the law may be open to revision. The lawsuit was dismissed from a District Court; the decision was upheld by the Court of Appeals on August 22, 2008. Judge Kavanaugh, in his dissent, argued strongly against the constitutionality of the law. On May 18, 2009, the United States Supreme Court agreed to hear this case. On December 7, 2009, it heard the oral arguments. On June 28, 2010, the United States Supreme Court unanimously turned away a broad challenge to the law, but ruled 5 -- 4 that a section related to appointments violates the Constitution 's separation of powers mandate. The act remains "fully operative as a law '' pending a process correction.
In its March 4, 2014 Lawson v. FMR LLC decision the United States Supreme Court rejected a narrow reading of the SOX whistleblower protection and instead held that the anti-retaliation protection that the Sarbanes -- Oxley Act of 2002 provided to whistleblowers applies also to employees of a public company 's private contractors and subcontractors, including the attorneys and accountants who prepare the SEC filings of public companies. Subsequent interpretations of Lawson, however, suggest that the disclosures of a contractor 's employee are protected only if those disclosures pertain to fraud perpetrated by a publicly traded company, as opposed to wrongdoing by a private contractor.
In its February 25, 2015 Yates v. United States (2015) decision the US Supreme Court sided with Yates by reversing the previous judgement, with a plurality of the justices reading the Act to cover "only objects one can use to record or preserve information, not all objects in the physical world ''. Justice Samuel Alito concurred in the judgment and noted that the statute 's nouns and verbs only applies to filekeeping and not fish.
Close scrutiny of corporate governance and greater responsibility placed on directors to vouch for the reports submitted to the SEC and other federal agencies, have resulted in the growth of software solutions aimed at reducing the complexity, time and expense involved in creating the reports. This trend accelerated in 2008 with the passage of the Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act. Software as a service (SaaS) products allow corporate directors and internal auditors to assemble and analyze financial and other relevant data -- including unstructured data -- and create the needed reports quickly and without the need of an outside vendor.
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where did the battle of the midway take place | Battle of Midway - wikipedia
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The Battle of Midway was a decisive naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II which occurred between 4 and 7 June 1942, only six months after Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor and one month after the Battle of the Coral Sea. The United States Navy under Admirals Chester Nimitz, Frank Jack Fletcher, and Raymond A. Spruance defeated an attacking fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy under Admirals Isoroku Yamamoto, Chuichi Nagumo, and Nobutake Kondo near Midway Atoll, inflicting devastating damage on the Japanese fleet that proved irreparable. Military historian John Keegan called it "the most stunning and decisive blow in the history of naval warfare. ''
The Japanese operation, like the earlier attack on Pearl Harbor, sought to eliminate the United States as a strategic power in the Pacific, thereby giving Japan a free hand in establishing its Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. The Japanese hoped another demoralizing defeat would force the U.S. to capitulate in the Pacific War and thus ensure Japanese dominance in the Pacific. Luring the American aircraft carriers into a trap and occupying Midway was part of an overall "barrier '' strategy to extend Japan 's defensive perimeter, in response to the Doolittle air raid on Tokyo. This operation was also considered preparatory for further attacks against Fiji, Samoa, and Hawaii itself.
The plan was handicapped by faulty Japanese assumptions of the American reaction and poor initial dispositions. Most significantly, American cryptographers were able to determine the date and location of the planned attack, enabling the forewarned U.S. Navy to prepare its own ambush. There were seven aircraft carriers involved in the battle and four of Japan 's large fleet carriers -- Akagi, Kaga, Sōryū and Hiryū, part of the six - carrier force that had attacked Pearl Harbor six months earlier -- and a heavy cruiser were sunk, while the U.S. lost only the carrier Yorktown and a destroyer.
After Midway and the exhausting attrition of the Solomon Islands campaign, Japan 's capacity to replace its losses in materiel (particularly aircraft carriers) and men (especially well - trained pilots and maintenance crewmen) rapidly became insufficient to cope with mounting casualties, while the United States ' massive industrial and training capabilities made losses far easier to replace. The Battle of Midway, along with the Guadalcanal Campaign, is widely considered a turning point in the Pacific War.
After expanding the war in the Pacific to include Western outposts, the Japanese Empire had attained its initial strategic goals quickly, taking the Philippines, Malaya, Singapore, and the Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia); the latter, with its vital oil resources, was particularly important to Japan. Because of this, preliminary planning for a second phase of operations commenced as early as January 1942.
There were strategic disagreements between the Imperial Army (IJA) and Imperial Navy (IJN), and infighting between the Navy 's GHQ and Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto 's Combined Fleet, and a follow - up strategy was not formed until April 1942. Admiral Yamamoto finally succeeded in winning the bureaucratic struggle with a thinly veiled threat to resign, after which his plan for the Central Pacific was adopted.
Yamamoto 's primary strategic goal was the elimination of America 's carrier forces, which he regarded as the principal threat to the overall Pacific campaign. This concern was acutely heightened by the Doolittle Raid on 18 April 1942, in which 16 U.S. Army Air Forces B - 25 Mitchell bombers launched from USS Hornet bombed targets in Tokyo and several other Japanese cities. The raid, while militarily insignificant, was a shock to the Japanese and showed the existence of a gap in the defenses around the Japanese home islands as well as the accessibility of Japanese territory to American bombers.
This, and other successful hit - and - run raids by American carriers in the South Pacific, showed that they were still a threat, although seemingly reluctant to be drawn into an all - out battle. Yamamoto reasoned that another air attack on the main U.S. Naval base at Pearl Harbor would induce all of the American fleet to sail out to fight, including the carriers. However, considering the increased strength of American land - based air power on the Hawaiian Islands since the December 7 attack the previous year, he judged that it was now too risky to attack Pearl Harbor directly.
Instead, Yamamoto selected Midway, a tiny atoll at the extreme northwest end of the Hawaiian Island chain, approximately 1,300 miles (1,100 nautical miles; 2,100 kilometres) from Oahu. This meant that Midway was outside the effective range of almost all of the American aircraft stationed on the main Hawaiian islands. Midway was not especially important in the larger scheme of Japan 's intentions, but the Japanese felt the Americans would consider Midway a vital outpost of Pearl Harbor and would therefore be compelled to defend it vigorously. The U.S. did consider Midway vital: after the battle, establishment of a U.S. submarine base on Midway allowed submarines operating from Pearl Harbor to refuel and re-provision, extending their radius of operations by 1,200 miles (1,900 km). In addition to serving as a seaplane base, Midway 's airstrips also served as a forward staging point for bomber attacks on Wake Island.
Typical of Japanese naval planning during World War II, Yamamoto 's battle plan for taking Midway (named Operation MI) was exceedingly complex. It required the careful and timely coordination of multiple battle groups over hundreds of miles of open sea. His design was also predicated on optimistic intelligence suggesting that USS Enterprise and USS Hornet, forming Task Force 16, were the only carriers available to the U.S. Pacific Fleet. During the Battle of the Coral Sea one month earlier, USS Lexington had been sunk and USS Yorktown suffered considerable damage such that the Japanese believed she too had been lost. However, following hasty repairs at Pearl Harbor, Yorktown sortied and would go on to play a critical role in the discovery and eventual destruction of the Japanese fleet carriers at Midway. Finally, much of Yamamoto 's planning, coinciding with the general feeling among the Japanese leadership at the time, was based on a gross misjudgment of American morale, which was believed to be debilitated from the string of Japanese victories in the preceding months.
Yamamoto felt deception would be required to lure the U.S. fleet into a fatally compromised situation. To this end, he dispersed his forces so that their full extent (particularly his battleships) would be concealed from the Americans prior to battle. Critically, Yamamoto 's supporting battleships and cruisers trailed Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo 's carrier force by several hundred miles. They were intended to come up and destroy whatever elements of the U.S. fleet might come to Midway 's defense once Nagumo 's carriers had weakened them sufficiently for a daylight gun battle; this tactic was typical of the battle doctrine of most major navies at the time.
What Yamamoto did not know was that the U.S. had broken the main Japanese naval code (dubbed JN - 25 by the Americans), divulging many details of his plan to the enemy. His emphasis on dispersal also meant none of his formations were in a position to support each other. For instance, despite the fact that Nagumo 's carriers were expected to carry out strikes against Midway and bear the brunt of American counterattacks, the only warships in his fleet larger than the screening force of twelve destroyers were two Kongō - class fast battleships, two heavy cruisers, and one light cruiser. By contrast, Yamamoto and Kondo had between them two light carriers, five battleships, four heavy cruisers, and two light cruisers, none of which would see action at Midway. The light carriers of the trailing forces and Yamamoto 's three battleships were unable to keep pace with the carriers of the Kido Butai and so could not have sailed in company with them. The distance between Yamamoto and Kondo 's forces and Nagumo 's carriers had grave implications during the battle: the invaluable reconnaissance capability of the scout planes carried by the cruisers and carriers, as well as the additional antiaircraft capability of the cruisers and the other two battleships of the Kongō - class in the trailing forces, was denied to Nagumo.
In order to obtain support from the Imperial Japanese Army for the Midway operation, the Imperial Japanese Navy agreed to support their invasion of the Aleutian Islands. The IJA wished to occupy the western Aleutians to place the Japanese home islands out of range of U.S. land - based bombers based in Alaska. The Japanese operations in the Aleutian Islands (Operation AL) removed yet more ships that could otherwise have augmented the force striking Midway. Whereas many earlier historical accounts considered the Aleutians operation as a feint to draw American forces away, early twenty - first century research has suggested that AL was intended to be launched simultaneously with the attack on Midway. A one - day delay in the sailing of Nagumo 's task force resulted in Operation AL beginning a day before the Midway attack.
To do battle with an enemy expected to muster four or five carriers, Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Commander in Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas, needed every available U.S. flight deck. He already had Vice Admiral William Halsey 's two - carrier (Enterprise and Hornet) task force at hand, though Halsey was stricken with severe dermatitis and had to be replaced by Rear Admiral Raymond A. Spruance, Halsey 's escort commander. Nimitz also hurriedly recalled Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher 's task force, including the carrier Yorktown, from the South West Pacific Area.
Despite estimates that Yorktown, damaged in the Battle of the Coral Sea, would require several months of repairs at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, her elevators were intact and her flight deck largely so. The Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard worked around the clock, and in 72 hours she was restored to a battle - ready state, judged good enough for two or three weeks of operations, as Nimitz required. Her flight deck was patched, and whole sections of internal frames were cut out and replaced. Repairs continued even as she sortied, with work crews from the repair ship USS Vestal, herself damaged in the attack on Pearl Harbor six months earlier, still aboard.
Yorktown 's partially depleted air group was rebuilt using whatever planes and pilots could be found. Scouting Five (VS - 5) was replaced with Bombing Three (VB - 3) from USS Saratoga. Torpedo Five (VT - 5) was also replaced by Torpedo Three (VT - 3). Also Fighting Three (VF - 3) was reconstituted to replace VF - 42 with sixteen pilots from VF - 42 and eleven pilots from VF - 3 with Lieutenant Commander John S. "Jimmy '' Thach in command. Some of the aircrew were inexperienced, which may have contributed to an accident in which Thach 's executive officer Lt Cmndr Donald Lovelace was killed. Despite efforts to get Saratoga (which had been undergoing repairs on the American West Coast) ready for the coming engagement, the need to resupply and assemble sufficient escorts meant she was not able to reach Midway until after the battle.
On Midway, by 4 June the USN had stationed four squadrons of PBYs -- 31 aircraft in total -- for long - range reconnaissance duties, and 6 brand - new Grumman TBF Avengers, the latter a detachment from Hornet 's VT - 8. The Marine Corps stationed 19 Douglas SBD Dauntless, 7 F4F - 3 Wildcats, 17 Vought SB2U Vindicators, and 21 Brewster F2A Buffalos. The USAAF contributed a squadron of 17 B - 17 Flying Fortresses and 4 Martin B - 26 Marauders equipped with torpedoes: in total 126 aircraft. Although the F2As and SB2Us were already obsolete, they were the only aircraft available to the Marine Corps at the time.
During the Battle of the Coral Sea one month earlier, the Japanese light carrier Shōhō had been sunk and the fleet carrier Shōkaku was severely damaged by three bomb hits, and was in drydock for months of repair. Although the fleet carrier Zuikaku escaped the battle undamaged, she had lost almost half her air group, and was in port in Kure awaiting replacement planes and pilots. That there were none immediately available is attributable to the failure of the IJN crew training program, which already showed signs of being unable to replace losses. Instructors from the Yokosuka Air Corps were employed in an effort to make up the shortfall.
Historians Jonathan Parshall and Anthony Tully believe that by combining the surviving aircraft and pilots from Shōkaku and Zuikaku, it is likely that Zuikaku could have been equipped with almost a full composite air group. They also note that doing so would have violated Japanese carrier doctrine, which stressed that carriers and their airgroups must train as a single unit (in contrast, American air squadrons were considered interchangeable between carriers). In any case, the Japanese apparently made no serious attempt to get Zuikaku ready for the forthcoming battle.
Thus, Carrier Division 5, consisting of the two most advanced aircraft carriers of the Kido Butai, would not be available, which meant that Vice-Admiral Nagumo had only two thirds of the fleet carriers at his disposal: Kaga and Akagi forming Carrier Division 1 and Hiryū and Sōryū as Carrier Division 2. This was partly due to fatigue; Japanese carriers had been constantly on operations since 7 December 1941, including raids on Darwin and Colombo. Nonetheless, the First Carrier Strike Force sailed with 238 available aircraft on the four carriers (60 on Akagi, 74 on Kaga (B5N2 squadron oversized), 57 on Hiryu and 57 on Soryu).
The main Japanese carrier - borne strike aircraft were the D3A1 "Val '' dive bomber and the B5N2 "Kate '', which was used either as a torpedo bomber or as a level bomber. The main carrier fighter was the fast and highly maneuverable A6M "Zero ''. For a variety of reasons, production of the "Val '' had been drastically reduced, while that of the "Kate '' had been stopped completely and, as a consequence, there were none available to replace losses. In addition, many of the aircraft being used during the June 1942 operations had been operational since late November 1941 and, although they were well - maintained, many were almost worn out and had become increasingly unreliable. These factors meant all carriers of the Kido Butai had fewer aircraft than their normal complement, with few spare aircraft or parts stored in the carriers ' hangars.
In addition, Nagumo 's carrier force suffered from several defensive deficiencies which gave it, in Mark Peattie 's words, a "' glass jaw ': it could throw a punch but could n't take one. '' Japanese carrier anti-aircraft guns and associated fire control systems had several design and configuration deficiencies which limited their effectiveness. The IJN 's fleet combat air patrol (CAP) consisted of too few fighter aircraft and was hampered by an inadequate early warning system, including a lack of radar. Poor radio communications with the fighter aircraft inhibited effective command and control of the CAP. The carriers ' escorting warships were deployed as visual scouts in a ring at long range, not as close anti-aircraft escorts, as they lacked training, doctrine, and sufficient anti-aircraft guns.
Japanese strategic scouting arrangements prior to the battle were also in disarray. A picket line of Japanese submarines was late getting into position (partly because of Yamamoto 's haste), which let the American carriers reach their assembly point northeast of Midway (known as "Point Luck '') without being detected. A second attempt at reconnaissance, using four - engine H8K "Emily '' flying boats to scout Pearl Harbor prior to the battle and detect whether the American carriers were present, part of Operation K, was thwarted when Japanese submarines assigned to refuel the search aircraft discovered that the intended refueling point -- a hitherto deserted bay off French Frigate Shoals -- was now occupied by American warships, because the Japanese had carried out an identical mission in March. Thus, Japan was deprived of any knowledge concerning the movements of the American carriers immediately before the battle.
Japanese radio intercepts did notice an increase in both American submarine activity and message traffic. This information was in Yamamoto 's hands prior to the battle. Japanese plans were not changed; Yamamoto, at sea in Yamato, assumed Nagumo had received the same signal from Tokyo, and did not communicate with him by radio, so as not to reveal his position. These messages were, contrary to earlier historical accounts, also received by Nagumo before the battle began. For reasons which remain unclear, Nagumo did not alter his plans or take additional precautions.
Admiral Nimitz had one critical advantage: US cryptanalysts had partially broken the Japanese Navy 's JN - 25b code. Since early 1942, the US had been decoding messages stating that there would soon be an operation at objective "AF ''. It was initially not known where "AF '' was, but Commander Joseph Rochefort and his team at Station HYPO were able to confirm that it was Midway: Captain Wilfred Holmes devised a ruse of telling the base at Midway (by secure undersea cable) to broadcast an uncoded radio message stating that Midway 's water purification system had broken down. Within 24 hours, the code breakers picked up a Japanese message that "AF was short on water. '' No Japanese radio operators who intercepted the message seemed concerned that the Americans were broadcasting uncoded that a major naval installation close to the Japanese threat ring was having a water shortage, which could have tipped off Japanese intelligence officers that it was a deliberate attempt at deception.
HYPO was also able to determine the date of the attack as either 4 or 5 June, and to provide Nimitz with a complete IJN order of battle.
Japan had a new codebook, but its introduction had been delayed, enabling HYPO to read messages for several crucial days; the new code, which would take several days to be cracked, came into use on 24 May, but the important breaks had already been made.
As a result, the Americans entered the battle with a very good picture of where, when, and in what strength the Japanese would appear. Nimitz knew that the Japanese had negated their numerical advantage by dividing their ships into four separate task groups, all too widely separated to be able to support each other. This dispersal resulted in few fast ships being available to escort the Carrier Striking Force, reducing the number of anti-aircraft guns protecting the carriers. Nimitz calculated that the aircraft on his three carriers, plus those on Midway Island, gave the U.S. rough parity with Yamamoto 's four carriers, mainly because American carrier air groups were larger than Japanese ones. The Japanese, by contrast, remained mainly unaware of their opponent 's true strength and dispositions even after the battle began.
At about 09: 00 on 3 June, Ensign Jack Reid, piloting a PBY from U.S. Navy patrol squadron VP - 44, spotted the Japanese Occupation Force 500 nautical miles (580 miles; 930 kilometres) to the west - southwest of Midway. He mistakenly reported this group as the Main Force.
Nine B - 17s took off from Midway at 12: 30 for the first air attack. Three hours later, they found Tanaka 's transport group 570 nautical miles (660 miles; 1,060 kilometres) to the west.
Under heavy anti-aircraft fire, they dropped their bombs. Although their crews reported hitting 4 ships, none of the bombs actually hit anything and no significant damage was inflicted. Early the following morning, the Japanese oil tanker Akebono Maru sustained the first hit when a torpedo from an attacking PBY struck her around 01: 00. This was the only successful air - launched torpedo attack by the U.S. during the entire battle.
At 04: 30 on 4 June, Nagumo launched his initial attack on Midway itself, consisting of 36 Aichi D3A dive bombers and 36 Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers, escorted by 36 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters. At the same time, he launched his 8 search aircraft (one from the heavy cruiser Tone launched 30 minutes late). Japanese reconnaissance arrangements were flimsy, with too few aircraft to adequately cover the assigned search areas, laboring under poor weather conditions to the northeast and east of the task force. As Nagumo 's bombers and fighters were taking off, 11 PBYs were leaving Midway to run their search patterns. At 05: 34, a PBY reported sighting 2 Japanese carriers and another spotted the inbound airstrike 10 minutes later.
Midway 's radar picked up the enemy at a distance of several miles, and interceptors were scrambled. Unescorted bombers headed off to attack the Japanese carriers, their fighter escorts remaining behind to defend Midway. At 06: 20, Japanese carrier aircraft bombed and heavily damaged the U.S. base. Midway - based Marine fighters led by Major Floyd B. Parks, which included 6 F4Fs and 20 F2As, intercepted the Japanese and suffered heavy losses, though they managed to destroy 4 B5Ns, as well as a single A6M. Within the first few minutes, 2 F4Fs and 13 F2As were destroyed, while most of the surviving U.S. planes were damaged, with only 2 remaining airworthy. American anti-aircraft fire was intense and accurate, destroying 3 additional Japanese aircraft and damaging many more.
Of the 108 Japanese aircraft involved in this attack, 11 were destroyed (including 3 that ditched), 14 were heavily damaged, and 29 were damaged to some degree. The initial Japanese attack did not succeed in neutralizing Midway: American bombers could still use the airbase to refuel and attack the Japanese invasion force, and most of Midway 's land - based defenses were intact. Japanese pilots reported to Nagumo that a second aerial attack on Midway 's defenses would be necessary if troops were to go ashore by 7 June.
Having taken off prior to the Japanese attack, American bombers based on Midway made several attacks on the Japanese carrier force. These included 6 Grumman Avengers, detached to Midway from Hornet 's VT - 8 (Midway was the combat debut of both VT - 8 and the TBF); Marine Scout - Bombing Squadron 241 (VMSB - 241), consisting of 11 SB2U - 3s and 16 SBDs, plus 4 USAAF B - 26s of the 18th Reconnaissance and 69th Bomb Squadrons armed with torpedoes, and 15 B - 17s of the 31st, 72nd, and 431st Bomb Squadrons. The Japanese repelled these attacks, losing 3 fighters while destroying 5 TBFs, 2 SB2Us, 8 SBDs, and 2 B - 26s. Among the dead was Major Lofton R. Henderson of VMSB - 241, killed while leading his inexperienced Dauntless squadron into action. The main airfield at Guadalcanal was named after him in August 1942.
One B - 26, after being seriously damaged by anti-aircraft fire, made a suicide run on Akagi. Making no attempt to pull out of its run, the aircraft narrowly missed crashing directly into the carrier 's bridge, which could have killed Nagumo and his command staff. This experience may well have contributed to Nagumo 's determination to launch another attack on Midway, in direct violation of Yamamoto 's order to keep the reserve strike force armed for anti-ship operations.
In accordance with Japanese carrier doctrine at the time, Admiral Nagumo had kept half of his aircraft in reserve. These comprised two squadrons each of dive bombers and torpedo bombers. The dive bombers were as yet unarmed. The torpedo bombers were armed with torpedoes should any American warships be located.
At 07: 15, Nagumo ordered his reserve planes to be re-armed with contact - fused general purpose bombs for use against land targets. This was a result of the attacks from Midway, as well as of the morning flight leader 's recommendation of a second strike. Re-arming had been underway for about 30 minutes when, at 07: 40, the delayed scout plane from Tone signaled that it had sighted a sizable American naval force to the east, but neglected to describe its composition. Later evidence suggests Nagumo did not receive the sighting report until 08: 00.
Nagumo quickly reversed his order to re-arm the bombers with general purpose bombs and demanded that the scout plane ascertain the composition of the American force. Another 20 -- 40 minutes elapsed before Tone 's scout finally radioed the presence of a single carrier in the American force. This was one of the carriers from Task Force 16. The other carrier was not sighted.
Nagumo was now in a quandary. Rear Admiral Tamon Yamaguchi, leading Carrier Division 2 (Hiryū and Sōryū), recommended that Nagumo strike immediately with the forces at hand: 18 Aichi D3A1 dive bombers each on Sōryū and Hiryū, and half the ready cover patrol aircraft. Nagumo 's opportunity to hit the American ships was now limited by the imminent return of his Midway strike force. The returning strike force needed to land promptly or it would have to ditch into the sea. Because of the constant flight deck activity associated with combat air patrol operations during the preceding hour, the Japanese never had an opportunity to position ("spot '') their reserve planes on the flight deck for launch.
The few aircraft on the Japanese flight decks at the time of the attack were either defensive fighters or, in the case of Sōryū, fighters being spotted to augment the Combat Air Patrol. Spotting his flight decks and launching aircraft would have required at least 30 minutes. Furthermore, by spotting and launching immediately, Nagumo would be committing some of his reserve to battle without proper anti-ship armament, and likely without fighter escort; indeed, he had just witnessed how easily unescorted American bombers had been shot down.
Japanese carrier doctrine preferred the launching of fully constituted strikes rather than piecemeal attacks. Without confirmation of whether the American force included carriers (not received until 08: 20), Nagumo 's reaction was doctrinaire. In addition, the arrival of another land - based American air strike at 07: 53 gave weight to the need to attack the island again. In the end, Nagumo decided to wait for his first strike force to land, then launch the reserve, which would by then be properly armed with torpedoes.
In the final analysis, it made no difference; Fletcher 's carriers had launched their planes beginning at 07: 00 (with Enterprise and Hornet having completed launching by 07: 55, but Yorktown not until 09: 08), so the aircraft that would deliver the crushing blow were already on their way. Even if Nagumo had not strictly followed carrier doctrine, he could not have prevented the launch of the American attack.
The Americans had already launched their carrier aircraft against the Japanese. Fletcher, in overall command aboard Yorktown, and benefiting from PBY sighting reports from the early morning, ordered Spruance to launch against the Japanese as soon as was practical, while initially holding Yorktown in reserve in case any other Japanese carriers were found.
Spruance judged that, though the range was extreme, a strike could succeed and gave the order to launch the attack. He then left Halsey 's Chief of Staff, Captain Miles Browning, to work out the details and oversee the launch. The carriers had to launch into the wind, so the light southeasterly breeze would require them to steam away from the Japanese at high speed. Browning therefore suggested a launch time of 07: 00, giving the carriers an hour to close on the Japanese at 25 knots (46 km / h; 29 mph). This would place them at about 155 nautical miles (287 km; 178 mi) from the Japanese fleet, assuming it did not change course. The first plane took off from Spruance 's carriers Enterprise and Hornet a few minutes after 07: 00. Fletcher, upon completing his own scouting flights, followed suit at 08: 00 from Yorktown.
Fletcher, along with Yorktown 's commanding officer, Captain Elliott Buckmaster, and their staffs, had acquired first - hand experience in organizing and launching a full strike against an enemy force in the Coral Sea, but there was no time to pass these lessons on to Enterprise and Hornet which were tasked with launching the first strike. Spruance ordered the striking aircraft to proceed to target immediately, rather than waste time waiting for the strike force to assemble, since neutralizing enemy carriers was the key to the survival of his own task force.
While the Japanese were able to launch 108 aircraft in just seven minutes, it took Enterprise and Hornet over an hour to launch 117. Spruance judged that the need to throw something at the enemy as soon as possible was greater than the need to coordinate the attack by aircraft of different types and speeds (fighters, bombers, and torpedo bombers). Accordingly, American squadrons were launched piecemeal and proceeded to the target in several different groups. It was accepted that the lack of coordination would diminish the impact of the American attacks and increase their casualties, but Spruance calculated that this was worthwhile, since keeping the Japanese under aerial attack impaired their ability to launch a counterstrike (Japanese tactics preferred fully constituted attacks), and he gambled that he would find Nagumo with his flight decks at their most vulnerable.
American carrier aircraft had difficulty locating the target, despite the positions they had been given. The strike from Hornet, led by Commander Stanhope C. Ring, followed an incorrect heading of 265 degrees rather than the 240 degrees indicated by the contact report. As a result, Air Group Eight 's dive bombers missed the Japanese carriers. Torpedo Squadron 8 (VT - 8, from Hornet), led by Lieutenant Commander John C. Waldron, broke formation from Ring and followed the correct heading. The 10 F4Fs from Hornet ran out of fuel and had to ditch.
Waldron 's squadron sighted the enemy carriers and began attacking at 09: 20, followed at 09: 40 by VT - 6 from Enterprise, whose Wildcat fighter escorts lost contact, ran low on fuel, and had to turn back. Without fighter escort, all 15 TBD Devastators of VT - 8 were shot down without being able to inflict any damage. Ensign George H. Gay, Jr. was the only survivor of the 30 aircrew of VT - 8. VT - 6 lost 10 of its 14 Devastators, and 10 of 12 Devastators from Yorktown 's VT - 3 (who attacked at 10: 10) were shot down with no hits to show for their effort, thanks in part to the abysmal performance of their unimproved Mark 13 torpedoes. Midway was the last time the TBD Devastator was used in combat.
The Japanese combat air patrol, flying Mitsubishi A6M2 Zeros, made short work of the unescorted, slow, under - armed TBDs. A few TBDs managed to get within a few ship - lengths range of their targets before dropping their torpedoes -- close enough to be able to strafe the enemy ships and force the Japanese carriers to make sharp evasive maneuvers -- but all of their torpedoes either missed or failed to explode. Remarkably, senior Navy and Bureau of Ordnance officers never questioned why half a dozen torpedoes, released so close to the Japanese carriers, produced no results. The abysmal performance of American torpedoes in the early months of the war became a scandal. Torpedo after torpedo either missed by running directly under the target, prematurely exploded, or struck targets with textbook right angle hits (sometimes with an audible clang) and failed to explode.
Despite their failure to score any hits, the American torpedo attacks achieved three important results. First, they kept the Japanese carriers off balance and unable to prepare and launch their own counterstrike. Second, the poor control of the Japanese combat air patrol (CAP) meant they were out of position for subsequent attacks. Third, many of the Zeros ran low on ammunition and fuel. The appearance of a third torpedo plane attack from the southeast by VT - 3 from Yorktown at 10: 00 very quickly drew the majority of the Japanese CAP to the southeast quadrant of the fleet. Better discipline, and the employment of a greater number of Zeroes for the CAP might have enabled Nagumo to prevent (or at least mitigate) the damage caused by the coming American attacks.
By chance, at the same time VT - 3 was sighted by the Japanese, three squadrons of SBDs from Enterprise and Yorktown were approaching from the southwest and northeast. The Yorktown squadron (VB - 3) had flown just behind VT - 3, but elected to attack from a different course. The two squadrons from Enterprise (VB - 6 and VS - 6) were running low on fuel because of the time spent looking for the enemy. Air Group Commander C. Wade McClusky, Jr. decided to continue the search, and by good fortune spotted the wake of the Japanese destroyer Arashi, steaming at full speed to rejoin Nagumo 's carriers after having unsuccessfully depth - charged U.S. submarine Nautilus, which had unsuccessfully attacked the battleship Kirishima. Some bombers were lost from fuel exhaustion before the attack commenced.
McClusky 's decision to continue the search and his judgment, in the opinion of Admiral Chester Nimitz, "decided the fate of our carrier task force and our forces at Midway... '' All three American dive - bomber squadrons (VB - 6, VS - 6 and VB - 3) arrived almost simultaneously at the perfect time, locations and altitudes to attack. Most of the Japanese CAP was focusing on the torpedo planes of VT - 3 and were out of position, armed Japanese strike aircraft filled the hangar decks, fuel hoses snaked across the decks as refueling operations were hastily being completed, and the repeated change of ordnance meant that bombs and torpedoes were stacked around the hangars, rather than stowed safely in the magazines, making the Japanese carriers extraordinarily vulnerable.
Beginning at 10: 22, the two squadrons of Enterprise 's air group split up with the intention of sending one squadron each to attack Kaga and Akagi. A miscommunication caused both of the squadrons to dive at the Kaga. Recognizing the error, Lieutenant Richard Halsey Best and his two wingmen were able to pull out of their dives and, after judging that Kaga was doomed, headed north to attack Akagi. Coming under an onslaught of bombs from almost two full squadrons, Kaga sustained four or five direct hits, which caused heavy damage and started multiple fires. One of the bombs landed near the bridge, killing Captain Jisaku Okada and most of the ship 's senior officers. Lieutenant Clarence E. Dickinson, part of McClusky 's group, recalled:
We were coming down in all directions on the port side of the carrier... I recognized her as the Kaga; and she was enormous... The target was utterly satisfying... I saw a bomb hit just behind where I was aiming... I saw the deck rippling and curling back in all directions exposing a great section of the hangar below... I saw (my) 500 - pound bomb hit right abreast of the (carrier 's) island. The two 100 - pound bombs struck in the forward area of the parked planes...
Several minutes later, Best and his two wingmen dived on the Akagi. Mitsuo Fuchida, the Japanese aviator who had led the attack on Pearl Harbor, was on the Akagi when it was hit, and described the attack:
A look - out screamed: "Hell - Divers! '' I looked up to see three black enemy planes plummeting towards our ship. Some of our machineguns managed to fire a few frantic bursts at them, but it was too late. The plump silhouettes of the American Dauntless dive - bombers quickly grew larger, and then a number of black objects suddenly floated eerily from their wings.
Although Akagi sustained only one direct hit (almost certainly dropped by Lieutenant Best), it proved to be a fatal blow: the bomb struck the edge of the mid-ship deck elevator and penetrated to the upper hangar deck, where it exploded among the armed and fueled aircraft in the vicinity. Nagumo 's chief of staff, Ryūnosuke Kusaka, recorded "a terrific fire... bodies all over the place... Planes stood tail up, belching livid flames and jet - black smoke, making it impossible to bring the fires under control. '' Another bomb exploded under water very close astern; the resulting geyser bent the flight deck upward "in grotesque configurations '' and caused crucial rudder damage.
Simultaneously, Yorktown 's VB - 3, commanded by Max Leslie, went for Sōryū, scoring at least three hits and causing extensive damage. Some of Leslie 's bombers did not have bombs as they were accidentally released when the pilots attempted to use electrical arming switches. Nevertheless, Leslie and others still dove, strafing carrier decks and providing cover for those who had bombs. Gasoline ignited, creating an "inferno, '' while stacked bombs and ammunition detonated. VT - 3 targeted Hiryū, which was hemmed in by Sōryū, Kaga, and Akagi, but achieved no hits.
Within six minutes, Sōryū and Kaga were ablaze from stem to stern, as fires spread through the ships. Akagi, having been struck by only one bomb, took longer to burn, but the resulting fires quickly expanded and soon proved impossible to extinguish; she too was eventually consumed by flames and had to be abandoned. All three carriers remained temporarily afloat, as none had suffered damage below the waterline, other than the rudder damage to Akagi caused by the near miss close astern. Despite initial hopes that Akagi could be saved or at least towed back to Japan, all three carriers were eventually abandoned and scuttled.
Hiryū, the sole surviving Japanese aircraft carrier, wasted little time in counterattacking. Hiryū 's first attack wave, consisting of 18 D3As and 6 fighter escorts, followed the retreating American aircraft and attacked the first carrier they encountered, Yorktown, hitting her with three bombs, which blew a hole in the deck, snuffed out her boilers, and destroyed one anti-aircraft mount. The damage also forced Admiral Fletcher to move his command staff to the heavy cruiser Astoria. Repair teams were able to temporarily patch the flight deck and restore power to several boilers within an hour, giving her a speed of 19 knots (35 km / h; 22 mph) and enabling her to resume air operations. Thirteen Japanese dive bombers and three escorting fighters were lost in this attack (two escorting fighters turned back early after they were damaged attacking some of Enterprise 's SBDs returning from their attack on the Japanese carriers).
Approximately one hour later, Hiryū 's second attack wave, consisting of ten B5Ns and six escorting A6Ms, arrived over Yorktown; the repair efforts had been so effective that the Japanese pilots assumed that Yorktown must be a different, undamaged carrier. They attacked, crippling Yorktown with two torpedoes; she lost all power and developed a 23 - degree list to port. Five torpedo bombers and two fighters were shot down in this attack.
News of the two strikes, with the mistaken reports that each had sunk an American carrier, greatly improved Japanese morale. The few surviving aircraft were all recovered aboard Hiryū. Despite the heavy losses, the Japanese believed that they could scrape together enough aircraft for one more strike against what they believed to be the only remaining American carrier.
Late in the afternoon, a Yorktown scout aircraft located Hiryū, prompting Enterprise to launch a final strike of 24 dive bombers (including 6 SBDs from VS - 6, 4 SBDs from VB - 6, and 14 SBDs from Yorktown 's VB - 3). Despite Hiryū being defended by a strong cover of more than a dozen Zero fighters, the attack by Enterprise and orphaned Yorktown aircraft launched from Enterprise was successful: four bombs (possibly five) hit Hiryū, leaving her ablaze and unable to operate aircraft. Hornet 's strike, launched late because of a communications error, concentrated on the remaining escort ships, but failed to score any hits.
After futile attempts at controlling the blaze, most of the crew remaining on Hiryū were evacuated and the remainder of the fleet continued sailing northeast in an attempt to intercept the American carriers. Despite a scuttling attempt by a Japanese destroyer that hit her with a torpedo and then departed quickly, Hiryū stayed afloat for several more hours, being discovered early the next morning by an aircraft from the escort carrier Hōshō and prompting hopes she could be saved, or at least towed back to Japan. Soon after being spotted, Hiryū sank. Rear - Admiral Tamon Yamaguchi, together with the ship 's captain, Tomeo Kaku, chose to go down with the ship, costing Japan perhaps its best carrier officer.
As darkness fell, both sides took stock and made tentative plans for continuing the action. Admiral Fletcher, obliged to abandon the derelict Yorktown and feeling he could not adequately command from a cruiser, ceded operational command to Spruance. Spruance knew the United States had won a great victory, but he was still unsure of what Japanese forces remained and was determined to safeguard both Midway and his carriers. To aid his aviators, who had launched at extreme range, he had continued to close with Nagumo during the day and persisted as night fell.
Finally, fearing a possible night encounter with Japanese surface forces, and believing Yamamoto still intended to invade, based in part on a misleading contact report from the submarine Tambor, Spruance changed course and withdrew to the east, turning back west towards the enemy at midnight. For his part, Yamamoto initially decided to continue the engagement and sent his remaining surface forces searching eastward for the American carriers. Simultaneously, he detached a cruiser raiding force to bombard the island. The Japanese surface forces failed to make contact with the Americans because Spruance had decided to briefly withdraw eastward, and Yamamoto ordered a general withdrawal to the west. It was fortunate Spruance did not pursue, for had he come in contact with Yamamoto 's heavy ships, including Yamato, in the dark and considering the Japanese Navy 's superiority in night - attack tactics at the time, there is a very high probability his cruisers would have been overwhelmed and his carriers sunk.
Spruance failed to regain contact with Yamamoto 's forces on 5 June, despite extensive searches. Towards the end of the day he launched a search - and - destroy mission to seek out any remnants of Nagumo 's carrier force. This late afternoon strike narrowly missed detecting Yamamoto 's main body and failed to score hits on a straggling Japanese destroyer. The strike planes returned to the carriers after nightfall, prompting Spruance to order Enterprise and Hornet to turn on their lights to aid the landings.
At 02: 15 on the night of 5 / 6 June, Commander John Murphy 's Tambor, lying 90 nautical miles (170 km; 100 mi) west of Midway, made the second of the submarine force 's two major contributions to the battle 's outcome, although its impact was heavily blunted by Murphy himself. Sighting several ships, neither Murphy nor his executive officer, Edward Spruance (son of Admiral Spruance), could identify them. Uncertain of whether they were friendly or not and unwilling to approach any closer to verify their heading or type, Murphy decided to send a vague report of "four large ships '' to Admiral Robert English, Commander, Submarine Force, Pacific Fleet (COMSUBPAC). This report was passed on by English to Nimitz, who then sent it to Spruance. Spruance, a former submarine commander, was "understandably furious '' at the vagueness of Murphy 's report, as it provided him with little more than suspicion and no concrete information on which to make his preparations. Unaware of the exact location of Yamamoto 's "Main Body '' (a persistent problem since the time PBYs had first sighted the Japanese), Spruance was forced to assume the "four large ships '' reported by Tambor represented the main invasion force and so he moved to block it, while staying 100 nautical miles (190 km; 120 mi) northeast of Midway.
In reality, the ships sighted by Tambor were the detachment of four cruisers and two destroyers Yamamoto had sent to bombard Midway. At 02: 55, these ships received Yamamoto 's order to retire and changed course to comply. At about the same time as this change of course, Tambor was sighted and during maneuvers designed to avoid a submarine attack, the heavy cruisers Mogami and Mikuma collided, inflicting serious damage on Mogami 's bow. The less severely damaged Mikuma slowed to 12 knots (22 km / h; 14 mph) to keep pace. Only at 04: 12 did the sky brighten enough for Murphy to be certain the ships were Japanese, by which time staying surfaced was hazardous and he dived to approach for an attack. The attack was unsuccessful and at around 06: 00 he finally reported two westbound Mogami - class cruisers, before diving again and playing no further role in the battle. Limping along on a straight course at 12 knots -- roughly one - third their top speed -- Mogami and Mikuma had been almost perfect targets for a submarine attack. As soon as Tambor returned to port, Spruance had Murphy relieved of duty and reassigned to a shore station, citing his confusing contact report, poor torpedo shooting during his attack run, and general lack of aggression, especially as compared to Nautilus, the oldest of the 12 boats at Midway and the only one which had successfully placed a torpedo on target (albeit a dud).
Over the following two days, several strikes were launched against the stragglers, first from Midway, then from Spruance 's carriers. Mikuma was eventually sunk by Dauntlesses, while Mogami survived further severe damage to return home for repairs. The destroyers Arashio and Asashio were also bombed and strafed during the last of these attacks. Captain Richard E. Fleming, a U.S. Marine Corps aviator, was killed while executing a glide bomb run on Mikuma and was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor.
Meanwhile, salvage efforts on Yorktown were encouraging, and she was taken in tow by USS Vireo. In the late afternoon of 6 June, the Japanese submarine I - 168, which had managed to slip through the cordon of destroyers (possibly because of the large amount of debris in the water), fired a salvo of torpedoes, two of which struck Yorktown. There were few casualties aboard, since most of the crew had already been evacuated, but a third torpedo from this salvo struck the destroyer USS Hammann, which had been providing auxiliary power to Yorktown. Hammann broke in two and sank with the loss of 80 lives, mostly because her own depth charges exploded. With further salvage efforts deemed hopeless, the remaining repair crews were evacuated from Yorktown, which sank just after 05: 00 on 7 June.
By the time the battle ended, 3,057 Japanese had died. Casualties aboard the four carriers were: Akagi: 267; Kaga: 811; Hiryu: 392; Soryu: 711 (including Captain Yanagimoto, who chose to remain on board); a total of 2,181. The heavy cruisers Mikuma (sunk; 700 casualties) and Mogami (badly damaged; 92) accounted for another 792 deaths.
In addition, the destroyers Arashio (bombed; 35) and Asashio (strafed by aircraft; 21) were both damaged during the air attacks which sank Mikuma and caused further damage to Mogami. Floatplanes were lost from the cruisers Chikuma (3) and Tone (2). Dead aboard the destroyers Tanikaze (11), Arashi (1), Kazagumo (1) and the fleet oiler Akebono Maru (10) made up the remaining 23 casualties.
At the end of the battle, the U.S. lost the carrier Yorktown and a destroyer. 307 Americans had been killed, including Major General Clarence L. Tinker, Commander, 7th Air Force, who personally led a bomber strike from Hawaii against the retreating Japanese forces on 7 June. He was killed when his aircraft crashed near Midway Island.
After winning a clear victory, and as pursuit became too hazardous near Wake, American forces retired. Spruance once again withdrew to the east to refuel his destroyers and rendezvous with the carrier Saratoga, which was ferrying much - needed replacement aircraft. Fletcher transferred his flag to Saratoga on the afternoon of 8 June and resumed command of the carrier force. For the remainder of that day and then 9 June, Fletcher continued to launch search missions from the three carriers to ensure the Japanese were no longer advancing on Midway. Late on 10 June a decision was made to leave the area and the American carriers eventually returned to Pearl Harbor.
Historian Samuel E. Morison noted in 1949 that Spruance was subjected to much criticism for not pursuing the retreating Japanese, thus allowing their surface fleet to escape. Clay Blair argued in 1975 that had Spruance pressed on, he would have been unable to launch his aircraft after nightfall, and his cruisers would have been overwhelmed by Yamamoto 's powerful surface units, including Yamato. Furthermore, the American air groups had suffered considerable losses, including most of their torpedo bombers. This made it unlikely that they would be effective in an airstrike against the Japanese battleships, even if they had managed to catch them during daytime. Also, by this time Spruance 's destroyers were critically low on fuel.
On 10 June, the Imperial Japanese Navy conveyed to the military liaison conference an incomplete picture of the results of the battle. Chūichi Nagumo 's detailed battle report was submitted to the high command on 15 June. It was intended only for the highest echelons in the Japanese Navy and government, and was guarded closely throughout the war. In it, one of the more striking revelations is the comment on the Mobile Force Commander 's (Nagumo 's) estimates: "The enemy is not aware of our plans (we were not discovered until early in the morning of the 5th at the earliest). '' In reality, the whole operation had been compromised from the beginning by Allied code - breaking efforts.
The Japanese public and much of the military command structure were kept in the dark about the extent of the defeat: Japanese news announced a great victory. Only Emperor Hirohito and the highest Navy command personnel were accurately informed of the carrier and pilot losses. Consequently, even the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) continued to believe, for at least a short time, that the fleet was in good condition.
On the return of the Japanese fleet to Hashirajima on 14 June the wounded were immediately transferred to naval hospitals; most were classified as "secret patients '', placed in isolation wards and quarantined from other patients and their own families to keep this major defeat secret. The remaining officers and men were quickly dispersed to other units of the fleet and, without being allowed to see family or friends, were shipped to units in the South Pacific, where the majority died in battle. None of the flag officers or staff of the Combined Fleet were penalized, with Nagumo later being placed in command of the rebuilt carrier force.
As a result of the defeat, new procedures were adopted whereby more Japanese aircraft were refueled and re-armed on the flight deck, rather than in the hangars, and the practice of draining all unused fuel lines was adopted. The new carriers being built were redesigned to incorporate only two flight deck elevators and new firefighting equipment. More carrier crew members were trained in damage - control and firefighting techniques, although the losses later in the war of Shōkaku, Hiyō, and especially Taihō suggest that there were still problems in this area.
Replacement pilots were pushed through an abbreviated training regimen in order to meet the short - term needs of the fleet. This led to a sharp decline in the quality of the aviators produced. These inexperienced pilots were fed into front - line units, while the veterans who remained after Midway and the Solomons campaign were forced to share an increased workload as conditions grew more desperate, with few being given a chance to rest in rear areas or in the home islands. As a result, Japanese naval air groups as a whole progressively deteriorated during the war while their American adversaries continued to improve.
Three U.S. airmen, Ensign Wesley Osmus, a pilot from Yorktown; Ensign Frank O'Flaherty, a pilot from Enterprise; and Aviation Machinist 's Mate Bruno F. (or P.) Gaido, the radioman - gunner of O'Flaherty's SBD, were captured by the Japanese during the battle. Osmus was held on Arashi; O'Flaherty and Gaido on the cruiser Nagara (or destroyer Makigumo, sources vary); all three were interrogated, and then killed by being tied to water - filled kerosene cans and thrown overboard to drown. The report filed by Nagumo tersely states of Ensign Osmus, "He died on 6 June and was buried at sea ''; O'Flaherty and Gaido 's fates were not mentioned in Nagumo 's report. The execution of Ensign Wesley Osmus in this manner was apparently ordered by Arashi 's captain, Watanabe Yasumasa (if Watanabe had survived the war, rather than having died when the destroyer Numakaze sank in December 1943, he would have likely been tried as a war criminal).
Two enlisted men from Mikuma were rescued from a life raft on 9 June by USS Trout and brought to Pearl Harbor. After receiving medical care, at least one of these sailors cooperated during interrogation and provided intelligence. Another 35 crewmen from Hiryu were taken from a lifeboat by USS Ballard on 19 June after being spotted by an American search plane. They were brought to Midway and then transferred to Pearl Harbor on USS Sirius.
The Battle of Midway has often been called "the turning point of the Pacific ''. It was the Allies ' first major naval victory against the Japanese, won despite the Japanese Navy having more forces and experience than its American counterpart. Had Japan won the battle as thoroughly as the U.S. did, it might have been able to conquer Midway Island. Saratoga would have been the only American carrier in the Pacific, with no new ones being completed before the end of 1942. While the U.S. would probably not have sought peace with Japan as Yamamoto hoped, his country might have revived Operation FS to invade and occupy Fiji and Samoa; attacked Australia, Alaska, and Ceylon; or even attempted to conquer Hawaii.
Although the Japanese continued to try to secure more territory, and the U.S. did not move from a state of naval parity to one of supremacy until after several more months of hard combat, Midway allowed the Allies to switch to the strategic initiative, paving the way for the landings on Guadalcanal and the prolonged attrition of the Solomon Islands campaign. Midway allowed this to occur before the first of the new Essex - class fleet carriers became available at the end of 1942. The Guadalcanal Campaign is also regarded by some as a turning point in the Pacific War.
Some authors have stated that heavy losses in carriers and veteran aircrews at Midway permanently weakened the Imperial Japanese Navy. Parshall and Tully have stated that the heavy losses in veteran aircrew (110, just under 25 % of the aircrew embarked on the four carriers) were not crippling to the Japanese naval air corps as a whole; the Japanese navy had 2,000 carrier - qualified aircrew at the start of the Pacific war. The loss of four large fleet carriers and over 40 % of the carriers ' highly trained aircraft mechanics and technicians, plus the essential flight - deck crews and armorers, and the loss of organizational knowledge embodied in such highly trained crews, were still heavy blows to the Japanese carrier fleet. A few months after Midway, the JNAF sustained similar casualty rates in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons and Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands, and it was these battles, combined with the constant attrition of veterans during the Solomons campaign, which were the catalyst for the sharp downward spiral in operational capability.
After the battle, Shōkaku and Zuikaku were the only large carriers of the original Pearl Harbor strike force left for offensive actions. Of Japan 's other carriers, Taihō, which was not commissioned until early 1944, would be the only fleet carrier worth teaming with Shōkaku and Zuikaku; Ryūjō and Zuihō were light carriers, while Jun'yō and Hiyō, although technically classified as fleet carriers, were second - rate ships of comparatively limited effectiveness. In the time it took Japan to build three carriers, the U.S. Navy commissioned more than two dozen fleet and light fleet carriers, and numerous escort carriers. By 1942 the United States was already three years into a shipbuilding program mandated by the Second Vinson Act, intended to make the navy larger than all the Axis navies combined, plus the British and French navies, which it was feared might fall into Axis hands.
Both the United States and Japan accelerated the training of aircrew, but the United States had a more effective pilot rotation system, which meant that more veterans survived and went on to training or command billets, where they were able to pass on lessons they had learned in training, instead of remaining in combat, where errors were more likely to be fatal. By the time of the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944, the Japanese had nearly rebuilt their carrier forces in terms of numbers, but their planes, many of which were obsolescent, were largely flown by inexperienced and poorly trained pilots.
Midway showed the worth of pre-war naval cryptanalysis and intelligence - gathering. These efforts continued and were expanded throughout the war in both the Pacific and Atlantic theaters. Successes were numerous and significant. For instance, cryptanalysis made possible the shooting down of Admiral Yamamoto 's airplane in 1943.
The Battle of Midway redefined the central importance of air superiority for the remainder of the war when the Japanese suddenly lost their four main aircraft carriers and were forced to return home. Without any form of air superiority, the Japanese never again launched a major offensive in the Pacific.
Because of the extreme depth of the ocean in the area of the battle (more than 17,000 ft or 5,200 m), researching the battlefield has presented extraordinary difficulties. On 19 May 1998, Robert Ballard and a team of scientists and Midway veterans from both sides located and photographed Yorktown. The ship was remarkably intact for a vessel that had sunk in 1942; much of the original equipment and even the original paint scheme were still visible.
Ballard 's subsequent search for the Japanese carriers was unsuccessful. In September 1999, a joint expedition between Nauticos Corp. and the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office searched for the Japanese aircraft carriers. Using advanced renavigation techniques in conjunction with the ship 's log of the submarine USS Nautilus, the expedition located a large piece of wreckage, subsequently identified as having come from the upper hangar deck of Kaga. The main wreck of Kaga has yet to be located.
Chicago Municipal Airport, important to the war effort in World War II, was renamed Chicago Midway International Airport (or simply Midway Airport) in 1949 in honor of the battle.
Waldron Field, an outlying training landing strip at Corpus Christi NAS, as well as Waldron Road leading to the strip, was named in honor of John C. Waldron, the commander of USS Hornet 's Torpedo Squadron 8. Yorktown Boulevard leading away from the strip was named for the U.S. carrier sunk in the battle.
Henderson Field (Guadalcanal) was named in honor of United States Marine Corps Major Lofton Henderson, who was the first Marine aviator to perish during the battle.
An escort carrier, USS Midway (CVE - 63) was commissioned on 17 August 1943. She was renamed St. Lo on 10 October 1944 to clear the name Midway for a large fleet aircraft carrier, USS Midway (CV - 41), which was commissioned on 10 September 1945, eight days after the Japanese surrender, and is now docked in San Diego, California, as the USS Midway Museum.
On 13 September 2000, Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt designated the lands and waters of Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge as the Battle of Midway National Memorial.
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who was manager of man utd when they were relegated | History of Manchester United F.C. (1969 -- 86) - wikipedia
Following an eighth - place finish in the 1969 -- 70 season and a poor start to the 1970 -- 71 season, Busby was persuaded to temporarily resume managerial duties, and McGuinness returned to his position as reserve team coach. In June 1971, Frank O'Farrell was appointed as manager, but lasted just 18 months before being replaced by Tommy Docherty in December 1972. Docherty saved Manchester United from relegation that season, only to see them relegated in 1974. By that time, the trio of Best, Law and Charlton had left the club. The team won promotion at the first attempt and reached the FA Cup final in 1976, but were defeated by Southampton. They reached the final again in 1977, beating Liverpool 2 -- 1. Docherty was dismissed shortly afterwards, following the revelation of his affair with the club physiotherapist 's wife.
Dave Sexton replaced Docherty as manager in the summer of 1977. Despite major signings, including Joe Jordan, Gordon McQueen, Gary Bailey and Ray Wilkins, the team failed to achieve any significant results; they finished in the top two in 1979 -- 80 and lost to Arsenal in the 1979 FA Cup Final. Sexton was dismissed in 1981, even though the team won the last seven matches under his direction. He was replaced by Ron Atkinson, who immediately broke the British record transfer fee to sign Bryan Robson from West Bromwich Albion. Under Atkinson, Manchester United won the FA Cup twice in three years -- in 1983 and 1985. In 1985 -- 86, after 13 wins and two draws in its first 15 matches, the club was favourite to win the league, but finished in fourth place. The following season, with the club in danger of relegation by November, Atkinson was dismissed.
Wilf McGuinness, the reserve team coach, was promoted to take Matt Busby 's place as manager. He had been associated with the club since joining them as a player in the mid 1950s but he quickly faltered in the footsteps of the great man, and was not helped by Busby 's presence in the background. United were an ageing side in need of refreshment, a circumstance McGuinness was unfortunate to come across. The club coped well enough in his first season in charge, managing an improved finish of 8th place compared to 11th place in Busby 's final season. However, the cracks showed the following season, as the team floundered near the bottom of the table, and a League Cup elimination at the hands of Aston Villa, who at the time were mid-table in the Third Division, led to McGuinness being demoted back to his old reserve team position, and he left the club altogether shortly afterwards.
Busby returned to the manager 's seat on a temporary basis and pulled the team well clear of relegation, eventually matching the previous year 's 8th - place finish. Frank O'Farrell of Leicester City became the club 's new manager in the 1971 close season, after unsuccessful approaches for Jock Stein of Celtic, Don Revie of Leeds United and Dave Sexton of Chelsea. Despite starting the 1971 -- 72 season well and raising hope that O'Farrell would be a good successor to Busby, a run of seven defeats from 1 January meant they were to finish in eighth place for the third successive year -- a dismal showing for a club who had appeared capable of winning the title for at least the first half of the season. However, the season did see the signing of 22 - year - old Aberdeen defender Martin Buchan, who would play a key role in later successes for United.
At this time, George Best was becoming a problem, continually flouting the rules and getting into various disciplinary troubles. At the end of the 1971 -- 72 season, one day short of his 26th birthday, he announced his retirement, only to turn back on his decision and announce his intention to play again within days.
While Best 's erratic behaviour did n't help, United continued to struggle, opening the 1972 -- 73 season with a disastrous nine matches without a win. Following a 4 -- 1 defeat to Tottenham Hotspur on 28 October 1972, chairman Louis Edwards planned to sack O'Farrell and made an audacious move for former Manchester City manager Joe Mercer, but O'Farrell was away on a scouting mission on the day Edwards intended to sack him, and the 58 - year - old Mercer (who was to retire from football within two years) turned the offer down anyway.
United 's form briefly improved after this, allowing O'Farrell a stay of execution, but a 5 -- 0 thumping by relegation rivals Crystal Palace just before Christmas proved too much, and led to the manager 's dismissal on 19 December. In a way it was the end of an era, with Bill Foulkes having retired, Bobby Charlton 's testimonial having been held the previous day and George Best once again announcing his retirement on the same day. Charlton, now 35, would play his last match for the club at the end of that season.
Three days later, Scotland manager Tommy Docherty was announced as United 's new boss, and immediately began to rebuild the side with a series of signings, most notably Lou Macari. United recovered and finished that season in 18th place. However, there were concerns about just how long the squad, made up of the few remaining members of the Busby team and seasoned older players signed by O'Farrell and Docherty, could stay afloat in the first division. The emergence of Macari and new captain Martin Buchan (widely regarded as the one decent signing O'Farrell had managed while in charge of the club) gave some cause for optimism, but the following season would prove to be a major struggle.
Denis Law left on a free transfer during the close season to sign for Manchester City, which sparked some protests among fans. Best came out of retirement once more to sign with the team for the 1973 -- 74 season. United were again caught in a relegation battle and entered the penultimate match of the season needing to win two match and for Birmingham City to lose in order to stay in the First Division. Birmingham won their match and Denis Law, playing for City against United, sealed United 's fate with the only goal of the match, although Birmingham 's victory meant United would have been relegated regardless of their own result. Manchester United were relegated to the Second Division after 36 years away.
By the time the season was over, George Best had finally walked out of United for good, playing his last match on New Year 's Day 1974, although he did not actually leave the club until the following season when he was given a free transfer and signed for Stockport County.
After the relegation, Docherty culled most of what remained of Busby 's squad, with goalkeeper Alex Stepney being the only member of the European Cup - winning team to remain in the first team for the start of the following season. The new - look Manchester United squad was built around youthful players such as Sammy McIlroy, who had come to impress during the final months of the ill - fated 1973 -- 74 campaign. Also in the squad were new signings like centre - half Jim Holton, winger Gordon Hill and forward Stuart Pearson.
Despite the relegation, attendances at Old Trafford swelled during the 1974 -- 75 season and United responded well, winning the Second Division and returning to the top flight, where they topped the standings in the early stages of the 1975 -- 76 season and there were high hopes that United could become only the third club to be champions of the top flight one season after being promoted. However, form slipped mid-season, however, and finished third. A good FA Cup run also ended in disappointment at Wembley with a 1 -- 0 defeat by Southampton in the final.
United performed erratically in the league in 1976 -- 77, struggling for consistency with some injury problems to key players, and finishing the season in sixth place, but United reached the FA Cup final again, this time beating Liverpool 2 -- 1 in the final. This result ended Liverpool 's chances of completing the treble, as they had already won the Football League title and would win the European Cup just days later. By now, Liverpool were the dominant force in English football, having already won four trophies in three seasons since Bob Paisley succeeded Bill Shankly as manager.
The new - look Manchester United side contained impressive young players like Steve Coppell, Sammy McIlroy, Brian Greenhoff, Jimmy Greenhoff, Arthur Albiston and Stuart Pearson. Although goalkeeper Alex Stepney was still with United, Busby 's final signing and United 's former captain Willie Morgan had left in the summer of 1975 after a dispute with manager Tommy Docherty. United were now being captained by Martin Buchan.
But just over a month later, news broke of Tommy Docherty 's love affair with Mary Brown, the wife of the team 's physiotherapist Laurie Brown, when he announced he was leaving his wife to marry her. When Docherty refused to resign, the board dismissed him. While Docherty 's affair had been disruptive to the club, it was not a legally valid reason to dismiss someone, and so the board stated that he had been dismissed for abusing his position in order to obtain tickets for the two cup finals, and selling them for a profit. Despite this, it was well known why Docherty had been sacked, and there were suggestions he would sue the club for wrongful dismissal. However, Docherty never did so.
Docherty had been popular with the fans, and the new manager, Dave Sexton, needed success to dispel the unfavorable comparisons. Sexton 's track record was impressive -- he had won the FA Cup and UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup with Chelsea and taken unfancied Queens Park Rangers to the brink of the league title. He had rejected United 's first approach for him to become manager in 1971, and had been linked with the job as long ago as 1969 when Busby 's retirement was first announced.
With the FA Cup win, United qualified for the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup, but were nearly expelled because of crowd trouble in Saint - Étienne.
Once more United made it to the FA Cup final in 1979, but narrowly lost to Arsenal in what was known as the "five - minute final '' for the flurry of goals in the last minutes.
One of Sexton 's most famous movements in the transfer market was the double signing of Joe Jordan and Gordon McQueen, who were both brought in from United 's fierce rivals Leeds United, who had lost touch with the leading lights of the English game since Don Revie had left for the England manager 's job in 1974. But, along with a Liverpool side going from strength to strength, United were now faced with a surprising new competitor for honours and the signature of star players in the shape of Nottingham Forest, managed by Brian Clough. The East Midlands club had returned to the First Division in 1977 and went on to win a league title, two European Cups and two League Cups over the next three seasons.
The 1979 -- 80 season, before which United had paid a club record £ 750,000 to sign midfielder Ray Wilkins from Chelsea, saw the Reds narrowly miss out on league glory, finishing second to Liverpool. During that season, United fans were blamed for a collapse at Ayresome Park causing the death of two Middlesbrough supporters. Controversy also erupted over allegations that United had been making illegal payments to young players, an allegation which was made shortly before the sudden death of chairman Louis Edwards.
An injury crisis at the start of 1980 -- 81 caused the team to slump to mid-table and suffer an early exit from the FA Cup, although at least Sexton managed to keep United clear of the threat of relegation. Desperate to stop the rot, Sexton brought in striker Garry Birtles for a club record £ 1.25 million, yet he was to prove an expensive failure who took 30 games to score his first goal. United won their final seven games of the season but still finished just eighth in the league.
Despite achieving runners - up spot in the league and reaching an FA Cup final during his time at the club, Sexton knew that "nearly '' just was n't good enough for United fans, and he was sacked at the end of the 1980 -- 81 season.
United chairman Martin Edwards searched for a new manager in hope of finding someone who could bring the league title to United. The most likely candidate for the job was Lawrie McMenemy, whose Southampton had shocked United in the FA Cup final five years earlier and were now competing in the upper reaches of the First Division. Brian Clough, who had taken Nottingham Forest to promotion to the league title to two European Cup triumphs in four successive seasons, was also rumoured to be linked with the vacancy, but chairman Martin Edwards insisted that United would not be making an approach for Clough. Bobby Robson, whose Ipswich Town side had just won the UEFA Cup), was also named as a possible candidate, as was Ron Saunders, who had just guided Aston Villa to their first league title in 71 years. But in the end, it was Ron Atkinson who got the job.
He broke the British transfer record in October 1981 to sign England midfielder Bryan Robson from West Bromwich Albion for £ 1.5 million, and signed Robson 's team mate Remi Moses for £ 500,000 at the same time. Norman Whiteside soon broke through the youth ranks and was a key first team player at age 17, while striker Frank Stapleton managed a steady supply of goals after his acquisition from Arsenal. Atkinson also retained a number of players from the Sexton era, namely midfielder Ray Wilkins. Long - serving players Martin Buchan and Lou Macari, who had been with United under Docherty and in the case of Buchan under O'Farrell, were still with the club when Atkinson arrived, although both had left by 1984.
Atkinson 's side produced an attractive form of football, losing only eight games and finishing 3rd in his first season. The title race, which had featured a few predictable contestants including Ipswich Town and Tottenham Hotspur as well as a few surprise contenders like Southampton and even Swansea City, went to a Liverpool side who were still very much England 's top footballing side.
Success followed as United won the 1983 FA Cup final 4 -- 0 after a replay against Brighton & Hove Albion. United also managed another third - place finish in the league, where Liverpool were champions again, and runners - up spot went to a Watford side who made the headlines with some impressive performances in their first season in the top flight. United also reached the cup final of the League Cup for the first time, but lost 2 -- 1 to Liverpool. Norman Whiteside scored for United in both cup finals that season -- the first player in English football to do so.
Although United crashed out of the FA Cup the next year in a humbling defeat at the hands of Third Division AFC Bournemouth, they managed to defeat Barcelona in the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup and made it to the semi-finals before losing to Juventus. United fought a fierce title challenge with the likes of Liverpool, Southampton and Nottingham Forest before a late slump consigned them to fourth place, while Liverpool finished champions for a second successive season. The summer of 1984 saw the sale of popular midfielder Ray Wilkins to Milan after five years at Old Trafford, but Atkinson used the outlay from the sale to bolster his midfield with the acquisition of Gordon Strachan from Aberdeen and Jesper Olsen from Ajax.
Welsh striker Mark Hughes made his debut for United in October 1983 and became a regular player the following season, where he scored 24 goals and was chosen as the Young Footballer of the Year for 1984 -- 85. His form was such that, despite only being 21, he helped restrict the first team chances of £ 500,000 signing Alan Brazil and even managed to force Norman Whiteside out of a regular place for a short time, although Whiteside was then switched to central midfield after an injury to Remi Moses.
In 1985, Manchester United beat that season 's league champions Everton to win another FA Cup, but not without some drama as Kevin Moran became the first player, albeit controversially, to ever be sent off in an FA Cup final. Down to ten men, Norman Whiteside scored the only goal of the match in extra time to win the cup. The victory would have given United entry to the 1985 -- 86 European Cup Winners ' Cup, but Liverpool 's involvement in the Heysel Stadium disaster resulted in a five - year ban from European football for English clubs. United finished fourth in the league that season.
The 1985 -- 86 season started spectacularly for United, who won all of their first ten league matches (a club record start to a season) and were ten points clear at the top of the table as early as October. They were unbeaten from their first 15 matches and it seemed that nothing would stop United from winning their first league title since 1967. However, their form slumped dramatically in the new year, with an injury to Bryan Robson meaning he missed much of the season, and they could only finish in fourth place. The club had decided to sell Mark Hughes against his wishes, and he developed a drinking problem which seriously affected his form before signing for Barcelona in the close season for around £ 2 million. The mid-season arrival of new strikers Terry Gibson and Peter Davenport did little to halt United 's decline. They had finished 12 points behind champions Liverpool and were also ten points adrift of runners - up Everton, whose top scorer Gary Lineker linked up with Hughes at Barcelona that summer, and eighth points behind a West Ham United side who had emerged as surprise title contenders thanks largely to 26 goals that season from Scottish striker Frank McAvennie.
Over the 1986 close season, rumours began to circulate that Ron Atkinson would be sacked as Manchester United manager. There was talk that Alex Ferguson, manager of Scottish side Aberdeen, would replace Atkinson. Another name to be linked with the job was Terry Venables, the Barcelona manager who had rejected an offer to manage Arsenal that spring, but the 1986 -- 87 season began with Atkinson still manager.
The following season began poorly with three successive defeats, including a 1 -- 0 home defeat by newly promoted Charlton Athletic, who had last played top division football in the 1950s. Their first win came at the fifth attempt when they beat Southampton 5 -- 1 at home, but the next few weeks saw them lose to Everton and more worryingly drop points against the likes of Watford and Coventry City, as well as missing two penalties at home to Chelsea which enabled the West Londoners to grab all three points. The final straw came on 4 November 1986, when United lost 4 -- 1 at Southampton in a League Cup third round replay. On the morning of 6 November 1986, the club 's board announced that Atkinson had been sacked as manager, and later that day, Alex Ferguson was named as his successor.
Ferguson had won a host of trophies north of the border to help break up the Old Firm dominance of Rangers and Celtic, who had dominated the Scottish game almost interrupted for some 90 years. But the task facing him at Old Trafford was enormous -- he was inheriting a demoralised team fourth from bottom in the First Division, and had to build a side capable of winning trophies and most importantly the league title, for which the wait was now approaching its 20th year. He did indeed have some very talented players at his disposal, particularly captain Bryan Robson, attacking midfielder Norman Whiteside (with two FA Cup medals and close to 200 first team appearances to his name at age 21) and defender Paul McGrath, but new signings were clearly needed. And he was facing no shortage of competition for honours and player signatures, not least from a still - dominant Liverpool and an Everton side who were also enjoying a strong run of success.
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who plays the grim reaper in billy and mandy | The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy - wikipedia
The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy (also known as Billy & Mandy) is an American animated television series created by Maxwell Atoms for Cartoon Network, and is the 14th of the network 's Cartoon Cartoons (albeit on when it was part of Grim & Evil, due to the Cartoon Cartoons brand being temporarily discontinued earlier in June 2003; the show itself is considered by some to still be a Cartoon Cartoon show regardless). It follows two children named Billy -- a slow - witted happy - go - lucky boy -- and Mandy -- his dark and cynical best friend -- who, after winning a limbo game to save Billy 's pet hamster, gain the mighty Grim Reaper as their best friend in eternal servitude and slavery.
Billy & Mandy began as a series of segments on Grim & Evil, from which it was spun - off, along with Evil Con Carne, on August 24, 2001. The show ran as a separate series from June 13, 2003 to November 9, 2007, but a telefilm, titled Underfist: Halloween Bash, aired on October 12, 2008, officially bringing the series to a close. In addition to the episodes, three movies, two special episodes, and nineteen shorts were made, with 3 award wins for the series as a whole. Billy & Mandy has also been made into a video game as well as various licensed merchandise. Reruns can currently be seen on Boomerang.
The series is centered around the exploits of Billy (voiced by Richard Steven Horvitz), a completely idiotic and happy - go - lucky boy; Mandy (Grey DeLisle), a cynical and merciless girl, and Grim (Greg Eagles), the Grim Reaper who is often tormented by the duo. After cheating at a limbo match against Grim (in retaliation for putting the limbo rod too low for them to go under), he is enslaved in a permanently unwanted friendship with the children. Grim is miserable in the first days of his servitude, and even fantasizes about killing them multiple times. However, as the time passes, he gradually adapts to the new life, and even grows to care for Billy and Mandy, if only somewhat. Despite this, he retains a love - hate relationship with the two and desires to eventually break free from his servitude.
Billy and Mandy use Grim 's supernatural abilities and powers to venture into supernatural locations or environments, such as the Underworld, or the Netherworld, inhabited by an assortment of grotesque monstrous beasts. The pair also use Grim 's enormously strong supernatural abilities or ties with a number of beastly characters to achieve goals or desires for themselves, often with twisted results. Famed fictional monsters including Dracula, the Wolfman, and the bogeyman are also comically depicted in the series.
Supporting characters include Irwin (Vanessa Marshall), a nerdy awkward boy who has a crush on Mandy; Harold (Richard Steven Horvitz), Billy 's father who is even dumber than his son; Gladys (Jennifer Hale), Billy 's loving yet mentally unstable mother; Mindy (Rachael MacFarlane), the snobby, stuck - up, and spoiled queen bee of Billy and Mandy 's school; Sperg (Greg Eagles), the local bully who has a sensitive side; Fred Fredburger (C.H. Greenblatt), a simple - minded, irritating underworld creature who loves frozen yogurt and nachos; Dracula (Phil LaMarr), a selfish elderly vampire who 's revealed to be Irwin 's paternal grandfather in the final season of the show.
The show lacks continuity for the most part, as many episodes end with characters killed, exiled, or stuck in a situation. Characters sometimes display an awareness of some events from previous episodes, but there are no clear character arcs or coherent plot lines tying the show together.
The series had its genesis in 1995, when Maxwell Atoms, while he was a junior at the University of the Arts in Philadelphia, made a two - minute short film for his thesis project. Titled Billy and Mandy in: The Trepanation of the Skull and You, it centers around Billy and Mandy (prototype versions) discussing trepanning with each other. In the end, Mandy drills Billy 's head, causing him to pass out after too much blood loss even though he says he feels great. The short had never been shown publicly until April 30, 2016, during the first annual TromAnimation Film Festival. After the screening, Atoms uploaded the film, albeit in a deteriorating state after years of storage, on his YouTube channel.
The show 's existence is the result of a viewer poll event by way of telephone and the Internet called Cartoon Network 's Big Pick which was held from June 16 to August 25, 2000. The three final choices were Grim and Evil (later splitting into two separate series: The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy and Evil Con Carne), Whatever Happened to... Robot Jones? and Longhair and Doubledome. Out of the three, Grim and Evil attained the most votes with 57 %; Robot Jones came in second place at 23 % while Longhair and Doubledome received 20 % of the vote.
Originally part of Grim & Evil, Billy & Mandy served as the main show. In each episode, an Evil Con Carne short was put between two Grim shorts. On occasion, it was the other way around, with two Evil shorts and one Grim short. The series premiered on August 24, 2001, during the Cartoon Cartoon Fridays Big Pick Weekend.
On June 13, 2003, the network separated the two and gave each their own full - length program. The short - lived Evil Con Carne show was cancelled once the already - produced season had aired. Some characters from Evil Con Carne occasionally appeared on The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy. General Skarr become an official character on the show in the episode "Skarred for Life '', where he becomes Billy 's new next - door neighbor, and in "Company Halt '', the ninth episode of the final season which functions as the true series finale for Evil Con Carne, Ghastly, Hector, Boskov, and Stomach restart their evil organization and convince Skarr to join them, but their plans are ultimately foiled by Billy and Mandy, and Skarr goes back to living his life as a normal person.
The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy received critical acclaim and became one of Cartoon Network 's top rated and most popular series. Common Sense Media gave the show a 3 / 5 star rating and stated that it has "goofy punchlines and obscure cultural references '', and recommends the viewer age be at least 8 years old. The series has won one Annie Award, two Emmy Awards and including those three wins, has been nominated a total of nine times for various awards. New episodes were broadcast on Cartoon Network Fridays at 7: 30pm to over 1 million viewers an episode.
Three TV movies were made for the series. The first one was called Billy & Mandy 's Big Boogey Adventure and was released on DVD in April, 2007. Common Sense Media gave the movie 2 / 5 stars and is meant for kids over the age of 8 calling it "undeniably gross and just as undeniably funny ''. DVDverdict.com gave the movie a good review as well.
A second movie, Wrath of the Spider Queen, was also released in 2007. It was based on a spider queen from Grim 's distant past, who tries to take revenge on him because she was meant to be the reaper. Meanwhile, keeping up with the spider theme, Billy learns to love his spider son Jeff.
On October 12, 2008, a third and final spin - off movie, titled Underfist: Halloween Bash, premiered. The movie 's primary focus is on Irwin, Jeff the Spider, Hoss Delgado, General Skarr, and Fred Fredburger accidentally coming together to defeat an invasion of chocolate bar monsters, led by an evil marshmallow bunny, on Halloween night.
The score composers for the series are Gregory Hinde, Drew Neumann and Guy Moon. In addition, two songs were made for the show by Aurelio Voltaire, the episode "Little Rock of Horrors '', which parodies the musical Little Shop of Horrors, features a song titled "BRAINS! '' and, in Billy & Mandy 's Big Boogey Adventure, the song "Land of the Dead '' is played in the opening credits. Both songs are a part of the album Spooky Songs For Creepy Kids. The season two episode "Battle of the Bands '' also featured the song "Darkness '' by metal band SPF 1000. There was also an instance at the end of the Christmas special entitled "Billy & Mandy Save Christmas '', where the end credits music is the song "Round and Round '' by heavy metal band Ratt.
A video game inspired by the series was developed by Midway Games, and released on October 2, 2006,. It is a 3D fighting game. The video game received fair to good reviews: GameSpot gave it a 6.6 / 10 by Greg Mueller, he goes on to say that while it is fun for the "first few hours '' and has "Fast - paced gameplay '' the game action "gets old quickly '' and has a very short story mode. IGN gave the game a good score of 7.2 / 10 highlighting its presentation and appeal. Metacritic gave the game a rating of 61 / 100 based on 10 critic reviews.
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who plays black panthers mother in the movie | Black Panther (film) - wikipedia
Black Panther is a 2018 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name. Produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, it is the eighteenth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film is directed by Ryan Coogler, who co-wrote the screenplay with Joe Robert Cole, and stars Chadwick Boseman as T'Challa / Black Panther, alongside Michael B. Jordan, Lupita Nyong'o, Danai Gurira, Martin Freeman, Daniel Kaluuya, Letitia Wright, Winston Duke, Angela Bassett, Forest Whitaker, and Andy Serkis. In Black Panther, T'Challa returns home and is crowned king of Wakanda but finds his sovereignty challenged by a new adversary, in a conflict with global consequences.
Wesley Snipes expressed interest in working on a Black Panther film in 1992, but the project did not come to fruition. In September 2005, Marvel Studios announced a Black Panther film as one of ten based on Marvel characters and distributed by Paramount Pictures. Mark Bailey was hired to write a script in January 2011. Black Panther was announced in October 2014, and Boseman made his first appearance as the character in Captain America: Civil War (2016). By 2016, Cole and Coogler had joined; additional cast joined in May, making Black Panther the first Marvel film with a predominantly black cast. Principal photography took place from January to April 2017, at EUE / Screen Gems Studios in the Atlanta metropolitan area, and Busan, South Korea.
Black Panther premiered in Los Angeles on January 29, 2018, and was released theatrically in the United States on February 16, 2018, in 2D, 3D, IMAX and other premium large formats. The film received praise for its screenplay, direction, performances, action, costume design, production merits, and soundtrack. Critics considered it one of the best films set in the MCU and noted its cultural significance. It grossed over $1.3 billion worldwide, and became the second - highest - grossing film of 2018, the third - highest - grossing film ever in the United States, the ninth - highest - grossing film of all time, and the highest - grossing film by a black director.
Centuries ago, five African tribes war over a meteorite containing vibranium. One warrior ingests a "heart - shaped herb '' affected by the metal and gains superhuman abilities, becoming the first "Black Panther ''. He unites all but the Jabari Tribe to form the nation of Wakanda. The Wakandans use the vibranium to develop advanced technology and isolate themselves from the world by posing as a Third World country.
In 1992, King T'Chaka visits his brother N'Jobu, who is working undercover in Oakland, California. T'Chaka accuses N'Jobu of assisting black - market arms dealer Ulysses Klaue with stealing vibranium from Wakanda. N'Jobu's partner reveals he is Zuri, another undercover Wakandan, and confirms T'Chaka's suspicions.
In the present day, following T'Chaka's death, his son T'Challa returns to Wakanda to assume the throne. He and Okoye, the leader of the Dora Milaje regiment, extract Nakia, T'Challa's ex-lover, from an undercover assignment so she can attend his coronation ceremony with his mother Ramonda and younger sister Shuri. At the ceremony, the Jabari Tribe 's leader M'Baku challenges T'Challa for the crown in ritual combat. T'Challa defeats M'Baku and persuades him to yield rather than die.
When Klaue and Erik Stevens steal a Wakandan artifact from a London museum, W'Kabi, T'Challa's friend and Okoye 's lover, urges him to bring Klaue back dead or alive. T'Challa, Okoye, and Nakia travel to Busan, South Korea, where Klaue plans to sell the artifact to CIA agent Everett K. Ross. A firefight erupts and Klaue attempts to flee but is caught by T'Challa, who reluctantly releases him to Ross ' custody. Klaue tells Ross that Wakanda 's international image is a front for a technologically advanced civilization. Erik attacks and extracts Klaue as Ross is gravely injured protecting Nakia. Rather than pursue Klaue, T'Challa takes Ross to Wakanda, where their technology can save him.
While Shuri heals Ross, T'Challa confronts Zuri about N'Jobu. Zuri explains that N'Jobu planned to share Wakanda 's technology with people of African descent around the world to help them conquer their oppressors. As T'Chaka arrested N'Jobu, N'Jobu attacked Zuri, forcing T'Chaka to kill him. T'Chaka ordered Zuri to lie that N'Jobu had disappeared and left behind N'Jobu's American son, Erik, in order to maintain the lie. Erik became a U.S. black ops soldier, adopting the name "Killmonger ''. Meanwhile, Killmonger kills Klaue and takes his body to Wakanda. He is brought before the tribal elders, revealing his identity and claim to the throne. Killmonger challenges T'Challa to ritual combat, in which he kills Zuri, defeats T'Challa and hurls him over a waterfall, where he is presumed dead. Killmonger ingests the heart - shaped herb and orders the rest incinerated, but Nakia extracts one first. Killmonger, supported by W'Kabi and his army, prepares to distribute shipments of Wakandan weapons to operatives around the world.
Nakia, Shuri, Ramonda and Ross flee to the Jabari Tribe for aid. They find a comatose T'Challa, rescued by the Jabari in repayment for sparing M'Baku's life. Healed by Nakia 's herb, T'Challa returns to fight Killmonger, who dons his own Black Panther suit and commands W'Kabi and his army to attack T'Challa. Shuri, Nakia, and the Dora Milaje join T'Challa, while Ross remotely pilots a jet and shoots down the planes carrying the vibranium weapons. M'Baku and the Jabari arrive to reinforce T'Challa. Confronted by Okoye, W'Kabi and his army stand down. Fighting in Wakanda 's vibranium mine, T'Challa disrupts Killmonger 's suit and stabs him. Killmonger refuses to be healed, choosing to die a free man rather than be incarcerated.
T'Challa establishes an outreach center at the building where N'Jobu died to be run by Nakia and Shuri. In a mid-credits scene, T'Challa appears before the United Nations to reveal Wakanda 's true nature to the world. In a post-credits scene, Shuri helps Bucky Barnes with his recuperation.
Additionally, John Kani and Florence Kasumba reprise their respective roles of T'Chaka and Ayo from Captain America: Civil War, with Kani 's son Atandwa portraying a young T'Chaka. Sterling K. Brown plays N'Jobu, T'Chaka's brother and Killmonger 's father, who is a War Dog sent to America. Wakandan elders in the film include Isaach de Bankolé for the River Tribe, Connie Chiume for the Mining Tribe, Dorothy Steel for the Merchant Tribe, and Danny Sapani for the Border Tribe. Sydelle Noel appears as Xoliswa, a member of the Dora Milaje, with other members played by Marija Abney, Janeshia Adams - Ginyard, Maria Hippolyte, Marie Mouroum, Jénel Stevens, Zola Williams, Christine Hollingsworth, and Shaunette Renée Wilson. Nabiyah Be initially announced that she was playing criminal Tilda Johnson, but her character was simply named Linda in the final film due to Gabrielle Dennis being cast as Johnson in the second season of Luke Cage. Comedian Trevor Noah voices Griot, a Wakandan ship A.I. Black Panther co-creator Stan Lee has a cameo in the film as a patron in the South Korean casino, and Sebastian Stan has an uncredited cameo reprising his role as Bucky Barnes in a post-credits scene.
In June 1992, Wesley Snipes announced his intention to make a film about Black Panther. Snipes wanted to highlight the majesty of Africa, which he felt was poorly portrayed in Hollywood films, saying, "I think Black Panther spoke to me because he was noble, and he was the antithesis of the stereotypes presented and portrayed about Africans, African history and the great kingdoms of Africa. '' He had begun work on the film by that August. The next July, Snipes planned to begin The Black Panther after starring in Demolition Man, and the next month he expressed interest in making sequels to the film as well. In January 1994, Snipes entered talks with Columbia Pictures to portray Black Panther, and Black Panther co-creator Stan Lee joined the film by March; it had entered early development by May. Snipes had discussions with several different screenwriters and directors about the project, including Mario Van Peebles and John Singleton. When the film had not progressed by January 1996, Lee explained that he had not been pleased with the scripts for the project. Snipes said that there was confusion among those unfamiliar with the comics, who thought that the film was about the Black Panther Party.
-- Actor Wesley Snipes, who worked on early iterations of Black Panther
In July 1997, Black Panther was listed as part of Marvel Comics ' film slate, and in March 1998, Marvel reportedly hired Joe Quesada and Jimmy Palmiotti, who at the time were editors of the Black Panther comics under the Marvel Knights brand, to work on it. However, Quesada and Palmiotti have denied that this happened. That August, corporate problems at Marvel put the project on hold, while the next August, Snipes was set to produce, and possibly star, in the film. In May 2000, Artisan Entertainment announced a deal with Marvel to co-produce, finance, and distribute a film based on Black Panther. In March 2002, Snipes said he planned to film Blade 3 or Black Panther in 2003, and reiterated his interest five months later. In July 2004, Blade 3 director David S. Goyer said this was unlikely, as Snipes was "already so entrenched as Blade that another Marvel hero might be overkill ''.
In September 2005, Marvel chairman and CEO Avi Arad announced Black Panther as one of the ten Marvel films that would be developed by Marvel Studios and distributed by Paramount Pictures. In June 2006, Snipes said he hoped to have a director for the project soon. In February 2007, Kevin Feige, president of production for Marvel Studios, reiterated that Black Panther was on Marvel 's development slate. By July, John Singleton had been approached to direct the film. In March 2009, Marvel hired writers to help come up with creative ways to launch its lesser - known properties, including Black Panther, with Nate Moore, the head of the writers program, helping to oversee the development of the Black Panther film specifically. In January 2011, Marvel Studios hired documentary filmmaker Mark Bailey to write a script for Black Panther, to be produced by Feige. In October 2013, Feige said "I do n't know when it will be exactly, but we certainly have plans to bring (Black Panther) to life some day '', noting that the Marvel Cinematic Universe had already introduced the metal vibranium, which comes from Black Panther 's home nation Wakanda. There had been discussions of introducing Wakanda to the MCU as early as 2010 's Iron Man 2, but this was put off until Marvel had "a full idea of what exactly that looked like ''.
In October 2014, Feige announced that Black Panther would be released on November 3, 2017, with Chadwick Boseman cast in the title role. Boseman did not audition before he was hired for the role, instead discussing what he wanted to do with the part with Marvel. The actor was set to first portray the character in Captain America: Civil War, before starring in his own film. Feige said that Marvel was considering minority filmmakers for the director and writer, but that they were focused on "looking for the best filmmakers, the best writers, the best directors possible. So I 'm not going to say for sure that we 're going to hire from any one demographic, but we 're meeting a lot of people. '' He added that they had met with former Black Panther comics writer Reginald Hudlin. In January 2015, Boseman said that the film was going through a "brainstorming phase '', and he was looking at the different stories in the comics and how they may be merged for the film. The next month, Marvel pushed back the release date to July 6, 2018. In April 2015, Feige said he would be meeting with directors after the release of Avengers: Age of Ultron at the end of the month, and that further casting was underway.
By May 2015, Marvel had discussions with Ava DuVernay to direct this film or Captain Marvel. In June, Feige confirmed that he had met with DuVernay alongside a number of other directors, and said that he expected a decision to be made by mid - to late 2015. By early July, DuVernay had passed on directing the film, explaining that "Marvel has a certain way of doing things and I think they 're fantastic and a lot of people love what they do. I loved that they reached out to me... (but) we had different ideas about what the story would be... we just did n't see eye to eye. Better for me to realize that now than cite creative differences later. '' Later in the month, DuVernay expanded,
It was a process of trying to figure out, are these people I want to go to bed with? Because it 's really a marriage, and for this it would be three years. It 'd be three years of not doing other things that are important to me. So it was a question of, is this important enough for me to do? At one point, the answer was yes because I thought there was value in putting that kind of imagery into the culture in a worldwide, huge way... a black man as a hero -- that would be pretty revolutionary. These Marvel films go everywhere from Shanghai to Uganda, and nothing that I probably will make will reach that many people, so I found value in that... (but) it 's important to me that (my work) be true to who I was in this moment. And if there 's too much compromise, it really was n't going to be an Ava DuVernay film.
By October 2015, F. Gary Gray and Ryan Coogler had been considered to direct the film, though negotiations with Coogler had cooled, and Gray had chosen to direct Fast & Furious 8 instead. Joe Robert Cole, a member of the Marvel writers program, was in talks to write the screenplay, and Marvel changed the release date once again, moving it to February 16, 2018. By December, discussions with Coogler were reignited after the successful opening of his film Creed. Feige described Black Panther as "a big geopolitical action adventure that focuses on the family and royal struggle of T'Challa in Wakanda, and what it means to be a king '', while calling the film "a very important '' link to Avengers: Infinity War and its sequel. He added that the film would be the first Marvel Studios production to feature a "primarily African - American cast ''.
-- Ryan Coogler, director of Black Panther
In January 2016, Coogler was confirmed as director, and explained that he grew up reading comics, so Black Panther "is just as personal to me as the last couple of films I was able to make. I feel really fortunate to be able to work on something I 'm this passionate about again. '' In agreeing to direct the film after being "wooed '' by Feige for months, Coogler insisted that he bring collaborators from his previous films to work on Black Panther, to differentiate the film from others in the MCU, that are often "shot, composed, and edited by the same in - house people ''. This included Fruitvale Station cinematographer Rachel Morrison, as well as production designer Hannah Beachler and composer Ludwig Göransson, who both worked with Coogler on Fruitvale Station and Creed. Discussing working in with the MCU while still creating "a Ryan Coogler movie '', the director said,
What Marvel 's doing... is making content that exists in a particular universe, where the characters tie in and crossover, and I think that 's a great creative challenge to me -- to make this movie as personal as possible. It 's going to be my most personal movie to date, which is crazy to say, but it 's completely the case. I 'm obsessed with this character and this story right now, and I think it 's going to be very unique and still fit into the overall narrative that they 're establishing. I grew up as a comic book fan, and the same things used to happen in the comic books. You 'd have Wolverine 's books, and they 'd be so much darker and more brutal than the X-Men books, but they 'd still fit in when you open the pages of the X-Men book. It 's new to movies, but it 's not new to storytelling.
In April 2016, Feige said that Coogler was working on the script with Cole, and that filming would begin at the "very beginning of next year ''. Feige noted that Civil War laid "the groundwork '' for T'Challa's morality, and established the "geopolitical landscape '' that he would have to deal with on returning to Wakanda for Black Panther. Civil War also introduced the Wakandan language, based on the Xhosa language. Boseman was taught Xhosa by John Kani, who portrayed T'Challa's father King T'Chaka in that film. Lupita Nyong'o entered negotiations to star as T'Challa's love interest the next month, and Michael B. Jordan also joined, in an undisclosed role, after previously working with Coogler on Fruitvale Station and Creed. Later in the month, Nate Moore, now serving as a producer on the film, stated that filming would occur in Atlanta, Georgia, with Marvel "definitely investigating shooting in Africa '' as well.
At San Diego Comic - Con International 2016, Nyong'o was confirmed for the film, in the role of Nakia, while Jordan 's role was revealed to be Erik Killmonger. Also announced was Danai Gurira as Okoye. Coogler confirmed that filming would begin in January 2017. In September 2016, Winston Duke was cast as M'Baku, a role that Yahya Abdul - Mateen II had also tested for. The following month, Forest Whitaker was cast as Zuri and Daniel Kaluuya as W'Kabi, with Florence Kasumba revealed to be reprising her role as Ayo from Captain America: Civil War. Letitia Wright was also cast in an unspecified role. Angela Bassett was cast as T'Challa's mother, Ramonda, in November, and by January 2017, Sterling K. Brown was cast as N'Jobu. At that time, Marvel received permission from the Oakland, California - based public transit agency AC Transit to use their logo in the film for the opening flashback sequence. The setting was chosen due to Coogler 's Oakland roots. Amandla Stenberg was also considered for a role in the film, before she ultimately declined to appear. Stenberg, who is bi-racial and light skinned, called the decision "really challenging '' as she did not feel comfortable taking a role in the film from a dark - skinned actor saying, "it would have just been off to see me as a bi-racial American with a Nigerian accent (playing a dark - skinned African) just pretending that I 'm the same color as everyone else in the movie. ''
The production team was inspired by Ta - Nehisi Coates ' run on Black Panther, who was writing the comic at the time, including Coates ' poetic dialogue, the art by Brian Stelfreeze, and "some of the questions that it 's asking ''. Other runs of Black Panther in the comics that inspired the film include those by Jack Kirby, Christopher Priest (which Coogler felt most influenced the film), Jonathan Hickman, and Hudlin. Characters for the film were picked from throughout the comics, based on what worked best for the film 's story. Coogler had hoped to include Spider - Man villain Kraven the Hunter early in the process (before being told the character was unavailable to use in the film) because of a scene in Priest 's run that had T'Challa fighting Kraven. Donald Glover and his brother Stephen Glover made some minor contributions to an early draft of the script, which included developing the relationship between T'Challa and his younger sister Shuri. Moore noted that an early script had more scenes outside of Wakanda, saying, after the Korea sequence, "T'Challa, Nakia and Okoye (went) and sort of explored the theme of what it means to be African and African - American in the world a bit more... There were definitely some great story ideas that we had to leave on the table and hopefully we get to revisit someday, '' including a "super cool '' sequence that was storyboarded and ultimately cut to keep the story concise.
Cole called the film an historic opportunity to depict a black superhero "at a time when African - Americans are affirming their identities while dealing with vilification and dehumanization ''. He added that it was important to root the themes of the film in the actual cultures of Africa, and that they would be working with experts on the region of Africa that Wakanda is supposed to be located in. Elaborating on this, Cole noted that all the countries in Africa have "different histories, mythologies, and cultures (so) what we tried to do was hone in on some of the history, some of the cultural influences and then extrapolate out in our technology... we wanted to root it in reality first and then build out from there ''. Coogler compared the rarity of vibranium existing only in Wakanda to the real - life mineral coltan that can almost only be found in Congo. He wanted Wakanda to feel like a country rather than just one city by featuring multiple tribes, each with their own cultures, and created a project bible that listed each Wakandan tribe and their origins, which guided the design process. Special care was taken in all aspects of the design to create a futuristic look that was not alien, as some of Jack Kirby 's comic designs appeared.
Beachler wanted to honor the comics with her designs, and then fill in the gaps with research concentrated on Sub-Saharan Africa, pulling inspiration from Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Congo - Kinshasa, and Ethiopia, as well as the designs of Zaha Hadid. Moore described this approach as a love letter to Africa. Beachler looked at the architecture of existing tribes, and then tried to make them technologically advanced in a natural way rather than if Wakanda had been colonized. She said that this combination of old and new was an important theme throughout the film, as well as circular motifs to signify the transmission of energy. Some of the older areas explored in the film include Warrior Falls, the City of the Dead, and the Hall of Kings, which are juxtaposed with the more modern Afro - punk style of the Golden City, the capital. Rondavels were incorporated into the tops of Wakanda 's skyscrapers, inspired by the look of mountains at Blyde River Canyon in South Africa. Beachler created different sigils and architecture for each of the Wakandan tribes, with the Border Tribe inspired by Lesotho, the Merchant Tribe having a sigil based on Nigerian writing, and the Golden Tribe using a symbol for the sun found throughout Africa. Gorilla City, home to the Jabari Tribe, was originally set in a rain forest, but Coogler suggested that it be found up a mountain in snow. Beachler based the written form of the Wakandan language seen throughout the film on an old Nigerian language. Beachler also worked on the vibranium technology used throughout the country, consulting with mining and metallurgy experts. This included the vibranium mine where the substance is depicted as glowing blue rocks, before it is refined into the stainless steel look previously seen in the MCU. The film also adapts the kimoyo bead technology from the comics, and features sand - based technology. Beachler wanted all of the futuristic elements of the film to be consistent with projections of what real world technology may be like in 25 or 30 years, including the maglev and hovercraft technology used in vehicles. The Wakandan vehicles depicted in the film include a maglev train for carrying vibranium; the king 's Royal Talon Fighter, which looks like a mask from the top and bottom; and the Dragon Flyer, inspired by the Congo peafowl.
The majority of Beachler 's sets were constructed on sound stages in Atlanta, including the Tribal Council, Shuri 's design space, and the Hall of Kings. The Tribal Council set was built with a glass floor through which an old ruin can be seen. The exterior set for Warrior Falls was built on a backlot north of Atlanta, and was inspired by the Oribi Gorge. The set was 36 feet (11 m), made up of a 6 feet (1.8 m) high pool, and then 30 feet (9.1 m) high cliff faces that were designed to be extended to 100 feet (30 m) with visual effects. A framework for the cliffs was hand - sculpted from industrial styrofoam, with a system of tunnels built - in to the design to allow extras to climb up to different areas of the cliffs. The framework was then covered with 25,000 cubic feet (710 m) of foam that was sculptured to match rocks found at Oribi Gorge. Six large pumps were used to fill the pool at the base of the set, and create a waterfall over the ledge at the bottom. The base of the pool was made from padding so stunts could safely be carried out on the set, but designed to look like rocks and to have enough grip that the actors would not fall over in the water. The set took four months to complete, and was used for two weeks of filming.
Costume designer Ruth E. Carter referenced the Maasai, Himba, Dogon, Basotho, Tuareg, Turkana, Xhosa, Zulu, Suri and Dinka people in her designs for Wakanda. She also examined appropriate works by Japanese fashion designer Issey Miyake, French fashion designer Yves Saint Laurent and American fashion designer Donna Karan. Winnie Mandela provided inspiration to the costumes Carter created for Angela Bassett, while the Dora Milaje costumes primarily used red to reflect different African cultures, and included beaded tabards that feature talismans for "protection, good spirit, and good luck, and a sense of ownership, as if the costume could be handed down from mother to daughter ''. Carter specifically wanted to avoid the "girls in the bathing suits '' look, and instead have the Dora Milaje wear full armor that they would practically need for battle. She also had to take the stunt work that the actors had to do into consideration. Anthony Francisco, the Senior Visual Development Illustrator, noted the Dora Milaje costumes were based 80 percent on the Maasai, five percent on samurai, five percent on ninjas, and five percent on the Ifugao people from the Philippines. The arm band and neck rings were a reference to the Southern Ndebele people, which denotes stature. As such, Okoye has gold bands and rings to denote she is a general, compared to the other Dora Milaje wearing silver. The costumes for T'Challa combined his role as king and as the head of the military, including combining a kente cloth cloak with military boots. Carter also used distinct colors and patterns for each of Wakanda 's tribes, such as green with shells for the River Tribe based on the Suri, blue with wood for the Border Tribe, and black with royal purple for the Black Panther and the Royal Palace. The Merchant Tribe was clothed in plums and purples for the merchants in reference to the Tuareg, and ochre for the Mining Tribe, inspired by the Himba. Three out of every five people in Wakanda go barefoot, which also influenced the costuming process. When the Wakandan characters are in other countries, their clothing looks "quite normal '' but is intended to be consistent with their respective Wakandan designs. Carter created 700 costumes for the film, working with "an army '' of illustrators, designers, mold makers, fabric dyers, jewelry makers and more. Hair department head Camille Friend referenced traditional African art, fabrics, hair, and textures, and the current - day natural hair movement in her designs. Friend strived to keep the hair natural, using "braids, locs and twists... extensions, (and) wigs ''. As with Carter, each tribe had their own identifiable hair aesthetic, such as the Jabari Tribe having "very straight, clean lines '' with war - paint detail, inspired by Senegalese warriors.
Principal photography had begun by January 21, 2017, at EUE / Screen Gems Studios in the Atlanta metropolitan area, under the working title Motherland. Filming also took place in the Sweet Auburn neighborhood in Atlanta, which doubled as Oakland; the High Museum of Art, which served as the fictional Museum of Great Britain in London; and Atlanta City Hall, which served as a United Nations building. Shortly after filming started, Kani 's son Atandwa stated that he would appear in the film alongside his father, the latter reprising the role of T'Chaka, while on - set photographs revealed that Martin Freeman would reprise his role as Everett K. Ross. Marvel announced the start of production on January 26, along with confirming the casting of Freeman, Wright, and John Kani, and revealing that Andy Serkis would reprise his role as Ulysses Klaue from Avengers: Age of Ultron. Atandwa portrays a younger version of his father 's character, and also served as a cultural consultant during filming, along with dialect coach Beth McGuire who ensured there was continuity between the various actors who had to use "Wakandan accents ''.
Jordan joined the production later than the rest of the core cast. He felt that this aided his performance, since his character is separate from and in conflict with the other characters. Because of this, Jordan kept to himself while he was on set. It was revealed during a press visit to the film 's set that the Dora Milaje would be widely explored in the film, which does not adapt the ceremonial betrothal aspect from the comics. Moore compared the politics and humor of the film to Captain America: The Winter Soldier, saying that the former would be inherent but not "preachy '', and that the latter would be avoiding the tones of Guardians of the Galaxy and Ant - Man. He added that the film does not depend on the plots of any other MCU films -- and the character Bucky Barnes would not come out of cryogenic sleep during Black Panther after being frozen by Wakandan scientists at the end of Civil War -- but the events of this film do affect the wider MCU moving forward. Since Black Panther and Avengers: Infinity War were filming simultaneously in Atlanta, both production teams worked together closely to ensure a unified presentation of Wakanda in the films, as the country also plays a large role in Infinity War.
Additional filming took place in South Korea, with the city of Busan serving as the setting of a car chase scene, involving 150 cars and over 700 people. Filming in Busan began on March 17, 2017, with shooting occurring at the Jagalchi Fish Market, and filming taking place by Gwangalli Beach on March 21. Other filming locations included Marine City in the Haeundae District and at the Gwangandaegyo Bridge. The production crew also hired hundreds of current and former film students from local universities as staff or assistant staff during the South Korea filming. Filming in the country wrapped on March 27. At CinemaCon 2017, Wright was revealed to be portraying Shuri in the film. Location shooting also took place at the Rwenzori Mountains and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda, while Marzano Films provided aerial footage of South Africa, Zambia, Uganda and South Korea. Filming concluded on April 19, 2017.
Cinematographer Rachel Morrison, who was eager to work on Black Panther because of the bond that she formed with Coogler on Fruitvale Station, filmed in 3.4 K ArriRaw with Arri Alexa XT Plus cameras and Panavision Primo lenses. Morrison stated that she primarily used a two - camera set - up with a third or fourth camera on occasion. Morrison also said that lighting was her biggest challenge, the magnitude of which "was much bigger than I 'd experienced before '', and made extensive use of Arri SkyPanel LED light fixtures, which she could preprogram from an iPad. Morrison explained that she surrounded entire sets with SkyPanels and even "built an entire jungle on a sound stage ''.
At the end of June 2017, Sydelle Noel revealed she had been cast in the film as Xoliswa, a member of the Dora Milaje. In July 2017, Moore said Black Panther would be a cross between The Godfather and the James Bond films as a "big, operatic family drama centered around a world of international espionage. So hopefully we 're getting the best of both worlds. '' Coogler added that the film was influenced by "the films of the ' 70s '' such as the works of Francis Ford Coppola in that decade, as well as crime fiction. Coogler also watched the film A Prophet for inspiration. Feige called the film 's story "rich in culturally relevant ideas. These are conversations we were having two years ago because that is inherently the story within the comics. Now it 's going to seem like the most highly fluid thing we could have done. '' Boseman also indicated there were parallels to "pull from '' in the film in relation to Donald Trump becoming President of the United States after Barack Obama. In January 2018, Coogler hinted at the inclusion of post-credit scenes. Two are included, with the second featuring Sebastian Stan reprising his role as Bucky Barnes.
Visual effects for the film were created by: Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) with help from Virtuos, Stereo D, and Scanline VFX; Double Negative; Luma Pictures; Mammal Studios; Method Studios; Perception; Rise Visual Effects Studios; Torm Studios; Trixter; Cantina Creative; Lola VFX; Capital T; Exceptional Minds; Technicolor VFX; Rodeo FX; Imageloom VFX; Anibrain; Method Pune; Bot VFX; Pixstone Images; Futureworks; Vertigo Visual; FX3X; and Yannix Thailand Co. Previsualization was completed by Digital Domain and The Third Floor, while Perception also created the main title sequence for the film.
ILM was primarily responsible for creating the digital urban environments of Wakanda. VFX supervisor Craig Hammack said, "African culture has symbology, color and richness and a certain amount of earthy material qualities that make things difficult to design as a futuristic city, '' which typically use lots of steel and glass. ILM looked to real life examples that blend modern architecture with natural environments like One Central Park in Sydney and modern African architecture like The Pearl of Africa Hotel in Kampala as influences. ILM also worked on some interior shots, extending Beachler 's set, and the initial rhinoceros. For T'Challa's ancestral plane scenes, ILM worked on the nighttime scene first, having the sky reflect the Northern Lights, and worked hard to keep the sky visible in the daytime scene. ILM also added additional vibranium sand for the burial sequences to aid in the breathing of Boseman when filming, and added the flames when Killmonger burns the heart - shaped herb. Perception, which also did the main on - end title sequence that referenced the vibranium sand effect that ILM and other companies contributed through the film, also helped create Shuri 's laboratory and the interface designs for the displays.
Method Studios created much of the digital natural environments of Wakanda. Method built a 3,600 square kilometers (1,400 sq mi) landscape that is visible in various aerial shots in the film. VFX Supervisor Andy Brown said, "Looking out from the top of Mount Bashenga, you can see the rich diversity of African landscapes -- it looks lush and jungle - like in one direction, and more like the plains and savannah in the other, so we had multiple ecosystems to tackle, but it really drives home the vastness of these shots. '' Method was also responsible for creating Black Panther 's and Killmonger 's digital suits, and many of the film 's digital characters, vehicles, and weapons. They also worked on the final battle sequence, including crowd simulation. Method worked with the stunt coordinators in their motion capture sessions to give each Dora Milaje or Jabari fighter their unique fighting style. Brown noted that "In addition to randomizing the height, weight, and other characteristics of each fighter to add variance to the crowd, we had to incorporate more specific elements such as unique face tattoos for each Dora Milaje fighter and the signature hairstyles of the Jabari warriors. '' Method also worked on the vibranium mine, animating the gadgets in Shuri 's laboratory.
Luma Pictures worked on the Busan car chase sequence, digitally creating the Lexus cars featured in the sequence. Multiple digital versions of the same car were created, so the production could have the actual cars crash and do various stunts with them, with Luma then inserting the digital versions to augment them. Luma also created the sonic forces from Klaue 's cannon, while Scanline VFX worked on digitally removing Serkis ' left arm for the sonic cannon and the London museum heist sequence.
Ludwig Göransson was hired to compose the film 's score by April 2017. Göransson traveled to Senegal and South Africa to record local musicians to form the "base '' of his soundtrack. Kendrick Lamar produced the film 's curated soundtrack, Black Panther: The Album, along with Top Dawg Entertainment founder Anthony Tiffith. Coogler chose Lamar for the project because his "artistic themes align with those we explore in the film ''. Three singles from the album were released throughout January and February 2018: "All the Stars '', "King 's Dead '', and "Pray for Me ''. Black Panther: The Album was released on February 9, 2018, while a soundtrack of Göransson 's score was released on February 16, 2018.
Black Panther had its world premiere at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles on January 29, 2018. The premiere featured a purple carpet that was flanked by women dressed as the Dora Milaje, and was lit by futuristic lamps. Coogler, the cast members, and other guests wore African clothing, to honor the African roots of the film, at the request of Marvel for attendees to wear "royal attire ''. Ahead of the screening at the premiere, Coogler received an extended standing ovation before he announced the cast of the film. Black Panther was released in the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, and Taiwan on February 13, 2018, in South Korea on February 14, 2018, and the United States on February 16, 2018. In the United States, the film opened in 4,020 theaters, with over 3,200 of those in 3D, 404 in IMAX, over 660 in premium large format, and over 200 D - Box locations. In addition, Black Panther was the first MCU film to be converted to ScreenX, a 270 - degree wraparound format, that played in over 101 locations in eight countries. The film opened in most of its markets in its first weekend of release and had a "cross-nation release '' in Africa, a first for a Disney film. It was originally scheduled to be released on November 3, 2017, before moving in February 2015 to July 6, 2018 to accommodate Spider - Man: Homecoming. In October 2015, it moved again to accommodate Ant - Man and the Wasp.
Black Panther premiered in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia on April 18, 2018. The occasion marks the first public film screening since movie theaters were banned in the kingdom in the early 1980 's, after ultraconservative religious standards were introduced in 1979. The ban was lifted in December 2017 by Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman as part of an effort to revamp Saudi society. The film premiered in a newly constructed 620 leather seat cinema, owned by AMC Theatres, in Riyadh 's King Abdullah Financial District that was originally intended to be a symphony hall. Disney 's regional distributor Italia Film revealed that 40 seconds of the film had been removed, which was in line with cuts made to the film across the region. Awwad Alawwad, Saudi Arabia 's Minister of Culture and Information, and Adam Aron, CEO of AMC Entertainment, were in attendance for the premiere along with other diplomats and industry experts; no one from the cast or production team was in attendance. The premiere also had men and women sitting together, a representation of the Saudi government 's recently relaxed enforcement of laws banning co-mingling between unrelated men and women. Black Panther screened for five days before Avengers: Infinity War premiered on April 26 in the kingdom.
Marvel debuted early footage and concept art from the film in April 2017, at a press event for several of the MCU Phase Three films. Kyle Buchanan at Vulture.com praised the cinematography, costume and production design, and focus on dark - skinned actors and characters, saying "Black Panther does n't look like any of the other Marvel movies... If this is what the future of superhero movies looks like, deal me in. '' Feige believed the screened footage was the first time Marvel had shown raw dailies, a decision made because the company wanted to show off the film 's cast (which Feige called "the highest - class cast we 've had on a first movie '') and diversity, even though editing for it had not yet begun.
A teaser poster was released ahead of the first teaser trailer, which premiered during Game 4 of the 2017 NBA Finals. Fans felt the poster was poorly photoshopped, and tweets mentioning it were only 27 percent positive, and 27 percent negative, according to CNBC 's marketing technology firm Amobee. The poster was also compared to a real - life picture of Black Panther Party co-founder Huey P. Newton holding two gun spears. The trailer received a much more positive response, with Peter Sciretta of / Film saying it was "nothing like I was expecting this movie to look like and that 's refreshing ''. io9 's Charles Pulliam - Moore called the teaser "every bit as intense as you were hoping it would be '' and "epic as hell ''. Andrew Husband for Uproxx felt the single teaser "easily outshines Spider - Man: Homecoming 's big - from - the - beginning marketing campaign ''. Forbes 's Scott Mendelson felt that "Black Panther has the chance to be a seminal event in the same way we 're now seeing with Wonder Woman. '' The trailer was viewed 89 million times in 24 hours, and "dominated the conversation on social media for much of the night '' over Game 4, being the top - trending item on Twitter. The Hollywood Reporter noted that the teaser generated 349,000 Twitter mentions in 24 hours, also more than Game 4. The amount of mentions were second to the amount the Star Wars: The Last Jedi teaser received. comScore and its PreAct service noted over 466,000 new social media conversations for the film after the trailer released, the most for the week. For the week ending on June 18, comScore and its PreAct service again noted social media conversations for the film, with over 33,000 new ones, the second-most for the week behind Spider - Man: Homecoming. The service also noted Black Panther produced a total of over 566,000 conversations to date.
Costumes from the film were on display at D23 Expo 2017 and the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con. Also in July, Marvel Studios unveiled a partnership with Lexus, with the 2018 Lexus LC being featured in the film. A graphic novel, Black Panther: Soul of a Machine, was released in December 2017 from writers Fabian Nicieza, Geoffrey Thorne and Chuck Brown, with cover illustrations by Scott "Rahzzah '' Wilson and Szymon Kudranski, in which Black Panther defeats a villain with the help of the Lexus LC 500. Lexus also unveiled the 2018 LC Inspiration Series production car and a concept coupe dubbed the Black Panther Inspired LC. Coogler, Boseman and other members of the cast presented exclusive footage of the film at the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con, which received a standing ovation from the audience. The footage segued into a montage featuring Kendrick Lamar 's song "DNA ''. Coogler called the lyrics "amazing '' and both literally and culturally appropriate for the footage and film. In September 2017, Coogler, Gurira, and Moore participated in a panel at the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation 's Annual Legislative Conference, where exclusive footage from the film was also shown and met with a positive response.
On October 16, 2017, a full trailer was released. Dave Trumbore for Collider felt it was "a killer trailer. It not only shows off a ton of action sequences, outrageous costume design, and comic book goodies for fans out there, it also brings an unmistakable sense of style that 's all Black Panther 's own. '' Graeme McMillan of The Hollywood Reporter said the message of the trailer was clear: "this is n't like the other Marvel movies, this is something else ''. BamSmackPow 's Brendan Day said the trailer "does everything right '', showing "a lot of cool imagery and action scenes without giving us much context or story points '' and having unique music choices, featuring "BagBak '' by Vince Staples and "The Revolution Will Not Be Televised '' by Gil Scott - Heron. Writing for Rolling Stone, Tre Johnson felt the trailer showed T'Challa as "someone with the arrogance of (John) Shaft, the coolness of (Barack) Obama and the hot - headed impulsiveness of Kanye West ''. He continued, "After decades of trying to nail the modern black superhero, we may finally be getting what we 've asked for... Coogler has set out to do something with the modern black superhero that all previous iterations have fallen short of doing: making it respectable, imaginative and powerful. The Afro - punk aesthetic, the unapologetic black swagger, the miniscule appearances from non-black characters -- it 's an important resetting of a standard of what 's possible ''. A few days later, Marvel Comics published a prelude tie - in comic focusing on one of T'Challa's first missions as the Black Panther around the time of Iron Man.
The first College Football Playoff National Championship halftime show was organized by Disney for the 2018 championship game, with Kendrick Lamar performing to promote Black Panther: The Album, to release a new trailer for the film, and to begin selling tickets for the film 's opening weekend. Marvel again partnered with Lexus to create a commercial for Super Bowl LII. Promoting the 2018 Lexus LS 500 F Sport, it featured Boseman and Wright reprising their roles. The commercial was released on January 25, 2018, ahead of its airing during the Super Bowl. According to RelishMix, the Lexus commercial had 4.3 million views on social media after it aired in the Super Bowl. Marvel also partnered with British shoe manufacturer Clarks to create a variant of their Originals ' Trigenic Evo shoe, inspired by the film. By February 12, 2018, Black Panther had amassed more than 5 million tweets on Twitter globally, becoming the most tweeted about film of 2018, after being a top film in 2017 as well. Twitter also launched a custom emoji for the film, that appears when the hashtag # BlackPanther is used. During New York Fashion Week at Industria Studios in lower Manhattan, designers Cushnie et Ochs, Ikiré Jones, Tome, Sophie Theallet, Fear of God, Chromat, and LaQuan Smith created custom pieces that were inspired by the film for an event titled "Welcome to Wakanda: Fashion for the Black Panther Era ''. Nick Barose applied makeup for the event, while Rodney Cutler styled hair. By mid-March 2018, the film became the most - tweeted about film of all time on Twitter, with 35 million tweets. Twitter noted the most used Black Panther - related hashtags were # BlackPanther, # WakandaForever, and # Wakanda, with the most discussed characters Black Panther, Killmonger, and Shuri. Additionally, the most - retweeted tweets about the film were Lamar 's reveal of the soundtrack tracklist he curated, a video of kids trying to buy tickets using a Vincent Adultman - style trench coat disguise, and former First Lady Michelle Obama 's praise for the film.
Other marketing partners included PepsiCo and Unilever, which launched an arts program in urban areas to provide an opportunity for young people interested in film to be mentored by established artists. Brisk created an interactive Black Panther installation at the 2018 NBA All - Star Game weekend, which showcased nine Brisk labels created by emerging artists to promote the Creators Class program. These labels debuted on all Brisk packaging nationwide in late February. Lancôme highlighted a line of makeup that Lupita Nyong'o and Letitia Wright used at the premiere of the film. Synchrony Financial worked with Coogler and Marvel to award the Ghetto Film School Fellows program with a $50,000 grant, with Coogler also visiting the school to speak to the students.
Black Panther had the most expansive advertising budget and biggest line of merchandise of any Marvel non-sequel. Deadline Hollywood estimated the marketing budget globally was $140 million. In order to make the film "feel like a cultural event '', Asad Ayaz, Executive Vice President of Marketing for Marvel films at Disney, said the marketing campaign was about "super-serving black moviegoers while also making it the broadest moviegoing event ''. Disney and Marvel also created a "synergy program '' with the College Football Playoffs on ESPN, the ABC 's television series Black - ish, Grey 's Anatomy, Scandal, and How to Get Away With Murder, the Freeform series Grown - ish, and the Bravo franchise The Real Housewives. Marketing in territories outside the United States by Disney was fairly uniform, with a few exceptions. In the Middle East, the focus was kept on Black Panther, rather than Boseman out of costume, as superhero films "just keep working '' in the territory, according to Gianluca Chakra, Managing Partner of major regional Middle East distributor Front Row. For Asian territories, they also focused on Black Panther as well as the action in the film, a strong selling point for audiences there. A Wakanda exhibit was featured in malls in seven cities in China, along with displays showing Black Panther next to other established MCU characters. A special trailer was also created for the Chinese audience, with Boseman introducing himself and the character 's connection to the other MCU films. Weibo attended the Los Angeles premiere of the film to take pictures and videos with the cast and crew in real time for China, the first time the company has partnered with a foreign studio for this type of engagement.
Black Panther was released on digital download by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on May 8, 2018, and on Ultra HD Blu - ray, Blu - ray, and DVD on May 15. The digital and Blu - ray releases include behind - the - scenes featurettes; audio commentary; deleted scenes; a blooper reel; an exclusive look at Ant - Man and the Wasp; and a featurette on the first ten years of the MCU.
As of May 28, 2018, Black Panther has grossed $698.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $646.2 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $1.345 billion. The $370.5 million earned worldwide in its opening weekend was the 15th - largest of all time. It became the highest - grossing solo superhero film, the third - highest - grossing film of the MCU after The Avengers and Age of Ultron, and the ninth - highest - grossing film of all time. By its second weekend, the film earned $54.6 million globally from IMAX, which was the fastest Marvel film to reach the $50 million mark. In its fourth weekend, the film surpassed $1 billion, becoming the fifth MCU film, sixteenth Walt Disney Studios film, and 33rd film overall to do so. In March 2018, five weeks after the film released, Deadline Hollywood estimated the net profit of the film would be $461 million, accounting for production budgets, P&A, talent participations and other costs, with box office grosses and ancillary revenues from home media.
In December 2017, a survey from Fandango indicated that Black Panther was the second most anticipated film of 2018, behind Avengers: Infinity War. Fandango reported that its first 24 hours of ticket pre-sales for the film were the largest ever for a Marvel film, surpassing Captain America: Civil War. Two weeks ahead of its release, Fandango announced that the film outsold all previous superhero films at the same point in the sales cycle, breaking the record previously held by Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. Additionally, Black Panther had the highest number of ticket pre-sales for any superhero film at Alamo Drafthouse Cinema, after 18 days of sales. This was more than Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, the next closest film, which only had 72 % of Black Panther 's ticket sales in the same time frame. AMC Theatres also revealed that the film was out - selling all previous Marvel films, with strong sales in both urban areas and suburban locations.
Four days before its United States opening, IMAX Entertainment CEO Greg Foster revealed that Black Panther had the most advanced IMAX ticket sales of any Marvel film. He added that it did not appear the ticket sales had peaked, stating that a film usually peaks 10 days before it opens, but Black Panther "feels like it 's going to peak the day it opens ''. Atom Tickets also revealed strong pre-sales for the film. On February 15, 2017, Fandango announced that the film had the fourth - highest pre-sale tickets sold, behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens, Star Wars: The Last Jedi, and Rogue One. It also became the top pre-seller for a superhero film, beating Captain America: Civil War and Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, for a film released in February, beating Deadpool, as well as for the first quarter of the year, beating The Hunger Games and Beauty and the Beast.
Black Panther earned $75.8 million on its opening day in the United States and Canada (including $25.2 million from Thursday night previews), and earned $242.1 million over the four - day Presidents ' Day weekend, which was the best Presidents ' Day weekend opening, the second - best four - day opening after Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($288 million) and best ever for an African - American director. The Thursday night gross was the second - best for a MCU film, behind Avengers: Age of Ultron ($27.6 million), the second - best preview night for a non-summer release, behind Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice ($27.7 million), and the best preview night for a February release, beating Deadpool ($12.7 million). $3 million of the Thursday preview gross came from IMAX, which was tied for the most with Age of Ultron and Captain America: Civil War. The total opening day gross was the third - highest for a superhero film, behind Age of Ultron ($84 million) and The Avengers ($80 million), the second - highest pre-summer release, behind Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice ($81 million), and the eighth - highest opening day ever. The $50.6 million earned on Friday was the largest single - day gross for a solo superhero film and the largest single - day gross for a non-sequel film. The $60.1 million earned on Sunday was the best single - day gross for a superhero film and the second best Sunday ever, behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($60.5 million). The three - day total weekend gross of $202 million was the fifth - best three - day opening ever and the biggest opening for a pre-summer and February release. The film 's $40.2 million gross on Monday was the best Monday gross of all time. IMAX contributed $23.5 million to the opening weekend gross, which was the best ever for a February release and any Marvel film, and the fourth - best opening ever. Speaking to the success of the film in its opening weekend, Anthony D'Alessandro of Deadline Hollywood said it was "summer box office records during the second month of the year ''.
AMC Theatres also reported that Black Panther became the highest - grossing film in history at 33 of their locations after two days, earning more than other films have earned in an entire weekend. They later stated that the film became the highest - grossing film in an opening weekend for 150 of their theaters, with 15 locations more than doubling their previous record and two tripling their previous record. Black Panther also had the second - largest Saturday and largest Sunday in AMC history, and had the second - largest opening weekend for the chain with 4.4 million admissions. Atom Tickets sold more tickets for Black Panther than any other superhero film. Fandango 's pre-sales accounted for 30 % of the opening weekend gross, one of the largest box office shares for any film in Fandango 's history. The opening weekend gross surpassed early projections for the film. Early projections in December 2017 had it earning between $80 -- 90 million, which increased to $100 -- 120 million by the end of January 2018, and ultimately increasing again closer to the film 's release, projecting it to earn $150 -- 170 million or more. Several other film studios projected the total could be as high as $180 -- 200 million, while Disney initially projected the film to gross around $150 million in its opening weekend.
On the Tuesday after its opening weekend, Black Panther earned an estimated $21.07 million, which was the best pre-summer Tuesday ever, beating Beauty and the Beast ($17.8 million), the best Tuesday ever for an MCU film, beating The Avengers ($17.6 million), and the second - best Tuesday all time, after The Force Awakens ($37.3 million). Its five - day total of $263.2 million was still second to The Force Awakens ($325.4 million). The $14.3 million earned the Thursday after its opening weekend was the best Thursday ever for a MCU film, beating The Avengers ($12.4 million). It also surpassed $300 million on Friday, becoming the fastest MCU film to reach that mark in eight days, once again surpassing The Avengers, which had reached the mark in nine days, and tying The Last Jedi and Jurassic World. It also became the MCU film with the highest first - week gross.
In its second weekend, the film earned $112 million, which was a 45 percent decrease from its opening week. This percentage was the smallest decline in a second weekend for any MCU film and was described by D'Alessandro as "an amazing second - weekend hold ''. It was the second - best second weekend ever after The Force Awakens ($149.2 million) and the best second weekend ever for a Marvel film, beating The Avengers ($103 million). Over its second weekend, the film also surpassed $400 million for its total domestic gross, reaching the mark in ten days; this was the second fastest to reach that milestone, tied with Jurassic World behind The Force Awakens (eight days). It became the highest - grossing film released in the month of February, surpassing The Passion of the Christ ($370.3 million). IMAX also contributed $9 million to the weekend gross, bringing the domestic total to $36 million, which was the most for any MCU film. By surpassing $400 million, Black Panther exceeded initial early projections for its total domestic gross. By February 28, 2018, the film had earned $421.8 million, which made it the highest - grossing superhero origin film, surpassing Wonder Woman ($412.6 million).
The third weekend at the box office saw the film remain the top grossing film, earning $65.7 million and having its total gross surpass $500 million becoming the second - highest - grossing MCU film; the $65.7 million was the third - best third weekend ever, behind The Force Awakens ($90.2 million) and Avatar ($68.5 million). Black Panther remained the top film for the fourth straight weekend with an additional $41.1 million, which was the third - highest fourth weekend of all time, again behind The Force Awakens and Avatar. Black Panther remained number one in its fifth weekend, having the fourth - highest fifth weekend ever with $27 million. It became the first film to hold the number one spot at the box office for at least five weekends since Avatar, which led for seven weeks, and the first February release to hold the top box office spot for five weekends since The Silence of the Lambs in 1991 and Wayne 's World in 1992. By surpassing $600 million, it became the seventh film ever to break that point, and the second fastest film to do so in 31 days, after The Force Awakens (12 days). The film 's sixth weekend saw it fall to number two at the box office, behind Pacific Rim: Uprising, while also becoming the highest - grossing superhero film ever. The next weekend it fell to third, behind Ready Player One and Acrimony, to fourth in its eighth weekend, to sixth in its ninth weekend, and to eighth in its tenth weekend. However, in its eleventh weekend, Black Panther rose back to fifth place, in part because of the release of Avengers: Infinity War the same weekend. The next weekend, the film placed seventh, earning $3.14 million from over 1,600 locations. D'Alessandro noted the gross from that number of locations indicated people were continuing to see Black Panther in conjunction with Infinity War. Black Panther remained in the top ten in its thirteenth weekend, placing ninth. Black Panther is the highest - grossing film of 2018 and the third - highest - grossing film of all time.
Outside the United States and Canada, the film opened in 48 territories in its first weekend and has earned $184 million, opening at number one in most territories (and second in territories where Fifty Shades Freed performed better such as in Germany and Italy), and becoming the top February opening in many as well. The film opened at number one in the United Kingdom, where it had the best single day gross of 2018 so far and the highest - grossing February opening weekend ever. In South Korea, where it also opened at number one, the opening day gross of $4.7 million was the second - best MCU opening and the best ever for February. The $25.3 million it earned in its opening weekend was the fifth - highest Western release in South Korea. The other Asian markets that opened in its first weekend were also number one along with the biggest opening weekend of 2018 to date. The Latin America market also had all territories open at number one, and Black Panther was the best opening of 2018 in all except Argentina and Uruguay. It also was the highest - grossing opening of February of all time in Mexico, Brazil, Colombia, Bolivia, Ecuador, Panama and Paraguay. The African market saw the highest - grossing February opening of all - time in Bahrain, East Africa, Kuwait, Qatar, South Africa, the United Arab Emirates, and West Africa. South Africa also had the highest - grossing Saturday ever and the second highest - grossing opening weekend of all time. The Netherlands had the highest - grossing day ever for a superhero film and the highest - grossing February opening weekend ever.
Other territories opening at number one included Australia, Bosnia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Greece, Israel, Portugal, Serbia, Ukraine, and in France, Belgium, and Switzerland for the remainder of the opening weekend, after Fifty Shades Freed 's top gross on Valentine 's Day. Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines, and Indonesia recorded the largest opening day ever for February, while Malaysia was the third - highest MCU opening of all time and Indonesia had the third - largest opening weekend of all time. In Hong Kong, the opening was the second - largest opening day in February, while Taiwan and Australia had the third - largest February opening. IMAX accounted for $11.5 million of the opening weekend gross on 272 screens, with Nigeria, Kenya, and Indonesia having the best opening weekend ever in the format, South Korea had the second - best opening weekend, and Angola, Belgium, Bahrain, France, Israel, Netherlands, and Argentina and the best IMAX opening ever for a Marvel film. In its second weekend in 55 territories, the film earned $83.5 million and remained number one in most territories, including retaining the top spot in the Latin America market and becoming the top film in Germany. The West Africa region saw a 7 % increase, which resulted in the biggest three - day weekend ever. In South Africa, the second weekend gross became the third - biggest three - day weekend ever, behind the first weekend gross and The Fate of the Furious. The film opened in Russia in IMAX, earning $1.7 million which was a February record in the country, while the opening in Vietnam ($2.5 million, including previews) was the fifth - highest opening weekend, and Trinidad had the biggest opening weekend ever ($700,000).
In its third weekend in 56 territories, the film remained number one in Austria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Singapore, and all markets in Latin America, while its opening in Japan was the top Western film for the weekend, the second overall. IMAX contributed $713,000 to Japan 's opening weekend, which was a record for a March opening and the fourth - highest Marvel IMAX opening ever. Black Panther also became the highest - grossing film of all time in West and East Africa, the fifth - highest - grossing film all time in South Africa, and the top MCU film in the Netherlands. In its fourth weekend, Black Panther opened in China ($66.5 million), which was the fourth - highest MCU and superhero opening ever in the market. $7.3 million came from IMAX, which was the best - ever March opening weekend and the best - ever opening day for March in the territory. The film also remained at number one in the United Kingdom and the Latin America market except Argentina for the fourth straight weekend, as well as number one in South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. The film 's fifth weekend saw it once again be the top film in South Africa for the fifth weekend, where it also became the highest - grossing film ever, along with becoming the highest - grossing film in West, East, and southern Africa. It also became the fifth - highest - grossing MCU film in other territories of all time. Black Panther remained the top film in South Africa for a sixth weekend and became the highest - grossing superhero film ever in the Netherlands. The film continued to be the top film in South Africa for a seventh week, where it also became the fourth best MCU film in the country, and became the second - highest grossing MCU film in the United Kingdom in its eighth weekend. As of April 8, 2018, the film 's largest markets were China ($104.6 million), the United Kingdom ($67.7 million), and South Korea ($42.8 million).
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 97 % based on 374 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Black Panther elevates superhero cinema to thrilling new heights while telling one of the MCU 's most absorbing stories -- and introducing some of its most fully realized characters. '' As of February 18, 2018, it is the best - reviewed live - action superhero film on the site, beating The Dark Knight and Iron Man (both 94 %). Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 88 out of 100, based on 55 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A + '' on an A+ to F scale, the second superhero film to receive that grade after Marvel 's own The Avengers. Filmgoers polled by Screen Engine / comScore 's PostTrak service gave the film a 92 % overall positive score and a 88 % "definite recommend '', with a third of people planning to see the film again. RelishMix reported that Twitter hashtags for # BlackPanther and tagging of the film 's Twitter account from audiences leaving the theater set an all - time film record in its opening weekend, with 559,000 unique posts in one day. This was twice the number The Last Jedi received in December 2017, with 232,000, while 100,000 posts for a film is average.
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "The actors are all seen to very good advantage. Boseman certainly holds his own, but there are quite a few charismatic supporting players here keen to steal every scene they can -- and they do, notably the physically imposing Jordan, the radiant Nyong'o and especially Wright, who gives her every scene extra punch and humor. '' Peter Debruge of Variety said, "Black Panther celebrates its hero 's heritage while delivering one of Marvel 's most all - around appealing standalone installments to date. '' Manohla Dargis of The New York Times called Black Panther "a jolt of a movie '', and said, "in its emphasis on black imagination, creation and liberation, the movie becomes an emblem of a past that was denied and a future that feels very present. And in doing so opens up its world, and yours, beautifully. '' Kenneth Turan of Los Angeles Times said, "With dialogue that deftly explores serious questions, such as how much if anything do wealthy countries owe the poor and oppressed of the world, Black Panther draws energy from Coogler 's sense of excitement at all he 's attempting. The result is a superhero movie that 's worth seeing twice, and that is a rare sighting indeed. '' Richard Roeper, writing for the Chicago Sun - Times, called the film "one of the best superhero movies of the century '' and said, "If you appreciate finely honed storytelling with a Shakespearean core; winning performances from an enormously talented ensemble; provocative premises touching on isolationism, revolution and cultures of oppression, and oh yeah, tons of whiz - bang action sequences and good humor -- then you should see Black Panther. ''
Brian Truitt of USA Today awarded the film four out of four stars, and called it Marvel Studios ' best origin film since Guardians of the Galaxy. Truitt also praised the "superb cast '' and stated, "While the themes are deep, Black Panther is at the same time a visual joy to behold, with confident quirkiness, insane action sequences and special effects, and the glorious reveal of Wakanda, whose culture is steeped in African influences but which also offers a jaw - dropping look at what a city of the future could be. '' Also giving the film four stars, Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called it "(un) like any other Marvel movie -- an exhilarating triumph on every level from writing, directing, acting, production design, costumes, music, special effects to you name it ''. Natasha Alford of The Grio said, "Black Panther is remarkable because this film is a movement, a revolution in progress, and a joy to experience all wrapped into one '', and called it "a master class in what it means to be proud of who you are, where you have been and where you and your people are going. '' Jamie Broadnax of Black Girl Nerds said Marvel "created a masterpiece with Black Panther '', adding, "it 's afro - futuristic and Blackity - black as hell. It 's everything I 've ever desired in a live - action version of this popular superhero and yet so much more. Quite frankly, the experience is indescribable. '' Jamelle Bouie of Slate said, "it is fair to say that Black Panther is the most political movie ever produced by Marvel Studios, both in its very existence... and in the questions its story raises. '' He added that the film should be included with Superman, Spider - Man 2 and The Dark Knight as films in the superhero genre that do not "transcend the genre as much as they embrace it in all its respects ''. Bouie concluded, "Black Panther could have been just another Marvel romp -- a fun but ultimately disposable entry in the studio 's catalogue. But Ryan Coogler and company had the power, and perhaps the responsibility, to do much more. And they did. ''
In early January 2018, New York resident Frederick Joseph created a GoFundMe campaign in hopes to raise money to help children of color at the Boys & Girls Club in Harlem see Black Panther. Joseph called the release of Black Panther a "rare opportunity for young students (primarily of color) to see a black major cinematic and comic book character come to life. This representation is truly fundamental for young people, especially those who are often underserved, unprivileged, and marginalized both nationally and globally. '' The campaign exceeded its goal, and given the popularity of its intent, Joseph asked others to create their own campaigns in their own communities to take more children to see the film, which he named the "Black Panther Challenge ''. GoFundMe created a centralized page for anyone wishing to create a campaign for the challenge, and revealed that 10 campaigns created using the sign - up page would receive a $100 donation from GoFundMe. Over 400 additional campaigns were started around the world, with many celebrities offering their support and contributions to the campaigns, such as actress Octavia Spencer, who intended to buy out a theater in Mississippi for underserved members of the community. Obi Umunna, a Jacksonville, Florida - based attorney born to Nigerian immigrants, participated in the challenge, saying, "I just want for kids in my community to have the same opportunity and to see this movie... I think this is an awesome opportunity for them to see themselves represented in a very positive light... compared to some of the negative images that you see on a daily basis. '' The campaign became the largest GoFundMe in history for an entertainment event and raised over $400,000.
Science & Entertainment Exchange Director for the National Academy of Sciences Richard Loverd felt the film would increase interest in science, technology, and Africa for young black Americans, similarly to how The Hunger Games films and Brave sparked girls ' interest in archery. Jamie Broadnax, editor - in - chief and creator of the website Black Girl Nerds, felt Black Panther would "bring in a lot of people (of color) who do n't even really go to comic - book movies... (since) they 're going to see themselves reflected in a huge way that they just have n't been able to see before '', especially since the film avoided black pain, suffering, and poverty, usual topics in films about the black experience. She added that the strong female characters, such as Shuri, would be an inspiration for girls and young people. Gil Robertson, co-founder and president of the African American Film Critics Association, added that the film was "critically important '' and "a gate - opener opportunity for other black - centered projects ''. Child development expert Deborah Gilboa felt the film would make a huge impact on children 's spirits, by offering positive role models and knowing that "not only can they succeed, they need to see that lots of people want to sit in a theater and watch someone like them succeed in a big, big way. That 's how we help build a generation of young people who are engaged in the greater good and courageous in their actions. '' In the film 's opening weekend, 37 % of audiences in the United States were African - American, according to Screen Engine / comScore 's PostTrak service, compared to 35 % Caucasian, 18 % Hispanic, and 5 % Asian. This was the most diverse audience for a superhero film ever, where African - Americans generally make up 15 % of audiences for such films. In its second weekend, demographics were 37 % Caucasian, 33 % African American, 18 % Hispanic and 7 % Asian.
Writing for Time, Jamil Smith felt Black Panther, which he described as a film "about what it means to be black in both America and Africa -- and, more broadly, in the world '', was "poised to prove to Hollywood that African - American narratives have the power to generate profits from all audiences. And, more important, that making movies about black lives is part of showing that they matter. '' He added, "In the midst of a regressive cultural and political moment fueled in part by the white - nativist movement, the very existence of Black Panther feels like resistance. Its themes challenge institutional bias, its characters take unsubtle digs at oppressors, and its narrative includes prismatic perspectives on black life and tradition. '' Discussing why the film was a defining moment for black America in The New York Times Magazine, Carvell Wallace said that in contrast to earlier black superhero films, Black Panther "is steeped very specifically and purposefully in its blackness ''. He continued, "Black Panther is a Hollywood movie, and Wakanda is a fictional nation. But coming when they do, from a director like Coogler, they must also function as a place for multiple generations of black Americans to store some of our most deeply held aspirations. We have for centuries sought to either find or create a promised land where we would be untroubled by the criminal horrors of our American existence. '' Wallace also commented on how the film fits into the larger idea of Afrofuturism, particularly in its presentation of Wakanda. Historian Nathan D.B. Connolly felt Black Panther was "a breakthrough in black cultural representation. It 's a powerful fictional analogy for real - life struggles. And Black Panther owes its very existence to centuries of political and artistic activity, always occurring in real places and under the mortal (but still super -) powers of real people... Black Panther taps a 500 - year history of African - descended people imagining freedom, land and national autonomy. '' Connolly also felt, culturally, the film would be this generation 's A Raisin in the Sun.
A number of writers looked to the film 's subtext and what it said about African history, colonialism (including post-colonialism and neocolonialism), and tensions between African and African - American cultures. Patrick Gathara, writing in The Washington Post, described the film as offering a "regressive, neocolonial vision of Africa '', which -- rather than a "redemptive counter-mythology '' -- offers "the same destructive myths ''. Gathara highlighted the Africa that is portrayed as being divided and tribalized, with Wakanda run by a wealthy and feuding elite, centered upon "royalty and warriors '', whose fortune comes not from its citizens ' endeavors, skill or innate abilities, but from a "lucky meteor strike '', and as a country which, despite its advanced technical abilities, does not evince any great thinkers, nor even a means of succession beyond lethal combat and primeval trials of strength. Gathara continued that the very idea of "Africa '' is essentially of European creation, and concluded that "Despite their centuries of vibranium - induced technological advancement, the Wakandans remain so remarkably unsophisticated that a ' returning ' American can basically stroll in and take over, just as 19th - century Europeans did to the real Africa... (The film) should not be mistaken for an attempt at liberating Africa from Europe. Quite the opposite. Its ' redemptive counter-mythology ' entrenches the tropes that have been used to dehumanize Africans for centuries. The Wakandans, for all their technological progress, still cleanly fit into the Western molds, a dark people in a dark continent ''.
Dwayne Wong (Omowale) writing in HuffPost saw the film and its comic origins as "address (ing) serious political issues concerning Africa 's relationship to the West that is very rarely given the serious attention that it deserves ''. Wakandans are "at times portrayed as being very suspicious towards outsiders, to the point of almost being xenophobic '' and "no outsider can truly be trusted '' with its security. He concludes that while the country is fictional, "the politics... are very real. The end of colonialism did not end Western tampering in Africa 's politics. We see this issue still going on in Africa today... The Black Panther movie offers an opportunity to explore this issue of neo-colonialism and its continued impact on Africa 's development ''. Carlos Rosario Gonzalez of Bam! Smack! Pow!, noting the struggle between T'Challa and Killmonger, saw "two very distinct philosophies collide... what it means to be African and conversely, what Africa means to Afro - minorities today '', and described the film as exploring these themes "through the lens of colonialism ''. In this view, Wakanda represents Africa without Western colonialism, and Killmonger shows us that "we can sometimes inevitably become what we seek to destroy... With Wakanda 's resources in his fingertips, Killmonger want (s) to become the new colonizer; a colonizer of the West... In the end, Wakanda 's conservative ways created the very problem that sought to destroy them, Eric (sic) Killmonger ''. Jelani Cobb, writing in The New Yorker, discussed the divide between Africans and African - Americans, which he called a "fundamental dissonance ''. He felt T'Challa and Killmonger represented "dueling responses to five centuries of African exploitation at the hands of the West. The villain, to the extent that the term applies, is history itself ''. Cobb added, "nothing in Marvel 's collection of films is or could be political in the same way as Black Panther, because, in those other stories, we were at least clear about where the lines of fantasy departed from reality. '' The film "exists in an invented nation in Africa, a continent that has been grappling with invented versions of itself ever since white men first declared it the ' dark continent ' and set about plundering its people and its resources. ''
By contrast, James Wilt, writing for Canadian Dimension, stated that "at its core, Black Panther contains a fundamentally reactionary understanding of black liberation that blatantly advocates respectability politics over revolution, sterilizes the history of real - life anti-colonial struggles in Africa and elsewhere, and allows white folks such as myself to feel extremely comfortable watching it ''. Wilt considered the scene where Ross is portrayed as "the hero '' for shooting down the Wakandan ships attempting to leave as the film 's way of endorsing the crushing of armed revolt against oppression, and in particular, "it helped solidify the message that violence is perfectly fine, so long as it 's not directed against white people. '' Wilt also wrote, concerning the villain Killmonger, that "all the most hideous traits imaginable are downgraded on to (him), making the only major African - American character and agitator for revolution a manic killer consumed by rage and violence '', which is a common trope. Russell Rickford of Africa is a Country agreed with Wilt 's assessment of Killmonger, whose role as a character is "to discredit radical internationalism '' and reproduce "a host of disturbing tropes ''. Faisal Kutty from Middle East Eye felt the film had underlying Islamophobic themes, such as in the beginning of the film where Islamic characters are depicted as villains by showing a group based on Boko Haram that kidnapped several girls and forced them to wear hijab.
Christopher Lebron, in a piece for Boston Review, saw Black Panther as "racist ''. He observed that black Americans who had been left in poverty and oppression, as exemplified by Killmonger, were still being "relegated to the lowest rung of political regard '' in the film, treated as less deserving of empathy and less capable of their acts being deemed heroic, than even Ross ' white spy. Lebron felt that T'Challa could have shown himself a good person by "understand (ing) that Killmonger is in part the product of American racism and T'Chaka's cruelty '' and by "realiz (ing) that Wakanda has been hoarding resources '', and could have agreed that justice sometimes requires violence as a last resort against oppression. He comments rhetorically on this, "After all, what else do comic - book heroes do but dispense justice with their armored fists and laser rifles ''? Instead, T'Challa stays silent despite Killmonger 's description of the oppression suffered by his fellows around the world, until eventually Killmonger allows himself to die. He summed up by commenting that "In 2018, a world home to both the Movement for Black Lives and a president who identifies white supremacists as fine people, we are given a movie about black empowerment where the only redeemed blacks are African nobles. They safeguard virtue and goodness against the threat not of white Americans or Europeans, but a black American ''.
With the release of Black Panther, Feige said "there are many, many stories to tell '' about the character, and that he wanted Coogler to return for any potential sequel. Coogler added that he wanted to see how T'Challa would grow as a king in future films, since his reign only began recently in the MCU, while in the comics, he has been king since childhood. In March 2018, Feige added there was "nothing specific to reveal '' in terms of a sequel, but that there "absolutely '' were "ideas and a pretty solid direction on where we want to head with the second one ''.
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who is the actress that plays nell on general hospital | Chloe Lanier - wikipedia
Chloe Lanier (born November 3, 1992) is an American actress. She is known for playing Nelle Benson on the ABC soap opera General Hospital, for which she was nominated for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Younger Actress in a Drama Series in 2017, winning that award the following year.
Lanier was born November 3, 1992 in Dallas, Texas.
Lanier started her acting career in 2009 by starring in a movie called The Effects of Tragedy as Lisa. In 2012, she had joined the cast of Army Wives in the recurring role of Penny. In 2014, she guest - starred in an episode of NCIS as Emma Carter and appeared in a film, North Blvd, as Young Elaine. In 2015, she appeared in two episodes of General Hospital as Young Patricia Spencer for the 52nd anniversary storyline. Lanier dished about her Young Patricia Spencer audition being very secretive, she had her part marked as "Girl No. 2 '' which made her think the role was a background one, but to her surprise after she read the character description, she was impressed having a major change of heart and decided to go for it after her boyfriend convinced her to. In the same year, she guest - starred in Stalker as Sage. General Hospital were planning to cast another actress to portray the role of Nelle Benson, since Lanier was busy with another TV show (Kingdom) at that time, but Laura Wright and Frank Valentini were adamant that if anyone should be playing Nelle it should be Lanier, so the storyline was put on hold for her. In 2016, she returned to General Hospital, but this time in a brand new contract role of Nelle Hayes. She debuted on August 8, 2016. In November 2016, she had booked an independent film, Gorman, also titled Quail Lake, where she plays the lead role of Brittany. On June 28, 2018, Daytime Confidential reported that Lanier decided not renew her contract with General Hospital.
Lanier and Wright are friends outside of filming General Hospital. "There 's a trust factor there, '' Lanier explained of her relationship with Wright, "which means we can go further. The conflict would be fine if we were n't friends, but it 's made it ten times stronger that we are. It 's also much more fun! '' Wright agreed with her co-star, adding: "Chloe knows I 'll look out for her. For instance, during that huge scene where Carly learned who Nelle was, she flubbed a line... and production just kept on rolling. We were doing the scene, but were both in our heads the whole time -- wondering if they were ever going to cut! "And for the record, that could 've gone either way, '' Wright continued. "I could have flubbed. In two days, we had so much stuff -- and it turned out great! When you finish scenes like those, you just want to high - five your co-star and everyone involved. ''
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who did james earl jones play in field of dreams | Field of Dreams - wikipedia
Field of Dreams is a 1989 American fantasy - drama sports film directed by Phil Alden Robinson, who also wrote the screenplay, adapting W.P. Kinsella 's novel Shoeless Joe. It stars Kevin Costner, Amy Madigan, James Earl Jones, Ray Liotta and Burt Lancaster in his final role. It was nominated for three Academy Awards, including for Best Original Score, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Picture.
In 2017, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
Ray Kinsella is a novice Iowa farmer who lives with his wife, Annie, and daughter, Karin. In the opening narration, he explains how he had a troubled relationship with his father, John Kinsella, who had been a devoted baseball fan. While walking through his cornfield one evening, he hears a voice whispering, "If you build it, he will come. '' He continues hearing this before finally seeing a vision of a baseball diamond in his field. Annie is skeptical, but she allows him to plow the corn under in order to build a baseball field. As he builds, he tells Karin the story of the 1919 Black Sox Scandal. Months pass and nothing happens; his family faces financial ruin until, one night, Karin spots a uniformed man on the field. Ray recognizes him as Shoeless Joe Jackson, a deceased baseball player idolized by John. Thrilled to be able to play baseball again, he asks to bring others to the field to play. He later returns with the seven other players banned as a result of the 1919 scandal.
Ray 's brother - in - law, Mark, ca n't see the players and warns him that he will go bankrupt unless he replants his corn. While in the field, Ray hears the voice again, this time urging him to "ease his pain. ''
Ray attends a PTA meeting at which the possible banning of books by radical author Terence Mann is discussed. He decides the voice was referring to Mann. He comes across a magazine interview dealing with Mann 's childhood dream of playing for the Brooklyn Dodgers. After Ray and Annie both dream about him and Mann attending a baseball game together at Fenway Park, he convinces her that he should seek out Mann. He heads to Boston and persuades a reluctant, embittered Mann to attend a game with him at Fenway Park. While there, he hears the voice again, this time urging him to "go the distance. '' At the same time, the scoreboard "shows '' statistics for a player named Archibald "Moonlight '' Graham, who played one game for the New York Giants in 1922, but never had a turn at bat. After the game, Mann eventually admits that he, too, saw it.
Ray and Mann then travel to Chisholm, Minnesota where they learn that Graham had become a doctor and had died sixteen years earlier. During a late night walk, Ray finds himself back in 1972 and encounters the then - living Graham, who states that he had moved on from his baseball career. He also says that the greater disappointment would have been not having a medical career. He declines Ray 's invitation to fulfill his dream; however, during the drive back home, Ray picks up a young hitchhiker who introduces himself as Archie Graham. While Archie sleeps, Ray reveals to Mann that John had wanted him to live out his dream of being a baseball star. He stopped playing catch with him after reading one of Mann 's books at 14. At 17, he had denounced Shoeless Joe as a criminal to John and that was the reason for the rift between them. Ray expresses regret that he did n't get a chance to make things right before John died. When they arrive back at Ray 's farm, they find that enough players have arrived to field two teams. A game is played and Archie finally gets his turn at bat.
The next morning, Mark returns and demands that Ray sell the farm. Karin says that they will not need to because people will pay to watch the ballgames. Mann agrees, saying that "people will come '' in order to relive their childhood innocence. Ray, after much thought, refuses and a frustrated Mark scuffles with him, during which Karin is accidentally knocked off the bleachers. The young Graham runs from the field to help, becoming old Graham, complete with Gladstone bag, the instant he steps off of it, and saves Karin from choking (she had been eating a hot dog when she fell). Ray realizes that Graham sacrificed his young self in order to save her. After reassuring Ray that his true calling was medicine and being commended by the other players, Graham leaves, disappearing into the corn. Suddenly, Mark is able to see the players and urges Ray not to sell the farm.
After the game, Shoeless Joe invites Mann to enter the corn; he accepts and disappears into it. Ray is angry at not being invited, but Shoeless Joe rebukes him: if he really wants a reward for having sacrificed so much, then he had better stay on the field. Shoeless Joe then glances towards a player at home plate, saying "If you build it, he will come. '' The player then removes his mask, and Ray recognizes him to be John as a young man. Shocked, Ray realizes that "ease his pain '' referred to John, and believes that Shoeless Joe was the voice all along; however, Joe implies that the voice was Ray himself. Joe then disappears into the corn.
Ray introduces John to Annie and Karin. As he heads towards the corn, Ray asks him if he wants to play a game of catch. They begin to play and Annie happily watches. Meanwhile, hundreds of cars can be seen approaching the baseball field, fulfilling Karin and Mann 's prophecy that people will come to watch baseball.
Phil Alden Robinson read Shoeless Joe in 1981 and liked it so much that he brought it to producers Lawrence Gordon and Charles Gordon. Lawrence Gordon worked for 20th Century Fox, part of the time as its president, and repeatedly mentioned that the book should be adapted into a film. The studio, however, always turned down the suggestion because they felt the project was too esoteric and noncommercial. Meanwhile, Robinson went ahead with his script, frequently consulting W.P. Kinsella, the book 's author, for advice on the adaptation. Lawrence Gordon left Fox in 1986 and started pitching the adaptation to other studios. Universal Studios accepted the project in 1987 and hired USC coach Rod Dedeaux as baseball advisor. Dedeaux brought along World Series champion and USC alumnus Don Buford to coach the actors.
The film was shot using the novel 's title; eventually, an executive decision was made to rename it Field of Dreams. Robinson did not like the idea saying he loved Shoeless Joe, and that the new title was better suited for one about dreams deferred. Later, Kinsella told Robinson that his originally chosen title for the book had been The Dream Field and that the title Shoeless Joe had been imposed by the publisher.
Robinson and the producers did not originally consider Kevin Costner for the part of Ray because they did not think that he would want to follow Bull Durham with another baseball film. He, however, did end up reading the script and became interested in the project, stating that he felt it would be "this generation 's It 's a Wonderful Life ''. Since Robinson 's directing debut In the Mood had been a commercial failure, Costner also said that he would help him with the production. Amy Madigan, a fan of the book, joined the cast as Ray 's wife, Annie. In the book, the writer Ray seeks out is real - life author J.D. Salinger. When Salinger threatened the production with a lawsuit if his name was used, Robinson decided to rewrite the character as reclusive Terence Mann. He wrote with James Earl Jones in mind because he thought it would be fun to see Ray trying to kidnap such a big man. Robinson had originally envisioned Shoeless Joe Jackson as being played by an actor in his 40s, someone who would be older than Costner and who could thereby act as a father surrogate. Ray Liotta did not fit that criterion, but Robinson thought he would be a better fit for the part because he had the "sense of danger '' and ambiguity which Robinson wanted in the character. Burt Lancaster had originally turned down the part of Moonlight Graham, but changed his mind after a friend, who was also a baseball fan, told him that he had to work on the film.
Filming began on May 25, 1988. The shooting schedule was built around Costner 's availability because he would be leaving in August to film Revenge. Except for some weather delays and other time constraints, production rolled six days a week. The interior scenes were the first ones shot because the cornfield planted by the filmmakers was taking too long to grow. Irrigation had to be used to quickly grow the corn to Costner 's height. Primary shot locations were in Dubuque County, Iowa; a farm near Dyersville was used for the Kinsella home; an empty warehouse in Dubuque was used to build various interior sets. Galena, Illinois served as Moonlight Graham 's Chisholm, Minnesota. One week was spent on location shots in Boston, most notably Fenway Park.
Robinson, despite having a sufficient budget as well as the cast and crew he wanted, constantly felt tense and depressed during filming. He felt that he was under too much pressure to create an outstanding film, and that he was not doing justice to the original novel. Lawrence Gordon convinced him that the end product would be effective.
During a lunch with the Iowa Chamber of Commerce, Robinson broached his idea of a final scene in which headlights could be seen for miles along the horizon. The Chamber folks replied that it could be done and the shooting of the final scene became a community event. The film crew was hidden on the farm to make sure the aerial shots did not reveal them. Dyersville was then blacked out and local extras drove their vehicles to the field. In order to give the illusion of movement, the drivers were instructed to continuously switch between their low and high beams.
Scenes of the Kinsella farm were taken on the property of Don Lansing; some of the baseball field scenes were shot on the neighboring farm of Al Ameskamp. Because the shooting schedule was too short for grass to naturally grow, the experts on sod laying responsible for Dodger Stadium and the Rose Bowl were hired to create the baseball field. Part of the process involved painting the turf green.
After shooting, Ameskamp again grew corn on his property; Lansing maintained his as a tourist destination. He did not charge for admission or parking, deriving revenue solely from the souvenir shop. By the film 's twentieth anniversary, approximately 65,000 people visited annually. In July, 2010, the farm containing the "Field '' was listed as for sale. It was sold on October 31, 2011, to Go The Distance Baseball, LLC, for an undisclosed fee, believed to be around $5.4 million.
At first, James Horner was unsure if he could work on the film due to scheduling restrictions. Then he watched a rough cut and was so moved that he accepted the job of scoring it. Robinson had created a temp track which was disliked by Universal executives. When the announcement of Horner as composer was made, they felt more positive because they expected a big orchestral score, similar to Horner 's work for An American Tail. Horner, in contrast, liked the temporary score, finding it "quiet and kind of ghostly. '' He decided to follow the idea of the temp track, creating an atmospheric soundtrack which would "focus on the emotions ''. In addition to Horner 's score, portions of several pop songs are heard during the film. They are listed in the following order in the closing credits:
The character played by Burt Lancaster and Frank Whaley, Archibald "Moonlight '' Graham, is based on an actual baseball player with the same name. His character is largely true to life except for a few factual liberties taken for artistic reasons. For instance, the real Graham 's lone major league game occurred in June 1905, rather than on the final day of the 1922 season. The real Graham also died in 1965, as opposed to 1972 as the film depicts. In the film, Terence Mann interviews a number of people about Graham. The DVD special points out that the facts they gave him were taken from articles written about the real one.
Universal scheduled the film to open in the U.S. on April 21, 1989.It debuted in just a few theaters and was gradually released to more screens so that it would have a spot among the summer blockbusters. It ended up playing until December.
As of June 2017, review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes rates the film 86 %, based on 57 reviews with an average score of 7.9 out of 10. The consensus states: "Field of Dreams is sentimental, but in the best way; it 's a mix of fairy tale, baseball, and family togetherness. ''
In June 2008, after having polled over 1,500 people in the creative community, AFI revealed its "Ten Top Ten '' -- the best ten films in ten "classic '' American film genres. The film was acknowledged as the sixth best one in the fantasy genre.
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who won the battle of charleston in the revolutionary war | Siege of Charleston - wikipedia
British victory
Great Britain
Sir Henry Clinton Lord Cornwallis Alexander Leslie
Benjamin Lincoln William Moultrie James Hogun William Woodford Charles Cotesworth Pinckney Abraham Whipple
12,847 regulars and militia 4,500 sailors 6 ships of the line 8 frigates 4 armed galleys
6,577 regulars, sailors and militia 3 frigates 5 sloops 1 schooner 1 brig
The Siege of Charleston was a major engagement fought between March 29 to May 12, 1780 during the American Revolutionary War. The British, following the collapse of their northern strategy and their withdrawal from Philadelphia, shifted their focus to the American Southern Colonies.
After approximately six weeks of siege, Major General Benjamin Lincoln, commanding the Charleston garrison, surrendered his forces to the British, resulting in one of the worst American defeats of the war.
By late 1779, two major British strategic efforts had failed. An army invading from Quebec under John Burgoyne had surrendered to the Americans under Horatio Gates at the Battles of Saratoga, compelling the Kingdom of France and Spain to declare war on Great Britain in support of the Americans. Meanwhile, a strategic effort led by Sir William Howe to capture the Revolutionary capital of Philadelphia had met with limited success. Having replaced his superior as Commander - in - Chief of the American Station, Sir Henry Clinton withdrew all his forces back to New York City to reinforce the city against a possible Franco - American attack.
Stymied by the Fabian strategy adopted by George Washington, and, under increasing political pressure to deliver victory, the British turned to launching their "Southern Strategy '' for forcing a capitulation of the Americans. The British were persuaded that there was a strong Loyalist sentiment in the south. It was expected that these Loyalists would rise against the American Patriots in large numbers. The opening British move was the Capture of Savannah, Georgia in December 1778. After repulsing an assault on Savannah by a combined Franco - American force in October 1779, the British planned to capture Charleston, South Carolina, intending to use the city as a base for further operations in the southern colonies.
Sir Henry Clinton evacuated Newport, Rhode Island in Oct. 1779, and left the substantial garrison of New York City under the command of Wilhelm von Knyphausen. In December, the day after Christmas 1779, Clinton and his second in command Charles Cornwallis, sailed southward with 8,500 troops and 5,000 sailors on 90 troopships and 14 warships. After a very stormy voyage, the fleet anchored in Savannah River on 1 Feb. 1780. By 12 Feb., Clinton had landed his army 30 miles south of Charleston on Simmons Island. By 24 Feb., the British had crossed the Stono River onto James Island, and by 10 March, Lord Cornwallis had made it to the mainland. By 22 March, they had advanced to Middleton Place and Drayton Hall, and on 29 March 1780, crossed the Ashley River.
Cutting the city off from relief, Clinton began a siege of the city on April 1, 800 yards from the American fortifications located at today 's Marion Square. Whipple, deciding the bar was undefendable, ended up scuttling his fleet at the mouth of the Cooper River. Then Arbuthnot, on 8 April, brought his 14 vessels safely into the harbor, past the roaring guns of Fort Moultrie, the same day Woodford arrived with 750 Virginia Continentals.
In order to consolidate British control of the immediate area, Clinton dispatched Banastre Tarleton and Patrick Ferguson to capture Monck 's Corner on 14 April. On 18 April, Lt. Col. Lord Rawdon arrived with 2,500 men, including the 42nd Highlanders, the Hessian von Ditfurth Regiment, the Queen 's Rangers, Prince of Wales American Volunteers, and the Volunteers of Ireland. Charleston was then completely surrounded.
Governor John Rutledge escaped on 13 April, before Cornwallis crossed the Cooper River, and joined Webster in blocking escape from the left bank. On 21 April, Lincoln requested a surrender with "Honours of war '', which was rejected by Clinton. On 25 April, civilians led by Christopher Gadsden prevented any action on Lincoln 's part in withdrawing the Continental regiments. On 6 May, Tarleton won another engagement in the Battle of Lenud 's Ferry, while the British siege works had advanced far enough towards the Charleston fortifications to drain the canal in front.
On 7 May, Fort Moultrie surrendered without a fight. On May 8, Clinton called for Lincoln 's unconditional surrender, but Lincoln again attempted to negotiate for the honours of war. On May 11, Gadsden and other citizens asked Lincoln to surrender. While on the same day, the British fired heated shot into the city, burning several homes, compelling Lincoln to call for a parlay to negotiate terms for surrender. On May 12, Lincoln formally surrendered 3,371 men to the British.
When word reached the back - country, the American troops holding Ninety - Six and Camden also surrendered to the British.
Prison hulks awaited the majority of the 2,571 Continental prisoners, while parole was granted to the militia and civilians who promised not to take up arms. However, this also meant there no longer existed an American army in the South.
The British captured some 5,266 prisoners, 311 artillery pieces, 9,178 artillery rounds, 5,916 muskets, 33,000 rounds of ammunition, 15 Regimental colours, 49 ships and 120 boats, plus 376 barrels of flour, and large magazines of rum, rice and indigo. Following the surrender, the captured ordnance was brought to a powder magazine. A Hessian officer warned that some of the guns might still be loaded, but he was ignored. One prematurely fired, detonating 180 barrels of powder, further discharging 5,000 muskets in the magazine. The accident killed approximately 200 people and destroyed six houses. The prisoners of the siege were diverted to multiple locations, including prison shops, the old barracks where the College of Charleston is today, and the Old Exchange and Provost "Dungeon ''.
The defeat was a serious blow to the American cause. It was the largest surrender of an American force under arms, until the 1862 surrender of Union troops at Harper 's Ferry during the Antietam Campaign. The surrender left no substantial army in the South, and the colonies were wide open for a British advance. The British troops consolidated their hold, and had driven the remaining Continental Army troops from South Carolina consequent to the May 29 Battle of Waxhaws.
During their surrender the American forces were denied honours of war, leading General George Washington to deny the same to the British during their surrender at the Siege of Yorktown, with Washington saying "The same Honors will be granted to the Surrendering Army as were granted to the Garrison of Charles Town. ''
On June 5, Clinton sailed back to New York City, believing his presence necessary to defend against a potential Franco - American attack, leaving command of the southern theatre to Lord Cornwallis, with orders to reduce opposition in North Carolina. Though the effects of the surrender at Charleston was substantial, the British err in strategy soon became apparent. There was no popular uprising of Loyalists that the British command had been assured would happen, making control of the countryside difficult. Instead, resistance in South Carolina degenerated into a period of chaotic guerrilla warfare in the outlying areas.
The joint British naval - army forces were led overall by Sir Henry Clinton, with his subordinate, Lord Cornwallis as his second - in - command. The British regular troops were led by Brigadier General Alexander Leslie.
The ground and naval forces were composed thus:
The British naval forces that accompanied the invasion were commanded by Vice Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot, and were composed thus:
The Franco - American garrison of Charleston was overall led by Benjamin Lincoln. The Continental Army troops were nominally led by Brigadier General William Moultrie
The ground and naval forces were composed thus:
The Franco - American naval forces that accompanied the defence of the city were commanded by Commodore Abraham Whipple, and were composed thus:
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who is the nfl's all-time leading rusher | List of National Football League career rushing yards Leaders - wikipedia
This is a list of National Football League running backs by total career rushing yards. This list includes all running backs who have rushed for at least 10,000 yards.
Through Week 15 of 2017 season
Through Week 15 of 2017 season
Seven players have been recognized as having held the career rushing yards record in the NFL. Since reliable yardage statistics were not recorded prior to 1932, the first NFL player recognized as the career leader in rushing yards was Cliff Battles, who played from 1932 to 1937 for the Boston Braves / Boston Redskins / Washington Redskins. He led the NFL with 576 yards in 1932 and held on to the record throughout his career. Emmitt Smith has held the record since surpassing Walter Payton 's long - standing total in 2002.
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where is the house that was in practical magic | Practical Magic - wikipedia
Practical Magic is a 1998 American romantic comedy film based on the 1995 novel of the same name by Alice Hoffman. The film was directed by Griffin Dunne and stars Sandra Bullock, Nicole Kidman, Stockard Channing, Dianne Wiest, Aidan Quinn, and Goran Visnjic.
Bullock and Kidman play sisters Sally and Gillian Owens, who have always known they were different from each other. Raised by their aunts after their parents ' death, the sisters grew up in a household that was anything but typical -- their aunts fed them chocolate cake for breakfast and taught them the uses of practical magic. But the invocation of the Owens ' sorcery also carries a price -- some call it a curse: the men they fall in love with are doomed to an untimely death. Now adult women with very different personalities, the quiet Sally and the fiery Gillian must use all of their powers to fight the family curse and a swarm of supernatural forces that could take away all the Owens ' lives.
Maria Owens, a young witch, is exiled to Maria 's Island in Massachusetts with her unborn child after escaping her own execution when the rope meant to hang her, snaps instead, and she lands on her feet before the accusing townsfolk. When her lover does not come to rescue her, she desperately casts a spell upon herself to stop herself from ever falling in love again. The spell turns into a curse, affecting all the coming generations of women in the Owens family. In the present day, Gillian and Sally Owens, the most recent descendants of Maria Owens, are taken in by their maternal aunts Frances and Jet after the death of their parents. Sally is the more gifted of the two while Gillian 's talents are more in charm and persuasion, and both have been subject to ridicule during their youth. After witnessing their aunts cast a spell on a man for a woman who seems obsessed with having his love, Gillian decides to fall in love and Sally casts a true love spell to protect herself.
The sisters cast an oath to each other using blood from both of their hands and Gillian leaves for Los Angeles. Sally meets and marries Michael, a local produce seller. Years later, the two open their botanical shop Verbena and have two young daughters, Kylie and Antonia. Michael is killed after being hit by a truck. Devastated, Sally and her daughters return to the Owens home to live with the aunts, and realize that the aunts cast a spell so she would finally have something normal, not expecting Sally and Michael to fall in love and thus trigger the curse. Sally decides that she and her daughters will not perform magic. As Gillian begins a relationship with Jimmy Angelov in Orlando, she can feel Sally 's emotional state, and feeling that Sally needs her she drugs Jimmy to return to Massachusetts.
Gillian calls Sally to come and get her after Jimmy becomes abusive, but he kidnaps the sisters, forcing them to drive across the country. Sally puts belladonna into Jimmy 's tequila, inadvertently killing him, as he tries to strangle Gillian. The sisters get back home, then resurrect him using the forbidden spell from their aunts ' book of spells, but Jimmy attempts to kill Gillian again after being revived. Sally kills him again, and the sisters bury his remains in their home 's garden. Telltale signs begin occurring, indicating that the nieces did something wrong, yet they do not confess to their aunts when confronted. Frances and Jet take a leave of absence after giving Kylie and Antonia protection wards, and a message to pass on: "clean up your own mess! ''
State investigator Gary Hallett arrives from Tucson, Arizona in search of Jimmy, who is also a serial killer. As Gary begins to suspect Sally, Gillian, Kylie and Antonia create a potion to banish Gary; however, the girls realize he is the one described in Sally 's true love spell, and remove the potion. Later, Sally has Gary record her testimony and sees the letter she had once written Gillian, and realizes he must have read it more times than he had let on. Unable to deny their feelings for each other, they kiss and Sally realizes that he was there because of the spell she cast years earlier.
Sally discovers that Jimmy 's spirit has possessed Gillian 's body and Gary sees Jimmy 's spirit emerge. Jimmy attempts to kill Gary, reaching into his chest to arrest his heart, only to be hurt by his silver star - shaped badge and is temporarily exiled. Later, Sally tells Gary that he is there because of her spell and the feelings they have for each other are not real. Gary replies that curses are only true if one believes in them and reveals that he also wished for her, before returning to Tucson.
Jimmy possesses Gillian again and attempts to kill Sally before Frances and Jet return. Sally, realizing she must embrace magic to save her sister, asks the aid of the townswomen and they form a coven to exorcise Jimmy 's spirit. Sally makes them stop when she sees that the effort might kill Gillian. Getting inside the circle, Sally repeats her oath with Gillian, again slicing their palms to join their blood in promise. They are able to break the Owens curse, exorcising Jimmy 's spirit and allowing the coven to exile him permanently. After returning to Tucson, Gary clears the sisters of any suspicion of wrongdoing in Jimmy 's case, informing them via registered mail, and Sally is forced to come to a decision, encouraged by Gillian to take a risk for "the right guy. '' Echoing back to her original spell, Sally sends out a message via the wind, and in Arizona, Gary is greeted with buffeting winds. He returns to Massachusetts to be with Sally. The Owens women celebrate Halloween dressed up in witch costumes, and are embraced and welcomed by the townsfolk.
Practical Magic was partially filmed on an artificial set in California. The film 's producers said the house was a big part of the depiction of the Owens ' culture, so they knew they had to build a house to accurately depict this. They built it in Coupeville, Washington. They brought much of the set from California and placed it inside the house, but it still took almost a year to perfect the image of the house and the interior. The house used is owned by the Sundstrom Family and is located on San Juan Valley Road, San Juan Island. They built a replica of the outside of the house on the west side of San Juan Island so that it looked like the house was on the waterfront, but in actuality it is in the valley. They built the house in San Juan County Park but since the house was built only for this filming, it was torn down after the movie was released. Many of the small town scenes were filmed in downtown Coupeville, Washington, located on Whidbey Island.
According to Sandra Bullock in the DVD commentary, in the scene where the Owens women are drunk and slinging insults, the actresses actually got drunk on very bad tequila brought by Kidman. The cast also thinks that the supernatural elements of the house started to affect them; the cast and crew say that they have heard ghost noises while filming the coven scene at the end of the film. For the final scene with all of the townspeople at the Owens ' home, the entire population of the town where filming took place was invited to show up in costume and appear as townsfolk.
Composer Michael Nyman 's score to the movie was abruptly replaced with music by Alan Silvestri for the theatrical release. This last - minute change resulted in the release of two soundtracks, although as primarily a compilation album, only the two tracks of newly created material were changed. A 50 - track demo (the last two tracks being "Convening the Coven '' and "Maria Owens '') of Nyman 's score has been circulating among fans as a bootleg. The complete Nyman score runs 62: 30 and contains music that would later appear, in altered form, in Ravenous and The Actors, as well as a bit of his stepwise chord progression theme from Out of the Ruins / String Quartet No. 3 / Carrington / The End of the Affair / The Claim. "Convening the Coven '', though not "Maria Owens '', was subsequently reissued on The Very Best of Michael Nyman: Film Music 1980 -- 2001, and music that uses material related to this piece has not been used elsewhere.
Singer Stevie Nicks headlined the soundtrack 's published advertisements, promoting her songs "If You Ever Did Believe '' and a new recording of her song "Crystal '', both songs featuring Sheryl Crow on back - up vocals.
Practical Magic opened at # 1 with $13.1 million in ticket sales. The film went on to gross $68.3 million worldwide, less than its $75 million production budget.
Practical Magic received negative reviews from film critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 20 % approval rating, based on 55 reviews, with an average rating of 4.4 / 10 and the site 's consensus states: "Comedy, romance and horror mix with unsatisfying results. '' Another review aggregator, Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 1 -- 100 reviews from film critics, gives a score of 46 out of 100 based on reviews from 22 critics.
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave Practical Magic a negative review, calling it "a witch comedy so slapdash, plodding, and muddled it seems to have had a hex put on it. '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times said that the film "does n't seem sure what tone to adopt, veering uncertainly from horror to laughs to romance. ''
In 2004, Warner Bros. and CBS produced Sudbury, a television pilot written by Becky Hartman Edwards, starring Kim Delaney in the role played by Bullock in the film, and Jeri Ryan in the role played by Kidman. The series, named for the Sudbury, Massachusetts location of the novel and film, was not picked up.
In 2010, Warner Bros. and ABC Family attempted to develop a reboot television series.
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who won the nobel prize for economics in 2009 | List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economics - wikipedia
The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, officially known as The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel (Swedish: Sveriges riksbanks pris i ekonomisk vetenskap till Alfred Nobels minne), is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to researchers in the field of economic sciences. The first prize was awarded in 1969 to Ragnar Frisch and Jan Tinbergen. Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award that has varied throughout the years. In 1969, Frisch and Tinbergen were given a combined 375,000 SEK, which is equivalent to 2,871,041 SEK in December 2007. The award is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel 's death.
As of the awarding of the 2017 prize, 49 Nobel Memorial Prizes in Economic Sciences have been given to 79 individuals. Up to 2007, nine awards had been given for contributions to the field of macroeconomics, more than any other category. The institution with the most affiliated laureates in economic sciences is the University of Chicago, which has 29 affiliated laureates.
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who owns the boston red sox baseball team | John W. Henry - wikipedia
John William Henry II (born September 13, 1949) is an American businessman and investor and the founder of John W. Henry & Company, an investment management firm. He is the principal owner of The Boston Globe, the Boston Red Sox and Liverpool Football Club and co-owner of Roush Fenway Racing. In March 2006, Boston Magazine estimated Henry 's net worth at $ 1.1 billion but noted that his company had recently experienced difficulties. In November 2012, the company announced that it would stop managing clients ' money by the end of the year, and Henry confirmed that total assets under the firm 's management had fallen from $2.5 billion in 2006 to less than $100 million as of late 2012. As of July 2017, Forbes estimated his net worth to be $2.6 billion.
John William Henry II was born on September 13, 1949 in Quincy, Illinois. His parents were soybean farmers, and he split his time growing up between Illinois and Arkansas. His asthmatic condition at the age of 15 prompted his family to move to Apple Valley, California. After his graduation from Victor Valley High School in Victorville, he attended Victor Valley College, then the University of California (at Riverside, Irvine, and Los Angeles), where he majored in philosophy but did not graduate -- partly the result of performing on the road in two rock and roll bands, Elysian Fields and Hillary.
Henry started trading corn and soybean futures to learn the basics of hedging the price risk of holding an inventory of these commodities, whether in storage or out in the field. In 1976, a commodities broker at Reynolds Securities asked him to advise other farmers, but he declined. After spending a summer in Norway with his first wife, Mai, Henry developed a mechanical trend following method for managing a futures trading account. He tested his trend - reversal method -- which was never out of the market but always held a position (either long or short) in every one of the markets in the account 's "basket '' of commodities -- "using his own money '' (in the words of his marketing literature of 1983). When that test proved successful, he founded John W. Henry & Company in 1981, opened a small office across the street from the airport in Irvine, California, and began marketing his management to the largest commodity brokerage firms in America. That proved so successful by 1983 that he moved to considerably larger quarters at Fashion Island in Newport Beach. In 1989, Henry moved to Westport, Connecticut. Two years later, Henry established a second office in Boca Raton.
JWH was established in 1981 and began taking retail clients in 1982.
The firm 's management methods make mechanical, non-discretionary trading decisions in response to systematic determinations of reversals in each market 's direction, with the explicit intention of precluding not only human emotion, but also any subjective evaluation of factors outside of price behavior (such as the so - called fundamentals), to trigger each decision to be long or short each market, or not. On November 9, 2012, John W. Henry & Co., the financial trading firm owned by the Red Sox owner, informed clients it would stop managing their assets on December 31, 2012.
John W. Henry grew up a fan of the St. Louis Cardinals, especially their star Stan Musial. After acquiring his fortune, his first foray into professional sports was in purchasing a Minor League Baseball team, the Tucson Toros of the Pacific Coast League, in 1989. He was also one of the founders of the Senior Professional Baseball Association, a winter league in Florida composed of retired major league players. Henry co-owned the winning team in the 1989 -- 90 season, the West Palm Beach Tropics, managed by former Boston Red Sox "Impossible Dream '' (1967) manager, Dick Williams. Henry sold his interest in 1990, and the league went out of business the following year. In 1990, Henry negotiated to purchase the Orlando Magic NBA team, for a short time was the lead general for an expansion team which became the Colorado Rockies, and headed a group attempting to land an NHL expansion bid in Florida, which would eventually be given to Phil and Tony Esposito, who created the Tampa Bay Lightning. Subsequently, Henry negotiated to buy the Miami Heat and later the New Jersey Nets.
Henry entered Major League Baseball with his purchase of a small interest in the New York Yankees in 1991. Henry became the sole owner of the Florida Marlins in 1999, purchasing the club from Wayne Huizenga for a reported $158 million. In January 2002, Henry sold the Marlins in a multi-franchise deal to Jeffrey Loria, then owner of the Montreal Expos (now the Washington Nationals).
Following his sale of the Marlins, Henry led a purchase of the Boston Red Sox with partners Tom Werner and the New York Times Company from the Yawkey Trust headed by John Harrington. Henry, as principal owner and Werner, as chairman, assembled a front office team headed up by Larry Lucchino with the express goal of "breaking the Curse of the Bambino. '' He also hired baseball sabermetrics pioneer Bill James, whose work became widely known following the publication of Moneyball in 2003. Henry accomplished his championship goal in the 2004 World Series, against his former childhood favorite Cardinals, and again in 2013. The team also won the 2007 World Series against a franchise with which Henry had pre-expansion involvement, the Rockies. Henry is also responsible for saving Fenway Park from the wrecking ball. The previous Red Sox owners had planned on building a new Fenway Park next door, but Henry chose to keep and renovate (including new seats over the Green Monster) the current Fenway Park, which celebrated its centennial in 2012.
Henry was in the news in August 2017, when he said the team would lead a campaign to change the name of Yawkey Way, where Fenway Park is located. The Red Sox had been the last team in Major League Baseball to integrate, and Henry said, "I am still haunted by what went on here a long time before we arrived. '' The change was approved by the City of Boston in April 2018, and the name reverted to Jersey Street in May 2018.
Henry also enjoys playing baseball simulations, including Out of the Park Baseball.
Henry and Werner established New England Sports Ventures in 2001. The company owns the Boston Red Sox, 80 % of the New England Sports Network (which also carries the NHL 's Boston Bruins), Fenway Park, Fenway Sports Management (a sports marketing and management firm), various real estate properties surrounding Fenway Park, and as of 2010, Liverpool Football Club
In 2009, the company made its first foray into European sports with an unsuccessful bid for the French Ligue 1 club Olympique de Marseille.
In 2010, New England Sports Ventures changed its name to Fenway Sports Group.
In October 2010 the Fenway Sports Group took over Liverpool F.C. As of May 2011, Tom Hicks and George N. Gillett, Jr. announced that they would sue for at least $1.6 billion for the "extraordinary swindle '' they suffered. On February 26, 2012 Liverpool won the 2012 Football League Cup Final at Wembley Stadium, beating Cardiff City 3 -- 2 on penalties after the game finished 1 -- 1 after 90 minutes and 2 -- 2 after extra time. This was Liverpool 's first trophy since the 2006 FA Cup Final win over West Ham United on May 13, 2006 at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff. In May 2012 he made a controversial decision by firing manager and club icon Kenny Dalglish citing the club 's poor league results. This was regarded as a poor decision by some football pundits such as Dalglish 's friend Alan Hansen, given Dalglish 's success in lifting the club from four points above the relegation zone to a cup win. In July 2012, after successfully persuading Brendan Rodgers to become the new manager, John Henry stated the reason behind parting company with Dalglish had not been due to failing to win the FA Cup, nor the Suarez case (as assumed by Manchester United manager, Sir Alex Ferguson), but due to the club 's poor league performance in the second half of the 2011 - 12 season.
Despite almost taking Liverpool to their first Premier League title in over 20 years during the 13 - 14 season, poor performance in the subsequent season saw Henry sack Brendan Rodgers as Liverpool manager on October 4, 2015. On October 8, 2015, Henry appointed Jurgen Klopp as the new manager of Liverpool F.C. The move was praised by Liverpool supporters and seen as a show of Henry 's ambition for the club.
In 2007, Henry 's Fenway Sports Group bought a 50 % stake in Jack Roush 's Roush Fenway Racing stock car racing team. Driver Matt Kenseth won the Auto Club 500 at the California Speedway in February 2007 marking Henry 's first win as an owner. In February 2009 the team won their first Daytona 500 with Matt Kenseth. Henry is currently listed as the owner of the # 17 Ford driven by Sprint Cup driver Ricky Stenhouse, Jr...
In September 2004 Henry and David Kaemmer founded iRacing.com Motorsport Simulations for developing a racing simulation service aimed at both real - world racers and racing simulator enthusiasts. The service was launched in August 2008.
In the predawn hours of Saturday, August 3, 2013, both The Boston Globe and The New York Times carried stories on their web sites reporting that Henry had agreed to purchase The Globe, the Worcester (Mass.) Telegram & Gazette and related New England media properties for $70 million in cash. The Globe 's story described Henry as "a personally shy businessman with a history of bold bets. '' The Times story quoted Times spokesperson Eileen Murphy as confirming the sale deal.
Both stories included a statement from Henry: "The Boston Globe 's award - winning journalism as well as its rich history and tradition of excellence have established it as one of the most well - respected media companies in the country. '' In the reported statement, Henry cited "the essential role that its journalists and employees play in Boston, throughout New England, and beyond. ''
The stories noted that Henry had initially been among a group of partners who had joined in bidding on The Globe properties, but ended up agreeing to acquire them individually. However, The Times story reported him saying: "In coming days there will be announcements concerning those joining me in this community commitment and effort. ''
At the time of the purchase, a conservative San Diego media mogul alleged that he outbid Henry for The Globe and that the management of The New York Times did not accept his offer because they preferred to sell to someone who would continue the "liberal '' editorial slant of The Globe.
Henry was briefly portrayed by Arliss Howard in the 2011 film Moneyball which follows Oakland Athletics general manager Billy Beane and his quest to build a winning team in 2002. Towards the end of the film, Beane travels to Boston 's Fenway Park where he meets with Henry, who wants Beane to become the new GM of the Red Sox. The film notes that Beane turned down a five - year, $12.5 million contract with Boston and returned to Oakland, but adds that the Red Sox, despite failing to hire Beane, did implement many of his "Moneyball '' ideas and would go on to win the 2004 World Series, marking the first Red Sox championship in 86 years.
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who plays jeff's father on rules of engagement | Sara Rue - wikipedia
Sara Rue (born January 26, 1979) is an American actress. She is known for her performances as Carmen Ferrara on Popular, and as Claude Casey on Less than Perfect. In 2011, she hosted The CW reality series Shedding for the Wedding. She had a recurring role in the comedy Rules of Engagement, where she played Brenda, the softball teammate and good friend of Jeff Bingham. She also had a regular role as Kim on the short - lived ABC sitcom Malibu Country, and appeared in the main cast of the TV Land comedy series Impastor.
Sara Rue was born Sara Schlackman in New York City, the daughter of Joan Schlackman (née Rue), a municipal employee and former actress, and Marc Schlackman, a stage manager. The elder of two daughters, she was raised in New York, where her parents were active in Broadway theatre. She is of Jewish descent.
Rue began her acting career at the age of nine, appearing in the 1988 film Rocket Gibraltar as Kevin Spacey 's daughter. Rue played a very young Roseanne in the first meeting of Roseanne and Dan at a dance on the TV show Roseanne.
She starred in the comedy Grand, before going on to work on Phenom; Minor Adjustments; Zoe, Duncan, Jack & Jane; ER; The Division and Popular. From 2002 to 2006, she starred in the main role of Claude Casey on the ABC sitcom Less than Perfect. She has appeared in several films: A Map of the World, Ca n't Hardly Wait, A Slipping Down Life, Idiocracy, Gypsy 83 and had a small part as a babysitter in Gore Verbinski 's adaptation of The Ring. She impressed director Michael Bay so much that a role was written into the movie Pearl Harbor for her.
Rue appeared in the 2006 Mike Judge film Idiocracy, in the role of the Attorney General. In 2006, Rue starred in the stage musical Little Egypt with French Stewart, Jenny O'Hara and Gregg Henry at the Matrix Theatre in Los Angeles. She guest - starred in Two and a Half Men as Berta 's pregnant youngest daughter. She had a stint on the CBS sitcom The Big Bang Theory, playing Leonard Hofstadter 's physician girlfriend Dr Stephanie Barnett for three episodes. Her first appearance on the show occurred on November 17, 2008. In 2009, Rue appeared in the movies Man Maid and For Christ 's Sake. She starred on the short - lived 2009 series Eastwick, based on the novel and movie The Witches of Eastwick.
In October 2010, Rue joined the cast of Rules of Engagement in a recurring role as Brenda, Jeff and Audrey 's new surrogate.
It was announced in December, 2011 that Rue would be writing and starring in a new show on The CW called Poseurs, about a young woman named Lucy whose life is upended when her fiancé moves out and her fresh - from - rehab collegiate best friend, Alexandra, moves in. The two friends pose as a lesbian couple and actually get married in order to stay in the nice apartment building that only allows married couples.
Rue starred in the ABC show Malibu Country as Reba McEntire 's upbeat trophy wife neighbor, Kim Sallinger. Malibu Country ran for one season (2012 -- 13). Rue had the title role of Deb Dorfman in the movie Dorfman in Love (2012).
Since 2014, Rue has appeared in a recurring role as Candace on the CBS sitcom Mom. In 2015, she was cast as main character Dora in the TV Land comedy Impastor. The show was cancelled after its second season in 2016. Rue has a recurring role as Nancy Granville, one of the highbrow Westport, CT moms on ABC 's American Housewife.
In 2017, Rue was cast in the recurring role of Olivia Caliban on the second season of the Netflix comedy drama series A Series of Unfortunate Events.
Rue married director / writer / producer Mischa Livingstone in 2001, and they divorced in 2007. Rue married teacher Kevin Price on May 21, 2011, in a traditional Jewish wedding. She gave birth to their first child, daughter Talulah Rue Price, on February 9, 2013. She and Price adopted a second daughter, Adelaide Rue Price, in November 2016.
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what is the meaning of the song here comes goodbye | Here Comes Goodbye - wikipedia
"Here Comes Goodbye '' is a song written by American Idol season 6 finalist Chris Sligh and Clint Lagerberg and recorded by American country music group Rascal Flatts, who released it in January 2009 as the first from their album Unstoppable and the twenty - third single of their career. This song debuted at number 29 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts dated for February 7, 2009 and became their 10th number one on the chart dated April 25, 2009. It was nominated for a Grammy Award for "Best Country Performance By A Duo Or Group With Vocals '' in 2010.
Lagerberg came up with the opening line "I can hear the truck tires coming up the gravel road '' after thinking about his childhood home in Maine, which had a long gravel driveway. Sligh then decided to take the line and make it into a song where "something 's coming, and it 's not good. '' The opening piano melody came from a melody that Sligh played when Lagerberg was checking on Sligh 's daughter, and decided to use it because they thought that it would capture the listener 's attention.
"Here Comes Goodbye '' is a power ballad beginning with piano accompaniment. The lyric explains the male narrator 's realization that his lover is about to leave him. A string section and electric guitar accompaniment backs the song from the second verse onward, and an electric guitar solo precedes the bridge.
The song has received mixed reviews from music critics. Jim Malec of The 9513 gave it a "thumbs down '' rating. His review criticized it for "having an overly dramatic production in contrast to its underdeveloped lyrics '', which he thought "made the song sound awkward ''. He describing Gary LeVox ' vocals as "atypically restrained andricher and considerably less whiney (sic) than usual '' in the first verse but said that his delivery became "hilarious in its urgency '' as the song progressed. Blake Boldt of Country Universe gave it a C rating, also thinking that LeVox "gracefully handle (d) '' the first verse but "tumbl (ed) into operatic tendencies toward the end. '' He also considered it a "copycat '' of the band 's 2006 single "What Hurts the Most ''.
Matt Bjorke of Roughstock gave a more favorable review. Although he referred to the song 's structure as a "well - worn power ballad path '', he considered LeVox ' performance "nuanced '' and overall thought that the song was "better than anything on the trio 's previous album Still Feels Good. ''
The music video was directed by Shaun Silva. The video features a family visiting a graveyard of a lost father. The man is accompanied by a small boy, waiting to take him to heaven, who is revealed to be the daughter 's son, whose grave is side by side with her father 's. Throughout the video, the band 's members are shown singing the song in a snowy backdrop. The video was voted number 38 on GAC 's Top 50 Videos of the Year list.
Rascal Flatts released "Here Comes Goodbye '' to radio on January 20, 2009. It is the group 's twenty - third single release overall, and the lead - off single to their sixth studio album, Unstoppable. The song debuted at number 29 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts dated for February 7, 2009 and reached number 1 on the chart dated April 25, 2009. To claim the top spot, "Here Comes Goodbye '' jumped 6 - 1, the biggest climb to Number One since Taylor Swift sent "Our Song '' 6 - 1 on the chart dated December 22, 2007. "Here Comes Goodbye '' is also the group 's tenth Number One.
Aaron Kelly covered the song in the top 24 round of the ninth season of American Idol.
Brynn Cartelli covered the song in the Knockout Rounds of the fourteenth season of The Voice.
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where did the world war 1 take place | World War I - wikipedia
Allied victory
World War I (WWI or WW1), also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history. Over nine million combatants and seven million civilians died as a result of the war (including the victims of a number of genocides), a casualty rate exacerbated by the belligerents ' technological and industrial sophistication, and the tactical stalemate caused by gruelling trench warfare. It was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. Unresolved rivalries still extant at the end of the conflict contributed to the start of the Second World War only twenty - one years later.
The war drew in all the world 's economic great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the Russian Empire, the French Third Republic, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland) versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria - Hungary. Although Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance alongside Germany and Austria - Hungary, it did not join the Central Powers, as Austria - Hungary had taken the offensive against the terms of the alliance. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war: Italy, Japan and the United States joined the Allies, while the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers.
The trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria - Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a diplomatic crisis when Austria - Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia, and entangled international alliances formed over the previous decades were invoked. Within weeks the major powers were at war, and the conflict soon spread around the world.
On 28 July the Austro - Hungarians declared war on Serbia and on the next day Russia declared a partial mobilization, followed by a general mobilization on 30 July. Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Being outnumbered on the Eastern Front, Russia urged its Triple Entente ally France to open up a second front in the west. Over forty years earlier in 1870, the Franco - Prussian War had ended the Second French Empire and France had ceded the provinces of Alsace - Lorraine to a unified Germany. Bitterness over that defeat and the determination to retake Alsace - Lorraine made the acceptance of Russia 's plea for help an easy choice, so France began full mobilisation on 1 August and, on 3 August, Germany declared war on France. The border between France and Germany was heavily fortified on both sides so, according to the Schlieffen Plan, Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France from the north, leading the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany on 4 August due to their violation of Belgian neutrality. After the German march on Paris was halted in the Battle of the Marne, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army led a successful campaign against the Austro - Hungarians, but the Germans stopped its invasion of East Prussia in the battles of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. In November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers; Romania joined the Allies in 1916, as did the United States in 1917.
The Russian government collapsed in March 1917, and a revolution in November followed by a further military defeat brought the Russians to terms with the Central Powers via the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk, which granted the Germans a significant victory. After a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. On 4 November 1918, the Austro - Hungarian empire agreed to an armistice, and Germany, which had its own trouble with revolutionaries, agreed to an armistice on 11 November 1918, ending the war in victory for the Allies.
By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro - Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist. National borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germany 's colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four (Britain, France, the United States and Italy) imposed their terms in a series of treaties. The League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation (particularly in Germany) eventually contributed to the start of World War II.
From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, the First World War was called simply the World War or the Great War and thereafter the First World War or World War I. At the time, it was also sometimes called "the war to end war '' or "the war to end all wars '' due to its then - unparalleled scale and devastation.
In Canada, Maclean 's magazine in October 1914 wrote, "Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War. '' During the interwar period (1918 -- 1939), the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English - speaking countries.
The term "First World War '' was first used in September 1914 by the German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel, who claimed that "there is no doubt that the course and character of the feared ' European War '... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word, '' citing a wire service report in The Indianapolis Star on 20 September 1914. After the onset of the Second World War in 1939, the terms World War I or the First World War became standard, with British and Canadian historians favouring the First World War, and Americans World War I.
In the introduction to his book, Waterloo in 100 Objects, historian Gareth Glover states: "This opening statement will cause some bewilderment to many who have grown up with the appellation of the Great War firmly applied to the 1914 -- 18 First World War. But to anyone living before 1918, the title of the Great War was applied to the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars in which Britain fought France almost continuously for twenty - two years from 1793 to 1815. '' In 1911, the historian John Holland Rose published a book titled William Pitt and the Great War.
During the 19th century, the major European powers went to great lengths to maintain a balance of power throughout Europe, resulting in the existence of a complex network of political and military alliances throughout the continent by 1900. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria. When Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors (German: Dreikaiserbund) between the monarchs of Austria - Hungary, Russia and Germany. This agreement failed because Austria - Hungary and Russia could not agree over Balkan policy, leaving Germany and Austria - Hungary in an alliance formed in 1879, called the Dual Alliance. This was seen as a method of countering Russian influence in the Balkans as the Ottoman Empire continued to weaken. This alliance expanded in 1882 to include Italy, in what became the Triple Alliance.
Bismarck had especially worked to hold Russia at Germany 's side in an effort to avoid a two - front war with France and Russia. When Wilhelm II ascended to the throne as German Emperor (Kaiser), Bismarck was compelled to retire and his system of alliances was gradually de-emphasised. For example, the Kaiser refused, in 1890, to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia. Two years later, the Franco - Russian Alliance was signed to counteract the force of the Triple Alliance. In 1904, Britain signed a series of agreements with France, the Entente Cordiale, and in 1907, Britain and Russia signed the Anglo - Russian Convention. While these agreements did not formally ally Britain with France or Russia, they made British entry into any future conflict involving France or Russia a possibility, and the system of interlocking bilateral agreements became known as the Triple Entente.
German industrial and economic power had grown greatly after unification and the foundation of the Empire in 1871 following the Franco - Prussian War. From the mid-1890s on, the government of Wilhelm II used this base to devote significant economic resources for building up the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial German Navy), established by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, in rivalry with the British Royal Navy for world naval supremacy. As a result, each nation strove to out - build the other in capital ships. With the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906, the British Empire expanded on its significant advantage over its German rival. The arms race between Britain and Germany eventually extended to the rest of Europe, with all the major powers devoting their industrial base to producing the equipment and weapons necessary for a pan-European conflict. Between 1908 and 1913, the military spending of the European powers increased by 50 %.
Austria - Hungary precipitated the Bosnian crisis of 1908 -- 1909 by officially annexing the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878. This angered the Kingdom of Serbia and its patron, the Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russian Empire. Russian political manoeuvring in the region destabilised peace accords that were already fracturing in the Balkans, which came to be known as the "powder keg of Europe. '' In 1912 and 1913, the First Balkan War was fought between the Balkan League and the fracturing Ottoman Empire. The resulting Treaty of London further shrank the Ottoman Empire, creating an independent Albanian state while enlarging the territorial holdings of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece. When Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913, it lost most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece, and Southern Dobruja to Romania in the 33 - day Second Balkan War, further destabilising the region. The Great Powers were able to keep these Balkan conflicts contained, but the next one would spread throughout Europe and beyond.
On 28 June 1914, Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand visited the Bosnian capital, Sarajevo. A group of six assassins (Cvjetko Popović, Gavrilo Princip, Muhamed Mehmedbašić, Nedeljko Čabrinović, Trifko Grabež, Vaso Čubrilović) from the Yugoslavist group Mlada Bosna, supplied by the Serbian Black Hand, had gathered on the street where the Archduke 's motorcade would pass, with the intention of assassinating him. Čabrinović threw a grenade at the car, but missed. Some nearby were injured by the blast, but Ferdinand 's convoy carried on. The other assassins failed to act as the cars drove past them.
About an hour later, when Ferdinand was returning from a visit at the Sarajevo Hospital with those wounded in the assassination attempt, the convoy took a wrong turn into a street where, by coincidence, Princip stood. With a pistol, Princip shot and killed Ferdinand and his wife Sophie. The reaction among the people in Austria was mild, almost indifferent. As historian Zbyněk Zeman later wrote, "the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On Sunday and Monday (28 and 29 June), the crowds in Vienna listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened. '' Nevertheless, the political impact of the murder of the heir to the throne was significant and has been described as a "9 / 11 effect '', a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna. And although they were not personally close, the Emperor Franz Joseph was profoundly shocked and upset.
The Austro - Hungarian authorities encouraged the subsequent anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo, in which Bosnian Croats and Bosniaks killed two Bosnian Serbs and damaged numerous Serb - owned buildings. Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organized outside Sarajevo, in other cities in Austro - Hungarian - controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro - Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned and extradited approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A predominantly Bosniak special militia known as the Schutzkorps was established and carried out the persecution of Serbs.
The assassination led to a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria - Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain, called the July Crisis. Believing correctly that Serbian officials (especially the officers of the Black Hand) were involved in the plot to murder the Archduke, and wanting to finally end Serbian interference in Bosnia, Austria - Hungary delivered to Serbia on 23 July the July Ultimatum, a series of ten demands that were made intentionally unacceptable, in an effort to provoke a war with Serbia. Serbia decreed general mobilization on the 25th. Serbia accepted all of the terms of the ultimatum except for article six, which demanded that Austrian delegates be allowed in Serbia for the purpose of participation in the investigation into the assassination.. Following this, Austria broke off diplomatic relations with Serbia and, the next day ordered a partial mobilization. Finally, on 28 July 1914, Austria - Hungary declared war on Serbia.
On 29 July, Russia, in support of Serbia, declared partial mobilization against Austria - Hungary. On the 30th, Russia ordered general mobilization. German Chancellor Bethmann - Hollweg waited until the 31st for an appropriate response, when Germany declared a "state of danger of war ''. Kaiser Wilhelm II asked his cousin, Tsar Nicolas II, to suspend the Russian general mobilization. When he refused, Germany issued an ultimatum demanding its mobilization be stopped, and a commitment not to support Serbia. Another was sent to France, asking her not to support Russia if it were to come to the defence of Serbia. On 1 August, after the Russian response, Germany mobilized and declared war on Russia. This also led to the general mobilization in Austria - Hungary on 4 August.
The German government issued demands to France that it remain neutral as they had to decide which deployment plan to implement, it being difficult if not impossible to change the deployment whilst it was underway. The modified German Schlieffen Plan, Aufmarsch II West, would deploy 80 % of the army in the west, and Aufmarsch I Ost and Aufmarsch II Ost would deploy 60 % in the west and 40 % in the east as this was the maximum that the East Prussian railway infrastructure could carry. The French did not respond, but sent a mixed message by ordering their troops to withdraw 10 km (6 mi) from the border to avoid any incidents, and at the same time ordered the mobilisation of her reserves. Germany responded by mobilising its own reserves and implementing Aufmarsch II West. On 1 August Wilhelm ordered General Moltke to "march the whole of the... army to the East '' after he had been wrongly informed that the British would remain neutral as long as France was not attacked. The General convinced the Kaiser that improvising the redeployment of a million men was unthinkable and that making it possible for the French to attack the Germans "in the rear '' might prove disastrous. Yet Wilhelm insisted that the German army should not march into Luxembourg until he received a telegram sent by his cousin George V, who made it clear that there had been a misunderstanding. Eventually the Kaiser told Molkte, "Now you can do what you want. '' Germany attacked Luxembourg on 2 August, and on 3 August declared war on France. On 4 August, after Belgium refused to permit German troops to cross its borders into France, Germany declared war on Belgium as well. Britain declared war on Germany at 19: 00 UTC on 4 August 1914 (effective from 11 pm), following an "unsatisfactory reply '' to the British ultimatum that Belgium must be kept neutral.
The strategy of the Central Powers suffered from miscommunication. Germany had promised to support Austria - Hungary 's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro - Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Germany, however, envisioned Austria - Hungary directing most of its troops against Russia, while Germany dealt with France. This confusion forced the Austro - Hungarian Army to divide its forces between the Russian and Serbian fronts.
Austria invaded and fought the Serbian army at the Battle of Cer and Battle of Kolubara beginning on 12 August. Over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were thrown back with heavy losses, which marked the first major Allied victories of the war and dashed Austro - Hungarian hopes of a swift victory. As a result, Austria had to keep sizable forces on the Serbian front, weakening its efforts against Russia. Serbia 's defeat of the Austro - Hungarian invasion of 1914 has been called one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century.
At the outbreak of World War I, 80 % of the German army was deployed as seven field armies in the west according to the plan Aufmarsch II West. However, they were then assigned to execute the retired deployment plan Aufmarsch I West, also known as the Schlieffen Plan. This would march German armies through northern Belgium and into France, in an attempt to encircle the French army and then breach the ' second defensive area ' of the fortresses of Verdun and Paris and the Marne river.
Aufmarsch I West was one of four deployment plans available to the German General Staff in 1914. Each plan favoured certain operations, but did not specify exactly how those operations were to be carried out, leaving the commanding officers to carry those out at their own initiative and with minimal oversight. Aufmarsch I West, designed for a one - front war with France, had been retired once it became clear it was irrelevant to the wars Germany could expect to face; both Russia and Britain were expected to help France, and there was no possibility of Italian nor Austro - Hungarian troops being available for operations against France. But despite its unsuitability, and the availability of more sensible and decisive options, it retained a certain allure due to its offensive nature and the pessimism of pre-war thinking, which expected offensive operations to be short - lived, costly in casualties, and unlikely to be decisive. Accordingly, the Aufmarsch II West deployment was changed for the offensive of 1914, despite its unrealistic goals and the insufficient forces Germany had available for decisive success. Moltke took Schlieffen 's plan and modified the deployment of forces on the western front by reducing the right wing, the one to advance through Belgium, from 85 % to 70 %. In the end, the Schlieffen plan was so radically modified by Moltke, that it could be more properly called the Moltke Plan.
The plan called for the right flank of the German advance to bypass the French armies concentrated on the Franco - German border, defeat the French forces closer to Luxembourg and Belgium and move south to Paris. Initially the Germans were successful, particularly in the Battle of the Frontiers (14 -- 24 August). By 12 September, the French, with assistance from the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), halted the German advance east of Paris at the First Battle of the Marne (5 -- 12 September) and pushed the German forces back some 50 km (31 mi). The French offensive into southern Alsace, launched on 20 August with the Battle of Mulhouse, had limited success.
In the east, Russia invaded with two armies. In response, Germany rapidly moved the 8th Field Army from its previous role as reserve for the invasion of France to East Prussia by rail across the German Empire. This army, led by general Paul von Hindenburg, defeated Russia in a series of battles collectively known as the First Battle of Tannenberg (17 August -- 2 September). While the Russian invasion failed, it caused the diversion of German troops to the east, allowing the Allied victory at the First Battle of the Marne. This meant Germany failed to achieve its objective of avoiding a long, two - front war. However, the German army had fought its way into a good defensive position inside France and effectively halved France 's supply of coal. It had also killed or permanently crippled 230,000 more French and British troops than it itself had lost. Despite this, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of a more decisive outcome.
New Zealand occupied German Samoa (later Western Samoa) on 30 August 1914. On 11 September, the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island of Neu Pommern (later New Britain), which formed part of German New Guinea. On 28 October, the German cruiser SMS Emden sank the Russian cruiser Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang. Japan seized Germany 's Micronesian colonies and, after the Siege of Tsingtao, the German coaling port of Qingdao on the Chinese Shandong peninsula. As Vienna refused to withdraw the Austro - Hungarian cruiser SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth from Tsingtao, Japan declared war not only on Germany, but also on Austria - Hungary; the ship participated in the defense of Tsingtao where it was sunk in November 1914. Within a few months, the Allied forces had seized all the German territories in the Pacific; only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea remained.
Some of the first clashes of the war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6 -- 7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorate of Togoland and Kamerun. On 10 August, German forces in South - West Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces in German East Africa, led by Colonel Paul von Lettow - Vorbeck, fought a guerrilla warfare campaign during World War I and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe.
Germany attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage, instigating uprisings in India, and sending a mission that urged Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central powers. However, contrary to British fears of a revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw an unprecedented outpouring of loyalty and goodwill towards Britain. Indian political leaders from the Indian National Congress and other groups were eager to support the British war effort, since they believed that strong support for the war effort would further the cause of Indian Home Rule. The Indian Army in fact outnumbered the British Army at the beginning of the war; about 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while the central government and the princely states sent large supplies of food, money, and ammunition. In all, 140,000 men served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East. Casualties of Indian soldiers totalled 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded during World War I. The suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self - government to India after the end of hostilities, bred disillusionment and fuelled the campaign for full independence that would be led by Mohandas K. Gandhi and others.
Military tactics developed before World War I failed to keep pace with advances in technology and had become obsolete. These advances had allowed the creation of strong defensive systems, which out - of - date military tactics could not break through for most of the war. Barbed wire was a significant hindrance to massed infantry advances, while artillery, vastly more lethal than in the 1870s, coupled with machine guns, made crossing open ground extremely difficult. Commanders on both sides failed to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, however, technology began to produce new offensive weapons, such as gas warfare and the tank.
Just after the First Battle of the Marne (5 -- 12 September 1914), Entente and German forces repeatedly attempted manoeuvring to the north in an effort to outflank each other: this series of manoeuvres became known as the "Race to the Sea ''. When these outflanking efforts failed, the opposing forces soon found themselves facing an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from Lorraine to Belgium 's coast. Britain and France sought to take the offensive, while Germany defended the occupied territories. Consequently, German trenches were much better constructed than those of their enemy; Anglo - French trenches were only intended to be "temporary '' before their forces broke through the German defences.
Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at the Second Battle of Ypres, the Germans (violating the Hague Convention) used chlorine gas for the first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides, and though it never proved a decisive, battle - winning weapon, poison gas became one of the most - feared and best - remembered horrors of the war. Tanks were developed by Britain and France, and were first used in combat by the British during the Battle of Flers -- Courcelette (part of the Battle of the Somme) on 15 September 1916, with only partial success. However, their effectiveness would grow as the war progressed; the Allies built tanks in large numbers, whilst the Germans employed only a few of their own design, supplemented by captured Allied tanks.
Neither side proved able to deliver a decisive blow for the next two years. Throughout 1915 -- 17, the British Empire and France suffered more casualties than Germany, because of both the strategic and tactical stances chosen by the sides. Strategically, while the Germans only mounted one major offensive, the Allies made several attempts to break through the German lines.
In February 1916 the Germans attacked the French defensive positions at Verdun. Lasting until December 1916, the battle saw initial German gains, before French counter-attacks returned matters to near their starting point. Casualties were greater for the French, but the Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000 to 975,000 casualties suffered between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self - sacrifice.
The Battle of the Somme was an Anglo - French offensive of July to November 1916. The opening of this offensive (1 July 1916) saw the British Army endure the bloodiest day in its history, suffering 57,470 casualties, including 19,240 dead, on the first day alone. The entire Somme offensive cost the British Army some 420,000 casualties. The French suffered another estimated 200,000 casualties and the Germans an estimated 500,000.
Protracted action at Verdun throughout 1916, combined with the bloodletting at the Somme, brought the exhausted French army to the brink of collapse. Futile attempts using frontal assault came at a high price for both the British and the French and led to the widespread French Army Mutinies, after the failure of the costly Nivelle Offensive of April -- May 1917. The concurrent British Battle of Arras was more limited in scope, and more successful, although ultimately of little strategic value. A smaller part of the Arras offensive, the capture of Vimy Ridge by the Canadian Corps, became highly significant to that country: the idea that Canada 's national identity was born out of the battle is an opinion widely held in military and general histories of Canada.
The last large - scale offensive of this period was a British attack (with French support) at Passchendaele (July -- November 1917). This offensive opened with great promise for the Allies, before bogging down in the October mud. Casualties, though disputed, were roughly equal, at some 200,000 -- 400,000 per side.
These years of trench warfare in the West saw no major exchanges of territory and, as a result, are often thought of as static and unchanging. However, throughout this period, British, French, and German tactics constantly evolved to meet new battlefield challenges.
At the start of the war, the German Empire had cruisers scattered across the globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping. The British Royal Navy systematically hunted them down, though not without some embarrassment from its inability to protect Allied shipping. For example, the German detached light cruiser SMS Emden, part of the East - Asia squadron stationed at Qingdao, seized or destroyed 15 merchantmen, as well as sinking a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. However, most of the German East - Asia squadron -- consisting of the armoured cruisers SMS Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, light cruisers Nürnberg and Leipzig and two transport ships -- did not have orders to raid shipping and was instead underway to Germany when it met British warships. The German flotilla and Dresden sank two armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel, but was virtually destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914, with only Dresden and a few auxiliaries escaping, but after the Battle of Más a Tierra these too had been destroyed or interned.
Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a naval blockade of Germany. The strategy proved effective, cutting off vital military and civilian supplies, although this blockade violated accepted international law codified by several international agreements of the past two centuries. Britain mined international waters to prevent any ships from entering entire sections of ocean, causing danger to even neutral ships. Since there was limited response to this tactic of the British, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare.
The Battle of Jutland (German: Skagerrakschlacht, or "Battle of the Skagerrak '') developed into the largest naval battle of the war. It was the only full - scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The Kaiserliche Marine 's High Seas Fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer, fought the Royal Navy 's Grand Fleet, led by Admiral Sir John Jellicoe. The engagement was a stand off, as the Germans were outmanoeuvred by the larger British fleet, but managed to escape and inflicted more damage to the British fleet than they received. Strategically, however, the British asserted their control of the sea, and the bulk of the German surface fleet remained confined to port for the duration of the war.
German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond the protection of the "cruiser rules '', which demanded warning and movement of crews to "a place of safety '' (a standard that lifeboats did not meet). Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, realising that the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the United States could transport a large army overseas, but after initial successes eventually failed to do so.
The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling in convoys, escorted by destroyers. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after the hydrophone and depth charges were introduced, accompanying destroyers could attack a submerged submarine with some hope of success. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies, since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled. The solution to the delays was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys. The U-boats had sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at a cost of 199 submarines. World War I also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as blimps for antisubmarine patrol.
Faced with Russia, Austria - Hungary could spare only one - third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses, the Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital, Belgrade. A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first ten months of 1915, Austria - Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro - Hungarian diplomats, however, scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia. The Austro - Hungarian provinces of Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia provided troops for Austria - Hungary, in the fight with Serbia, Russia and Italy. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia.
Bulgaria declared war on Serbia, 12 October and joined in the attack by the Austro - Hungarian army under Mackensen 's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northern Albania. The Serbs suffered defeat in the Battle of Kosovo. Montenegro covered the Serbian retreat towards the Adriatic coast in the Battle of Mojkovac in 6 -- 7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated by ship to Greece. After conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro - Hungary and Bulgaria.
In late 1915, a Franco - British force landed at Salonica in Greece, to offer assistance and to pressure its government to declare war against the Central Powers. However, the pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos before the Allied expeditionary force arrived. The friction between the King of Greece and the Allies continued to accumulate with the National Schism, which effectively divided Greece between regions still loyal to the king and the new provisional government of Venizelos in Salonica. After intense negotiations and an armed confrontation in Athens between Allied and royalist forces (an incident known as Noemvriana), the King of Greece resigned and his second son Alexander took his place; Greece then officially joined the war on the side of the Allies.
In the beginning, the Macedonian Front was mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November 1916 following the costly Monastir Offensive, which brought stabilization of the front.
Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918, after most of the German and Austro - Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians were defeated at the Battle of Dobro Pole and by 25 September 1918 British and French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria proper as the Bulgarian army collapsed. Bulgaria capitulated four days later, on 29 September 1918. The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold the line, but these forces were far too weak to reestablish a front.
The disappearance of the Macedonian Front meant that the road to Budapest and Vienna was now opened to Allied forces. Hindenburg and Ludendorff concluded that the strategic and operational balance had now shifted decidedly against the Central Powers and, a day after the Bulgarian collapse, insisted on an immediate peace settlement.
The Ottomans threatened Russia 's Caucasian territories and Britain 's communications with India via the Suez Canal. As the conflict progressed, the Ottoman Empire took advantage of the European powers ' preoccupation with the war and conducted large - scale ethnic cleansing of the indigenous Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian Christian populations, known as the Armenian Genocide, Greek Genocide, and Assyrian Genocide.
The British and French opened overseas fronts with the Gallipoli (1915) and Mesopotamian campaigns (1914). In Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully repelled the British, French, and Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs). In Mesopotamia, by contrast, after the defeat of the British defenders in the Siege of Kut by the Ottomans (1915 -- 16), British Imperial forces reorganised and captured Baghdad in March 1917. The British were aided in Mesopotamia by local Arab and Assyrian tribesmen, while the Ottomans employed local Kurdish and Turcoman tribes.
Further to the west, the Suez Canal was defended from Ottoman attacks in 1915 and 1916; in August, a German and Ottoman force was defeated at the Battle of Romani by the ANZAC Mounted Division and the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division. Following this victory, an Egyptian Expeditionary Force advanced across the Sinai Peninsula, pushing Ottoman forces back in the Battle of Magdhaba in December and the Battle of Rafa on the border between the Egyptian Sinai and Ottoman Palestine in January 1917.
Russian armies generally saw success in the Caucasus. Enver Pasha, supreme commander of the Ottoman armed forces, was ambitious and dreamed of re-conquering central Asia and areas that had been lost to Russia previously. He was, however, a poor commander. He launched an offensive against the Russians in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops, insisting on a frontal attack against mountainous Russian positions in winter. He lost 86 % of his force at the Battle of Sarikamish.
The Ottoman Empire, with German support, invaded Persia (modern Iran) in December 1914 in an effort to cut off British and Russian access to petroleum reservoirs around Baku near the Caspian Sea. Persia, ostensibly neutral, had long been under the spheres of British and Russian influence. The Ottomans and Germans were aided by Kurdish and Azeri forces, together with a large number of major Iranian tribes, such as the Qashqai, Tangistanis, Luristanis, and Khamseh, while the Russians and British had the support of Armenian and Assyrian forces. The Persian Campaign was to last until 1918 and end in failure for the Ottomans and their allies. However the Russian withdrawal from the war in 1917 led to Armenian and Assyrian forces, who had hitherto inflicted a series of defeats upon the forces of the Ottomans and their allies, being cut off from supply lines, outnumbered, outgunned and isolated, forcing them to fight and flee towards British lines in northern Mesopotamia.
General Yudenich, the Russian commander from 1915 to 1916, drove the Turks out of most of the southern Caucasus with a string of victories. In 1917, Russian Grand Duke Nicholas assumed command of the Caucasus front. Nicholas planned a railway from Russian Georgia to the conquered territories, so that fresh supplies could be brought up for a new offensive in 1917. However, in March 1917 (February in the pre-revolutionary Russian calendar), the Czar abdicated in the course of the February Revolution and the Russian Caucasus Army began to fall apart.
The Arab Revolt, instigated by the Arab bureau of the British Foreign Office, started June 1916 with the Battle of Mecca, led by Sherif Hussein of Mecca, and ended with the Ottoman surrender of Damascus. Fakhri Pasha, the Ottoman commander of Medina, resisted for more than two and half years during the Siege of Medina before surrendering.
The Senussi tribe, along the border of Italian Libya and British Egypt, incited and armed by the Turks, waged a small - scale guerrilla war against Allied troops. The British were forced to dispatch 12,000 troops to oppose them in the Senussi Campaign. Their rebellion was finally crushed in mid-1916.
Total Allied casualties on the Ottoman fronts amounted 650,000 men. Total Ottoman casualties were 725,000 (325,000 dead and 400,000 wounded).
Italy had been allied with the German and Austro - Hungarian Empires since 1882 as part of the Triple Alliance. However, the nation had its own designs on Austrian territory in Trentino, the Austrian Littoral, Fiume (Rijeka) and Dalmatia. Rome had a secret 1902 pact with France, effectively nullifying its part in the Triple Alliance. At the start of hostilities, Italy refused to commit troops, arguing that the Triple Alliance was defensive and that Austria - Hungary was an aggressor. The Austro - Hungarian government began negotiations to secure Italian neutrality, offering the French colony of Tunisia in return. The Allies made a counter-offer in which Italy would receive the Southern Tyrol, Austrian Littoral and territory on the Dalmatian coast after the defeat of Austria - Hungary. This was formalised by the Treaty of London. Further encouraged by the Allied invasion of Turkey in April 1915, Italy joined the Triple Entente and declared war on Austria - Hungary on 23 May. Fifteen months later, Italy declared war on Germany.
The Italians had numerical superiority but this advantage was lost, not only because of the difficult terrain in which the fighting took place, but also because of the strategies and tactics employed. Field Marshal Luigi Cadorna, a staunch proponent of the frontal assault, had dreams of breaking into the Slovenian plateau, taking Ljubljana and threatening Vienna.
On the Trentino front, the Austro - Hungarians took advantage of the mountainous terrain, which favoured the defender. After an initial strategic retreat, the front remained largely unchanged, while Austrian Kaiserschützen and Standschützen engaged Italian Alpini in bitter hand - to - hand combat throughout the summer. The Austro - Hungarians counterattacked in the Altopiano of Asiago, towards Verona and Padua, in the spring of 1916 (Strafexpedition), but made little progress.
Beginning in 1915, the Italians under Cadorna mounted eleven offensives on the Isonzo front along the Isonzo (Soča) River, northeast of Trieste. All eleven offensives were repelled by the Austro - Hungarians, who held the higher ground. In the summer of 1916, after the Battle of Doberdò, the Italians captured the town of Gorizia. After this minor victory, the front remained static for over a year, despite several Italian offensives, centred on the Banjšice and Karst Plateau east of Gorizia.
The Central Powers launched a crushing offensive on 26 October 1917, spearheaded by the Germans. They achieved a victory at Caporetto (Kobarid). The Italian Army was routed and retreated more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) to reorganise, stabilising the front at the Piave River. Since the Italian Army had suffered heavy losses in the Battle of Caporetto, the Italian Government called to arms the so - called ' 99 Boys (Ragazzi del ' 99): that is, all males born 1899 and prior, and so were 18 years old or older. In 1918, the Austro - Hungarians failed to break through in a series of battles on the Piave and were finally decisively defeated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto in October of that year. On 1 November, the Italian Navy destroyed much of the Austro - Hungarian fleet stationed in Pula, preventing it from being handed over to the new State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. On 3 November, the Italians invaded Trieste from the sea. On the same day, the Armistice of Villa Giusti was signed. By mid-November 1918, the Italian military occupied the entire former Austrian Littoral and had seized control of the portion of Dalmatia that had been guaranteed to Italy by the London Pact. By the end of hostilities in November 1918, Admiral Enrico Millo declared himself Italy 's Governor of Dalmatia. Austria - Hungary surrendered on 11 November 1918.
Romania had been allied with the Central Powers since 1882. When the war began, however, it declared its neutrality, arguing that because Austria - Hungary had itself declared war on Serbia, Romania was under no obligation to join the war. When the Entente Powers promised Romania Transylvania and Banat, large territories of eastern Hungary, in exchange for Romania 's declaring war on the Central Powers, the Romanian government renounced its neutrality. On 27 August 1916, the Romanian Army launched an attack against Austria - Hungary, with limited Russian support. The Romanian offensive was initially successful, against the Austro - Hungarian troops in Transylvania, but a counterattack by the forces of the Central Powers drove them back. As a result of the Battle of Bucharest, the Central Powers occupied Bucharest on 6 December 1916. Fighting in Moldova continued in 1917, resulting in a costly stalemate for the Central Powers. Russian withdrawal from the war in late 1917 as a result of the October Revolution meant that Romania was forced to sign an armistice with the Central Powers on 9 December 1917.
In January 1918, Romanian forces established control over Bessarabia as the Russian Army abandoned the province. Although a treaty was signed by the Romanian and the Bolshevik Russian governments following talks between 5 and 9 March 1918 on the withdrawal of Romanian forces from Bessarabia within two months, on 27 March 1918 Romania attached Bessarabia to its territory, formally based on a resolution passed by the local assembly of that territory on its unification with Romania.
Romania officially made peace with the Central Powers by signing the Treaty of Bucharest on 7 May 1918. Under that treaty, Romania was obliged to end the war with the Central Powers and make small territorial concessions to Austria - Hungary, ceding control of some passes in the Carpathian Mountains, and to grant oil concessions to Germany. In exchange, the Central Powers recognised the sovereignty of Romania over Bessarabia. The treaty was renounced in October 1918 by the Alexandru Marghiloman government, and Romania nominally re-entered the war on 10 November 1918. The next day, the Treaty of Bucharest was nullified by the terms of the Armistice of Compiègne. Total Romanian deaths from 1914 to 1918, military and civilian, within contemporary borders, were estimated at 748,000.
While the Western Front had reached stalemate, the war continued in East Europe. Initial Russian plans called for simultaneous invasions of Austrian Galicia and East Prussia. Although Russia 's initial advance into Galicia was largely successful, it was driven back from East Prussia by Hindenburg and Ludendorff at the battles of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes in August and September 1914. Russia 's less developed industrial base and ineffective military leadership were instrumental in the events that unfolded. By the spring of 1915, the Russians had retreated to Galicia, and, in May, the Central Powers achieved a remarkable breakthrough on Poland 's southern frontiers. On 5 August, they captured Warsaw and forced the Russians to withdraw from Poland.
Despite Russia 's success with the June 1916 Brusilov Offensive in eastern Galicia, dissatisfaction with the Russian government 's conduct of the war grew. The offensive 's success was undermined by the reluctance of other generals to commit their forces to support the victory. Allied and Russian forces were revived only temporarily by Romania 's entry into the war on 27 August. German forces came to the aid of embattled Austro - Hungarian units in Transylvania while a German - Bulgarian force attacked from the south, and Bucharest was retaken by the Central Powers on 6 December. Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia, as the Tsar remained at the front. Empress Alexandra 's increasingly incompetent rule drew protests and resulted in the murder of her favourite, Rasputin, at the end of 1916.
In March 1917, demonstrations in Petrograd culminated in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the appointment of a weak Provisional Government, which shared power with the Petrograd Soviet socialists. This arrangement led to confusion and chaos both at the front and at home. The army became increasingly ineffective.
Following the Tsar 's abdication, Vladimir Lenin was ushered by train from Switzerland into Russia 16 April 1917. He was financed by Jacob Schiff. Discontent and the weaknesses of the Provisional Government led to a rise in the popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Lenin, which demanded an immediate end to the war. The Revolution of November was followed in December by an armistice and negotiations with Germany. At first, the Bolsheviks refused the German terms, but when German troops began marching across Ukraine unopposed, the new government acceded to the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk on 3 March 1918. The treaty ceded vast territories, including Finland, the Baltic provinces, parts of Poland and Ukraine to the Central Powers. Despite this enormous apparent German success, the manpower required for German occupation of former Russian territory may have contributed to the failure of the Spring Offensive and secured relatively little food or other materiel for the Central Powers war effort.
With the adoption of the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk, the Entente no longer existed. The Allied powers led a small - scale invasion of Russia, partly to stop Germany from exploiting Russian resources, and to a lesser extent, to support the "Whites '' (as opposed to the "Reds '') in the Russian Civil War. Allied troops landed in Arkhangelsk and in Vladivostok as part of the North Russia Intervention.
The Czechoslovak Legion fought with the Entente; their goal was to win support for the independence of Czechoslovakia. The Legion in Russia was established in September 1914, in December 1917 in France (including volunteers from America) and in April 1918 in Italy. Czechoslovak Legion troops defeated the Austro - Hungarian army at the Ukrainian village of Zborov, in July 1917. After this success, the number of Czechoslovak legionaries increased, as well as Czechoslovak military power. In the Battle of Bakhmach, the Legion defeated the Germans and forced them to make a truce.
In Russia, they were heavily involved in the Russian Civil War, siding with the Whites against the Bolsheviks, at times controlling most of the Trans - Siberian railway and conquering all the major cities of Siberia. The presence of the Czechoslovak Legion near Yekaterinburg appears to have been one of the motivations for the Bolshevik execution of the Tsar and his family in July 1918. Legionaries arrived less than a week afterwards and captured the city. Because Russia 's European ports were not safe, the corps was evacuated by a long detour via the port of Vladivostok. The last transport was the American ship Heffron in September 1920.
In December 1916, after ten brutal months of the Battle of Verdun and a successful offensive against Romania, the Germans attempted to negotiate a peace with the Allies. Soon after, the U.S. President, Woodrow Wilson, attempted to intervene as a peacemaker, asking in a note for both sides to state their demands. Lloyd George 's War Cabinet considered the German offer to be a ploy to create divisions amongst the Allies. After initial outrage and much deliberation, they took Wilson 's note as a separate effort, signalling that the United States was on the verge of entering the war against Germany following the "submarine outrages ''. While the Allies debated a response to Wilson 's offer, the Germans chose to rebuff it in favour of "a direct exchange of views ''. Learning of the German response, the Allied governments were free to make clear demands in their response of 14 January. They sought restoration of damages, the evacuation of occupied territories, reparations for France, Russia and Romania, and a recognition of the principle of nationalities. This included the liberation of Italians, Slavs, Romanians, Czecho - Slovaks, and the creation of a "free and united Poland ''. On the question of security, the Allies sought guarantees that would prevent or limit future wars, complete with sanctions, as a condition of any peace settlement. The negotiations failed and the Entente powers rejected the German offer, because Germany did not state any specific proposals. The Entente powers stated to Wilson that they would not start peace negotiations until the Central powers evacuated all occupied Allied territories and provided indemnities for all damage that had been done.
Events of 1917 proved decisive in ending the war, although their effects were not fully felt until 1918.
The British naval blockade began to have a serious impact on Germany. In response, in February 1917, the German General Staff convinced Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann - Hollweg to declare unrestricted submarine warfare, with the goal of starving Britain out of the war. German planners estimated that unrestricted submarine warfare would cost Britain a monthly shipping loss of 600,000 tons. The General Staff acknowledged that the policy would almost certainly bring the United States into the conflict, but calculated that British shipping losses would be so high that they would be forced to sue for peace after 5 to 6 months, before American intervention could make an impact. In reality, tonnage sunk rose above 500,000 tons per month from February to July. It peaked at 860,000 tons in April. After July, the newly re-introduced convoy system became effective in reducing the U-boat threat. Britain was safe from starvation, while German industrial output fell and the United States joined the war far earlier than Germany had anticipated.
On 3 May 1917, during the Nivelle Offensive, the French 2nd Colonial Division, veterans of the Battle of Verdun, refused orders, arriving drunk and without their weapons. Their officers lacked the means to punish an entire division, and harsh measures were not immediately implemented. The French Army Mutinies eventually spread to a further 54 French divisions and saw 20,000 men desert. However, appeals to patriotism and duty, as well as mass arrests and trials, encouraged the soldiers to return to defend their trenches, although the French soldiers refused to participate in further offensive action. Robert Nivelle was removed from command by 15 May, replaced by General Philippe Pétain, who suspended bloody large - scale attacks.
The victory of the Central Powers at the Battle of Caporetto led the Allies to convene the Rapallo Conference at which they formed the Supreme War Council to coordinate planning. Previously, British and French armies had operated under separate commands.
In December, the Central Powers signed an armistice with Russia, thus freeing large numbers of German troops for use in the west. With German reinforcements and new American troops pouring in, the outcome was to be decided on the Western Front. The Central Powers knew that they could not win a protracted war, but they held high hopes for success based on a final quick offensive. Furthermore, both sides became increasingly fearful of social unrest and revolution in Europe. Thus, both sides urgently sought a decisive victory.
In 1917, Emperor Charles I of Austria secretly attempted separate peace negotiations with Clemenceau, through his wife 's brother Sixtus in Belgium as an intermediary, without the knowledge of Germany. Italy opposed the proposals. When the negotiations failed, his attempt was revealed to Germany, resulting in a diplomatic catastrophe.
In March and April 1917, at the First and Second Battles of Gaza, German and Ottoman forces stopped the advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, which had begun in August 1916 at the Battle of Romani. At the end of October, the Sinai and Palestine Campaign resumed, when General Edmund Allenby 's XXth Corps, XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps won the Battle of Beersheba. Two Ottoman armies were defeated a few weeks later at the Battle of Mughar Ridge and, early in December, Jerusalem was captured following another Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Jerusalem (1917). About this time, Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein was relieved of his duties as the Eighth Army 's commander, replaced by Djevad Pasha, and a few months later the commander of the Ottoman Army in Palestine, Erich von Falkenhayn, was replaced by Otto Liman von Sanders.
In early 1918, the front line was extended and the Jordan Valley was occupied, following the First Transjordan and the Second Transjordan attack by British Empire forces in March and April 1918. In March, most of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force 's British infantry and Yeomanry cavalry were sent to the Western Front as a consequence of the Spring Offensive. They were replaced by Indian Army units. During several months of reorganisation and training of the summer, a number of attacks were carried out on sections of the Ottoman front line. These pushed the front line north to more advantageous positions for the Entente in preparation for an attack and to acclimatise the newly arrived Indian Army infantry. It was not until the middle of September that the integrated force was ready for large - scale operations.
The reorganised Egyptian Expeditionary Force, with an additional mounted division, broke Ottoman forces at the Battle of Megiddo in September 1918. In two days the British and Indian infantry, supported by a creeping barrage, broke the Ottoman front line and captured the headquarters of the Eighth Army (Ottoman Empire) at Tulkarm, the continuous trench lines at Tabsor, Arara and the Seventh Army (Ottoman Empire) headquarters at Nablus. The Desert Mounted Corps rode through the break in the front line created by the infantry and, during virtually continuous operations by Australian Light Horse, British mounted Yeomanry, Indian Lancers and New Zealand Mounted Rifle brigades in the Jezreel Valley, they captured Nazareth, Afulah and Beisan, Jenin, along with Haifa on the Mediterranean coast and Daraa east of the Jordan River on the Hejaz railway. Samakh and Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee, were captured on the way northwards to Damascus. Meanwhile, Chaytor 's Force of Australian light horse, New Zealand mounted rifles, Indian, British West Indies and Jewish infantry captured the crossings of the Jordan River, Es Salt, Amman and at Ziza most of the Fourth Army (Ottoman Empire). The Armistice of Mudros, signed at the end of October, ended hostilities with the Ottoman Empire when fighting was continuing north of Aleppo.
On or shortly before 15 August 1917 Pope Benedict XV made a peace proposal suggesting:
At the outbreak of the war, the United States pursued a policy of non-intervention, avoiding conflict while trying to broker a peace. When the German U-boat U-20 sank the British liner RMS Lusitania on 7 May 1915 with 128 Americans among the dead, President Woodrow Wilson insisted that "America is too proud to fight '' but demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships. Germany complied. Wilson unsuccessfully tried to mediate a settlement. However, he also repeatedly warned that the United States would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare, in violation of international law. Former president Theodore Roosevelt denounced German acts as "piracy ''. Wilson was narrowly reelected in 1916 as his supporters emphasized "he kept us out of war ''.
In January 1917, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare, realizing it would mean American entry. The German Foreign Minister, in the Zimmermann Telegram, invited Mexico to join the war as Germany 's ally against the United States. In return, the Germans would finance Mexico 's war and help it recover the territories of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. The United Kingdom intercepted the message and presented it to the U.S. embassy in the U.K. From there it made its way to President Wilson who released the Zimmermann note to the public, and Americans saw it as casus belli. Wilson called on antiwar elements to end all wars, by winning this one and eliminating militarism from the globe. He argued that the war was so important that the U.S. had to have a voice in the peace conference. After the sinking of seven U.S. merchant ships by submarines and the publication of the Zimmermann telegram, Wilson called for war on Germany, which the U.S. Congress declared on 6 April 1917.
The United States was never formally a member of the Allies but became a self - styled "Associated Power ''. The United States had a small army, but, after the passage of the Selective Service Act, it drafted 2.8 million men, and, by summer 1918, was sending 10,000 fresh soldiers to France every day. In 1917, the U.S. Congress granted U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans to allow them to be drafted to participate in World War I, as part of the Jones -- Shafroth Act. German General Staff assumptions that it would be able to defeat the British and French forces before American troops reinforced them were proven incorrect.
The United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join with the British Grand Fleet, destroyers to Queenstown, Ireland, and submarines to help guard convoys. Several regiments of U.S. Marines were also dispatched to France. The British and French wanted American units used to reinforce their troops already on the battle lines and not waste scarce shipping on bringing over supplies. General John J. Pershing, American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) commander, refused to break up American units to be used as filler material. As an exception, he did allow African - American combat regiments to be used in French divisions. The Harlem Hellfighters fought as part of the French 16th Division, and earned a unit Croix de Guerre for their actions at Château - Thierry, Belleau Wood, and Sechault. AEF doctrine called for the use of frontal assaults, which had long since been discarded by British Empire and French commanders due to the large loss of life that resulted.
Ludendorff drew up plans (codenamed Operation Michael) for the 1918 offensive on the Western Front. The Spring Offensive sought to divide the British and French forces with a series of feints and advances. The German leadership hoped to end the war before significant U.S. forces arrived. The operation commenced on 21 March 1918, with an attack on British forces near Saint - Quentin. German forces achieved an unprecedented advance of 60 kilometres (37 mi).
British and French trenches were penetrated using novel infiltration tactics, also named Hutier tactics, after General Oskar von Hutier, by specially trained units called stormtroopers. Previously, attacks had been characterised by long artillery bombardments and massed assaults. However, in the Spring Offensive of 1918, Ludendorff used artillery only briefly and infiltrated small groups of infantry at weak points. They attacked command and logistics areas and bypassed points of serious resistance. More heavily armed infantry then destroyed these isolated positions. This German success relied greatly on the element of surprise.
The front moved to within 120 kilometres (75 mi) of Paris. Three heavy Krupp railway guns fired 183 shells on the capital, causing many Parisians to flee. The initial offensive was so successful that Kaiser Wilhelm II declared 24 March a national holiday. Many Germans thought victory was near. After heavy fighting, however, the offensive was halted. Lacking tanks or motorised artillery, the Germans were unable to consolidate their gains. The problems of re-supply were also exacerbated by increasing distances that now stretched over terrain that was shell - torn and often impassable to traffic.
General Foch pressed to use the arriving American troops as individual replacements, whereas Pershing sought to field American units as an independent force. These units were assigned to the depleted French and British Empire commands on 28 March. A Supreme War Council of Allied forces was created at the Doullens Conference on 5 November 1917. General Foch was appointed as supreme commander of the Allied forces. Haig, Petain, and Pershing retained tactical control of their respective armies; Foch assumed a coordinating rather than a directing role, and the British, French, and U.S. commands operated largely independently.
Following Operation Michael, Germany launched Operation Georgette against the northern English Channel ports. The Allies halted the drive after limited territorial gains by Germany. The German Army to the south then conducted Operations Blücher and Yorck, pushing broadly towards Paris. Germany launched Operation Marne (Second Battle of the Marne) 15 July, in an attempt to encircle Reims. The resulting counterattack, which started the Hundred Days Offensive, marked the first successful Allied offensive of the war.
By 20 July, the Germans had retreated across the Marne to their starting lines, having achieved little, and the German Army never regained the initiative. German casualties between March and April 1918 were 270,000, including many highly trained storm troopers.
Meanwhile, Germany was falling apart at home. Anti-war marches became frequent and morale in the army fell. Industrial output was half the 1913 levels.
In the late spring of 1918, three new states were formed in the South Caucasus: the First Republic of Armenia, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, and the Democratic Republic of Georgia, which declared their independence from the Russian Empire. Two other minor entities were established, the Centrocaspian Dictatorship and South West Caucasian Republic (the former was liquidated by Azerbaijan in the autumn of 1918 and the latter by a joint Armenian - British task force in early 1919). With the withdrawal of the Russian armies from the Caucasus front in the winter of 1917 -- 18, the three major republics braced for an imminent Ottoman advance, which commenced in the early months of 1918. Solidarity was briefly maintained when the Transcaucasian Federative Republic was created in the spring of 1918, but this collapsed in May, when the Georgians asked for and received protection from Germany and the Azerbaijanis concluded a treaty with the Ottoman Empire that was more akin to a military alliance. Armenia was left to fend for itself and struggled for five months against the threat of a full - fledged occupation by the Ottoman Turks before defeating them at the Battle of Sardarabad.
The Allied counteroffensive, known as the Hundred Days Offensive, began on 8 August 1918, with the Battle of Amiens. The battle involved over 400 tanks and 120,000 British, Dominion, and French troops, and by the end of its first day a gap 24 kilometres (15 mi) long had been created in the German lines. The defenders displayed a marked collapse in morale, causing Ludendorff to refer to this day as the "Black Day of the German army ''. After an advance as far as 23 kilometres (14 mi), German resistance stiffened, and the battle was concluded on 12 August.
Rather than continuing the Amiens battle past the point of initial success, as had been done so many times in the past, the Allies shifted their attention elsewhere. Allied leaders had now realised that to continue an attack after resistance had hardened was a waste of lives, and it was better to turn a line than to try to roll over it. They began to undertake attacks in quick order to take advantage of successful advances on the flanks, then broke them off when each attack lost its initial impetus.
British and Dominion forces launched the next phase of the campaign with the Battle of Albert on 21 August. The assault was widened by French and then further British forces in the following days. During the last week of August the Allied pressure along a 110 - kilometre (68 mi) front against the enemy was heavy and unrelenting. From German accounts, "Each day was spent in bloody fighting against an ever and again on - storming enemy, and nights passed without sleep in retirements to new lines. ''
Faced with these advances, on 2 September the German Supreme Army Command issued orders to withdraw to the Hindenburg Line in the south. This ceded without a fight the salient seized the previous April. According to Ludendorff "We had to admit the necessity... to withdraw the entire front from the Scarpe to the Vesle.
September saw the Allies advance to the Hindenburg Line in the north and centre. The Germans continued to fight strong rear - guard actions and launched numerous counterattacks on lost positions, but only a few succeeded, and those only temporarily. Contested towns, villages, heights, and trenches in the screening positions and outposts of the Hindenburg Line continued to fall to the Allies, with the BEF alone taking 30,441 prisoners in the last week of September. On 24 September an assault by both the British and French came within 3 kilometres (2 mi) of St. Quentin. The Germans had now retreated to positions along or behind the Hindenburg Line.
In nearly four weeks of fighting beginning on 8 August, over 100,000 German prisoners were taken. As of "The Black Day of the German Army '', the German High Command realised that the war was lost and made attempts to reach a satisfactory end. The day after that battle, Ludendorff said: "We can not win the war any more, but we must not lose it either. '' On 11 August he offered his resignation to the Kaiser, who refused it, replying, "I see that we must strike a balance. We have nearly reached the limit of our powers of resistance. The war must be ended. '' On 13 August, at Spa, Hindenburg, Ludendorff, the Chancellor, and Foreign Minister Hintz agreed that the war could not be ended militarily and, on the following day, the German Crown Council decided that victory in the field was now most improbable. Austria and Hungary warned that they could only continue the war until December, and Ludendorff recommended immediate peace negotiations. Prince Rupprecht warned Prince Max of Baden: "Our military situation has deteriorated so rapidly that I no longer believe we can hold out over the winter; it is even possible that a catastrophe will come earlier. '' On 10 September Hindenburg urged peace moves to Emperor Charles of Austria, and Germany appealed to the Netherlands for mediation. On 14 September Austria sent a note to all belligerents and neutrals suggesting a meeting for peace talks on neutral soil, and on 15 September Germany made a peace offer to Belgium. Both peace offers were rejected, and on 24 September Supreme Army Command informed the leaders in Berlin that armistice talks were inevitable.
The final assault on the Hindenburg Line began with the Meuse - Argonne Offensive, launched by French and American troops on 26 September. The following week, cooperating French and American units broke through in Champagne at the Battle of Blanc Mont Ridge, forcing the Germans off the commanding heights, and closing towards the Belgian frontier. On 8 October the line was pierced again by British and Dominion troops at the Battle of Cambrai. The German army had to shorten its front and use the Dutch frontier as an anchor to fight rear - guard actions as it fell back towards Germany.
When Bulgaria signed a separate armistice on 29 September, Ludendorff, having been under great stress for months, suffered something similar to a breakdown. It was evident that Germany could no longer mount a successful defence.
News of Germany 's impending military defeat spread throughout the German armed forces. The threat of mutiny was rife. Admiral Reinhard Scheer and Ludendorff decided to launch a last attempt to restore the "valour '' of the German Navy. Knowing the government of Prince Maximilian of Baden would veto any such action, Ludendorff decided not to inform him. Nonetheless, word of the impending assault reached sailors at Kiel. Many, refusing to be part of a naval offensive, which they believed to be suicidal, rebelled and were arrested. Ludendorff took the blame; the Kaiser dismissed him on 26 October. The collapse of the Balkans meant that Germany was about to lose its main supplies of oil and food. Its reserves had been used up, even as U.S. troops kept arriving at the rate of 10,000 per day. The Americans supplied more than 80 % of Allied oil during the war, and there was no shortage.
With the military faltering and with widespread loss of confidence in the Kaiser, Germany moved towards surrender. Prince Maximilian of Baden took charge of a new government as Chancellor of Germany to negotiate with the Allies. Negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the hope that he would offer better terms than the British and French. Wilson demanded a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary control over the German military. There was no resistance when the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann on 9 November declared Germany to be a republic. The Kaiser, kings and other hereditary rulers all were removed from power and Wilhelm fled to exile in the Netherlands. Imperial Germany was dead; a new Germany had been born as the Weimar Republic.
The collapse of the Central Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice, on 29 September 1918 at Saloniki. On 30 October, the Ottoman Empire capitulated, signing the Armistice of Mudros.
On 24 October, the Italians began a push that rapidly recovered territory lost after the Battle of Caporetto. This culminated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, which marked the end of the Austro - Hungarian Army as an effective fighting force. The offensive also triggered the disintegration of the Austro - Hungarian Empire. During the last week of October, declarations of independence were made in Budapest, Prague, and Zagreb. On 29 October, the imperial authorities asked Italy for an armistice, but the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, Udine, and Trieste. On 3 November, Austria - Hungary sent a flag of truce to ask for an armistice (Armistice of Villa Giusti). The terms, arranged by telegraph with the Allied Authorities in Paris, were communicated to the Austrian commander and accepted. The Armistice with Austria was signed in the Villa Giusti, near Padua, on 3 November. Austria and Hungary signed separate armistices following the overthrow of the Habsburg Monarchy. In the following days the Italian Army occupied Innsbruck and all Tyrol with 20 to 22,000 soldiers.
On 11 November, at 5: 00 am, an armistice with Germany was signed in a railroad carriage at Compiègne. At 11 am on 11 November 1918 -- "the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month '' -- a ceasefire came into effect. During the six hours between the signing of the armistice and its taking effect, opposing armies on the Western Front began to withdraw from their positions, but fighting continued along many areas of the front, as commanders wanted to capture territory before the war ended.
The occupation of the Rhineland took place following the Armistice. The occupying armies consisted of American, Belgian, British and French forces.
In November 1918, the Allies had ample supplies of men and materiel to invade Germany. Yet at the time of the armistice, no Allied force had crossed the German frontier; the Western Front was still some 720 kilometres (450 mi) from Berlin; and the Kaiser 's armies had retreated from the battlefield in good order. These factors enabled Hindenburg and other senior German leaders to spread the story that their armies had not really been defeated. This resulted in the stab - in - the - back legend, which attributed Germany 's defeat not to its inability to continue fighting (even though up to a million soldiers were suffering from the 1918 flu pandemic and unfit to fight), but to the public 's failure to respond to its "patriotic calling '' and the supposed intentional sabotage of the war effort, particularly by Jews, Socialists, and Bolsheviks.
The Allies had much more potential wealth they could spend on the war. One estimate (using 1913 U.S. dollars) is that the Allies spent $58 billion on the war and the Central Powers only $25 billion. Among the Allies, the UK spent $21 billion and the U.S. $17 billion; among the Central Powers Germany spent $20 billion.
In the aftermath of the war, four empires disappeared: the German, Austro - Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian. Numerous nations regained their former independence, and new ones were created. Four dynasties, together with their ancillary aristocracies, all fell as a result of the war: the Romanovs, the Hohenzollerns, the Habsburgs, and the Ottomans. Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as was France, with 1.4 million soldiers dead, not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly affected.
A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another seven months, until the signing of the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on 28 June 1919. The United States Senate did not ratify the treaty despite public support for it, and did not formally end its involvement in the war until the Knox -- Porter Resolution was signed on 2 July 1921 by President Warren G. Harding. For the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the state of war ceased under the provisions of the Termination of the Present War (Definition) Act 1918 with respect to:
After the Treaty of Versailles, treaties with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire were signed. However, the negotiation of the latter treaty with the Ottoman Empire was followed by strife, and a final peace treaty between the Allied Powers and the country that would shortly become the Republic of Turkey was not signed until 24 July 1923, at Lausanne.
Some war memorials date the end of the war as being when the Versailles Treaty was signed in 1919, which was when many of the troops serving abroad finally returned to their home countries; by contrast, most commemorations of the war 's end concentrate on the armistice of 11 November 1918. Legally, the formal peace treaties were not complete until the last, the Treaty of Lausanne, was signed. Under its terms, the Allied forces left Constantinople on 23 August 1923.
After the war, the Paris Peace Conference imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers officially ending the war. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles dealt with Germany and, building on Wilson 's 14th point, brought into being the League of Nations on 28 June 1919.
The Central Powers had to acknowledge responsibility for "all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by '' their aggression. In the Treaty of Versailles, this statement was Article 231. This article became known as the War Guilt clause as the majority of Germans felt humiliated and resentful. Overall the Germans felt they had been unjustly dealt with by what they called the "diktat of Versailles ''. Schulze said the Treaty placed Germany "under legal sanctions, deprived of military power, economically ruined, and politically humiliated. '' Belgian historian Laurence Van Ypersele emphasizes the central role played by memory of the war and the Versailles Treaty in German politics in the 1920s and 1930s:
Active denial of war guilt in Germany and German resentment at both reparations and continued Allied occupation of the Rhineland made widespread revision of the meaning and memory of the war problematic. The legend of the "stab in the back '' and the wish to revise the "Versailles diktat '', and the belief in an international threat aimed at the elimination of the German nation persisted at the heart of German politics. Even a man of peace such as (Gustav) Stresemann publicly rejected German guilt. As for the Nazis, they waved the banners of domestic treason and international conspiracy in an attempt to galvanize the German nation into a spirit of revenge. Like a Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany sought to redirect the memory of the war to the benefit of its own policies.
Meanwhile, new nations liberated from German rule viewed the treaty as recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by much larger aggressive neighbors. The Peace Conference required all the defeated powers to pay reparations for all the damage done to civilians. However, owing to economic difficulties and Germany being the only defeated power with an intact economy, the burden fell largely on Germany.
Austria - Hungary was partitioned into several successor states, including Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia, largely but not entirely along ethnic lines. Transylvania was shifted from Hungary to Greater Romania. The details were contained in the Treaty of Saint - Germain and the Treaty of Trianon. As a result of the Treaty of Trianon, 3.3 million Hungarians came under foreign rule. Although the Hungarians made up 54 % of the population of the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary, only 32 % of its territory was left to Hungary. Between 1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians fled former Hungarian territories attached to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.
The Russian Empire, which had withdrawn from the war in 1917 after the October Revolution, lost much of its western frontier as the newly independent nations of Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland were carved from it. Romania took control of Bessarabia in April 1918.
The Ottoman Empire disintegrated, with much of its Levant territory awarded to various Allied powers as protectorates. The Turkish core in Anatolia was reorganised as the Republic of Turkey. The Ottoman Empire was to be partitioned by the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920. This treaty was never ratified by the Sultan and was rejected by the Turkish National Movement, leading to the victorious Turkish War of Independence and the much less stringent 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.
Poland reemerged as an independent country, after more than a century. The Kingdom of Serbia and its dynasty, as a "minor Entente nation '' and the country with the most casualties per capita, became the backbone of a new multinational state, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia. Czechoslovakia, combining the Kingdom of Bohemia with parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, became a new nation. Russia became the Soviet Union and lost Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia, which became independent countries. The Ottoman Empire was soon replaced by Turkey and several other countries in the Middle East.
In the British Empire, the war unleashed new forms of nationalism. In Australia and New Zealand the Battle of Gallipoli became known as those nations ' "Baptism of Fire ''. It was the first major war in which the newly established countries fought, and it was one of the first times that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of the British Crown. Anzac Day, commemorating the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, celebrates this defining moment.
After the Battle of Vimy Ridge, where the Canadian divisions fought together for the first time as a single corps, Canadians began to refer to theirs as a nation "forged from fire ''. Having succeeded on the same battleground where the "mother countries '' had previously faltered, they were for the first time respected internationally for their own accomplishments. Canada entered the war as a Dominion of the British Empire and remained so, although it emerged with a greater measure of independence. When Britain declared war in 1914, the dominions were automatically at war; at the conclusion, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa were individual signatories of the Treaty of Versailles.
The establishment of the modern state of Israel and the roots of the continuing Israeli -- Palestinian conflict are partially found in the unstable power dynamics of the Middle East that resulted from World War I. Before the end of the war, the Ottoman Empire had maintained a modest level of peace and stability throughout the Middle East. With the fall of the Ottoman government, power vacuums developed and conflicting claims to land and nationhood began to emerge. The political boundaries drawn by the victors of World War I were quickly imposed, sometimes after only cursory consultation with the local population. These continue to be problematic in the 21st - century struggles for national identity. While the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I was pivotal in contributing to the modern political situation of the Middle East, including the Arab - Israeli conflict, the end of Ottoman rule also spawned lesser known disputes over water and other natural resources.
The war had profound consequences on the health of soldiers. Of the 60 million European military personnel who were mobilized from 1914 to 1918, 8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured. Germany lost 15.1 % of its active male population, Austria - Hungary lost 17.1 %, and France lost 10.5 %. In Germany, civilian deaths were 474,000 higher than in peacetime, due in large part to food shortages and malnutrition that weakened resistance to disease. By the end of the war, starvation caused by famine had killed approximately 100,000 people in Lebanon. Between 5 and 10 million people died in the Russian famine of 1921. By 1922, there were between 4.5 million and 7 million homeless children in Russia as a result of nearly a decade of devastation from World War I, the Russian Civil War, and the subsequent famine of 1920 -- 1922. Numerous anti-Soviet Russians fled the country after the Revolution; by the 1930s, the northern Chinese city of Harbin had 100,000 Russians. Thousands more emigrated to France, England, and the United States.
In Australia, the effects of the war on the economy were no less severe. The Australian prime minister, Billy Hughes, wrote to the British prime minister, Lloyd George, "You have assured us that you can not get better terms. I much regret it, and hope even now that some way may be found of securing agreement for demanding reparation commensurate with the tremendous sacrifices made by the British Empire and her Allies. '' Australia received ₤ 5,571,720 war reparations, but the direct cost of the war to Australia had been ₤ 376,993,052, and, by the mid-1930s, repatriation pensions, war gratuities, interest and sinking fund charges were ₤ 831,280,947. Of about 416,000 Australians who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded.
Diseases flourished in the chaotic wartime conditions. In 1914 alone, louse - borne epidemic typhus killed 200,000 in Serbia. From 1918 to 1922, Russia had about 25 million infections and 3 million deaths from epidemic typhus. In 1923, 13 million Russians contracted malaria, a sharp increase from the pre-war years. In addition, a major influenza epidemic spread around the world. Overall, the 1918 flu pandemic killed at least 50 million people.
Lobbying by Chaim Weizmann and fear that American Jews would encourage the United States to support Germany culminated in the British government 's Balfour Declaration of 1917, endorsing creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. A total of more than 1,172,000 Jewish soldiers served in the Allied and Central Power forces in World War I, including 275,000 in Austria - Hungary and 450,000 in Tsarist Russia.
The social disruption and widespread violence of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War sparked more than 2,000 pogroms in the former Russian Empire, mostly in Ukraine. An estimated 60,000 -- 200,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities.
In the aftermath of World War I, Greece fought against Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal, a war that eventually resulted in a massive population exchange between the two countries under the Treaty of Lausanne. According to various sources, several hundred thousand Greeks died during this period, which was tied in with the Greek Genocide.
World War I began as a clash of 20th - century technology and 19th - century tactics, with the inevitably large ensuing casualties. By the end of 1917, however, the major armies, now numbering millions of men, had modernised and were making use of telephone, wireless communication, armoured cars, tanks, and aircraft. Infantry formations were reorganised, so that 100 - man companies were no longer the main unit of manoeuvre; instead, squads of 10 or so men, under the command of a junior NCO, were favoured.
Artillery also underwent a revolution. In 1914, cannons were positioned in the front line and fired directly at their targets. By 1917, indirect fire with guns (as well as mortars and even machine guns) was commonplace, using new techniques for spotting and ranging, notably aircraft and the often overlooked field telephone. Counter-battery missions became commonplace, also, and sound detection was used to locate enemy batteries.
Germany was far ahead of the Allies in using heavy indirect fire. The German Army employed 150 mm (6 in) and 210 mm (8 in) howitzers in 1914, when typical French and British guns were only 75 mm (3 in) and 105 mm (4 in). The British had a 6 - inch (152 mm) howitzer, but it was so heavy it had to be hauled to the field in pieces and assembled. The Germans also fielded Austrian 305 mm (12 in) and 420 mm (17 in) guns and, even at the beginning of the war, had inventories of various calibers of Minenwerfer, which were ideally suited for trench warfare.
In 1917, on 27 June the Germans used their biggest gun of the world Batterie Pommern, nicknamed "Lange Max ''. This gun from Krupp was able to shoot 750 kg shells from Koekelare to Dunkirk, which is about 50 km away.
Much of the combat involved trench warfare, in which hundreds often died for each metre gained. Many of the deadliest battles in history occurred during World War I. Such battles include Ypres, the Marne, Cambrai, the Somme, Verdun, and Gallipoli. The Germans employed the Haber process of nitrogen fixation to provide their forces with a constant supply of gunpowder despite the British naval blockade. Artillery was responsible for the largest number of casualties and consumed vast quantities of explosives. The large number of head wounds caused by exploding shells and fragmentation forced the combatant nations to develop the modern steel helmet, led by the French, who introduced the Adrian helmet in 1915. It was quickly followed by the Brodie helmet, worn by British Imperial and US troops, and in 1916 by the distinctive German Stahlhelm, a design, with improvements, still in use today.
Gas! GAS! Quick, boys! -- An ecstasy of fumbling, Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time; But someone still was yelling out and stumbling, And flound'ring like a man in fire or lime... Dim, through the misty panes and thick green light, As under a green sea, I saw him drowning.
The widespread use of chemical warfare was a distinguishing feature of the conflict. Gases used included chlorine, mustard gas and phosgene. Few war casualties were caused by gas, as effective countermeasures to gas attacks were quickly created, such as gas masks. The use of chemical warfare and small - scale strategic bombing were both outlawed by the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, and both proved to be of limited effectiveness, though they captured the public imagination.
The most powerful land - based weapons were railway guns, weighing dozens of tons apiece. The German ones were nicknamed Big Berthas, even though the namesake was not a railway gun. Germany developed the Paris Gun, able to bombard Paris from over 100 kilometres (62 mi), though shells were relatively light at 94 kilograms (210 lb).
Trenches, machine guns, air reconnaissance, barbed wire, and modern artillery with fragmentation shells helped bring the battle lines of World War I to a stalemate. The British and the French sought a solution with the creation of the tank and mechanised warfare. The British first tanks were used during the Battle of the Somme on 15 September 1916. Mechanical reliability was an issue, but the experiment proved its worth. Within a year, the British were fielding tanks by the hundreds, and they showed their potential during the Battle of Cambrai in November 1917, by breaking the Hindenburg Line, while combined arms teams captured 8,000 enemy soldiers and 100 guns. Meanwhile, the French introduced the first tanks with a rotating turret, the Renault FT, which became a decisive tool of the victory. The conflict also saw the introduction of light automatic weapons and submachine guns, such as the Lewis Gun, the Browning automatic rifle, and the Bergmann MP18.
Another new weapon, the flamethrower, was first used by the German army and later adopted by other forces. Although not of high tactical value, the flamethrower was a powerful, demoralising weapon that caused terror on the battlefield.
Trench railways evolved to supply the enormous quantities of food, water, and ammunition required to support large numbers of soldiers in areas where conventional transportation systems had been destroyed. Internal combustion engines and improved traction systems for automobiles and trucks / lorries eventually rendered trench railways obsolete.
Germany deployed U-boats (submarines) after the war began. Alternating between restricted and unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic, the Kaiserliche Marine employed them to deprive the British Isles of vital supplies. The deaths of British merchant sailors and the seeming invulnerability of U-boats led to the development of depth charges (1916), hydrophones (passive sonar, 1917), blimps, hunter - killer submarines (HMS R - 1, 1917), forward - throwing anti-submarine weapons, and dipping hydrophones (the latter two both abandoned in 1918). To extend their operations, the Germans proposed supply submarines (1916). Most of these would be forgotten in the interwar period until World War II revived the need.
Fixed - wing aircraft were first used militarily by the Italians in Libya on 23 October 1911 during the Italo - Turkish War for reconnaissance, soon followed by the dropping of grenades and aerial photography the next year. By 1914, their military utility was obvious. They were initially used for reconnaissance and ground attack. To shoot down enemy planes, anti-aircraft guns and fighter aircraft were developed. Strategic bombers were created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former used Zeppelins as well. Towards the end of the conflict, aircraft carriers were used for the first time, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a raid to destroy the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in 1918.
Manned observation balloons, floating high above the trenches, were used as stationary reconnaissance platforms, reporting enemy movements and directing artillery. Balloons commonly had a crew of two, equipped with parachutes, so that if there was an enemy air attack the crew could parachute to safety. At the time, parachutes were too heavy to be used by pilots of aircraft (with their marginal power output), and smaller versions were not developed until the end of the war; they were also opposed by the British leadership, who feared they might promote cowardice.
Recognised for their value as observation platforms, balloons were important targets for enemy aircraft. To defend them against air attack, they were heavily protected by antiaircraft guns and patrolled by friendly aircraft; to attack them, unusual weapons such as air - to - air rockets were tried. Thus, the reconnaissance value of blimps and balloons contributed to the development of air - to - air combat between all types of aircraft, and to the trench stalemate, because it was impossible to move large numbers of troops undetected. The Germans conducted air raids on England during 1915 and 1916 with airships, hoping to damage British morale and cause aircraft to be diverted from the front lines, and indeed the resulting panic led to the diversion of several squadrons of fighters from France.
On 19 August 1915, the German submarine U-27 was sunk by the British Q - ship HMS Baralong. All German survivors were summarily executed by Baralong 's crew on the orders of Lieutenant Godfrey Herbert, the captain of the ship. The shooting was reported to the media by American citizens who were on board the Nicosia, a British freighter loaded with war supplies, which was stopped by U-27 just minutes before the incident.
On 24 September, Baralong destroyed U-41, which was in the process of sinking the cargo ship Urbino. According to Karl Goetz, the submarine 's commander, Baralong continued to fly the U.S. flag after firing on U-41 and then rammed the lifeboat -- carrying the German survivors -- sinking it.
The Canadian hospital ship HMHS Llandovery Castle was torpedoed by the German submarine SM U-86 on 27 June 1918 in violation of international law. Only 24 of the 258 medical personnel, patients, and crew survived. Survivors reported that the U-boat surfaced and ran down the lifeboats, machine - gunning survivors in the water. The U-boat captain, Helmut Patzig, was charged with war crimes in Germany following the war, but escaped prosecution by going to the Free City of Danzig, beyond the jurisdiction of German courts.
The first successful use of poison gas as a weapon of warfare occurred during the Second Battle of Ypres (22 April -- 25 May 1915). Gas was soon used by all major belligerents throughout the war. It is estimated that the use of chemical weapons employed by both sides throughout the war had inflicted 1.3 million casualties. For example, the British had over 180,000 chemical weapons casualties during the war, and up to one - third of American casualties were caused by them. The Russian Army reportedly suffered roughly 500,000 chemical weapon casualties in World War I. The use of chemical weapons in warfare was in direct violation of the 1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gases and the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, which prohibited their use.
The effect of poison gas was not limited to combatants. Civilians were at risk from the gases as winds blew the poison gases through their towns, and rarely received warnings or alerts of potential danger. In addition to absent warning systems, civilians often did not have access to effective gas masks. An estimated 100,000 -- 260,000 civilian casualties were caused by chemical weapons during the conflict and tens of thousands more (along with military personnel) died from scarring of the lungs, skin damage, and cerebral damage in the years after the conflict ended. Many commanders on both sides knew such weapons would cause major harm to civilians but nonetheless continued to use them. British Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig wrote in his diary, "My officers and I were aware that such weapons would cause harm to women and children living in nearby towns, as strong winds were common in the battlefront. However, because the weapon was to be directed against the enemy, none of us were overly concerned at all. ''
The ethnic cleansing of the Ottoman Empire 's Armenian population, including mass deportations and executions, during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is considered genocide. The Ottomans carried out organized and systematic massacres of the Armenian population at the beginning of the war and portrayed deliberately provoked acts of Armenian resistance as rebellions to justify further extermination. In early 1915, a number of Armenians volunteered to join the Russian forces and the Ottoman government used this as a pretext to issue the Tehcir Law (Law on Deportation), which authorized the deportation of Armenians from the Empire 's eastern provinces to Syria between 1915 and 1918. The Armenians were intentionally marched to death and a number were attacked by Ottoman brigands. While an exact number of deaths is unknown, the International Association of Genocide Scholars estimates 1.5 million. The government of Turkey has consistently denied the genocide, arguing that those who died were victims of inter-ethnic fighting, famine, or disease during World War I; these claims are rejected by most historians. Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians and Greeks, and some scholars consider those events to be part of the same policy of extermination.
Many pogroms accompanied the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War. 60,000 -- 200,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire (mostly within the Pale of Settlement in present - day Ukraine).
The German invaders treated any resistance -- such as sabotaging rail lines -- as illegal and immoral, and shot the offenders and burned buildings in retaliation. In addition, they tended to suspect that most civilians were potential francs - tireurs (guerrillas) and, accordingly, took and sometimes killed hostages from among the civilian population. The German army executed over 6,500 French and Belgian civilians between August and November 1914, usually in near - random large - scale shootings of civilians ordered by junior German officers. The German Army destroyed 15,000 -- 20,000 buildings -- most famously the university library at Louvain -- and generated a wave of refugees of over a million people. Over half the German regiments in Belgium were involved in major incidents. Thousands of workers were shipped to Germany to work in factories. British propaganda dramatizing the Rape of Belgium attracted much attention in the United States, while Berlin said it was both lawful and necessary because of the threat of franc - tireurs like those in France in 1870. The British and French magnified the reports and disseminated them at home and in the United States, where they played a major role in dissolving support for Germany.
The British soldiers of the war were initially volunteers but increasingly were conscripted into service. Surviving veterans, returning home, often found that they could only discuss their experiences amongst themselves. Grouping together, they formed "veterans ' associations '' or "Legions ''. A small number of personal accounts of American veterans have been collected by the Library of Congress Veterans History Project.
About eight million men surrendered and were held in POW camps during the war. All nations pledged to follow the Hague Conventions on fair treatment of prisoners of war, and the survival rate for POWs was generally much higher than that of their peers at the front. Individual surrenders were uncommon; large units usually surrendered en masse. At the siege of Maubeuge about 40,000 French soldiers surrendered, at the battle of Galicia Russians took about 100,000 to 120,000 Austrian captives, at the Brusilov Offensive about 325,000 to 417,000 Germans and Austrians surrendered to Russians, and at the Battle of Tannenberg 92,000 Russians surrendered. When the besieged garrison of Kaunas surrendered in 1915, some 20,000 Russians became prisoners, at the battle near Przasnysz (February -- March 1915) 14,000 Germans surrendered to Russians, and at the First Battle of the Marne about 12,000 Germans surrendered to the Allies. 25 -- 31 % of Russian losses (as a proportion of those captured, wounded, or killed) were to prisoner status; for Austria - Hungary 32 %, for Italy 26 %, for France 12 %, for Germany 9 %; for Britain 7 %. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled about 1.4 million (not including Russia, which lost 2.5 -- 3.5 million men as prisoners). From the Central Powers about 3.3 million men became prisoners; most of them surrendered to Russians. Germany held 2.5 million prisoners; Russia held 2.2 -- 2.9 million; while Britain and France held about 720,000. Most were captured just before the Armistice. The United States held 48,000. The most dangerous moment was the act of surrender, when helpless soldiers were sometimes gunned down. Once prisoners reached a camp, conditions were, in general, satisfactory (and much better than in World War II), thanks in part to the efforts of the International Red Cross and inspections by neutral nations. However, conditions were terrible in Russia: starvation was common for prisoners and civilians alike; about 15 -- 20 % of the prisoners in Russia died and in Central Powers imprisonment -- 8 % of Russians. In Germany, food was scarce, but only 5 % died.
The Ottoman Empire often treated POWs poorly. Some 11,800 British Empire soldiers, most of them Indians, became prisoners after the Siege of Kut in Mesopotamia in April 1916; 4,250 died in captivity. Although many were in a poor condition when captured, Ottoman officers forced them to march 1,100 kilometres (684 mi) to Anatolia. A survivor said: "We were driven along like beasts; to drop out was to die. '' The survivors were then forced to build a railway through the Taurus Mountains.
In Russia, when the prisoners from the Czech Legion of the Austro - Hungarian army were released in 1917, they re-armed themselves and briefly became a military and diplomatic force during the Russian Civil War.
While the Allied prisoners of the Central Powers were quickly sent home at the end of active hostilities, the same treatment was not granted to Central Power prisoners of the Allies and Russia, many of whom served as forced labor, e.g., in France until 1920. They were released only after many approaches by the Red Cross to the Allied Supreme Council. German prisoners were still being held in Russia as late as 1924.
Military and civilian observers from every major power closely followed the course of the war. Many were able to report on events from a perspective somewhat akin to modern "embedded '' positions within the opposing land and naval forces.
In the Balkans, Yugoslav nationalists such as the leader, Ante Trumbić, strongly supported the war, desiring the freedom of Yugoslavs from Austria - Hungary and other foreign powers and the creation of an independent Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav Committee was formed in Paris on 30 April 1915 but shortly moved its office to London; Trumbić led the Committee. In April 1918, the Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities met, including Czechoslovak, Italian, Polish, Transylvanian, and Yugoslav representatives who urged the Allies to support national self - determination for the peoples residing within Austria - Hungary.
In the Middle East, Arab nationalism soared in Ottoman territories in response to the rise of Turkish nationalism during the war, with Arab nationalist leaders advocating the creation of a pan-Arab state. In 1916, the Arab Revolt began in Ottoman - controlled territories of the Middle East in an effort to achieve independence.
In East Africa, Iyasu V of Ethiopia was supporting the Dervish state who were at war with the British in the Somaliland Campaign. Von Syburg, the German envoy in Addis Ababa, said, "now the time has come for Ethiopia to regain the coast of the Red Sea driving the Italians home, to restore the Empire to its ancient size. '' The Ethiopian Empire was on the verge of entering World War I on the side of the Central Powers before Iyasu 's overthrow due to Allied pressure on the Ethiopian aristocracy.
A number of socialist parties initially supported the war when it began in August 1914. But European socialists split on national lines, with the concept of class conflict held by radical socialists such as Marxists and syndicalists being overborne by their patriotic support for war. Once the war began, Austrian, British, French, German, and Russian socialists followed the rising nationalist current by supporting their countries ' intervention in the war.
Italian nationalism was stirred by the outbreak of the war and was initially strongly supported by a variety of political factions. One of the most prominent and popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war was Gabriele d'Annunzio, who promoted Italian irredentism and helped sway the Italian public to support intervention in the war. The Italian Liberal Party, under the leadership of Paolo Boselli, promoted intervention in the war on the side of the Allies and used the Dante Alighieri Society to promote Italian nationalism. Italian socialists were divided on whether to support the war or oppose it; some were militant supporters of the war, including Benito Mussolini and Leonida Bissolati. However, the Italian Socialist Party decided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors were killed, resulting in a general strike called Red Week. The Italian Socialist Party purged itself of pro-war nationalist members, including Mussolini. Mussolini, a syndicalist who supported the war on grounds of irredentist claims on Italian - populated regions of Austria - Hungary, formed the pro-interventionist Il Popolo d'Italia and the Fasci Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista ("Revolutionary Fasci for International Action '') in October 1914 that later developed into the Fasci di Combattimento in 1919, the origin of fascism. Mussolini 's nationalism enabled him to raise funds from Ansaldo (an armaments firm) and other companies to create Il Popolo d'Italia to convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war.
Once war was declared, many socialists and trade unions backed their governments. Among the exceptions were the Bolsheviks, the Socialist Party of America, and the Italian Socialist Party, and individuals such as Karl Liebknecht, Rosa Luxemburg, and their followers in Germany.
Benedict XV, elected to the papacy less than three months into World War I, made the war and its consequences the main focus of his early pontificate. In stark contrast to his predecessor, five days after his election he spoke of his determination to do what he could to bring peace. His first encyclical, Ad beatissimi Apostolorum, given 1 November 1914, was concerned with this subject. Benedict XV found his abilities and unique position as a religious emissary of peace ignored by the belligerent powers. The 1915 Treaty of London between Italy and the Triple Entente included secret provisions whereby the Allies agreed with Italy to ignore papal peace moves towards the Central Powers. Consequently, the publication of Benedict 's proposed seven - point Peace Note of August 1917 was roundly ignored by all parties except Austria - Hungary.
In Britain, in 1914, the Public Schools Officers ' Training Corps annual camp was held at Tidworth Pennings, near Salisbury Plain. Head of the British Army, Lord Kitchener, was to review the cadets, but the imminence of the war prevented him. General Horace Smith - Dorrien was sent instead. He surprised the two - or - three thousand cadets by declaring (in the words of Donald Christopher Smith, a Bermudian cadet who was present),
that war should be avoided at almost any cost, that war would solve nothing, that the whole of Europe and more besides would be reduced to ruin, and that the loss of life would be so large that whole populations would be decimated. In our ignorance I, and many of us, felt almost ashamed of a British General who uttered such depressing and unpatriotic sentiments, but during the next four years, those of us who survived the holocaust -- probably not more than one - quarter of us -- learned how right the General 's prognosis was and how courageous he had been to utter it.
Voicing these sentiments did not hinder Smith - Dorrien 's career, or prevent him from doing his duty in World War I to the best of his abilities.
Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the conflict. These included Eugene Debs in the United States and Bertrand Russell in Britain. In the US, the Espionage Act of 1917 and Sedition Act of 1918 made it a federal crime to oppose military recruitment or make any statements deemed "disloyal ''. Publications at all critical of the government were removed from circulation by postal censors, and many served long prison sentences for statements of fact deemed unpatriotic.
A number of nationalists opposed intervention, particularly within states that the nationalists were hostile to. Although the vast majority of Irish people consented to participate in the war in 1914 and 1915, a minority of advanced Irish nationalists staunchly opposed taking part. The war began amid the Home Rule crisis in Ireland that had resurfaced in 1912 and, by July 1914, there was a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war in Ireland. Irish nationalists and Marxists attempted to pursue Irish independence, culminating in the Easter Rising of 1916, with Germany sending 20,000 rifles to Ireland to stir unrest in Britain. The UK government placed Ireland under martial law in response to the Easter Rising; although, once the immediate threat of revolution had dissipated, the authorities did try to make concessions to nationalist feeling. However, opposition to involvement in the war increased in Ireland, resulting in the Conscription Crisis of 1918.
Other opposition came from conscientious objectors -- some socialist, some religious -- who refused to fight. In Britain, 16,000 people asked for conscientious objector status. Some of them, most notably prominent peace activist Stephen Henry Hobhouse, refused both military and alternative service. Many suffered years of prison, including solitary confinement and bread and water diets. Even after the war, in Britain many job advertisements were marked "No conscientious objectors need apply ''.
The Central Asian Revolt started in the summer of 1916, when the Russian Empire government ended its exemption of Muslims from military service.
In 1917, a series of French Army Mutinies led to dozens of soldiers being executed and many more imprisoned.
In Milan, in May 1917, Bolshevik revolutionaries organised and engaged in rioting calling for an end to the war, and managed to close down factories and stop public transportation. The Italian army was forced to enter Milan with tanks and machine guns to face Bolsheviks and anarchists, who fought violently until 23 May when the army gained control of the city. Almost 50 people (including three Italian soldiers) were killed and over 800 people arrested.
In September 1917, Russian soldiers in France began questioning why they were fighting for the French at all and mutinied. In Russia, opposition to the war led to soldiers also establishing their own revolutionary committees, which helped foment the October Revolution of 1917, with the call going up for "bread, land, and peace ''. The Bolsheviks agreed to a peace treaty with Germany, the peace of Brest - Litovsk, despite its harsh conditions.
In northern Germany, the end of October 1918 saw the beginning of the German Revolution of 1918 -- 1919. Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large - scale operation in a war they saw as good as lost; this initiated the uprising. The sailors ' revolt, which then ensued in the naval ports of Wilhelmshaven and Kiel, spread across the whole country within days and led to the proclamation of a republic on 9 November 1918 and shortly thereafter to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II.
Conscription was common in most European countries. However it was controversial in English speaking countries. It was especially unpopular among minority ethnic groups -- especially the Irish Catholics in Ireland and Australia, and the French Catholics in Canada.
In Canada the issue produced a major political crisis that permanently alienated the Francophiles. It opened a political gap between French Canadians, who believed their true loyalty was to Canada and not to the British Empire, and members of the Anglophone majority, who saw the war as a duty to their British heritage.
In Australia, a sustained pro-conscription campaign by Billy Hughes, the Prime Minister, caused a split in the Australian Labor Party, so Hughes formed the Nationalist Party of Australia in 1917 to pursue the matter. Farmers, the labour movement, the Catholic Church, and the Irish Catholics successfully opposed Hughes ' push, which was rejected in two plebiscites.
In Britain, conscription resulted in the calling up of nearly every physically fit man in Britain -- six of ten million eligible. Of these, about 750,000 lost their lives. Most deaths were to young unmarried men; however, 160,000 wives lost husbands and 300,000 children lost fathers. In the United States, conscription began in 1917 and was generally well received, with a few pockets of opposition in isolated rural areas.
The non-military diplomatic and propaganda interactions among the nations were designed to build support for the cause, or to undermine support for the enemy. For the most part, wartime diplomacy focused on five issues: propaganda campaigns; defining and redefining the war goals, which became harsher as the war went on; luring neutral nations (Italy, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria, Romania) into the coalition by offering slices of enemy territory; and encouragement by the Allies of nationalistic minority movements inside the Central Powers, especially among Czechs, Poles, and Arabs. In addition, there were multiple peace proposals coming from neutrals, or one side or the other; none of them progressed very far.
... "Strange, friend, '' I said, "Here is no cause to mourn. '' "None, '' said the other, "Save the undone years ''...
The War was an unprecedented triumph for natural science. (Francis) Bacon had promised that knowledge would be power, and power it was: power to destroy the bodies and souls of men more rapidly than had ever been done by human agency before. This triumph paved the way to other triumphs: improvements in transport, in sanitation, in surgery, medicine, and psychiatry, in commerce and industry, and, above all, in preparations for the next war.
The first tentative efforts to comprehend the meaning and consequences of modern warfare began during the initial phases of the war, and this process continued throughout and after the end of hostilities, and is still underway, more than a century later.
Historian Heather Jones argues that the historiography has been reinvigorated by the cultural turn in recent years. Scholars have raised entirely new questions regarding military occupation, radicalization of politics, race, and the male body. Furthermore, new research has revised our understanding of five major topics that historians have long debated. These are: Why did the war begin? Why did the Allies win? Were the generals to blame for the high casualty rates? How did the soldiers endure the horrors of trench warfare? To what extent did the civilian homefront accept and endorse the war effort?
Memorials were erected in thousands of villages and towns. Close to battlefields, those buried in improvised burial grounds were gradually moved to formal graveyards under the care of organisations such as the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, the American Battle Monuments Commission, the German War Graves Commission, and Le Souvenir français. Many of these graveyards also have central monuments to the missing or unidentified dead, such as the Menin Gate memorial and the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme.
In 1915 John McCrae, a Canadian army doctor, wrote the poem In Flanders Fields as a salute to those who perished in the Great War. Published in Punch on 8 December 1915, it is still recited today, especially on Remembrance Day and Memorial Day.
National World War I Museum and Memorial in Kansas City, Missouri, is a memorial dedicated to all Americans who served in World War I. The Liberty Memorial was dedicated on 1 November 1921, when the supreme Allied commanders spoke to a crowd of more than 100,000 people.
The UK Government has budgeted substantial resources to the commemoration of the war during the period 2014 to 2018. The lead body is the Imperial War Museum. On 3 August 2014, French President Francois Hollande and German President Joachim Gauck together marked the centenary of Germany 's declaration of war on France by laying the first stone of a memorial in Vieil Armand, known in German as Hartmannswillerkopf, for French and German soldiers killed in the war.
World War I had a lasting impact on social memory. It was seen by many in Britain as signalling the end of an era of stability stretching back to the Victorian period, and across Europe many regarded it as a watershed. Historian Samuel Hynes explained:
A generation of innocent young men, their heads full of high abstractions like Honour, Glory and England, went off to war to make the world safe for democracy. They were slaughtered in stupid battles planned by stupid generals. Those who survived were shocked, disillusioned and embittered by their war experiences, and saw that their real enemies were not the Germans, but the old men at home who had lied to them. They rejected the values of the society that had sent them to war, and in doing so separated their own generation from the past and from their cultural inheritance.
This has become the most common perception of World War I, perpetuated by the art, cinema, poems, and stories published subsequently. Films such as All Quiet on the Western Front, Paths of Glory and King & Country have perpetuated the idea, while war - time films including Camrades, Poppies of Flanders, and Shoulder Arms indicate that the most contemporary views of the war were overall far more positive. Likewise, the art of Paul Nash, John Nash, Christopher Nevinson, and Henry Tonks in Britain painted a negative view of the conflict in keeping with the growing perception, while popular war - time artists such as Muirhead Bone painted more serene and pleasant interpretations subsequently rejected as inaccurate. Several historians like John Terraine, Niall Ferguson and Gary Sheffield have challenged these interpretations as partial and polemical views:
These beliefs did not become widely shared because they offered the only accurate interpretation of wartime events. In every respect, the war was much more complicated than they suggest. In recent years, historians have argued persuasively against almost every popular cliché of World War I. It has been pointed out that, although the losses were devastating, their greatest impact was socially and geographically limited. The many emotions other than horror experienced by soldiers in and out of the front line, including comradeship, boredom, and even enjoyment, have been recognised. The war is not now seen as a ' fight about nothing ', but as a war of ideals, a struggle between aggressive militarism and more or less liberal democracy. It has been acknowledged that British generals were often capable men facing difficult challenges, and that it was under their command that the British army played a major part in the defeat of the Germans in 1918: a great forgotten victory.
Though these views have been discounted as "myths '', they are common. They have dynamically changed according to contemporary influences, reflecting in the 1950s perceptions of the war as "aimless '' following the contrasting Second World War and emphasising conflict within the ranks during times of class conflict in the 1960s. The majority of additions to the contrary are often rejected.
The social trauma caused by unprecedented rates of casualties manifested itself in different ways, which have been the subject of subsequent historical debate.
The optimism of la belle époque was destroyed, and those who had fought in the war were referred to as the Lost Generation. For years afterwards, people mourned the dead, the missing, and the many disabled. Many soldiers returned with severe trauma, suffering from shell shock (also called neurasthenia, a condition related to posttraumatic stress disorder). Many more returned home with few after - effects; however, their silence about the war contributed to the conflict 's growing mythological status. Though many participants did not share in the experiences of combat or spend any significant time at the front, or had positive memories of their service, the images of suffering and trauma became the widely shared perception. Such historians as Dan Todman, Paul Fussell, and Samuel Heyns have all published works since the 1990s arguing that these common perceptions of the war are factually incorrect.
The rise of Nazism and Fascism included a revival of the nationalist spirit and a rejection of many post-war changes. Similarly, the popularity of the stab - in - the - back legend (German: Dolchstoßlegende) was a testament to the psychological state of defeated Germany and was a rejection of responsibility for the conflict. This conspiracy theory of betrayal became common, and the German populace came to see themselves as victims. The widespread acceptance of the "stab - in - the - back '' theory delegitimized the Weimar government and destabilized the system, opening it to extremes of right and left.
Communist and fascist movements around Europe drew strength from this theory and enjoyed a new level of popularity. These feelings were most pronounced in areas directly or harshly affected by the war. Adolf Hitler was able to gain popularity by using German discontent with the still controversial Treaty of Versailles. World War II was in part a continuation of the power struggle never fully resolved by World War I. Furthermore, it was common for Germans in the 1930s to justify acts of aggression due to perceived injustices imposed by the victors of World War I. American historian William Rubinstein wrote that:
The ' Age of Totalitarianism ' included nearly all of the infamous examples of genocide in modern history, headed by the Jewish Holocaust, but also comprising the mass murders and purges of the Communist world, other mass killings carried out by Nazi Germany and its allies, and also the Armenian Genocide of 1915. All these slaughters, it is argued here, had a common origin, the collapse of the elite structure and normal modes of government of much of central, eastern and southern Europe as a result of World War I, without which surely neither Communism nor Fascism would have existed except in the minds of unknown agitators and crackpots.
One of the most dramatic effects of the war was the expansion of governmental powers and responsibilities in Britain, France, the United States, and the Dominions of the British Empire. To harness all the power of their societies, governments created new ministries and powers. New taxes were levied and laws enacted, all designed to bolster the war effort; many have lasted to this day. Similarly, the war strained the abilities of some formerly large and bureaucratised governments, such as in Austria - Hungary and Germany.
Gross domestic product (GDP) increased for three Allies (Britain, Italy, and the United States), but decreased in France and Russia, in neutral Netherlands, and in the three main Central Powers. The shrinkage in GDP in Austria, Russia, France, and the Ottoman Empire ranged between 30 % and 40 %. In Austria, for example, most pigs were slaughtered, so at war 's end there was no meat.
In all nations, the government 's share of GDP increased, surpassing 50 % in both Germany and France and nearly reaching that level in Britain. To pay for purchases in the United States, Britain cashed in its extensive investments in American railroads and then began borrowing heavily on Wall Street. President Wilson was on the verge of cutting off the loans in late 1916, but allowed a great increase in U.S. government lending to the Allies. After 1919, the U.S. demanded repayment of these loans. The repayments were, in part, funded by German reparations that, in turn, were supported by American loans to Germany. This circular system collapsed in 1931 and the loans were never repaid. Britain still owed the United States $4.4 billion of World War I debt in 1934, and this money was never repaid.
Macro - and micro-economic consequences devolved from the war. Families were altered by the departure of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the workforce in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, industry needed to replace the lost labourers sent to war. This aided the struggle for voting rights for women.
World War I further compounded the gender imbalance, adding to the phenomenon of surplus women. The deaths of nearly one million men during the war in Britain increased the gender gap by almost a million: from 670,000 to 1,700,000. The number of unmarried women seeking economic means grew dramatically. In addition, demobilisation and economic decline following the war caused high unemployment. The war increased female employment; however, the return of demobilised men displaced many from the workforce, as did the closure of many of the wartime factories.
In Britain, rationing was finally imposed in early 1918, limited to meat, sugar, and fats (butter and margarine), but not bread. The new system worked smoothly. From 1914 to 1918, trade union membership doubled, from a little over four million to a little over eight million.
Britain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply from traditional sources had become difficult. Geologists such as Albert Ernest Kitson were called on to find new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies. Kitson discovered important new deposits of manganese, used in munitions production, in the Gold Coast.
Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the so - called "war guilt '' clause) stated Germany accepted responsibility for "all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies. '' It was worded as such to lay a legal basis for reparations, and a similar clause was inserted in the treaties with Austria and Hungary. However neither of them interpreted it as an admission of war guilt. '' In 1921, the total reparation sum was placed at 132 billion gold marks. However, "Allied experts knew that Germany could not pay '' this sum. The total sum was divided into three categories, with the third being "deliberately designed to be chimerical '' and its "primary function was to mislead public opinion... into believing the "total sum was being maintained. '' Thus, 50 billion gold marks (12.5 billion dollars) "represented the actual Allied assessment of German capacity to pay '' and "therefore... represented the total German reparations '' figure that had to be paid.
This figure could be paid in cash or in kind (coal, timber, chemical dyes, etc.). In addition, some of the territory lost -- via the treaty of Versailles -- was credited towards the reparation figure as were other acts such as helping to restore the Library of Louvain. By 1929, the Great Depression arrived, causing political chaos throughout the world. In 1932 the payment of reparations was suspended by the international community, by which point Germany had only paid the equivalent of 20.598 billion gold marks in reparations. With the rise of Adolf Hitler, all bonds and loans that had been issued and taken out during the 1920s and early 1930s were cancelled. David Andelman notes "refusing to pay does n't make an agreement null and void. The bonds, the agreement, still exist. '' Thus, following the Second World War, at the London Conference in 1953, Germany agreed to resume payment on the money borrowed. On 3 October 2010, Germany made the final payment on these bonds.
The war contributed to the evolution of the wristwatch from women 's jewelry to a practical everyday item, replacing the pocketwatch, which requires a free hand to operate. Military funding of advancements in radio contributed to the postwar popularity of the medium.
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the game of life twists and turns rules | The game of Life: Twists & Turns - wikipedia
The Game of Life: Twists & Turns is a 2007 version of the classic board game The Game of Life. Players try to earn the most life points in this game by going through various paths. A major change in this game from the original is that players use an electronic Lifepod instead of money to play the game.
To set up the game, players each get a Visa Game Card, a matching coloured scorecard, a skateboard and car upgrades. All players also get some arrow clips and a Lifepod Reference card. The Career cards are divided among the players, and one is chosen. Players then put an arrow clip on the lowest step of their career ($5,000). The Life Cards are then shuffled, and players put their skateboards on any of the start spaces - Earn It!, Learn It!, Live It! or Love it!.
Players must enter the number of "years '' they want to play into the Lifepod when they start the game. This can be any number from 1 to 99 and can be shortened / lengthened if desired. It is recommended that players play at least 10 years on their very first time playing.
A 4 player game will take approximately 40 minutes for 10 years, 1 hour for 15 years and 2 hours for 30 years. A game with fewer players will take less time.
On a player 's turn, they press SPIN on the Lifepod. It will automatically give you your salary for your job. A red light will travel around the numbers before finally stopping on a number. This is the number of spaces a player moves. If a player wants to, he / she can move directly to any Start space instead of moving. This ends their turn. The player must then resolve the space they landed / stopped / passed on (see Game Spaces below).
The game includes the following:
The game spaces and what to do if a player lands on them:
Earn It! Spaces
Learn It! Spaces
Live It! Spaces
Love It! Spaces
The buttons and their functions follow. Note that 4 and 9 are not used for anything except when entering money, Life Points and salaries
The game is over when the Lifepod runs out of years. Each player puts their Visa Card into the Lifepod, which will calculate the number of Life Points the player has won. This is done by changing the values of their cars and houses into Life Points. The player with the most Life Points wins the game.
There are 24 Career Cards in The Game of Life: Twists and Turns (12 double - sided cards). The careers you can choose from in The Game of Life: Twists and Turns and their salaries are:
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on what planet did viking 1 & 2 land what robotic feature did they have | Viking program - Wikipedia
The Viking program consisted of a pair of American space probes sent to Mars, Viking 1 and Viking 2. Each spacecraft was composed of two main parts: an orbiter designed to photograph the surface of Mars from orbit, and a lander designed to study the planet from the surface. The orbiters also served as communication relays for the landers once they touched down.
The Viking program grew from NASA 's earlier, even more ambitious, Voyager Mars program, which was not related to the successful Voyager deep space probes of the late 1970s. Viking 1 was launched on August 20, 1975, and the second craft, Viking 2, was launched on September 9, 1975, both riding atop Titan III - E rockets with Centaur upper stages. Viking 1 entered Mars orbit on June 19, 1976, with Viking 2 following suit on August 7.
After orbiting Mars for more than a month and returning images used for landing site selection, the orbiters and landers detached; the landers then entered the Martian atmosphere and soft - landed at the sites that had been chosen. The Viking 1 lander touched down on the surface of Mars on July 20, 1976, and was joined by the Viking 2 lander on September 3. The orbiters continued imaging and performing other scientific operations from orbit while the landers deployed instruments on the surface.
The project cost roughly 1 billion USD in 1970s dollars, equivalent to about 5 billion USD in 2016 dollars. It was highly successful and formed most of the body of knowledge about Mars through the late 1990s and early 2000s.
The primary objectives of the two Viking orbiters were to transport the landers to Mars, perform reconnaissance to locate and certify landing sites, act as communications relays for the landers, and to perform their own scientific investigations. Each orbiter, based on the earlier Mariner 9 spacecraft, was an octagon approximately 2.5 m across. The fully fueled orbiter - lander pair had a mass of 3527 kg. After separation and landing, the lander had a mass of about 600 kg and the orbiter 900 kg. The total launch mass was 2328 kg, of which 1445 kg were propellant and attitude control gas. The eight faces of the ring - like structure were 0.4572 m high and were alternately 1.397 and 0.508 m wide. The overall height was 3.29 m from the lander attachment points on the bottom to the launch vehicle attachment points on top. There were 16 modular compartments, 3 on each of the 4 long faces and one on each short face. Four solar panel wings extended from the axis of the orbiter, the distance from tip to tip of two oppositely extended solar panels was 9.75 m.
The main propulsion unit was mounted above the orbiter bus. Propulsion was furnished by a bipropellant (monomethylhydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide) liquid - fueled rocket engine which could be gimballed up to 9 degrees. The engine was capable of 1,323 N (297 lbf) thrust, translating to a change in velocity of 1480 m / s. Attitude control was achieved by 12 small compressed - nitrogen jets.
An acquisition Sun sensor, a cruise Sun sensor, a Canopus star tracker and an inertial reference unit consisting of six gyroscopes allowed three - axis stabilization. Two accelerometers were also on board. Communications were accomplished through a 20 W S - band (2.3 GHz) transmitter and two 20 W TWTAs. An X band (8.4 GHz) downlink was also added specifically for radio science and to conduct communications experiments. Uplink was via S band (2.1 GHz). A two - axis steerable parabolic dish antenna with a diameter of approximately 1.5 m was attached at one edge of the orbiter base, and a fixed low - gain antenna extended from the top of the bus. Two tape recorders were each capable of storing 1280 megabits. A 381 - MHz relay radio was also available.
The power to the two orbiter craft was provided by eight 1.57 × 1.23 m solar panels, two on each wing. The solar panels comprised a total of 34,800 solar cells and produced 620 W of power at Mars. Power was also stored in two nickel - cadmium 30 - A h batteries.
The combined area of the four panels was 15 square meters (160 square feet), and they provided both regulated and unregulated direct current power; unregulated power was provided to the radio transmitter and the lander.
Two 30 - amp - hour, nickel - cadmium, rechargeable batteries provided power when the spacecraft was not facing the Sun, and during launch, correction maneuvers and Mars occultation.
By discovering many geological forms that are typically formed from large amounts of water, the images from the orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars. Huge river valleys were found in many areas. They showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and travelled thousands of kilometers. Large areas in the southern hemisphere contained branched stream networks, suggesting that rain once fell. The flanks of some volcanoes are believed to have been exposed to rainfall because they resemble those caused on Hawaiian volcanoes. Many craters look as if the impactor fell into mud. When they were formed, ice in the soil may have melted, turned the ground into mud, then flowed across the surface. Normally, material from an impact goes up, then down. It does not flow across the surface, going around obstacles, as it does on some Martian craters. Regions, called "Chaotic Terrain, '' seemed to have quickly lost great volumes of water, causing large channels to be formed. The amount of water involved was estimated to ten thousand times the flow of the Mississippi River. Underground volcanism may have melted frozen ice; the water then flowed away and the ground collapsed to leave chaotic terrain.
Each lander comprised a six - sided aluminium base with alternate 1.09 and 0.56 m (3 ft 7 in and 1 ft 10 in) long sides, supported on three extended legs attached to the shorter sides. The leg footpads formed the vertices of an equilateral triangle with 2.21 m (7 ft 3 in) sides when viewed from above, with the long sides of the base forming a straight line with the two adjoining footpads. Instrumentation was attached inside and on top of the base, elevated above the surface by the extended legs.
Each lander was enclosed in an aeroshell heat shield designed to slow the lander down during the entry phase. To prevent contamination of Mars by Earth organisms, each lander, upon assembly and enclosure within the aeroshell, was enclosed in a pressurized "bioshield '' and then sterilized at a temperature of 111 ° C (232 ° F) for 40 hours. For thermal reasons, the cap of the bioshield was jettisoned after the Centaur upper stage powered the Viking orbiter / lander combination out of Earth orbit.
Each lander arrived at Mars attached to the orbiter. The assembly orbited Mars many times before the lander was released and separated from the orbiter for descent to the surface. Descent comprised four distinct phases, starting with a deorbit burn. The lander then experienced atmospheric entry with peak heating occurring after a few seconds after the start of frictional heating with the Martian atmosphere. At an altitude of about 6 kilometers (3.7 miles) and traveling at a velocity of 900 kilometers per hour (600 mph), the parachute deployed, the aeroshell released and the lander 's legs unfolded. At an altitude of about 1.5 kilometers (5,000 feet), the lander activated its three retro - engines and was released from the parachute. The lander then immediately used retrorockets to slow and control its descent, with a soft landing on the surface of Mars.
Propulsion for deorbit was provided by the monopropellant hydrazine (N H), through a rocket with 12 nozzles arranged in four clusters of three that provided 32 newtons (7.2 lb) thrust, translating to a change in velocity of 180 m / s (590 ft / s). These nozzles also acted as the control thrusters for translation and rotation of the lander.
Terminal descent (after use of a parachute) and landing utilized three (one affixed on each long side of the base, separated by 120 degrees) monopropellant hydrazine engines. The engines had 18 nozzles to disperse the exhaust and minimize effects on the ground, and were throttleable from 276 to 2,667 newtons (62 to 600 lb). The hydrazine was purified in order to prevent contamination of the Martian surface with Earth microbes. The lander carried 85 kg (187 lb) of propellant at launch, contained in two spherical titanium tanks mounted on opposite sides of the lander beneath the RTG windscreens, giving a total launch mass of 657 kg (1,448 lb). Control was achieved through the use of an inertial reference unit, four gyros, a radar altimeter, a terminal descent and landing radar, and the control thrusters.
Power was provided by two radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) units containing plutonium - 238 affixed to opposite sides of the lander base and covered by wind screens. Each generator was 28 cm (11 in) tall, 58 cm (23 in) in diameter, had a mass of 13.6 kg (30 lb) and provided 30 watts continuous power at 4.4 volts. Four wet cell sealed nickel - cadmium 8 ampere - hours (28,800 coulombs), 28 volts rechargeable batteries were also on board to handle peak power loads.
Communications were accomplished through a 20 - watt S - band transmitter using two traveling - wave tubes. A two - axis steerable high - gain parabolic antenna was mounted on a boom near one edge of the lander base. An omnidirectional low - gain S - band antenna also extended from the base. Both these antennae allowed for communication directly with the Earth, permitting Viking 1 to continue to work long after both orbiters had failed. A UHF (381 MHz) antenna provided a one - way relay to the orbiter using a 30 watt relay radio. Data storage was on a 40 - Mbit tape recorder, and the lander computer had a 6000 - word memory for command instructions.
The lander carried instruments to achieve the primary scientific objectives of the lander mission: to study the biology, chemical composition (organic and inorganic), meteorology, seismology, magnetic properties, appearance, and physical properties of the Martian surface and atmosphere. Two 360 - degree cylindrical scan cameras were mounted near one long side of the base. From the center of this side extended the sampler arm, with a collector head, temperature sensor, and magnet on the end. A meteorology boom, holding temperature, wind direction, and wind velocity sensors extended out and up from the top of one of the lander legs. A seismometer, magnet and camera test targets, and magnifying mirror are mounted opposite the cameras, near the high - gain antenna. An interior environmentally controlled compartment held the biology experiment and the gas chromatograph mass spectrometer. The X-ray fluorescence spectrometer was also mounted within the structure. A pressure sensor was attached under the lander body. The scientific payload had a total mass of approximately 91 kg (201 lb).
The Viking landers conducted biological experiments designed to detect life in the Martian soil (if it existed) with experiments designed by three separate teams, under the direction of chief scientist Gerald Soffen of NASA. One experiment turned positive for the detection of metabolism (current life), but based on the results of the other two experiments that failed to reveal any organic molecules in the soil, most scientists became convinced that the positive results were likely caused by non-biological chemical reactions from highly oxidizing soil conditions.
Although there is consensus that the Viking lander results demonstrated a lack of biosignatures in soils at the two landing sites, the test results and their limitations are still under assessment. The validity of the positive ' Labeled Release ' (LR) results hinged entirely on the absence of an oxidative agent in the Martian soil, but one was later discovered by the Phoenix lander in the form of perchlorate salts. It has been proposed that organic compounds could have been present in the soil analyzed by both Viking 1 and Viking 2, but remained unnoticed due to the presence of perchlorate, as detected by Phoenix in 2008. Researchers found that perchlorate will destroy organics when heated and will produce chloromethane and dichloromethane, the identical chlorine compounds discovered by both Viking landers when they performed the same tests on Mars.
The question of microbial life on Mars remains unresolved. Nonetheless, on April 12, 2012, an international team of scientists reported studies, based on mathematical speculation through complexity analysis of the Labeled Release experiments of the 1976 Viking Mission, that may suggest the detection of "extant microbial life on Mars. ''
The leader of the imaging team was Thomas Mutch, a geologist at Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island. The camera uses a movable mirror to illumate 12 photo diodes. Each of the 12 silicon diodes are designed to be sensitive to different frequences of light. Several diodes are placed to focus accurately at distances between six and 43 feet away from the lander.
The cameras scanned at a rate of five vertical scan lines per second, each composed of 512 pixels. The 300 degree panorama images were composed of 9150 lines. The cameras scan was slow enough that in a crew shot several members show up several times in the shot as they moved themselves as the camera scanned.
The Viking landers used a Guidance, Control and Sequencing Computer (GCSC) consisting of two Honeywell HDC 402 24 - bit computers with 18K of plated - wire memory, while the Viking orbiters used a Command Computer Subsystem (CCS) using two custom - designed 18 - bit serial processors.
The two orbiters cost 217 million USD (at the time), which is about 1 billion USD in 2016 year - dollars. The most expensive single part of the program was the lander 's life - detection unit, which cost about 60 million then or 300 million USD in 2016 year - dollars. Development of the Viking lander design cost 357 million USD. This was decades before "faster, better, cheaper '', Viking needed to pioneer never before imagined technologies under the pressure of national prestige pulled by the Global Cold War conflict and a Space race, not to mention a possibility they might discover extraterrestrial life for the first time (it would only be after the mission, with results created by Viking that such an idea rang less plausible). The experiments had to adhere to a special 1971 directive that mandated that no single failure shall stop the return of more than one experiment -- a difficult and expensive task for a device with over 40,000 parts.
The Viking camera system cost 27.3 million USD to develop, or about 100 million in 2016 year - dollars. When the Imaging system design was completed, it was difficult to find anyone who could manufacture it so advanced. The program managers were later praised for fending off pressure to go with a simpler, less advanced imaging system, especially when the views rolled in. The program did save some money by cutting out a third lander and reducing the number of experiments on the lander.
Overall NASA says that US $1 billion in 1970s dollars was spent on the program, which when inflation - adjusted to 2016 dollars is about 5 billion USD.
The craft eventually failed, one by one, as follows:
The Viking program ended on May 21, 1983. To prevent an imminent impact with Mars the orbit of Viking 1 orbiter was raised on August 7, 1980 before it was shut down 10 days later. Impact and potential contamination on the planet 's surface is possible from 2019 onwards. It 's unknown if the Viking 2 orbiter 's orbit was also raised to prevent an impact.
The Viking 1 lander was found to be about 6 kilometers from its planned landing site by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter in December 2006.
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when did the nhl start putting names on jerseys | NHL uniform - wikipedia
Players in the National Hockey League wear equipment which allows their team affiliation to be easily identified, unifying the image of the team. Currently, NHL equipment consists of a hockey jersey, hockey pants, socks, gloves, and a helmet.
Historically, the only standardized piece of the equipment has been the sweater (jersey), which has to be of identical design by the same company for all members of a team. Other elements merely have a number scheme, allowing individual players to select their own brand and model colored to match the uniform but not necessarily identical in appearance. Sticks and other equipment worn under the clothes have no requirements in terms of matching a team 's colors; teams will sometimes provide players with team - brand undershirts or other under - clothing, but players are not required or limited to wearing them.
Goalies often have their pads and gloves and masks colored to match the team 's color scheme, but there is no requirement for this equipment to match, and goalies who transfer to a new team often play in their old equipment until new colors can be obtained. Alternatively, players who transfer teams have sometimes had their gloves painted temporarily to match the required colors, and are given new helmets.
Each team is currently required to have two sweater designs: One with a white base (or sometimes historically, a light color), and one with a darker - colored base. Between the 1970 - 71 and 2002 - 03 seasons, NHL teams wore white uniforms at home and dark uniforms on the road (which is the current convention in some low - level ice hockey leagues). Since the 2003 -- 04 season, NHL teams typically wear the dark color at home and the white for road games; there are occasional single - game exceptions. The only element allowed by NHL rules to be interchangeable between the two sets of equipment is the pants.
Starting in 1995 (excluding a few prior isolated instances), some teams began to design a third sweater, or alternate sweater, which allowed them to experiment with new designs, or throwback to a vintage design. Though they are termed third sweaters, they can actually entail an entirely separate look from the primary equipment, often including alternate socks, and sometimes alternate helmets and other equipment. Some third sweaters have eventually become the bases for new primary sweater designs.
Third sweaters are typically worn only a few times a season by special permission of the league, based on a list of requested games. They can also be worn during selected playoff games. The third sweater program, as the NHL came to call it, was temporarily suspended on two occasions: for the 2007 -- 08 season (due to logistics problems with the introduction of the Reebok Edge sweater that was unveiled at the 2007 NHL All - Star Game) and for the 2017 -- 18 season (due to the introduction of the Adidas sweater).
A team 's desire to wear their third sweater sometimes requires the opposing team to wear their home or road sweater when the opposite would be normally worn, due to the color of the third sweater. This can occur when a road team wishes to wear a colored third sweater, or a home team wishes to wear a white third sweater, as there must be one team each wearing white and colored uniforms in a game. This can require a team to carry two sets of uniforms and equipment on the road, whether they are using their third sweaters, or are playing against a team who is. As of the 2018 - 19 season, the New Jersey Devils (sweater modeled after the home sweater the team wore from 1982 to 1992) are the only team to wear a white third sweater. The Washington Capitals (2011 Winter Classic sweater modeled after the sweater the team wore from 1974 to 1995) were the only NHL team to have a white third sweater from the 2011 - 12 season to the 2014 - 15 season, when they were replaced by red sweaters of the same design. The Philadelphia Flyers used a special white third sweater for their 50th anniversary in the 2016 -- 17 season.
As hockey originates as an outdoor winter sport where players wore sweaters, this terminology has been retained to describe what is probably the most recognized element of a team 's equipment (which is the only element which is mass marketed to the public).
Most NHL sweaters (jerseys) display the team 's primary logo in the center of the chest, while some also display secondary logos on the shoulders. Each player in a team 's lineup for a game must have a different number displayed on the back of their sweater, as well as the player 's surname above their number on the back of their sweater. While not required, teams typically place their numbers on each upper arm as well. Team captains and alternate captains wear the letters "C '' and "A '' respectively on the front of their sweaters. Sweaters have a loop of fabric sewn into the inside back, called a "fight strap '' or "tie - down '', which must be secured to the player 's pants during a game, to prevent the sweater from being pulled over the player 's head in a fight. Players normally get a new jersey every ten or so games, although due to other reasons players may get another jersey sooner.
In recent years, teams have sold both "pro '' model sweaters, ostensibly identical to those worn by players, and "replica '' quality sweaters which are cheaper versions that typically use cheaper production methods and lower - quality materials. Replica versions typically lack the fight strap, and in recent years have an additional brand logo on the left wrist.
Prior to 2000, different NHL teams had contracts with different manufacturers for their sweaters, although in some years all or most teams had a deal with one supplier. Manufacturers included CCM, Koho, Nike, Starter, and Pro Player.
From the 2000 -- 01 season, up to the 2005 -- 06 NHL season, all team sweaters were made by The Hockey Company in an NHL - wide deal, and were branded with subsidiary brands. The Koho brand was on dark sweaters and third sweaters, while the CCM brand was on the white sweaters. The Hockey Company began the practice of putting the manufacturer 's logo on the back of the sweater, below the neck, rather than on the back of the waist hem, as had previously been the practice. Jofa, another subsidiary, made the sweaters for referees and linesmen until the 2005 -- 06 season, when they were re-branded CCM which they remain as of 2008 -- 09.
Following Reebok 's purchase of The Hockey Company, all official NHL team sweaters were switched to the Reebok (Rbk Hockey) brand (which is more familiar to the general public), while cheaper replica sweaters sold to fans retained the CCM branding. Reebok logos are on the side boards in all NHL arenas (for marketing purposes) just above the blue and red lines.
The Rbk Edge, or simply Edge, is a newer line of sweaters designed by Reebok. They were announced by Reebok after nearly three years of development. The new sweaters are tighter - fitting, are less water - absorbent, and are more flexible than before. It was intended to make players more maneuverable on the ice. The Edge sweaters were unveiled at the 55th National Hockey League All - Star Game and began to be worn, league - wide, from the 2007 -- 08 NHL season onwards. Almost every team in the league made at least minor changes to their equipment design in conjunction with implementing the new sweater style. The San Jose Sharks, Tampa Bay Lightning, Ottawa Senators, Vancouver Canucks, Dallas Stars, and Washington Capitals redesigned their equipment altogether with a new or updated logo. The Columbus Blue Jackets and Minnesota Wild used their alternate sweater from the previous three seasons as the basis for their new look, complete with the team adopting the alternate logo from their alternates as their primary logo.
Five of the Original Six teams (excluding the Boston Bruins) as well as the New Jersey Devils kept their previous styles intact when possible, with the Devils going as far as to issue a press release saying that the team had no plans for an event unveiling the Rbk Edge design, because there was nothing new to see. The Anaheim Ducks and Buffalo Sabres, who both had just redesigned their sweaters the year before the implementation of the Edge sweaters, also left theirs mostly unchanged. But the Sabres made the logo on the front of their sweater smaller and took away the silver outline on their white away sweater, and the Ducks added orange piping to their sweater 's neckline.
Along with the traditional differences between the replica and authentic versions of NHL sweaters, the replica (billed as "premier '') versions of the Edge sweater sold to the public have a "jock tag '' on the left side of the front near the waist with the Reebok vector, NHL logo, and sweater size.
Citing player complaints, Reebok later modified the Edge sweaters, removing the play - dry material in the front and making the sleeves bigger. The modified sweaters, dubbed the Edge II, made their debut at the 2008 NHL Winter Classic on January 1, 2008.
In 2015, the NHL and Adidas announced plans for Adidas to begin manufacturing official NHL jerseys starting in the 2017 -- 18 season. On June 20, 2017, the NHL unveiled new ADIZERO sweaters for each of the 31 teams, including the first uniform for the league 's newest team, the Vegas Golden Knights. The new sweaters are advertised as being lighter, cooler, and stronger than previous jerseys. Due to the change, there were no third "alternate '' jerseys for any NHL teams for the 2017 -- 18 season.
A team 's gear also includes color requirements for other equipment, while not requiring players to use a specific brand or model, so they may select equipment to their preferences. This includes a player 's gloves, pants, and helmet. Socks are also part of the design, historically with some pattern of horizontal stripes. CCM / Reebok has been a frequent supplier of player equipment and skates.
There is a sock and pant design by Reebok with similar technological improvements and design intentions.
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ponder on the title arachne in what way does it relate to the theme | Arachne - wikipedia
In Greek mythology (and later Roman mythology), Arachne (/ əˈrækniː /; from Greek: ἀράχνη "spider '', cognate with Latin araneus) was a talented mortal weaver who challenged Athena, goddess of wisdom and crafts, to a weaving contest; this hubris resulted in her being transformed into a spider. There are many versions of the story 's weaving contest, with each saying that one or the other won.
Arachne was a Lydian maiden who was the daughter of Idmon of Colophon, who was a famous dyer in purple. She was credited to have invented linen cloth and nets while her son Closter introduced the use of spindle in the manufacture of wool. She was said to have been a native of Hypæpæ, near Colophon in Asia Minor.
One version appears in the Metamorphoses of the Roman poet Ovid.
In this version, Arachne was a shepherd 's daughter who began weaving at an early age. She became a great weaver, boasted that her skill was greater than that of Athena, and refused to acknowledge that her skill came, in part at least, from the goddess. Athena took offense and set up a contest between them. Presenting herself as an old lady, she approached the boasting girl and warned: "You can never compare to any of the gods. Plead for forgiveness and Athena might spare your soul. ''
"Ha! I only speak the truth and if Athena thinks otherwise then let her come down and challenge me herself, '' Arachne replied. Athena removed her disguise and appeared in shimmering glory, clad in a sparkling white chiton. The two began weaving straight away. Athena 's weaving represented four separate contests between mortals and the gods in which the gods punished mortals for setting themselves as equals of the gods. Arachne 's weaving depicted ways that the gods had misled and abused mortals, particularly Zeus, tricking and seducing many women. When Athena saw that Arachne had not only insulted the gods, but done so with a work far more beautiful than Athena 's own, she was enraged. She ripped Arachne 's work into shreds, and hit her on the head three times. Terrified and ashamed, Arachne hanged herself. Then Athena said "Live on then, and yet hang, condemned one, but, lest you are careless in future, this same condition is declared, in punishment, against your descendants, to the last generation! '' After saying this she sprinkled her with the juice of Hecate 's herb, and immediately at the touch of this dark poison, Arachne 's hair fell out. With it went her nose and ears, her head shrank to the smallest size, and her whole body became tiny. Her slender fingers stuck to her sides as legs, the rest is belly, from which she still spins a thread, and, as a spider, weaves her ancient web. '' This showed how goddesses punished mortals who dared to insult them.
The taxonomical class name Arachnida and the name for spiders in many romance languages are both derived from arachne.
The metamorphosis of Arachne in Ovid 's telling furnished material for an episode in Edmund Spenser 's mock - heroic Muiopotmos, 257 -- 352. Spenser 's adaptation, which "rereads an Ovidian story in terms of the Elizabethan world '' is designed to provide a rationale for the hatred of Arachne 's descendent Aragnoll for the butterfly - hero Clarion.
The tale of Arachne inspired one of Velázquez ' most factual paintings: Las Hilanderas ("The Spinners, or The fable of Arachne '', in the Prado), in which the painter represents the two important moments of the myth. In the front, the contest of Arachne and the goddess (the young and the old weaver), in the back, an Abduction of Europa that is a copy of Titian 's version (or maybe of Rubens ' copy of Titian). In front of it appears Minerva (Athena) at the moment she punishes Arachne. It transforms the myth into a reflection about creation and imitation, god and man, master and pupil (and therefore about the nature of art).
It has also been suggested that Jeremias Gotthelf 's nineteenth century novella, The Black Spider, was heavily influenced by the Arachne story from Ovid 's Metamorphoses. In the novella, a woman is turned into a venomous spider having reneged on a deal with the devil.
Arachne has had a considerable degree of influence on modern popular culture. She frequently appears in modern fantasy books, movies, and television series in the form of a monstrous spider. In Hercules: The Legendary Journeys, she is pictured as a grotesque, half - woman, half - spider monster who nests on people to produce killer spiders. She is the central character in the 2011 novel The Spider Goddess by Tara Moss. In Class of the Titans, Arachne is changed into a giant spider and makes a deal with Cronus to become human again. Cronus does not hold up the end of his bargain though and betrays her after getting her to trap the heroes for him. After being berated by Atlanta, Athena turns Arachne back into a human, and she is allowed to live at the Olympus High School, weaving for the gods.
In the 13th episode from season 6 of Supernatural, "Unforgiven, '' the monster of the week is an Arachne, depicted as a humanoid monster with spider - like attributes and abilities, including the ability to weave strong webs and a poisonous bite that can turn other humans into Arachnes. They can only be killed by decapitation and before one appeared in Bristol, Rhode Island had n't been seen in 2,000 years. While soulless, Sam Winchester hunted one, but was unaware that it had turned its victims into Arachnes as well. One of the turned victims comes back for revenge and Sam is forced to kill him. Arachne is also featured in the Percy Jackson and Heroes of Olympus series. All of Athena 's children, including Annabeth Chase, are arachnophobic because of Arachne 's dispute with Athena. Arachne appears towards the end of The Mark of Athena as a large spider while still maintaining human features. She is defeated by Annabeth because of her pride and eventually they are both sent falling into Tartarus, where Percy Jackson kills Arachne.
In the novel The Last Unicorn written by Peter S. Beagle, a plain brown spider is bewitched into believing that she is Arachne until the witch who enchanted her is killed. She is mentioned to be one of the creatures in Mommy Fortuna 's Midnight Carnival. The book describes Arachne as "'... the greatest weaver in the world -- her fate 's the proof of it. She had the bad luck to defeat the goddess Athena in a weaving contest. Athena was a sore loser, and Arachne is now a spider, creating only for Mommy Fortuna 's Midnight Carnival, by special arrangement. Warp of snow and woof of flame, and never any two the same. Arachne. ' ''
In Marvel Comics, Arachne is the name used by the second Spider - Woman (Julia Carpenter, currently the new Madame Web) to distinguish herself from Jessica Drew, the original Spider - Woman. In Volume 3 of Monster Musume, an Arachne (a human female from the hips upward and the body / legs of a spider) named Rachnera Arachnera is introduced; she goes on to become a member of the "Monster Girl '' household in Volume 4. Arachne Gorgon is a powerful witch and one of the main antagonists of Soul Eater. She was responsible for crafting the first demon weapons, an act that Death fiercely opposed, forcing her to bide her time and remain in hiding for 800 years. She returns to lead the risen Arachnaphobia, her personal army against Death.
The story of Arachne has also been adapted for many plays. She is the inspiration for a character featured in the Broadway musical Spider - Man: Turn Off the Dark. Arachne: Spider Girl! is a play for children based on the myth by Ursula Dubosarsky, first published in the NSW School Magazine.
Gustave Doré 's illustration of Arachne 's punishment in Purgatory for Dante 's Purgatorio has had a surprising number of pop culture appearances. It is one of the many recurring images used by the rock band, The Mars Volta; it has been used in the cover of their Live EP, as a backdrop for their live shows, and a favorite accessory for guitarist and composer Omar Rodríguez - López in the form of a belt buckle. Eminem 's 2013 music video for the song "Rap God '' features imagery from Dante 's Purgatorio, including the illustration of Arachne. (This is most likely a metaphor for the rappers who try to compete with the self - proclaimed "Rap God '').
On Episode 245 of the Comedy Bang! Bang! Podcast, Comedian Neil Campbell references Arachne and Athena 's rivalry during a freestyle rap battle. In the popular MOBA game, Smite, Arachne is listed as a playable deity in the Greek pantheon.
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who owned the hardware store on home improvement | List of home Improvement characters - wikipedia
This article contains character information for the American television sitcom Home Improvement.
Timothy "Tim '' Taylor (Tim Allen) -- Tim Taylor (the character has a birth date of October 1954) is the father of the family. Ever the know - it - all, Tim believes he has an incredibly wide knowledge of tools, electronics, and general mechanics. In reality, he is highly accident - prone. He actually does have a significant amount of skill as a general handyman, but can be overly confident and prone to spectacular mishaps. He often forgets a crucial step, ignores instructions, makes ill - advised modifications, or comes to inaccurate conclusions. The only exception to this ineptitude is when working on cars, at which he excels. He is left - handed but actually does a great deal of his work with his right hand. Taylor 's "arch enemy '', so to speak, is the real - life home improvement specialist, Bob Vila. One episode saw Tim competing against Bob Vila in a lawnmower contest for charity. Tim actually installed a jet engine on his machine - which resulted in Tim causing unintended chaos and destruction. Tim hosts a home improvement show called Tool Time with his co-host and friend, Al Borland. While Al is his co-host, Al constantly must remind Tim of safety regulations and practices. Tim often ignores Al 's advice, and this frequently results in an accident. While it is constantly mentioned that Tool Time is a limited local home improvement show that sits very high on the channel dial, Tool Time seems to have a very wide audience in the state of Michigan, and is progressively broadcast to more outlets across the Midwest (A season 5 episode has Tim, Al, and Bud brainstorming for ideas on how to bring the show into the Chicago markets). Tim often boasts at his popularity for hosting the show, although many people state that they like Al better. A running gag involves people encountering Tim in public and stating, "Oh, we always watch Tool Time... we love Al. '' To which an annoyed Tim would reply, "Oh yeah, we all love Al. '' In later seasons, however, it is learned that Tim actually has a higher fan base than Al (except in a Season 8 episode, where Al scores higher than Tim on a popularity poll).
Because of the numerous accidents in which he is involved, both on his TV show and at home, it is a recurring joke that Tim is on a first name basis with the hospital staff, and it is often suggested that Tim has special offers available to him for being a repeat customer. Another gag is that Tool Time fans believe his many accidents are staged, to show people what not to do. However, many of Tim 's modified inventions work but are often too powerful, like his new ice cube dispenser in season 2. Tim often garbles advice he heard from Wilson and / or otherwise makes stupid remarks -- although on one episode Tim stuns Jill and Wilson by putting forth sound advice of his own. Another running gag is Tim accidentally causing damage or destruction to anything he touches -- such as destroying the world 's smallest car or running over golf carts with a Marine Corps tank. Tim has an unhealthy obsession with Halloween and Christmas, going to extraordinary lengths to scare others and competing with "Doc Johnson '' in the annual neighborhood Christmas lighting contest, which he has rarely won.
While Tim has a very good relationship with his wife, he is quick to admit defeat in any conflict they become engaged in. He also works hard to maintain healthy relationships with his three sons, although he relates more closely to Brad than Randy or Mark.
Tim is occasionally chauvinistic in attitude, usually putting women down or sometimes seeing them as inferior (but he often must absorb the same insults against men from Jill). A running gag is that every time Tim says something sexist on Tool Time, Al holds up a sign displaying the show 's mailing address (or in one episode, the phone number) for the women to send in their complaints. He also tends to mock those who are overweight, such as Al 's mother or his mother - in - law (until she loses weight), and can be juvenile in attitude on many occasions. Another running gag involves Jill 's distaste for his attitude, in that she says "You 're pathetic '' every time he goes too far. Tim is an avid fan of all the local sports teams; the Detroit Lions, the Detroit Pistons, the Detroit Red Wings, and the Detroit Tigers. He is also a big fan of boxing, the Indy Racing League, and tractor pulls. Many scenes take place in the garage during his favorite hobby, working on one of his two hot rods, one of which he built from the ground up, and the other existing vehicle that he restored.
While he occasionally considers moving on professionally, Tim remains the main host of Tool Time until the final episode of Home Improvement. Before he was cast on Tool Time, he worked as a traveling tool salesman. Tim barely graduated from college, but later receives an honorary Doctorate from Western Michigan University. Tim is famous for his ever - popular noisemaking, which he refers to as a "Simian grunt. ''
His mother is alive for the entire series, however his father died when Tim was eleven years old. There has always been some disparity between how many brothers Tim has. On several occasions in the later seasons, it is mentioned that Tim has four brothers, but in earlier seasons he is stated to have five, however, seven have been mentioned by name (Marty, Jeff, Rick, John, Steve, Brian, and Danny).
Tim always thinks things need "more power '', and is often seen wearing sweaters from Michigan - based colleges. Tim thinks he knows everything there is to know about tools.
Tim is the only character to appear in every single episode. A close second is Jill, who only missed the second part of the series finale (unless one counts the flashbacks shown).
Jillian "Jill '' Patterson Taylor (Patricia Richardson) -- Jill (born November 1956) is Tim 's wife and the mother of Brad, Randy, and Mark. Jill graduated from Adams High School (taken from an actual high school in Rochester Hills, Michigan) in 1973. Jill is intelligent, practical, and has a dry sense of humor that does n't often fly with her family. After she decides that her career is not fulfilling, Jill dedicates herself toward earning her master 's degree in Psychology. While she is very motherly and domestic in nature, she is apparently a very bad cook, as Tim and the three boys often make remarks about her cooking. Her strong femininity is often in direct conflict with Tim 's masculinity, occasionally leading her to wonder why they work as a couple.
Jill comes from a strong military family, and sometimes uses her upbringing to solve several family squabbles. Her father was a Colonel in the US Army and is referred to as such. Jill has four sisters, all of whom have appeared: Robin, Carrie, Tracy, and Linda. (A fifth sister, Katie, was briefly mentioned by Jill 's mother in the season 2 episode, "Much Ado About Nana '', and in the season 4 episode, "Quibbling Siblings '', but never again.) She often appears overwhelmed at the fact that she is the only female in a family with three sons and no daughter. She appears closest to her youngest son, Mark, as she remarks a few times that Mark is the only one who still has the ability to be open - minded to accept the things that Jill likes as opposed to being the typical "boy ''. Early on, she has a temporary job working at a magazine, and later in the series, Jill is a psychology student. She also does a significant amount of volunteer work, especially for the local library.
Jill has a strong feminist side and enjoys opera, theatre, and the ballet. She occasionally tries to be interested in sports and tools but always ends up relating to her husband over his buried sensitivity. Jill also considers it her mission to get Tim, Brad, Randy, and Mark to do the right thing. Jill refers to any or all of her sons, as well as Tim by their full names when she is angry. Jill likes to "match - make '', with mixed results, as she did set up Al with Ilene, who were together for a few seasons, and Wilson and one of her professors in another successful relationship. She also has a thing for cars -- driving at different times an Austin - Healey 3000 (which Tim hates because he does n't understand British wiring) and a cherry red Chevy Bel - Air Nomad; in two memorable episodes, Jill is furious with Tim for driving her Healey without permission and for wrecking her Nomad. In other memorable episodes, Jill is extremely angry at Tim when he calls her an "old Hen '' on TV and when she finds out he bought $4,000 worth of game tickets for the Detroit Pistons.
Bradley Michael "Brad '' Taylor (Zachery Ty Bryan) -- (born January 1981) is the oldest, most athletic and strongest of the three boys, once seen throwing Randy around when they got into an argument. While all three boys are portrayed as troublemakers at one point or another, Brad gets into the most serious trouble. He is the only one to have a run - in with the police (after throwing bricks at windows in an abandoned greenhouse) and was once discovered in possession of marijuana, which he admitted to smoking. On the other hand, Brad was the only Taylor son to co-host an episode of Tool Time, and the one seen doing the most extensive work on Tim 's Hot Rod, and is the son to which Tim relates to the easiest. Although he often struggled with his school work, he has extraordinary athletic ability, especially playing soccer. Throughout the series, he was offered numerous opportunities to make a career out of soccer, including the offer to play for a professional team in England (the fictitious Birmingham Chubbs). This was rejected when his parents refused to allow him to give up college to play professional soccer. Later in the series, despite a knee injury which threatened to put an end to his athletic pursuits, he earned a college scholarship to UCLA. Brad has a prominent attraction to women, including his mild infatuation with Tool Time ' s Heidi Keppert. Brad and Tim enjoy working on classic cars.
Brad got along well with Randy, especially early on in the show. The two are often seen working together to tease Mark, attempting to cover up Brad 's actions to keep him out of trouble, or just hanging out together. Brad and Mark do n't share many things in common until they get older, especially in the 8th season where they develop a close bond while Randy is away in Costa Rica.
Randall William "Randy '' Taylor (Jonathan Taylor Thomas) -- Randy (born February 8, 1982) is the middle child, ultimately the smartest of the three boys, and frequently the most mischievous troublemaker. Randy 's intelligence eventually led to him skipping ahead to advanced math and science classes, and was often the cause of sibling rivalry with Brad. Randy inherited Tim 's talents as a jokester. Randy in the later seasons is noticeably a lot shorter than his brothers and his height is often made fun of by Brad. Whenever Tim was in trouble with Jill, Randy was always there with a quick remark that would almost always get him in trouble. Although initially sharing mostly the same interests as Brad and his father, throughout his adolescence Randy became very conscious about the environment and civil rights. He became very skeptical of the intentions of organized religion, especially Christian denominations, and became a vegetarian in later seasons. He wrote for the school newspaper, where he concentrated on social and political issues, including criticizing Binford for its pollution record, which led to a fierce disagreement with Tim. Unlike Brad who dated many different girls, Randy, for the most part, only dated one girl, Lauren, whom he remained with for the rest of the series.
Randy is generally the most level - headed son in the family, although because he is an intelligent boy, he was also prone to arrogance, jealousy, and sometimes a little prejudice. His father has a tendency to dislike and mock anything he has no interest in, such as ballet and opera, and Randy inherited this attitude, which ironically puts him at odds with Tim, since Randy has no interest in cars and tools. Out of all the Taylor boys, Randy is the one with the least respect for his father. He once called his father 's show "Fool Time '', and compared his father to an ape. When Tim brought Brad onto Tool Time, Randy immediately called it a stupid show and acted hateful towards Tim and Brad. During high school, he wrote a school article that turned many adults against Tim for Binford 's pollution record, threatening his father 's reputation, and he bitterly disapproved of Brad 's jockish article earning the paper 's front page, which was usually occupied by Randy 's articles. He does however mend his relationships with them after learning the error of his ways.
In the Eighth Season of the show, Randy leaves for Costa Rica (along with Lauren, who stayed in a nearby town), reappearing in only one episode when he came back for Christmas. On that occasion, Randy felt that so much had changed in his absence that he no longer fit in with the family, although confiding in Wilson aided his feelings. Unlike Tim and Brad, Randy is not good with his hands and does not enjoy working on crafts or the Hot Rod. Randy often relates more with his mother, with whom he shares his intelligence and enjoyment of acting (although Tim embarrassed Randy during one acting scene thanks to a malfunctioning stage prop). In another episode Randy 's party with friends was ruined due to Tim putting on too many coats of floorwax - which resulted in his girlfriend getting a sprained ankle.
Early on in the show, Brad and Randy were portrayed as "partners in crime ''. While they did argue like normal brothers, they generally bonded over their mutual enjoyment of teasing Mark. As they got older, they grew apart somewhat, as Randy became more focused on school and social issues and Brad became more focused on athletics and girls.
Early on Randy and Mark generally only get along when united against Brad, though things improved somewhat as they got older.
Marcus Jason "Mark '' Taylor (Taran Noah Smith) -- Mark (born March 1985) is the youngest and most sensitive of the three boys. He relates very closely with his mother, especially after the first season. He does not share many interests with his brothers or father, and in the early seasons was often the victim due to his naïveté of some practical joke that Brad and Randy had thought up on the spot for him. Mark is not a troublemaker, as he does n't possess a joking demeanor or even a hint of a mean streak. On the rare occasions that Brad or Randy include him on pranks, Mark often blows their cover by responding to someone when he is not supposed to or divulging too much information. This divulging of information not only gets Brad and Randy in trouble, but often Tim as well, especially when he is trying to keep something he said or did from Jill. During adolescence, Mark began to adopt a more "goth '' look and an anti-establishment kind of attitude, the cause of which was founded in his feelings of social isolation. While Mark 's darkening demeanor worried Tim and Jill on several occasions, it never turned into anything extremely destructive, although a homemade horror movie he created was a bit more twisted than they expected. His Gothic appearance was gone by the end of the series. Mark enjoys film production and music, took karate and pilot training, and became a proficient cook. During the early seasons of the show Mark is seen in a Cub Scout uniform - sans badges.
Mark 's relationship with Brad and Randy was often adversarial, especially in early seasons as he was often the butt of their jokes, pranks and teasing. While Mark never truly bonded with Randy, in the final season Mark and Brad grew very close as the result of the dynamic of their relationship changing when Randy left for Costa Rica. Mark eventually became taller than Randy and later Brad.
Martin "Marty '' Taylor (William O'Leary) -- Marty (born in 1964) is Tim 's youngest brother by ten years. As their father died when Marty was just one year old, Tim is the closest thing he knows to a father. Marty was often picked on by his older brothers, much as Mark is by Brad and Randy. He is often seen bouncing from job to job, unable to hold a steady career. For the majority of the show 's run, Marty was married to Nancy (Jensen Daggett), and they had identical twin girls, Gracie and Claire.
Jeffrey "Jeff '' Taylor (Thom Sharp) -- Jeff is Tim and Marty 's oldest brother (exact age unspecified). He is extremely frugal and suffers from male - pattern baldness, both of which make him a frequent target of Tim 's jokes. Like Marty, Jeff has trouble maintaining a steady job. It is mentioned that he has made a number of bad business ventures (such as a drive - thru pet store), was divorced twice, and did n't finish college (as mentioned by Jill 's sister in one episode). Jeff eventually makes an investment in Tim 's hardware store.
Albert E. "Al '' Borland (Richard Karn) -- A master plumber and licensed contractor, Al is Tim 's un-hip sidekick on the show - within - a-show Tool Time and best friend. His personality is an exact opposite of Tim 's -- he is reserved, quiet, does not show much enthusiasm and has a wide array of professional knowledge concerning tools. Al made frequent suggestions that he should be the host of Tool Time instead of Tim. Al does not make as much money as Tim, in fact it is implied that his salary is not very big at all. In the episode, "Brothers and Sisters '', Al says that he gets a very small paycheck. In the episode, "Fifth Anniversary '', it is revealed that a big reason why Al was chosen to be Tim 's assistant was because Al was the only assistant applicant that was willing to work for the salary that was offered. Al could be characterized as a "mama 's boy ''; he spent a great deal of time attempting to please his mother Alma -- who was severely overweight (though she was never seen). She died from a heart attack near the end of the series after Al asked her permission to marry Trudy. His father was almost 60 when Al was born. Young Al has mechanical talent - constructing a model crane out of wood. Al was engaged to an orthodontist named Ilene for a time, but they ended up calling off the wedding. He also dated Greta Post who appeared a few times in the series. In a later season, Al met a wealthy exterminator named Trudy. They hit it off and were married in the show 's final episode. Al might have been based on Norm Abram of This Old House because of the resemblance (flannel shirts, beard, pudgy, etc.) and the fact that Al does all the "real work '' on the Tool Time show (much like Norm did on This Old House). In the episode "No, No, Gadot '', Tim and Al were arrested for scalping hockey tickets. In a holding cell, an inmate named George approached them and asked if they were "the guys from that TV tool show '', and Tim responded with "why, yes, I 'm Bob Vila, and this is Norm ''. Al has a big brother named Cal who is a physicist, and unlike some other siblings around the world, they had never gotten into a physical fight. Instead, they usually settled their disputes over a cup of tea. In a flashback episode of the Tool Time premiere, Al was noted to be a Pisces and had a clean - shaven face, while Tim had a beard. Al has his own fan club. Like Tim, Al is left - handed and his favorite board games are Parcheesi, Chinese Checkers, Scrabble and Bingo. His favorite movie is My Fair Lady. One episode had a pet of Al 's, a turtle named "Scooter, '' which Tim accidentally dropped in cement. With his dry wit, Al serves as the show 's (both Tool Time and Home Improvement) straight man to the wackier, more outgoing Tim. Beginning at the end of the fifth season, Al invented a second source of income for himself by inventing a board game based on Tool Time, which features Tim, Al and Heidi as playable characters.
Borland is slightly overweight, and always seen wearing flannel, which Tim cracks jokes about consistently. The reason he always wears flannel came from his father, who, when asking young Al to assist in their own various home projects, would put his old flannels on Al to keep him clean or warm. Al wears flannel as a tribute to him after he died.
Tim also often criticizes Al 's mother, Alma Borland, who is never seen (except her hand and forearm, in season 8), but is apparently severely overweight. In one of the later episodes, Al announces to his mother he is getting married. Immediately afterwards, she screams, passes out, and dies (she was holding a breadstick, which was all that was seen). When hearing the news, the breadstick shook violently and fell over. The coffin, shown at her funeral, is double - wide to keep the humorous tone.
Al also has a brother, Cal, who looks and dresses almost exactly like him, though he is a physicist ("Sisters and Brothers ''). In the episode commentaries featured on the Season 1 DVD Set, the executive producers reveal that "Cal '' was a fan from Texas who sent his photo in a fan letter. Upon seeing his resemblance to Al, the producers brought him in to be Al 's brother, Cal.
When Al was younger, he took fencing in school and served in the Navy as a Lt (j.g.) with the Seabees, and although he wanted to see the world, he was stationed in Fallon, Nevada (interestingly enough, in the episode where Al mentions this, he uses the shibboleth pronunciation of "Nevada '', which is uncommon for an outsider, especially someone living in the midwest). After finishing his military service, Al was a construction crane operator (AFL -- CIO Local 324), then apparently got certified as a master plumber and carpenter before getting the job on Tool Time. Al drives a 1983 Mercury Grand Marquis station wagon which his mother passed down to him, and has put much time and effort into preserving the vehicle. While Al has similar interests of Tim such as cars, he has some rather odd interests, such as being able to deduce different types of wood by smell rather than appearance or texture.
Al gets along well with Tim 's sons. However, just like Tim, Al has faced problems and needed to seek the advice of Wilson. Outside of his job, Al has made investments such as becoming part owner of Harry 's Hardware and marketing a successful board game based on Tool Time, whose object is to avoid hospitalization.
Al 's beard is also a constant joke by Tim. In one episode where Tool Time is celebrating their fifth anniversary show, Al is shown in the first ever episode of Tool Time clean shaven, while Tim has a beard.
He generally knows what he is doing more than Tim, and he seems to have a better knowledge of tools and home improvement than Tim. In the first episode of Tool Time, he was described as a "master plumber '' by Tim Taylor. He also is very serious about his job, unlike Tim, who often jokes and messes up the project. Al often speaks fondly of his time as a U.S. Navy Seabee. Although Tim is the one who messes up most of the projects on Tool Time, Al is often the one who is blamed for the mishap, or is injured by the mishap. On rare occasions Al would cause a mishap of his own, but these were more due to overcalculating than Tim 's attitude of "more power ''. Despite this, Tim and Al are good friends offstage, and Al often helps out, either by helping with home projects, or by watching his children.
Throughout the series, Al has had four different girlfriends. In season one, Al went out with Greta Post, whom he met while she was volunteering to help out during a Tool Time show. Al then showed an interest in Jill 's friend Karen, but when he learned she found another man Al took it well and rebounded. He almost went out with Tim 's ex-girlfriend Stacey Lewis, however, he was n't interested in her as much as he thought. From seasons three through five, Al went out with Dr. Ilene Markham, an orthodontist who is sisters with one of Jill 's co-workers. They got engaged, but they decided at the wedding that they should n't marry. Al met a woman named Trudy in season seven and married her in the finale episode in 1999.
Wilson W. Wilson, (Earl Hindman) -- Tim 's neighbor and confidant. As a child, his parents did not allow him to speak to his neighbors, so he really likes talking to Tim and Jill. Wilson serves as an all-wise sage in the show, doling out advice to the Taylor family and seemingly always knowing just what to say to solve a problem. While most of his appearances were to help the Taylors, on seldom occasion someone who was in the extended family, or a nonmember, such as Al, would seek out Wilson 's advice. He has traveled the globe and learned much from virtually every culture in existence. He has a Ph. D. in Cultural Studies, studying "extinct languages and forgotten cultures. '' His house is full of artifacts along with a pet myna bird named Mozart who appeared infrequently. Wilson was married at one point, but his wife Catherine died long before the series begins (in a November 1994 episode, Wilson revealed that that month would have marked his and Catherine 's 25th anniversary).
At first it was unclear whether "Wilson '' was his first name or last, but his full name is revealed as Wilson Wilson, Jr. In Season 6, it is revealed that his cousins are the Wilsons of The Beach Boys. He has a grown niece named Willow Wilson (China Kantner), who appeared regularly in the seventh season when she moved in with him for a while. His usual greetings are "Well, hi - dee - ho... '' or "Hi ho, there neighbor '' or "good neighbor '' when greeting Tim, "neighborette '' when greeting Jill, and "Taylor lad (s) '' when greeting the Taylor boys.
A visual gag is that Wilson 's face is n't shown in its entirety, originally (and most commonly) with the bottom half obscured by the tall privacy fence that separates the neighbors ' yards. This gag is extended over the course of the series with other objects (or a beard) obscuring the bottom of his face, or the bottom half showing but the top obscured (such as by a mask), or his full face shown but covered by paint. The audience finally sees Earl Hindman 's full face unobscured in the series finale 's curtain call. This was based on how Tim Allen saw a next - door neighbor when he was growing up.
Lisa (Pamela Anderson) -- Binford 's first "Tool Girl. '' A secondary cast member on Tool Time, Lisa 's job was to introduce Tim and Al and to hand them any tool they requested. When Pamela Anderson chose to leave Home Improvement to pursue a role on the syndicated series Baywatch, she was written out of the series after Season 2 and it was stated that Lisa was training to be a paramedic. Lisa returns for a guest appearance four years later, having become fully qualified; and applies for (and gets) a job at Detroit Memorial Hospital.
Heidi Keppert (Debbe Dunning) -- The second "Tool Girl '' (beginning in Season 3, series regular in seasons 7 - 8) and a master electrician. Initially, the character was seen only in and around the Tool Time set. In later seasons, her personal life crossed paths with Tim and Al on a number of occasions. She gave birth to a daughter (Amy) and suffered marital problems during the show 's run. In Season 8 Episode 24 (Dead Weight), Heidi reveals to Tim that her breasts twitch when she is nervous. In the last episode of the series, Heidi revealed she was pregnant for a second time. Her outfits typically showed off her very large cleavage during the "Tool Time '' episodes. Tim speculated that many men came to the show just to see Heidi. It is revealed in multiple episodes that Tim 's son, Brad, has a crush on her. In seasons seven and eight, her role on Tool Time increased so much that she was eventually given main cast billing in the opening credits.
Harry Turner (Blake Clark) -- Owner of "Harry 's Hardware '', where Tim spent a great deal of his time (and money) and in which Al eventually became part owner. He is married -- not - so - happily -- to Delores (Shirley Prestia), and the couple bad - mouths one another behind their respective backs on every occasion (But Dolores rarely follows this rule). Also has four sons, one Dennis (David DeLuise), with whom he has a somewhat rocky relationship. In one episode Harry told Tim that he had gotten a vasectomy. In another episode it is mentioned he served in the United States Marine Corps in the Vietnam War.
Benny Baroni (Jimmy Labriola) -- One of Tim 's buddies who hangs out at the hardware store. Benny is a bit of a slacker and notoriously known as a freeloader -- his trademark being drinking coffee and eating donuts. Benny has not had a job in years, mainly because he does n't like to work. He makes money by gambling and betting on horse races. On one episode ("A House Divided '', Season 4.18) While the "Tool Time '' crew is fixing up Benny 's aunt 's house, the structure is blown up due to Benny 's negligence and is not Tim 's fault; furthermore when Tim and his family are moving furniture back into the twice repaired Benny 's aunt house, Benny, rather than helping out, lies back on a lawn chair to watch the others do the work. He is also known for being inconsiderate of others; at one point, he even ate at a soup kitchen regularly to avoid paying for meals. One episode ("The Look '', Season 5.07) Tim was selling season Pistons tickets (Tim had 2 tickets for each game and each pair cost $100) and Benny not able or willing to buy any of the tickets kept offering to go to the games with the people who were buying them, even people he did n't even know, so he could go to the games without paying for a ticket. Ironically in a rare instance of performing earnest work, Benny once appeared on an episode of Tool Time for "Tim and Al 's Fantasy Kitchen '', where he was shown cutting meat inside a walk - in freezer.
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list the provisions of the treaty of paris. which provision was the most important | Paris Peace Accords - wikipedia
The Paris Peace Accords, officially titled the Agreement on Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam, was a peace treaty signed on January 27, 1973, to establish peace in Vietnam and end the Vietnam War. The treaty included the governments of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam), the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam), and the United States, as well as the Provisional Revolutionary Government (PRG) that represented indigenous South Vietnamese revolutionaries. US ground forces up to that point had been sidelined with deteriorating morale, and gradually withdrawn to coastal regions, not partaking in offensive operations or much direct combat for the preceding two - year period. The Paris Agreement Treaty would in effect remove all remaining US Forces, including air and naval forces in exchange for Hanoi 's POWs. Direct U.S. military intervention was ended, and fighting between the three remaining powers temporarily stopped for less than a day. The agreement was not ratified by the United States Senate.
The negotiations that led to the accord began in 1968, after various lengthy delays. As a result of the accord, the International Control Commission (ICC) was replaced by the International Commission of Control and Supervision (ICCS) to fulfill the agreement. The main negotiators of the agreement were United States National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger and North Vietnamese politburo member Lê Đức Thọ; the two men were awarded the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts, although Lê Đức Thọ refused to accept it.
The agreement 's provisions were immediately frequently broken with no response from the United States. Fighting broke out in March 1973, and North Vietnamese offenses enlarged their control by the end of the year. Two years later, a massive North Vietnamese offensive conquered South Vietnam.
The document began with the statement that "the United States and all other countries respect the independence, sovereignty, unity, and territorial integrity of Vietnam as recognized by the 1954 Geneva Agreements on Vietnam ''. The inclusion of this provision was a victory for the communist side -- Saigon and the Vietcong -- towards a political settlement that would allow the South Vietnamese people to "decide themselves the political future of South Viet - Nam through genuinely free and democratic general elections under international supervision. ''
Following the success of anti-war candidate Eugene McCarthy in the New Hampshire primary, in March 1968 U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson halted bombing operations over the northern portion of the North Vietnam (Operation Rolling Thunder), in order to encourage Hanoi (the perceived locus of the insurgency) to begin negotiations. Shortly thereafter, Hanoi agreed to discuss a complete halt of the bombing, and a date was set for representatives of both parties to meet in Paris, France. The sides first met on May 10, with the delegations headed by Xuân Thuỷ, who would remain the official leader of the North Vietnamese delegation throughout the process, and U.S. ambassador - at - large W. Averell Harriman.
For five months, the negotiations stalled as North Vietnam demanded that all bombing of North Vietnam be stopped, while the U.S. side demanded that North Vietnam agree to a reciprocal de-escalation in South Vietnam; it was not until October 31 that Johnson agreed to end the air strikes and serious negotiations could begin.
One of the largest hurdles to effective negotiation was the fact that North Vietnam and the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF, or Viet Cong) in the South, refused to recognize the government of South Vietnam; with equal persistence, the government in Saigon refused to acknowledge the legitimacy of the NLF. Harriman resolved this dispute by developing a system by which North Vietnam and U.S. would be the named parties; NLF officials could join the North Vietnam team without being recognized by South Vietnam, while Saigon 's representatives joined their U.S. allies.
A similar debate concerned the shape of the table to be used at the conference. The North favored a circular table, in which all parties, including NLF representatives, would appear to be "equal '' ' in importance. The South Vietnamese argued that only a rectangular table was acceptable, for only a rectangle could show two distinct sides to the conflict. Eventually a compromise was reached, in which representatives of the northern and southern governments would sit at a circular table, with members representing all other parties sitting at individual square tables around them.
Bryce Harlow, a former White House staff member in the Eisenhower administration, claimed to have "a double agent working in the White House... I kept Nixon informed. '' Harlow and Henry Kissinger (who was friendly with both campaigns and guaranteed a job in either a Humphrey or Nixon administration in the upcoming election) separately predicted Johnson 's "bombing halt ''. Democratic senator George Smathers informed President Johnson that "the word is out that we are making an effort to throw the election to Humphrey. Nixon has been told of it ''.
According to presidential historian Robert Dallek, Kissinger 's advice "rested not on special knowledge of decision making at the White House but on an astute analyst 's insight into what was happening. '' CIA intelligence analyst William Bundy stated that Kissinger obtained "no useful inside information '' from his trip to Paris, and "almost any experienced Hanoi watcher might have come to the same conclusion ''. While Kissinger may have "hinted that his advice was based on contacts with the Paris delegation, '' this sort of "self - promotion... is at worst a minor and not uncommon practice, quite different from getting and reporting real secrets. ''
Nixon asked the prominent Asian - American politician Anna Chennault to be his "channel to Mr. Thieu ''; Chennault agreed and periodically reported to John Mitchell that Thieu had no intention of attending a peace conference. On November 2, Chennault informed the South Vietnamese ambassador: "I have just heard from my boss in Albuquerque who says his boss (Nixon) is going to win. And you tell your boss (Thieu) to hold on a while longer. '' In response, President Johnson ordered the wire - tapping of members of the Nixon campaign. Dallek wrote that Nixon 's efforts "probably made no difference '' because Thieu was unwilling to attend the talks and there was little chance of an agreement being reached before the election; however, his use of information provided by Harlow and Kissinger was morally questionable, and vice president Hubert Humphrey 's decision not to make Nixon 's actions public was "an uncommon act of political decency. ''
After winning the 1968 presidential election, Richard Nixon became president of the U.S. in January 1969. He then replaced U.S. ambassador Harriman with Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., who was later replaced by David Bruce. Also that year, the NLF set up a Provisional Revolutionary Government (PRG) to gain government status at the talks. However, the primary negotiations that led to the agreement did not occur at the Peace Conference at all, but were carried out during secret negotiations between Kissinger and Lê Đức Thọ, which began on August 4, 1969.
North Vietnam insisted for three years that the agreement could not be concluded unless the United States agreed to remove South Vietnamese President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu from power and replace him with someone more acceptable to Hanoi. Nixon and Kissinger were unwilling to sign an agreement to overthrow a government the NLF had failed to overthrow by force of arms, though the extent of North Vietnamese demands is contested. Historian Marilyn B. Young, contends that the contents of Hanoi 's proposal were systematically distorted from their original plea to permit Thiệu 's replacement, to what Kissinger propagated as a demand for his overthrow.
On May 8, 1972, President Nixon made a major concession to North Vietnam by announcing that the U.S. would accept a cease - fire in place as a precondition for its military withdrawal. In other words, the U.S. would withdraw its forces from South Vietnam without North Vietnam doing the same. The concession broke a deadlock and resulted in progress in the talks over the next few months.
The final major breakthrough came on October 8, 1972. Prior to this, North Vietnam had been disappointed by the results of its Nguyen Hue Offensive (known in the West as the Easter Offensive), which had resulted in the United States countering with "Operation Linebacker, '' a significant air bombing campaign that blunted the North 's drive in the South as well as inflicting damage in the North. Also, they feared increased isolation if Nixon 's efforts at détente significantly improved U.S. relations with the chief communist powers, the Soviet Union and the People 's Republic of China, who were backing the North Vietnamese military effort. In a meeting with Kissinger, Thọ significantly modified his bargaining line, allowing that the Saigon government could remain in power and that negotiations between the two South Vietnamese parties could develop a final settlement. Within 10 days the secret talks drew up a final draft. Kissinger held a press conference in Washington during which he announced that "peace is at hand. ''
When Thiệu, who had not even been informed of the secret negotiations, was presented with the draft of the new agreement, he was furious with Kissinger and Nixon (who were perfectly aware of South Vietnam 's negotiating position) and refused to accept it without significant changes. He then made several public radio addresses, claiming that the proposed agreement was worse than it actually was. Hanoi was flabbergasted, believing that it had been duped into a propaganda ploy by Kissinger. On October 26, Radio Hanoi broadcast key details of the draft agreement.
However, as U.S. casualties had mounted throughout the conflict since 1965, American domestic support for the war had deteriorated, and by the fall of 1972 there was major pressure on the Nixon administration to withdraw from the war. Consequently, the U.S. brought great diplomatic pressure upon their South Vietnamese ally to sign the peace treaty even if the concessions Thiệu wanted could not be achieved. Nixon pledged to provide continued substantial aid to South Vietnam, and given his recent landslide victory in the presidential election, it seemed possible that he would be able to follow through on that pledge. To demonstrate his seriousness to Thiệu, Nixon ordered the heavy Operation Linebacker II bombings of North Vietnam in December 1972. Nixon also attempted to bolster South Vietnam 's military forces by ordering that large quantities of U.S. military material and equipment be given to South Vietnam from May to December 1972 under Operations Enhance and Enhance Plus. These operations were also designed to keep North Vietnam at the negotiating table and to prevent them from abandoning negotiations and seeking total victory. When the North Vietnamese government agreed to resume "technical '' discussions with the United States, Nixon ordered a halt to bombings north of the 20th parallel on December 30. With the U.S. committed to disengagement (and after threats from Nixon that South Vietnam would be abandoned if he did not agree), Thiệu had little choice but to accede.
On January 15, 1973, President Nixon announced a suspension of offensive actions against North Vietnam. Kissinger and Thọ met again on January 23 and signed off on a treaty that was basically identical to the draft of three months earlier. The agreement was signed by the leaders of the official delegations on January 27, 1973, at the Hotel Majestic in Paris, France.
The Paris Peace Accords effectively removed the U.S. from the conflict in Vietnam. However, the agreement 's provisions were routinely flouted by both the North Vietnamese and the South Vietnamese government, eliciting no response from the United States, and ultimately resulting in the communists enlarging the area under their control by the end of 1973. North Vietnamese military forces gradually built up their military infrastructure in the areas they controlled and two years later were in a position to launch the successful offensive that ended South Vietnam 's status as an independent country. Fighting begun almost immediately in its aftermath due to a series of mutual retaliations, and war had come again in March 1973.
Nixon had secretly promised Thiệu that he would use airpower to support the South Vietnamese government should it be necessary. During his confirmation hearings in June 1973, Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger was sharply criticized by some senators after he stated that he would recommend resumption of U.S. bombing in North Vietnam if North Vietnam launched a major offensive against South Vietnam, but by August 15, 1973, 95 % of American troops and their allies had left Vietnam (both North and South) as well as Cambodia and Laos under the Case - Church Amendment. The amendment, which was approved by the U.S. Congress in June 1973, prohibited further U.S. military activity in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia unless the president secured Congressional approval in advance. However, during this time, Nixon was being driven from office due to the Watergate scandal, which led to his resignation in 1974. When the North Vietnamese began their final offensive early in 1975, U.S. Congress refused to appropriate additional military assistance for South Vietnam, citing strong opposition to the war by Americans and the loss of American equipment to the North by retreating Southern forces. Thiệu subsequently resigned, accusing the U.S. of betrayal in a TV and radio address:
At the time of the peace agreement the United States agreed to replace equipment on a one - by - one basis. But the United States did not keep its word. Is an American 's word reliable these days? The United States did not keep its promise to help us fight for freedom and it was in the same fight that the United States lost 50,000 of its young men.
Saigon fell to the North Vietnamese army supported by Viet Cong units on April 30, 1975. Schlesinger had announced early in the morning of April 29 the beginning of Operation Frequent Wind, which entailed the evacuation of the last U.S. diplomatic, military and civilian personnel from Saigon via helicopter, which was completed in the early morning hours of April 30. Not only did North Vietnam conquer South Vietnam, but the communists were also victorious in Cambodia when the Khmer Rouge captured Phnom Penh on April 17, as were the Pathet Lao in Laos successful in capturing Vientiane on December 2. Like Saigon, U.S. civilian and military personnel were evacuated from Phnom Penh, U.S. diplomatic presence in Vientiane was significantly downgraded, and the number of remaining U.S. personnel was severely reduced.
"Les Accords de Paris, quarante ans plus tard, un film de Rina Sherman '' documentary by Rina Sherman (HD, 71 min).
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what is the elevation of el chalten argentina | El Chaltén - wikipedia
El Chaltén is a small mountain village in Santa Cruz Province, Argentina. It is located in the riverside of Rio de las Vueltas, within the Los Glaciares National Park (section Reserva Nacional Zona Viedma) at the base of Cerro Torre and Cerro Fitz Roy mountains, both popular for climbing. It is 220 km north of El Calafate. It is also a popular base for hiking numerous trails, such as those to the base of surrounding peaks and glacial lakes, such as Laguna Torre.
For those reasons, El Chaltén was named Argentina 's Trekking Capital or Capital Nacional del Trekking. Today the sole reason for its existence is tourism. In 1985, Argentina and Chile had a border dispute to gain and claim rights over El Chalten. There was no war in the end, and El Chalten was earned and rewarded to Argentina. Homes, government buildings, and flags of Argentina went up to mark the city settlement. On the border of Argentina and Chile, there are unique landscapes with villages placed on the Patagonian Ice Fields, which can cause numerous challenges for El Chalten.
The town is located at the edge of the 12,363 km2 (4,773 sq mi) Southern Patagonian Ice Field and about 350 inhabitants live there throughout all the seasons of the year. Snow and ice mostly fence the town, and the homes are low structured with roads mostly made of rocks and dirt. In October 2014, El Chalten took second place in a ranking of "Best cities in the world to know '' of the travel guide Lonely Planet publishing in 2015, being the first city of Argentina.
"Chaltén '' is a tehuelche word meaning smoking mountain, as they believe it was a volcano for its peak is most of the time covered by clouds. Other visited tracks and sights are Torre Glacier, Laguna Capri, Piedras Blancas Glacier, Chorrillo del Salto, and Laguna de los Tres.
In 1877, Argentine explorer Francisco Moreno named mount Chaltén as mount Fitz Roy, in honour of Robert FitzRoy, captain during the Second voyage of HMS Beagle in the 1830s. Mount Chaltén / Fitz Roy makes the town worth visiting because one can seek the impressive peaks from any area. The whole village finds a gorgeous view that keeps expanding due to the tourism and beautiful location.
The village provides national park information for visitors, as well as commercial camping (with showers) and a very limited number of beds, catering mostly for backpackers. The most popular hostel in town is La Comarca, located in front of the bus terminal. On the treks outside of the village free campsites are provided and reservations for campsites are not necessary. Some may train for expedition hikes, visit the glaciers, or raft along the rivers. There is currently one automated teller machine, and there is no bank.
The number of tourists seems to double each year. Most are people from another country who enjoy climbing mountains, seeing the magnificent Glacier National Park, and most importantly hiking. El Chalten has enormous amounts of trails to explore and take adventures, which makes it the national capital for hiking. South of the Tumbado Mountain, there are hiking trails up to Viento and Lagoon Toro. However, about 100 - altitude meters overhead of El Chalten, there are also cliffs with large curves that look out on Condores. There are also high winds that occur often which makes it very dangerous for tourist to hike trails or climb mountains.
The tourist trade has spawned a few restaurants and shops in town, with a large variety of outdoor equipment for sale, while some of the accommodations provide internet and phone access and show regular movies. Other than that, the town is fairly far removed from the normal flow of news and communication, even during high season (November -- February). The town is nearly deserted during the off - season (the southern hemisphere winter).
El Chaltén has an unpredictable subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen Cfc), with precipitation distributed on a large number of days despite not being nearly as heavy as in Chilean Patagonia; bad weather is exceedingly common. Summers experience long daylight hours, very windy weather, and cool temperatures, mostly below 18 ° C (64.4 ° F) during the day and below 5 ° C (41 ° F) during the night. Frost can and does occur in the summer too. Winters bring snow in moderate quantities, and average temperatures around 3 ° C (37.4 ° F) during the day and − 4 ° C (24.8 ° F) during the night; however, the coldest nights are much colder than this. Spring and fall are variable, but generally cold as well.
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the public company accounting oversight board has the power to do what | Public company accounting oversight Board - wikipedia
The Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) is a private - sector, nonprofit corporation created by the Sarbanes -- Oxley Act of 2002 to oversee the audits of public companies and other issuers in order to protect the interests of investors and further the public interest in the preparation of informative, accurate and independent audit reports. The PCAOB also oversees the audits of broker - dealers, including compliance reports filed pursuant to federal securities laws, to promote investor protection. All PCAOB rules and standards must be approved by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC).
In creating the PCAOB, the Sarbanes - Oxley Act required that auditors of U.S. public companies be subject to external and independent oversight for the first time in history. Previously, the profession was self - regulated. Congress vested the PCAOB with expanded oversight authority over the audits of brokers and dealers registered with the SEC in 2010 through the Dodd - Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act.
The PCAOB has four primary functions in overseeing these auditors: registration, inspection, standard setting and enforcement.
Registered accounting firms that issue audit reports for more than 100 issuers (primarily public companies) are required to be inspected annually. This is usually around 10 firms. Registered firms that issue audit reports for 100 or fewer issuers are generally inspected at least once every three years. Many of these firms are international non-U.S. firms. In addition, the PCAOB annually inspects at least 5 percent of all registered firms that play a substantial role in the audit of an issuer but that do not issue audit reports for issuers themselves. In 2011, the Board adopted an interim inspection program for the audits of broker - dealers, while the Board considers the scope and other elements of a permanent inspection program.
In 2017, auditors began filing information on the names of engagement partners and other audit firms that participate in the audits of U.S. public companies. The PCAOB created a searchable database called AuditorSearch for investors and others to know more about who is leading and participating in audits through these filings, adding more specific data points to the mix of information that can be used when evaluating audit quality.
The PCAOB also adopted a new standard in 2017 to enhance the usefulness of the standard auditor 's report by providing additional and important information to investors, such as the critical audit matters (CAMs) that auditors communicate to the audit committees of the public companies they are auditing. These are matters that are related to accounts or disclosures that are material to the financial statements, and involved especially challenging, subjective, or complex auditor judgment. The CAMs requirement goes into effect in 2019 and 2020. Beginning in 2017, the updated auditor 's report also includes the tenure of the auditor with that company.
The PCAOB has five Board members, including a Chairman, each of whom is appointed by the SEC, after consultation with the Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System and the Secretary of the Treasury. Two Board members must be Certified Public Accountants. If the PCAOB Chairman is one of them, he or she may not have been a practicing CPA for at least five years prior to being appointed to the board. Each member serves full - time, for staggered five - year terms. The Board 's budget, approved by the SEC each year, is funded by fees paid by the companies and broker - dealers who rely on the audit firms overseen by the Board. The organization has a staff of about 800 and offices in 11 states in addition to its headquarters in Washington.
The PCAOB 's current Chairman is William D. Duhnke III, who was sworn in on January 2, 2018, by the Securities and Exchange Commission. Previously, he served as Staff Director and General Counsel to three Senate Committees. From 2011 - 2017, James R. Doty served as Chairman, a former SEC General Counsel and a former partner at the law firm of Baker Botts LLP. He was preceded by Mark W. Olson, a former member of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors. The first Chairman in place at the PCAOB was former President and Chief Executive Officer of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, William Joseph McDonough. The SEC first appointed William H. Webster to the position, a prominent lawyer and former Director of both the FBI and CIA. He resigned after several weeks and prior to the Board 's first official meeting (as explained below).
Under Section 101 of the Sarbanes - Oxley Act, the PCAOB has the power to:
Auditors of public companies are prohibited by the Sarbanes - Oxley Act to provide non-audit services, such as consulting, to their audit clients. Congress made certain exceptions for tax services, which are therefore overseen by the PCAOB. This prohibition was made as a result of allegations, in cases such as Enron and WorldCom, that auditors ' independence from their clients ' managers had been compromised because of the large fees that audit firms were earning from these ancillary services.
In addition, as part of the PCAOB 's investigative powers, the Board may require that audit firms, or any person associated with an audit firm, provide testimony or documents in its (or his or her) possession. If the firm or person refuses to provide this testimony or these documents, the PCAOB may suspend or bar that person or entity from the public audit industry. The PCAOB may also seek the SEC 's assistance in issuing subpoenas for testimony or documents from individuals or entities not registered with the PCAOB.
The Board 's Office of the Chief Auditor advises the Board on the establishment of auditing and related professional practice standards.
Each of these powers is subject to approval and oversight by the SEC. Individuals and audit firms subject to PCAOB oversight may appeal PCAOB decisions (including any disciplinary actions) to the SEC and the SEC has the power to modify or overturn PCAOB rules.
The PCAOB periodically issues Inspection Reports of registered public accounting firms. While a large part of these reports is made public (called "Part I ''), portions of the inspection reports that deal with criticisms of, or potential defects in, the audit firm 's quality control systems are not made public if the firm addresses those matters to the Board 's satisfaction within 12 months after the report date. Those portions are made public (called "Part II ''), however, if (1) the Board determines that a firm 's efforts to address the criticisms or potential defects were not satisfactory, or (2) the firm makes no submission evidencing any such efforts.
The PCAOB was created in response to an ever increasing number of accounting "restatements '' (corrections of past financial statements) by public companies during the 1990s, and a series of high - profile accounting scandals and record - setting bankruptcies by large public companies, notably those in 2002 involving WorldCom and Enron, and the audit firm for both companies, Arthur Andersen. Prior to the creation of the PCAOB, the audit profession was self - regulated through its trade group, the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA). The AICPA 's Public Oversight Board was formally dissolved on March 31, 2002, though its members had resigned en masse in January 2002 to protest then - SEC Chairman Harvey Pitt 's proposal for a new private auditor oversight body to regulate the profession (a proposal which would evolve into the PCAOB).
The SEC named William H. Webster, to be the first PCAOB Chairman. He was a prominent lawyer and former director of both the FBI and CIA. This appointment was controversial, however, for while Webster was widely recognized for his integrity and intellect, two of the SEC 's five Commissioners believed that SEC Chairman Harvey Pitt had not properly vetted the candidates or consulted with them on the appointment (and had previously agreed with them to appoint TIAA - CREF Chairman John Biggs as PCAOB Chairman). In one of the most contentious SEC public hearings, these two Commissioners (Harvey Goldschmid and Roel Campos) publicly criticized the process of the appointment (though not Webster himself). Webster nonetheless was approved by the SEC by a 3 - 2 vote to become the PCAOB 's first Chairman. An audio recording of this contentious October 25, 2002 SEC public hearing at which Webster 's nomination was approved (and debated) can be heard at here.
Just a few weeks after Webster was appointed to the PCAOB, however, another controversy erupted when newspapers reported that Webster had served on the board audit committee of U.S. Technologies, a high - tech company being investigated for accounting irregularities. Pitt, whose tenure as SEC Chair had already proven controversial, found himself in an untenable position. One of the claims made by Goldschmid during the rancorous October SEC hearing was that the candidates put forward by Pitt had not been properly vetted. Goldschmid 's criticisms seemed prescient, and this, combined with other pressures, led Pitt to announce his resignation from the SEC on election day (Nov. 4, 2002). Webster himself announced his resignation from the PCAOB a week later - -- less than three weeks after the PCAOB was set up.
In February 2006, the Free Enterprise Fund and Beckstead and Watts, LLP (a small Nevada - based accounting firm) filed a lawsuit in federal court challenging the constitutionality of the PCAOB. According to the lawsuit, the provision of the Sarbanes - Oxley Act establishing the PCAOB violated the "Appointments Clause '' of the U.S. Constitution, since PCAOB Board members should be viewed as "officers of the United States '' because of the public purposes PCAOB serves, and, as such, must either be appointed by the President of the United States, with the advice and consent of the U.S. Senate, or by the "head '' of a "department '', whereas PCAOB 's board is appointed by the SEC, rather than by the Chairman of the SEC. The lawsuit also challenged the PCAOB as violating the Constitution 's separation of powers clause, since the organization has quasi-executive, - legislative and - judicial functions.
On Aug. 22, 2008, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit upheld the PCAOB as constitutional. The Court found that Board members are inferior officers not required to be appointed by the President, and that the President retains sufficient control of the Board via the SEC that the Board does not violate the separation of powers clause.
The United States Supreme Court granted certiorari on May 18, 2009, to consider three questions:
Free Enterprise Fund and Beckstead and Watts, LLP v. Public Company Accounting Oversight Board, et al., was argued on Dec. 7, 2009. In addition to the PCAOB, the United States (represented by Solicitor General Elena Kagan) also appeared as a respondent in the case and argued separately, defending the constitutionality of the Sarbanes - Oxley Act. Thirteen amici, ranging from libertarian think - tanks like the Cato Institute to managers of state public - employee pension funds, filed briefs in the case.
On June 28, 2010, in a five - justice majority opinion written by Chief Justice John G. Roberts, the Supreme Court found the appointment provisions of the Act to be constitutional, but struck down the for - cause removal provision. The Court did not accept petitioners ' argument that the constitutional infirmity made all of the Board 's prior activity unconstitutional; rather, it simply severed the for - cause removal clause from the rest of Sarbanes - Oxley, leaving the Board itself intact.
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when was windows 7 service pack 1 released | Windows 7 - Wikipedia
Windows 7 (codenamed Vienna, formerly Blackcomb) is a personal computer operating system developed by Microsoft. It is a part of the Windows NT family of operating systems. Windows 7 was released to manufacturing on July 22, 2009, and became generally available on October 22, 2009, less than three years after the release of its predecessor, Windows Vista. Windows 7 's server counterpart, Windows Server 2008 R2, was released at the same time.
Windows 7 was primarily intended to be an incremental upgrade to the operating system intending to address Windows Vista 's poor critical reception while maintaining hardware and software compatibility. Windows 7 continued improvements on Windows Aero (the user interface introduced in Windows Vista) with the addition of a redesigned taskbar that allows applications to be "pinned '' to it, and new window management features. Other new features were added to the operating system, including libraries, the new file sharing system HomeGroup, and support for multitouch input. A new "Action Center '' interface was also added to provide an overview of system security and maintenance information, and tweaks were made to the User Account Control system to make it less intrusive. Windows 7 also shipped with updated versions of several stock applications, including Internet Explorer 8, Windows Media Player, and Windows Media Center.
In contrast to Windows Vista, Windows 7 was generally praised by critics, who considered the operating system to be a major improvement over its predecessor due to its increased performance, its more intuitive interface (with particular praise devoted to the new taskbar), fewer User Account Control popups, and other improvements made across the platform. Windows 7 was a major success for Microsoft; even prior to its official release, pre-order sales for 7 on the online retailer Amazon.com had surpassed previous records. In just six months, over 100 million copies had been sold worldwide, increasing to over 630 million licenses by July 2012, and a market share of 47.21 % of "desktop operating systems '' as of September 2017 according to Net Applications, making it the most widely used version of Windows (while Windows 10 is now more popular in Europe and North America).
Originally, a version of Windows codenamed Blackcomb was planned as the successor to Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 in 2000. Major features were planned for Blackcomb, including an emphasis on searching and querying data and an advanced storage system named WinFS to enable such scenarios. However, an interim, minor release, codenamed "Longhorn, '' was announced for 2003, delaying the development of Blackcomb. By the middle of 2003, however, Longhorn had acquired some of the features originally intended for Blackcomb. After three major viruses: the Blaster, Nachi, and Sobig worms, exploited flaws in Windows operating systems within a short time period in August 2003, Microsoft changed its development priorities, putting some of Longhorn 's major development work on hold while developing new service packs for Windows XP and Windows Server 2003. Development of Longhorn (Windows Vista) was also restarted, and thus delayed, in August 2004. A number of features were cut from Longhorn. Blackcomb was renamed Vienna in early 2006.
When released, Windows Vista was criticized for its long development time, performance issues, its spotty compatibility with existing hardware and software on launch, changes affecting the compatibility of certain PC games, and unclear assurances by Microsoft that certain computers shipping with XP prior to launch would be "Vista Capable '' (which led to a class action lawsuit), among other critiques. As such, adoption of Vista in comparison to XP remained somewhat low. In July 2007, six months following the public release of Vista, it was reported that the next version of Windows would then be codenamed Windows 7, with plans for a final release within three years. Bill Gates, in an interview with Newsweek, suggested that Windows 7 would be more "user - centric ''. Gates later said that Windows 7 would also focus on performance improvements. Steven Sinofsky later expanded on this point, explaining in the Engineering Windows 7 blog that the company was using a variety of new tracing tools to measure the performance of many areas of the operating system on an ongoing basis, to help locate inefficient code paths and to help prevent performance regressions. Senior Vice President Bill Veghte stated that Windows Vista users migrating to Windows 7 would not find the kind of device compatibility issues they encountered migrating from Windows XP. An estimated 1,000 developers worked on Windows 7. These were broadly divided into "core operating system '' and "Windows client experience '', in turn organized into 25 teams of around 40 developers on average.
In October 2008, it was announced that Windows 7 would also be the official name of the operating system. There has been some confusion over naming the product Windows 7, while versioning it as 6.1 to indicate its similar build to Vista and increase compatibility with applications that only check major version numbers, similar to Windows 2000 and Windows XP both having 5. x version numbers. The first external release to select Microsoft partners came in January 2008 with Milestone 1, build 6519. Speaking about Windows 7 on October 16, 2008, Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer confirmed compatibility between Windows Vista and Windows 7, indicating that Windows 7 would be a refined version of Windows Vista.
At PDC 2008, Microsoft demonstrated Windows 7 with its reworked taskbar. On December 27, 2008, the Windows 7 Beta was leaked onto the Internet via BitTorrent. According to a performance test by ZDNet, Windows 7 Beta beat both Windows XP and Vista in several key areas, including boot and shutdown time and working with files, such as loading documents. Other areas did not beat XP, including PC Pro benchmarks for typical office activities and video editing, which remain identical to Vista and slower than XP. On January 7, 2009, the x64 version of the Windows 7 Beta (build 7000) was leaked onto the web, with some torrents being infected with a trojan. At CES 2009, Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer announced the Windows 7 Beta, build 7000, had been made available for download to MSDN and TechNet subscribers in the format of an ISO image. The Beta was to be publicly released January 9, 2009, and Microsoft initially planned for the download to be made available to 2.5 million people on this date. However, access to the downloads was delayed because of high traffic. The download limit was also extended, initially until January 24, then again to February 10. People who did not complete downloading the beta had two extra days to complete the download, and, after February 12, unfinished downloads became unable to complete. Users could still obtain product keys from Microsoft to activate their copies of Windows 7 Beta, which expired on August 1, 2009.
The release candidate, build 7100, became available for MSDN and TechNet subscribers and Connect Program participants on April 30, 2009. On May 5, 2009, it became available to the general public, although it had also been leaked onto the Internet via BitTorrent. The release candidate was available in five languages and expired on June 1, 2010, with shutdowns every two hours starting March 1, 2010. Microsoft stated that Windows 7 would be released to the general public on October 22, 2009. Microsoft released Windows 7 to MSDN and Technet subscribers on August 6, 2009, at 10: 00 am PDT. Microsoft announced that Windows 7, along with Windows Server 2008 R2, was released to manufacturing on July 22, 2009. Windows 7 RTM is build 7600.16385. 090713 - 1255, which was compiled on July 13, 2009, and was declared the final RTM build after passing all Microsoft 's tests internally.
Among Windows 7 's new features are advances in touch and handwriting recognition, support for virtual hard disks, improved performance on multi-core processors, improved boot performance, DirectAccess, and kernel improvements. Windows 7 adds support for systems using multiple heterogeneous graphics cards from different vendors (Heterogeneous Multi-adapter), a new version of Windows Media Center, a Gadget for Windows Media Center, improved media features, XPS Essentials Pack and Windows PowerShell being included, and a redesigned Calculator with multiline capabilities including Programmer and Statistics modes along with unit conversion for length, weight, temperature, and several others. Many new items have been added to the Control Panel, including ClearType Text Tuner Display Color Calibration Wizard, Gadgets, Recovery, Troubleshooting, Workspaces Center, Location and Other Sensors, Credential Manager, Biometric Devices, System Icons, and Display. Windows Security Center has been renamed to Windows Action Center (Windows Health Center and Windows Solution Center in earlier builds), which encompasses both security and maintenance of the computer. ReadyBoost on 32 - bit editions now supports up to 256 gigabytes of extra allocation. Windows 7 also supports images in RAW image format through the addition of Windows Imaging Component - enabled image decoders, which enables raw image thumbnails, previewing and metadata display in Windows Explorer, plus full - size viewing and slideshows in Windows Photo Viewer and Windows Media Center. Windows 7 also has a native TFTP client with the ability to transfer files to or from a TFTP server.
The taskbar has seen the biggest visual changes, where the old Quick Launch toolbar has been replaced with the ability to pin applications to taskbar. Buttons for pinned applications are integrated with the task buttons. These buttons also enable Jump Lists to allow easy access to common tasks. The revamped taskbar also allows the reordering of taskbar buttons. To the far right of the system clock is a small rectangular button that serves as the Show desktop icon. By default, hovering over this button makes all visible windows transparent for a quick look at the desktop. In touch - enabled displays such as touch screens, tablet PCs, etc., this button is slightly (8 pixels) wider in order to accommodate being pressed by a finger. Clicking this button minimizes all windows, and clicking it a second time restores them.
Window management in Windows 7 has several new features: Snap maximizes a window when it is dragged to the top of the screen. Dragging windows to the left or right edges of the screen allows users to snap software windows to either side of the screen, such that the windows take up half the screen. When a user moves windows that were snapped or maximized using Snap, the system restores their previous state. Snap functions can also be triggered with keyboard shortcuts. Shake hides all inactive windows when the active window 's title bar is dragged back and forth rapidly (metaphorically shaken).
Windows 7 includes 13 additional sound schemes, titled Afternoon, Calligraphy, Characters, Cityscape, Delta, Festival, Garden, Heritage, Landscape, Quirky, Raga, Savanna, and Sonata. Internet Spades, Internet Backgammon and Internet Checkers, which were removed from Windows Vista, were restored in Windows 7. Users are able to disable or customize many more Windows components than was possible in Windows Vista. New additions to this list of components include Internet Explorer 8, Windows Media Player 12, Windows Media Center, Windows Search, and Windows Gadget Platform. A new version of Microsoft Virtual PC, newly renamed as Windows Virtual PC was made available for Windows 7 Professional, Enterprise, and Ultimate editions. It allows multiple Windows environments, including Windows XP Mode, to run on the same machine. Windows XP Mode runs Windows XP in a virtual machine, and displays applications within separate windows on the Windows 7 desktop. Furthermore, Windows 7 supports the mounting of a virtual hard disk (VHD) as a normal data storage, and the bootloader delivered with Windows 7 can boot the Windows system from a VHD; however, this ability is only available in the Enterprise and Ultimate editions. The Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) of Windows 7 is also enhanced to support real - time multimedia application including video playback and 3D games, thus allowing use of DirectX 10 in remote desktop environments. The three application limit, previously present in the Windows Vista and Windows XP Starter Editions, has been removed from Windows 7. All editions include some new and improved features, such as Windows Search, Security features, and some features new to Windows 7, that originated within Vista. Optional BitLocker Drive Encryption is included with Windows 7 Ultimate and Enterprise. Windows Defender is included; Microsoft Security Essentials antivirus software is a free download. All editions include Shadow Copy, which -- every day or so -- System Restore uses to take an automatic "previous version '' snapshot of user files that have changed. Backup and restore have also been improved, and the Windows Recovery Environment -- installed by default -- replaces the optional Recovery Console of Windows XP.
A new system known as "Libraries '' was added for file management; users can aggregate files from multiple folders into a "Library ''. By default, libraries for categories such as Documents, Pictures, Music, and Video are created, consisting of the user 's personal folder and the Public folder for each. The system is also used as part of a new home networking system known as HomeGroup; devices are added to the network with a password, and files and folders can be shared with all other devices in the HomeGroup, or with specific users. The default libraries, along with printers, are shared by default, but the personal folder is set to read - only access by other users, and the Public folder can be accessed by anyone.
Windows 7 includes improved globalization support through a new Extended Linguistic Services API to provide multilingual support (particularly in Ultimate and Enterprise editions). Microsoft has also implemented better support for solid - state drives, including the new TRIM command, and Windows 7 is able to identify a solid - state drive uniquely. Native support for USB 3.0 is not included due to delays in the finalization of the standard. At WinHEC 2008 Microsoft announced that color depths of 30 - bit and 48 - bit would be supported in Windows 7 along with the wide color gamut scRGB (which for HDMI 1.3 can be converted and output as xvYCC). The video modes supported in Windows 7 are 16 - bit sRGB, 24 - bit sRGB, 30 - bit sRGB, 30 - bit with extended color gamut sRGB, and 48 - bit scRGB.
For developers, Windows 7 includes a new networking API with support for building SOAP - based web services in native code (as opposed to. NET - based WCF web services), new features to simplify development of installation packages and shorten application install times. Windows 7, by default, generates fewer User Account Control (UAC) prompts because it allows digitally signed Windows components to gain elevated privileges without a prompt. Additionally, users can now adjust the level at which UAC operates using a sliding scale.
Certain capabilities and programs that were a part of Windows Vista are no longer present or have been changed, resulting in the removal of certain functionalities; these include the classic Start Menu user interface, some taskbar features, Windows Explorer features, Windows Media Player features, Windows Ultimate Extras, Search button, and InkBall. Four applications bundled with Windows Vista -- Windows Photo Gallery, Windows Movie Maker, Windows Calendar and Windows Mail -- are not included with Windows 7 and were replaced by Windows Live - branded versions as part of the Windows Live Essentials suite.
Windows 7 is available in six different editions, of which the Home Premium, Professional, and Ultimate were available at retail in most countries, and as pre-loaded software on new computers. Home Premium and Professional were aimed at home users and small businesses respectively, while Ultimate was aimed at enthusiasts. Each edition of Windows 7 includes all of the capabilities and features of the edition below it, and adds additional features oriented towards their market segments; for example, Professional adds additional networking and security features such as Encrypting File System and the ability to join a domain. Ultimate contained a superset of the features from Home Premium and Professional, along with other advanced features oriented towards power users, such as BitLocker drive encryption; unlike Windows Vista, there were no "Ultimate Extras '' add - ons created for Windows 7 Ultimate. Retail copies were available in "upgrade '' and higher - cost "full '' version licenses; "upgrade '' licenses require an existing version of Windows to install, while "full '' licenses can be installed on computers with no existing operating system.
The remaining three editions were not available at retail, of which two were available exclusively through OEM channels as pre-loaded software. The Starter edition is a stripped - down version of Windows 7 meant for low - cost devices such as netbooks. In comparison to Home Premium, Starter has reduced multimedia functionality, does not allow users to change their desktop wallpaper or theme, disables the "Aero Glass '' theme, does not have support for multiple monitors, and can only address 2GB of RAM. Home Basic was sold only in emerging markets, and was positioned in between Home Premium and Starter. The highest edition, Enterprise, is functionally similar to Ultimate, but is only sold through volume licensing via Microsoft 's Software Assurance program.
All editions aside from Starter support both IA - 32 and x86 - 64 architectures; Starter only supports 32 - bit systems. Retail copies of Windows 7 are distributed on two DVDs: one for the IA - 32 version and the other for x86 - 64. OEM copies include one DVD, depending on the processor architecture licensed. The installation media for consumer versions of Windows 7 are identical; the product key and corresponding license determines the edition that is installed. The Windows Anytime Upgrade service can be used to purchase an upgrade that unlocks the functionality of a higher edition, such as going from Starter to Home Premium, and Home Premium to Ultimate. Most copies of Windows 7 only contained one license; in certain markets, a "Family Pack '' version of Windows 7 Home Premium was also released for a limited time, which allowed upgrades on up to three computers. In certain regions, copies of Windows 7 were only sold in, and could only be activated in a designated region.
Support for Windows 7 without Service Pack 1 ended on April 9, 2013, requiring users to update in order to continue receiving updates and support. Microsoft ended the sale of new retail copies of Windows 7 in October 2014, and the sale of new OEM licenses for Windows 7 Home Basic, Home Premium, and Ultimate ended on October 31, 2014. Professional currently remains available to OEMs, primarily as part of downgrade rights for Windows 8 and 10 licenses. OEM sales of PCs with Windows 7 Professional preinstalled ended on October 31, 2016. The sale of non-Professional OEM licences was stopped on October 31, 2014. Mainstream support for 7 ended on January 13, 2015. Extended support will end on January 14, 2020.
Additional requirements to use certain features:
The maximum amount of RAM that Windows 7 supports varies depending on the product edition and on the processor architecture, as shown in the following table.
Windows 7 Professional and up support up to 2 physical processors (CPU sockets), whereas Windows 7 Starter, Home Basic, and Home Premium editions support only 1. Physical processors with either multiple cores, or hyper - threading, or both, implement more than one logical processor per physical processor. The x86 editions of Windows 7 support up to 32 logical processors; x64 editions support up to 256 (4 x 64).
In January 2016, Microsoft announced that it would no longer support Windows platforms older than Windows 10 on any future Intel - compatible processor lines, citing difficulties in reliably allowing the operating system to operate on newer hardware. Microsoft stated that effective July 17, 2017, devices with Intel Skylake CPUs were only to receive the "most critical '' updates for Windows 7 and 8.1, and only if they have been judged not to affect the reliability of Windows 7 on older hardware. For enterprise customers, Microsoft issued a list of Skylake - based devices "certified '' for Windows 7 and 8.1 in addition to Windows 10, to assist them in migrating to newer hardware that can eventually be upgraded to 10 once they are ready to transition. Microsoft and their hardware partners provide special testing and support for these devices on 7 and 8.1 until the July 2017 date.
On March 18, 2016, in response to criticism from enterprise customers, Microsoft delayed the end of support and non-critical updates for Skylake systems to July 17, 2018, but stated that they would also continue to receive security updates through the end of extended support. In August 2016, citing a "strong partnership with our OEM partners and Intel '', Microsoft retracted the decision and stated that it would continue to support Windows 7 and 8.1 on Skylake hardware through the end of their extended support lifecycle. However, the restrictions on newer CPU microarchitectures remain in force.
In March 2017, a Microsoft knowledge base article was discovered which implies that devices using Intel Kaby Lake, AMD Bristol Ridge, or AMD Ryzen, would be blocked from using Windows Update entirely. In addition, official Windows 7 device drivers are not available for the Kaby Lake and Ryzen platforms.
Windows 7 Service Pack 1 (SP1) was announced on March 18, 2010. A beta was released on July 12, 2010. The final version was released to the public on February 22, 2011. At the time of release, it was not made mandatory. It was available via Windows Update, direct download, or by ordering the Windows 7 SP1 DVD. The service pack is on a much smaller scale than those released for previous versions of Windows, particularly Windows Vista.
Windows 7 Service Pack 1 adds support for Advanced Vector Extensions (AVX), a 256 - bit instruction set extension for processors, and improves IKEv2 by adding additional identification fields such as E-mail ID to it. In addition, it adds support for Advanced Format 512e as well as additional Identity Federation Services. Windows 7 Service Pack 1 also resolves a bug related to HDMI audio and another related to printing XPS documents.
In Europe, the automatic nature of the BrowserChoice.eu feature was dropped in Windows 7 Service Pack 1 in February 2011 and remained absent for 14 months despite Microsoft reporting that it was still present, subsequently described by Microsoft as a "technical error ''. As a result, in March 2013 the European Commission fined Microsoft € 561 million to deter companies from reneging on settlement promises.
Windows Management Framework 5.0 includes updates to Windows PowerShell, Windows PowerShell Desired State Configuration (DSC), Windows Remote Management (WinRM), Windows Management Instrumentation (WMI). It was released on February 24, 2016.
Platform Update for Windows 7 SP1 and Windows Server 2008 R2 SP1 was released on February 26, 2013 after a pre-release version had been released on November 5, 2012. It is also included with Internet Explorer 10 for Windows 7.
It includes enhancements to Direct2D, DirectWrite, Direct3D, Windows Imaging Component (WIC), Windows Advanced Rasterization Platform (WARP), Windows Animation Manager (WAM), XPS Document API, H. 264 Video Decoder and JPEG XR decoder. However support for Direct3D 11.1 is limited as the update does not include DXGI / WDDM 1.2 from Windows 8, making unavailable many related APIs and significant features such as stereoscopic frame buffer, feature level 11_1 and optional features for levels 10_0, 10_1 and 11_0.
In October 2013, a Disk Cleanup Wizard addon was released that lets users delete outdated Windows updates on Windows 7 SP1, thus reducing the size of the WinSxS directory. This update backports some features found in Windows 8.
In May 2016, Microsoft released a "Convenience rollup update for Windows 7 SP1 and Windows Server 2008 R2 SP1 '', which contains all patches released between the release of SP1 and April 2016. The rollup is not available via Windows Update, and must be downloaded manually. This package can also be integrated into a Windows 7 installation image.
Since October 2016, all security and reliability updates are cumulative. Downloading and installing updates that address individual problems is no longer possible, but the number of updates that must be downloaded to fully update the OS is significantly reduced.
Windows 7 received critical acclaim, with critics noting the increased usability and functionality when compared with its predecessor, Windows Vista. CNET gave Windows 7 Home Premium a rating of 4.5 out of 5 stars, stating that it "is more than what Vista should have been, (and) it 's where Microsoft needed to go ''. PC Magazine rated it a 4 out of 5 saying that Windows 7 is a "big improvement '' over Windows Vista, with fewer compatibility problems, a retooled taskbar, simpler home networking and faster start - up. Maximum PC gave Windows 7 a rating of 9 out of 10 and called Windows 7 a "massive leap forward '' in usability and security, and praised the new Taskbar as "worth the price of admission alone ''. PC World called Windows 7 a "worthy successor '' to Windows XP and said that speed benchmarks showed Windows 7 to be slightly faster than Windows Vista. PC World also named Windows 7 one of the best products of the year. In its review of Windows 7, Engadget said that Microsoft had taken a "strong step forward '' with Windows 7 and reported that speed is one of Windows 7 's major selling points -- particularly for the netbook sets. Laptop Magazine gave Windows 7 a rating of 4 out of 5 stars and said that Windows 7 makes computing more intuitive, offered better overall performance including a "modest to dramatic '' increase in battery life on laptop computers. TechRadar gave Windows 7 a rating of 5 out of 5 stars, concluding that "it combines the security and architectural improvements of Windows Vista with better performance than XP can deliver on today 's hardware. No version of Windows is ever perfect, but Windows 7 really is the best release of Windows yet. '' The New York Times, USA Today, The Wall Street Journal, and The Telegraph also gave Windows 7 favorable reviews.
Some Windows Vista Ultimate users have expressed concerns over Windows 7 pricing and upgrade options. Windows Vista Ultimate users wanting to upgrade from Windows Vista to Windows 7 must either pay $219.99 to upgrade to Windows 7 Ultimate or perform a clean install, which requires them to reinstall all of their programs.
The changes to User Account Control on Windows 7 were criticized for being potentially insecure, as an exploit was discovered allowing untrusted software to be launched with elevated privileges by exploiting a trusted component. Peter Bright of Ars Technica argued that "the way that the Windows 7 UAC ' improvements ' have been made completely exempts Microsoft 's developers from having to do that work themselves. With Windows 7, it 's one rule for Redmond, another one for everyone else. '' Microsoft 's Windows kernel engineer Mark Russinovich acknowledged the problem, but noted that malware can also compromise a system when users agree to a prompt.
In July 2009, in only eight hours, pre-orders of Windows 7 at amazon.co.uk surpassed the demand which Windows Vista had had in its first 17 weeks. It became the highest - grossing pre-order in Amazon 's history, surpassing sales of the previous record holder, the seventh Harry Potter book. After 36 hours, 64 - bit versions of Windows 7 Professional and Ultimate editions sold out in Japan. Two weeks after its release its market share had surpassed that of Snow Leopard, released two months previously as the most recent update to Apple 's Mac OS X operating system. According to Net Applications, Windows 7 reached a 4 % market share in less than three weeks; in comparison, it took Windows Vista seven months to reach the same mark. As of February 2014, Windows 7 has a market share of 47.49 % according to Net Applications; in comparison, Windows XP had a market share of 29.23 %.
On March 4, 2010, Microsoft announced that it had sold more than 90 million Windows 7 licenses. By April 23, 2010, Windows 7 had sold more than 100 million copies in six months, which made it Microsoft 's fastest - selling operating system. As of June 23, 2010, Windows 7 has sold 150 million copies which made it the fastest selling operating system in history with seven copies sold every second. Based on worldwide data taken during June 2010 from Windows Update 46 % of Windows 7 PCs run the 64 - bit edition of Windows 7. According to Stephen Baker of the NPD Group during April 2010 in the United States 77 % of PCs sold at retail were pre-installed with the 64 - bit edition of Windows 7. As of July 22, 2010, Windows 7 had sold 175 million copies. On October 21, 2010, Microsoft announced that more than 240 million copies of Windows 7 had been sold. Three months later, on January 27, 2011, Microsoft announced total sales of 300 million copies of Windows 7. On July 12, 2011, the sales figure was refined to over 400 million end - user licenses and business installations. As of July 9, 2012, over 630 million licenses have been sold; this number includes licenses sold to OEMs for new PCs.
As with other Microsoft operating systems, Windows 7 is being studied by United States federal regulators who oversee the company 's operations following the 2001 United States v. Microsoft Corp. settlement. According to status reports filed, the three - member panel began assessing prototypes of the new operating system in February 2008. Michael Gartenberg, an analyst at Jupiter Research said that, "(Microsoft 's) challenge for Windows 7 will be how can they continue to add features that consumers will want that also do n't run afoul of regulators. ''
In order to comply with European antitrust regulations, Microsoft proposed the use of a "ballot '' screen containing download links to competing web browsers, thus removing the need for a version of Windows completely without Internet Explorer, as previously planned. In response to criticism involving Windows 7 E and concerns from manufacturers about possible consumer confusion if a version of Windows 7 with Internet Explorer were shipped later after one without Internet Explorer, Microsoft announced that it would discard the separate version for Europe and ship the standard upgrade and full packages worldwide.
As with the previous version of Windows, an N version, which does not come with Windows Media Player, has been released in Europe, but only for sale directly from Microsoft sales websites and selected others.
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what was the golden age of ancient greece | Timeline of Ancient Greece - wikipedia
This is a timeline of Ancient Greece from its emergence around 800 BC to its subjection to the Roman Empire in 146 BC.
For earlier times, see Greek Dark Ages, Aegean civilizations and Mycenaean Greece. For later times see Roman Greece, Byzantine Empire and Ottoman Greece.
For modern Greece after 1820, see Timeline of modern Greek history.
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who sings i've got a little change in my pocket | Keep Your Hands to Yourself - wikipedia
"Keep Your Hands to Yourself '' is a song by the American southern rock group The Georgia Satellites. The song was written by the group 's lead singer, Dan Baird, and was released in 1986 as their debut single. The single reached # 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 during the week of February 21, 1987, kept off the top spot by "Livin ' on a Prayer '' by Bon Jovi.
The song is in the key of A major with a moderate tempo of about 112 beats per minute. It follows the chord pattern A-D-A-E-A, with vocals ranging from D4 to A5.
The lyrics tell the story of a woman who refuses to become more intimate with her boyfriend until he marries her.
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic wrote that the song "rocked as hard as an old Chuck Berry song, as well as being almost as clever. '' In the book 99 Red Balloons: And 100 All - Time One - Hit Wonders, Brent Mann wrote that "it 's just a timeless, kick - out - the - jams rock ' n ' roll number. Dan Baird digs into the song 's vocals with a no - holds - barred zest straight out of a Texas honky - tonk. ''
Several cover versions of the song exist. A year after its release, Hank Williams, Jr. covered it on his album Born to Boogie. John Anderson covered the song in 1994 for his album Country ' til I Die, and released it as the B - side to that album 's single "Bend It Until It Breaks ''. Sawyer Brown released a version from their 2005 album Mission Temple Fireworks Stand. Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers performed a version of the song during their 1989 tour. Garth Brooks performed a version on the This is Garth DVD. The Charlie Daniels Band covered the song on their Tailgate Party album. The song has been a favorite of bar - bands for many years because of its simplicity and popularity.
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which of the following was a cause of the first gulf war | Gulf War - wikipedia
Coalition victory
Kuwait United States United Kingdom France Saudi Arabia
Coalition: 292 killed (147 killed by enemy action, 145 non-hostile deaths) 467 wounded in action 776 wounded 31 tanks destroyed / disabled 28 Bradley IFVs destroyed / damaged 1 M113 APC destroyed 2 British Warrior APCs destroyed 1 Artillery Piece destroyed 75 Aircraft destroyed Kuwait: 4,200 killed 12,000 captured ≈ 200 tanks destroyed / captured 850 + other armored vehicles destroyed / captured 57 aircraft lost At least 8 aircraft captured (Mirage F1s)
Kuwaiti civilian losses: Over 1,000 killed 600 missing people Iraqi civilian losses: About 3,664 killed
Coalition intervention
Naval operations
Air campaign
Liberation of Kuwait
Post-ceasefire
The Gulf War (2 August 1990 -- 28 February 1991), codenamed Operation Desert Shield (2 August 1990 -- 17 January 1991) for operations leading to the buildup of troops and defense of Saudi Arabia and Operation Desert Storm (17 January 1991 -- 28 February 1991) in its combat phase, was a war waged by coalition forces from 35 nations led by the United States against Iraq in response to Iraq 's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.
The war is also known under other names, such as the Persian Gulf War, First Gulf War, Gulf War I, Kuwait War, First Iraq War or Iraq War, before the term "Iraq War '' became identified instead with the 2003 Iraq War. The Iraqi Army 's occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. Together with the UK 's prime minister Margaret Thatcher -- who had resisted the invasion by Argentina of the Falkland Islands a decade earlier -- George Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, and urged other countries to send their own forces to the scene. An array of nations joined the coalition, forming the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the coalition 's military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom and Egypt as leading contributors, in that order. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US $32 billion of the US $60 billion cost.
The war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm.
The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991, continuing for five weeks. This was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a decisive victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait and advanced into Iraqi territory. The coalition ceased its advance and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the ground campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, and areas on Saudi Arabia 's border. Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel.
Throughout the Cold War, Iraq had been an ally of the Soviet Union, and there was a history of friction between it and the United States. The US was concerned with Iraq 's position on Israeli -- Palestinian politics. The US also disliked Iraqi support for many Arab and Palestinian militant groups such as Abu Nidal, which led to Iraq 's inclusion on the developing US list of State Sponsors of Terrorism on 29 December 1979. The US remained officially neutral after Iraq 's invasion of Iran in 1980, which became the Iran -- Iraq War, although it provided resources, political support, and some "non-military '' aircraft to Iraq. In March 1982, Iran began a successful counteroffensive (Operation Undeniable Victory), and the US increased its support for Iraq to prevent Iran from forcing a surrender. In a US bid to open full diplomatic relations with Iraq, the country was removed from the US list of State Sponsors of Terrorism. Ostensibly, this was because of improvement in the regime 's record, although former US Assistant Defense Secretary Noel Koch later stated: "No one had any doubts about (the Iraqis ') continued involvement in terrorism... The real reason was to help them succeed in the war against Iran. '' With Iraq 's newfound success in the war, and the Iranian rebuff of a peace offer in July, arms sales to Iraq reached a record spike in 1982. When Iraqi President Saddam Hussein expelled Abu Nidal to Syria at the US 's request in November 1983, the Reagan administration sent Donald Rumsfeld to meet Saddam as a special envoy and to cultivate ties. By the time the ceasefire with Iran was signed in August 1988, Iraq was heavily debt - ridden and tensions within society were rising. Most of its debt was owed to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Iraq pressured both nations to forgive the debts, but they refused.
The Iraq -- Kuwait dispute also involved Iraqi claims to Kuwait as Iraqi territory. Kuwait had been a part of the Ottoman Empire 's province of Basra, something that Iraq claimed made it rightful Iraqi territory. Its ruling dynasty, the al - Sabah family, had concluded a protectorate agreement in 1899 that assigned responsibility for its foreign affairs to the United Kingdom. The UK drew the border between the two countries in 1922, making Iraq virtually landlocked. Kuwait rejected Iraqi attempts to secure further provisions in the region.
Iraq also accused Kuwait of exceeding its OPEC quotas for oil production. In order for the cartel to maintain its desired price of $18 a barrel, discipline was required. The United Arab Emirates and Kuwait were consistently overproducing; the latter at least in part to repair losses caused by Iranian attacks in the Iran -- Iraq War and to pay for the losses of an economic scandal. The result was a slump in the oil price -- as low as $10 a barrel -- with a resulting loss of $7 billion a year to Iraq, equal to its 1989 balance of payments deficit. Resulting revenues struggled to support the government 's basic costs, let alone repair Iraq 's damaged infrastructure. Jordan and Iraq both looked for more discipline, with little success. The Iraqi government described it as a form of economic warfare, which it claimed was aggravated by Kuwait slant - drilling across the border into Iraq 's Rumaila oil field. At the same time, Saddam looked for closer ties with those Arab states that had supported Iraq in the war. This was supported by the US, who believed that Iraqi ties with pro-Western Gulf states would help bring and maintain Iraq inside the US ' sphere of influence.
In 1989, it appeared that Saudi -- Iraqi relations, strong during the war, would be maintained. A pact of non-interference and non-aggression was signed between the countries, followed by a Kuwaiti - Iraqi deal for Iraq to supply Kuwait with water for drinking and irrigation, although a request for Kuwait to lease Iraq Umm Qasr was rejected. Saudi - backed development projects were hampered by Iraq 's large debts, even with the demobilization of 200,000 soldiers. Iraq also looked to increase arms production so as to become an exporter, although the success of these projects was also restrained by Iraq 's obligations; in Iraq, resentment to OPEC 's controls mounted.
Iraq 's relations with its Arab neighbors -- in particular Egypt -- were degraded by mounting violence in Iraq against expatriate groups, well - employed during the war, by Iraqi unemployed, among them demobilized soldiers. These events drew little notice outside the Arab world because of fast - moving events directly related to the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe. However, the US did begin to condemn Iraq 's human rights record, including the well - known use of torture. The UK also condemned the execution of Farzad Bazoft, a journalist working for the British newspaper The Observer. Following Saddam 's declaration that "binary chemical weapons '' would be used on Israel if it used military force against Iraq, Washington halted part of its funding. A UN mission to the Israeli - occupied territories, where riots had resulted in Palestinian deaths, was vetoed by the US, making Iraq deeply skeptical of US foreign policy aims in the region, combined with the US ' reliance on Middle Eastern energy reserves.
In early July 1990, Iraq complained about Kuwait 's behavior, such as not respecting their quota, and openly threatened to take military action. On the 23rd, the CIA reported that Iraq had moved 30,000 troops to the Iraq - Kuwait border, and the US naval fleet in the Persian Gulf was placed on alert. Saddam believed an anti-Iraq conspiracy was developing -- Kuwait had begun talks with Iran, and Iraq 's rival Syria had arranged a visit to Egypt. Upon review by the Secretary of Defense, it was found that Syria indeed planned a strike against Iraq in the coming days. Saddam immediately used funding to incorporate central intelligence into Syria and ultimately prevented the impending air strike. On 15 July 1990, Saddam 's government laid out its combined objections to the Arab League, including that policy moves were costing Iraq $1 billion a year, that Kuwait was still using the Rumaila oil field, that loans made by the UAE and Kuwait could not be considered debts to its "Arab brothers ''. He threatened force against Kuwait and the UAE, saying: "The policies of some Arab rulers are American... They are inspired by America to undermine Arab interests and security. '' The US sent aerial refuelling planes and combat ships to the Persian Gulf in response to these threats. Discussions in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, mediated on the Arab League 's behalf by Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, were held on 31 July and led Mubarak to believe that a peaceful course could be established.
On the 25th, Saddam met with April Glaspie, the US Ambassador to Iraq, in Baghdad. The Iraqi leader attacked American policy with regards to Kuwait and the UAE:
So what can it mean when America says it will now protect its friends? It can only mean prejudice against Iraq. This stance plus maneuvers and statements which have been made has encouraged the UAE and Kuwait to disregard Iraqi rights... If you use pressure, we will deploy pressure and force. We know that you can harm us although we do not threaten you. But we too can harm you. Everyone can cause harm according to their ability and their size. We can not come all the way to you in the United States, but individual Arabs may reach you... We do not place America among the enemies. We place it where we want our friends to be and we try to be friends. But repeated American statements last year made it apparent that America did not regard us as friends.
Glaspie replied:
I know you need funds. We understand that and our opinion is that you should have the opportunity to rebuild your country. But we have no opinion on the Arab - Arab conflicts, like your border disagreement with Kuwait... Frankly, we can only see that you have deployed massive troops in the south. Normally that would not be any of our business. But when this happens in the context of what you said on your national day, then when we read the details in the two letters of the Foreign Minister, then when we see the Iraqi point of view that the measures taken by the UAE and Kuwait is, in the final analysis, parallel to military aggression against Iraq, then it would be reasonable for me to be concerned.
Saddam stated that he would attempt last - ditch negotiations with the Kuwaitis but Iraq "would not accept death. ''
According to Glaspie 's own account, she stated in reference to the precise border between Kuwait and Iraq, "... that she had served in Kuwait 20 years before; ' then, as now, we took no position on these Arab affairs '. '' Glaspie similarly believed that war was not imminent.
The result of the Jeddah talks was an Iraqi demand for $10 billion to cover the lost revenues from Rumaila; Kuwait offered $9 billion. The Iraqi response was to immediately order the invasion, which started on 2 August 1990 with the bombing of Kuwait 's capital, Kuwait City.
At the time of the invasion, the Kuwaiti military was believed to have numbered 16,000 men, arranged into three armored, one mechanised infantry and one under - strength artillery brigade. The pre-war strength of the Kuwait Air Force was around 2,200 Kuwaiti personnel, with 80 fixed - wing aircraft and 40 helicopters. In spite of Iraqi saber rattling, Kuwait did not mobilize its force; the army had been stood down on 19 July, and at the time of the Iraqi invasion many Kuwaiti military personnel were on leave.
By 1988, at the Iran -- Iraq war 's end, the Iraqi Army was the world 's fourth largest army; it consisted of 955,000 standing soldiers and 650,000 paramilitary forces in the Popular Army. According to John Childs and André Corvisier, a low estimate shows the Iraqi Army capable of fielding 4,500 tanks, 484 combat aircraft and 232 combat helicopters. According to Michael Knights, a high estimate shows the Iraqi Army capable of fielding one million men and 850,000 reservists, 5,500 tanks, 3,000 artillery pieces, 700 combat aircraft and helicopters; and held 53 divisions, 20 special - forces brigades, and several regional militias, and had a strong air defense.
Iraqi commandos infiltrated the Kuwaiti border first to prepare for the major units which began the attack at midnight. The Iraqi attack had two prongs, with the primary attack force driving south straight for Kuwait City down the main highway, and a supporting attack force entering Kuwait farther west, but then turning and driving east, cutting off Kuwait City from the country 's southern half. The commander of a Kuwaiti armored battalion, 35th Armoured Brigade, deployed them against the Iraqi attack and was able to conduct a robust defense at the Battle of the Bridges near Al Jahra, west of Kuwait City.
Kuwaiti aircraft scrambled to meet the invading force, but approximately 20 % were lost or captured. A few combat sorties were flown against Iraqi ground forces.
The main Iraqi thrust into Kuwait City was conducted by commandos deployed by helicopters and boats to attack the city from the sea, while other divisions seized the airports and two airbases. The Iraqis attacked the Dasman Palace, the Royal Residence of Kuwait 's Emir, Jaber Al - Ahmad Al - Jaber Al - Sabah, which was defended by the Emiri Guard supported with M - 84 tanks. In the process, the Iraqis killed Fahad Al - Ahmed Al - Jaber Al - Sabah, the Emir 's youngest brother.
Within 12 hours, most resistance had ended within Kuwait and the royal family had fled, leaving Iraq in control of most of Kuwait. After two days of intense combat, most of the Kuwaiti military were either overrun by the Iraqi Republican Guard, or had escaped to Saudi Arabia. The Emir and key ministers were able to get out and head south along the highway for refuge in Saudi Arabia. Iraqi ground forces consolidated their control of Kuwait City, then headed south and redeployed along the Saudi border. After the decisive Iraqi victory, Saddam initially installed a puppet regime known as the "Provisional Government of Free Kuwait '' before installing his cousin Ali Hassan al - Majid as Kuwait 's governor on 8 August.
After the invasion, the Iraqi military looted over $1,000,000,000 in banknotes from Kuwait 's Central Bank. At the same time, Saddam Hussein made the Kuwaiti dinar equal to the Iraqi dinar, thereby lowering the Kuwaiti currency to one - twelfth of its original value. In response, Sheikh Jaber al - Ahmad al - Sabah ruled the banknotes as invalid and refused to reimburse stolen notes, which became worthless because of a UN embargo. After the conflict ended, many of the stolen banknotes made their way back into circulation. Today, the stolen banknotes are a collectible for numismatists.
Kuwaitis founded a local armed resistance movement following the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait. The Kuwaiti resistance 's casualty rate far exceeded that of the coalition military forces and Western hostages. The resistance predominantly consisted of ordinary citizens who lacked any form of training and supervision.
A key element of US political - military and energy economic planning occurred in early 1984. The Iran -- Iraq war had been going on for five years by that time and there were significant casualties on both sides, reaching into the hundreds of thousands. Within President Ronald Reagan 's National Security Council concern was growing that the war could spread beyond the boundaries of the two belligerents. A National Security Planning Group meeting was formed, chaired by then Vice President George Bush to review US options. It was determined that there was a high likelihood that the conflict would spread into Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states, but that the United States had little capability to defend the region. Furthermore, it was determined that a prolonged war in the region would induce much higher oil prices and threaten the fragile recovery of the world economy which was just beginning to gain momentum. On 22 May 1984, President Reagan was briefed on the project conclusions in the Oval Office by William Flynn Martin who had served as the head of the NSC staff that organized the study. The full declassified presentation can be seen here. The conclusions were threefold: first oil stocks needed to be increased among members of the International Energy Agency and, if necessary, released early in the event of oil market disruption; second the United States needed to beef up the security of friendly Arab states in the region and thirdly an embargo should be placed on sales of military equipment to Iran and Iraq. The plan was approved by President Reagan and later affirmed by the G - 7 leaders headed by Great Britain 's Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in the London Summit of 1984. The plan was implemented and became the basis for US preparedness to respond to the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait in 1991.
Within hours of the invasion, Kuwait and US delegations requested a meeting of the UN Security Council, which passed Resolution 660, condemning the invasion and demanding a withdrawal of Iraqi troops. On 3 August, the Arab League passed its own resolution, which called for a solution to the conflict from within the league, and warned against outside intervention; Iraq and Libya were the only two Arab League states which opposed a resolution for Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait. The PLO opposed it as well. The Arab states of Yemen and Jordan -- a Western ally which bordered Iraq and relied on the country for economic support -- opposed military intervention from non-Arab states. The Arab state of Sudan aligned itself with Saddam.
On 6 August, Resolution 661 placed economic sanctions on Iraq. Resolution 665 followed soon after, which authorized a naval blockade to enforce the sanctions. It said the "use of measures commensurate to the specific circumstances as may be necessary... to halt all inward and outward maritime shipping in order to inspect and verify their cargoes and destinations and to ensure strict implementation of resolution 661. ''
The US administration had at first been indecisive with an "undertone... of resignation to the invasion and even adaptation to it as a fait accompli '' until the UK 's prime minister Margaret Thatcher played a powerful role, reminding the President that appeasement in the 1930s had led to war, that Saddam would have the whole Gulf at his mercy along with 65 per cent of the world 's oil supply, and famously urging President Bush "not to go wobbly ''.
Once persuaded, US officials insisted on a total Iraqi pullout from Kuwait, without any linkage to other Middle Eastern problems, accepting the British view that any concessions would strengthen Iraqi influence in the region for years to come.
On 12 August 1990, Saddam "propose (d) that all cases of occupation, and those cases that have been portrayed as occupation, in the region, be resolved simultaneously ''. Specifically, he called for Israel to withdraw from occupied territories in Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon, Syria to withdraw from Lebanon, and "mutual withdrawals by Iraq and Iran and arrangement for the situation in Kuwait. '' He also called for a replacement of US troops that mobilized in Saudi Arabia in response to Kuwait 's invasion with "an Arab force '', as long as that force did not involve Egypt. Additionally, he requested an "immediate freeze of all boycott and siege decisions '' and a general normalization of relations with Iraq. From the beginning of the crisis, President Bush was strongly opposed to any "linkage '' between Iraq 's occupation of Kuwait and the Palestinian issue.
On 23 August, Saddam appeared on state television with Western hostages to whom he had refused exit visas. In the video, he asks a young British boy, Stuart Lockwood, whether he is getting his milk, and goes on to say, through his interpreter, "We hope your presence as guests here will not be for too long. Your presence here, and in other places, is meant to prevent the scourge of war. ''
Another Iraqi proposal communicated in August 1990 was delivered to US National Security Advisor Brent Scowcroft by an unidentified Iraqi official. The official communicated to the White House that Iraq would "withdraw from Kuwait and allow foreigners to leave '' provided that the UN lifted sanctions, allowed "guaranteed access to the Persian Gulf through the Kuwaiti islands of Bubiyan and Warbah '', and allowed Iraq to "gain full control of the Rumaila oil field that extends slightly into Kuwaiti territory ''. The proposal also "include (d) offers to negotiate an oil agreement with the United States ' satisfactory to both nations ' national security interests, ' develop a joint plan ' to alleviate Iraq 's economical and financial problems ' and ' jointly work on the stability of the gulf. ' ''
In December 1990, Iraq made a proposal to withdraw from Kuwait provided that foreign troops left the region and that an agreement was reached regarding the Palestinian problem and the dismantlement of both Israel 's and Iraq 's weapons of mass destruction. The White House rejected the proposal. The PLO 's Yasser Arafat expressed that neither he nor Saddam insisted that solving the Israel -- Palestine issues should be a precondition to solving the issues in Kuwait, though he did acknowledge a "strong link '' between these problems.
Ultimately, the US and UK stuck to their position that there would be no negotiations until Iraq withdrew from Kuwait and that they should not grant Iraq concessions, lest they give the impression that Iraq benefited from its military campaign. Also, when US Secretary of State James Baker met with Tariq Aziz in Geneva, Switzerland, for last minute peace talks in early 1991, Aziz reportedly made no concrete proposals and did not outline any hypothetical Iraqi moves.
On 29 November 1990, the Security Council passed Resolution 678 which gave Iraq until 15 January 1991 to withdraw from Kuwait and empowered states to use "all necessary means '' to force Iraq out of Kuwait after the deadline.
On 14 January 1991, France proposed that the UN Security Council call for "a rapid and massive withdrawal '' from Kuwait along with a statement to Iraq that Council members would bring their "active contribution '' to a settlement of the region 's other problems, "in particular, of the Arab -- Israeli conflict and in particular to the Palestinian problem by convening, at an appropriate moment, an international conference '' to assure "the security, stability and development of this region of the world. '' The French proposal was supported by Belgium (at the moment one of the rotating Council members), Germany, Spain, Italy, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and several non-aligned nations. The US, the UK, and the Soviet Union rejected it; US Ambassador to the UN Thomas Pickering stated that the French proposal was unacceptable, because it went beyond previous Council resolutions on the Iraqi invasion. France dropped this proposal when it found "no tangible sign of interest '' from Baghdad.
One of the West 's main concerns was the significant threat Iraq posed to Saudi Arabia. Following Kuwait 's conquest, the Iraqi Army was within easy striking distance of Saudi oil fields. Control of these fields, along with Kuwaiti and Iraqi reserves, would have given Saddam control over the majority of the world 's oil reserves. Iraq also had a number of grievances with Saudi Arabia. The Saudis had lent Iraq some 26 billion dollars during its war with Iran. The Saudis had backed Iraq in that war, as they feared the influence of Shia Iran 's Islamic revolution on its own Shia minority. After the war, Saddam felt he should not have to repay the loans due to the help he had given the Saudis by fighting Iran.
Soon after his conquest of Kuwait, Saddam began verbally attacking the Saudis. He argued that the US - supported Saudi state was an illegitimate and unworthy guardian of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. He combined the language of the Islamist groups that had recently fought in Afghanistan with the rhetoric Iran had long used to attack the Saudis.
Acting on the Carter Doctrine 's policy, and out of fear the Iraqi Army could launch an invasion of Saudi Arabia, US President George Bush quickly announced that the US would launch a "wholly defensive '' mission to prevent Iraq from invading Saudi Arabia under the codename Operation Desert Shield. Operation Desert Shield began on 7 August 1990, when US troops were sent to Saudi Arabia due also to the request of its monarch, King Fahd, who had earlier called for US military assistance. This "wholly defensive '' doctrine was quickly abandoned when, on 8 August, Iraq declared Kuwait to be Iraq 's 19th province and Saddam named his cousin, Ali Hassan Al - Majid, as its military - governor.
The US Navy dispatched two naval battle groups built around the aircraft carriers USS Dwight D. Eisenhower and USS Independence to the Persian Gulf, where they were ready by 8 August. The US also sent the battleships USS Missouri and USS Wisconsin to the region. A total of 48 US Air Force F - 15s from the 1st Fighter Wing at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia, landed in Saudi Arabia and immediately commenced round - the - clock air patrols of the Saudi -- Kuwait -- Iraq border to discourage further Iraqi military advances. They were joined by 36 F - 15 A-Ds from the 36th Tactical Fighter Wing at Bitburg, Germany. The Bitburg contingent was based at Al Kharj Air Base, approximately an hour south east of Riyadh. The 36th TFW would be responsible for 11 confirmed Iraqi Air Force aircraft shot down during the war. There were also two Air National Guard units stationed at Al Kharj Air Base, the South Carolina Air National Guard 's 169th Fighter Wing flew bombing missions with 24 F - 16s flying 2,000 combat missions and dropping 4 million pounds of munitions, and the New York Air National Guard 's 174th Fighter Wing from Syracuse flew 24 F - 16s on bombing missions. Military buildup continued from there, eventually reaching 543,000 troops, twice the number used in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Much of the material was airlifted or carried to the staging areas via fast sealift ships, allowing a quick buildup.
A series of UN Security Council resolutions and Arab League resolutions were passed regarding Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait. One of the most important was Resolution 678, passed on 29 November 1990, which gave Iraq a withdrawal deadline until 15 January 1991, and authorized "all necessary means to uphold and implement Resolution 660 '', and a diplomatic formulation authorizing the use of force if Iraq failed to comply.
To ensure that economic backing, Baker went on an 11 - day journey to nine countries that the press dubbed "The Tin Cup Trip ''. The first stop was Saudi Arabia, which a month before had already granted permission to the United States to use its facilities. However, Baker believed that Saudi Arabia, an immensely wealthy nation, should assume some of the cost of the military efforts, since one of the most important military objectives was to defend Saudi Arabia. When Baker asked King Fahd for 15 billion dollars, the King readily agreed, with the promise that Baker ask Kuwait for the same amount.
The next day, 7 September, he did just that, and the Emir of Kuwait, displaced in a Sheraton hotel outside his invaded country, easily agreed. Baker then moved to enter talks with Egypt, whose leadership he considered to be "the moderate voice of the Middle East ''. President Mubarak of Egypt was furious with Saddam for his invasion of Kuwait, and for the fact that Saddam had assured Mubarak that an invasion was not his intention. Therefore, he was willing to commit troops to the coalition forces to quell Saddam, as well as relieved the United States was willing to forgive his country 's 7.1 billion dollar debt.
After stops in Helsinki and Moscow to smooth out Iraqi demands for a Middle - Eastern peace conference with the Soviet Union, Baker traveled to Syria to discuss its role in the crisis with its President Hafez Assad. Assad had a deep personal enmity towards Saddam, which was defined by the fact that "Saddam had been trying to kill him (Assad) for years ''. Harboring this animosity and being impressed with Baker 's diplomatic initiative to visit Damascus (relations had been severed since the 1983 bombing of US Marine barracks in Beirut), Assad agreed to pledge up to 100,000 Syrian troops to the coalition effort. This was a vital step in ensuring Arab states were represented in the coalition.
Baker flew to Rome for a brief visit with the Italians in which he was promised the use of some military equipment, before journeying to Germany to meet with American ally Chancellor Kohl. Although Germany 's constitution (which was brokered essentially by the United States) prohibited military involvement in outside nations, Kohl was willing to repay his gratitude for the United States with a two billion dollar contribution to the coalition 's war effort, as well as further economic and military support of coalition ally Turkey, and the execution of the transport of Egyptian soldiers and ships to the Persian Gulf.
A coalition of forces opposing Iraq 's aggression was formed, consisting of forces from 34 countries: Argentina, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Kuwait, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Niger, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Spain, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the US itself. It was the largest coalition since World War II. US Army General Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr. was designated to be the commander of the coalition forces in the Persian Gulf area. The Soviet Union also supported United States intervention.
Although they did not contribute any forces, Japan and Germany made financial contributions totaling $10 billion and $6.6 billion respectively. US troops represented 73 % of the coalition 's 956,600 troops in Iraq.
Many of the coalition countries were reluctant to commit military forces. Some felt that the war was an internal Arab affair or did not want to increase US influence in the Middle East. In the end, however, many nations were persuaded by Iraq 's belligerence towards other Arab states, offers of economic aid or debt forgiveness, and threats to withhold aid.
The US and the UN gave several public justifications for involvement in the conflict, the most prominent being the Iraqi violation of Kuwaiti territorial integrity. In addition, the US moved to support its ally Saudi Arabia, whose importance in the region, and as a key supplier of oil, made it of considerable geopolitical importance. Shortly after the Iraqi invasion, US Defense Secretary Dick Cheney made the first of several visits to Saudi Arabia where King Fahd requested US military assistance. During a speech in a special joint session of the US Congress given on 11 September 1990, US President George Bush summed up the reasons with the following remarks: "Within three days, 120,000 Iraqi troops with 850 tanks had poured into Kuwait and moved south to threaten Saudi Arabia. It was then that I decided to act to check that aggression. ''
The Pentagon stated that satellite photos showing a buildup of Iraqi forces along the border were this information 's source, but this was later alleged to be false. A reporter for the St. Petersburg Times acquired two commercial Soviet satellite images made at the time in question, which showed nothing but empty desert.
Other justifications for foreign involvement included Iraq 's history of human rights abuses under Saddam. Iraq was also known to possess biological weapons and chemical weapons, which Saddam had used against Iranian troops during the Iran -- Iraq War and against his own country 's Kurdish population in the Al - Anfal campaign. Iraq was also known to have a nuclear weapons program, but the report about it from January 1991 was partially declassified by the CIA on 26 May 2001.
Although there were human rights abuses committed in Kuwait by the invading Iraqi military, the alleged incidents which received most publicity in the US were inventions of the public relations firm hired by the government of Kuwait to influence US opinion in favor of military intervention. Shortly after Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait, the organization Citizens for a Free Kuwait was formed in the US. It hired the public relations firm Hill & Knowlton for about $11 million, paid by Kuwait 's government.
Among many other means of influencing US opinion, such as distributing books on Iraqi atrocities to US soldiers deployed in the region, "Free Kuwait '' T - shirts and speakers to college campuses, and dozens of video news releases to television stations, the firm arranged for an appearance before a group of members of the US Congress in which a woman identifying herself as a nurse working in the Kuwait City hospital described Iraqi soldiers pulling babies out of incubators and letting them die on the floor.
The story was an influence in tipping both the public and Congress towards a war with Iraq: six Congressmen said the testimony was enough for them to support military action against Iraq and seven Senators referenced the testimony in debate. The Senate supported the military actions in a 52 -- 47 vote. However, a year after the war, this allegation was revealed to be a fabrication. The woman who had testified was found to be a member of Kuwait 's Royal Family, in fact the daughter of Kuwait 's ambassador to the US. She had n't lived in Kuwait during the Iraqi invasion.
The details of the Hill & Knowlton public relations campaign, including the incubator testimony, were published in John R. MacArthur 's Second Front: Censorship and Propaganda in the Gulf War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1992), and came to wide public attention when an Op - ed by MacArthur was published in The New York Times. This prompted a reexamination by Amnesty International, which had originally promoted an account alleging even greater numbers of babies torn from incubators than the original fake testimony. After finding no evidence to support it, the organization issued a retraction. President Bush then repeated the incubator allegations on television.
At the same time, the Iraqi Army committed several well - documented crimes during its occupation of Kuwait, such as the summary execution without trial of three brothers after which their bodies were stacked in a pile and left to decay in a public street. Iraqi troops also ransacked and looted private Kuwaiti homes; one residence was repeatedly defecated in. A resident later commented: "The whole thing was violence for the sake of violence, destruction for the sake of destruction... Imagine a surrealistic painting by Salvador Dalí ''.
The Gulf War began with an extensive aerial bombing campaign on 16 January 1991. For 42 consecutive days and nights, the coalition forces subjected Iraq to one of the most intensive air bombardments in military history. The coalition flew over 100,000 sorties, dropping 88,500 tons of bombs, and widely destroying military and civilian infrastructure. The air campaign was commanded by USAF Lieutenant General Chuck Horner, who briefly served as US Central Command 's Commander - in - Chief -- Forward while General Schwarzkopf was still in the US.
A day after the deadline set in Resolution 678, the coalition launched a massive air campaign, which began the general offensive codenamed Operation Desert Storm. The first priority was the destruction of Iraq 's Air Force and anti-aircraft facilities. The sorties were launched mostly from Saudi Arabia and the six carrier battle groups (CVBG) in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea.
The next targets were command and communication facilities. Saddam Hussein had closely micromanaged Iraqi forces in the Iran -- Iraq War, and initiative at lower levels was discouraged. Coalition planners hoped that Iraqi resistance would quickly collapse if deprived of command and control.
The air campaign 's third and largest phase targeted military targets throughout Iraq and Kuwait: Scud missile launchers, weapons research facilities, and naval forces. About a third of the coalition 's air power was devoted to attacking Scuds, some of which were on trucks and therefore difficult to locate. US and British special operations forces had been covertly inserted into western Iraq to aid in the search for and destruction of Scuds.
Iraqi anti-aircraft defenses, including man - portable air - defense systems, were surprisingly ineffective against enemy aircraft and the coalition suffered only 75 aircraft losses in over 100,000 sorties, 44 due to Iraqi action. Two of these losses are the result of aircraft colliding with the ground while evading Iraqi ground - fired weapons. One of these losses is a confirmed air - air victory.
Iraq 's government made no secret that it would attack if invaded. Prior to the war 's start, in the aftermath of the failed US -- Iraq peace talks in Geneva, Switzerland, a reporter asked Iraq 's English - speaking Foreign Minister and Deputy Prime Minister Tariq Aziz: "Mr. Foreign Minister, if war starts... will you attack? '' His response was: "Yes, absolutely, yes. ''
Five hours after the first attacks, Iraq 's state radio broadcast declaring that "The dawn of victory nears as this great showdown begins. '' Iraq fired eight missiles the next day. These missile attacks were to continue throughout the war. A total of 88 Scud missiles were fired by Iraq during the war 's seven weeks.
Iraq hoped to provoke a military response from Israel. The Iraqi government hoped that many Arab states would withdraw from the Coalition, as they would be reluctant to fight alongside Israel. Following the first attacks, Israeli Air Force jets were deployed to patrol the northern airspace with Iraq. Israel prepared to militarily retaliate, as its policy for the previous 40 years had always been retaliation. However, President Bush pressured Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir not to retaliate and withdraw Israeli jets, fearing that if Israel attacked Iraq, the other Arab nations would either desert the coalition or join Iraq. It was also feared that if Israel used Syrian or Jordanian airspace to attack Iraq, they would intervene in the war on Iraq 's side or attack Israel. The coalition promised to deploy Patriot missiles to defend Israel if it refrained from responding to the Scud attacks.
The Scud missiles targeting Israel were relatively ineffective, as firing at extreme range resulted in a dramatic reduction in accuracy and payload. According to the Jewish Virtual Library, a total of 74 Israelis died as a result of the Iraqi attacks: two directly and the rest from suffocation and heart attacks. Approximately 230 Israelis were injured. Extensive property damage was also caused, and according to Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, "Damage to general property consisted of 1,302 houses, 6,142 apartments, 23 public buildings, 200 shops and 50 cars. '' It was feared that Iraq would fire missiles filled with nerve agents such as sarin. As a result, Israel 's government issued gas masks to its citizens. When the first Iraqi missiles hit Israel, some people injected themselves with an antidote for nerve gas. It has been suggested that the sturdy construction techniques used in Israeli cities, coupled with the fact that Scuds were only launched at night, played an important role in limiting the number of casualties from Scud attacks.
In response to the threat of Scuds on Israel, the US rapidly sent a Patriot missile air defense artillery battalion to Israel along with two batteries of MIM - 104 Patriot missiles for the protection of civilians. The Royal Netherlands Air Force also deployed a Patriot missile squadron to Israel and Turkey. The Dutch Defense Ministry later stated that the military use of the Patriot missile system was largely ineffective, but its psychological value for the affected populations was high.
Coalition air forces were also extensively exercised in "Scud hunts '' in the Iraqi desert, trying to locate the camouflaged trucks before they fired their missiles at Israel or Saudi Arabia. On the ground, special operations forces also infiltrated Iraq, tasked with locating and destroying Scuds. Once special operations were combined with air patrols, the number of attacks fell sharply, then increased slightly as Iraqi forces adjusted to coalition tactics.
As the Scud attacks continued, the Israelis grew increasingly impatient, and considered taking unilateral military action against Iraq. On 22 January 1991, a Scud missile hit the Israeli city of Ramat Gan, after two coalition Patriots failed to intercept it. Three elderly people suffered fatal heart attacks, another 96 people were injured, and 20 apartment buildings were damaged. After this attack, the Israelis warned that if the US failed to stop the attacks, they would. At one point, Israeli commandos boarded helicopters prepared to fly into Iraq, but the mission was called off after a phone call from US Defense Secretary Dick Cheney, reporting on the extent of coalition efforts to destroy Scuds and emphasizing that Israeli intervention could endanger US forces.
In addition to the attacks on Israel, 47 Scud missiles were fired into Saudi Arabia, and one missile was fired at Bahrain and another at Qatar. The missiles were fired at both military and civilian targets. One Saudi civilian was killed, and 78 others were injured. No casualties were reported in Bahrain or Qatar. The Saudi government issued all its citizens and expatriates with gas masks in the event of Iraq using missiles with chemical or biological warheads. The government broadcast alerts and ' all clear ' messages over television to warn citizens during Scud attacks.
On 25 February 1991, a Scud missile hit a US Army barracks of the 14th Quartermaster Detachment, out of Greensburg, Pennsylvania, stationed in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killing 28 soldiers and injuring over 100.
On 29 January, Iraqi forces attacked and occupied the lightly defended Saudi city of Khafji with tanks and infantry. The Battle of Khafji ended two days later when the Iraqis were driven back by the Saudi Arabian National Guard, supported by Qatari forces and US Marines. The allied forces used extensive artillery fire.
Both sides suffered casualties, although Iraqi forces sustained substantially more dead and captured than the allied forces. Eleven Americans were killed in two separate friendly fire incidents, an additional 14 US airmen were killed when their AC - 130 gunship was shot down by an Iraqi surface - to - air missile, and two US soldiers were captured during the battle. Saudi and Qatari forces had a total of 18 dead. Iraqi forces in Khafji had 60 -- 300 dead and 400 captured.
The Battle of Khafji was an example of how air power could single - handedly hinder the advance of enemy ground forces. Upon learning of Iraqi troop movements, 140 coalition aircraft were diverted to attack an advancing column consisting of two armored divisions in battalion - sized units. Precision stand - off attacks were conducted during the night and through to the next day. Iraqi vehicle losses included 357 tanks, 147 armored personnel carriers, and 89 mobile artillery pieces. Some crews simply abandoned their vehicles upon realizing that they could be destroyed by guided bombs without warning, stopping the divisions from massing for an organized attack on the town. One Iraqi soldier, who had fought in the Iran -- Iraq War, remarked that his brigade "had sustained more punishment from allied airpower in 30 minutes at Khafji than in eight years of fighting against Iran. ''
Task Force 1 - 41 Infantry was a U.S. Army heavy battalion task force from the 2nd Armored Division (Forward). It was the spearhead of VII Corps. It consisted primarily of the 1st Battalion, 41st Infantry Regiment, 3rd Battalion, 66th Armor Regiment, and the 4th Battalion, 3rd Field Artillery Regiment. Task Force 1 -- 41 was the first coalition force to breach the Saudi Arabian border on 15 February 1991 and conduct ground combat operations in Iraq engaging in direct and indirect fire fights with the enemy on 17 February 1991. Shortly after arrival in theatre Task Force 1 -- 41 Infantry received a counter-reconnaissance mission. 1 -- 41 Infantry was assisted by the 1st Squadron, 4th Armored Cavalry Regiment. This joint effort would become known as Task Force Iron. Counter-reconnaissance generally includes destroying or repelling the enemy 's reconnaissance elements and denying their commander any observation of friendly forces. On 15 February 1991 4th Battalion of the 3rd Field Artillery Regiment fired on a trailer and a few trucks in the Iraqi sector that were observing American forces. On 16 February 1991 several groups of Iraqi vehicles appeared to be performing reconnaissance on the Task Force and were driven away by fire from 4 -- 3 FA. Another enemy platoon, including six vehicles, was reported as being to the northeast of the Task Force. They were engaged with artillery fire from 4 -- 3 FA. Later that evening another group of Iraqi vehicles was spotted moving towards the center of the Task Force. They appeared to be Iraqi Soviet - made BTRs and tanks. For the next hour the Task Force fought several small battles with Iraqi reconnaissance units. TF 1 -- 41 IN fired TOW missiles at the Iraqi formation destroying one tank. The rest of the formation was destroyed or driven away by artillery fire from 4 -- 3 FA. On 17 February 1991 the Task Force took enemy mortar fire; however, the enemy forces managed to escape. Later that evening the Task Force received enemy artillery fire but suffered no casualties.
Task Force 1 - 41 Infantry was the first coalition force to breach the Saudi Arabian border on 15 February 1991 and conduct ground combat operations in Iraq engaging in direct and indirect fire fights with the enemy on 17 February 1991. Prior to this action the Task Force 's primary fire support battalion, 4th Battalion of the 3rd Field Artillery Regiment, participated in a massive artillery preparation. Around 300 guns from multiple nations participated in the artillery barrage. Over 14,000 rounds were fired during these missions. M270 Multiple Launch Rocket Systems contributed an additional 4,900 rockets fired at Iraqi targets. Iraq lost close to 22 artillery battalions during the initial stages of this barrage. This included the destruction of approximately 396 Iraqi artillery pieces. By the end of these raids Iraqi artillery assets had all but ceased to exist. One Iraqi unit that was totally destroyed during the preparation was the Iraqi 48th Infantry Division Artillery Group. The group 's commander stated his unit lost 83 of its 100 guns to the artillery preparation. This artillery prep was supplemented by air attacks by B - 52 bombers and Lockheed AC - 130 fixed wing gunships. 1st Infantry Division Apache helicopters and B - 52 bombers conducted raids against Iraq 's 110th Infantry Brigade. The 1st Engineer Battalion and 9th Engineer Battalion marked and proofed assault lanes under direct and indirect enemy fire to secure a foothold in enemy territory and pass the 1st Infantry Division and the British 1st Armored Division forward. On 24 February 1991 the 1st Cavalry Division conducted a couple artillery missions against Iraqi artillery units. One artillery mission struck a series of Iraqi bunkers, reinforced by Iraqi T - 55 tanks, in the sector of the Iraqi 25th Infantry Division. The same day the 2nd Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division with the 1st Battalion, 5th Cavalry, 1st Battalion, 32nd Armor, and the 1st Battalion, 8th Cavalry destroyed Iraqi bunkers and combat vehicles in the sector of the Iraqi 25th Infantry Division. On 24 February 1991 2nd Brigade, 1st Infantry Division rolled through the breach in the Iraqi defense west of Wadi Al - Batin and also cleared the northeastern sector of the breach site of enemy resistance. Task Force 3 - 37th Armor breached the Iraqi defense clearing four passage lanes and expanding the gap under direct enemy fire. Also, on 24 February the 1st Infantry Division along with the 1st Cavalry Division destroyed Iraqi outposts and patrols belonging to the Iraqi 26th Infantry Division. The two divisions also began capturing prisoners. The 1st Infantry Division also cleared a zone between Phase Line Vermont and Phase Line Kansas. Once the 1st Infantry Division 's 3rd Battalion, 37th Armor reached the Iraqi rear defensive positions it destroyed an Iraqi D - 30 artillery battery and many trucks and bunkers.
Task Force 1 - 41 Infantry was given the task of breaching Iraq 's initial defensive positions along the Iraq -- Saudi Arabia border. The 1st Squadron, 4th Armored Cavalry Regiment handled similar responsibilities in its sector of operations. The 1st Infantry Division 's 5th Battalion, 16th Infantry also played a significant role clearing the trenches and captured 160 Iraqi soldiers in the process. Once into Iraqi territory Task Force 1 - 41 Infantry encountered multiple Iraqi defensive positions and bunkers. These defensive positions were occupied by a brigade - sized element. Task Force 1 - 41 Infantry elements dismounted and prepared to engage the enemy soldiers which occupied these well - prepared and heavily fortified bunkers. The Task Force found itself engaged in six hours of combat in order to clear the extensive bunker complex. The Iraqis engaged the Task Force with small arms fire, RPGs, mortar fire, and what was left of Iraqi artillery assets. A series of battles unfolded which resulted in heavy Iraqi casualties and the Iraqis being removed from their defensive positions with many becoming prisoners of war. Some escaped to be killed or captured by other coalition forces. In the process of clearing the bunkers Task Force 1 - 41 captured two brigade command posts and the command post of the Iraqi 26th Infantry Division. The Task Force also captured a brigade commander, several battalion commanders, company commanders, and staff officers. As combat operations progressed Task Force 1 - 41 Infantry engaged at short range multiple dug in enemy tanks in ambush positions. For a few hours, bypassed Iraqi RPG - equipped anti-tank teams, T - 55 tanks, and dismounted Iraqi infantry fired at passing American vehicles, only to be destroyed by other US tanks and fighting vehicles following the initial forces.
The 1st Infantry Division 's Task Force 2 - 16 Infantry cleared four lanes simultaneously through an enemy fortified trench system while inflicting heavy casualties on Iraqi forces. Task Force 2 - 16 continued the attack clearing over 13 miles of entrenched enemy positions resulting in the capture and destruction of numerous enemy vehicles, equipment, personnel and command bunkers.
The ground campaign consisted of three if not four of the largest tank battles in American military history. The battles at 73 Easting, Norfolk, and Medina Ridge are well noted for their historic significance. Some consider the battle of Medina Ridge the largest tank battle of the war. The U.S. Marine Corps also fought the biggest tank battle in its history at Kuwait International Airport. The U.S. 3rd Armored Division also fought a significant battle at Objective Dorset not far from where the battle of Norfolk was taking place. The U.S. 3rd Armored Division destroyed approximately 300 enemy combat vehicles during this particular encounter with Iraqi forces. The Iraqis suffered the loss of over 3,000 tanks and over 2,000 other combat vehicles during these battles against the American - led coalition.
US decoy attacks by air attacks and naval gunfire the night before Kuwait 's liberation were designed to make the Iraqis believe the main coalition ground attack would focus on central Kuwait.
For months, American units in Saudi Arabia had been under almost constant Iraqi artillery fire, as well as threats from Scud missile or chemical attacks. On 24 February 1991, the 1st and 2nd Marine Divisions and the 1st Light Armored Infantry Battalion crossed into Kuwait and headed toward Kuwait City. They encountered trenches, barbed wire, and minefields. However, these positions were poorly defended, and were overrun in the first few hours. Several tank battles took place, but otherwise coalition troops encountered minimal resistance, as most Iraqi troops surrendered. The general pattern was that the Iraqis would put up a short fight before surrendering. However, Iraqi air defenses shot down nine US aircraft. Meanwhile, forces from Arab states advanced into Kuwait from the east, encountering little resistance and suffering few casualties.
Despite the successes of coalition forces, it was feared that the Iraqi Republican Guard would escape into Iraq before it could be destroyed. It was decided to send British armored forces into Kuwait 15 hours ahead of schedule, and to send US forces after the Republican Guard. The coalition advance was preceded by a heavy artillery and rocket barrage, after which 150,000 troops and 1,500 tanks began their advance. Iraqi forces in Kuwait counterattacked against US troops, acting on a direct order from Saddam Hussein himself. Despite the intense combat, the Americans repulsed the Iraqis and continued to advance towards Kuwait City.
Kuwaiti forces were tasked with liberating the city. Iraqi troops offered only light resistance. The Kuwaitis quickly liberated the city despite losing one soldier and having one plane was shot down. On 27 February, Saddam ordered a retreat from Kuwait, and President Bush declared it liberated. However, an Iraqi unit at Kuwait International Airport appeared not to have received the message and fiercely resisted. US Marines had to fight for hours before securing the airport, after which Kuwait was declared secure. After four days of fighting, Iraqi forces were expelled from Kuwait. As part of a scorched earth policy, they set fire to nearly 700 oil wells and placed land mines around the wells to make extinguishing the fires more difficult.
The war 's ground phase was officially designated Operation Desert Saber.
The first units to move into Iraq were three patrols of the British Special Air Service 's B squadron, call signs Bravo One Zero, Bravo Two Zero, and Bravo Three Zero, in late January. These eight - man patrols landed behind Iraqi lines to gather intelligence on the movements of Scud mobile missile launchers, which could not be detected from the air, as they were hidden under bridges and camouflage netting during the day. Other objectives included the destruction of the launchers and their fiber - optic communications arrays that lay in pipelines and relayed coordinates to the TEL operators that were launching attacks against Israel. The operations were designed to prevent any possible Israeli intervention. Due to lack of sufficient ground cover to carry out their assignment, One Zero and Three Zero abandoned their operations, while Two Zero remained, and was later compromised, with only Sergeant Chris Ryan escaping to Syria.
Elements of the 2nd Brigade, 1st Battalion 5th Cavalry of the 1st Cavalry Division of the US Army performed a direct attack into Iraq on 15 February 1991, followed by one in force on 20 February that led directly through seven Iraqi divisions which were caught off guard. On 17 January 1991 the 101st Airborne Division Aviation Regiment fired the first shots of the war when eight AH - 64 helicopters successfully destroyed two Iraqi early warning radar sites. From 15 -- 20 February, the Battle of Wadi Al - Batin took place inside Iraq; this was the first of two attacks by 1 Battalion 5th Cavalry of the 1st Cavalry Division. It was a feint attack, designed to make the Iraqis think that a coalition invasion would take place from the south. The Iraqis fiercely resisted, and the Americans eventually withdrew as planned back into the Wadi Al - Batin. Three US soldiers were killed and nine wounded, with one M2 Bradley IFV turret destroyed, but they had taken 40 prisoners and destroyed five tanks, and successfully deceived the Iraqis. This attack led the way for the XVIII Airborne Corps to sweep around behind the 1st Cav and attack Iraqi forces to the west. On 22 February 1991, Iraq agreed to a Soviet - proposed ceasefire agreement. The agreement called for Iraq to withdraw troops to pre-invasion positions within six weeks following a total ceasefire, and called for monitoring of the ceasefire and withdrawal to be overseen by the UN Security Council.
The coalition rejected the proposal, but said that retreating Iraqi forces would not be attacked, and gave 24 hours for Iraq to withdraw its forces. On 23 February, fighting resulted in the capture of 500 Iraqi soldiers. On 24 February, British and American armored forces crossed the Iraq -- Kuwait border and entered Iraq in large numbers, taking hundreds of prisoners. Iraqi resistance was light, and four Americans were killed.
Shortly afterwards, the US VII Corps, in full strength and spearheaded by the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment, launched an armored attack into Iraq early on 24 February, just to the west of Kuwait, taking Iraqi forces by surprise. Simultaneously, the US XVIII Airborne Corps launched a sweeping "left - hook '' attack across southern Iraq 's largely undefended desert, led by the US 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment and the 24th Infantry Division (Mechanized). This movement 's left flank was protected by the French Division Daguet. The 101st Airborne Division conducted a combat air assault into enemy territory. The 101st Airborne Division had struck 155 miles behind enemy lines. It was the deepest air assault operation in history. Approximately 400 helicopters transported 2,000 soldiers into Iraq where they destroyed Iraqi columns trying to flee westward and prevented the escape of Iraqi forces. The 101st Airborne Division travelled a further fifty to sixty miles into Iraq. By nightfall, the 101st cut off Highway 8 which was a vital supply line running between Basra and the Iraqi forces. The 101st had lost 16 soldiers in action during the 100 - hour war and captured thousands of enemy prisoners of war.
The French force quickly overcame Iraq 's 45th Infantry Division, suffering light casualties and taking a large number of prisoners, and took up blocking positions to prevent an Iraqi counterattack on the coalition 's flank. The movement 's right flank was protected by the United Kingdom 's 1st Armoured Division. Once the allies had penetrated deep into Iraqi territory, they turned eastward, launching a flank attack against the elite Republican Guard before it could escape. The Iraqis resisted fiercely from dug - in positions and stationary vehicles, and even mounted armored charges.
Unlike many previous engagements, the destruction of the first Iraqi tanks did not result in a mass surrender. The Iraqis suffered massive losses and lost dozens of tanks and vehicles, while US casualties were comparatively low, with a single Bradley knocked out. Coalition forces pressed another 10 km into Iraqi territory, and captured their objective within three hours. They took 500 prisoners and inflicted heavy losses, defeating Iraq 's 26th Infantry Division. A US soldier was killed by an Iraqi land mine, another five by friendly fire, and 30 wounded during the battle. Meanwhile, British forces attacked Iraq 's Medina Division and a major Republican Guard logistics base. In nearly two days of some of the war 's most intense fighting, the British destroyed 40 enemy tanks and captured a division commander.
Meanwhile, US forces attacked the village of Al Busayyah, meeting fierce resistance. The US force destroyed a considerable amount of military hardware and took prisoners, while suffering no casualties.
On 25 February 1991, Iraqi forces fired a Scud missile at an American barracks in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. The missile attack killed 28 US military personnel.
The coalition 's advance was much swifter than US generals had expected. On 26 February, Iraqi troops began retreating from Kuwait, after they had set 737 of its oil wells on fire. A long convoy of retreating Iraqi troops formed along the main Iraq - Kuwait highway. Although they were retreating, this convoy was bombed so extensively by coalition air forces that it came to be known as the Highway of Death. Thousands of Iraqi troops were killed. American, British, and French forces continued to pursue retreating Iraqi forces over the border and back into Iraq, eventually moving to within 150 miles (240 km) of Baghdad, before withdrawing back to Iraq 's border with Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.
One hundred hours after the ground campaign started, on 28 February, President Bush declared a ceasefire, and he also declared that Kuwait had been liberated.
In coalition - occupied Iraqi territory, a peace conference was held where a ceasefire agreement was negotiated and signed by both sides. At the conference, Iraq was authorized to fly armed helicopters on their side of the temporary border, ostensibly for government transit due to the damage done to civilian infrastructure. Soon after, these helicopters and much of Iraq 's military were used to fight an uprising in the south. The rebellions were encouraged by an airing of "The Voice of Free Iraq '' on 2 February 1991, which was broadcast from a CIA - run radio station out of Saudi Arabia. The Arabic service of the Voice of America supported the uprising by stating that the rebellion was well supported, and that they soon would be liberated from Saddam.
In the North, Kurdish leaders took American statements that they would support an uprising to heart, and began fighting, hoping to trigger a coup d'état. However, when no US support came, Iraqi generals remained loyal to Saddam and brutally crushed the Kurdish uprising. Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and Kurdish areas of Iran. These events later resulted in no - fly zones being established in northern and southern Iraq. In Kuwait, the Emir was restored, and suspected Iraqi collaborators were repressed. Eventually, over 400,000 people were expelled from the country, including a large number of Palestinians, because of PLO support of Saddam. Yasser Arafat did n't apologize for his support of Iraq, but after his death, the Fatah under Mahmoud Abbas ' authority formally apologized in 2004.
There was some criticism of the Bush administration, as they chose to allow Saddam to remain in power instead of pushing on to capture Baghdad and overthrowing his government. In their co-written 1998 book, A World Transformed, Bush and Brent Scowcroft argued that such a course would have fractured the alliance, and would have had many unnecessary political and human costs associated with it.
In 1992, the US Defense Secretary during the war, Dick Cheney, made the same point:
I would guess if we had gone in there, we would still have forces in Baghdad today. We 'd be running the country. We would not have been able to get everybody out and bring everybody home.
And the final point that I think needs to be made is this question of casualties. I do n't think you could have done all of that without significant additional US casualties, and while everybody was tremendously impressed with the low cost of the (1991) conflict, for the 146 Americans who were killed in action and for their families, it was n't a cheap war.
And the question in my mind is, how many additional American casualties is Saddam (Hussein) worth? And the answer is, not that damned many. So, I think we got it right, both when we decided to expel him from Kuwait, but also when the President made the decision that we 'd achieved our objectives and we were not going to go get bogged down in the problems of trying to take over and govern Iraq.
Instead of a greater involvement of its own military, the US hoped that Saddam would be overthrown in an internal coup d'état. The CIA used its assets in Iraq to organize a revolt, but the Iraqi government defeated the effort.
On 10 March 1991, 540,000 US troops began moving out of the Persian Gulf.
Coalition members included Argentina, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Egypt, France, Greece, Honduras, Hungary, Italy, Kuwait, Malaysia, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Niger, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America.
Germany and Japan provided financial assistance and donated military hardware, although they did not send direct military assistance. This later became known as checkbook diplomacy.
Australia contributed a Naval Task Group, which formed part of the multi-national fleet in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, under Operation Damask. In addition, medical teams were deployed aboard a US hospital ship, and a naval clearance diving team took part in de-mining Kuwait 's port facilities following the end of combat operations. Australian forces experienced a number of incidents in the first number of weeks of the Desert Storm Campaign including the detection of significant air threats from Iraq as a part of the outer perimeter of Battle Force Zulu; the detection of free sea floating mines and assistance to the aircraft carrier USS Midway. The Australian Task Force was also placed at great risk with regard to the sea mine threat, with HMAS Brisbane narrowly avoiding a mine by a small distance. The Australians played a significant role in enforcing the sanctions put in place against Iraq following Kuwait 's invasion. Following the war 's end, Australia deployed a medical unit on Operation Habitat to northern Iraq as part of Operation Provide Comfort.
Argentina was the only Latin American country to participate in the 1991 Gulf War sending a destroyer, ARA Almirante Brown (D - 10), a corvette, ARA Spiro (P - 43) (later replaced by another corvette, ARA Rosales (P - 42)) and a supply ship (ARA Bahía San Blas (B - 4)) to participate on the United Nations blockade and sea control effort of the Persian Gulf. The success of "Operación Alfil '' (English: "Operation Bishop '') as it was known, with more than 700 interceptions and 25,000 miles sailed in the theatre of operations helped to overcome the so - called "Malvinas syndrome ''. Argentina was later classified by the U.S. as major non-NATO ally due to her contributions during the war.
Canada was one of the first countries to condemn Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait, and it quickly agreed to join the US - led coalition. In August 1990, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney committed the Canadian Forces to deploy a Naval Task Group. The destroyers HMCS Terra Nova and HMCS Athabaskan joined the maritime interdiction force supported by the supply ship HMCS Protecteur in Operation Friction. The Canadian Task Group led the coalition 's maritime logistics forces in the Persian Gulf. A fourth ship, HMCS Huron, arrived in - theater after hostilities had ceased and was the first allied ship to visit Kuwait.
Following the UN-authorized use of force against Iraq, the Canadian Forces deployed a CF - 18 Hornet and CH - 124 Sea King squadron with support personnel, as well as a field hospital to deal with casualties from the ground war. When the air war began, the CF - 18s were integrated into the coalition force and were tasked with providing air cover and attacking ground targets. This was the first time since the Korean War that Canada 's military had participated in offensive combat operations. The only CF - 18 Hornet to record an official victory during the conflict was an aircraft involved in the beginning of the Battle of Bubiyan against the Iraqi Navy.
The Canadian Commander in the Middle East was Commodore Kenneth J. Summers.
The second largest European contingent was from France, which committed 18,000 troops. Operating on the left flank of the US XVIII Airborne Corps, the French Army force was the Division Daguet, including troops from the French Foreign Legion. Initially, the French operated independently under national command and control, but coordinated closely with the Americans (via CENTCOM) and Saudis. In January, the Division was placed under the tactical control of the XVIII Airborne Corps. France also deployed several combat aircraft and naval units. The French called their contribution Opération Daguet.
The United Kingdom committed the largest contingent of any European state that participated in the war 's combat operations. Operation Granby was the code name for the operations in the Persian Gulf. British Army regiments (mainly with the 1st Armoured Division), Royal Air Force squadrons and Royal Navy vessels were mobilized in the Persian Gulf. The Royal Air Force, using various aircraft, operated from airbases in Saudi Arabia. The United Kingdom played a major role in the Battle of Norfolk where its forces destroyed over 200 Iraqi tanks and a large quantity of other vehicles. After 48 hours of combat the British 1st Armoured Division destroyed or isolated four Iraqi infantry divisions (the 26th, 48th, 31st, and 25th) and overran the Iraqi 52nd Armored Division in several sharp engagements.
Chief Royal Navy vessels deployed to the Persian Gulf included Broadsword - class frigates, and Sheffield - class destroyers; other R.N. and R.F.A. ships were also deployed. The light aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal was deployed to the Mediterranean Sea.
Special operations forces were deployed in the form of several SAS squadrons.
A British Challenger 1 achieved the longest range confirmed tank kill of the war, destroying an Iraqi tank with an armour - piercing fin - stabilized discarding - sabot (APFSDS) round fired over a distance of 4,700 metres (2.9 mi) -- the longest tank - on - tank kill shot recorded.
Over 1,000 Kuwaiti civilians were killed by Iraqis. More than 600 Kuwaitis went missing during Iraq 's occupation, and approximately 375 remains were found in mass graves in Iraq. The increased importance of air attacks from both coalition warplanes and cruise missiles led to controversy over the number of civilian deaths caused during Desert Storm 's initial stages. Within Desert Storm 's first 24 hours, more than 1,000 sorties were flown, many against targets in Baghdad. The city was the target of heavy bombing, as it was the seat of power for Saddam and the Iraqi forces ' command and control. This ultimately led to civilian casualties.
In one noted incident, two USAF stealth planes bombed a bunker in Amiriyah, causing the deaths of 408 Iraqi civilians who were in the shelter. Scenes of burned and mutilated bodies were subsequently broadcast, and controversy arose over the bunker 's status, with some stating that it was a civilian shelter, while others contended that it was a center of Iraqi military operations, and that the civilians had been deliberately moved there to act as human shields.
Saddam 's government gave high civilian casualty figures in order to draw support from Islamic countries. The Iraqi government claimed that 2,300 civilians died during the air campaign. According to the Project on Defense Alternatives study, 3,664 Iraqi civilians were killed in the conflict. An investigation by Beth Osborne Daponte estimated total civilian fatalities at about 3,500 from bombing, and some 100,000 from the war 's other effects.
The exact number of Iraqi combat casualties is unknown, but is believed to have been heavy. Some estimate that Iraq sustained between 20,000 and 35,000 fatalities. A report commissioned by the US Air Force estimated 10,000 -- 12,000 Iraqi combat deaths in the air campaign, and as many as 10,000 casualties in the ground war. This analysis is based on Iraqi prisoner of war reports.
According to the Project on Defense Alternatives study, between 20,000 and 26,000 Iraqi military personnel were killed in the conflict while 75,000 others were wounded.
The U.S. Department of Defense reports that US forces suffered 148 battle - related deaths (35 to friendly fire), with one pilot listed as MIA (his remains were found and identified in August 2009). A further 145 Americans died in non-combat accidents. The UK suffered 47 deaths (nine to friendly fire, all by US forces), France nine, and the other countries, not including Kuwait, suffered 37 deaths (18 Saudis, one Egyptian, six UAE and three Qataris). At least 605 Kuwaiti soldiers were still missing 10 years after their capture.
The largest single loss of life among coalition forces happened on 25 February 1991, when an Iraqi Al Hussein missile hit a US military barrack in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killing 28 US Army Reservists from Pennsylvania. In all, 190 coalition troops were killed by Iraqi fire during the war, 113 of whom were American, out of a total of 358 coalition deaths. Another 44 soldiers were killed and 57 wounded by friendly fire. 145 soldiers died of exploding munitions or non-combat accidents.
The largest accident among coalition forces happened on 21 March 1991, a Royal Saudi Air Force C - 130H crashed in heavy smoke on approach to Ras Al - Mishab Airport, Saudi Arabia. 92 Senegalese soldiers and six Saudi crew members were killed.
The number of coalition wounded in combat was 776, including 458 Americans.
190 coalition troops were killed by Iraqi combatants, the rest of the 379 coalition deaths being from friendly fire or accidents. This number was much lower than expected. Among the American dead were three female soldiers.
While the death toll among coalition forces engaging Iraqi combatants was very low, a substantial number of deaths were caused by accidental attacks from other Allied units. Of the 148 US troops who died in battle, 24 % were killed by friendly fire, a total of 35 service personnel. A further 11 died in detonations of coalition munitions. Nine British military personnel were killed in a friendly fire incident when a USAF A-10 Thunderbolt II destroyed a group of two Warrior IFVs.
Many returning coalition soldiers reported illnesses following their action in the war, a phenomenon known as Gulf War syndrome or Gulf War illness. Common symptoms that were reported are chronic fatigue, fibromyalgia, and gastrointestinal disorder. There has been widespread speculation and disagreement about the causes of the illness and the possibly related birth defects. Researchers found that infants born to male veterans of the 1991 war had higher rates of two types of heart valve defects. Some children born after the war to Gulf War veterans had a certain kidney defect that was not found in Gulf War veterans ' children born before the war. Researchers have said that they did not have enough information to link birth defects with exposure to toxic substances.
Depleted uranium was used in the war in tank kinetic energy penetrators and 20 -- 30 mm cannon ordnance. Significant controversy regarding the long term safety of depleted uranium exists, although detractors claim pyrophoric, genotoxic, and teratogenic heavy metal effects. Many have cited its use during the war as a contributing factor to a number of instances of health issues in the conflict 's veterans and surrounding civilian populations. However, scientific opinion on the risk is mixed.
Depleted uranium has 40 % less radioactivity than natural uranium, but the negative effects should not be overlooked. Some say that depleted uranium is not a significant health hazard unless it is taken into the body. External exposure to radiation from depleted uranium is generally not a major concern because the alpha particles emitted by its isotopes travel only a few centimeters in air or can be stopped by a sheet of paper. Also, the uranium - 235 that remains in depleted uranium emits only a small amount of low - energy gamma radiation. However, if allowed to enter the body, depleted uranium, like natural uranium, has the potential for both chemical and radiological toxicity with the two important target organs being the kidneys and the lungs.
On the night of 26 -- 27 February 1991, some Iraqi forces began leaving Kuwait on the main highway north of Al Jahra in a column of some 1,400 vehicles. A patrolling E-8 Joint STARS aircraft observed the retreating forces and relayed the information to the DDM - 8 air operations center in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. These vehicles and the retreating soldiers were subsequently attacked by two A-10 aircraft, resulting in a 60 km stretch of highway strewn with debris -- the Highway of Death. New York Times reporter Maureen Dowd wrote, "With the Iraqi leader facing military defeat, Mr. Bush decided that he would rather gamble on a violent and potentially unpopular ground war than risk the alternative: an imperfect settlement hammered out by the Soviets and Iraqis that world opinion might accept as tolerable. ''
Chuck Horner, Commander of US and allied air operations, has written:
(By February 26), the Iraqis totally lost heart and started to evacuate occupied Kuwait, but airpower halted the caravan of Iraqi Army and plunderers fleeing toward Basra. This event was later called by the media "The Highway of Death. '' There were certainly a lot of dead vehicles, but not so many dead Iraqis. They 'd already learned to scamper off into the desert when our aircraft started to attack. Nevertheless, some people back home wrongly chose to believe we were cruelly and unusually punishing our already whipped foes.
(...) By February 27, talk had turned toward terminating the hostilities. Kuwait was free. We were not interested in governing Iraq. So the question became "How do we stop the killing. ''
Another incident during the war highlighted the question of large - scale Iraqi combat deaths. This was the "bulldozer assault '', wherein two brigades from the US 1st Infantry Division (Mechanized) were faced with a large and complex trench network, as part of the heavily fortified "Saddam Hussein Line ''. After some deliberation, they opted to use anti-mine plows mounted on tanks and combat earthmovers to simply plow over and bury alive the defending Iraqi soldiers. Not a single American was killed during the attack. Reporters were banned from witnessing the attack, near the neutral zone that touches the border between Saudi Arabia and Iraq. Every American in the assault was inside an armored vehicle. One newspaper story reported that US commanders estimated thousands of Iraqi soldiers surrendered, escaping live burial during the two - day assault 24 -- 26 February 1991. Patrick Day Sloyan of Newsday reported, "Bradley Fighting Vehicles and Vulcan armored carriers straddled the trench lines and fired into the Iraqi soldiers as the tanks covered them with mounds of sand. ' I came through right after the lead company, ' (Col. Anthony) Moreno said. ' What you saw was a bunch of buried trenches with peoples ' arms and things sticking out of them... ' '' However, after the war, the Iraqi government said that only 44 bodies were found. In his book The Wars Against Saddam, John Simpson alleges that US forces attempted to cover up the incident. After the incident, the commander of the 1st Brigade said: "I know burying people like that sounds pretty nasty, but it would be even nastier if we had to put our troops in the trenches and clean them out with bayonets. '' Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney did not mention the First Division 's tactics in an interim report to Congress on Operation Desert Storm. In the report, Cheney acknowledged that 457 enemy soldiers were buried during the ground war.
A Palestinian exodus from Kuwait took place during and after the Gulf War. During the Gulf War, more than 200,000 Palestinians voluntarily fled Kuwait during the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait due to harassment and intimidation by Iraqi security forces, in addition to getting fired from work by Iraqi authority figures in Kuwait. After the Gulf War, the Kuwaiti authorities forcibly pressured nearly 200,000 Palestinians to leave Kuwait in 1991. Kuwait 's policy, which led to this exodus, was a response to alignment of Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat and the PLO with Saddam Hussein.
The Palestinians who fled Kuwait were Jordanian citizens. In 2013, there were 280,000 Jordanian citizens of Palestinian origin in Kuwait. In 2012, 80,000 Palestinians (without Jordanian citizenship) lived in Kuwait.
Saudi Arabia expelled Yemeni workers after Yemen supported Saddam during the Gulf War.
In the 23 June 1991 edition of The Washington Post, reporter Bart Gellman wrote: "Many of the targets were chosen only secondarily to contribute to the military defeat of Iraq... Military planners hoped the bombing would amplify the economic and psychological impact of international sanctions on Iraqi society... They deliberately did great harm to Iraq 's ability to support itself as an industrial society... '' In the Jan / Feb 1995 edition of Foreign Affairs, French diplomat Eric Rouleau wrote: "(T) he Iraqi people, who were not consulted about the invasion, have paid the price for their government 's madness... Iraqis understood the legitimacy of a military action to drive their army from Kuwait, but they have had difficulty comprehending the Allied rationale for using air power to systematically destroy or cripple Iraqi infrastructure and industry: electric power stations (92 percent of installed capacity destroyed), refineries (80 percent of production capacity), petrochemical complexes, telecommunications centers (including 135 telephone networks), bridges (more than 100), roads, highways, railroads, hundreds of locomotives and boxcars full of goods, radio and television broadcasting stations, cement plants, and factories producing aluminum, textiles, electric cables, and medical supplies. '' However, the UN subsequently spent billions rebuilding hospitals, schools, and water purification facilities throughout the country.
During the conflict, coalition aircrew shot down over Iraq were displayed as prisoners of war on TV, most with visible signs of abuse. Amongst several testimonies to poor treatment, USAF Captain Richard Storr was allegededly tortured by Iraqis during the Persian Gulf War. Iraqi secret police broke his nose, dislocated his shoulder and punctured his eardrum. Royal Air Force Tornado crew John Nichol and John Peters have both alleged that they were tortured during this time. Nichol and Peters were forced to make statements against the war in front of television cameras. Members of British Special Air Service Bravo Two Zero were captured while providing information about an Iraqi supply line of Scud missiles to coalition forces. Only one, Chris Ryan, evaded capture while the group 's other surviving members were violently tortured. Flight surgeon (later General) Rhonda Cornum was raped by one of her captors after the Black Hawk helicopter in which she was riding was shot down while searching for a downed F - 16 pilot.
Since the war, the US has had a continued presence of 5,000 troops stationed in Saudi Arabia -- a figure that rose to 10,000 during the 2003 conflict in Iraq. Operation Southern Watch enforced the no - fly zones over southern Iraq set up after 1991; oil exports through the Persian Gulf 's shipping lanes were protected by the Bahrain - based US Fifth Fleet.
Since Saudi Arabia houses Mecca and Medina, Islam 's holiest sites, many Muslims were upset at the permanent military presence. The continued presence of US troops in Saudi Arabia after the war was one of the stated motivations behind the 11 September terrorist attacks, the Khobar Towers bombing, and the date chosen for the 1998 US embassy bombings (7 August), which was eight years to the day that US troops were sent to Saudi Arabia. Osama bin Laden interpreted the Islamic prophet Muhammad as banning the "permanent presence of infidels in Arabia ''. In 1996, bin Laden issued a fatwa, calling for US troops to leave Saudi Arabia. In a December 1999 interview with Rahimullah Yusufzai, bin Laden said he felt that Americans were "too near to Mecca '' and considered this a provocation to the entire Islamic world.
On 6 August 1990, after Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 661 which imposed economic sanctions on Iraq, providing for a full trade embargo, excluding medical supplies, food and other items of humanitarian necessity, these to be determined by the Council 's sanctions committee. From 1991 until 2003, the effects of government policy and sanctions regime led to hyperinflation, widespread poverty and malnutrition.
During the late 1990s, the UN considered relaxing the sanctions imposed because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. Studies dispute the number of people who died in south and central Iraq during the years of the sanctions.
The draining of the Qurna Marshes was an irrigation project in Iraq during and immediately after the war, to drain a large area of marshes in the Tigris -- Euphrates river system. Formerly covering an area of around 3,000 square kilometers, the large complex of wetlands were almost completely emptied of water, and the local Shi'ite population relocated, following the war and 1991 uprisings. By 2000, United Nations Environment Programme estimated that 90 % of the marshlands had disappeared, causing desertification of over 7,500 square miles (19,000 km).
The draining of the Qurna Marshes also called The Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes occurred in Iraq and to a smaller degree in Iran between the 1950s and 1990s to clear large areas of the marshes in the Tigris - Euphrates river system. Formerly covering an area of around 20,000 km (7,700 sq mi), the large complex of wetlands was 90 % drained prior to the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. The marshes are typically divided into three main sub-marshes, the Hawizeh, Central, and Hammar Marshes and all three were drained at different times for different reasons. Initial draining of the Central Marshes was intended to reclaim land for agriculture but later all three marshes would become a tool of war and revenge.
Many international organizations such as the UN Human Rights Commission, the Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq, the Wetlands International, and Middle East Watch have described the project as a political attempt to force the Marsh Arabs out of the area through water diversion tactics.
On 23 January, Iraq dumped 400 million US gallons (1,500,000 m) of crude oil into the Persian Gulf, causing the largest offshore oil spill in history at that time. It was reported as a deliberate natural resources attack to keep US Marines from coming ashore (Missouri and Wisconsin had shelled Failaka Island during the war to reinforce the idea that there would be an amphibious assault attempt). About 30 -- 40 % of this came from allied raids on Iraqi coastal targets.
The Kuwaiti oil fires were caused by the Iraqi military setting fire to 700 oil wells as part of a scorched earth policy while retreating from Kuwait in 1991 after conquering the country but being driven out by coalition forces. The fires started in January and February 1991, and the last one was extinguished by November.
The resulting fires burned out of control because of the dangers of sending in firefighting crews. Land mines had been placed in areas around the oil wells, and a military cleaning of the areas was necessary before the fires could be put out. Somewhere around 6 million barrels (950,000 m) of oil were lost each day. Eventually, privately contracted crews extinguished the fires, at a total cost of US $1.5 billion to Kuwait. By that time, however, the fires had burned for approximately 10 months, causing widespread pollution.
The cost of the war to the United States was calculated by the US Congress in April 1992 to be $61.1 billion (equivalent to $96.5 billion in 2016). About $52 billion of that amount was paid by other countries: $36 billion by Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and other Arab states of the Persian Gulf; $16 billion by Germany and Japan (which sent no combat forces due to their constitutions). About 25 % of Saudi Arabia 's contribution was paid in the form of in - kind services to the troops, such as food and transportation. US troops represented about 74 % of the combined force, and the global cost was therefore higher.
Apart from the impact on Arab States of the Persian Gulf, the resulting economic disruptions after the crisis affected many states. The Overseas Development Institute (ODI) undertook a study in 1991 to assess the effects on developing states and the international community 's response. A briefing paper finalized on the day that the conflict ended draws on their findings which had two main conclusions: Many developing states were severely affected and while there has been a considerable response to the crisis, the distribution of assistance was highly selective.
The ODI factored in elements of "cost '' which included oil imports, remittance flows, re-settlement costs, loss of export earnings and tourism. For Egypt, the cost totaled $1 billion, 3 % of GDP. Yemen had a cost of $830 million, 10 % of GDP, while it cost Jordan $1.8 billion, 32 % of GDP.
International response to the crisis on developing states came with the channeling of aid through The Gulf Crisis Financial Co-ordination Group. They were 24 states, comprising most of the OECD countries plus some Gulf states: Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Kuwait. The members of this group agreed to disperse $14 billion in development assistance.
The World Bank responded by speeding up the disbursement of existing project and adjustment loans. The International Monetary Fund adopted two lending facilities -- the Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) and the Compensatory & Contingency Financing Facility (CCFF). The European Community offered $2 billion in assistance.
The war was heavily televised. For the first time, people all over the world were able to watch live pictures of missiles hitting their targets and fighters departing from aircraft carriers. Allied forces were keen to demonstrate their weapons ' accuracy.
In the United States, the "big three '' network anchors led the war 's network news coverage: ABC 's Peter Jennings, CBS 's Dan Rather, and NBC 's Tom Brokaw were anchoring their evening newscasts when air strikes began on 16 January 1991. ABC News correspondent Gary Shepard, reporting live from Baghdad, told Jennings of the city 's quietness. But, moments later, Shepard was back on the air as flashes of light were seen on the horizon and tracer fire was heard on the ground.
On CBS, viewers were watching a report from correspondent Allen Pizzey, who was also reporting from Baghdad, when the war began. Rather, after the report was finished, announced that there were unconfirmed reports of flashes in Baghdad and heavy air traffic at bases in Saudi Arabia. On the NBC Nightly News, correspondent Mike Boettcher reported unusual air activity in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Moments later, Brokaw announced to his viewers that the air attack had begun.
Still, it was CNN whose coverage gained the most popularity and indeed its wartime coverage is often cited as one of the landmark events in the network 's history, ultimately leading to the establishment of CNN International. CNN correspondents John Holliman and Peter Arnett and CNN anchor Bernard Shaw relayed audio reports from Baghdad 's Al - Rashid Hotel as the air strikes began. The network had previously convinced the Iraqi government to allow installation of a permanent audio circuit in their makeshift bureau. When the telephones of all of the other Western TV correspondents went dead during the bombing, CNN was the only service able to provide live reporting. After the initial bombing, Arnett remained behind and was, for a time, the only American TV correspondent reporting from Iraq.
In the United Kingdom, the BBC devoted the FM portion of its national speech radio station BBC Radio 4 to an 18 - hour rolling news format creating Radio 4 News FM. The station was short lived, ending shortly after President Bush declared the ceasefire and Kuwait 's liberation. However, it paved the way for the later introduction of Radio Five Live.
Two BBC journalists, John Simpson and Bob Simpson (no relation), defied their editors and remained in Baghdad to report on the war 's progress. They were responsible for a report which included an "infamous cruise missile that travelled down a street and turned left at a traffic light. ''
Newspapers all over the world also covered the war and Time magazine published a special issue dated 28 January 1991, the headline "War in the Gulf '' emblazoned on the cover over a picture of Baghdad taken as the war began.
US policy regarding media freedom was much more restrictive than in the Vietnam War. The policy had been spelled out in a Pentagon document entitled Annex Foxtrot. Most of the press information came from briefings organized by the military. Only selected journalists were allowed to visit the front lines or conduct interviews with soldiers. Those visits were always conducted in the presence of officers, and were subject to both prior approval by the military and censorship afterward. This was ostensibly to protect sensitive information from being revealed to Iraq. This policy was heavily influenced by the military 's experience with the Vietnam War, in which public opposition within the US grew throughout the war 's course. It was not only the limitation of information in the Middle East; media were also restricting what was shown about the war with more graphic depictions like Ken Jarecke 's image of a burnt Iraqi soldier being pulled from the American AP wire whereas in Europe it was given extensive coverage.
At the same time, the war 's coverage was new in its instantaneousness. About halfway through the war, Iraq 's government decided to allow live satellite transmissions from the country by Western news organizations, and US journalists returned en masse to Baghdad. NBC 's Tom Aspell, ABC 's Bill Blakemore, and CBS News ' Betsy Aaron filed reports, subject to acknowledged Iraqi censorship. Throughout the war, footage of incoming missiles was broadcast almost immediately.
A British crew from CBS News, David Green and Andy Thompson, equipped with satellite transmission equipment, traveled with the front line forces and, having transmitted live TV pictures of the fighting en route, arrived the day before the forces in Kuwait City, broadcasting live television from the city and covering the entrance of the Arab forces the next day.
Alternative media outlets provided views in opposition to the war. Deep Dish Television compiled segments from independent producers in the US and abroad, and produced a 10 - hour series that was distributed internationally, called The Gulf Crisis TV Project. The series ' first program War, Oil and Power was compiled and released in 1990, before the war broke out. News World Order was the title of another program in the series; it focused on the media 's complicity in promoting the war, as well as Americans ' reactions to the media coverage. In San Francisco, Paper Tiger Television West produced a weekly cable television show with highlights of mass demonstrations, artists ' actions, lectures, and protests against mainstream media coverage at newspaper offices and television stations. Local media outlets in cities across the USA screened similar oppositional media.
The organization Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) critically analyzed media coverage during the war in various articles and books, such as the 1991 Gulf War Coverage: The Worst Censorship was at Home.
The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself: Gulf War and Persian Gulf War are the most common terms for the conflict used within western countries, though it may also be called the First Gulf War (to distinguish it from the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the subsequent Iraq War). Some authors have called it the Second Gulf War to distinguish it from the Iran -- Iraq War. Liberation of Kuwait (Arabic: تحرير الكويت ) (taḥrīr al - kuwayt) is the term used by Kuwait and most of the coalition 's Arab states, including Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Egypt, and the United Arab Emirates. Terms in other languages include French: la Guerre du Golfe and German: Golfkrieg (Gulf War); German: Zweiter Golfkrieg (Second Gulf War); French: Guerre du Koweït (War of Kuwait).
Most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the war 's operational phases. These are sometimes incorrectly used as the conflict 's overall name, especially the US Desert Storm:
The US divided the conflict into three major campaigns:
Precision - guided munitions were heralded as key in allowing military strikes to be made with a minimum of civilian casualties compared to previous wars, although they were not used as often as more traditional, less accurate bombs. Specific buildings in downtown Baghdad could be bombed while journalists in their hotels watched cruise missiles fly by.
Precision - guided munitions amounted to approximately 7.4 % of all bombs dropped by the coalition. Other bombs included cluster bombs, which disperse numerous submunitions, and daisy cutters, 15,000 - pound bombs which can disintegrate everything within hundreds of yards.
Global Positioning System (GPS) units were relatively new at the time and were important in enabling coalition units to easily navigate across the desert. Since military GPS receivers were not available for most troops, many used commercially available units. To permit these to be used to best effect, the "selective availability '' feature of the GPS system was turned off for the duration of Desert Storm, allowing these commercial receivers to provide the same precision as the military equipment.
Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) and satellite communication systems were also important. Two examples of this are the US Navy 's Grumman E-2 Hawkeye and the US Air Force 's Boeing E-3 Sentry. Both were used in command and control area of operations. These systems provided essential communications links between air, ground, and naval forces. It is one of several reasons coalition forces dominated the air war.
American - made color photocopiers were used to produce some of Iraq 's battle plans. Some of the copiers contained concealed high - tech transmitters that revealed their positions to American electronic warfare aircraft, leading to more precise bombings.
The role of Iraq 's Scud missiles featured prominently in the war. Scud is a tactical ballistic missile that the Soviet Union developed and deployed among the forward deployed Soviet Army divisions in East Germany. The role of the Scuds which were armed with nuclear and chemical warheads was to destroy command, control, and communication facilities and delay full mobilization of Western German and Allied Forces in Germany. It could also be used to directly target ground forces.
Scud missiles utilize inertial guidance which operates for the duration that the engines operate. Iraq used Scud missiles, launching them into both Saudi Arabia and Israel. Some missiles caused extensive casualties, while others caused little damage. Concerns were raised of possible chemical or biological warheads on these rockets, but if they existed, they were not used.
The US Patriot missile was used in combat for the first time. The US military claimed a high effectiveness against Scuds at the time, but later analysis gives figures as low as 9 %, with 45 % of the 158 Patriot launches being against debris or false targets. The Dutch Ministry of Defense, which also sent Patriot missiles to protect civilians in Israel and Turkey, later disputed the higher claim. Further, there is at least one incident of a software error causing a Patriot missile 's failure to engage an incoming Scud, resulting in deaths. Both the US Army and the missile manufacturers maintained the Patriot delivered a "miracle performance '' in the Gulf War.
The Gulf War has been the subject of several video games including Conflict: Desert Storm, Conflict: Desert Storm II and Gulf War: Operation Desert Hammer. There have also been numerous depictions in film including Jarhead (2005), which is based on U.S. Marine Anthony Swofford 's 2003 memoir of the same name.
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which of the following is not a neighbouring state of jharkhand | Jharkhand - Wikipedia
Jharkhand (lit. "Bushland '' or The land of forest) is a state in eastern India, carved out of the southern part of Bihar on 15 November 2000. The state shares its border with the states of Bihar to the north, Uttar Pradesh to the northwest, Chhattisgarh to the west, Odisha to the south and West Bengal to the east. It has an area of 79,710 km (30,778 sq mi).
The city of Ranchi is its capital and Dumka its sub capital.
Jharkhand suffers from resource curse; It accounts for more than 40 % of the mineral resources of India, but it suffers widespread poverty as 39.1 % of the population is below the poverty line and 19.6 % of the children under five years of age are malnourished. The state is primarily rural, with only 24 % of the population living in cities.
According to writers including Gautam Kumar Bera, there was already a distinct geo - political, cultural entity called Jharkhand even before the Magadha Empire. Bera 's book (page 33) also refers to the Hindu epic Bhavishya Purana. The tribal rulers, some of whom continue to thrive till today were known as the Munda Rajas, who basically had ownership rights to large farmlands. During the age of Mahajanpadas around 500 BC, India saw the emergence of 16 large states that controlled the entire Indian subcontinent. In those days the Jharkhand state was a part of Magadha, Anga, Banga, Kalinga, Kashi and Vajji.
In 1765, the region came under the control of the British East India Company. The subjugation and colonisation of Jharkhand region by the British East India Company resulted in spontaneous resistance from the local people. Almost one hundred years before Indian Rebellion of 1857, Adivasis of Jharkhand were already beginning what would become a series of repeated revolts against British colonial rule:
The period of revolts of the Adivasis to protect their Jharkhand land took place from 1771 to 1900. The first ever revolt against the landlords and the British government was led by Tilka Manjhi, a Paharia leader in Rajmahal Hills in 1771. He wanted to liberate his people from the clutches of the unscrupulous landlords and restore the lands of their ancestors. The British government sent its troops and crushed the uprisings of Tilka Manjhi. Soon after in 1779, the Bhumij tribes rose in arms against the British rule in Manbhum, now in West Bengal. This was followed by the Chero tribes unrest in Palamau.
They revolted against the British rule in 1800 AD. Hardly seven years later in 1807, the Oraons in Barway murdered their big landlord from Srinagar, west of Gumla. Soon the uprisings spread around Gumla. The tribal uprisings spread eastward to neighbouring Tamar areas of the Munda tribes. They too rose in revolt in 1811 and 1813. The Hos in Singhbhum were growing restless and came out in open revolt in 1820 and fought against the landlords and the British troops for two years. This is called the Lakra Kol Risings 1820 -- 1821. Then came the great Kol Risings of 1832. This was the first biggest tribal revolt that greatly upset the British administration in Jharkhand. It was caused by an attempt by the Zamindars to oust the tribal peasants from their hereditary possessions. The Santhal rebellion broke out in 1855 under the leadership of two brothers Sidhu and Kanhu.
Then Birsa Munda revolt, broke out in 1895 and lasted till 1900. The revolt though mainly concentrated in the Munda belt of Khunti, Tamar, Sarwada and Bandgaon, attracted its supporters from Oraon belt of Lohardaga, Sisai and Barway.
After the last Assembly election in the state resulted in a hung assembly, RJD 's dependence on the Congress extended support on the precondition that RJD would not pose a hurdle to the passage of the Bihar reorganisation Bill (Jharkhand Bill). Finally, with the support from both RJD and Congress, the ruling coalition at the Centre led by the BJP which had made statehood its mail poll plank in the region in successive polls earlier, cleared the Jharkhand Bill in the monsoon session of the Parliament this year, thus paving the way for the creation of a separate Jharkhand state.
The dynamics of resources and the politics of development still influence the socio - economic structures in Jharkhand, which was carved out of the relatively under developed southern part of Bihar. According to the 1991 census, the state has a population of over 20 million out of which 28 % is tribal while 12 % of the people belong to scheduled castes. Jharkhand has 24 districts, 260 blocks and 32,620 villages out of which only 45 % have access to electricity while only 8,484 are connected by roads. Jharkhand is the leading producer of mineral wealth in the country after Chhattisgarh state, endowed as it is with vast variety of minerals like iron ore, coal, copper ore, mica, bauxite, graphite, limestone, and uranium. Jharkhand is also known for its vast forest resources.
Jharkhand has been at the centre of the Naxalite - Maoist insurgency. Since the uprising of the Naxalites in 1967, 6,000 people have been killed in fighting between the Naxalites and counter-insurgency operations by the police, and its paramilitary groups such as the Salwa Judum.
Despite having a presence in almost 7.80 % of India 's geographical area (home to 5.50 % of India 's population), the state of Jharkhand is part of the "Naxal Belt '' comprising 92,000 square kilometres, where the highest concentrations of the groups estimated 20,000 combatants fight. Part of this is due to the fact that the state harbours a rich abundance of natural resources, while its people live in abject poverty and destitution. The impoverished state provides ample recruits for the communist insurgents, who argue that they are fighting on behalf of the landless poor that see few benefits from the resource extractions. As the federal government holds a monopoly on sub-surface resources in the state, the tribal population is prevented from staking any claim on the resources extracted from their land. In response, the insurgents have recently begun a campaign of targeting infrastructure related to the extraction of resources vital for Indian energy needs, such as coal.
On 5 March 2007, Sunil Mahato, a member of the national parliament, was shot dead by Naxalite rebels near Kishanpur while watching a football match on the Hindu festival of Holi. His widow, Suman Mahato, the Jharkhand Mukti Morcha candidate, won the Jamshedpur Lok Sabha by - election in September 2007 and served in parliament until 2009.
Jharkhand is located in the eastern part of India and is enclosed by Bihar to the northern side, Chhattisgarh and Uttar Pradesh to the western side, Odisha to the southern part and West Bengal to the eastern part.
Jharkhand envelops a geographical area of 79.70 lakh hectare. Much of Jharkhand lies on the Chota Nagpur Plateau. Many rivers pass through the Chota Nagpur plateau. They are: Damodar, Brahmani, Koel, Subarnarekha and Kharkai rivers. The higher watersheds of these rivers stretch out within the Jharkhand state. Much of the Jharkhand state is still enclosed by forest. Forests sustain the population of Elephants and tigers.
Jharkhand has a rich variety of flora and fauna. The National Parks and the Zoological Gardens located in the state of Jharkhand present a panorama of this variety.
Part of the reason for the variety and diversity of flora and fauna found in Jharkhand state may be accredited to the Palamau Tiger Reserves under the Project Tiger. This reserve is abode to hundreds of species of flora and fauna, as indicated within brackets: mammals (39), snakes (8), lizards (4), fish (6), insects (21), birds (170), seed bearing plants and trees (97), shrubs and herbs (46), climbers, parasites and semi-parasites (25), and grasses and bamboos (17).
As per 2011 Indian Census Jharkhand has a population of 32.96 million, consisting of 16.93 million males and 16.03 million females. The sex ratio is 947 females to 1000 males. The literacy rate of the state was 67.63 % with Ranchi district being most educated at 77.13 % compared to rural Pakur district being least at 50.17 %.
Hindi is the official language in Jharkhand. Jharkhand has accorded second language status to Angika, Bengali, Bhojpuri, Ho, Khadiya, Khurkhu, Kortha, Kurmali, Magahi, Maithili, Mundari, Nagpuri, Odia, Santali and Urdu. As per the 2001 census, major languages spoken in Jharkhand (with 2001 census percentages in brackets): Hindi (57.56 %), Santali (10.69 %), Bengali (9.68 %), Urdu (8.63 %), Kurukh (3.20 %), Mundari (3.19 %), Ho (2.90 %) and Odia (1.74 %).
Religion in Jharkhand (2011)
As per the 2011 census, Hinduism is the majority religion in the state at 67.8 %, followed by Islam at 14.5 % and Christianity at 4.3 %. Other religions, primarily Sarnaism, constitute 12.8 % of the population.
Jharkhandis have a cuisine in which spices are rarely used and rice is the staple diet. They prepare different dishes of rice, different types of Rotis, Litti Chokha, Panipuri (Gupchup), Pittha, Dhuska, Dudhauri, kera - dudhauri and Jhalmudh. Dhuska is a famous dish of Jharkhand cooked with mashed rice and pulses and served with either aaloo dum or mutton curry; kera - dudhauri is a famous dish prepared with milk, rice, ghee and gur. In many parts of Jharkhand including Panch Pargana area (Bundu, Rahe, Sonahatu, Silli, Angara, Arki and Tamar Blocks of Ranchi & Khunti districts) a special food item "Charpa '' is prepared by frying mashed rice mixed with spicy vegetable preparations; hence the name follows viz. Sembi Charpa, Egg Charpa and many more depending upon the ingredient vegetable source.
Local alcoholic drinks include rice beer, originally known as Diyeng or Handia, named after the vessel (earthen pot) used to make it. Handiya is culturally associated with native i.e. Tribals as well as Sadan, as this drink is consumed by both men and women, on social occasions like marriage and other festivals. Another common liquor is called Mahu, made from fruit / flowers of the "Mahua '' tree (Madhukam Indicum).
The state was formed with 18 districts that were formerly part of south Bihar. Some of these districts were reorganised to form 6 new districts, namely, Latehar, Saraikela Kharsawan, Jamtara, Sahebganj, Khunti and Ramgarh. At present, the state has 5 Divisions and 24 Districts. One interesting thing about Jharkhand is that all its districts, except Lohardaga and Khunti, share a border with a neighboring state.
Jharkhand has several towns and innumerable villages with civic amenities. Urbanization ratio is 24.1 % and the per capita annual income is US $726.8. Jharkhand also has immense mineral resources: minerals ranging from (ranking in the country within bracket) from iron ore (1st), coal (3rd), copper ore (1st), mica (1st), bauxite (3rd), Manganese, limestone, china clay, fire clay, graphite (8th), kainite (1st), chromite (2nd), asbestos (1st), thorium (3rd), sillimanite, uranium (Jaduguda mines, Narwa Pahar) (1st) and even gold (Rakha Mines) (6th) and silver and several other minerals. Large deposits of coal and iron ore support concentration of industry, in centres like Jamshedpur, Dhanbad, Bokaro and Ranchi. Tata Steel, a S&P CNX 500 conglomerate has its corporate office and main plant in Tatanagar, Jharkhand. It reported a gross income of ₹. 204,910 million for 2005. NTPC will start coal production from its captive mine in state in 2011 -- 12, for which the company will be investing about Rs 1,800 crore.
Ranchi Airport is the largest domestic airport in the state with air connectivity to major Indian cities of Delhi, Kolkata, Bangalore, Mumbai, Hyderabad among others. Other airports present in the state are Bokaro Airport, Jamshedpur Airport, Chakulia Airport, Dumka Airport and Dhanbad Airport who mostly run private and charter flights.
Jharkhand has extensive network of National Highways and State Highways. There is 2,661.83 kilometres (1,653.98 mi) of paved National Highways in the state as of 2016. The National highways present in the state are numbered 2, 6, 23, 31, 32, 33, 43, 75, 78, 80, 98, 99, 100, 114A, 133, 133B, 133A, 143A, 220, 333, 333A, 343 and 419. The Golden Quadrilateral network of Delhi -- Kolkata route runs through Jharkhand notably at Dhanbad.
Jharkhand is landlocked state but has numerous rivers and waterways. A multi-model port has been planned at Sahebganj where river Ganges flows. The project is estimated to cost INR 6,500 crores and phase - 1 is estimated to be completed by 2019.
Jharkhand is very well connected by railways and has numerous railway stations.
As per the 2011 census conducted by Government of India the official literacy rate for the state was 67.63 % (male: 78.45 %; female: 56.21 %) with nine districts above the average literacy rate:
Since the formation of the new state, the Jharkhand Education Project Council (JEPC) has been implementing four projects to spread elementary education: DPEP, SSA, NPEGEL, and KGBV. The state has been moving towards the goal of universal elementary education but the target of 100 % enrolment and retention of children in schools has not yet been attained.
Jharkhand has made primary education so accessible that 95 % of children of ages 6 -- 11 are enrolled in school, as opposed to 56 % in 1993 -- 94; this will likely improve literacy a great deal. Some of the better - known schools that operate nationally and regionally are Vikas Vidyalaya, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, DAV Hehal, St. Thomas School, Delhi Public School, Oxford Public School, De Nobili School, Kendriya Vidyalaya, Chinmaya Public School, Loyola school, Sacred Heart School, St. Xavier 's, Shishu Mandir, and Surendranath Centenary School. Students from Jharkhand rank well in most competitive exams at the national level.
The medium of instruction in schools is Hindi / English with English / Hindi / Sanskrit / Bengali / Odia as second language. After 10 years of schooling, students can join 2 years of Intermediate course (or + 2 courses) in Arts, Science and Commerce.
This is followed by 3 years of degree courses (graduation) or 4 years of Engineering / Agriculture / Medicine degree.
On May 2008, Jharkhand became the first in India to introduce free haircuts for poor students. 40,000 barbers will be employed with a monthly salary of 1000 rupees (25 US dollars) which will cost the state government 40 million rupees (1 million US dollars).
Because of its mild climate, Jharkhand, particularly its capital Ranchi, has been like a health resort. As far back as 1918, facilities were set up for treatment of mentally challenged. European Mental Hospital was established along with Indian Mental Hospital. Today they are called Central Institute of Psychiatry and Ranchi Institute of Neuro - psychiatry and Allied Sciences respectively. In certain areas of Jharkhand, poverty and consequent malnutrition have given rise to diseases like tuberculosis (TB). In fact, TB has assumed epidemic proportions in certain areas of the state. For management and treatment of such TB, Itki TB Sanatorium, Ranchi, established in 1928 has been doing exemplary work as a premier institute for clinical and programmatic management of TB. The Itki TB Sanatorium is well equipped and accredited by the Indian government for quality assurance and Culture and Drug Sensitivity Testing for M. TB. It provides free of cost treatment for TB as well as Drug resistant TB. Likewise, in the field of treatment of cancer, Tata Main Hospital, Jamshedpur, is rendering pioneering work. In the same way Bokaro General Hospital equipped with modern facilities for the treatment Cancer and heart related problems with capacity of 1100 beds one of the largest in eastern India.
Although several public and private health facilities are available in the state, overall infrastructure for dispensing health related services require improvements. An exception is the famous Tata Motors Hospital which is an example of an ISO 14001 and 18001 certified hospital with DNB teaching facilities.
Ranchi, the capital, has witnessed a sharp growth in the number of hospitals. Hospitals like Orchid Medical Centre have introduced world class healthcare services to the people of the state. However, in rural areas facilities are still scarce and reliant on foreign aid projects (such as Traditional Healthcare in Datom) for the establishment of clinics
Fluoride in groundwater presents a public health problem in Jharkhand. A recent survey led by the Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi in collaboration with UNICEF in the northwest districts of Palamau and Garhwa found fluoride levels above the drinking WHO drinking water guidelines. Excessive amounts of fluoride in drinking water can lead to dental fluorosis, prevalent bone fractures, and skeletal fluorosis, an irreversible disabling condition. Some work has focused on combating fluorosis through increased calcium intake by consuming local plants. Researchers at Princeton University and the Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi are currently investigating defluoridation options, while performing an epidemiological survey to assess the extent of fluoride linked health problems and the impact of future interventions.
Almost 80 % of Jharkhand 's people are farmers, although it contains 40 % of India 's mineral reserves it has some of India 's poorest people, in Summer 2009 the state was threatened by drought, with people criticising the government for not providing food aid or assistance.
Jharkhand has a diverse domestic animal population, including local and crossbred cattle, black Bengal goat, chhotanagpuri sheep, murrah and local buffalo, broilers and ducks of many varieties. The state Veterinary department runs Veterinary Dispensaries located throughout Jharkhand and posts Touring Veterinary officers, Block Animal Husbandry Officers, Touring Veterinary officers (mobile), Assistant Poultry Officers and Veterinary Surgeons to support the agricultural industry.
The state has a Veterinary College located at Kanke, Ranchi.
Cricket, hockey, and football are popular games with the people of Jharkhand. Jharkhand has given some brilliant players like Jaipal Singh, a former Indian hockey captain and Olympian and Manohar Topno, currently playing for the Indian Hockey team. Jaipal Singh was the captain of the hockey team that won the first gold medal for India in the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. Mahendra Singh Dhoni who was the captain of Indian cricket team and led the Indian cricket team to ICC Cricket World Cup Glory on 2 April 2011, ending a 28 - year wait to repeat the feat achieved by former Indian captain Kapil Dev in 1983 at Lord 's, England.
Another rising cricketer from Jharkhand is Varun Aaron, India 's fastest bowler and Saurabh Tiwary, left hand hard hitting batsman of India who represented Mumbai Indians from the 2008 Indian Premier League and currently playing for Delhi Daredevils in 2015. He was one of the key batsmen in the Indian team that won the 2008 U / 19 Cricket World Cup in Malaysia. Ashunta Lakra, sister of Vimal Lakra is the Indian Hockey Captain currently. And one of the emerging sport personality is Deepika Kumari, a young Indian athlete who competes in the event of Archery. She won gold medal in the 2010 Commonwealth games in the women 's individual recurve event.
An International Cricket stadium with an indoor stadium and a practice ground has been constructed. This international stadium has hosted an International Match between India and England on 19 January 2013. Apart from that, this stadium has hosted two IPL 6 matches for KKR and qualifier 2 of IPL 8 between CSK and RCB and Celebrity Cricket League Matches for Bhojpuri Dabanggs. A Tennis Academy, which was inaugurated by Sania Mirza and Shoaib Malik, also runs besides the Cricket stadium. Ranchi is among six cities in Hockey India League to be played in January 2013. Ranchi franchise was bought by Patel - Uniexcel Group and the team named Ranchi Rhinos which is now being co-hosted by Mahendra Singh Dhoni and named as Ranchi Rays. Ranchi is also famous for being the hometown of World Cup winning Captain of Indian Cricket team, Mahendra Singh Dhoni. India 's ace archer Deepika Kumari, gold medal winner of Commonwealth Games 2010 and current world no. 1 rank holder, also hails from Ranchi.
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General information
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memorandum for members and affiliates of the intergalactic computer network | Intergalactic computer Network - Wikipedia
Intergalactic Computer Network or Galactic Network was a computer networking concept similar to today 's Internet.
J.C.R. Licklider, the first director of the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) at The Pentagon 's ARPA, used the term in the early 1960s to refer to a networking system he "imagined as an electronic commons open to all, ' the main and essential medium of informational interaction for governments, institutions, corporations, and individuals. ' '' An office memorandum he sent to his colleagues in 1963 was addressed to "Members and Affiliates of the Intergalactic Computer Network ''. As head of IPTO from 1962 to 1964, "Licklider initiated three of the most important developments in information technology: the creation of computer science departments at several major universities, time - sharing, and networking. ''
By the late 1960s, his promotion of the concept had inspired a primitive version of his vision called ARPANET, which expanded into a network of networks in the 2999kkmk
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where did the term generation x come from | Generation X - Wikipedia
Generation X, or Gen X, is the demographic cohort following the baby boomers and preceding the Millennials. There are no precise dates for when Generation X starts or ends. Demographers and researchers typically use birth years ranging from the early - to - mid 1960s to the early 1980s.
Members of Generation X were children during a time of shifting societal values and as children were sometimes called the "latchkey generation '', due to reduced adult supervision as children compared to previous generations, a result of increasing divorce rates and increased maternal participation in the workforce, prior to widespread availability of childcare options outside the home. As adolescents and young adults, they were dubbed the "MTV Generation '' (a reference to the music video channel of the same name). In the 1990s they were sometimes characterized as slackers, cynical and disaffected. Some of the cultural influences on Gen X youth were the musical genres of punk music, heavy metal music, grunge and hip hop music, and indie films. In midlife, research describes them as active, happy, and achieving a work -- life balance. The cohort has been credited with producing notable examples of individuals with entrepreneurial abilities.
The term "Generation X '' has been used at various times throughout history to describe alienated youth. In the 1950s, Hungarian photographer Robert Capa used Generation X as the title for a photo - essay about young men and women growing up immediately following World War II. In 1976, English musician Billy Idol used the moniker as the name for a punk rock band, based on the title of a 1965 book on popular youth culture by two British journalists, Jane Deverson and Charles Hamblett.
The term acquired its modern definition after the release of Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture, a 1991 novel written by Canadian author Douglas Coupland. Demographer Neil Howe noted the delay in naming this demographic cohort saying, "Over 30 years after their birthday, they did n't have a name. I think that 's germane. '' Previously, the cohort had been referred to as Post-Boomers, Baby Busters, New Lost Generation, latchkey kids, MTV Generation, and the 13th Generation (the 13th generation since American independence).
Demographer William Strauss observed that Coupland applied the term to older members of the cohort born between 1961 and 1964, who were sometimes told by demographers that they were baby boomers, but who did not feel like boomers. Strauss also noted that around the time Coupland 's 1991 novel was published the symbol "X '' was prominent in popular culture, as the film Malcolm X was released in 1992, and that the name "Generation X '' ended up sticking. The "X '' refers to an unknown variable or to a desire not to be defined.
Generation X is the demographic cohort following the post -- World War II baby boom, representing a generational change from the baby boomers, but there is debate over what this means because the end date of the baby boomer generation is disputed. Research from MetLife examining the boomers split their cohort into "older boomers '', which they defined as born between 1946 and 1955, and "younger boomers '', which they defined as born between 1956 and 1964. They found much of the cultural identity of the baby boomer generation is associated with the "older boomers '', while half of the "younger boomers '' were averse to being associated with the baby boomer cohort and a third of those born between 1956 and 1964 actively identified as members of Generation X.
Demographers William Strauss and Neil Howe rejected the frequently used 1964 end date of the baby boomer cohort (which results in a 1965 start year for Generation X), saying that a majority of those born between 1961 and 1964 do not self - identify as boomers, and that they are culturally distinct from boomers in terms of shared historical experiences. Howe says that while many demographers use 1965 as a start date for Generation X, this is a statement about fertility in the population (birth rates which began declining in 1957, declined more sharply following 1964) and fails to take into consideration the shared history and cultural identity of the individuals. Strauss and Howe define Generation X as those born between 1961 and 1981.
Many researchers and demographers continue to use dates which correspond to the strict fertility patterns in the population, which results in a Generation X starting date of 1965, such as Pew Research Center which uses a range of 1965 -- 1980, MetLife which uses 1965 -- 1976, Australia 's McCrindle Research Center which uses 1965 -- 1979, and Gallup which also uses 1965 -- 1979.
Others use dates similar to Strauss and Howe 's such as the National Science Foundation 's Generation X Report, a quarterly research report from The Longitudinal Study of American Youth, which defines Generation X as those born between 1961 and 1981. Generation X, a six - part 2016 documentary series produced by National Geographic also uses a 1961 -- 1981 birth year range. PricewaterhouseCoopers, a multinational professional services network headquartered in London, describes Generation X employees as those born from the early 1960s to the early 1980s.
Author Jeff Gordinier, in his 2008 book X Saves the World, defines Generation X as those born roughly between 1961 and 1977 but possibly as late as 1980. Canadian author and professor David Foot divides the post-boomer generation into two groups: Generation X, born between 1960 and 1966; and the "Bust Generation '', born between 1967 and 1979, In his book Boom Bust & Echo: How to Profit from the Coming Demographic Shift. On the American television program Survivor, for their 33rd season, subtitled Millennials vs. Gen X, the "Gen X tribe '' consisted of individuals born between 1963 and 1982.
Other demographers and researchers use a wide range of dates to describe Generation X, with the beginning birth year ranging from as early as 1960 to as late as 1965, and with the final birth year ranging from as early as 1976 to as late as 1984. Due in part to the frequent birth - year overlap and resulting incongruence existing between attempts to define Generation X and Millennials, a number of individuals born in the late 1970s or early 1980s see themselves as being on the cusp "between '' the two generations. Names given to those born on the Generation X / Millennial cusp years include Xennials, The Lucky Ones, Generation Catalano, and the Oregon Trail Generation.
A 2010 Census report counted approximately 84 million people living in the U.S. who are defined by birth years ranging from the early 1960s to the early 80s. In a 2012 article for the Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University, George Masnick wrote that the "Census counted 82.1 million '' Gen Xers in the U.S. The Harvard Center uses 1965 to 1984 to define Gen X so that Boomers, Xers, and Millennials "cover equal 20 - year age spans ''. Masnick concluded that immigration filled in any birth year deficits during low fertility years of the late 1960s and early 1970s.
Jon Miller at the Longitudinal Study of American Youth at the University of Michigan wrote that "Generation X refers to adults born between 1961 and 1981 '' and it "includes 84 million people ''.
In their 1991 book "Generations '' authors and demographers Neil Howe and William Strauss, used 1961 to 1981 for Gen X birth years. At the time it was published they wrote that there are approximately 88.5 million U.S. Gen Xers.
The birth control pill, introduced in the early 1960s, was one contributing factor of declining birth rates seen in the late 1960s and 70s. However, increased immigration partially offset declining birth rates and contributed to making Generation X an ethnically and culturally diverse demographic cohort.
Demographers William Strauss and Neil Howe, who authored several books on generations, including the 1993 book, 13th Gen: Abort, Retry, Ignore, Fail?, specifically on Generation X reported that Gen Xers were children at a time when society was less focused on children and more focused on adults. Gen Xers were children during a time of increasing divorce rates, with divorce rates doubling in the mid-1960s, before peaking in 1980. Strauss and Howe described a cultural shift where the long - held societal value of staying together for the sake of the children was replaced with a societal value of parental and individual self - actualization. Strauss wrote that society "moved from what Leslie Fiedler called a 1950s - era ' cult of the child ' to what Landon Jones called a 1970s - era ' cult of the adult '. '' The Generation Map, a report from Australia 's McCrindle Research Center writes of Gen X children: "their Boomer parents were the most divorced generation in Australian history ''.
The Gen X childhood coincided with the sexual revolution, which Susan Gregory Thomas described in her book In Spite of Everything as confusing and frightening for children in cases where a parent would bring new sexual partners into their home. Thomas also discussed how divorce was different during the Gen X childhood, with the child having a limited or severed relationship with one parent following divorce, often the father, due to differing societal and legal expectations. In the 1970s, only 9 U.S states allowed for joint custody of children, which has since been adopted by all 50 states following a push for joint custody during the mid-1980s.
The time period of the Gen X childhood saw an increase in latchkey children, leading to the terminology of the "latchkey generation '' for Generation X. These latchkey children lacked adult supervision in the hours between the end of the school day and when a parent returned home from work in the evening, and for longer periods of time during the summer. Latchkey children became common among all socioeconomic demographics, but were particularly common among middle and upper class children. The higher the educational attainment of the parents, the higher the odds the children of this time would be latchkey children, due to increased maternal participation in the workforce at a time before childcare options outside the home were widely available. McCrindle Research Center described the cohort as "the first to grow up without a large adult presence, with both parents working '', stating this led to Gen Xers being more peer - oriented than previous generations.
The United Kingdom 's Economic and Social Research Council described Generation X as "Thatcher 's children '' because the cohort grew up while Margaret Thatcher was Prime Minister from 1979 to 1990, "a time of social flux and transformation ''. In South Africa, Gen Xers spent their formative years of the 1980s during the "hyper - politicized environment of the final years of apartheid ''. In the US, Generation X was the first cohort to grow up post-integration. They were described in a marketing report by Specialty Retail as the kids who "lived the civil rights movement. '' They were among the first children to be bused to attain integration in the public school system. In the 1990s, Strauss reported Gen Xers were "by any measure the least racist of today 's generations ''. In the US, Title IX, which passed in 1972, provided increased athletic opportunities to Gen X girls in the public school setting. In Russia, Generation Xers are referred to as "the last Soviet children '', as the last children to come of age prior to the downfall of communism in their nation and prior to the fall of the Soviet Union.
Politically, in the United States, the Gen X childhood coincided with a time when government funding tended to be diverted away from programs for children and often instead directed toward the elderly population, with cuts to Medicaid and programs for children and young families, and protection and expansion of Medicare and Social Security for the elderly population. One in five American children grew up in poverty during this time. These programs for the elderly were not tied to economic need. Congressman David Durenberger criticized this political situation, stating that while programs for poor children and for young families were cut, the government provided "free health care to elderly millionaires ''.
Gen Xers came of age or were children during the crack epidemic, which disproportionately impacted urban areas and also the African - American community in the US. Drug turf battles increased violent crime, and crack addiction impacted communities and families. Between 1984 and 1989, the homicide rate for black males aged 14 to 17 doubled in the US, and the homicide rate for black males aged 18 to 24 increased almost as much. The crack epidemic had a destabilizing impact on families with an increase in the number of children in foster care. Generation X was the first cohort to come of age with MTV and are sometimes called the MTV Generation. They experienced the emergence of music videos, grunge, alternative rock and hip hop.
The emergence of AIDS coincided with Gen X 's adolescence, with the disease first clinically observed in the United States in 1981. By 1985, an estimated one to two million Americans were HIV positive. As the virus spread, at a time before effective treatments were available, a public panic ensued. Sex education programs in schools were adapted to address the AIDS epidemic which taught Gen X students that sex could kill you. Gen Xers were the first children to have access to computers in their homes and schools. Generally, Gen Xers are the children of the Silent Generation and older Baby Boomers.
In the 1990s, media pundits and advertisers struggled to define the cohort, typically portraying them as "unfocused twentysomethings ''. A MetLife report noted: "media would portray them as the Friends generation: rather self - involved and perhaps aimless... but fun. '' In France, Gen Xers were sometimes referred to as ' Génération Bof ' because of their tendency to use the word ' bof ', which translated into English means ' whatever ". Gen Xers were often portrayed as apathetic or as "slackers '', a stereotype which was initially tied to Richard Linklater 's comedic and essentially plotless 1991 film Slacker. After the film was released, "journalists and critics thought they put a finger on what was different about these young adults in that ' they were reluctant to grow up ' and ' disdainful of earnest action '. ''
Stereotypes of Gen X young adults also included that they were "bleak, cynical, and disaffected ''. Such stereotypes prompted sociological research at Stanford University to study the accuracy of the characterization of Gen X young adults as cynical and disaffected. Using the national General Social Survey, the researchers compared answers to identical survey questions asked of 18 -- 29 - year - olds in three different time periods. Additionally, they compared how older adults answered the same survey questions over time. The surveys showed 18 -- 29 - year - old Gen Xers did exhibit higher levels of cynicism and disaffection than previous cohorts of 18 -- 29 - year - olds surveyed; however, they also found that cynicism and disaffection had increased among all age groups surveyed over time, not just young adults, making this a period effect, not a cohort effect. In other words, adults of all ages were more cynical and disaffected in the 1990s, not just Generation X.
In 1990, Time magazine published an article titled "Living: Proceeding with Caution '', which described those in their 20s as aimless and unfocused; however, in 1997, they published an article titled "Generation X Reconsidered '', which retracted the previously reported negative stereotypes and reported positive accomplishments, citing Gen Xers ' tendency to found technology start - ups and small businesses as well as Gen Xers ' ambition, which research showed was higher among Gen X young adults than older generations. As the 1990s and 2000s progressed, Gen X gained a reputation for entrepreneurship. In 1999, The New York Times dubbed them "Generation 1099 '', describing them as the "once pitied but now envied group of self - employed workers whose income is reported to the Internal Revenue Service not on a W - 2 form, but on Form 1099 ''. In 2002, Time magazine published an article titled Gen Xers Are n't Slackers After All, reporting four out of five new businesses were the work of Gen Xers.
In 2001, sociologist Mike Males reported confidence and optimism common among the cohort saying "surveys consistently find 80 % to 90 % of Gen Xers self - confident and optimistic. '' In August 2001, Males wrote "these young Americans should finally get the recognition they deserve '', praising the cohort and stating that "the permissively raised, universally deplored Generation X is the true ' great generation, ' for it has braved a hostile social climate to reverse abysmal trends '', describing them as the hardest - working group since the World War II generation, which was dubbed by Tom Brokaw as "The Greatest Generation ''. He reported Gen Xers ' entrepreneurial tendencies helped create the high - tech industry that fueled the 1990s economic recovery.
In the US, Gen Xers were described as the major heroes of the September 11 terrorist attacks by demographer William Strauss. The firefighters and police responding to the attacks were predominantly Generation Xers. Additionally, the leaders of the passenger revolt on United Airlines Flight 93 were predominantly Gen Xers. Demographer Neil Howe reported survey data showed Gen Xers were cohabitating and getting married in increasing numbers following the terrorists attacks, with Gen X survey respondents reporting they no longer wanted to live alone. In October 2001, Seattle Post-Intelligencer wrote of Generation Xers: "now they could be facing the most formative events of their lives and their generation ''. The Greensboro News & Record reported Gen Xers "felt a surge of patriotism since terrorists struck '' reporting many were responding to the crisis of the terrorist attacks by giving blood, working for charities, donating to charities, and by joining the military to fight The War on Terror. The Jury Expert, a publication of The American Society of Trial Consultants, reported: "Gen X members responded to the terrorist attacks with bursts of patriotism and national fervor that surprised even themselves ''.
Guides regarding managing multiple generations in the workforce describe Gen Xers as: independent, resourceful, self - managing, adaptable, cynical, pragmatic, skeptical of authority, and as seeking a work life balance. In a 2007 article published in the Harvard Business Review, demographers Strauss & Howe wrote of Generation X; "They are already the greatest entrepreneurial generation in U.S. history; their high - tech savvy and marketplace resilience have helped America prosper in the era of globalization. '' In the 2008 book, X Saves the World: How Generation X Got the Shaft but Can Still Keep Everything from Sucking, author Jeff Gordinier describes Generation X as a "dark horse demographic '' which "does n't seek the limelight ''. Gordiner cited examples of Gen Xers ' contributions to society such as: Google, Wikipedia, Amazon.com and YouTube, arguing if Boomers had created them, "we 'd never hear the end of it ''. In the book, Gordinier contrasts Gen Xers to Baby Boomers, saying Boomers tend to trumpet their accomplishments more than Gen Xers do, creating what he describes as "elaborate mythologies '' around their achievements. Gordiner cites Steve Jobs as an example, while Gen Xers, he argues, are more likely to "just quietly do their thing ''.
In 2011, survey analysis from the Longitudinal Study of American Youth found Gen Xers to be "balanced, active, and happy '' in midlife (between ages of 30 and 50) and as achieving a work - life balance. The Longitudinal Study of Youth is an NIH - NIA funded study by the University of Michigan which has been studying Generation X since 1987. The study asked questions such as "Thinking about all aspects of your life, how happy are you? If zero means that you are very unhappy and 10 means that you are very happy, please rate your happiness. '' LSA reported that "mean level of happiness was 7.5 and the median (middle score) was 8. Only four percent of Generation X adults indicated a great deal of unhappiness (a score of three or lower). Twenty - nine percent of Generation X adults were very happy with a score of 9 or 10 on the scale. ''
In terms of advocating for their children in the educational setting, demographer Neil Howe describes Gen X parents as distinct from Baby Boomer parents. Howe argues that Gen Xers are not helicopter parents, which Howe describes as a parenting style of Boomer parents of Millennials. Howe described Gen Xers instead as "stealth fighter parents '', due to the tendency of Gen X parents to let minor issues go and to not hover over their children in the educational setting, but to intervene forcefully and swiftly in the event of more serious issues. In 2012, the Corporation for National and Community Service ranked Gen X volunteer rates in the U.S. at "29.4 % per year '', the highest compared with other generations. The rankings were based on a three - year moving average between 2009 and 2011.
In the United Kingdom, a 2016 study of over 2,500 office workers conducted by Workfront found that survey respondents of all ages selected those from Generation X as the hardest - working employees in today 's workforce (chosen by 60 %). Gen X was also ranked highest among fellow workers for having the strongest work ethic (chosen by 59.5 %), being the most helpful (55.4 %), the most skilled (54.5 %), and the best troubleshooters / problem solvers (41.6 %).
In 2016, a global consumer insights project from Viacom International Media Networks and Viacom, based on over 12,000 respondents across 21 countries, reported on Gen X 's unconventional approach to sex, friendship and family, their desire for flexibility and fulfillment at work and the absence of midlife crisis for Gen Xers. The project also included a 20 min documentary titled Gen X Today. Pew Research, a nonpartisan American think tank, describes Generation X as intermediary between baby boomers and Millennials on multiple factors such as attitudes on political or social issues, educational attainment, and social media use.
Gen Xers were the first cohort to come of age with MTV. They experienced the emergence of music videos and are sometimes called the MTV Generation. Gen Xers were responsible for the alternative rock movement of the 1990s and 2000s, including the grunge subgenre. Hip Hop and rap have also been described as defining music of the generation including: Tupac Shakur, N.W.A. and The Notorious B.I.G.
A notable example of alternative rock is grunge music and the associated subculture that developed in the Pacific Northwest of the US. Grunge song lyrics have been called the "... product of Generation X malaise ''. Vulture commented: "the best bands arose from the boredom of latchkey kids ''. "People made records entirely to please themselves because there was nobody else to please '' commented producer Jack Endino. Grunge lyrics are typically dark, nihilistic, angst - filled, anguished, and often addressing themes such as social alienation, despair and apathy. The Guardian wrote that grunge "did n't recycle banal cliches but tackled weighty subjects ''. Topics of grunge lyrics included homelessness, suicide, rape, broken homes, drug addiction, self - loathing, misogyny, domestic abuse and finding "meaning in an indifferent universe. '' Grunge lyrics tended to be introspective and aimed to enable the listener to see into hidden personal issues and examine depravity in the world. Notable grunge bands include: Nirvana, Pearl Jam, Alice in Chains, Hole, Stone Temple Pilots and Soundgarden.
The mainstream hip hop music made in the late 1980s and early 1990s, typically by artists originating from the New York metropolitan area. was characterized by its diversity, quality, innovation and influence after the genre 's emergence and establishment in the previous decade. There were various types of subject matter, while the music was experimental and the sampling eclectic. The artists most often associated with the period are LL Cool J, Run -- D.M.C., Public Enemy, the Beastie Boys, KRS - One, Eric B. & Rakim, De La Soul, Big Daddy Kane, EPMD, A Tribe Called Quest, Slick Rick, Ultramagnetic MC 's, and the Jungle Brothers. Releases by these acts co-existed in this period with, and were as commercially viable as, those of early gangsta rap artists such as Ice - T, Geto Boys and N.W.A, the sex raps of 2 Live Crew and Too Short, and party - oriented music by acts such as Kid ' n Play, The Fat Boys, DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince and MC Hammer.
In addition to lyrical self - glorification, hip hop was also used as a form of social protest. Lyrical content from the era often drew attention to a variety of social issues including afrocentric living, drug use, crime and violence, religion, culture, the state of the American economy, and the modern man 's struggle. Conscious and political hip hop tracks of the time were a response to the effects of American capitalism and former President Reagan 's conservative political economy. According to Rose Tricia, "In rap, relationships between black cultural practice, social and economic conditions, technology, sexual and racial politics, and the institution policing of the popular terrain are complex and in constant motion. Even though hip hop was used as a mechanism for different social issues it was still very complex with issues within the movement itself. There was also often an emphasis on black nationalism. Hip hop artists often talked about urban poverty and the problems of alcohol, drugs, and gangs in their communities. Public Enemy 's most influential song, "Fight the Power, '' came out at this time; the song speaks up to the government, proclaiming that people in the ghetto have freedom of speech and rights like every other American. One line in the song, "We got to pump the stuff to make us tough from the heart '' grabbed listeners ' attention and gave them motivation to speak out for themselves.
Gen Xers were largely responsible for the "indie film '' movement of the 1990s, both as young directors and in large part as the movie audiences fueling demand for such films. In cinema, directors Kevin Smith, Quentin Tarantino, Sofia Coppola, John Singleton, Spike Jonze, David Fincher, Steven Soderbergh, and Richard Linklater have been called Generation X filmmakers. Smith is most known for his View Askewniverse films, the flagship film being Clerks, which is set in New Jersey circa 1994, and focuses on two convenience - store clerks in their twenties. Linklater 's Slacker similarly explores young adult characters who were interested in philosophizing. While not a member of Gen X himself, director John Hughes has been recognized as having created a series of classic films with Gen X characters which "an entire generation took ownership of, '' including The Breakfast Club, Sixteen Candles, Weird Science and Ferris Bueller 's Day Off.
Studies done by the Pew Charitable Trusts, the American Enterprise Institute, the Brookings Institution, the Heritage Foundation and the Urban Institute challenged the notion that each generation will be better off than the one that preceded it.
A report titled Economic Mobility: Is the American Dream Alive and Well? focused on the income of males 30 -- 39 in 2004 (those born April 1964 -- March 1974). The study was released on May 25, 2007 and emphasized that this generation 's men made less (by 12 %) than their fathers had at that same age in 1974, thus reversing a historical trend. It concluded that per year increases in household income generated by fathers / sons have slowed (from an average of 0.9 % to 0.3 %), barely keeping pace with inflation. "Family incomes have risen though (over the period 1947 to 2005) because more women have gone to work '', "supporting the incomes of men, by adding a second earner to the family. And as with male income, the trend is downward ''.
Generation Flux is a neologism and psychographic designation coined by Fast Company for American employees who need to make several changes in career throughout their working lives because of the chaotic nature of the job market following the Financial crisis of 2007 -- 08. Those in "Generation Flux '' have birth years in the ranges of Gen X and Millennials.
According to authors Michael Hais and Morley Winograd:
Small businesses and the entrepreneurial spirit that Gen Xers embody have become one of the most popular institutions in America. There 's been a recent shift in consumer behavior and Gen Xers will join the "idealist generation '' in encouraging the celebration of individual effort and business risk - taking. As a result, Xers will spark a renaissance of entrepreneurship in economic life, even as overall confidence in economic institutions declines. Customers, and their needs and wants (including Millennials) will become the North Star for an entire new generation of entrepreneurs.
A 2015 study by Sage Group reports Gen Xers "dominate the playing field '' with respect to founding startups in the United States and Canada, with Gen Xers launching the majority (55 %) of all new businesses in 2015.
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who is the first astronaut landed on the moon | Apollo 11 - Wikipedia
Apollo 11 was the spaceflight that landed the first two humans on the Moon. Mission commander Neil Armstrong and pilot Buzz Aldrin, both American, landed the lunar module Eagle on July 20, 1969, at 20: 18 UTC. Armstrong became the first human to step onto the lunar surface six hours after landing on July 21 at 02: 56: 15 UTC; Aldrin joined him about 20 minutes later. They spent about two and a quarter hours together outside the spacecraft, and collected 47.5 pounds (21.5 kg) of lunar material to bring back to Earth. Michael Collins piloted the command module Columbia alone in lunar orbit while they were on the Moon 's surface. Armstrong and Aldrin spent just under a day on the lunar surface before rejoining Columbia in lunar orbit.
Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, on July 16 at 9: 32 am EDT (13: 32 UTC) and was the fifth manned mission of NASA 's Apollo program. The Apollo spacecraft had three parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages -- a descent stage for landing on the Moon, and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit.
After being sent to the Moon by the Saturn V 's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered into lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into the lunar module Eagle and landed in the Sea of Tranquility. They stayed a total of about 21.5 hours on the lunar surface. The astronauts used Eagle 's upper stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisoned Eagle before they performed the maneuvers that blasted them out of lunar orbit on a trajectory back to Earth. They returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space.
The landing was broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience. Armstrong stepped onto the lunar surface and described the event as "one small step for (a) man, one giant leap for mankind. '' Apollo 11 effectively ended the Space Race and fulfilled a national goal proposed in 1961 by U.S. President John F. Kennedy: "before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. ''
The crew assignment of Neil Armstrong as Commander, Jim Lovell as Command Module Pilot (CMP) and Buzz Aldrin as Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) was officially announced on November 20, 1967. Apollo 11 was the second all - veteran multi-person crew on an American mission, the first being that of Apollo 10). An all - veteran crew would not be flown again until STS - 26 in 1988. Lovell and Aldrin had previously flown together as the crew of Gemini 12. The crew was initially assigned as the backup for Apollo 9. Due to design and manufacturing delays in the Lunar Module (LM), Apollo 8 and Apollo 9 swapped prime and backup crews, and Armstrong 's crew became the backup for Apollo 8. Based on the normal crew rotation scheme, Armstrong was then expected to command Apollo 11. There would be one change. Mike Collins on the Apollo 8 crew began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery. Lovell took his place on the Apollo 8 crew, and, when he recovered, Collins joined Armstrong 's crew as CMP. In the meantime, Fred Haise filled in as backup LMP, and Aldrin as backup CMP for Apollo 8.
The backup crew consisted of Lovell as Commander), William Anders as CMP, and Haise as LMP. Anders had flown with Lovell on Apollo 8. In early 1969, he accepted a job with the National Space Council effective August 1969 and announced that he would retire as an astronaut on that date. At that point Ken Mattingly was moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup CMP in case Apollo 11 was delayed past its intended July launch, at which point Anders would be unavailable. Lovell, Haise, and Mattingly would ultimately be assigned as the prime crew of Apollo 13.
After the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraft Charlie Brown and Snoopy, assistant manager for public affairs Julian Scheer wrote to Manned Spacecraft Center director George M. Low to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. During early mission planning, the names Snowcone and Haystack were used and put in the news release.
The Command Module was named Columbia after the Columbiad, the giant cannon shell "spacecraft '' fired by a giant cannon (also from Florida) in Jules Verne 's 1865 novel From the Earth to the Moon. It also referenced Columbia, a personification of the United States. The Lunar Module was named Eagle for the national bird of the United States, the bald eagle, which was featured prominently on the mission insignia.
The Apollo 11 mission insignia was designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for "peaceful lunar landing by the United States ''. At Lovell 's suggestion, he chose an eagle as the symbol, put an olive branch in its beak, and drew a lunar background with the Earth in the distance. The sunlight in the image was coming from the wrong direction; the shadow should have been in the lower part of the Earth instead of the left. NASA officials felt that the talons of the eagle looked too "warlike '' and after some discussion, the olive branch was moved to the claws. Armstrong was concerned that "eleven '' would not be understood by non-English speakers, so they went with "Apollo 11 ''; they decided not to put their names on the patch, so it would "be representative of everyone who had worked toward a lunar landing ''. All colors are natural, with blue and gold borders around the patch.
When the Eisenhower dollar coin was released in 1971, the patch design provided the eagle for its reverse side. The design was also used for the smaller Susan B. Anthony dollar unveiled in 1979, ten years after the Apollo 11 mission.
Neil Armstrong 's personal preference kit carried a piece of wood from the Wright brothers ' 1903 airplane 's left propeller and a piece of fabric from its wing, along with a diamond - studded astronaut pin originally given to Deke Slayton by the widows of the Apollo 1 crew. This pin had been intended to be flown on Apollo 1 and given to Slayton after the mission but following the disastrous launch pad fire and subsequent funerals, the widows gave the pin to Slayton and Armstrong took it on Apollo 11.
In addition to many people crowding highways and beaches near the launch site, millions watched the event on television, with NASA Chief of Public Information Jack King providing commentary. President Richard M. Nixon viewed the proceedings from the Oval Office of the White House.
A Saturn V launched Apollo 11 from Launch Pad 39A, part of the Launch Complex 39 site at the Kennedy Space Center on July 16, 1969, at 13: 32: 00 UTC (9: 32: 00 a.m. EDT local time). It entered Earth orbit, at an altitude of 100.4 nautical miles (185.9 km) by 98.9 nautical miles (183.2 km), twelve minutes later. After one and a half orbits, the S - IVB third - stage engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon with the trans - lunar injection (TLI) burn at 16: 22: 13 UTC. About 30 minutes later, the transposition, docking, and extraction maneuver was performed: this involved separating the Apollo Command / Service Module (CSM) from the spent rocket stage, turning around, and docking with the Lunar Module still attached to the stage. After the Lunar Module was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon, while the rocket stage flew on a trajectory past the Moon and into orbit around the Sun.
On July 19 at 17: 21: 50 UTC, Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enter lunar orbit. In the thirty orbits that followed, the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquility (Mare Tranquillitatis) about 12 miles (19 km) southwest of the crater Sabine D (0.67408 N, 23.47297 E). The landing site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automated Ranger 8 and Surveyor 5 landers along with the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft and unlikely to present major landing or extravehicular activity (EVA) challenges.
On July 20, 1969, the Lunar Module Eagle separated from the Command Module Columbia. Collins, alone aboard Columbia, inspected Eagle as it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged.
As the descent began, Armstrong and Aldrin found that they were passing landmarks on the surface four seconds early and reported that they were "long ''; they would land miles west of their target point.
Five minutes into the descent burn, and 6,000 feet (1,800 m) above the surface of the Moon, the LM navigation and guidance computer distracted the crew with the first of several unexpected "1202 '' and "1201 '' program alarms. Inside Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas, computer engineer Jack Garman told guidance officer Steve Bales it was safe to continue the descent, and this was relayed to the crew. The program alarms indicated "executive overflows '', meaning the guidance computer could not complete all of its tasks in real time and had to postpone some of them.
Due to an error in the checklist manual, the rendezvous radar switch was placed in the wrong position. This caused it to send erroneous signals to the computer. The result was that the computer was being asked to perform all of its normal functions for landing while receiving an extra load of spurious data which used up 15 % of its time. The computer (or rather the software in it) was smart enough to recognize that it was being asked to perform more tasks than it should be performing. It then sent out an alarm, which meant to the astronaut, I 'm overloaded with more tasks than I should be doing at this time and I 'm going to keep only the more important tasks; i.e., the ones needed for landing... Actually, the computer was programmed to do more than recognize error conditions. A complete set of recovery programs was incorporated into the software. The software 's action, in this case, was to eliminate lower priority tasks and re-establish the more important ones... If the computer had n't recognized this problem and taken recovery action, I doubt if Apollo 11 would have been the successful moon landing it was.
When Armstrong again looked outside, he saw that the computer 's landing target was in a boulder - strewn area just north and east of a 300 - meter (980 ft) diameter crater (later determined to be West crater, named for its location in the western part of the originally planned landing ellipse). Armstrong took semi-automatic control and, with Aldrin calling out altitude and velocity data, landed at 20: 17: 40 UTC on Sunday July 20 with about 25 seconds of fuel left.
Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than other missions, and the astronauts encountered a premature low fuel warning. This was later found to be the result of greater propellant ' slosh ' than expected, uncovering a fuel sensor. On subsequent missions, extra anti-slosh baffles were added to the tanks to prevent this.
Throughout the descent, Aldrin had called out navigation data to Armstrong, who was busy piloting the LM. A few moments before the landing, a light informed Aldrin that at least one of the 67 - inch (170 cm) probes hanging from Eagle 's footpads had touched the surface, and he said: "Contact light! '' Three seconds later, Eagle landed and Armstrong said "Shutdown. '' Aldrin immediately said "Okay, engine stop. ACA -- out of detent. '' Armstrong acknowledged "Out of detent. Auto '' and Aldrin continued "Mode control -- both auto. Descent engine command override off. Engine arm -- off. 413 is in. ''
Charles Duke, CAPCOM during the landing phase, acknowledged their landing by saying "We copy you down, Eagle. ''
Armstrong acknowledged Aldrin 's completion of the post landing checklist with "Engine arm is off '', before responding to Duke with the words, "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed. '' Armstrong 's unrehearsed change of call sign from "Eagle '' to "Tranquility Base '' emphasized to listeners that landing was complete and successful. Duke mispronounced his reply as he expressed the relief at Mission Control: "Roger, Twan -- Tranquility, we copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We 're breathing again. Thanks a lot. ''
Two and a half hours after landing, before preparations began for the EVA, Aldrin radioed to Earth:
This is the LM pilot. I 'd like to take this opportunity to ask every person listening in, whoever and wherever they may be, to pause for a moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give thanks in his or her own way.
He then took communion privately. At this time NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by atheist Madalyn Murray O'Hair (who had objected to the Apollo 8 crew reading from the Book of Genesis) demanding that their astronauts refrain from broadcasting religious activities while in space. As such, Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning taking communion on the Moon. Aldrin was an elder at the Webster Presbyterian Church, and his communion kit was prepared by the pastor of the church, the Rev. Dean Woodruff. Aldrin described communion on the Moon and the involvement of his church and pastor in the October 1970 edition of Guideposts magazine and in his book Return to Earth. Webster Presbyterian possesses the chalice used on the Moon and commemorates the event each year on the Sunday closest to July 20.
The schedule for the mission called for the astronauts to follow the landing with a five - hour sleep period as they had been awake since early morning. However, they elected to forgo the sleep period and begin the preparations for the EVA early, thinking that they would be unable to sleep.
The astronauts planned placement of the Early Apollo Scientific Experiment Package (EASEP) and the U.S. flag by studying their landing site through Eagle 's twin triangular windows, which gave them a 60 ° field of view. Preparation required longer than the two hours scheduled. Armstrong initially had some difficulties squeezing through the hatch with his Portable Life Support System (PLSS). According to veteran Moon - walker John Young, a redesign of the LM to incorporate a smaller hatch had not been followed by a redesign of the PLSS backpack, so some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress.
Several books indicate early mission timelines had Buzz Aldrin rather than Neil Armstrong as the first man on the Moon.
At 02: 39 UTC on Monday July 21, 1969, Armstrong opened the hatch, and at 02: 51 UTC began his descent to the lunar surface. The Remote Control Unit controls on his chest kept him from seeing his feet. Climbing down the nine - rung ladder, Armstrong pulled a D - ring to deploy the Modular Equipment Stowage Assembly (MESA) folded against Eagle 's side and activate the TV camera, and at 02: 56: 15 UTC he set his left foot on the surface. The first landing used slow - scan television incompatible with commercial TV, so it was displayed on a special monitor and a conventional TV camera viewed this monitor, significantly reducing the quality of the picture. The signal was received at Goldstone in the United States but with better fidelity by Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station in Australia. Minutes later the feed was switched to the more sensitive Parkes radio telescope in Australia. Despite some technical and weather difficulties, ghostly black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth. Although copies of this video in broadcast format were saved and are widely available, recordings of the original slow scan source transmission from the lunar surface were accidentally destroyed during routine magnetic tape re-use at NASA.
While still on the ladder, Armstrong uncovered a plaque mounted on the LM descent stage bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the astronauts and President Nixon. The inscription read:
Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon, July 1969 A.D. We came in peace for all mankind.
After describing the surface dust as "very fine - grained '' and "almost like a powder, '' six and a half hours after landing, Armstrong stepped off Eagle 's footpad and declared, "That 's one small step for (a) man, one giant leap for mankind. ''
Armstrong intended to say "That 's one small step for a man '', but the word "a '' is not audible in the transmission, and thus was not initially reported by most observers of the live broadcast. When later asked about his quote, Armstrong said he believed he said "for a man '', and subsequent printed versions of the quote included the "a '' in square brackets. One explanation for the absence may be that his accent caused him to slur the words "for a '' together; another is the intermittent nature of the audio and video links to Earth, partly because of storms near Parkes Observatory. More recent digital analysis of the tape claims to reveal the "a '' may have been spoken but obscured by static.
About seven minutes after stepping onto the Moon 's surface, Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He then folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh. This was to guarantee there would be some lunar soil brought back in case an emergency required the astronauts to abandon the EVA and return to the LM.
Twelve minutes after the contingency sample was collected, Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface, and described the view with the simple phrase, "Magnificent desolation. ''
In addition to fulfilling President Kennedy 's mandate to land a man on the Moon before the end of the 1960s, Apollo 11 was an engineering test of the Apollo system; therefore, Armstrong snapped photos of the LM so engineers would be able to judge its post-landing condition. He removed the TV camera from the MESA and made a panoramic sweep, then mounted it on a tripod 68 feet (21 m) from the LM. The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA.
Armstrong said that moving in the lunar gravity, one - sixth of Earth 's, was "even perhaps easier than the simulations... It 's absolutely no trouble to walk around. '' Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around, including two - footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backward, but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining balance. Loping became the preferred method of movement. The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead. The fine soil was quite slippery. Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight into Eagle 's shadow produced no temperature change inside the suit, though the helmet was warmer in sunlight, so he felt cooler in shadow.
The astronauts planted a specially designed U.S. flag on the lunar surface, in clear view of the TV camera. Sometime later, President Richard Nixon spoke to them through a telephone - radio transmission which Nixon called "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House. '' Nixon originally had a long speech prepared to read during the phone call, but Frank Borman, who was at the White House as a NASA liaison during Apollo 11, convinced Nixon to keep his words brief, to respect the lunar landing as Kennedy 's legacy. Armstrong thanked the President, and gave a brief reflection on the significance of the moment:
Nixon: Hello, Neil and Buzz. I 'm talking to you by telephone from the Oval Room at the White House. And this certainly has to be the most historic telephone call ever made. I just ca n't tell you how proud we all are of what you 've done. For every American, this has to be the proudest day of our lives. And for people all over the world, I am sure they too join with Americans in recognizing what an immense feat this is. Because of what you have done, the heavens have become a part of man 's world. And as you talk to us from the Sea of Tranquility, it inspires us to redouble our efforts to bring peace and tranquility to Earth. For one priceless moment in the whole history of man, all the people on this Earth are truly one: one in their pride in what you have done, and one in our prayers that you will return safely to Earth.
Armstrong: Thank you, Mr. President. It 's a great honor and privilege for us to be here, representing not only the United States, but men of peace of all nations, and with interest and curiosity, and men with a vision for the future. It 's an honor for us to be able to participate here today.
The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow, slowing work somewhat. As they worked, the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust which soiled the outer part of their suits, the integrated thermal meteoroid garment.
They deployed the EASEP, which included a passive seismograph and a Lunar Ranging Retroreflector (LRRR). Then Armstrong walked 196 feet (60 m) from the LM to snap photos at the rim of Little West Crater while Aldrin collected two core tubes. He used the geological hammer to pound in the tubes -- the only time the hammer was used on Apollo 11. The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so they had to stop documenting sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 minutes.
Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples collected by the astronauts: armalcolite, tranquillityite, and pyroxferroite. Armalcolite was named after Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins.
During this period, Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong that his metabolic rates were high and that he should slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. However, as metabolic rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk, Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15 - minute extension. In a 2010 interview, Armstrong, who had walked a maximum of 196 feet (60 m) from the LM, explained that NASA limited the first moonwalk 's time and distance because there was no empirical proof of how much cooling water the astronauts ' PLSS backpacks would consume to handle their body heat generation while working on the Moon.
Aldrin entered Eagle first. With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing 21.55 kilograms (47.5 lb) of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor. Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag of memorial items in his suit pocket sleeve, and Aldrin tossed the bag down; Armstrong then jumped to the ladder 's third rung and climbed into the LM. After transferring to LM life support, the explorers lightened the ascent stage for the return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks, lunar overshoes, one Hasselblad camera, and other equipment. They then pressurized the LM and settled down to sleep.
President Nixon 's speech writer William Safire had prepared In Event of Moon Disaster for the President to read on television in the event the Apollo 11 astronauts were stranded on the Moon. The contingency plan originated in a memo from Safire to Nixon 's White House Chief of Staff H.R. Haldeman, in which Safire suggested a protocol the administration might follow in reaction to such a disaster. According to the plan, Mission Control would "close down communications '' with the LM, and a clergyman would "commend their souls to the deepest of the deep '' in a public ritual likened to burial at sea. The last line of the prepared text contained an allusion to Rupert Brooke 's First World War poem, "The Soldier ''. The plan included presidential telephone calls to the astronauts ' wives.
While moving inside the cabin, Aldrin accidentally damaged the circuit breaker that would arm the main engine for lift off from the Moon. There was a concern this would prevent firing the engine, stranding them on the Moon. Fortunately, a felt - tip pen was sufficient to activate the switch. Had this not worked, the Lunar Module circuitry could have been reconfigured to allow firing the ascent engine.
After about seven hours of rest, the crew was awakened by Houston to prepare for the return flight. Two and a half hours later, at 17: 54 UTC, they lifted off in Eagle 's ascent stage to rejoin Collins aboard Columbia in lunar orbit.
After more than 211⁄2 total hours on the lunar surface, they had left behind scientific instruments that included a retroreflector array used for the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment and a Passive Seismic Experiment Package used to measure moonquakes. They also left an Apollo 1 mission patch, and a memorial bag containing a gold replica of an olive branch as a traditional symbol of peace and a silicon message disk. The disk carries the goodwill statements by Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon and messages from leaders of 73 countries around the world. The disc also carries a listing of the leadership of the US Congress, a listing of members of the four committees of the House and Senate responsible for the NASA legislation, and the names of NASA 's past and present top management. (In his 1989 book, Men from Earth, Aldrin says that the items included Soviet medals commemorating Cosmonauts Vladimir Komarov and Yuri Gagarin.) Also, according to Deke Slayton 's book Moonshot, Armstrong carried with him a special diamond - studded astronaut pin from Slayton.
Film taken from the LM Ascent Stage upon liftoff from the Moon reveals the American flag, planted some 25 feet (8 m) from the descent stage, whipping violently in the exhaust of the ascent stage engine. Aldrin looked up in time to witness the flag topple: "The ascent stage of the LM separated... I was concentrating on the computers, and Neil was studying the attitude indicator, but I looked up long enough to see the flag fall over. '' Subsequent Apollo missions usually planted the American flags at least 100 feet (30 m) from the LM to prevent them being blown over by the ascent engine exhaust.
After rendezvous with Columbia, Eagle 's ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit on July 21, 1969, at 23: 41 UTC. Just before the Apollo 12 flight, it was noted that Eagle was still likely to be orbiting the Moon. Later NASA reports mentioned that Eagle 's orbit had decayed, resulting in it impacting in an "uncertain location '' on the lunar surface. The location is uncertain because the Eagle ascent stage was not tracked after it was jettisoned, and the lunar gravity field is sufficiently non-uniform to make the orbit of the spacecraft unpredictable after a short time. NASA estimated that the orbit had decayed within months and would have impacted on the Moon.
On July 23, the last night before splashdown, the three astronauts made a television broadcast in which Collins commented:
... The Saturn V rocket which put us in orbit is an incredibly complicated piece of machinery, every piece of which worked flawlessly... We have always had confidence that this equipment will work properly. All this is possible only through the blood, sweat, and tears of a number of a people... All you see is the three of us, but beneath the surface are thousands and thousands of others, and to all of those, I would like to say, "Thank you very much. ''
Aldrin added:
This has been far more than three men on a mission to the Moon; more, still, than the efforts of a government and industry team; more, even, than the efforts of one nation. We feel that this stands as a symbol of the insatiable curiosity of all mankind to explore the unknown... Personally, in reflecting on the events of the past several days, a verse from Psalms comes to mind. "When I consider the heavens, the work of Thy fingers, the Moon and the stars, which Thou hast ordained; What is man that Thou art mindful of him? ''
Armstrong concluded:
The responsibility for this flight lies first with history and with the giants of science who have preceded this effort; next with the American people, who have, through their will, indicated their desire; next with four administrations and their Congresses, for implementing that will; and then, with the agency and industry teams that built our spacecraft, the Saturn, the Columbia, the Eagle, and the little EMU, the spacesuit and backpack that was our small spacecraft out on the lunar surface. We would like to give special thanks to all those Americans who built the spacecraft; who did the construction, design, the tests, and put their hearts and all their abilities into those craft. To those people tonight, we give a special thank you, and to all the other people that are listening and watching tonight, God bless you. Good night from Apollo 11.
On the return to Earth, a bearing at the Guam tracking station failed, potentially preventing communication on the last segment of the Earth return. A regular repair was not possible in the available time but the station director, Charles Force, had his ten - year - old son Greg use his small hands to reach into the housing and pack it with grease. Greg later was thanked by Armstrong.
On July 24, the astronauts returned home aboard the Command Module Columbia just before dawn local time (16: 51 UTC) at 13 ° 19 ′ N 169 ° 9 ′ W / 13.317 ° N 169.150 ° W / 13.317; - 169.150 (Apollo 11 splashdown), in the Pacific Ocean 2,660 km (1,440 nmi) east of Wake Island, 380 km (210 nmi) south of Johnston Atoll, and 24 km (13 nmi) from the recovery ship, USS Hornet. This is near the village of Vatia in American Samoa. The American Samoa - flag which was brought to the moon by Apollo 11 is on display at the Jean P. Haydon Museum in Pago Pago, the territorial capital of American Samoa.
At 16: 44 UTC the drogue parachutes had been deployed and seven minutes later the Command Module struck the water forcefully. During splashdown, the Command Module landed upside down but was righted within 10 minutes by flotation bags triggered by the astronauts. "Everything 's okay. Our checklist is complete. Awaiting swimmers '', was Armstrong 's last official transmission from Columbia. A diver from the Navy helicopter hovering above attached a sea anchor to the Command Module to prevent it from drifting. Additional divers attached flotation collars to stabilize the module and position rafts for astronaut extraction. Though the chance of bringing back pathogens from the lunar surface was considered remote, it was considered a possibility and NASA took great precautions at the recovery site. Divers provided the astronauts with Biological Isolation Garments (BIGs) which were worn until they reached isolation facilities on board the Hornet. Additionally, astronauts were rubbed down with a sodium hypochlorite solution and the Command Module wiped with Betadine to remove any lunar dust that might be present. The raft containing decontamination materials was then intentionally sunk.
A second Sea King helicopter - "Helicopter 66 '' - hoisted the astronauts aboard one by one, where a NASA flight surgeon gave each a brief physical check during the 0.5 nautical miles (930 m) trip back to the Hornet.
After touchdown on the Hornet, the astronauts exited the helicopter, leaving the flight surgeon and three crewmen. The helicopter was then lowered into hangar bay # 2 where the astronauts walked the 30 feet (9.1 m) to the Mobile Quarantine Facility (MQF) where they would begin the earth - based portion of their 21 days of quarantine. This practice would continue for two more Apollo missions, Apollo 12 and Apollo 14, before the Moon was proven to be barren of life and the quarantine process dropped.
President Richard Nixon was aboard Hornet to personally welcome the astronauts back to Earth. He told the astronauts, "As a result of what you 've done, the world has never been closer together before. '' After Nixon departed, the Hornet was brought alongside the five - ton Command Module where it was placed aboard by the ship 's crane, placed on a dolly and moved next to the MQF. The Hornet sailed for Pearl Harbor where Columbia and the MQF were airlifted to the Manned Spacecraft Center.
In accordance with the Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law, a set of regulations promulgated by NASA on July 16 to codify its quarantine protocol, the astronauts continued in quarantine out of concern that the Moon might contain undiscovered pathogens and that the astronauts might have been exposed to them during their Moon walks. However, after three weeks in confinement (first in the Apollo spacecraft, then in their trailer on the Hornet, and finally in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory at the Manned Spacecraft Center), the astronauts were given a clean bill of health. On August 10, 1969, the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in Atlanta and lifted the quarantine on the astronauts, on those who had joined them in quarantine (NASA physician William Carpentier and MQF project engineer John Hirasaki), and on Columbia itself. Loose equipment from the spacecraft would remain in isolation until the lunar samples were released for study.
On August 13, they rode in parades in their honor in New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles. On the same evening in Los Angeles there was an official State Dinner to celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44 governors, the Chief Justice of the United States, and ambassadors from 83 nations at the Century Plaza Hotel. President Richard Nixon and Vice President Spiro T. Agnew honored each astronaut with a presentation of the Presidential Medal of Freedom. This celebration was the beginning of a 45 - day "Giant Leap '' tour that brought the astronauts to 25 foreign countries and included visits with prominent leaders such as Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. Many nations honored the first manned Moon landing with special features in magazines or by issuing Apollo 11 commemorative postage stamps or coins.
On September 16, 1969, the three astronauts spoke before a joint session of Congress on Capitol Hill. They presented two US flags, one to the House of Representatives and the other to the Senate, that had been carried to the surface of the Moon with them.
The Soviet Union had been competing with the US in landing a man on the Moon but had been hampered by repeated failures in development of a launcher comparable to the Saturn V. Meanwhile, they tried to beat the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means of unmanned probes. On July 13, three days before Apollo 11 's launch, they launched Luna 15, which reached lunar orbit before Apollo 11. During descent, a malfunction caused Luna 15 to crash in Mare Crisium about two hours before Armstrong and Aldrin took off from the Moon 's surface to begin their voyage home. The Jodrell Bank Observatory radio telescope in England was later discovered to have recorded transmissions from Luna 15 during its descent, and this was published in July 2009 on the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11.
The Command Module Columbia was displayed at the National Air and Space Museum (NASM), Washington, D.C. It was in the central Milestones of Flight exhibition hall in front of the Jefferson Drive entrance, sharing the main hall with other pioneering flight vehicles such as the Wright Flyer, the Spirit of St. Louis, the Bell X-1, the North American X-15, Mercury spacecraft Friendship 7, and Gemini 4. Armstrong 's and Aldrin 's space suits are displayed in the museum 's Apollo to the Moon exhibit. The quarantine trailer, the flotation collar, and the righting spheres are displayed at the Smithsonian 's Steven F. Udvar - Hazy Center annex near Washington Dulles International Airport in Chantilly, Virginia.
In 2009, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) imaged the various Apollo landing sites on the surface of the Moon, for the first time with sufficient resolution to see the descent stages of the lunar modules, scientific instruments, and foot trails made by the astronauts.
In March 2012 a team of specialists financed by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos located the F - 1 engines that launched Apollo 11 into space. The engines were found below the Atlantic Ocean 's surface through the use of advanced sonar scanning. His team brought parts of two of the five engines to the surface. In July 2013, a conservator discovered a serial number under the rust on one of the engines raised from the Atlantic, which NASA confirmed was from the Apollo 11 launch.
Columbia was moved in 2017 to the NASM Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar at the Steven F. Udvar - Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia, to be readied for a four - city tour titled Destination Moon: The Apollo 11 Mission. This will include Space Center Houston (October 14, 2017 to March 18, 2018), the Saint Louis Science Center (April 14 to September 3, 2018), the Senator John Heinz History Center in Pittsburgh (September 29, 2018 to February 18, 2019), and the Seattle Museum of Flight (March 16 to September 2, 2019).
On July 15, 2009, Life.com released a photo gallery of previously unpublished photos of the astronauts taken by Life photographer Ralph Morse prior to the Apollo 11 launch. From July 16 -- 24, 2009, NASA streamed the original mission audio on its website in real time 40 years to the minute after the events occurred. In addition, it is in the process of restoring the video footage and has released a preview of key moments. In July 2010, air - to - ground voice recordings and film footage shot in Mission Control during the Apollo 11 powered descent and landing was re-synchronised and released for the first time. The John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum set up a Flash website that rebroadcasts the transmissions of Apollo 11 from launch to landing on the Moon.
On July 20, 2009, the crew of Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins met with U.S. President Barack Obama at the White House. "We expect that there is, as we speak, another generation of kids out there who are looking up at the sky and are going to be the next Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin '', Obama said. "We want to make sure that NASA is going to be there for them when they want to take their journey. '' On August 7, 2009, an act of Congress awarded the three astronauts a Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award in the United States. The bill was sponsored by Florida Sen. Bill Nelson and Florida Rep. Alan Grayson.
A group of British scientists interviewed as part of the anniversary events reflected on the significance of the Moon landing:
It was carried out in a technically brilliant way with risks taken... that would be inconceivable in the risk - averse world of today... The Apollo programme is arguably the greatest technical achievement of mankind to date... nothing since Apollo has come close (to) the excitement that was generated by those astronauts -- Armstrong, Aldrin and the 10 others who followed them.
Roll - out of Saturn V AS - 505 from the Vehicle Assembly Building to the launch pad
The Earth as seen from Apollo 11 on the third day out
Neil Armstrong describes the Moon 's surface before setting foot on it
The Washington Post on Monday, July 21, 1969: "' The Eagle Has Landed ' -- Two Men Walk on the Moon ''
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
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how did the treaty of versailles ending world war i change the balance of power in europe | European balance of power - wikipedia
The European balance of power referred to European international relations before the First World War, which evolved into the present states of Europe. The current European balance of power is a supranational organization known as the European Union rather than the Nineteenth Century political concept that emerged at the Peace of Paris in 1815. It is often known by the term European State System. Its basic tenet is that no single European power should be allowed to achieve hegemony over a substantial part of the continent and that this is best curtailed by having a small number of ever - changing alliances contend for power, it also meant that none should be able to achieve absolute power.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, English foreign policy strove to prevent a creation of a single universal monarchy in Europe, which many believed France or Spain might attempt to create. To maintain the balance of power, the English made alliances with other states -- including Portugal, the Ottoman Empire, and the Netherlands -- to counter the perceived threat. These Grand Alliances reached their height in the wars against Louis XIV and Louis XV of France. They often involved the English (later the British) and Dutch paying large subsidies to European allies to finance large armies.
In the 18th century, this led to the stately quadrille, with a number of major European powers -- such as Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, and France -- changing alliances multiple times to prevent the hegemony of one nation or alliance. A number of wars stemmed, at least in part, from the desire to maintain the balance of power, including the War of the Spanish Succession, War of the Austrian Succession, the Seven Years ' War, the War of the Bavarian Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. Following Britain 's success in the Seven Years ' War, many of the other powers began to see Great Britain as a greater threat than France. Several states entered the American War of Independence in the hope of overturning Britain 's growing strength by securing the independence of the Thirteen colonies of British America.
During the 19th century, to achieve lasting peace, the Concert of Europe tried to maintain the balance of power. The territorial boundaries laid down at the Congress of Vienna were maintained, and even more important there was an acceptance of the theme of balance with no major aggression. Otherwise the Congress system says historian Roy Bridge, "failed '' by 1823. In 1818 the British decided not to become involved in continental issues that did not directly affect them. They rejected the plan of Tsar Alexander I to suppress future revolutions. The Concert system fell apart as the common goals of the Great Powers were replaced by growing political and economic rivalries. Artz says the Congress of Verona in 1822 "marked the end. '' There was no Congress called to restore the old system during the great revolutionary upheavals of 1848 with their demands for revision of the Congress of Vienna 's frontiers along national lines.
Before 1850 Britain and France dominated Europe, but by the 1850s they had become deeply concerned by the growing power of Russia and Prussia. The Crimean War of 1854 -- 55 and the Italian War of 1859 shattered the relations among the Great Powers in Europe.
After 1870 the creation and rise of the German Empire as a dominant nation restructured the European balance of power. For the next twenty years, Otto von Bismarck managed to maintain the balance of power, by proposing treaties and creating many complex alliances between the European nations such as the Triple Alliance.
After the resignation of Otto Von Bismarck in the 1890s, the foreign policy of the German Empire became expansionary and the newly created alliances were proven to be fragile, something that triggered the First World War in 1914. One of the objectives of the Treaty of Versailles, the main post-World War I treaty, was to abolish the dominance of the ' Balance of Power ' concept and replace it with the (global) League of Nations.
This idea floundered as Europe split into three principal factions in the 1920s and 1930s: liberal democratic states led by the UK and France, communist states led by the Soviet Union, and authoritarian nationalists led by Germany and Italy. The failure of the democratic states to prevent the advance of Nazi Germany ultimately led to the Second World War, which led to a temporary alliance between the UK and the Soviets. The UK did not condemn the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939, but declared war on Germany. Later they sided with the Soviet Union against Germany after the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union.
During the post-Second World War era the Allies split into two blocs, a balance of power emerged in between the Eastern Bloc: affiliated with the Soviet Union and the Socialist nations of Central and Eastern Europe; the Western Bloc: affiliated with the Western democracies, particularly France, the United States, and the United Kingdom, and neutral or non-aligned countries, including the Republic of Ireland, Sweden, Switzerland and Yugoslavia. The majority of the European democratic nations, together with Canada and the US, came together under the military alliance of NATO, which continues to this day and has expanded to other countries in Europe. The first NATO Secretary General, the British Lord Ismay, famously stated the organization 's initial goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down. ''
From the late 20th century, the four most powerful members of the European Union -- the UK, France, Italy and Germany -- are referred to as the EU big four. They are major European powers and the only EU countries individually represented as full members of the G7, the G8 and the G20. The NATO Quint is made up by the United States and the Big Four.
The term G4 is especially (although not only) used to describe meeting of the four nations at the leaders ' level. In addition, the term EU three (or G - 3) is used to describe the grouping of foreign ministers from France, the UK and Germany during the Iran nuclear talks. On the other hand, the grouping of interior ministers that includes Spain and Poland is known as the G6. Germany (which has the largest economy in Europe) is often regarded as the EU 's economic leader, such as with the ongoing European sovereign debt crisis, whilst France and the United Kingdom (both permanent members of the UNSC) often lead in defence and foreign policy matters, such as the intervention in Libya in 2011, even if the major actor in the attack was Italy. This, to an extent, represents a balancing of leadership power for the Western sphere of the continent. How this balance will change after the Brexit vote in 2016 is still an open matter.
There continues however to be a wider, strategic balance of Western and (now) Russian power, albeit with the boundary between the two pushed further east since the collapse of the Soviet Union, with many former Communist countries in central Europe having since joined the EU and NATO.
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which of the following is part of the miranda rules | Miranda warning - wikipedia
The Miranda warning, which also can be referred to as a person 's Miranda rights, is a right to silence warning given by police in the United States to criminal suspects in police custody (or in a custodial interrogation) before they are interrogated to preserve the admissibility of their statements against them in criminal proceedings.
A typical Miranda warning can read as follows:
The Miranda warning is part of a preventive criminal procedure rule that law enforcement are required to administer to protect an individual who is in custody and subject to direct questioning or its functional equivalent from a violation of his or her Fifth Amendment right against compelled self - incrimination. In Miranda v. Arizona (1966), the Supreme Court held that the admission of an elicited incriminating statement by a suspect not informed of these rights violates the Fifth Amendment and the Sixth Amendment right to counsel, through the incorporation of these rights into state law. Thus, if law enforcement officials decline to offer a Miranda warning to an individual in their custody, they may interrogate that person and act upon the knowledge gained, but may not use that person 's statements as evidence against him or her in a criminal trial.
The concept of "Miranda rights '' was enshrined in U.S. law following the 1966 Miranda v. Arizona Supreme Court decision, which found that the Fifth and Sixth Amendment rights of Ernesto Arturo Miranda had been violated during his arrest and trial for armed robbery, kidnapping, and rape of a mentally handicapped young woman (Miranda was subsequently retried and convicted, based primarily on his estranged ex-partner, who had been tracked down by the original arresting officer via Ernesto 's own parents, suddenly claiming that Ernesto had confessed to her when she had visited him in jail; Ernesto 's lawyer later confessed that he ' goofed ' the trial).
The circumstances triggering the Miranda safeguards, i.e. Miranda rights, are "custody '' and "interrogation ''. Custody means formal arrest or the deprivation of freedom to an extent associated with formal arrest. Interrogation means explicit questioning or actions that are reasonably likely to elicit an incriminating response. The Supreme Court did not specify the exact wording to use when informing a suspect of his / her rights. However, the Court did create a set of guidelines that must be followed. The ruling states:
... The person in custody must, prior to interrogation, be clearly informed that he / she has the right to remain silent, and that anything the person says will be used against that person in court; the person must be clearly informed that he / she has the right to consult with an attorney and to have that attorney present during questioning, and that, if he / she is indigent, an attorney will be provided at no cost to represent him / her.
In Berkemer v. McCarty (1984), the Supreme Court decided that a person subjected to custodial interrogation is entitled to the benefit of the procedural safeguards enunciated in Miranda, regardless of the nature or severity of the offense of which he is suspected or for which he was arrested.
As a result, American English developed the verb Mirandize, meaning "read the Miranda rights to '' a suspect (when the suspect is arrested).
Notably, the Miranda rights do not have to be read in any particular order, and they do not have to precisely match the language of the Miranda case as long as they are adequately and fully conveyed (California v. Prysock, 453 U.S. 355 (1981)).
In Berghuis v. Thompkins (2010), the Supreme Court held that unless a suspect expressly states that he or she is invoking this right, subsequent voluntary statements made to an officer can be used against them in court, and police can continue to interact with (or question) the alleged criminal.
Every U.S. jurisdiction has its own regulations regarding what, precisely, must be said to a person arrested or placed in a custodial situation. The typical warning states:
The courts have since ruled that the warning must be "meaningful '', so it is usually required that the suspect be asked if he / she understands their rights. Sometimes, firm answers of "yes '' are required. Some departments and jurisdictions require that an officer ask "do you understand? '' after every sentence in the warning. An arrestee 's silence is not a waiver, but on June 1, 2010, the Supreme Court ruled 5 -- 4 that police are allowed to interrogate suspects who have invoked or waived their rights ambiguously, and any statement given during questioning prior to invocation or waiving is admissible as evidence. Evidence has in some cases been ruled inadmissible because of an arrestee 's poor knowledge of English and the failure of arresting officers to provide the warning in the arrestee 's language.
While the exact language above is not required by Miranda, the police must advise the suspect that:
There is no precise language that must be used in advising a suspect of their Miranda rights. The point is that whatever language is used the substance of the rights outlined above must be communicated to the suspect. The suspect may be advised of their rights orally or in writing. Also, officers must make sure the suspect understands what the officer is saying, taking into account potential education levels. It may be necessary to "translate '' to the suspect 's level of understanding. Courts have ruled this admissible as long as the original waiver is said and the "translation '' is recorded either on paper or on tape.
The Supreme Court has resisted efforts to require officers to more fully advise suspects of their rights. For example, the police are not required to advise the suspect that they can stop the interrogation at any time, that the decision to exercise the right can not be used against the suspect, or that they have a right to talk to a lawyer before being asked any questions. Nor have the courts required to explain the rights. For example, the standard Miranda right to counsel states You have a right to have an attorney present during the questioning. Police are not required to explain that this right is not merely a right to have a lawyer present while the suspect is being questioned. The right to counsel includes:
The circumstances triggering the Miranda safeguards, i.e. Miranda warnings, are "custody '' and "interrogation ''. Custody means formal arrest or the deprivation of freedom to an extent associated with formal arrest. Interrogation means explicit questioning or actions that are reasonably likely to elicit an incriminating response. Suspects in "custody '' who are about to be interrogated must be properly advised of their Miranda rights -- namely, the Fifth Amendment right against compelled self incrimination (and, in furtherance of this right, the right to counsel while in custody). The Sixth Amendment right to counsel means that the suspect has the right to consult with an attorney before questioning begins and have an attorney present during the interrogation. The Fifth Amendment right against compelled self incrimination is the right to remain silent -- the right to refuse to answer questions or to otherwise communicate information.
The duty to warn only arises when police officers conduct custodial interrogations. The Constitution does not require that a defendant be advised of the Miranda rights as part of the arrest procedure, or once an officer has probable cause to arrest, or if the defendant has become a suspect of the focus of an investigation. Custody and interrogation are the events that trigger the duty to warn.
Some jurisdictions provide the right of a juvenile to remain silent if their parent or guardian is not present. Some departments in New Jersey, Nevada, Oklahoma, and Alaska modify the "providing an attorney '' clause as follows:
We have no way of giving you a lawyer, but one will be appointed for you, if you wish, if and when you go to court.
Even though this sentence may be somewhat ambiguous to some laypersons, who can, and who have actually interpreted it as meaning that they will not get a lawyer until they confess and are arraigned in court, the U.S. Supreme Court has approved of it as an accurate description of the procedure in those states.
In states bordering Mexico, including Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California, suspects who are not United States citizens are given an additional warning:
If you are not a United States citizen, you may contact your country 's consulate prior to any questioning.
Some states including Virginia require the following sentence, ensuring that the suspect knows that waiving Miranda rights is not a one - time absolute occurrence:
You can decide at any time from this moment on to terminate the interview and exercise these rights.
California, Texas, New York, Florida, Illinois, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, Washington and Pennsylvania also add the following questions, presumably to comply with the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations:
Question 1: Do you understand each of these rights I have explained to you? Question 2: Having these rights in mind, do you wish to talk to us now?
An affirmative answer to both of the above questions waives the rights. If the suspect responds "no '' to the first question, the officer is required to re-read the Miranda warning, while saying "no '' to the second question invokes the right at that moment; in either case the interviewing officer or officers can not question the suspect until the rights are waived.
Generally, when defendants invoke their Fifth Amendment right against self - incrimination and refuse to testify or submit to cross-examination at trial, the prosecutor can not indirectly punish them for the exercise of a constitutional right by commenting on their silence and insinuating that it is an implicit admission of guilt. Since Miranda rights are simply a judicial gloss upon the Fifth Amendment which protects against coercive interrogations, the same rule also prevents prosecutors from commenting about the post-arrest silence of suspects who invoke their Miranda rights immediately after arrest. However, neither the Fifth Amendment nor Miranda extend to pre-arrest silence, which means that if a defendant takes the witness stand at trial (meaning he just waived his Fifth Amendment right to remain silent), the prosecutor can attack his credibility with his pre-arrest silence (based on his failure to immediately turn himself in and confess to the things he voluntarily testified about at trial).
Under the Uniform Code of Military Justice, Article 31 provides for the right against compelled self - incrimination. Interrogation subjects under Army jurisdiction must first be given Department of the Army Form 3881, which informs them of the charges and their rights, and the subjects must sign the form. The United States Navy and United States Marine Corps require that all arrested personnel be read the "rights of the accused '' and must sign a form waiving those rights if they so desire; a verbal waiver is not sufficient.
It has been discussed whether a Miranda warning -- if spoken or in writing -- could be appropriately given to disabled persons. For example, "the right to remain silent '' means little to a deaf individual and the word "constitutional '' may not be understood by people with only an elementary education. In one case, a deaf murder suspect was kept at a therapy station until he was able to understand the meaning of the Miranda warning and other judicial proceedings.
The Miranda rule applies to the use of testimonial evidence in criminal proceedings that is the product of custodial police interrogation. The Miranda right to counsel and right to remain silent are derived from the self - incrimination clause of the Fifth Amendment. Therefore, for Miranda to apply, six requirements must be fulfilled:
Assuming that the six requirements are present and Miranda applies, the statement will be subject to suppression unless the prosecution can demonstrate:
The defendant may also be able to challenge the admissibility of the statement under provisions of state constitutions and state criminal procedure statutes.
It is important to note that immigrants who live in the United States illegally are also protected and should receive their Miranda warnings as well when being interrogated or placed under arrest. "Aliens receive constitutional protections when they have come within the territory of the United States and (have) developed substantial connections with this country ''.
The Fifth Amendment right to counsel, a component of the Miranda Rule, is different from the Sixth Amendment right to counsel. In the context of the law of confessions the Sixth Amendment right to counsel is defined by the Massiah Doctrine (Massiah v. United States, 377 U.S. 201 (1964)).
Simply advising the suspect of their rights does not fully comply with the Miranda rule. The suspect must also voluntarily waive their Miranda rights before questioning can proceed. An express waiver is not necessary. However, most law enforcement agencies use written waiver forms. These include questions designed to establish that the suspect expressly waived their rights. Typical waiver questions are
The waiver must be "knowing and intelligent '' and it must be "voluntary ''. These are separate requirements. To satisfy the first requirement the state must show that the suspect generally understood their rights (right to remain silent and right to counsel) and the consequences of forgoing those rights (that anything they said could be used against them in court). To show that the waiver was "voluntary '' the state must show that the decision to waive the rights was not the product of police coercion. If police coercion is shown or evident, then the court proceeds to determine the voluntariness of the waiver under the totality of circumstances test focusing on the personal characteristics of the accused and the particulars of the coercive nature of the police conduct. The ultimate issue is whether the coercive police conduct was sufficient to overcome the will of a person under the totality of the circumstances. As noted previously, courts traditionally focused on two categories of factors in making this determination: (1) the personal characteristics of the suspect and (2) the circumstances attendant to the waiver. However, the Supreme Court significantly altered the voluntariness standard in the case of Colorado v. Connelly. In Connelly, the Court held that "Coercive police activity is a necessary predicate to a finding that a confession is not ' voluntary ' within the meaning of the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. '' The Court has applied this same standard of voluntariness in determining whether a waiver of a suspect 's Fifth Amendment Miranda rights was voluntary. Thus, a waiver of Miranda rights is voluntary unless the defendant can show that their decision to waive their rights and speak to the police was the product of police misconduct and coercion that overcame the defendant 's free will. After Connelly, the traditional totality of circumstances analysis is not even reached unless the defendant can first show such coercion by the police. Under Connelly, a suspect 's decisions need not be the product of rational deliberations. In addition to showing that the waiver was "voluntary '', the prosecution must also show that the waiver was "knowing '' and "intelligent ''. Essentially this means the prosecution must prove that the suspect had a basic understanding of their rights and an appreciation of the consequences of forgoing those rights. The focus of the analysis is directly on the personal characteristics of the suspect. If the suspect was under the influence of alcohol or other drugs, or suffered from an emotional or mental condition that substantially impaired their capacity to make rational decisions, the courts may well decide that the suspect 's waiver was not knowing and intelligent.
A waiver must also be clear and unequivocal. An equivocal statement is ineffective as a waiver and the police may not proceed with the interrogation until the suspect 's intentions are made clear. The requirement that a waiver be unequivocal must be distinguished from situations in which the suspect made an equivocal assertion of their Miranda rights after the interrogation began. Any post-waiver assertion of a suspect 's Miranda rights must be clear and unequivocal. Any ambiguity or equivocation will be ineffective. If the suspect 's assertion is ambiguous, the interrogating officers are permitted to ask questions to clarify the suspect 's intentions, although they are not required to. In other words, if a suspect 's assertion is ambiguous, the police may either attempt to clarify the suspect 's intentions or they may simply ignore the ineffective assertion and continue with the interrogation. The timing of the assertion is significant. Requesting an attorney prior to arrest is of no consequence because Miranda applies only to custodial interrogations. The police may simply ignore the request and continue with the questioning; however, the suspect is also free to leave.
If the defendant asserts his right to remain silent all interrogation must immediately stop and the police may not resume the interrogation unless the police have "scrupulously honored '' the defendant 's assertion and obtain a valid waiver before resuming the interrogation. In determining whether the police "scrupulously honored '' the assertion the courts apply a totality of the circumstances test. The most important factors are the length of time between termination of original interrogation and commencement of the second and a fresh set of Miranda warnings before resumption of interrogation.
The consequences of assertion of Sixth Amendment right to counsel are stricter. The police must immediately cease all interrogation and the police can not reinitiate interrogation unless counsel is present (merely consulting with counsel is insufficient) or the defendant of his own volition contacts the police. If the defendant does reinitiate contact, a valid waiver must be obtained before interrogation may resume.
In Berghuis v. Thompkins (2010), the Supreme Court declared in a 5 -- 4 decision that criminal defendants who have been read their Miranda rights (and who have indicated they understand them and have not already waived them), must explicitly state during or before an interrogation begins that they wish to be silent and not speak to police for that protection against self - incrimination to apply. If they speak to police about the incident before invoking the Miranda right to remain silent, or afterwards at any point during the interrogation or detention, the words they speak may be used against them if they have not stated they do not want to speak to police. Those who oppose the ruling contend that the requirement that the defendant must speak to indicate his intention to remain silent further erodes the ability of the defendant to stay completely silent about the case. This opposition must be put in context with the second option offered by the majority opinion, which allowed that the defendant had the option of remaining silent, saying: "Had he wanted to remain silent, he could have said nothing in response or unambiguously invoked his Miranda rights, ending the interrogation. '' Thus, having been "Mirandized '', a suspect may avow explicitly the invocation of these rights, or, alternatively, simply remain silent. Absent the former, "anything (said) can and will be used against (the defendant) in a court of law ''.
Assuming that the six factors are present, the Miranda rule would apply unless the prosecution can establish that the statement falls within an exception to the Miranda rule. The three exceptions are:
Arguably only the last is a true exception -- the first two can better be viewed as consistent with the Miranda factors. For example, questions that are routinely asked as part of the administrative process of arrest and custodial commitment are not considered "interrogation '' under Miranda because they are not intended or likely to produce incriminating responses. Nonetheless, all three circumstances are treated as exceptions to the rule. The jail house informant exception applies to situations where the suspect does not know that he is speaking to a state - agent; either a police officer posing as a fellow inmate, a cellmate working as an agent for the state or a family member or friend who has agreed to cooperate with the state in obtaining incriminating information.
The "public safety '' exception is a limited and case - specific exception, allowing certain unadvised statements (given without Miranda warnings) to be admissible into evidence at trial when they were elicited in circumstances where there was great danger to public safety; thus, the Miranda rule provides some elasticity.
The public safety exception derives from New York v. Quarles (1984), a case in which the Supreme Court considered the admissibility of a statement elicited by a police officer who apprehended a rape suspect who was thought to be carrying a firearm. The arrest took place during the middle of the night in a supermarket that was open to the public but apparently deserted except for the clerks at the checkout counter. When the officer arrested the suspect, he found an empty shoulder holster, handcuffed the suspect, and asked him where the gun was. The suspect nodded in the direction of the gun (which was near some empty cartons) and said, "The gun is over there ''. The Supreme Court found that such an unadvised statement was admissible in evidence because "(i) na kaleidoscopic situation such as the one confronting these officers, where spontaneity rather than adherence to a police manual is necessarily the order of the day, the application of the exception we recognize today should not be made to depend on post hoc findings at a suppression hearing concerning the subjective motivation of the police officer ''. Thus, the jurisprudential rule of Miranda must yield in "a situation where concern for public safety must be paramount to adherence to the literal language of the prophylactic rules enunciated in Miranda ''.
Under this exception, to be admissible in the government 's direct case at a trial, the questioning must not be "actually compelled by police conduct which overcame his will to resist '', and must be focused and limited, involving a situation "in which police officers ask questions reasonably prompted by a concern for the public safety ''.
In 2010, the Federal Bureau of Investigation encouraged agents to use a broad interpretation of public safety - related questions in terrorism cases, stating that the "magnitude and complexity '' of terrorist threats justified "a significantly more extensive public safety interrogation without Miranda warnings than would be permissible in an ordinary criminal case '', continuing to list such examples as: "questions about possible impending or coordinated terrorist attacks; the location, nature and threat posed by weapons that might pose an imminent danger to the public; and the identities, locations, and activities or intentions of accomplices who may be plotting additional imminent attacks ''. A Department of Justice spokesman described this position as not altering the constitutional right, but as clarifying existing flexibility in the rule.
Prosecutors initially argued for this exception to be applied to the 16 - hour interrogation of Dzhokhar Tsarnaev in 2013. However, the exception was not considered by the court because the prosecutors later decided not to use any of that evidence in their case against Tsarnaev.
The New York Court of Appeals upheld the exception in a 2013 murder case, People v Doll, where a man with blood on his clothes was detained and questioned.
The window of opportunity for the exception is small. Once the suspect is formally charged, the Sixth Amendment right to counsel would attach and surreptitious interrogation would be prohibited. The public safety exception applies where circumstances present a clear and present danger to the public 's safety and the officers have reason to believe that the suspect has information that can end the emergency.
Assuming that a Miranda violation occurred -- the six factors are present and no exception applies -- the statement will be subject to suppression under the Miranda exclusionary rule. That is, if the defendant objects or files a motion to suppress, the exclusionary rule would prohibit the prosecution from offering the statement as proof of guilt. However, the statement can be used to impeach the defendant 's testimony. Further, the fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine does not apply to Miranda violations. Therefore, the exclusionary rule exceptions, attenuation, independent source and inevitable discovery, do not come into play, and derivative evidence would be fully admissible. For example, suppose the police continue with a custodial interrogation after the suspect has asserted his right to silence. During his post-assertion statement the suspect tells the police the location of the gun he used in the murder. Using this information the police find the gun. Forensic testing identifies the gun as the murder weapon, and fingerprints lifted from the gun match the suspect 's. The contents of the Miranda - defective statement could not be offered by the prosecution as substantive evidence, but the gun itself and all related forensic evidence could be used as evidence at trial.
Although the rules vary by jurisdiction, generally a person who wishes to contest the admissibility of evidence on the grounds that it was obtained in violation of his constitutional rights must comply with the following procedural requirements:
Failure to comply with a procedural requirement may result in summary dismissal of the motion. If the defendant meets the procedural requirement, the motion will normally be considered by the judge outside the presence of the jury. The judge hears evidence, determines the facts, makes conclusions of law and enters an order allowing or denying the motion.
In addition to Miranda, confession may be challenged under the Massiah Doctrine, the Voluntariness Standard, Provisions of Federal and State rules of criminal procedure and State Constitutional provisions.
The Massiah Doctrine (established by Massiah v. United States) prohibits the admission of a confession obtained in violation of the defendant 's Sixth Amendment right to counsel. Specifically, the Massiah rule applies to the use of testimonial evidence in criminal proceedings deliberately elicited by the police from a defendant after formal charges have been filed. The events that trigger the Sixth Amendment safeguards under Massiah are (1) the commencement of adversarial criminal proceedings and (2) deliberate elicitation of information from the defendant by governmental agents.
The Sixth Amendment guarantees a defendant a right to counsel in all criminal prosecutions. The purposes of the Sixth Amendment right to counsel are to protect a defendant 's right to a fair trial and to assure that the adversarial system of justice functions properly by providing competent counsel as an advocate for the defendant in his contest against the "prosecutorial forces '' of the state.
The Sixth Amendment right "attaches '' once the government has committed itself to the prosecution of the case by the initiation of adversarial judicial proceedings "by way of formal charge, preliminary hearing, indictment, information or arraignment ''. Determining whether a particular event or proceeding constitutes the commencement of adversarial criminal proceedings requires both an examination of the rules of criminal procedure for the jurisdiction in which the crime is charged and the Supreme Courts cases dealing with the issue of when formal prosecution begins. Once adversarial criminal proceedings commence the right to counsel applies to all critical stages of the prosecution and investigation. A critical stage is "any stage of the prosecution, formal or informal, in court or out, where counsel 's absence might derogate from the accused 's right to a fair trial ''.
Government attempts to obtain incriminating statement related to the offense charged from the defendant by overt interrogation or surreptitious means is a critical stage and any information thus obtained is subject to suppression unless the government can show that an attorney was present or the defendant knowingly, voluntarily and intelligently waived his right to counsel.
Deliberate elicitation is defined as the intentional creation of circumstances by government agents that are likely to produce incriminating information from the defendant. Clearly express questioning (interrogation) would qualify but the concept also extends to surreptitious attempts to acquire information from the defendant through the use of undercover agents or paid informants.
The definition of "deliberate elicitation '' is not the same as the definition of "interrogation '' under the Miranda rule. Miranda interrogation includes express questioning and any actions or statements that an officer would reasonably foresee as likely to cause an incriminating response. Massiah applies to express questioning and any attempt to deliberately and intentionally obtain incriminating information from the defendant regarding the crime charged. The difference is purposeful creation of an environment likely to produce incriminating information (Massiah) and action likely to induce an incriminating response even if that was not the officer 's purpose or intent (Miranda).
The Sixth Amendment right to counsel is offense - specific -- the right only applies to post-commencement attempts to obtain information relating to the crime charged. The right does not extend to uncharged offenses if factually related to the charged crime.
As noted, information obtained in violation of the defendant 's Sixth Amendment right to counsel is subject to suppression unless the government can establish that the defendant waived his right to counsel. The waiver must be knowing, intelligent and voluntary. A valid Miranda waiver operates as a waiver of Sixth Amendment right.
The voluntariness standard applies to all police interrogations regardless of the custodial status of the suspect and regardless of whether the suspect has been formally charged. The remedy for a violation of the standard is complete suppression of the statement and any evidence derived from the statement. The statement can not be used as either substantive evidence of guilt or to impeach the defendant 's testimony. The reason for the strictness is the common law 's aversion to the use of coerced confessions because of their inherent unreliability. Further the rights to be free from coerced confession can not be waived nor is it necessary that the victim of coercive police conduct assert his right. In considering the voluntariness standard one must consider the Supreme Court 's decision in Colorado v. Connelly. Although federal courts ' application of the Connelly rule has been inconsistent and state courts have often failed to appreciate the consequences of the case, Connelly clearly marked a significant change in the application of the voluntariness standard. Before Connelly the test was whether the confession was voluntary considering the totality of the circumstances. "Voluntary '' carried its everyday meaning: the confession had to be a product of the exercise of the defendant 's free will rather than police coercion. After Connelly the totality of circumstances test is not even triggered unless the defendant can show coercive police conduct. Questions of free will and rational decision making are irrelevant to a due process claim unless police misconduct existed and a causal connection can be shown between the misconduct and the confession.
Every state constitution has articles and provision guaranteeing individual rights. In most cases the subject matter is similar to the federal bill of rights. Most state courts interpretation of their constitution is consistent with the interpretation federal court 's of analogous provisions of the federal constitution. With regard to Miranda issues, state courts have exhibited significant resistance to incorporating into their state jurisprudence some of the limitations on the Miranda rule that have been created by the federal courts. As a consequence a defendant may be able to circumvent the federal limitation on the Miranda rule and successfully challenge the admissibility under state constitutional provisions. Practically every aspect of the Miranda rule has drawn state court criticism. However the primary point of contention involve the following limitations on the scope of the Miranda rule: (1) the Harris exception (2) the Burbine rule and (3) the Fare rule.
In addition to constitutionally based challenge, states permit a defendant to challenge the admissibility of a confession on the grounds that the confession was obtained in violation of a defendant 's statutory rights. For example, North Carolina Criminal Procedure Act permits a defendant to move to suppress evidence obtained as a result of a "substantial '' violation of the provision of the North Carolina Rules of Criminal Procedure.
Due to the prevalence of American television programs and motion pictures in which the police characters frequently read suspects their rights, it has become an expected element of arrest procedure -- in the 2000 Dickerson decision, Chief Justice William Rehnquist wrote that Miranda warnings had "become embedded in routine police practice to the point where the warnings have become part of our national culture ''.
While arrests and interrogations can legally occur without the Miranda warning being given, this procedure would generally make the arrestee 's pre-Miranda statements inadmissible at trial. (However, pursuant to the plurality opinion in United States v. Patane, physical evidence obtained as a result of pre-Miranda statements may still be admitted. There was no majority opinion of the Court in that case.)
In some jurisdictions, a detention differs at law from an arrest, and police are not required to give the Miranda warning until the person is arrested for a crime. In those situations, a person 's statements made to police are generally admissible even though the person was not advised of their rights. Similarly, statements made while an arrest is in progress before the Miranda warning was given or completed are also generally admissible.
Because Miranda applies only to custodial interrogations, it does not protect detainees from standard booking questions such as name and address. Because it is a protective measure intended to safeguard the Fifth Amendment right against self - incrimination, it does not prevent the police from taking blood without a warrant from persons suspected of driving under the influence of alcohol. (Such evidence may be self - incriminatory, but are not considered statements of self - incrimination.)
If an inmate is in jail and invoked Miranda on one case, it is unclear whether this extends to any other cases that they may be charged with while in custody. For example: a subject is arrested, charged with cattle rustling, and is held in county jail awaiting trial. He invoked his Miranda rights on the cow case. While in custody, he is involved in a fight where a staff member loses his ability to walk. He speaks to the custodial staff regarding the fight without staff first invoking Miranda. It is unclear if this statement is admissible because of the original Miranda statement.
Many police departments give special training to interrogators with regard to the Miranda warning; specifically, how to influence a suspect 's decision to waive the right. For instance, the officer may be required to specifically ask if the rights are understood and if the suspect wishes to talk. The officer is allowed, before asking the suspect a question, to speak at length about evidence collected, witness statements, etc. The officer will then ask if the suspect wishes to talk, and the suspect is then more likely to talk in an attempt to refute the evidence presented. Another tactic commonly taught is never to ask a question; the officer may simply sit the suspect down in an interrogation room, sit across from him and do paperwork, and wait for the suspect to begin talking. These tactics are intended to mitigate the restrictions placed on law officers against compelling a suspect to give evidence, and have stood up in court as valid lawful tactics. Nevertheless, such tactics are condemned by legal rights groups as deceptive.
In Illinois v. Perkins, 496 U.S. 292 (1990), the United States Supreme Court held that undercover officers do not have to give suspects a Miranda warning prior to asking questions that may elicit incriminating responses. In this case, an undercover agent posed as an inmate and carried on a 35 - minute conversation with another inmate that he suspected of committing a murder that was being investigated. During this conversation, the suspect implicated himself in the murder that the undercover agent was investigating.
The Supreme Court came to this conclusion despite the government 's admission that a custodial interrogation had been conducted by a government agent.
Beginning in 2009, some detainees captured in Afghanistan have been read their Miranda rights by the FBI, according to Congressman Michael Rogers of Michigan, who claims to have witnessed this himself. According to the Justice Department, "There has been no policy change nor blanket instruction for FBI agents to Mirandize detainees overseas. While there have been specific cases in which FBI agents have Mirandized suspects overseas at both Bagram and in other situations, in order to preserve the quality of evidence obtained, there has been no overall policy change with respect to detainees. ''
Whether arising from their constitutions, common law, or statute, many nations recognize a defendant 's right to silence. Those rights may be considerably more limited than those available to U.S. criminal defendants under the Miranda ruling.
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who won australia's got talent 2011 winner | Australia 's Got Talent (season 5) - wikipedia
Australia 's Got Talent is an Australian reality television show, based on the original UK series, claiming to find new talent. The fifth season premiered on the Seven Network on 3 May 2011 and ended on 2 August 2011, where singer Jack Vidgen was crowned the winner of Australia 's Got Talent, while illusionist Cosentino became runner - up. Judges Dannii Minogue, Kyle Sandilands, and Brian McFadden returned for the series, as well as host Grant Denyer.
The producer auditions took place in 16 cities across Australia, and ran from October to December 2010. The successful acts from these auditions were then invited back for a second audition in front of the judges and a live audience. These auditions were held in February and March 2011 in four major cities, including one day in Gold Coast and Perth, two days in Sydney, and three days in Melbourne. From over 200 successful auditionees, only 48 acts were selected for the semi-finals. The six semi-final shows began on 31 May 2011 and ended on 5 July. Introduced, was a new format to the show where three acts from each semi-final would advance through to the next round. In previous years only two acts have made it through each semi-final.
One of the most notable performances was by Jack Vidgen, a 14 - year - old singer who sang a rendition of Whitney Houston 's "I Have Nothing '' for his audition. His performance earned a standing ovation from both the judges and the audiences, and has received more than 1.5 million views on YouTube. Vidgen has since been dubbed Australia 's answer to Justin Bieber, and has also attracted international and local interest. The show had also sparked controversy, with accusations of contestant Jordan Paris plagiarising other comedians ' jokes in his audition, and reports of contestant Chooka Parker 's incident backstage following his elimination from the show.
The producer auditions took place in 16 cities, throughout New South Wales, Queensland, Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia and the Northern Territory. These auditions began on 17 October 2010 and ended on 12 December 2010. The successful acts from the auditions were then invited to a second audition in front of the judges and a live audience. These auditions began in Gold Coast on 19 February 2011, followed by three days in Melbourne from 25 February 2011. They also took place in Sydney on 12 -- 13 March 2011, and ended in Perth on 20 March 2011.
From over 200 successful auditionees, only 48 acts were selected for the semi-finals.
The "Order '' columns lists the order of appearance each act made for every episode.
Notes
The "Order '' columns lists the order of appearance each act made for every episode.
Notes
Judges ' votes (revealed in order)
As their votes were a tie, the result went to the public vote. It was then revealed that the act who received the most amount of votes was Ben Price.
Judges ' first vote (revealed in order)
As McFadden and Sandilands both voted for Matty "The Bandit '' White, he won the first judges vote.
Judges ' second vote (revealed in order)
As Sandilands and Minogue both voted for Benchmark, they won the second judges vote. It is unsure who McFadden would have voted for.
Notes
Comedian Jordan Paris, who made it through to the semi-finals, was accused of plagiarising his jokes in his audition, of which he performed a routine about English singer Robbie Williams. On 26 May 2011, The Gold Coast Bulletin reported that the same routine was performed by English comedian Lee Mack in 2007 on the British stand - up comedy show Live at the Apollo. Paris said he was aware of Mack 's work but did not rip off his routine, stating "comedy 's a funny thing. Obviously there are a lot of people doing a lot of things, but a joke 's a joke. If it 's making people laugh then I 'm happy. '' That same day, Brisbane Times also reported that the other half of Paris ' routine -- about his three requirements for dating a woman -- had been lifted from a routine by US comedian Geoff Keith.
After losing the judges ' votes in the first final showdown, host Grant Denyer tweeted that Chooka Parker reportedly took the news of his elimination very badly. Parker was reportedly banging windows and doors after losing the grand final spot to dance troupe Instant Bun. He was then warned by studio security before driving off with his parents before the show ended. A spokeswoman for the Seven Network told The Daily Telegraph, "Chooka 's family have acquired a TV since he became part of the show and he has understood how the show and fame works since he started... He was upset when Brian said his routine had not developed enough and later went upstairs to the edit suite and blamed them for ruining his performance and he became a bit physical, slamming his hand into a window. ''
Many of the above cited newspaper stories were grossly exaggerated with Chooka admitting later that although he had been upset it did not happen as the tabloids had argued. Instead Chooka was upset because "The producers took out a crucial part of my song. They pretty much destroyed my piece. I went backstage to ask them why they did it but they would n't listen to me. I just hit the window, I definitely did n't wrap my hand in a jumper and smash it. I 'm not two - faced, what I said on stage I meant. All I want from my music is to make people happy '', Chooka said. "You 've got to hear my music from start to end. By changing it they made it sound as if I had made a mistake. Not winning the show was n't too disappointing, winning was never a dream. I just wish they had n't cut my song. '' explains Chooka.
14 year - old singer Jack Vidgen appeared on the first episode on 3 May 2011, and performed a rendition of Whitney Houston 's "I Have Nothing '' for his audition. The performance earned a standing ovation from both the judges and the audiences. Judge Kyle Sandilands said, "You 're either gon na be amazing or dreadful -- both I will enjoy '', while judge Brian McFadden was so moved from the performance he ran up on stage to kiss Vidgen 's cheek once it was over. The performance has received more than 3.5 million views on YouTube. Vidgen has since been dubbed Australia 's answer to Justin Bieber and has also been inundated with international and local interest. He has also attracted the attention of celebrity gossip blogger Perez Hilton, who has posted several blogs of Vidgen 's performances on his website. In late July 2011, it was reported that Vidgen had signed a record deal with Sony Music Australia. Whilst the very popular Chooka Parker did not sign any contract with any record label he has gone on to become a very successful pianist, performing around Australia and has been overseas. Chooka Parker still retains his loveable character and popularity, winning a major music award in the People 's Choice category, which enabled him to perform at the Sydney Opera House. He has released two recordings to date, a CD titled "No Worries! '' in October 2011, and an EP titled, "My Jewel '' in 2012
The first episode on 3 May 2011, achieved an audience of 1,563,000 and placed second overall for the night, being beaten by Masterchef Australia. The second episode saw a slight drop in ratings with 1,457,000 viewers, and placed second once again. The next five episodes each topped the nights overall ratings. The seventh episode reached an audience of 1,815,000, which made Australia 's Got Talent the third highest rating program of 2011. The first live semi-final show on 31 May 2011, gained 1,949,000 viewers and topped the nights overall ratings. The ratings boost was credited to 14 year - old singer Jack Vidgen who performed a cover of "And I Am Telling You I 'm Not Going '' from the Dreamgirls soundtrack. The grand final show on 26 July 2011, achieved an audience of 2,192,000, becoming the season 's highest ratings to date. The grand final decider show on 2 August 2011, gained 2,855,000 viewers and topped the nights overall ratings. The ratings were the highest achieved in 2011 so far by a television show broadcast in Australia.
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which of the following is true about southern manifesto | Southern Manifesto - wikipedia
The Declaration of Constitutional Principles (known informally as the Southern Manifesto) was a document written in February and March 1956, in the United States Congress, in opposition to racial integration of public places. The manifesto was signed by 101 politicians (99 Southern Democrats and two Republicans) from Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. The Congressmen drafted the document to counter the landmark Supreme Court 1954 ruling Brown v. Board of Education, which determined that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional. School segregation laws were some of the most enduring and best - known of the Jim Crow laws that characterized the American South and border states at the time.
Senators led the opposition, with Strom Thurmond writing the initial draft and Richard Russell the final version. The manifesto was signed by 19 Senators and 82 Representatives, including the entire congressional delegations of the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina and Virginia. All of the signatories were Southern Democrats except two Virginia Republicans, Joel Broyhill and Richard Poff. However, three Southern Senate Democrats refused to sign: Albert Gore Sr. and Estes Kefauver of Tennessee, and Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas. Their opposition earned them the enmity of their colleagues for a time.
The Southern Manifesto accused the Supreme Court of "clear abuse of judicial power. '' It promised to use "all lawful means to bring about a reversal of this decision which is contrary to the Constitution and to prevent the use of force in its implementation. '' The Manifesto suggested that the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution should limit the reach of the Supreme Court on such issues.
In many southern States, signing was much more common than not signing, with signatories including the entire delegations from Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Virginia. Those from southern States who refused to sign are noted below. Refusal to sign occurred most prominently among the Texas and Tennessee delegations, in both of which the majority of members of the United States House of Representatives refused to sign.
United States Senate (in state order)
Signatories:
Non-signatories:
United States House of Representatives (in state order)
Signatories:
Alabama:
Arkansas:
Florida:
Non-Signatories:
Georgia:
Louisiana:
Mississippi:
North Carolina:
Non-Signatories:
South Carolina:
Tennessee:
Non-signatories:
Texas: Signatories:
Non-signatories:
Virginia: Signatories:
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what are the short-comings of the short-run keynsian model | Keynesian economics - wikipedia
Keynesian economics (/ ˈkeɪnziən / KAYN - zee - ən; or Keynesianism) are the various theories about how in the short run -- and especially during recessions -- economic output is strongly influenced by aggregate demand (total spending in the economy). In the Keynesian view, aggregate demand does not necessarily equal the productive capacity of the economy; instead, it is influenced by a host of factors and sometimes behaves erratically, affecting production, employment, and inflation.
The theories forming the basis of Keynesian economics were first presented by the British economist John Maynard Keynes during the Great Depression in his 1936 book, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. Keynes contrasted his approach to the aggregate supply - focused classical economics that preceded his book. The interpretations of Keynes that followed are contentious and several schools of economic thought claim his legacy.
Keynesian economists generally argue that, as aggregate demand is volatile and unstable, a market economy will often experience inefficient macroeconomic outcomes in the form of economic recessions (when demand is low) and inflation (when demand is high). These can be mitigated by economic policy responses, in particular, monetary policy actions by the central bank and fiscal policy actions by the government, which can help stabilize output over the business cycle. Keynesian economists generally advocate a managed market economy -- predominantly private sector, but with an active role for government intervention during recessions and depressions.
Keynesian economics served as the standard economic model in the developed nations during the later part of the Great Depression, World War II, and the post-war economic expansion (1945 -- 1973), though it lost some influence following the oil shock and resulting stagflation of the 1970s. The advent of the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 caused a resurgence in Keynesian thought, which continues as new Keynesian economics.
At the time that Keynes 's wrote the General Theory, it had been a tenet of mainstream economic thought that the economy would automatically revert to a state of general equilibrium: it had been assumed that, because the needs of consumers are always greater than the capacity of the producers to satisfy those needs, everything that is produced would eventually be consumed once the appropriate price was found for it. This perception is reflected in Say 's law and in the writing of David Ricardo, which state that individuals produce so that they can either consume what they have manufactured or sell their output so that they can buy someone else 's output. This argument rests upon the assumption that if a surplus of goods or services exists, they would naturally drop in price to the point where they would be consumed.
Keynes argued that because there was no guarantee that the goods that individuals produce would be met with demand, periodic unemployment could be expected from time to time, especially in the instance of an economy undergoing contraction.
He saw the economy as unable to maintain itself at full employment automatically, and believed that it was necessary for the government to step in and put purchasing power into the hands of the working population through government spending. Thus, according to Keynesian theory, some individually rational microeconomic - level actions such as not investing savings in the goods and services produced by the economy, if taken collectively by a large proportion of individuals and firms, can lead to outcomes wherein the economy operates below its potential output and growth rate.
Prior to Keynes, a situation in which aggregate demand for goods and services did not meet supply was referred to by classical economists as a general glut, although there was disagreement among them as to whether a general glut was possible. Keynes argued that when a glut occurred, it was the over-reaction of producers and the laying off of workers that led to a fall in demand and perpetuated the problem. Keynesians therefore advocate an active stabilization policy to reduce the amplitude of the business cycle, which they rank among the most serious of economic problems. According to the theory, government spending can be used to increase aggregate demand, thus increasing economic activity, reducing unemployment and deflation.
Keynes argued that the solution to the Great Depression was to stimulate the country ("inducement to invest '') through some combination of two approaches:
If the interest rate at which businesses and consumers can borrow is decreased, investments which were previously uneconomic become profitable, and large consumer sales which are normally financed through debt (such as houses, automobiles, and, historically, even appliances like refrigerators) become more affordable. A principal function of central banks in countries which have them is to influence this interest rate through a variety of mechanisms which are collectively called monetary policy. This is how monetary policy which reduces interest rates is thought to stimulate economic activity, i.e. "grow the economy '', and why it is called expansionary monetary policy.
Expansionary fiscal policy consists of increasing net public spending, which the government can effect by a) taxing less, b) spending more, or c) both. Investment and consumption by government raises demand for businesses ' products and for employment, reversing the effects of the aforementioned imbalance. If desired spending exceeds revenue, the government finances the difference by borrowing from capital markets by issuing government bonds. This is called deficit spending. Two points are important to note at this point. First, deficits are not required for expansionary fiscal policy, and second, it is only change in net spending that can stimulate or depress the economy. For example, if a government ran a deficit of 10 % both last year and this year, this would represent neutral fiscal policy. In fact, if it ran a deficit of 10 % last year and 5 % this year, this would actually be contractionary. On the other hand, if the government ran a surplus of 10 % of GDP last year and 5 % this year, that would be expansionary fiscal policy, despite never running a deficit at all.
In the price mechanism of neoclassical economics, it is predicted that, in a competitive market, if demand for a particular good or service falls, that would immediately cause the price for that good or service to fall, which in turn would decrease supply and increase demand, thereby bringing them back to equilibrium. A central conclusion of Keynesian economics, in strong contrast to the previously dominant models of neoclassical synthesis, is that there are some situations in which a depressed economy would not quickly self - correct towards full employment and potential output, but could remain trapped indefinitely with both high unemployment and mothballed factories. To the observation that these were, in fact, the prevailing conditions throughout the industrialized world for many years during the Great Depression, classical models could only conclude that it was a temporary aberration. The purpose of Keynes ' theory was to show such conditions could, without intervention, persist in a stable, though dismal, equilibrium.
By the end of the Second World War, Keynesianism was the most popular school of economic theory in the non-Communist world. Beginning in the late 1960s, a new classical macroeconomics movement arose, critical of Keynesian assumptions (see sticky prices), and seemed, especially in the 1970s, to explain certain phenomena (e.g. the co-existence of high unemployment and high inflation, or "stagflation '') better. It was characterized by explicit and rigorous adherence to microfoundations, as well as use of increasingly sophisticated mathematical modelling. However, by the late 1980s, certain failures of the new classical models, both theoretical (see Real business cycle theory) and empirical (see the "Volcker recession '') hastened the emergence of New Keynesian economics, a school which sought to unite the most realistic aspects of Keynesian and neo-classical assumptions and place them on more rigorous theoretical foundation than ever before.
Interpretations of Keynes have emphasized his stress on the international coordination of Keynesian policies, the need for international economic institutions, and the ways in which economic forces could lead to war or could promote peace.
Keynes 's economic ideas are set forward in his main work, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, comprising more than 400 pages.
The first Book of the General Theory is a rejection of Say 's Law. Say held that the value of wages was equal to the value of the goods produced, and that the wages were inevitably put back into the economy sustaining demand at the level of current production. Hence, starting from full employment, there can not be a glut of industrial output leading to a loss of jobs.
There are two criticisms which can be levied against this from a Keynesian point of view. Firstly it does not tell us very much: the equilibrium it describes is neutral. If the starting position is less than full employment, then the level of demand simply maintains unemployment at its current level rather than creating pressure for increased output; consequently some external factor is needed to explain the starting point. And secondly -- in the view of most economists -- the law is not technically correct in a monetary economy.
The inapplicability of Say 's Law to monetary economies had been stated earlier by John Stuart Mill and (less clearly) by Karl Marx. In a barter economy a wage earner who accumulates payment goods is either consuming them or holding them as capital. It is possible to avoid consuming or investing income by lending it to a third person, thereby transferring spending power, and in this sense someone can be considered to spend less than he or she earns; but it is a phenomenon which necessarily cancels out over the economy as a whole because lending is balanced by borrowing.
In a monetary economy on the other hand the earner has another means of spending less than he or she earns, namely by hoarding money. This differs from accumulating payment goods in that money is not itself the fruit of labour. There 's nothing to prevent everyone from seeking to hoard a proportion of their income at the same time, so it 's possible that there will be a tendency for total expenditure to be less than total earnings. Consequently demand for goods will be less than current output leading to industrial contraction and unemployment.
The monetary exception to Say 's Law may be characterised as weak Keynesianism. It has been supported by many modern economists, e.g. Paul Krugman, who attributes the ideas to Book I of the General Theory. However Keynes does not argue for weak Keynesianism anywhere in the General Theory. Book I prepares the ground for a more thorough - going rejection of Say 's Law.
It takes a look at economic aggregates from the point of view of earner / consumers and rejects the classical view that ' any individual act of abstaining from consumption necessarily leads to, and amounts to the same thing as, causing the labour and commodities thus released from supplying consumption to be invested in the production of capital wealth ' (p19). Keynes adds that ' Contemporary thought is still deeply steeped in the notion that if people do not spend their money in one way they will spend it in another ' (p20).
However at this point he leaves open the question of the circumstances in which an ' act of abstaining from consumption ' fails to correspond to investment ' in the production of capital wealth '. He conspicuously does not identify these circumstances with hoarding.
Later, on pp160f, there occurs a passage which implies that he regards lending as being as much to blame for unemployment as hoarding, saying that ' So long as it is open to the individual to employ his wealth in hoarding or lending money, the alternative of purchasing actual capital assets can not be rendered sufficiently attractive '.
The main difference between strong and weak Keynesianism is that the latter specifically regards the hoarding of money as the cause of suppressed demand whereas the stronger doctrine regards either all saving, or at least lending as well as hoarding, as responsible. If a classical critic says that a Keynesian argument depends on saving as hoarding rather than on saving per se, then he or she may not be saying that it 's invalid but rather that it reduces to weak Keynesianism.
Strong Keynesianism, like the weak variety, places weight on the desire to hold money, but understands it in a different sense. In the strong doctrine it is the desire to hold a particular amount of money (thought of as static) which influences the economy through the rate of interest.
The limitations of Say 's Law do not strictly imply that unemployment may exist in equilibrium. The market adjustment which is needed is to the wage level. If there is unemployment (and if there are no distortions preventing the employment market from adjusting to it) then there will be workers willing to offer their labour at less than the current wage levels, leading to downward pressure on wages and hence (in a monetary economy) on prices.
In the case of neutral equilibrium at less than full employment what is needed is a one - off reduction, but if there is persistent hoarding then wages and prices will need to move continually downwards.
The classics held that full employment was the equilibrium condition of an undistorted labour market, but they also agreed with Keynes in the existence of distortions impeding transition to equilibrium. The classical position had generally been to view the market distortions as the culprit and to argue that their removal was the main tool for eliminating unemployment (p16). Keynes on the other hand viewed the distortions as part of the economic fabric and as not implicated in unemployment, so he advocated different policy measures. An obvious objection to the classical position is that in an undistorted market the lowest paid workers may earn less than they need to avoid starvation; this can not be described as alleviating unemployment. Keynes 's own measures had social consequences which he personally found congenial and which he expected his readers to see in the same light.
The distortions which have prevented wage levels from adapting downwards have lain in employment contracts being expressed in monetary terms; in various forms of legislation such as the minimum wage and in state - supplied benefits; in the unwillingness of workers to accept reductions in their income; and in their ability through unionisation to resist the market forces exerting downward pressure on them.
Keynes fully accepted the classical relation between wages and the marginal productivity of labour. On p5 he cites the first classical postulate as saying that ' The wage is equal to the marginal product of labour ' and on p17 ' we shall maintain the first postulate as heretofore '.
Keynes 's economic theory is based on the interaction of demands for saving, invesment, and liquidity (i.e. money). Saving and investment are necessarily equal, and the classics, as we have seen, also considered the motives for one to be motives for the other. Keynes rejects this hypothesis. The desire to save, in his analysis, is mostly a function of income: the richer people are, the more wealth they will seek to put aside. Interest rate has little or no influence.
The motives which lead an entrepreneur to invest are quite different. He or she will compare the anticipated returns from capital expenditure with its cost in the interest which has to be paid on loans, and invest only up to the point at which these become equal. Therefore, the returns from capital being fixed by the economic infrastructure, it is the rate of interest which will chiefly determine the level of investment.
It follows from these considerations that, for a given rate of interest, there is a limit above which society 's income can not rise in equilibrium, since it would correspond to a demand for saving in excess of the demand for investment. And the mechanism which keeps income down to this limit is precisely unemployment, which is the variable in Keynes 's system which determines income. In a state of disequilibrium above the limit fewer goods would be purchased than are being produced, and manufacturers would lay off workers.
This argument leaves open the possibility (appealling to economists brought up in the classical tradition) that the interest rate would adjust to harmonise the demands for saving and investment; but Keynes asserts that the rate of interest already performs another function in the economy, that of equating demand and supply of money, and that it can not adjust to maintain two separate equilibria at the same time. In practice it is the monetary role which wins out.
This is why Keynes 's theory is a theory of money as much as of employment, and it is this (rather than any weak Keynesian leanings) which explains his comment (pp19f) that ' The conviction... that money makes no real difference except frictionally... is the modern version of the classical tradition '.
The theory which we have outlined here is developed in detail over pages 37 - 185 (roughly) of the General Theory.
Keynes sought to allow for the lack of downwards flexibility of wages by constructing an economic model in which the money supply and wage rates were given (the latter in money terms), and in which the main variables were fixed by the equilibrium conditions of various markets in the presence of these facts.
The relationship between saving and investment, and the factors influencing their demands, play an important role in his model. Saving and investment were considered by Keynes to be necessarily equal for reasons set out in Book II, which is otherwise concerned with preparatory matters concerning definitions.
The equality is argued in Chapter 6 which looks at economic aggregates from the viewpoint of manufacturers. The discussion is intricate, considering matters such as the depreciation of machinery, but is summarised concisely on p63: ' Provided it is agreed that income is equal to the value of current output, that current investment is equal to the value of that part of current output which is not consumed, and that saving is equal to the excess of income over consumption... the equality of saving and investment necessarily follows '.
The argument appears to be valid for a static economy. It is harder to assess for an economy in contraction, for instance, since none of the expressions are time - indexed; and saving, income, etc., will be decreasing through time. However there is no reason to suppose that it can not be made fully rigorous.
It might seem at first to contradict the weak Keynesian position, which, viewing the matter from the viewpoint of the earner / consumer, and leaving lending out of account, regards an individual 's saving as decomposable into hoarding and the purchase of capital goods; and this might lead a weak Keynesian to conclude that saving equals investment plus hoarding. But a reasonable conclusion from Keynes 's argument would be that when consumer hoarding takes place, its counterpart on the side of manufacturers is the accumulation of unsold goods, which even if unwanted is categorised as an increase in ' liquid capital ', and therefore as investment.
This interpretation is neither adopted nor rebutted by Keynes. Although he denies that an act of saving necessarily amounts to an act of investment, he only tangentially mentions the acts of saving which he does not regard as constituting investment, and he does not specify the acts of investment which are not the direct counterparts of acts of saving.
Book III of the General Theory is given over to the propensity to consume. Keynes has previously justified concentrating on this, rather than on its complement the disposition to save, on the grounds that ' clearness on this matter is best reached, perhaps, by thinking in terms of decisions to consume (or to refrain from consumption) rather than of decisions to save. A decision to consume or not to consume lies within the power of the individual; so does a decision to invest or not to invest ' (p65).
The propensity to consume is introduced in Chapters 8 and 9 as the desired level of expenditure on consumption (for an individual or aggregated over an economy). The demand for consumer goods may be written functionally as C (Y) where Y is the income and the subscript d indicates that we are looking at demand; the actual level of consumption C will be the same.
The demand for saving may be written as S (Y) = Y -- C (Y).
Consumption will be more than 0 and less than 100 % of income: at the margin it might be 90 %. Keynes provides an amusing enumeration of the motives to consume or not to do so, finding them to lie in social and psychological considerations which can be expected to be relatively stable, but which may be influenced by objective factors such as ' changes in expectations of the relation between the present and future level of income '. He includes government action (such as progressive taxation) as a factor which (by transferring wealth to people who are more disposed to spend it) may modify the psychology of consumption. He sums up that ' We are left therefore, with the conclusion that in a given situation the propensity to consume may be considered a fairly stable function... ' (p95).
He restates this view on p110 asserting that ' short term changes in consumption largely depend on changes in the rate at which income... is being earned and not on changes in the propensity to consume '.
Keynes remarks that he has shown that ' employment can only increase pari passu with investment ' (p98): the wording of this statement is asymmetrical, seeming to suggest (though not quite assert) that investment is the independent variable and that saving, consumption and income are dependent on it; there has been no argument to justify this asymmmetry.
Chapter 10 introduces the famous ' multiplier ', due originally to R.F. Kahn. It makes its appearance in an example: if the marginal propensity to consume is 90 %, then ' the multiplier k is 10; and the total employment caused by (e.g.) increased public works will be ten times the employment caused by the public works themselves ' (pp116f).
The relationship between investment and employment is here considered to be causal in that direction, and it is assumed that the propensity to consume determines a relatively stable ratio between the level of investment and the total income.
The directionality which has appeared does not appear to be a premise to the argument (though Keynes does not make this explicit) but rather a conclusion from the postulated freedom of the government to increase investment without thereby modifying the aggregate propensity to consume and without relying on a previous change in the national income.
Keynes has anticipated the multiplier (and the related direction of causality) as early as p31 when he says that ' for a poor community... a very modest measure of investment will be sufficient to provide full employment '.
Book IV discusses the inducement to invest. Chapter 11 provides a definition, that of the marginal efficiency of capital, which is assumed to be a characteristic of the current industrial process, and concludes that the demand for investment is that point at which ' the marginal efficiency of capital is equal to the market rate of interest ' (p137). We may write it as I (r), where r is the rate of interest.
Chapter 12 is largely digression, presenting a witty examination of stock markets.
It 's on p160 of Chapter 12, almost as an aside, that Keynes makes the statement quoted earlier attributing to lending and hoarding the ability to weaken demand. It is not clear why this statement occurs here -- or rather why it has n't occurred earlier, given that it logically belongs in Book I.
Keynes does n't advance any justification for his decision to include lending as a factor in the weakening of demand. He was opposing the classical doctrine that any act of saving amounts to an act of investment, which had been held in full knowledge of the role of lending in a capitalist economy. By this stage in the proceedings he has shown (pp81 - 85) that the introduction of lending makes no difference to the book - keeping which establishes the equality of saving and investment: any appearance of it having an effect there is described as an ' optical illusion '.
Chapter 13 discusses liquidity preference (i.e. the demand for money), and makes the point (overlooked by the classics) that the rate of interest r influences people 's desire to hold cash. Keynes initially considers the demand for money to depend solely on r, so we may write it as M (r). But soon afterwards (in Chapter 15, p199) Keynes revises his view and writes the liquidity preference as M (Y, r).
At this point Keynes effectively brings to a close the development of his theoretical machinery. One extra component is required, and the elements need to be put together to make a consistent system. However neither of these things is done with the prominence one might expect, though both are touched on (rather in passing) in Chapter 14, which is largely a critical study of the ' Classical theory of interest '.
The extra component is an equilibrium condition between saving and investment. Keynes states this (perhaps for the first time) on p178: ' If the level of income is assumed to be given, we can infer that the current rate of interest must lie at the point where the demand curve for capital corresponding to different rates of interest cuts the curve of the amounts saved out of the given income corresponding to different rates of interest '. This is a convoluted way of saying that demand for saving must equal demand for investment.
This equilibrium condition can not be established directly (because an act of saving is not closely linked to an act of investment), so needs to be argued indirectly by showing that the two demands are in equilibrium with their respective supplies. He has said (p65) that saving and investment are both voluntary, which if true establishes the point; but the position is not quite clear in the second case since accumulation of liquid capital counts as investment (and has to do so in order for investment to equal saving -- pp75f), and this accumulation may take place through circumstances outside the investor 's control such as disappointing sales.
In the same chapter Keynes contrasts the classical theory of interest with his own, and in making the comparison he shows how his system can be applied to explain all the principal economic unknowns from the facts he takes as given.
His presentation is informal. To make it more precise we will identify a set of 6 variables - saving, investment, the demand for saving, the demand for investment, the rate of interest, and the national income -- and a parallel set of 6 equations which jointly determine them.
The first equation (i) asserts the equality of saving and investment. The second (ii) asserts the voluntary nature of saving, i.e. that the demand for saving is equal to the supply. Three of the variables have now been forced into equality. The fourth variable is the demand for investment, and this is set equal to the first three by (iii) asserting the voluntary nature of investment.
The demand for investment is determined by the interest rate through the marginal productivity of capital (iv). The demand for saving is the complement of the demand for consumption, and is a function of income (v). The rate of interest is determined from the amount of money in circulation M through the liquidity preference function M (r) and the assumption (vi) that M (r) = M.
These equations may be applied as follows. The last equation fixes the rate of interest from the quantity of money in circulation. The rate of interest r determines the demand for capital, I (r). This must equal the demand for saving by (iii), so the income must be that value Y for which the demand for saving S (Y) is equal to the demand for investment I (r). And actual saving and investment will equal their demands.
All this makes a satisfying theoretical system.
Three comments can be made concerning the argument. Firstly, no attempt is made to derive a constraint from the ' first postulate of classical economics '.
Secondly, Hicks presents his version of Keynes 's system with the first three equations already applied, imposing equality on saving, investment and their respective demands; so his exposition has three equations in three unknowns.
And finally, since this discussion takes place in Chapter 14, it precedes the modification which makes liquidity preference depend on income as well as on the rate of interest. Once this modification has been made the unknowns can no longer be peeled off so straightforwardly.
We are still less than half way through the General Theory, and we have n't been told how to analyse a system in which liquidity preference is a function of income as well as the rate of interest. In fact Keynes never tells us: the rest of the book is chiefly miscellaneous in nature.
For guidance in bringing the discussion to a close we turn to John Hicks 's essay ' Keynes and the Classics '. Hicks was not an uncritical Keynesian but his treatment was influential and is the most authoritative available for completing the argument of the General Theory.
Hicks questions Keynes 's assumption that the demand for investment depends only on the interest rate and not on income. He proposes making I a function of both variables, arguing (p139) that ' there is every reason to suppose that a demand for consumers ' goods, arising from an increase in employment, will often directly stimulate an increase in investment '. This is perfectly consistent with Keynes 's approach so long as the demand for capital goods does not increase as steeply with income as the demand for saving. At the same time he allows S to be influenced by the rate of interest as well as by income, thereby leaving scope for ' any possible effect of the rate of interest upon saving '. All three demand functions now have the same arguments (pp138f).
The equations are solved by setting up a relation between income and the rate of interest satisfied by those pairs (Y, r) for which S (Y, r) = I (Y, r) -- the set of pairs thus related can be plotted as the IS curve on a graph of r against Y. Meanwhile another curve, the LM curve, on the same axes connects the pairs for which M (Y, r) = M. The point of intersection of the two curves tells us the national income and the rate of interest; and the level of investment is given as I (Y, r) at this point.
Classical economists have traditionally advocated balanced government budgets. Keynesians, on the other hand, believe that it is entirely legitimate and appropriate for governments to incur expenditure in excess of taxation revenues during periods of economic stagnation such as the Great Depression, which dominated economic life at the time he was developing and publicizing his theories.
Contrary to some critical characterizations of it, Keynesianism does not consist solely of deficit spending. Keynesianism recommends counter-cyclical policies. An example of a counter-cyclical policy is raising taxes to cool the economy and to prevent inflation when there is abundant demand - side growth, and engaging in deficit spending on labour - intensive infrastructure projects to stimulate employment and stabilize wages during economic downturns. Classical economics, on the other hand, argues that one should cut taxes when there are budget surpluses, and cut spending -- or, less likely, increase taxes -- during economic downturns.
Keynes 's ideas influenced Franklin D. Roosevelt 's view that insufficient buying - power caused the Depression. During his presidency, Roosevelt adopted some aspects of Keynesian economics, especially after 1937, when, in the depths of the Depression, the United States suffered from recession yet again following fiscal contraction. But to many the true success of Keynesian policy can be seen at the onset of World War II, which provided a kick to the world economy, removed uncertainty, and forced the rebuilding of destroyed capital. Keynesian ideas became almost official in social - democratic Europe after the war and in the U.S. in the 1960s.
Keynes developed a theory which suggested that active government policy could be effective in managing the economy. Rather than seeing unbalanced government budgets as wrong, Keynes advocated what has been called countercyclical fiscal policies, that is, policies that acted against the tide of the business cycle: deficit spending when a nation 's economy suffers from recession or when recovery is long - delayed and unemployment is persistently high -- and the suppression of inflation in boom times by either increasing taxes or cutting back on government outlays. He argued that governments should solve problems in the short run rather than waiting for market forces to do it in the long run, because, "in the long run, we are all dead. ''
This contrasted with the classical and neoclassical economic analysis of fiscal policy. Fiscal stimulus could actuate production. But, to these schools, there was no reason to believe that this stimulation would outrun the side - effects that "crowd out '' private investment: first, it would increase the demand for labour and raise wages, hurting profitability; Second, a government deficit increases the stock of government bonds, reducing their market price and encouraging high interest rates, making it more expensive for business to finance fixed investment. Thus, efforts to stimulate the economy would be self - defeating.
The Keynesian response is that such fiscal policy is appropriate only when unemployment is persistently high, above the non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment (NAIRU). In that case, crowding out is minimal. Further, private investment can be "crowded in '': Fiscal stimulus raises the market for business output, raising cash flow and profitability, spurring business optimism. To Keynes, this accelerator effect meant that government and business could be complements rather than substitutes in this situation.
Second, as the stimulus occurs, gross domestic product rises, raising the amount of saving, helping to finance the increase in fixed investment. Finally, government outlays need not always be wasteful: government investment in public goods that will not be provided by profit - seekers will encourage the private sector 's growth. That is, government spending on such things as basic research, public health, education, and infrastructure could help the long - term growth of potential output.
In Keynes 's theory, there must be significant slack in the labour market before fiscal expansion is justified.
Keynesian economists believe that adding to profits and incomes during boom cycles through tax cuts, and removing income and profits from the economy through cuts in spending during downturns, tends to exacerbate the negative effects of the business cycle. This effect is especially pronounced when the government controls a large fraction of the economy, as increased tax revenue may aid investment in state enterprises in downturns, and decreased state revenue and investment harm those enterprises.
In the last few years of his life, John Maynard Keynes was much preoccupied with the question of balance in international trade. He was the leader of the British delegation to the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference in 1944 that established the Bretton Woods system of international currency management. He was the principal author of a proposal -- the so - called Keynes Plan -- for an International Clearing Union. The two governing principles of the plan were that the problem of settling outstanding balances should be solved by ' creating ' additional ' international money ', and that debtor and creditor should be treated almost alike as disturbers of equilibrium. In the event, though, the plans were rejected, in part because "American opinion was naturally reluctant to accept the principle of equality of treatment so novel in debtor - creditor relationships ''.
The new system is not founded on free - trade (liberalisation of foreign trade) but rather on the regulation of international trade, in order to eliminate trade imbalances: the nations with a surplus would have a powerful incentive to get rid of it, and in doing so they would automatically clear other nations deficits. He proposed a global bank that would issue its own currency - the bancor - which was exchangeable with national currencies at fixed rates of exchange and would become the unit of account between nations, which means it would be used to measure a country 's trade deficit or trade surplus. Every country would have an overdraft facility in its bancor account at the International Clearing Union. He pointed out that surpluses lead to weak global aggregate demand -- countries running surpluses exert a "negative externality '' on trading partners, and posed far more than those in deficit, a threat to global prosperity. In "National Self - Sufficiency '' The Yale Review, Vol. 22, no. 4 (June 1933), he already highlighted the problems created by free trade.
His view, supported by many economists and commentators at the time, was that creditor nations may be just as responsible as debtor nations for disequilibrium in exchanges and that both should be under an obligation to bring trade back into a state of balance. Failure for them to do so could have serious consequences. In the words of Geoffrey Crowther, then editor of The Economist, "If the economic relationships between nations are not, by one means or another, brought fairly close to balance, then there is no set of financial arrangements that can rescue the world from the impoverishing results of chaos. ''
These ideas were informed by events prior to the Great Depression when -- in the opinion of Keynes and others -- international lending, primarily by the U.S., exceeded the capacity of sound investment and so got diverted into non-productive and speculative uses, which in turn invited default and a sudden stop to the process of lending.
Influenced by Keynes, economics texts in the immediate post-war period put a significant emphasis on balance in trade. For example, the second edition of the popular introductory textbook, An Outline of Money, devoted the last three of its ten chapters to questions of foreign exchange management and in particular the ' problem of balance '. However, in more recent years, since the end of the Bretton Woods system in 1971, with the increasing influence of Monetarist schools of thought in the 1980s, and particularly in the face of large sustained trade imbalances, these concerns -- and particularly concerns about the destabilising effects of large trade surpluses -- have largely disappeared from mainstream economics discourse and Keynes ' insights have slipped from view. They are receiving some attention again in the wake of the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08.
In the last few years of his life, Keynes was much preoccupied with the question of balance in international trade. He was the leader of the British delegation to the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference in 1944 that established the Bretton Woods system of international currency management
He was the principal author of a proposal -- the so - called Keynes Plan -- for an International Clearing Union. The two governing principles of the plan were that the problem of settling outstanding balances should be solved by ' creating ' additional ' international money ', and that debtor and creditor should be treated almost alike as disturbers of equilibrium. In the event, though, the plans were rejected, in part because "American opinion was naturally reluctant to accept the principle of equality of treatment so novel in debtor - creditor relationships ''.
The new system is not founded on free - trade (liberalisation of foreign trade) but rather on the regulation of international trade, in order to eliminate trade imbalances: the nations with a surplus would have a powerful incentive to get rid of it, and in doing so they would automatically clear other nations deficits. He proposed a global bank that would issue its own currency - the bancor - which was exchangeable with national currencies at fixed rates of exchange and would become the unit of account between nations, which means it would be used to measure a country 's trade deficit or trade surplus. Every country would have an overdraft facility in its bancor account at the International Clearing Union. He pointed out that surpluses lead to weak global aggregate demand -- countries running surpluses exert a "negative externality '' on trading partners, and posed far more than those in deficit, a threat to global prosperity.
In "National Self - Sufficiency '' The Yale Review, Vol. 22, no. 4 (June 1933), he already highlighted the problems created by free trade.
His view, supported by many economists and commentators at the time, was that creditor nations may be just as responsible as debtor nations for disequilibrium in exchanges and that both should be under an obligation to bring trade back into a state of balance. Failure for them to do so could have serious consequences. In the words of Geoffrey Crowther, then editor of The Economist, "If the economic relationships between nations are not, by one means or another, brought fairly close to balance, then there is no set of financial arrangements that can rescue the world from the impoverishing results of chaos. '' These ideas were informed by events prior to the Great Depression when -- in the opinion of Keynes and others -- international lending, primarily by the U.S., exceeded the capacity of sound investment and so got diverted into non-productive and speculative uses, which in turn invited default and a sudden stop to the process of lending. Influenced by Keynes, economics texts in the immediate post-war period put a significant emphasis on balance in trade. For example, the second edition of the popular introductory textbook, An Outline of Money, devoted the last three of its ten chapters to questions of foreign exchange management and in particular the ' problem of balance '. However, in more recent years, since the end of the Bretton Woods system in 1971, with the increasing influence of Monetarist schools of thought in the 1980s, and particularly in the face of large sustained trade imbalances, these concerns -- and particularly concerns about the destabilising effects of large trade surpluses -- have largely disappeared from mainstream economics discourse and Keynes ' insights have slipped from view. They are receiving some attention again in the wake of the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08.
Keynes 's work was part of a long - running debate within economics over the existence and nature of general gluts. While a number of the policies Keynes advocated (the notable one being government deficit spending at times of low private investment or consumption) and the theoretical ideas he proposed (effective demand, the multiplier, the paradox of thrift) were advanced by various authors in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Keynes 's unique contribution was to provide a general theory of these, which proved acceptable to the political and economic establishments.
An intellectual precursor of Keynesian economics was underconsumption theory in classical economics, dating from such 19th - century economists as Thomas Malthus, the Birmingham School of Thomas Attwood, and the American economists William Trufant Foster and Waddill Catchings, who were influential in the 1920s and 1930s. Underconsumptionists were, like Keynes after them, concerned with failure of aggregate demand to attain potential output, calling this "underconsumption '' (focusing on the demand side), rather than "overproduction '' (which would focus on the supply side), and advocating economic interventionism. Keynes specifically discussed underconsumption (which he wrote "under - consumption '') in the General Theory, in Chapter 22, Section IV and Chapter 23, Section VII.
Numerous concepts were developed earlier and independently of Keynes by the Stockholm school during the 1930s; these accomplishments were described in a 1937 article, published in response to the 1936 General Theory, sharing the Swedish discoveries.
The multiplier dates to work in the 1890s by the Australian economist Alfred de Lissa, the Danish economist Julius Wulff, and the German - American economist Nicholas Johannsen, the latter being cited in a footnote of Keynes. Nicholas Johannsen also proposed a theory of effective demand in the 1890s.
The paradox of thrift was stated in 1892 by John M. Robertson in his The Fallacy of Saving, in earlier forms by mercantilist economists since the 16th century, and similar sentiments date to antiquity.
Today these ideas, regardless of provenance, are referred to in academia under the rubric of "Keynesian economics '', due to Keynes 's role in consolidating, elaborating, and popularizing them.
Keynes 's ideas became widely accepted after World War II, and until the early 1970s, Keynesian economics provided the main inspiration for economic policy makers in Western industrialized countries. Governments prepared high quality economic statistics on an ongoing basis and tried to base their policies on the Keynesian theory that had become the norm. In the early era of social liberalism and social democracy, most western capitalist countries enjoyed low, stable unemployment and modest inflation, an era called the Golden Age of Capitalism.
In terms of policy, the twin tools of post-war Keynesian economics were fiscal policy and monetary policy. While these are credited to Keynes, others, such as economic historian David Colander, argue that they are, rather, due to the interpretation of Keynes by Abba Lerner in his theory of functional finance, and should instead be called "Lernerian '' rather than "Keynesian ''.
Through the 1950s, moderate degrees of government demand leading industrial development, and use of fiscal and monetary counter-cyclical policies continued, and reached a peak in the "go go '' 1960s, where it seemed to many Keynesians that prosperity was now permanent. In 1971, Republican US President Richard Nixon even proclaimed "I am now a Keynesian in economics. ''
However, with the oil shock of 1973, and the economic problems of the 1970s, Keynesian economics began to fall out of favour. During this time, many economies experienced high and rising unemployment, coupled with high and rising inflation, contradicting the Phillips curve 's prediction. This stagflation meant that the simultaneous application of expansionary (anti-recession) and contractionary (anti-inflation) policies appeared to be necessary. This dilemma led to the end of the Keynesian near - consensus of the 1960s, and the rise throughout the 1970s of ideas based upon more classical analysis, including monetarism, supply - side economics, and new classical economics.
At the same time, Keynesians began during the period to reorganize their thinking (some becoming associated with New Keynesian economics). One strategy, utilized also as a critique of the notably high unemployment and potentially disappointing GNP growth rates associated with the latter two theories by the mid-1980s, was to emphasize low unemployment and maximal economic growth at the cost of somewhat higher inflation (its consequences kept in check by indexing and other methods, and its overall rate kept lower and steadier by such potential policies as Martin Weitzman 's share economy).
Multiple schools of economic thought that trace their legacy to Keynes currently exist, the notable ones being Neo-Keynesian economics, New Keynesian economics, and Post-Keynesian economics. Keynes 's biographer Robert Skidelsky writes that the post-Keynesian school has remained closest to the spirit of Keynes 's work in following his monetary theory and rejecting the neutrality of money.
In the postwar era, Keynesian analysis was combined with neoclassical economics to produce what is generally termed the "neoclassical synthesis '', yielding Neo-Keynesian economics, which dominated mainstream macroeconomic thought. Though it was widely held that there was no strong automatic tendency to full employment, many believed that if government policy were used to ensure it, the economy would behave as neoclassical theory predicted. This post-war domination by Neo-Keynesian economics was broken during the stagflation of the 1970s. There was a lack of consensus among macroeconomists in the 1980s. However, the advent of New Keynesian economics in the 1990s, modified and provided microeconomic foundations for the neo-Keynesian theories. These modified models now dominate mainstream economics.
Post-Keynesian economists, on the other hand, reject the neoclassical synthesis and, in general, neoclassical economics applied to the macroeconomy. Post-Keynesian economics is a heterodox school that holds that both Neo-Keynesian economics and New Keynesian economics are incorrect, and a misinterpretation of Keynes 's ideas. The Post-Keynesian school encompasses a variety of perspectives, but has been far less influential than the other more mainstream Keynesian schools.
The Keynesian schools of economics are situated alongside a number of other schools that have the same perspectives on what the economic issues are, but differ on what causes them and how to best resolve them:
The Stockholm school rose to prominence at about the same time that Keynes published his General Theory and shared a common concern in business cycles and unemployment. The second generation of Swedish economists also advocated government intervention through spending during economic downturns although opinions are divided over whether they conceived the essence of Keynes 's theory before he did.
There was debate between Monetarists and Keynesians in the 1960s over the role of government in stabilizing the economy. Both Monetarists and Keynesians agree that issues such as business cycles, unemployment, and deflation are caused by inadequate demand. However, they had fundamentally different perspectives on the capacity of the economy to find its own equilibrium, and the degree of government intervention that would be appropriate. Keynesians emphasized the use of discretionary fiscal policy and monetary policy, while monetarists argued the primacy of monetary policy, and that it should be rules - based.
The debate was largely resolved in the 1980s. Since then, economists have largely agreed that central banks should bear the primary responsibility for stabilizing the economy, and that monetary policy should largely follow the Taylor rule -- which many economists credit with the Great Moderation. The financial crisis of 2007 -- 08, however, has convinced many economists and governments of the need for fiscal interventions and highlighted the difficulty in stimulating economies through monetary policy alone during a liquidity trap.
Some Marxist economists criticized Keynesian economics. For example, in his 1946 appraisal Paul Sweezy, while admitting that there was much in the General Theory 's analysis of effective demand which Marxists could draw upon, described Keynes as in the last resort a prisoner of his neoclassical upbringing. Sweezy argued Keynes had never been able to view the capitalist system as a totality. He argued Keynes had regarded the class struggle carelessly, and overlooked the class role of the capitalist state, which he treated as a deus ex machina, and some other points. While Michał Kalecki was generally enthusiastic about the Keynesian revolution, he predicted that it would not endure, in his article "Political Aspects of Full Employment ''. In the article Kalecki predicted that the full employment delivered by Keynesian policy would eventually lead to a more assertive working class and weakening of the social position of business leaders, causing the elite to use their political power to force the displacement of the Keynesian policy even though profits would be higher than under a laissez faire system: The erosion of social prestige and political power would be unacceptable to the elites despite higher profits.
James M. Buchanan criticized Keynesian economics on the grounds that governments would in practice be unlikely to implement theoretically optimal policies. The implicit assumption underlying the Keynesian fiscal revolution, according to Buchanan, was that economic policy would be made by wise men, acting without regard to political pressures or opportunities, and guided by disinterested economic technocrats. He argued that this was an unrealistic assumption about political, bureaucratic and electoral behaviour. Buchanan blamed Keynesian economics for what he considered a decline in America 's fiscal discipline. Buchanan argued that deficit spending would evolve into a permanent disconnect between spending and revenue, precisely because it brings short - term gains, so, ending up institutionalizing irresponsibility in the federal government, the largest and most central institution in our society. Martin Feldstein argues that the legacy of Keynesian economics -- the misdiagnosis of unemployment, the fear of saving, and the unjustified government intervention -- affected the fundamental ideas of policy makers. Milton Friedman thought that Keynes 's political bequest was harmful for two reasons. First, he thought whatever the economic analysis, benevolent dictatorship is likely sooner or later to lead to a totalitarian society. Second, he thought Keynes 's economic theories appealed to a group far broader than economists primarily because of their link to his political approach. Alex Tabarrok argues that Keynesian politics -- as distinct from Keynesian policies -- has failed pretty much whenever it 's been tried, at least in liberal democracies.
In response to this argument, John Quiggin, wrote about these theories ' implication for a liberal democratic order. He thought if it is generally accepted that democratic politics is nothing more than a battleground for competing interest groups, then reality will come to resemble the model. Paul Krugman wrote "I do n't think we need to take that as an immutable fact of life; but still, what are the alternatives? '' Daniel Kuehn, criticized James M. Buchanan. He argued, "if you have a problem with politicians - criticize politicians, '' not Keynes. He also argued that empirical evidence makes it pretty clear that Buchanan was wrong. James Tobin argued, if advising government officials, politicians, voters, it 's not for economists to play games with them. Keynes implicitly rejected this argument, in "soon or late it is ideas not vested interests which are dangerous for good or evil. ''
Brad DeLong has argued that politics is the main motivator behind objections to the view that government should try to serve a stabilizing macroeconomic role. Paul Krugman argued that a regime that by and large lets markets work, but in which the government is ready both to rein in excesses and fight slumps is inherently unstable, due to intellectual instability, political instability, and financial instability.
Another influential school of thought was based on the Lucas critique of Keynesian economics. This called for greater consistency with microeconomic theory and rationality, and in particular emphasized the idea of rational expectations. Lucas and others argued that Keynesian economics required remarkably foolish and short - sighted behaviour from people, which totally contradicted the economic understanding of their behaviour at a micro level. New classical economics introduced a set of macroeconomic theories that were based on optimizing microeconomic behaviour. These models have been developed into the real business - cycle theory, which argues that business cycle fluctuations can to a large extent be accounted for by real (in contrast to nominal) shocks.
Beginning in the late 1950s new classical macroeconomists began to disagree with the methodology employed by Keynes and his successors. Keynesians emphasized the dependence of consumption on disposable income and, also, of investment on current profits and current cash flow. In addition, Keynesians posited a Phillips curve that tied nominal wage inflation to unemployment rate. To support these theories, Keynesians typically traced the logical foundations of their model (using introspection) and supported their assumptions with statistical evidence. New classical theorists demanded that macroeconomics be grounded on the same foundations as microeconomic theory, profit - maximizing firms and rational, utility - maximizing consumers.
The result of this shift in methodology produced several important divergences from Keynesian macroeconomics:
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where do they play the next world series game | 2017 World Series - wikipedia
The 2017 World Series was the championship series of Major League Baseball 's (MLB) 2017 season. The 113th edition of the World Series, it was played between October 24 and November 1. The series was a best - of - seven playoff between the National League (NL) champion Los Angeles Dodgers and the American League (AL) champion Houston Astros. It was sponsored by the internet television service YouTube TV and officially known as the World Series presented by YouTube TV.
The Astros defeated the Dodgers, four games to three, to win their first World Series in franchise history, and the first team from Texas to do so. Both teams set a World Series record with a combined total of 25 home runs throughout the entire series, including a team record 15 home runs by the Astros, and hit a combined total of eight home runs in Game 2 to set the single game World Series mark. Houston outfielder George Springer was named as the World Series Most Valuable Player (MVP) after hitting five home runs in the series to tie a World Series record with Reggie Jackson in 1977 and Dodgers ' 2017 World Series representative Chase Utley in 2009 when he played for the Philadelphia Phillies.
This was the first World Series in which home - field advantage was decided by the regular season record of pennant winners. From 1903 to 2002, home - field advantage alternated between the AL and NL, and from 2003 to 2016, it was determined by results from that season 's All - Star Game, when it was awarded to the team from the winning league. With 104 regular season wins, the Dodgers earned home - field advantage over the Astros, who had 101 regular season wins. The series was played in a 2 -- 3 -- 2 format, with the Dodgers hosting Games 1, 2, 6, and 7; and the Astros hosting Games 3, 4, and 5.
This was the first World Series matchup, and second postseason meeting overall, between the Astros and Dodgers. Los Angeles defeated Houston in the 1981 National League Division Series in five games en route to its World Series championship that year. The teams also met in the 1980 National League West tie - breaker game. This was the first Fall Classic since 1970, and the eighth overall, in which both participants had 100 or more wins during the regular season.
With the Astros and Dodgers having waited a combined 84 years for a championship (the Dodgers last won the World Series in 1988, and the Astros had never won since their 1962 formation), this was the third straight year in which the World Series teams had waited a combined 50 years or more to win a World Series, following 2015 at 59 years and 2016 at 176 years. Both teams had not lost at home this postseason leading to the World Series. The two teams did not meet in interleague play during the regular season. This was also the third consecutive World Series to extend into November, although the 2015 World Series did not go up to Game 7.
The Dodgers held a 91 -- 36 record through August 25. However, a late season slump, in which the team lost 20 of 25 games (highlighted by 11 straight losses), led to questions about whether the Dodgers would succeed in the postseason. Despite the slump, the team recovered to win eight of its final ten regular season games, securing their fifth consecutive National League West title and home field advantage throughout the playoffs. In the postseason, the Dodgers swept the Arizona Diamondbacks in the National League Division Series and defeated the defending World Series champion Chicago Cubs in the previous year 's rematch of the National League Championship Series in five games. This was the first appearance in the Fall Classic for the Dodgers since 1988, the tenth since the franchise moved from Brooklyn to Los Angeles in 1958, and the 19th overall.
Entering the 2017 World Series, the Dodgers bullpen had thrown 23 consecutive scoreless innings, a postseason record for a bullpen. Additionally, by outscoring the Arizona Diamondbacks and Chicago Cubs by a combined 48 -- 19 margin, the Dodgers entered the World Series with the third - best run differential of any pennant winner since the playoff structure was expanded in 1995.
All - Star shortstop Corey Seager, who was out for the entire National League Championship Series with a back injury, was included on the Dodgers ' World Series roster. Manager Dave Roberts became first manager of Asian heritage ever in the World Series, as well as the fourth African - American manager.
With a 101 -- 61 regular season record, the team won its first American League West title since moving from the National League Central starting in its 2013 season, and their first division title since 2001. In the American League Division Series, they defeated the Boston Red Sox in four games and then defeated the New York Yankees in the American League Championship Series (ALCS) in seven games. This was their second World Series appearance and first since 2005, when they were swept in four games by the Chicago White Sox. They became the first team in history to make it to the World Series as members of both the National League and the American League.
The city of Houston in August 2017 suffered record flooding from Hurricane Harvey. The team began to wear patches which had the logo of the team with the word "Strong '' on the bottom of the patch, as well as promoting the hashtag Houston Strong. Manager A.J. Hinch has stated in an interview that the team was n't just playing for a title, but to help boost moral support for the city.
On August 31, just seconds before the midnight deadline, the Astros traded for Justin Verlander. Following the trade, including the regular season and postseason to this point, Verlander had posted a 9 -- 0 win - loss record with a 1.23 earned run average. He was named the ALCS MVP.
Houston won the series, 4 -- 3.
The temperature at the start of the game was 103 ° F (39 ° C), which made this the hottest World Series game ever recorded. Clayton Kershaw started Game 1 for the Dodgers, while Dallas Keuchel started for the Astros.
Chris Taylor hit a home run for the Dodgers on Keuchel 's first pitch of the game. It was the third home run to leadoff a game in Dodgers postseason history (following Davey Lopes in 1978 World Series and Carl Crawford in 2013 NLDS). Alex Bregman hit a tying solo home run for the Astros in the fourth inning. In the sixth inning, Justin Turner hit a go - ahead two - run home run for the Dodgers. Turner tied Duke Snider for most career runs batted in (RBIs) in Dodgers postseason history with 26. Kershaw struck out 11 in seven innings pitched with no walks and only three hits allowed while Keuchel allowed three runs on six hits in 6 ⁄ innings. Brandon Morrow pitched a scoreless eighth and Kenley Jansen earned the save. The two - hour, 28 - minute game was the shortest World Series contest since Game 4 in 1992.
The starting pitchers for Game 2 were Rich Hill for the Dodgers and Justin Verlander for the Astros. The Astros scored first when Bregman drove in Josh Reddick with a hit in the third inning. Hill struck out seven in four innings but was replaced by Kenta Maeda in the fifth. Joc Pederson tied the game with a solo home run in the bottom of the fifth inning, and the Dodgers took the lead when Corey Seager hit a two - run home run in the bottom of the sixth inning. Verlander allowed two hits, both home runs, in his six innings pitched. Carlos Correa drove in the Astros ' second run of the game on a single in the eighth, ending the Dodgers bullpen 's streak of 28 consecutive scoreless innings in the postseason. Marwin González hit a home run off Jansen in the ninth to tie the game. This was only Jansen 's second blown save all season and snapped his streak of converting his first 12 postseason save opportunities, a major league record.
The game went into extra innings. José Altuve and Correa hit home runs off Josh Fields in the tenth inning to put the Astros in the lead. In the bottom of the inning, Yasiel Puig hit a home run off of Ken Giles and Enrique Hernández drove in Logan Forsythe to tie the game, with the latter being the Dodgers ' first run that was not driven in by a home run. In the next inning, George Springer hit a two - run home run for the Astros off of Brandon McCarthy to retake the lead. In the bottom of the 11th inning, Charlie Culberson homered off of Chris Devenski, who later struck out Puig to end the game. This was the first ever World Series game in which a team hit home runs in the ninth, tenth and eleventh inning. The teams set a new record for combined home runs in a single World Series game with eight and this was the first time in MLB history, regular season or postseason, that five home runs were hit in extra innings. The Astros won their first World Series game in franchise history as they had been swept in their previous appearance in 2005.
The starting pitchers for Game 3 were Yu Darvish for the Dodgers and Lance McCullers Jr. for the Astros. The Astros scored four runs in the bottom of the second inning on a home run by Yuli Gurriel and RBIs by González, Brian McCann, and Bregman. Darvish left the game after 1 ⁄ innings, which was the shortest outing of his career. The Dodgers scored one run in the top of the third inning as Seager grounded into a double play after McCullers loaded the bases with three consecutive walks. The Astros added another run in the fifth on an RBI single by Evan Gattis and the Dodgers added two in the sixth on an RBI groundout by Puig and a wild pitch. McCullers wound up pitching 5 ⁄ innings and allowed three runs on four hits. Brad Peacock replaced McCullers, completing the final 3 ⁄ innings with no hits allowed and four strikeouts to earn his first major league save. It was the longest hitless World Series relief outing since Ron Taylor 's four innings in Game 4 of the 1964 Series, and tied Ken Clay for the longest hitless postseason save, first accomplished in the 1978 ALCS.
Gurriel made a racially insensitive gesture in the dugout after his home run. He stretched the sides of his eyes and mouthing the Spanish word chinito, which translates to "little Chinese Boy ''; Darvish is from Japan. Gurriel apologized, and said that anyone from Asia is called a chino in Cuba, although he acknowledged knowing that the term was offensive in Japan from having played there. As a result, Gurriel was suspended for the first five games of the 2018 MLB season without pay, but allowed to continue playing in the World Series.
The starting pitchers for Game 4 were Alex Wood for the Dodgers and Charlie Morton for the Astros. Springer homered off Wood in the bottom of the sixth for the first run of the ballgame. It was the only hit Wood allowed in 5 ⁄ innings pitched in the game. Forsythe drove in Cody Bellinger to tie the game in the top of the seventh. Morton struck out seven and only allowed three hits and one run in 6 ⁄ innings. Bellinger then drove in the go - ahead run with a double in the top of the ninth off of Giles and the Dodgers added four more runs on a sacrifice fly by Austin Barnes and a three - run homer by Pederson. Bregman homered off of Jansen in the bottom of the ninth but the Dodgers managed to even up the series. The Astros had two hits in the game; both were home runs. This was the first game in World Series history where both starting pitchers allowed four or fewer baserunners.
After Game 4, both teams ' pitching coaches, Rick Honeycutt for the Dodgers and Brent Strom for the Astros, commented on how the baseball being used for the World Series is slicker than the baseball used during the regular season. Pitchers on both teams noted that this difference has made it more difficult for them to throw their sliders.
Kershaw and Keuchel started Game 5, in a rematch of the opening game of the series. Forsythe singled in two runs off of Keuchel in the first inning to put the Dodgers up early. A third run scored on a throwing error by Gurriel. Barnes singled in the fourth to score Forsythe. Keuchel pitched only 3 ⁄ innings for the Astros, allowing five hits and four runs (three earned). This was his shortest home start of the season. The Astros scored their first run with an RBI double by Correa in the bottom of the fourth inning, followed by a three - run home run by Gurriel to tie the game. Bellinger hit a three - run home run off of Collin McHugh in the top of the fifth to put the Dodgers back on top only for Altuve to hit his own three - run home run in the bottom of the inning off Maeda to tie it back up. Kershaw pitched 4 ⁄ innings and allowed six runs on four hits and three walks.
A triple by Bellinger on a line drive that Springer missed on a dive in the seventh inning off of Peacock scored Hernández from first base. In the bottom of the seventh inning, Springer hit a home run off the first pitch he saw off of Morrow, who was pitching for the third consecutive day, to tie the game. Bregman scored on a double by Altuve to put the Astros ahead for the first time in the game, and then Correa hit a two - run home run to extend the lead. Seager doubled in a run in the top of the eighth inning, but McCann hit a home run in the bottom of the inning. That was the 21st home run of the series, tying the record set in the 2002 World Series. Puig broke the record with a two - run home run in the top of the ninth inning. Down to their last strike, Chris Taylor drove in Barnes to tie the game with a single.
In the tenth inning, Jansen hit McCann with a pitch to put him on base with two outs. Subsequently, Springer walked on five pitches to move McCann to second base. McCann was then replaced by pinch runner Derek Fisher. On the next pitch, Bregman singled in Fisher for the winning run. Bregman became the third youngest player to have a walk - off hit in the World Series ever. The Astros became only the second team to come back twice from three runs down in a World Series game, the other were the Toronto Blue Jays in the 15 -- 14 win during Game 4 of the 1993 World Series. The six game tying home runs in the series to this point is the most for any World Series on record. This World Series set a new record for most players to hit a home run (14 to date in the World Series). With the teams combining to score 25 runs throughout the game, this was the highest scoring World Series game since the Florida Marlins defeated the Cleveland Indians 14 -- 11 in Game 3 of the 1997 World Series. Game 5 lasted five hours and seventeen minutes, making it the second longest World Series game in history by time, trailing only the 14 inning contest between the Astros and the Chicago White Sox in Game 3 of the 2005 World Series in the same ballpark, as well as the third World Series game ever to go beyond five hours of game time. This game is considered one of the greatest World Series games of all time.
Game 6 featured the same starting pitchers as the second game: Verlander and Hill. Springer hit a solo home run off of Hill in the top of the third for the first run of the night. It was Springer 's fourth homer of the series, tied for third all - time in a single series and joining Gene Tenace, in 1972, as the only players with four game - tying or go - ahead home runs in a World Series. Springer also joined Hank Bauer in the 1958 World Series and Barry Bonds in the 2002 World Series with four home runs in a series. The Astros loaded the bases in the fifth inning, but did not score. Hill pitched 4 ⁄ innings, struck out five and allowed four hits and one run.
In the sixth inning, Taylor tied the game with an RBI double and Seager hit a sacrifice fly to give the Dodgers the lead. Verlander pitched six innings with nine strikeouts and only three hits allowed. Pederson hit a home run in the bottom of the seventh inning and Jansen pitched two scoreless innings for the save. Pederson tied a World Series record with his fifth consecutive game with an extra base hit and Andre Ethier, who appeared in the game as a pinch hitter, set a new Dodgers franchise record with his 50th career postseason game.
This was the first World Series Game 7 to be played at Dodger Stadium (and the first postseason Game 7 at the stadium since the 1988 NLCS). It was also the first time since the 1931 World Series that a Game 7 occurred in a Series with both teams having won at least 100 games during the season. This was the first time since the 2001 World Series and 2002 World Series that back - to - back Fall Classics had a Game 7.
The starting pitchers for this game were the same as in the third game: McCullers and Darvish. Springer doubled to open the game and scored the first run on an error by Bellinger, which allowed Bregman to reach second base. Bregman stole third base and scored on an Altuve groundout. McCann scored the next inning on a groundout hit by the pitcher McCullers. Springer hit a two - run home run, his fifth of the series, tying Reggie Jackson and Chase Utley for most home runs in a single World Series and setting a new record with 29 total bases in any postseason series. As in Game 3, Darvish lasted only 1 ⁄ innings (tying the shortest outing of his career) and became the third pitcher with two starts of less than two innings in a World Series, and the first since Art Ditmar in the 1960 World Series. Morrow relieved Darvish and in the process became only the second pitcher to pitch in all seven games of a single World Series, joining Darold Knowles in the 1973 World Series. McCullers lasted only 2 ⁄ innings himself; he allowed three hits and hit a World Series record four batters. This was the first Game 7 in World Series history where neither starting pitcher got past the third inning.
The Dodgers failed to score a run and left eight men on base through five innings. Ethier, pinch hitting, scored Pederson on a single in the sixth inning for the Dodgers ' only run. They only had one hit in 13 chances with runners in scoring position in the game. Kershaw pitched four scoreless innings of relief in the game, and in the process, he broke Orel Hershiser 's Dodgers postseason record with his 33rd strikeout. Morton pitched four innings of relief to earn the win, as Corey Seager grounded out to José Altuve, who threw to Yuli Gurriel to end the game, series, baseball season, with the Astros winning their first championship in franchise history, and ending their 56 - year drought. The Astros became the third consecutive road team to win a World Series Game 7 as well as the fourth consecutive team to end a World Series on the road (after the 2014 Giants, 2015 Royals and 2016 Cubs). They also became just the second team to win a seven game League Championship Series and a seven game World Series in the same year, following the 1985 Kansas City Royals. Springer won the World Series MVP Award. With the Astros winning this is the third consecutive year that the team with the longer World Series championship drought won the series.
2017 World Series (4 -- 3): Houston Astros beat Los Angeles Dodgers.
Fox broadcast the series in the United States, with Joe Buck serving as the play - by - play announcer, along with John Smoltz as color commentator and Ken Rosenthal and Tom Verducci as field reporters. Kevin Burkhardt hosted the pregame shows, joined by analysts Keith Hernandez, David Ortiz, Alex Rodriguez, and Frank Thomas.
Outside the United States, MLB International televised the series, with Matt Vasgersian on play - by - play and Buck Martinez doing color commentary.
After Game 7, Correa proposed to his girlfriend, 2016 Miss Texas USA winner Daniella Rodríguez, on live television during a postgame interview conducted by Rosenthal. She accepted.
This series turned out to be the 3rd highest rated since 2005, trailing only the 2009 World Series and the 2016 World Series. For the second straight year, Game 5 beat out NBC Sunday Night Football in ratings.
ESPN Radio broadcast the series in English, with Dan Shulman providing the play - by - play and Aaron Boone serving as color analyst. Tim Kurkjian and Buster Olney served as reporters for the network, while Marc Kestecher hosted the pre-game and post-game coverage along with analyst Chris Singleton. The ESPN Radio coverage was carried on affiliated stations throughout the United States and Canada, as well as online at ESPN.com and via the ESPN mobile app. Spanish - language coverage was provided by ESPN Deportes Radio, with Eduardo Ortega, Renato Bermúdez, José Francisco Rivera, and Orlando Hernández announcing.
Locally, both teams ' flagship radio stations broadcast the series with their regular announcers. Sportstalk 790 aired the English - language broadcast for the Houston area, with Robert Ford and Steve Sparks calling the games. In Los Angeles, AM 570 LA Sports aired the English - language broadcast, with Charley Steiner and Rick Monday announcing. In Spanish, Univision America 1020 carried the broadcast, with Jaime Jarrín and Jorge Jarrín on the call. In Korean, Radio Korea 1540 aired the series, with Richard Choi and Chong Ho Yim in the booth.
For the first time, MLB sold presenting sponsorships to all of its postseason series; the internet television service YouTube TV is the first - ever presenting sponsor of the World Series. The series is officially known as the 2017 World Series Presented by YouTube TV. This sponsorship includes logo branding in - stadium and on official digital properties, as well as commercial inventory during Fox 's telecasts of the games.
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who sings take this job and shove it lyrics | Take This Job and Shove it - Wikipedia
"Take This Job and Shove It '' is a 1977 country music song written by David Allan Coe and popularized by Johnny Paycheck, about the bitterness of a man who has worked long and hard with no apparent reward. The song was first recorded by Paycheck on his album also titled Take This Job and Shove It. The recording hit number one on the country charts for two weeks, spending 18 weeks on the charts. It was Paycheck 's only # 1 hit.
Its B - side, "Colorado Kool - Aid, '' spent ten weeks on the same chart and peaked at # 50.
Coe 's recording was released in 1978 on his "Family Album ''. Coe also recorded a variation of the song called "Take This Job and Shove It Too '' on his 1980 album "I 've Got Something To Say ''. It included the double - meaning line "Paycheck you may be a thing of the past. '' Coe was annoyed people assumed Paycheck had written the song. Though the single released by Paycheck, and subsequent album, both correctly credit Coe as the song 's composer.
The song inspired a 1981 film by the same name.
A cover version also appears on Bedtime for Democracy by Dead Kennedys. Another cover version, "Shove This Jay - Oh - Bee '', performed by Canibus with Biz Markie, appears in the film Office Space. Chuck Barris and the Hollywood Cowboys performed a modified version of the piece as Barris 's swan song when The Gong Show was kicked off NBC in 1978.
"Take this job and shove it '' became a popular phrase as a result of the song. It also became a snowclone phrase, leading to a variety of book and article titles of the form, "Take this job and... it ''. The most notable is "Take this job and love it '', which has been the title of dozens of books, mostly about career counseling, as well as the title of a 2007 episode of the television series Hannah Montana. Another notable variation was the 2006 book Take This Job and Ship It by U.S. Senator Byron Dorgan. Another variation is the quote "take this job and fill it '' from the Simpsons episode, "Lisa vs. Malibu Stacy ''. (Another related snowclone is "take this... and shove it, '' for any unpleasant or low - quality item.)
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how is sierra leone similar to its neighbors | Liberia -- Sierra Leone relations - Wikipedia
Liberia -- Sierra Leone relations refers to the historical and current relationship between Liberia and Sierra Leone. The two countries signed a non-aggression pact in 2007 when Sierra Leonean President Ernest Bai Koroma took office. In January 2011, an African diplomat described relations as "cordial ''.
Both states were destinations for ex-slaves from the Americas as well as people rescued by the British Navy from slave ships en route to the Americas. Those who were resettled in both territories became known as Krio people and Americo - Liberians respectively, and eventually formed the local elites of both states. Liberia became independent in 1847, while Sierra Leone remained a colony of the United Kingdom until 1961.
Relations were tense between Liberia and its neighbors, including Sierra Leone, during the presidencies of Samuel Doe and Charles Taylor. In 1983, Liberian General Thomas Quiwonkpa fled to Sierra Leone after being charged with attempting a Coup d'état. Under Taylor, the Sierra Leonean Armed Forces clashed with the Armed Forces of Liberia, which left several people dead.
During the sessions of the Special Court for Sierra Leone, prosecutors claimed that Charles Taylor had actively participated in directing from Liberia the strategies of the Revolutionary United Front, a rebel group in Sierra Leone; among the allegations was that he had arranged to transport RUF commanders to Monrovia to meet with them personally.
Sierra Leone was the destination for more than 40,000 Liberian refugees who fled during the First and Second Liberian Civil Wars. Eight camps were set up in Sierra Leone 's Kenema District in its Eastern Province. Following the end of the wars, a repatriation campaign was started by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) to return Liberians home. Instead of returning to Liberia, several thousand refugees opted to integrate into the Sierra Leonean communities they had fled to. In June 2007, Bo Waterside, a border crossing, reopened. It closed in 1990 after Taylor invaded Liberia and took over the Liberian government. It was heralded by Liberia as a sign of improving relations and a boost for bilateral trade, because it shortened the traveling distance between Monrovia and Freetown.
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is it legal to own an ar15 in california | AR - 15s in California - wikipedia
The Roberti - Roos Assault Weapons Control Act of 1989 banned Colt AR - 15 rifles by name in the State of California. California 's 2000 Assault Weapons ban went further and banned AR - 15s made by other manufacturers by name such as Bushmaster, PWA, and Olympic Arms.
This style of rifle is made by combining an AR - 15 upper receiver with an AR - 15 lower receiver which has not been banned by specific name, and which has a fixed, non-detachable 10 - round (maximum, anything above 10 is a felony) magazine. In such a configuration, otherwise prohibited features such as a telescoping stock, pistol grip, and flash hider may be present. While formerly prohibited under the now - expired federal assault weapon ban of 1994 -- 2004, the presence of a bayonet lug is not prohibited by California state law and can be present on firearms without violation. However, the magazine can not be detachable, so to load the rifle the shooter must either "top load '' or use a tool to release the magazine lock (such as the tip of a bullet in "bullet button '' equipped rifles). To top - load, the shooter pulls the rear takedown pin, hinges the upper receiver on the front pivot pin, and loads the now exposed magazine. Alternatively, several "magazine lock '' devices are available which replace the magazine release button with an inset pin that requires the use of a special tool to release the magazine, thereby, disallowing a readily "detachable magazine '', to be compliant with California state firearms law.
If a rifle has none of the prohibited features (pistol grip, telescoping or folding stock, flash hider, grenade / flare launcher, forward pistol grip), the rifle may be used with legally owned large - capacity magazines. There are several products available on the market to configure featureless rifles. The California DOJ Bureau of Firearms has attested under oath that the U-15 stock, the Hammerhead Grip and the MonsterMan Grip do not constitute a pistol grip and are therefore legal when used on a detachable magazine semiautomatic centerfire rifle with none of the features listed in CA PC 30515 (a) (1) (A-F).
Most AR - 15 manufacturers now make lower receivers which qualify as "Off - List '' Lower (OLL) receivers which are legal to possess and use in the state of California. With regard to standard capacity magazine devices, after January 1, 2000, it is illegal to offer for sale, import, manufacture, give, or lend (although it is legal to possess and use) any detachable box magazine with a capacity exceeding 10 cartridges. Individuals possessing such magazines at a lawful location such as a gun range may only allow use of their lawfully owned standard - capacity magazines by another if they are in the immediate vicinity of the person using such items. All magazines acquired after (and including) January 1, 2000 must be a limited capacity of 10 rounds or be in felony possession of an illegal standard - capacity magazine.
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download hd video song love me like you do | Love Me Like You Do - wikipedia
"Love Me like You Do '' is a song recorded by English singer Ellie Goulding for the soundtrack to the film Fifty Shades of Grey (2015). The song was written by Savan Kotecha, Ilya Salmanzadeh, Tove Lo, Max Martin and Ali Payami; the latter two also produced it. Goulding was selected to sing the track. It was released on 7 January 2015 as the second single from the soundtrack. The song was also included on Goulding 's third studio album, Delirium (2015).
"Love Me like You Do '' is a mid-tempo electropop power ballad, with instrumentation consisting of massive synths and crushing drums. Lyrically, similar to the film 's theme, the song talks about the uncontrollable feeling of falling in love and being seduced by someone whose touch leaves her begging for more, even when it hurts. It received acclaim from music critics, who praised Goulding 's soft vocals and the song for being sultry and grandiose. The song earned Goulding her first Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Solo Performance, while the songwriters were nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media, the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song, and the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Song.
"Love Me like You Do '' was a global success, becoming Goulding 's most successful single as well as becoming her first number - one in various countries, topping the charts of over 25 territories, including Australia, Austria, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. In the United Kingdom, it spent four weeks at number one on the UK Singles Chart, while holding the record for the most - streamed track in a single week in the United Kingdom at the time. In the United States, it peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 and was her first number - one on the Adult Top 40 and second on the Mainstream Top 40. Its accompanying music video, which features scenes of the film and Goulding dancing with her partner in a ballroom, became the 21st video to receive one billion views on YouTube and received a nomination at the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Female Video.
While seeking material for the Fifty Shades of Grey soundtrack, Republic Records contacted various artists, managers and music publishers to create a compilation that would appropriately represent the film 's tone. "Love Me like You Do '' was the result of Republic executive Tom Mackay contacting Max Martin 's manager about writing a song for the film. Ilya started writing the chorus, while Ali Payami and Martin came next, with Martin "tweaking '' the song and Savan Kotecha and Tove Lo also contributing with lyrics. According to Kotecha, "Love Me like You Do '' was already being developed by both him and Martin prior to Fifty Shades of Grey, and he had considered giving the song to American singer Demi Lovato. However, after being shown a scene from the film during a meeting for the film 's soundtrack, Martin thought "Love Me like You Do '' could work, and began reworking the song for inclusion. After that, the film director Sam Taylor - Johnson asked Ellie Goulding to sing the song. Goulding, who previously contributed songs to the soundtracks to The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2, The Hunger Games: Catching Fire and Divergent, initially thought about declining the invitation to record another song for a soundtrack to focus on her then - upcoming third studio album. However, after meeting the film crew and hearing the ballad she accepted. She commented:
"I was n't going to get involved in that soundtrack because I 've done a lot of soundtracks and we kind of thought we 've done a bit too much film stuff. So we should probably just chill and write that third album, which is what I should be focusing on. And then I met the director (Sam Taylor - Johnson) and everyone involved and I was like, ' This is a pretty cool thing to be involved in. ' Then I heard the song and I was like, ' Woah, this is a pretty awesome song. ' I did n't know that it was going to be this big, genuinely. I thought (maybe) it would do well. ''
A slightly reworked version of the song was included on the soundtrack to the 2018 film Fifty Shades Freed, the third and final installment in the series.
"Love Me like You Do '' was written by Max Martin, Savan Kotecha, Ilya Salmanzadeh, Ali Payami and Tove Lo, with production being done by Martin and Payami; they were also responsible for programming, drums, percussion, keys and bass. Strings were arranged by Mattias Bylund, violin was played by Mattias Johansson and cello by David Bukovinsky. Peter Carlsson was responsible for vocal editing, as well as background vocals, along with Martin, Payami, Ilya, Kotecha, Oscar Holter, Robin Fredriksson and Ludvig Soderberg. It was recorded in Los Angeles and Stockholm. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Kobalt Music Group, the song is written in the key of A ♭ major, with a moderate tempo of 96 beats per minute. Goulding 's vocal range spans from the low note of Ab3 to the high note of Eb5.
"Love Me like You Do '' is a tender electropop power ballad, with a "synth - filled, ' 80s - sounding '' production. Its instrumentation consists of massive synthesisers and crushing drums, while Goulding delivers a "soft, understated vocals ''. In the opening seconds she sings, "You 're the cure / you 're the pain / you 're the only thing I want to touch / Never knew that it / could mean so much / You 're the fear / I do n't care / ' Cause I 've never been so high. '' Lyrically, "Love Me like You Do '' contrasts "innocent romantic longing '' and "brooding, addictive, pain - laced sensuality '', which according to Plugged In 's Adam R. Holz, "mirrors the story arc of Anastasia Steele and Christian Grey '' in both the book and the film. He went on to explain its lyrical content: "(It) tells the tale of a woman entranced and seduced by someone whose touch leaves her begging for more, even when -- or perhaps especially when -- it hurts. ''
"Love Me like You Do '' was acclaimed by music critics. Samantha Grossman of Time called the song "sultry '' and dubbed it a "solid addition to the Fifty Shades soundtrack. '' Christina Garibaldi of MTV News also called it "sultry '' and "soft '', adding that "we can totally picture it being played during any steamy scene. '' Ryan Reed of Rolling Stone opined that its "results are grandiose, considering the film 's sensual subject matter. '' Jim Farber of the NY Daily News praised her "little - girl - lost voice '', noting that "Goulding sounds sweet even when she 's courting danger. The music, likewise, goes for a high gloss take on romance, recalling the heavily echoed beats and dense synthesizers of a Phil Collins ballad from the ' 80s. '' Robbie Daw of Idolator described "Love Me like You Do '' as "a sweeping power ballad that finds Goulding delivering soft, understated vocals over producer Max Martin 's swelling bed of synths. '' Lucas Villa of AXS commended Goulding for "masterfully tread (ing) between delicacy and power in her performance '', calling the song "intimately magnificent ''. Glenn Gamboa of Newsday called it "sweet, catchy, near - perfect rom - com fare ''.
Carolyn Menyes of Music Times complimented the song for being "sweet and dreamy, like the majority of Goulding 's discography '', also observing that "(t) he crawling pace works well as Goulding rolls her way through the melody, all at once being enchanting and loving. Her breathy vocals, as always, complete the atmospheric sensibility of the track. '' While reviewing the Fifty Shades of Grey soundtrack, Dave Holmes wrote for Esquire that the song was "(t) he closest thing to a single we 've heard so far '', adding that the song has "a touch of longing, a little bit of a beat '' and "Goulding 's voice is the sound of heavy petting. '' Mikael Wood, writing for Los Angeles Times, said that Goulding "put across a tender sensuality (...) even as super-producer Max Martin jacks the stadium - rave beat. '' Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic, in his soundtrack analysis, wrote that "it moves into the area of background romantic music, a vibe that 's sometimes pierced by those overly familiar oldies that surely play a bigger role onscreen than they do on album. '' In a less favourable review, Jason Lipshutz of Billboard gave the song two and a half stars out of five, complimenting Goulding 's voice as "one of pop 's more distinct voices '' and the tune 's "colossal chorus '', but panning its "cliched lyrics ''.
"Love Me like You Do '' was first nominated for a 2015 Teen Choice Award in the category "Song from a Movie or TV Show '', but eventually lost to Furious 7 's "See You Again '', performed by Wiz Khalifa and Charlie Puth. It was also nominated for a 2015 MTV Europe Music Award for "Best Song '', but lost to Taylor Swift 's "Bad Blood ''. At the 2015 BBC Music Awards, the song was nominated for "Song of the Year ''. It won the award of ' Best International Song '' at the 2015 Los Premios 40 Principales. The song is also nominated for "Favorite Song of the Year '' at the 42nd People 's Choice Awards and received two nominations at the 58th Annual Grammy Awards: Best Pop Solo Performance and Best Song Written for Visual Media, becoming the first time Goulding was nominated. The song received a Golden Globe nomination in its upcoming 73rd edition on the Best Original Song category.
"Love Me like You Do '' debuted atop the UK Singles Chart with first - week sales of 172,368 units, becoming Goulding 's second number - one hit in the United Kingdom after "Burn '' (2013). The single remained at number one for a second week with chart sales of 118,225 copies and 2.25 million streams, and then a third consecutive week selling a further 118,000 copies. In its third week at number one, "Love Me like You Do '' broke the streaming record in the United Kingdom at the time, with 2.58 million streams over seven days, surpassing Mark Ronson 's "Uptown Funk '' previous record. At the same time, the song was streamed almost 15.5 million times globally. It spent a total of four weeks at the top, becoming her longest number - one single in the UK. Elsewhere in Europe, "Love Me like You Do '' topped the charts in Austria, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland.
In the United States, "Love Me like You Do '' debuted at number 45 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart dated 24 January 2015, with first - week sales of 79,000 copies. The following week, the song climbed to number 36, and then to number 20 in its third week. On the issue dated 14 February 2015, it rose to number 14. "Love Me like You Do '' reached number nine the following week, becoming Goulding 's second top - 10 hit on the chart. In its seventh week, the song peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming her highest charting - single since "Lights '' (2011). On the Pop Songs chart, it was her second single to top the charts, and on the Adult Top 40 it was her first number - one. "Love Me like You Do '' debuted at number 38 on the Canadian Hot 100 for the week ending 24 January 2015, later peaking at number three. The track entered at number eight on the Australian Singles Chart and at number three on the New Zealand Singles Chart. In its fourth week, "Love Me like You Do '' reached number one on both charts, becoming Goulding 's first number - one hit in both countries. In France, the song was not only her highest - charting single, reaching number five, but also her second top - 10 single. In Netherlands, the song was her first solo single to reach the top 10, peaking at number two.
The music video for "Love Me like You Do '' was directed by Georgia Hudson and premiered on 22 January 2015. It stars Goulding and her on - screen partner ballroom dancing in a mansion, as well as scenes from Fifty Shades of Grey. Regarding the dance in the video, she commented: "I am in it. That 's me! I 'm dancing in it!. (...) I basically have become fascinated with ballroom dancing so I was like, ' Can I please do some dancing in it? '. So they let me do that. There 's a guy in it, Charlie, and there 's some really sensual moments in it, and it 's in a really beautiful house. I think it 's one of my favorite videos. '' The video received a nomination for Best Female Video at the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards. With over 1.7 billion views, the video is the 32nd most viewed YouTube video of all time; it surpassed one billion views on 29 February 2016, becoming the 21st video in the site 's history to do so.
Goulding performed "Love Me like You Do '' in March 2015 at a Nike app launch. On 17 October 2015, Goulding was invited by Taylor Swift on her 1989 Tour as a surprise guest to sing a duet with her. On 25 October 2015, Goulding delivered a performance at the 2015 MTV Europe Music Awards, which Billboard called "sexy '' and "straightforward ''. On 7 November 2015, she sang it at the NRJ Music Awards. In the same month, she was also part of the American Express Unstaged, directed by Scarlett Johansson. On 20 November 2015, Goulding 's performance at Idol Sweden included the song. On 24 November 2015, she and James Corden sang it in several genres during The Late Late Show with James Corden, including rock, hip hop, country, rave, reggae, folk, and gospel. Goulding performed it during Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show, which aired on 8 December 2015. On 6 December 2015, she appeared at Capital FM 's Jingle Bell Ball. On 10 December 2015, she gave another rendition of the song at the 2015 BBC Music Awards with the BBC Concert Orchestra.
In March 2015, Circa Waves performed a rock cover at BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge. That same month, James Arthur covered the song for MTV. In May 2015, Ella Henderson delivered an acoustic cover at Spin 1038 Live Room. In September 2015, Rhodes covered the song at BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge.
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Fifty Shades of Grey: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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what does it mean to be confirmed in the lutheran church | Confirmation (Lutheran Church) - wikipedia
Confirmation in the Lutheran Church is a public profession of faith prepared for by long and careful instruction. In English, it is called "affirmation of baptism '', and is a mature and public reaffirmation of the faith which "marks the completion of the congregation 's program of confirmation ministry ''.
Lutherans, like Roman Catholics, believe that Confirmation is based on Biblical precedents such as Acts of the Apostles 8: 14 - 17:
Now when the apostles in Jerusalem heard that Samaria had accepted the word of God, they sent them Peter and John, who went down and prayed for them, that they might receive the Holy Spirit, for it had not yet fallen upon any of them; they had only been baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus. Then they laid hands on them and they received the Holy Spirit.
An Explanation of Luther 's Small Catechism states:
Confirmation is a public rite of the Church preceded by a period of instruction designed to help baptized Christians identify with the life and mission of the Christian community. Note: Prior to admission to the Eucharist, it is necessary to be instructed in the Christian faith (1 Cor. 11: 28). The rite of confirmation provides an opportunity for the individual Christian, relying on God 's promise given in Holy Baptism, to make a personal public confession of the faith and a lifelong pledge of fidelity to Christ.
The Rite of Confirmation provides an opportunity for the individual Christian, relying on God 's promise given in Baptism, to make a personal public profession of the faith and a lifelong pledge of faithfulness to Christ. Confirmation teaches Baptized Christians who wish to become Lutheran Martin Luther 's theology on the Ten Commandments, the Apostles ' Creed, the Lord 's Prayer, Baptism, Confession, and the Eucharist.
Similar to the Roman Catholic tradition, some Lutheran congregations instruct the very young (such as age 7) in understanding the Eucharist and then receive First Communion before beginning the Confirmation process several years later. (Other Lutheran congregations confirm children at about the 5th grade, after which they make their first Holy Communion.) At the conclusion of this catechetical instruction, young persons traditionally make a public profession of their faith in a public ceremony. Students often begin taking catechism classes at about age twelve and are usually confirmed at age fourteen. Some Lutheran pastors and theologians are now beginning to ask whether it is permissible to adopt the practice of the Eastern church and to confirm / chrismate at baptism, including infants.
Lutherans do not accept that only a bishop can confirm as is the custom in the Anglicanism. Even in countries where Lutherans claim to retain apostolic succession such as Estonia, Sweden, Finland and Norway etc. a priest is allowed to confirm.
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what is the rank of admiral in the navy | Admiral of the Navy (United States) - wikipedia
The Admiral of the Navy (abbreviated as AN) is the highest possible military rank in the United States Navy. The rank is intended as an "admiralissimo '' type position which is senior to the rank of fleet admiral.
The rank has only been awarded once, to George Dewey, in recognition of his victory at Manila Bay in 1898. The United States Congress authorized a single officer to hold the rank of admiral and promoted Dewey to this rank in March 1899. By a Congressional Act of March 24, 1903, Dewey 's rank was established as Admiral of the Navy, effective retroactive to March 1899. The text of the act read as follows:
Be it enacted by the Senate and the House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the President is hereby authorized to appoint, by selection and promotion, an Admiral of the Navy, who shall not be placed upon the retired list except upon his own application; and whenever such office shall be vacated by death or otherwise the office shall cease to exist.
It was further specified that this rank was senior to the four - star rank of admiral and was equal to admiral of the fleet in the British Royal Navy. The rank lapsed with the death of Admiral Dewey on January 16, 1917. In 1944, upon the establishment of the five - star fleet admiral rank, the Navy stated that Dewey 's rank was senior but did not officially state it was a six - star rank.
In 1944, with the establishment of the rank of fleet admiral, the Department of the Navy specified in a Bureau of Navigation memo that "the rank of Fleet Admiral of the United States Navy shall be considered the senior most rank of the United States Navy ''. As George Dewey had been deceased for nearly thirty years, no comparison between his rank and that of fleet admiral was made until 1945. At that time, during the preparations for the invasion of Japan, the possibility was raised of promoting one of the serving United States Fleet Admirals to "six - star rank '' should the Army take a similar measure by promoting Douglas MacArthur to the rank of General of the Armies. Nothing official was ever published by the Navy Department concerning a Navy six - star rank, and no comparison between the Admiral of the Navy, General of the Armies, and fleet admiral rank was ever announced.
In 1981, upon the death of Omar Bradley, the United States House Committee on Armed Services inquired of the Institute of Heraldry as to the procedure should a Navy officer ever be awarded a six - star rank equivalent of General of the Armies. The response to Congress stated:
Should an officer of the Air Force or Navy be promoted to six - star rank, that officer should be entitled to the six - star insignia with a service specific crest.
While the Institute did not specifically mention the rank of Admiral of the Navy, a prototype shoulder board for a "Navy six - star admiral '' was designed in sketch. This image was later made available through the Naval History and Heritage Command. The insignia did not address the sleeve stripe insignia for such a rank and only provided details for the shoulder boards typically worn on summer and full dress white uniforms.
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who played jabba the hutt in the original star wars | Jabba the Hutt - wikipedia
Jabba Desilijic Tiure, commonly known as Jabba the Hutt, is a fictional character and an antagonist in the Star Wars franchise created by George Lucas. He is depicted as a large, slug - like alien. His appearance has been described by film critic Roger Ebert as a cross between a toad and the Cheshire Cat.
In the original theatrical releases of the original Star Wars trilogy, Jabba the Hutt first appeared in Return of the Jedi (1983), though he is mentioned in Star Wars (1977) and The Empire Strikes Back (1980), and a previously deleted scene involving Jabba the Hutt was added to the 1997 theatrical re-release and subsequent home media releases of Star Wars. A scene shot for Star Wars featuring Declan Mulholland as a humanoid Jabba was never used. Jabba is introduced as the de facto leader of the Desilijic - Hutt Cartel, and the most powerful crime boss on Tatooine, who has a bounty on Han Solo 's head. Jabba employs a retinue of career criminals, bounty hunters, smugglers, assassins and bodyguards to operate his criminal empire. He keeps a host of entertainers at his disposal at his palace: slaves, droids and alien creatures. Jabba has a grim sense of humor, an insatiable appetite, and affinities for gambling, slave girls, and torture.
The character was incorporated into the Star Wars merchandising campaign that corresponded with the theatrical release of Return of the Jedi. Besides the films, Jabba the Hutt is featured in Star Wars Legends literature. Jabba the Hutt 's image has since played an influential role in popular culture, particularly in the United States. The name is used as a satirical literary device and a political caricature to underscore negative qualities such as morbid obesity and corruption.
Jabba the Hutt appears in three of the eight live - action Star Wars films (The Phantom Menace, A New Hope and Return of the Jedi) and The Clone Wars. He has a recurring role in Star Wars expanded universe literature and stars in the comic book anthology Jabba the Hutt: The Art of the Deal (1998), a collection of comics originally published in 1995 and 1996.
Jabba is first seen in 1983 in Return of the Jedi, the third installment of the original Star Wars trilogy. Directed by Richard Marquand and written by Lawrence Kasdan and George Lucas, the first act of Return of the Jedi features the attempts of Princess Leia Organa (Carrie Fisher), the Wookiee Chewbacca (Peter Mayhew), and Jedi Knight Luke Skywalker (Mark Hamill) to rescue their friend, Han Solo (Harrison Ford), who had been imprisoned in carbonite in the previous film, The Empire Strikes Back.
The captured Han is delivered to Jabba by the bounty hunter Boba Fett (Jeremy Bulloch) and placed on display in the crime lord 's throne room. Lando Calrissian (Billy Dee Williams), droids C - 3PO (Anthony Daniels) and R2 - D2 (Kenny Baker), Leia, and Chewbacca infiltrate Jabba 's palace to save Han. Leia is able to free Han from the carbonite, but she is caught and enslaved by the Hutt. Chained to Jabba, she is forced to wear her iconic metal bikini. Luke arrives to "bargain for Solo 's life '', but Jabba attempts to feed him to his Rancor. Luke kills the Rancor, and he, Han, and Chewbacca are condemned to be devoured by the Sarlacc. At the Great Pit of Carkoon, Luke escapes execution with the help of R2 - D2, and defeats Jabba 's guards. During the subsequent confusion, Leia strangles Jabba to death; whereafter Luke, Leia, Han, Lando, Chewbacca, C - 3PO, and R2 - D2 escape.
The second film appearance of Jabba the Hutt is in the Special Edition of Star Wars which was released in 1997 to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the original Star Wars. Here (as in the original), Han Solo disputes with the alien bounty hunter Greedo (Paul Blake and Maria De Aragon), whom he kills; and Jabba confirms Greedo 's last words and demands that Han pay the value of the payload lost by him. Han promises to compensate Jabba as soon as he receives payment for delivering Obi - Wan Kenobi (Alec Guinness), Luke Skywalker, R2 - D2, and C - 3PO to Alderaan; Jabba agrees, but threatens to place a price on Solo 's head if he fails. This conversation was an unfinished scene of the original 1977 film, in which Jabba was played by Declan Mulholland in human form. In the 1997 Special Edition version of the film, a CGI rendering of Jabba replaces Mulholland, and his voice is redubbed in the fictional language of Huttese.
Jabba the Hutt makes his third film appearance in the 1999 prequel, Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace, set 36 years before Return of the Jedi. Jabba gives the order to begin a podrace at Mos Espa on Tatooine. With this done, Jabba falls asleep, and misses the race 's conclusion.
Jabba makes his most recent appearance in Star Wars: The Clone Wars, wherein his son Rotta is captured by Separatists; Anakin Skywalker and Ahsoka Tano return him to Jabba, in exchange for the safe passage of Republic ships through his territory. Jabba has also appeared in three episodes of the third season of the series: In the episode "Sphere of Influence '', Jabba is faced by Chairman Papanoida, whose daughters were kidnapped by Greedo, and Jabba allows a sample of Greedo 's blood to be taken to prove him the kidnapper. In the episode "Evil Plans '', Jabba hires the bounty hunter Cad Bane to bring him plans for the Senate building. When Bane returns successful, Jabba and the Hutt Council send Bane to free Ziro the Hutt from prison. Jabba makes one short appearance in the episode "Hunt for Ziro '' in which he is seen laughing at Ziro 's death at the hand of Sy Snootles, and pays her for delivering Ziro 's holo - diary. In the fifth season 's episode "Eminence '', Jabba and the Hutt Council are approached by Darth Maul, Savage Oppress, and Pre Vizsla; and when disappointed by these, Jabba sends bounty hunters Embo, Sugi, Latts Razzi, and Dengar to capture them. After a battle, the Shadow Collective confront Jabba at his palace on Tatooine, where Jabba agrees to an alliance.
In August 2017, a Jabba the Hutt anthology film was announced to be in development alongside an Obi - Wan Kenobi film. Although no cast or crew have been announced, Guillermo del Toro has expressed interest in serving as the director.
With the 2012 acquisition of Lucasfilm by The Walt Disney Company, most of the licensed Star Wars novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film Star Wars were rebranded as Star Wars Legends and declared non-canon to the franchise in April 2014.
The first appearances of Jabba the Hutt in Star Wars Legends literature were in Marvel Comics ' adaptations of A New Hope. In Six Against the Galaxy (1977) by Roy Thomas, What Ever Happened to Jabba the Hut? (1979) and In Mortal Combat (1980), both by Archie Goodwin, Jabba the Hutt (originally spelled Hut) appeared as a tall humanoid with a walrus - like face, a topknot, and a bright uniform. The official "Jabba '' was not yet established as he had yet to be seen.
While awaiting the sequel to Star Wars, Marvel kept the monthly comic going with their own stories, one of which includes Jabba tracking Han Solo and Chewbacca down to an old hideaway they use for smuggling. However, circumstances force Jabba to lift the bounty on Solo and Chewbacca, thus enabling them to return to Tatooine for an adventure with Luke Skywalker -- who has returned to the planet in order to recruit more pilots for the Rebel Alliance. In the course of another adventure, Solo kills the space pirate Crimson Jack and busts up his operation, which Jabba bankrolled. Jabba thus renews the reward for Solo 's head and Solo later kills a bounty hunter who tells him why he is hunted once more. He and Chewbacca return to the rebels. (Solo mentions an incident with a "bounty hunter we ran into on Ord Mantell '' in the opening scenes of The Empire Strikes Back.)
The Marvel artists based this Jabba on a character later named Mosep Binneed, an alien visible only briefly in the Mos Eisley cantina scene of A New Hope. The 1977 mass market paperback novelization of Lucas 's Star Wars script describes Jabba as a "great mobile tub of muscle and suet topped by a shaggy scarred skull '', but gives no further detail as to the character 's physical appearance or species.
Later Star Wars Legends novels and comics adopt a version of the character 's image as seen in the film. They also elaborate on his background prior to the events of the Star Wars films. For example, Zorba the Hutt 's Revenge (1992), a young adult novel by Paul and Hollace Davids, reveals that Jabba 's father is a powerful crime lord named Zorba the Hutt and that Jabba was born 596 years before the events of A New Hope, making him around 600 years old at the time of his death in Return of the Jedi. Ann C. Crispin 's novel The Hutt Gambit (1997) explains how Jabba the Hutt and Han Solo become business associates and portrays the events that lead to a bounty being placed on Han 's head. Other Expanded Universe stories -- especially the anthology of Dark Horse comics by Jim Woodring titled Jabba the Hutt: The Art of the Deal (1998) -- likewise detail Jabba the Hutt 's rise to the head of the Desilijic clan, his role in the criminal underworld of the Star Wars universe, and the establishment of his crime syndicate on Tatooine in the Star Wars galaxy 's Outer Rim Territories.
Tales From Jabba 's Palace (1996), a collection of short stories edited by science fiction author Kevin J. Anderson, pieces together the lives of Jabba the Hutt 's various minions in his palace and their relationship to him during the last days of his life. The stories reveal that few of the Hutt 's servants are loyal to him and most are in fact plotting to have him assassinated. When Jabba the Hutt is killed in Return of the Jedi, his surviving former courtiers join forces with his rivals on Tatooine and his family on the Hutt homeworld Nal Hutta make claims to his palace, fortune, and criminal empire. Timothy Zahn 's novel Heir to the Empire (1991) reveals that a smuggler named Talon Karrde eventually replaces Jabba as the "big fish in the pond '', and moves the headquarters of the Hutt 's criminal empire off Tatooine.
Jabba the Hutt exemplifies lust, greed, and gluttony. The character is known throughout the Star Wars universe as a "vile gangster '' who amuses himself by torturing and humiliating his subjects and enemies. He surrounds himself with scantily - clad slave girls of all species, chained to his dais. The Star Wars Databank -- an official online database of Star Wars information -- remarks that residents of his palace are not safe from his desire to dominate and torture: in Return of the Jedi, the Twi'lek slave dancer Oola is fed to the rancor monster.
Jabba the Hutt 's physical appearance reinforces his personality as a criminal deviant: in Return of the Jedi, Han Solo entitles Jabba a "slimy piece of worm - ridden filth ''; and film critic Roger Ebert describes him as "a cross between a toad and the Cheshire Cat ''; and astrophysicist and science fiction writer Jeanne Cavelos gives Jabba the "award for most disgusting alien ''. Science fiction authors Tom and Martha Veitch write that Jabba 's body is a "miasmic mass '', and that "The Hutt 's lardaceous body seemed to periodically release a greasy discharge, sending fresh waves of rotten stench '' into the air. Jabba 's appetite is insatiable, and some authors portray him threatening to eat his subordinates.
Nonetheless, in one Expanded Universe story, Jabba prevents a Chevin named Ephant Mon from freezing to death on an ice planet; whereafter Ephant Mon becomes his servant. In Star Wars: The Clone Wars, Jabba seems to have genuine affection for his son Rotta, and is worried by his kidnapping and angered by his supposed death.
Lucas has noted that there was a potential role for Jabba in future Star Wars films.
The original script to A New Hope describes Jabba as a "fat, slug - like creature with eyes on extended feelers and a huge ugly mouth '', but Lucas stated in an interview that the initial character he had in mind was much furrier and resembled a Wookiee. When filming the scene between Han Solo and Jabba in 1976, Lucas employed Northern Irish actor Declan Mulholland to stand - in for Jabba the Hutt, wearing a shaggy brown costume. Lucas planned to replace Mulholland in post-production with a stop - motion creature. The scene was meant to connect Star Wars to Return of the Jedi and explain why Han Solo was imprisoned at the end of The Empire Strikes Back. Nevertheless, Lucas decided to leave the scene out of the final film on account of budget and time constraints and because he felt that it did not enhance the film 's plot. The scene remained in the novelization, comic book, and radio adaptations of the film.
Lucas revisited the scene in the 1997 Special Edition release of A New Hope, restoring the sequence and replacing Mulholland with a CGI version of Jabba the Hutt and the English dialogue with Huttese, a fictional language created by sound designer Ben Burtt. Joseph Letteri, the visual effects supervisor for the Special Edition, explained that the ultimate goal of the revised scene was to make it look as if Jabba the Hutt was actually on the set talking to and acting with Harrison Ford and that the crew had merely photographed it. Letteri stated that the new scene consisted of five shots that took over a year to complete. The scene was polished further for the 2004 release on DVD, improving Jabba 's appearance with advancements in CGI techniques, although neither release looks exactly like the original Jabba the Hutt puppet.
At one point of the original scene, Ford walks behind Mulholland. This became a problem when adding the CGI Jabba, since he had a tail that happened to be in the way. Eventually, this problem was solved by having Han stepping on Jabba 's tail, causing the Hutt to yelp in pain.
Lucas confesses that people were disappointingly upset about the CGI Jabba 's appearance, complaining that the character "looked fake ''. Lucas dismisses this, stating that whether a character is ultimately portrayed as a puppet or as CGI, it will always be "fake '' since the character is ultimately not real. He says he sees no difference between a puppet made of latex and one generated by a computer.
By the 2004 DVD, Jabba 's appearance was modified yet again to match his appearance in Episode I. When Han steps on Jabba 's tail, Jabba reacts more strongly, winding up as if to punch him. Also, in order to make Jabba look more convincing, shadows of Han can be seen on his body.
Lucas based the CGI on the character as he originally appeared in Return of the Jedi. In this film, Jabba the Hutt is an immense, sedentary, slug - like creature designed by Lucas 's Industrial Light & Magic Creature Shop. Design consultant Ralph McQuarrie claimed, "In my sketches Jabba was huge, agile, sort of an apelike figure. But then the design went into another direction, and Jabba became more like a worm kind of creature. '' According to the 1985 documentary From Star Wars to Jedi, Lucas rejected initial designs of the character. One made Jabba appear too human -- almost like a Fu Manchu character -- while a second made him look too snail - like. Lucas finally settled on a design that was a hybrid of the two, drawing for further inspiration on an O'Galop cartoon figure flanking an early depiction of Bibendum (also known as the "Michelin Man ''). Return of the Jedi costume designer Nilo Rodis - Jamero commented,
My vision of Jabba was literally Orson Welles when he was older. I saw him as a very refined man. Most of the villains we like are very smart people. But Phil Tippett kept imagining him as some kind of slug, almost like in Alice in Wonderland. At one time he sculpted a creature that looked like a slug that 's smoking. I kept thinking I must be really off, but eventually that 's where it led up to. ''
Designed by visual effects artist Phil Tippett, Jabba the Hutt was inspired by the anatomy of several animal species. His body structure and reproductive processes were based on annelid worms, hairless animals that have no skeleton and are hermaphroditic. Jabba 's head was modeled after that of a snake, complete with bulbous, slit - pupilled eyes and a mouth that opens wide enough to swallow large prey. His skin was given moist, amphibian qualities. Jabba 's design would come to represent almost all members of the Hutt species in subsequent Star Wars fiction.
In Return of the Jedi, Jabba is portrayed by a one - ton puppet that took three months and half a million dollars to construct. While filming the movie, the puppet had its own makeup artist. The puppet required three puppeteers to operate, making it one of the largest ever used in a motion picture. Stuart Freeborn designed the puppet, while John Coppinger sculpted its latex, clay, and foam pieces. Puppeteers included David Alan Barclay, Toby Philpott, and Mike Edmonds, who were members of Jim Henson 's Muppet group. Barclay operated the right arm and mouth and read the character 's English dialogue, while Philpott controlled the left arm, head, and tongue. Edmonds, the shortest of the three men (he also played the Ewok Logray in later scenes) was responsible for the movement of Jabba 's tail. Tony Cox, who also played an Ewok, would assist as well. The eyes and facial expressions were operated by radio control.
Lucas voiced displeasure in the puppet 's appearance and immobility, complaining that the puppet had to be moved around the set to film different scenes. In the DVD commentary to the Special Edition of Return of the Jedi, Lucas notes that if the technology had been available in 1983, Jabba the Hutt would have been a CGI character similar to the one that appears in the Special Edition scene of A New Hope.
Jabba the Hutt only speaks Huttese on film, but his lines are subtitled in English. His voice and Huttese - language dialogue were performed by voice actor Larry Ward, whose work is not listed in the end credits. A heavy, booming quality was given to Ward 's voice by pitching it an octave lower than normal and processing it through a subharmonic generator. A soundtrack of wet, slimy sound effects was recorded to accompany the movement of the puppet 's limbs and mouth.
Jabba the Hutt 's musical theme throughout the film, composed by John Williams, is played on a tuba. One reviewer of Return of the Jedi 's soundtrack comments, "Among the new thematic ideas (of the score is) Jabba the Hutt 's cute tuba piece (playing along the politically incorrect lines of tubas representing fatness)... '' The theme is very similar to one Williams wrote for a heavyset character in Fitzwilly (1967), though the theme does not appear on that film 's soundtrack album. Williams later turned the theme into a symphonic piece performed by the Boston Pops Orchestra featuring a tuba solo by Chester Schmitz. The role of the piece in film and popular culture has become a focus of study by musicologists such as Gerald Sloan, who says Williams ' piece "blends the monstrous and the lyrical. ''
According to film historian Laurent Bouzereau, Jabba the Hutt 's death in Return of the Jedi was suggested by script writer Lawrence Kasdan. Lucas decided Leia should strangle him with her slave chain. He was inspired by a scene from The Godfather (1972) where an obese character named Luca Brasi (Lenny Montana) is garroted by an assassin.
Jabba the Hutt was played by Declan Mulholland in scenes cut from the 1977 release of Star Wars. In Mulholland 's scenes as Jabba, Jabba is represented as a rotund human dressed in a shaggy fur coat. George Lucas has stated his intention was to use an alien creature for Jabba, but the special effects technology of the time was not up to the task of replacing Mulholland. In 1997, the "Special Edition '' re-releases restored and altered the original scene to include a computer generated portrayal of Jabba. In Return of the Jedi, he was played by puppeteers Mike Edmonds, Toby Philpott, David Alan Barclay and voiced by Larry Ward. Jabba is played by an uncredited voice - actor in post-1997 editions of Star Wars and in The Phantom Menace. In The Phantom Menace 's end credits, Jabba is credited as playing himself. His puppeteers have appeared in the documentaries From Star Wars to Jedi: The Making of a Saga and Classic Creatures: Return of the Jedi. David Alan Barclay, who was one of the puppeteers for Jabba in the film, voiced Jabba in the Super NES video game adaptation of Return of the Jedi. In the radio drama adaption of the original trilogy, Jabba is played by Ed Asner. In the film Star Wars: The Clone Wars and the following television series, Jabba is portrayed by Kevin Michael Richardson. All other video game appearances of Jabba were played by Clint Bajakian. Jabba was supposed to appear in Star Wars: The Force Unleashed, but was left out due to time constraints. A cutscene was produced featuring a conversation between Jabba and Juno Eclipse (voiced by Nathalie Cox), which was scrapped from the game. He appears in the Ultimate Sith Edition.
With the premiere of Return of the Jedi in 1983 and the accompanying merchandising campaign, Jabba the Hutt became an icon in American popular culture. The character was produced and marketed as a series of action figure play sets by Kenner / Hasbro from 1983 to 2004. In the 1990s, Jabba the Hutt starred in his own comic book series collectively titled Jabba the Hutt: The Art of the Deal.
Jabba 's role in popular culture extends beyond the Star Wars universe and its fans. In Mel Brooks ' Star Wars spoof film Spaceballs (1987), Jabba the Hutt is parodied as the character Pizza the Hutt, a cheesy blob shaped like a slice of pizza whose name is a double pun on Jabba the Hutt and the restaurant franchise Pizza Hut. Like Jabba, Pizza the Hutt is a loan shark and mobster. The character meets his demise at the end of Spaceballs when he becomes "locked in his car and (eats) himself to death. '' The Smithsonian Institution 's National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C., included a display on Jabba the Hutt in the temporary exhibition Star Wars: The Magic of Myth, which closed in 1999. Jabba 's display was called "The Hero 's Return, '' referencing Luke Skywalker 's journey toward becoming a Jedi.
Since the release of Return of the Jedi, the name Jabba the Hutt has become synonymous in American mass media with repulsive obesity. The name is utilized as a literary device -- either as a simile or metaphor -- to illustrate character flaws. For example, in Under the Duvet (2001), Marian Keyes references a problem with gluttony when she writes, "wheel out the birthday cake, I feel a Jabba the Hutt moment coming on. '' Likewise, in the novel Steps and Exes: A Novel of Family (2000), Laura Kalpakian uses Jabba the Hutt to emphasize the weight of a character 's father: "The girls used to call Janice 's parents Jabba the Hutt and the Wookiee. But then Jabba (Janice 's father) died, and it did n't seem right to speak of the dead on those terms. '' In Dan Brown 's first novel Digital Fortress, an NSA technician is affectionately nicknamed Jabba the Hutt.
In his book of humor and popular culture The Dharma of Star Wars (2005), writer Matthew Bortolin attempts to show similarities between Buddhist teachings and aspects of Star Wars fiction. Bartolin insists that if a person makes decisions that Jabba the Hutt would make, then that person is not practicing the proper spiritual concept of dharma. Bortolin 's book reinforces the idea that Jabba 's name is synonymous with negativity:
One way to see if we are practicing right livelihood is to compare our trade with that of Jabba the Hutt. Jabba has his fat, stubby fingers in many of the pots that led to the dark side. He dealt largely in illegal "spice '' trade -- an illicit drug in the Star Wars galaxy. He also transacts business in the slave trade. He has many slaves himself, and some he fed to the Rancor, a creature he kept caged and tormented in his dungeon. Jabba uses deception and violence to maintain his position.
Outside literature, the character 's name has become an insulting term of disparagement. To say that someone "looks like Jabba the Hutt '' is commonly understood as a slur to impugn that person 's weight and / or appearance. The term is often employed by the media as an attack on prominent figures.
In another sense of the term, Jabba the Hutt has come to represent greed and anarchy, especially in the business world. Jabba the Hutt ranked # 4 on the Forbes Fictional 15 list of wealthiest fictional characters in 2008.
Jabba the Hutt has likewise become a popular means of caricature in American politics. William G. Ouchi uses the term to describe what he sees as the inefficient bureaucracy of the public school system: "With all of these unnecessary layers of organizational fat, school districts have come to resemble Jabba the Hutt -- the pirate leader in Star Wars. ''
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why did the bullets change their name to the wizards | Washington Wizards - wikipedia
The Washington Wizards are an American professional basketball team based in Washington, D.C. The Wizards compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the league 's Eastern Conference Southeast Division. The team plays its home games at the Capital One Arena, in the Chinatown neighborhood of Washington, D.C.
The franchise was established in 1961 as the Chicago Packers based in Chicago, and were renamed to Chicago Zephyrs the following season. In 1963, they relocated to Baltimore, Maryland and became the Baltimore Bullets, taking the name from previous team of the same name. In 1973, the team changed its name to the Capital Bullets to reflect their move to the Washington metropolitan area, and then to Washington Bullets in the following season. In 1997, they rebranded themselves as the Wizards.
The Wizards have appeared in four NBA Finals, and won in 1978. They have had a total of 28 playoff appearances, won four conference titles (1971, 1975, 1978, 1979), and seven division titles (1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1979, 2017). Their best season came in 1975 with a record of 60 - 22. Wes Unseld is the only player in franchise history to become the MVP (1969), and win the Finals MVP award (1978). Four players (Walt Bellamy, Terry Dischinger, Earl Monroe and Wes Unseld) have won the Rookie of the Year award.
The team now known as the Wizards began playing as the Chicago Packers in 1961, as the first modern expansion team in NBA history, an expansion prompted by Abe Saperstein 's American Basketball League. Rookie Walt Bellamy was the team 's star, averaging 31.6 points per game, 19.0 rebounds per game, and leading the NBA in field goal percentage. During the All - Star game, Bellamy represented the team while scoring 23 points and grabbing 17 rebounds. Bellamy was named the league Rookie of the Year, but the team finished with the NBA 's worst record at 18 - 62.
The team 's original nickname was a nod to Chicago 's meatpacking industry; their home arena, the International Amphitheater, was next door to the Union Stock Yards. However, it was extremely unpopular since it was the same nickname used by the NFL 's Green Bay Packers, bitter rivals of the Chicago Bears. After only one year, the organization changed its name to the Chicago Zephyrs and played its home games at the Chicago Coliseum (Saperstein 's ABL Majors prevented the team from playing in the larger Chicago Stadium). Their only season as the Zephyrs boasted former Purdue star Terry Dischinger, who went on to win Rookie of the Year honors. In 1963 the franchise moved to Baltimore, Maryland, and became the Baltimore Bullets, taking their name from a 1940s -- ' 50s Baltimore Bullets BAA / NBA franchise and playing home games at the Baltimore Civic Center (the NBA would return to Chicago in 1966 when the Chicago Bulls began play). In their first year in Baltimore, the Bullets finished fourth in a five -- team Western Division.
Prior to the 1964 -- 65 NBA season the Bullets pulled off a blockbuster trade, sending Dischinger, Rod Thorn and Don Kojis to the Detroit Pistons for Bailey Howell, Don Ohl, Bob Ferry and Wali Jones. The trade worked out well; Howell proved to be a hustler and a fundamentally sound player. He helped the Bullets get into the playoffs for the first time in franchise history. In the 1965 NBA Playoffs, the Bullets stunned the St. Louis Hawks 3 -- 1, and advanced to the Western Conference finals. In the finals, Baltimore managed to split the first four games with the Los Angeles Lakers before losing the series 4 -- 2.
In the late 1960s, the Bullets drafted two future Hall of Fame members: Earl Monroe, in the 1967 draft, number two overall, and Wes Unseld, in the 1968 draft, also number two overall. The team improved dramatically, from 36 wins the previous season to 57 in the 1968 -- 69 season, and Unseld received both the rookie of the year and MVP awards. The Bullets reached the playoffs with high expectations to go far, but they were eliminated by the New York Knicks in the first round. The next season the two teams met again in the first round, and although this one went to seven games, the Knicks emerged victorious again.
In the 1970 -- 71 season, the 42 -- 40 Bullets again met the 1970 -- 71 Knicks, this time though in the Eastern Conference finals. With the Knicks team captain Willis Reed injured in the finals, the injury - free Bullets took advantage of his absence, and in game seven, at New York 's Madison Square Garden, the Bullets ' Gus Johnson made a critical basket late in the game to lift the Bullets over the Knicks 93 -- 91 and advance to their first NBA Finals. They were swept in four games by the powerful Milwaukee Bucks led by future Hall of Fame members Kareem Abdul - Jabbar (known in 1971 as Lew Alcindor) and Oscar Robertson.
Even after the trades of Earl Monroe (to the Knicks) and Gus Johnson (to the Suns), the Bullets remained a playoff contender throughout the 1970s. Following a less than spectacular 1971 -- 72 season, Baltimore acquired Elvin Hayes from the Houston Rockets and drafted Kevin Porter in the third round, out of St. Francis in Pennsylvania.
After a slow start in 1972 -- 73, Baltimore made their charge in December, posting a 10 -- 4 record on the way to capturing the Central Division title for the third straight year. The Bullets again faced the Knicks in the 1973 NBA Playoffs, losing for the fourth time in five series against New York.
In February 1973, the team announced its pending move 30 miles (50 km) southwest to the Capital Centre in Landover, a Washington, D.C. suburb, and became the Capital Bullets. After that 1973 -- 74 season, they changed their name to the Washington Bullets.
During November 1973, while waiting for the completion of their new arena in Landover, the Bullets played their home games at Cole Field House on the campus of the University of Maryland in College Park. The Capital Centre (later known as the USAir / US Airways Arena) opened on December 2, 1973, with the Bullets defeating the SuperSonics. Through the mid-1990s, the Bullets still played a few games per season in Baltimore.
The 60 -- 22 Bullets made it back to the 1975 NBA Playoffs. That year, Washington posted a 36 -- 5 home record at the Capital Centre. In the first round of the playoffs, they survived a seven -- game series against the Buffalo Braves as both teams won all of their games at home. In the Eastern Conference finals, they beat the defending NBA champion Boston Celtics in six games to advance to the NBA Finals. The Bullets were favorites to win the NBA Championship, but were swept by the Al Attles - led Golden State Warriors in four games, losing games two and three at the Capital Centre.
The loss at the NBA Finals lingered into the 1975 -- 76 season, as they won 12 fewer games than last year, and in the playoffs they were eliminated by the Cleveland Cavaliers in seven games. After the season, the Bullets fired head coach K.C. Jones, despite having a career 62 % winning percentage as the Bullets head coach.
In 1976 -- 77, under new head coach Dick Motta, the Bullets again fell short of the Central Division title for the second straight year. Elvin Hayes finished sixth in the league in rebounds with 12.5 rebounds per game. After opening the 1977 NBA Playoffs with a three -- game series victory over the Cleveland Cavaliers, the Bullets took a 2 -- 1 series lead in the second round against the Houston Rockets. With a chance to take a 3 -- 1 series lead at home, the Bullets lost 107 -- 103, and the Rockets took the series in six games.
Although they had future hall of famers Elvin Hayes and Wes Unseld on the team, the Bullets finished the 77 -- 78 season 44 -- 38 and were a longshot to win the NBA Finals, but San Antonio journalist Dan Cook used the famed phrase "The opera ai n't over ' til the fat lady sings ''. This became the rallying cry for the Bullets as they finished a playoff run that led to the NBA Finals, defeating the Seattle SuperSonics in seven games to bring a professional sports championship to Washington, D.C. for the first time in 36 years.
In the 1978 -- 79 NBA season the Bullets moved to the Atlantic Division, capturing the title in their first season there. They entered the 1979 NBA Playoffs having lost eight of the final 11 games to finish the regular season at 54 -- 28. In the playoffs the Bullets nearly blew a 3 -- 1 series lead against the Atlanta Hawks, but managed to hold off the Hawks in seven games.
In the Eastern Conference finals, they trailed the San Antonio Spurs 3 -- 1, but they mounted a comeback by winning two straight games to force a game seven at the Capital Centre. The Bullets rallied again, overcoming a fourth -- quarter deficit to beat George Gervin and the Spurs 107 -- 105 in one of the NBA 's all - time greatest games and advance to the NBA Finals and a rematch with the Seattle SuperSonics.
In game one of the finals, the Bullets defeated the SuperSonics, 99 -- 97, on two game - winning free throws. They lost the next four games, and the series, to Seattle. The Bullets were the only team to play in the NBA Finals four times during the 1970s.
Age and injuries finally caught up with the Bullets. In the 1979 -- 80 NBA season, they barely made the playoffs as they captured the sixth and final playoff spot with a tiebreaker despite posting a 39 -- 43 record. In the playoffs, they were swept by the Philadelphia 76ers in a 2 -- game playoff series. The following year the Bullets failed to make the playoffs for the first time in 13 years. Wes Unseld retired and Elvin Hayes was traded to the Houston Rockets the following season.
In 1980 -- 81, Washington played strong under the coaching of Gene Shue and Don Moran, finishing the regular season with a 43 -- 39 record, and although they advanced to the Eastern Conference semifinals in the playoffs, they had clearly lost their form of the late 1970s. The 1982 Bullets continued to play with the same talent they had in the previous year. They finished with a winning record, but in a highly competitive Atlantic Division they finished last and missed the playoffs.
The next two years saw the Bullets continue to play mediocre basketball as they finished with losing records but they made the playoffs in the new expanded NBA Playoffs format that involved the 16 best teams to make the playoffs; the Bullets were eliminated in both years in the first round.
In 1985, the Bullets acquired Manute Bol, whose specialty was blocking shots. That year, he blocked 397 shots (a Bullets record), part of a team that blocked 716 shots (a Bullets team record). But the Bullets finished with a disappointing 39 -- 43 record, and were eliminated by the 76ers in the first round of the NBA Playoffs. The Bullets acquired center Moses Malone from the Philadelphia 76ers for center Jeff Ruland the following season for hope of improvement. Malone would lead the team in scoring with a 24.1 points per game as he would be joined by Jeff Malone who averaged 22.0 points per game. The Bullets ' 42 -- 40 record would be their last winning season until the 1996 -- 97 NBA season. Washington was eliminated by the Detroit Pistons in 3 games in the playoffs.
The Bullets selected Muggsy Bogues twelfth overall in the 1987 Draft, who at 5'3 '' is the smallest player in NBA history. The Bullets would get off to a slow start as coach Kevin Loughery was fired 27 games into the season with the Bullets holding an 8 -- 19 record. To replace Loughery, the Bullets hired former MVP Wes Unseld. Under Unseld the Bullets improved as they were able to reach the playoffs again with a record of 38 -- 44. After losing the first 2 games on the road in the first round of the 1988 NBA Playoffs to the Detroit Pistons, the Bullets fought back and forced a 5th game with 2 home wins. They would lose game 5 by 21 points. It would be 9 years before Washington would return to the NBA Playoffs.
The Bullets got off to a 5 -- 1 start in 1989, but they lost 16 of 18 games from mid-December to mid-January. They finished with a 31 -- 51 record despite stellar seasons by Jeff Malone and Bernard King, who averaged 24.3 and 22.3 points per game respectively to lead the team.
The lone highlight of the Bullets 30 - win 1990 -- 91 season was the successful comeback effort by Bernard King as he recovered from knee surgery he suffered while playing for the Knicks in the 1984 -- 85 NBA season to finish third in the NBA in scoring with a 28.4 points per game. In 1990, the team named Susan O'Malley as its president, the first female president of a franchise in the history of the NBA. Susan O'Malley is the daughter of Peter O'Malley, the prominent lawyer from Maryland and former president of the Washington Capitals.
The Bullets continued to struggle due to injuries and inconsistent play. They posted a 25 -- 57 record in the 1991 -- 92 season. Pervis Ellison was named 1992 Most Improved Player of The Year, averaging 20.0 points, 11.2 rebounds, and 2.7 blocks per game. Undrafted rookie Larry Stewart became the first undrafted player in NBA history to make an All - Rookie Team, being selected to the All - Rookie Second Team. The Bullets drafted Tom Gugliotta with their sixth overall pick in the 1992 NBA draft. They finished the 1992 -- 93 season with a 22 -- 60 record. Following the season, the Bullets traded Harvey Grant to the Portland Trail Blazers for former All - Star center Kevin Duckworth. In 1993, the Bullets did a rap music video of their version of Naughty by Nature 's rap single "Hip Hop Hooray '', featuring the rap trio themselves.
Injuries continued to bite the Bullets as key players Rex Chapman and Calbert Cheaney (the club 's first - round draft pick) missed significant stretches, and Ellison missed almost the entire season. The result was a 24 -- 58 record for the 1993 -- 94 season. Don MacLean was named 1994 Most Improved Player of the season, leading the Bullets with 18.2 points per game (tied with Chapman).
The Bullets selected Juwan Howard in the 1994 NBA draft and traded Gugliotta along with three first - round draft picks to the Golden State Warriors for the rights to Chris Webber. While the season started out with promise, a shoulder injury to Chris Webber (ironically against the Warriors) caused him to miss 19 games and the Bullets struggled through the rest of the season finishing a then franchise - worst (percentage wise) 21 -- 61. Webber averaged 20.1 points and 9.6 rebounds per game, but declined surgery for his dislocated shoulder. This would prove costly for the next season. The Bullets released a holiday video, "You da Man, You da Man, that 's the reason I 'm a Bullets Fan! '' in 1994, which featured all 12 Bullets dancing in front of the Reflecting Pool in Washington, D.C.
In the Bullets ' 1995 -- 96 season Webber suffered a dislocated left shoulder in a preseason game against the Indiana Pacers on October 21, and opened the season on the injured list. He was activated on November 27, but strained his shoulder against the New York Knicks on December 29. After hoping the injury would get better with rest, Webber finally underwent surgery on Feb. 1 which sidelined him for the remainder of the season. The Bullets were 9 -- 6 with Webber in the lineup as he averaged a team - high 23.7 points plus 7.6 rebounds, 5.0 assists and 1.80 steals in 37.2 minutes per game when he was able to play. Other players injured included Mark Price (who only played in 7 games) and Robert Pack (31 games played out of 82). Bright spots of the season included the selection of Rasheed Wallace in the 1995 NBA draft and the All - Star play of Howard. Howard averaged a career - best 22.1 ppg and 8.1 rpg and kept the Bullets slim playoff hopes alive until the end of the season. Center Gheorghe Mureșan was named Most Improved Player of The Year, averaging 14.5 points, 9.6 rebounds, and 2.3 blocks. The Bullets improved to 39 -- 43 but just missed the playoffs for the eighth consecutive season.
Washington, boasting the league 's tallest player (Mureșan, whose height is 7 ft 7 in), two very athletic forwards (Howard and Webber) and one of the league 's top point guards (Rod Strickland), started the 1996 -- 97 season at 22 -- 24. That led to the dismissal of Head Coach Jim Lynam. Bernie Bickerstaff, an assistant coach with the Bullets when they won their only NBA Championship in 1978, was called upon to resurrect his former team. The Bullets responded, winning 16 of their final 21 games to finish 44 -- 38, their best record since 1978 -- 79. The late surge enabled the Bullets to climb within reach of the Cleveland Cavaliers for the final playoff spot in the Eastern Conference. In a win - or - go - home game with the Cavaliers on the season 's final day, the Bullets squeezed past Cleveland 85 -- 81 to end the franchise 's longest playoff drought. And while the Bullets were swept by the Bulls in the first round, they lost the three games by a total of 18 points.
Webber led the way in scoring (20.1 ppg), rebounding (10.3) and blocks (1.9) and shot 51.8 percent from the floor to make his first All - Star team. Howard averaged 19.1 ppg and 8.0 rpg, while Strickland averaged 17.2 ppg and 1.74 spg and finished fifth in the league in assists with 8.9 per game. Mureşan dominated the middle and led the NBA in field goal percentage (. 599). Washington received contributions from Calbert Cheaney (10.6 ppg) and Tracy Murray (10.0 ppg).
In November 1995, owner Abe Pollin announced he was changing the team 's nickname, because Bullets had acquired violent overtones that had made him increasingly uncomfortable over the years, particularly given the high homicide and crime rate in the early 1990s in Washington, D.C. It was widely believed to also be related to the assassination of Pollin 's longtime friend, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin.
A contest was held to choose a new name and the choices were narrowed to the Dragons, Express, Stallions, Sea Dogs, and the Wizards. On May 15, 1997, the Bullets officially became the Wizards. The new name generated some controversy because "Wizard '' is a rank in the Ku Klux Klan, and Washington has a large African American population. A new logo was unveiled and the team colors were changed from the traditional red, white and blue to a lighter shade of blue, black and bronze, the same colors as the Washington Capitals of the National Hockey League (NHL), also owned by Pollin. That same year the Wizards moved to the then MCI Center, now called Capital One Arena, which is home to the Capitals, the Washington Mystics of the Women 's National Basketball Association and the Georgetown Hoyas men 's college basketball team.
In 1998, they became the brother team to the Mystics, and remained officially thus until 2005 when the Mystics were sold to Lincoln Holdings (headed by Ted Leonsis), parent company of the Capitals. However, upon the purchase of the Wizards by Leonsis in 2010, the Wizards and Mystics again became sibling teams.
The newly named Wizards began the 1997 -- 98 season playing 5 home games at the Capital Centre before moving to the new MCI Center on December 2, 1997. The Wizards finished the season with a 42 -- 40 record including 4 straight victories to end the season but just missed the playoffs. Highlights of the season included Chris Webber leading the team in scoring (21.9 ppg) and rebounding (9.5 rpg). Strickland led the league in assists (10.5 apg) before suffering an injury near the end of the season. He was also named on the All - NBA Second Team. Tracy Murray averaged 15.1 ppg off the bench including a 50 - point game against Golden State. Off court distractions led to the trade of Webber to the Sacramento Kings for Mitch Richmond and Otis Thorpe in May 1998.
The Wizards finished the lockout shortened season of 1998 -- 99 with a record of 18 -- 32. Mitch Richmond led the team in scoring with a 19.7 ppg average. In the 1999 -- 2000 season, the Wizards finished with a 29 -- 53 record. Mitch Richmond led the team with 17.4 ppg. In the 2000 -- 2001 season, under newly hired coach Leonard Hamilton, 1999 NBA draft pick Richard Hamilton led the team in scoring with 18.1 ppg, but the team finished with a 19 -- 63 record (a franchise low).
On February 23, 2001, the Wizards were involved in a blockbuster trade days before the trading deadline. The team sent Juwan Howard, Obinna Ekezie and Calvin Booth to the Dallas Mavericks. In return, Washington received Hubert Davis, Courtney Alexander, Christian Laettner, Loy Vaught and Etan Thomas along with $3 million.
After retiring from the Chicago Bulls in early 1999, Michael Jordan became the Washington Wizards ' president of basketball operations as well as a minority owner in January 2000. In September 2001, Jordan came out of retirement at age 38 to play for Washington. Jordan stated that he was returning "for the love of the game. '' Because of NBA rules, he had to divest himself of any ownership of the team. Before the All - Star break, Jordan was one of only two players to average more than 25 points, 5 assists, and 5 rebounds as he led the Wizards to a 26 -- 21 record. After the All - Star break, Jordan 's knee could not handle the workload of a full - season as he ended the season on the injured list, and the Wizards concluded the season with a 37 -- 45 record.
Jordan announced he would return for the 2002 -- 03 season, and this time he was determined to be equipped with reinforcements, as he traded for All - Star Jerry Stackhouse and signed budding star Larry Hughes. Jordan even accepted a sixth - man role on the bench in order for his knee to survive the rigors of an 82 -- game season. A combination of numerous team injuries and uninspired play led to Jordan 's return to the starting lineup, where he tried to rebound the franchise from its early - season struggles. By the end of the season, the Wizards finished with a 37 -- 45 record once again. Jordan ended the season as the only Wizard to play in all 82 games, as he averaged 20.0 points, 6.9 rebounds, 3.8 assists, and 1.5 steals in 37.0 minutes per game. Jordan retired from playing for a third and final time after the season.
After the season, majority owner Pollin fired Jordan as team president, much to the shock of players, associates, and the public. Jordan felt betrayed, thinking that he would get his ownership back after his playing days ended, but Pollin justified Jordan 's dismissal by noting that Jordan had detrimental effects on the team, such as benching Hughes for Tyronn Lue, making poor trades, and using the team 's first - round draft pick on high schooler Kwame Brown. Without Jordan in the fold the following year, the Washington Wizards were not expected to win, and they did not. Despite the signing of future All - Star point guard Gilbert Arenas, in a move that was ironically made possible by Jordan 's prior cap - clearing maneuvers as a team executive, the team stumbled to a 25 -- 57 record in the 2003 -- 04 season.
The Wizards replaced Jordan 's managerial role with general manager Ernie Grunfeld.
The 2004 -- 05 NBA season saw the team (now in the new Southeast Division) post its best regular - season record in 26 years (45 -- 37) and marked the first time the franchise had ever made the playoffs as the Wizards. In the off - season, the team traded Stackhouse, Christian Laettner, and the draft rights to Devin Harris to the Dallas Mavericks for Antawn Jamison. During the regular season, the scoring trio of Arenas, Jamison and Hughes was the highest in the NBA and earned the nickname of "The Big Three ''. Hughes led the NBA in steals with 2.89 per game. Arenas and Jamison were both named to the 2005 Eastern Conference All - Star team, marking the first time Washington had two players in the All - Star game since Jeff Malone and Moses Malone represented the Bullets in the 1987 All - Star Game.
With a 93 -- 82 win over the Chicago Bulls on April 13, 2005, the Wizards clinched a playoff spot for the first time since 1996 -- 97. Long - suffering fans celebrated by buying over 16,000 playoff tickets in two and a half hours the day tickets went on sale. In game 3 of the first round against the Bulls, the Wizards won their first playoff game since 1988. Adding to the "long - overdue '' feeling was the fact that game 3 was the first NBA playoff game to be held within Washington, D.C. city limits. In the Wizards ' game 5 victory in Chicago, Arenas hit a buzzer - beater to win the game and the Wizards took their first lead in a playoff series since 1986. In Game 6 at the MCI Center, Jared Jeffries picked up a loose ball and went in for an uncontested tie - breaking dunk with 32 seconds left, thus giving the Wizards a 94 -- 91 win and the team 's first playoff series win in 23 years. They were only the 12th team in NBA history to win a playoff series after being down 0 -- 2.
In the conference semifinals, the Wizards were swept by the Miami Heat, the No. 1 seed in the Eastern Conference in the 2005 NBA Playoffs.
The 2005 -- 06 NBA season was filled with ups and downs. During the off - season, Washington acquired Caron Butler and Antonio Daniels. During the regular season, the Wizards again had the best scoring trio in the NBA, this time consisting of Arenas, Jamison and Butler as the "Big Three ''. The Wizards started the 2005 -- 06 season at 5 -- 1, but went on an 8 -- 17 funk to go to 13 -- 18 through 31 games. Then, they went 13 -- 5 in the next 18 games. On April 5, 2006, the team was 39 -- 35 and looking to close in on the 45 - win mark achieved the previous year, until Butler suffered a thumb sprain and the Wizards lost all five games without him. Butler returned and the team pulled out their final three games, against the Pistons, Cavs and Bucks, all playoff - bound teams, to finish the year at 42 -- 40 and clinch the 5th seed in the Eastern Conference. They averaged 101.7 points a game, third in the NBA and tops in the East and clinched a playoff berth for the second year in a row for the first time since 1987.
Their first - round match - up with Cleveland was widely seen as the most evenly matched series in the 2006 NBA Playoffs. The teams exchanged wins during the first two games in Cleveland, with Game 2 highlighted by the Wizards holding LeBron James to 7 -- 25 shooting from the floor while Brendan Haywood gave James a hard foul in the first quarter that many cited as the key to shaking up the rest of James 's game. In Game 3 at the Verizon Center, James hit a 4 - footer on the way down with 5.7 seconds left to take the game and the series lead for the Cavs with a 97 -- 96 win. Arenas missed a potential game - winning three - pointer on the other end to seal the win for the Cavs. Game 4 saw the Wizards heat up again, as Arenas scored 20 in the fourth quarter after claiming he changed his jersey, shorts, shoes and tights in the room and the Wizards won 106 -- 96. Yet in Games 5 and 6, the Cavs would take control of the series, both games decided by one point in overtime.
In Game 5, despite the Wizards being down 107 -- 100 with 1: 18 to play, the team drove back and eventually tied the game on Butler 's layup with 7.5 seconds remaining to send the game to OT, where James scored with 0.9 seconds left in overtime to send the Cavs to a 121 -- 120 win. The series returned to the Verizon Center for Game 6, where the game went back and forth all night. The Wizards blew a 14 - point first - quarter lead, then for 24 minutes, from early in the second quarter to early in the fourth, neither team led by more than five points at any time. The Wizards blew a seven - point lead with just under 5 to play and needed Arenas to hit a 31 - footer at the end of regulation to take the game to overtime. In OT, Arenas missed two key free throws. Cleveland rebounded the ball, went downcourt and Damon Jones hit a 17 - foot baseline jumper with 4.8 seconds remaining to give the Cavs the lead for good. Butler missed a three - pointer on the other end to seal the game, and the series, for the Cavaliers.
The 2006 -- 07 season started out very promisingly for the Wizards. In the off - season they signed free agents DeShawn Stevenson and Darius Songaila. Etan Thomas beat out Haywood for the starting center job. After starting the season 0 -- 8 on the road, Washington rebounded to win 6 of 7 away from Verizon Center. After a November 4 -- 9, Washington went 22 -- 9 through December and January. Arenas scored a franchise - record 60 points against the Lakers on December 17. He and Eddie Jordan were named player of the month and coach of the month for December, respectively. On January 3 and again on January 15, Arenas hit buzzer - beating three - pointers to beat Milwaukee and Utah.
On January 30, Jamison went down with a sprained left knee in a win against Detroit. Washington went 4 -- 8 in the 12 games without him. On February 3, Songaila made his Wizards debut against the Lakers. On February 18, Eddie Jordan became the first Wizards / Bullets coach to coach the NBA All - Star Game since Dick Motta in 1978 -- 1979. Arenas played in his third straight All - Star game and Butler made his All - Star Game debut.
On March 14, Butler went out with a knee injury that kept him out of the lineup for six games. He returned for only three games until he fractured his right hand on April 1 against Milwaukee. On April 4, Arenas suffered a season - ending knee injury, of the meniscus. An April 15 article in The Washington Post pointed out that with Arenas and Butler gone, the team had lost 42.3 % of their offensive production, quite possibly "the most costly '' loss for any team in the midst of a playoff hunt in NBA history.
Despite their late - season struggles without Arenas and Butler, the Wizards still managed to make the Eastern Conference playoffs, taking the 7th seed at 41 -- 41. They were swept four games to none in a rematch of the previous year 's first - round series against the Cleveland Cavaliers. Despite a depleted roster, the Wizards still managed to keep things close in every game in the series and only lost the final three games by a combined 20 points. The team enjoyed their best attendance figures in the post-Jordan era with a season attendance of 753,283 (18,372 per game).
The Wizards retained a majority of their roster from the 2006 -- 07 season, only losing Jarvis Hayes to Detroit, Calvin Booth to the Philadelphia 76ers, and Michael Ruffin to the Milwaukee Bucks as free agents. Washington signed Oleksiy Pecherov, the team 's first - round pick in 2006, as well as 2007 picks Nick Young and Dominic McGuire. Etan Thomas missed the regular season after undergoing open - heart surgery.
The team began the season starting 0 -- 5, but rebounded to win six straight. After 8 games, Arenas underwent surgery to repair a torn medial meniscus in his left knee, as well as a microfracture surgery. This was the same knee he had injured the previous year. The injury forced Arenas out for a total of 68 games. Midway through the season, Butler was forced to the sidelines for a total of 20 games with what initially was a strained hip flexor, but turned out to be a labral tear. Despite all of the injuries, the Wizards managed to go 43 -- 39 on the regular season, good for 5th place in the Eastern Conference and a first - round playoff matchup with the Cleveland Cavaliers for the third straight season.
During the off - season, Arenas signed a 6 - year, $111 million contract, while Jamison signed a 4 - year, $50 million contract. The Wizards did not re-sign guard Roger Mason, who signed with the San Antonio Spurs. The Wizards added guards Dee Brown and Juan Dixon, and drafted JaVale McGee 18th overall in the 2008 NBA Draft.
In September, Arenas underwent a third operation on his surgically repaired left knee to clean out fluid and debris, and was expected to miss at least the first month of the season. The forecast came in longer than expected, as Arenas missed 5 months of action due to concerns on his knee before returning on March 29, 2009. In the first game of the preseason, Jamison suffered a right knee contusion, and was expected to miss the rest of the preseason. Haywood announced that he would undergo surgery on his right wrist and was expected to miss 4 -- 6 months. The preseason marked the return of Etan Thomas who had missed all of the 2007 -- 2008 season while recovering from open heart surgery. The Wizards added guard Fenny Falmagne from the Dakota Wizards on August 23, 2008 that later was waived by the team after knee injury.
The Wizards opened the season on October 29 with a loss against New Jersey, and dropped 15 of their first 19 games. Head coach Eddie Jordan was fired on November 24 after a 1 -- 10 start, and was replaced by interim coach Ed Tapscott. On December 10, Washington acquired guards Javaris Crittenton and Mike James in a three - team deal that sent Antonio Daniels to New Orleans. The team waived guard Dee Brown. They won just 14 of their first 60 games and in the end tied a franchise worst record of 19 -- 63.
One of the few high points of the season came on February 27 when recently inaugurated President Barack Obama attended a Wizards game against the Chicago Bulls, sitting in a northeast court - side seat. The Wizards produced their second - biggest victory margin of the season with a 113 -- 90 win; Jamison paced the side with 27 points.
On April 2, the Wizards shut down the Cleveland Cavaliers, who came in with a record of 61 -- 13, and ended Cleveland 's franchise - best winning streak at 13.
Flip Saunders reached an agreement to become the new coach of the team in mid-April, 2009. Despite having the second best chance at obtaining the number one overall pick in the 2009 draft, the Wizards were randomly chosen to pick fifth overall in the NBA Draft Lottery. This pick was later traded to the Minnesota Timberwolves, along with Songaila, Thomas, and Oleksiy Pecherov, in exchange for Randy Foye and Mike Miller. On May 21, 2009, Wizards president Ernie Grunfeld announced that the team has named Randy Wittman and Sam Cassell as assistant coaches. Then on August 11, 2009, the Wizards signed Fabricio Oberto, many weeks after he committed to signing with the team.
In November, majority owner Abe Pollin died at the age of 85. At the time of his passing, he was the longest - tenured owner in NBA history. Control of the franchise passed to his widow Irene, though minority owner Ted Leonsis was known to be preparing a takeover bid.
On December 24, 2009, it was revealed that Arenas had admitted to storing unloaded firearms in his locker at Verizon Center and had surrendered them to team security. In doing so, Arenas violated both NBA rules against bringing firearms into an arena and D.C. ordinances. On January 1, 2010, it was reported that Arenas and teammate Javaris Crittenton had unloaded guns in the Wizards ' locker room during a Christmas Eve argument regarding gambling debts resulting in Arenas 's suspension. Despite Stern 's longstanding practice of not disciplining players until the legal process plays out, he felt compelled to act when Arenas 's teammates surrounded him during pregame introductions prior to a game with the Philadelphia 76ers and he pantomimed shooting them with guns made from his fingers. The Wizards issued a statement condemning the players ' pregame stunt as "unacceptable ''.
On February 13, 2010, after a 17 -- 33 record at the season 's midway point, The Wizards traded Butler, Haywood, and Stevenson to the Mavericks in exchange for Josh Howard, Drew Gooden, Quinton Ross and James Singleton. Three days later, the Wizards traded Antawn Jamison to the Cavaliers in exchange for Zydrunas Ilgauskas and obtained Al Thornton from the Los Angeles Clippers in a three - team deal. Ilgauskas reported long enough to take a physical (to make the trade official). His contract was immediately bought out, making him a free agent. On February 26, 2010, the Wizards signed Shaun Livingston to a 10 - day contract. With Gilbert Arenas suspended and Caron Butler and Antawn Jamison being traded, the Wizards finished the season at 26 - 56, posting an abysmal 9 -- 23 record to finish the season. They were the only Southeast Division team not to make the post-season.
Leonsis completed his takeover of the Wizards and Verizon Center in June through his newly - formed holding company, Monumental Sports and Entertainment. He had previously purchased the Washington Capitals and Mystics from the Pollin family. Leonsis has taken a fan - centric approach to running the franchise, by listening and responding to the concerns of Wizards supporters through his email and personal website. He has written a manifesto of 101 changes he hopes to implement during his ownership, including changing the team 's colors back to the red, white and blue of the Bullets era, and possibly changing the team nickname back to ' Bullets ' as well. Team President Ernie Grunfeld later confirmed that the franchise 's colors would revert to red, white and blue from the 2011 -- 12 season onwards. The team also adopted new uniforms that were very similar to the ones they wore from 1974 to 1987. Although the Wizards did not change their name to the Bullets again, they adopted a variation of the 1969 -- 1987 Bullets logo with "wizards '' spelled in all lowercase letters like the "bullets '' logo was printed.
Despite having only the 5th - best odds of obtaining the No. 1 pick (10.3 % overall), the Wizards won the 2010 NBA draft lottery and selected All - American Kentucky point guard John Wall with the first overall pick. Later in the offseason, the team acquired the Chicago Bulls ' all - time leader in three - point field goals, Kirk Hinrich and the draft rights to forward Kevin Seraphin in exchange for the draft rights to Vladimir Veremeenko.
In a blockbuster trade, the Wizards sent Gilbert Arenas to the Orlando Magic in return for Rashard Lewis on December 18. Kirk Hinrich and Hilton Armstrong were traded to the Atlanta Hawks for Jordan Crawford, Maurice Evans, Mike Bibby, and a 2011 first - round pick that became Chris Singleton, although Mike Bibby bought out his contract after playing two games and eventually signed with the Miami Heat. The Wizards finished with a 23 -- 59 record, once again occupying the Southeast Division cellar.
After a poor start to the 2011 -- 12 season, head coach Flip Saunders was fired and replaced by assistant Randy Wittman. On March 15, the Wizards were involved in a three - way trade that sent JaVale McGee and Ronny Turiaf to the Nuggets and Nick Young to the Clippers in exchange for Nenê and Brian Cook. After ending the season on a six - game win streak, the Wizards finished with a record of 20 - 46 (season was shortened due to the 2011 NBA Lockout) and the second worst record in the NBA, comfortably ahead of the 7 - 59 Charlotte Bobcats who set a new NBA record for the lowest win percentage in a season with. 106.
The Wizards sent Rashard Lewis and a pick to the Hornets for Emeka Okafor and Trevor Ariza.
In the 2012 NBA Draft, the Wizards selected Bradley Beal and Tomáš Satoranský.
On July 17, 2012, the Wizards exercised the amnesty provision from the 2011 CBA to release Andray Blatche. They also signed A.J. Price. Then, on August 29, 2012, Martell Webster was signed to the Wizards for one year on a $1.6 million contract. He played above average for what he was signed for and had a. 422 average for three - pointers and a. 442 field goal percentage.
On April 30, 2013. Jason Collins, who joined the team in February announced his homosexuality as a member of the Wizards. His announcement made him the first openly gay member of a North American team sport.
On Tuesday, May 21, 2013 the Wizards jumped up 5 spots in the NBA Draft Lottery to make the number 3 overall selection for the second year in a row. They used that pick to draft Consensus All - American Otto Porter of Georgetown University.
On October 25, 2013, the Wizards ' center Emeka Okafor and top - 12 protected 2014 first - round pick were traded to the Phoenix Suns for the center Marcin Gortat, Shannon Brown, Malcolm Lee and Kendall Marshall.
On February 3, 2014, the Wizards defeated the Portland Trail Blazers to improve to a 24 - 23 record. The win marked the first time the team had held a winning record since 2009.
On April 2, 2014, the Wizards defeated the Boston Celtics by a score of 118 - 92 to clinch the team 's first playoff berth since the 2007 -- 08 season.
On April 29, 2014, the Wizards defeated the Chicago Bulls in game 5 of the Eastern Conference Quarterfinals by a score of 75 - 69 to win the series 4 - 1. This was the Wizards first series victory since the 2005 NBA Playoffs when they defeated the same team in 6 games.
The Wizards advanced to the Eastern Conference semi-finals against the Indiana Pacers. The Wizards won game one 102 - 96. In game two the Wizards lost a 19 - point second half lead, as they dropped the game 88 - 82. After being routed by Indiana in game three 85 - 63, they also lost game four 95 - 92. They showed grit and determination as they staved off elimination with a 102 - 79 game five win. They were behind most of game 6, but battled back to take the lead late in the game. However, Indiana closed out the series with a 93 - 80 win.
In the offseason, after the departure of Trevor Ariza, the Wizards signed veteran small forward Paul Pierce to a two - year contract. Pierce 's veteran leadership proved to be a major factor on and off the court in the team 's improvement. On November 12, 2014, the Wizards defeated the Detroit Pistons 107 -- 103, extending their record to 6 -- 2 for the first time since the 1975 -- 76 season. The following game three days later, the Wizards defeated the Orlando Magic 98 - 93 as they won their third straight and moved to 7 -- 2, their best start since opening 7 -- 1 during the 1974 -- 75 season. With a 104 - 96 win over the Los Angeles Clippers on December 12, the Wizards moved to an 11 -- 2 record at home to start the season for the first time in franchise history. They would struggle throughout the later months of the season but the Washington Wizards would finish the season with a 46 -- 36 record, their best record since the 1978 -- 1979 season. They played the Toronto Raptors in the first round of the NBA Playoffs and won in four games, marking their first sweep in franchise history. Following the victory over Toronto, the Wizards next had to play the top seeded Atlanta Hawks. The Wizards managed to take the first game in the series, but suffered the loss of Wall due to a fractured wrist. Although small forward Paul Pierce made several big shots throughout the series, the loss of Wall proved too much, and Atlanta took the series in six games.
However, the 2015 -- 16 season was much less successful. The Wizards finished 10th in the Eastern Conference with a 41 - 41 record, and missed the playoffs. On April 13, 2016 the Wizards, missing the playoffs for the first time since 2012 -- 13, fired Head Coach Randy Wittman.
On April 21, 2016, NBA.com reported that Scott Brooks, the former head coach of the Oklahoma City Thunder, had agreed to a 5 - year, $35 million head coaching position with the Wizards.
On September 8, 2016, the team unveiled new alternative jerseys. From 2015 on, their logo was the "monument ball '' with "Navy Blue, Red, Silver, White '' colors.
In October 2016, they were ranked 93rd of 122 worst franchises in major sports by Ultimate Standings.
The Wizards started off the 2016 -- 17 season with a 2 -- 8 record. However, they rebounded to touch the second seed, before a slump brought them down to the fourth seed, finishing 49 -- 33, behind the 51 -- 31 Toronto Raptors at third, the 51 -- 31 Cleveland Cavaliers at second, and the 53 -- 29 Boston Celtics in first place. The Wizards won their division title for the first time since the 1978 -- 79 season, also clinching home - field advantage for the first time since the 1978 -- 79 season, and the team had their best record since the 1978 -- 79 season. The Wizards played the fifth - seeded Atlanta Hawks in the first round of the Eastern Conference playoffs, defeating them in six games behind a 42 - point game six performance from Wall and 31 from Beal; before losing to the Boston Celtics in a seven - game series.
After moving from Chicago in 1963, the then - Baltimore Bullets used red and navy colors as part of the team 's logos and uniforms. In 1969, the club changed the colors to blue and orange. The red, white and blue colors returned as part of the franchise 's iconic uniforms beginning with the 1973 -- 74 season, coinciding with the team 's move to Landover, Maryland to become the Capital Bullets. Those uniforms also featured large horizontal stripes on the chest of the jerseys, and three stars on the side panels of the shorts. The uniforms were kept when they changed their name a year later to the Washington Bullets.
In 1997, then team owner Abe Pollin decided to change the club 's nickname from Bullets to Wizards. The reasoning behind the name change was because Pollin did not want the team 's name to continue to be associated with any violent connotations. The name change also included new logos, colors and uniforms, coinciding with the team 's move to the new MCI Center. The new team 's colors were blue, bronze and black. The primary logo depicted a wizard conjuring a basketball with a quarter moon. In 2007, the Wizards made minor modifications on their team jerseys and logos. To accommodate the gold -- black alternate jerseys they introduced the previous season along with the design change on the Verizon Center floor, they changed their secondary team colors from bronze to metallic gold, and the player 's name on the back of the jersey was changed from white / blue with bronze trim to gold (blue on home uniforms) with a change in lettering.
On May 10, 2011, the Wizards unveiled a new color scheme, uniforms and logo. David Safren, Pat Sullivan, and Michael Glazer were the product designers for the new jerseys which include the Washington Monument as an alternate logo. The team of product designers was led by Jessie Caples, who made most of the design decisions. James Pinder was also an essential part of the team, as he helped to engineer the jerseys to meet the players ' standards. The team reverted to its traditional red, white and blue colors, which are the colors of the American flag. The uniforms are based very closely on those worn from 1974 to 1987, during the team 's glory years. Leonsis said the throwback to the old Bullets ' uniforms was intentional; the only difference between those uniforms and the current ones is the team name on the jerseys. The colors were also used by Leonsis ' other franchises, the Capitals and the Mystics, who adopted to those colors in 2007 and 2011, respectively.
On July 23, 2014, the Wizards unveiled a new alternate uniform. The uniform is similar to the club 's road set, with the navy and red colors switched, so that navy is the predominant color instead of red.
On April 15, 2015, the Wizards unveiled a new primary logo. The new logo features the Washington Monument ball logo set in a roundel, with the striping pattern from the team 's uniforms, three stars (each representing Washington, D.C., Maryland, and Virginia), and the team 's wordmarks. The team also said it would immediately discontinue the use of the wizard / partial moon logo, which had been used since 1997.
On September 30, 2015, the Wizards unveiled a new alternate uniform. Called the "Baltimore Pride '' uniform, the uniform is intended to be worn for six select games during the Wizards ' 2015 -- 16 season.
Roster Transactions Last transaction: 2018 -- 04 -- 11
The Wizards hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.
Notes:
Notes:
Bold denotes still active with team.
Italic denotes still active but not with team. Points scored (regular season) (as of the end of the 2016 -- 17 season)
Other statistics (regular season) (as of April 18, 2017)
NBA Most Valuable Player
NBA Finals MVP
NBA Rookie of the Year
NBA Most Improved Player
NBA Coach of the Year
NBA Executive of the Year
J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award
NBA Community Assist Award
All - NBA First Team
All - NBA Second Team
All - NBA Third Team
NBA All - Defensive First Team
NBA All - Defensive Second Team
NBA All - Rookie First Team
NBA All - Rookie Second Team
NBA All - Star Game
* Starter
NBA All - Star Game head coaches
Long Distance Shootout
Slam Dunk Contest
Skills Challenge
Rookie / Rising Stars Challenge
Rookie / Rising Stars Challenge MVP
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who sings all by myself in bridget jones diary | All by Myself - wikipedia
"All by Myself '' is a song by American artist Eric Carmen released in 1975. The verse is based on the second movement (Adagio sostenuto) of Sergei Rachmaninoff 's Piano Concerto No. 2 in C minor, Opus 18. The chorus is borrowed from the song "Let 's Pretend '', which Carmen wrote and recorded with the Raspberries in 1972.
The song was the first released on Carmen 's first solo LP after leaving the power pop group the Raspberries and was released as the first single in December 1975, to great acclaim. It reached number 2 on the Billboard Hot 100, number 1 on Cash Box Top 100 Singles and number 3 in Canada. The single sold more than one million copies in the United States and was certified gold by the RIAA in April 1976. "All By Myself '' was Carmen 's first of eight US Top 40 hits. In the UK, however, this was his only Top 40 success, peaking at number 12. In a 2006 poll for UK 's Five programme Britain 's Favourite Break - up Songs, Eric Carmen 's version of this song was voted seventeenth.
Rachmaninoff 's music was in the public domain in the United States and Carmen thought no copyright existed on it, but it was still protected outside the U.S. Subsequent to the release of the album, he was contacted by the Rachmaninoff estate and informed otherwise. An agreement was reached in which the estate would receive 12 percent of the royalties from "All by Myself '' as well as from "Never Gonna Fall in Love Again '', which was based on the third movement from Rachmaninoff 's Symphony No. 2.
Carmen has stated that he also incorporated part of another melody into this song. The melody was taken from his previous hit with the Raspberries, "Let 's Pretend. ''
Carmen 's original version has spawned numerous cover versions by such artists as Rico J. Puno in 1976, Celine Dion in 1996, Frank Sinatra, Igudesman & Joo, Il Divo, and Only Men Aloud!.
The slide guitar solo was performed by famed studio guitarist Hugh McCracken.
Carmen performed "All By Myself '' and his follow - up hit, "Never Gonna Fall in Love Again, '' on The Midnight Special television program on July 23, 1976 (season 4, episode 37). The show was hosted by The Spinners.
One of the most notable cover versions of "All by Myself '' was recorded by Celine Dion in 1996. It was the fourth (or third, depending on the country) hit single from her album Falling into You. Produced by David Foster at Compass Point Studios in The Bahamas, it was released on October 7, 1996 in Europe, January 13, 1997 in Australia, and March 11, 1997 in North America.
There were three music videos made. The first one was released in October 1996. It contains fragments from Dion 's photo session for the Falling into You album cover and some scenes from her Live à Paris concert. It was made for the single version and it was directed by Nigel Dick. The second version was made for the UK market with the same white T - shirt scenes but adding footage of a young couple in love at Christmas time, instead of scenes from Dion 's concert. This was made for the album version. Finally, a live music video was released in March 1997 in North America (from the 1996 concert in Montreal).
Dion performed this song many times during world tours, TV shows and music events such as the Grammy Awards (1997), Billboard Music Awards (1997) and Bambi Awards (1996). A performance from her 2008 - 2009 Taking Chances Tour can be found on the Taking Chances World Tour: The Concert DVD / CD. It is currently included in the set list of Dion 's Las Vegas residency show Céline which premiered on March 15, 2011. The song was also performed during the 2013 Sans attendre Tour; the Quebec City performance was included in the Céline... une seule fois / Live 2013 CD / DVD. The song was also performed in Dion 's 2017 European tour.
Dion also recorded a Spanish version of "All by Myself, '' called "Sola otra vez '' (English: By Myself Again). It was added to the Falling into You Latin American / Spanish edition, and as a B - side to other singles from that album. This version became available worldwide on Dion 's later compilation The Collector 's Series, Volume One. The CD single was released in 1996 in Brazil only. Dion 's "Sola otra vez '' was selected the number one Spanish language cover of an English pop song by TheSpanishVersion.Org.
The "All by Myself '' single became one of Dion 's biggest hits in the United States, reaching number 1 on the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks (for three weeks) and the Latin Pop Airplay (two weeks). It peaked at number 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 (number 7 on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay and number 5 on the Hot 100 Singles Sales). It was also a top 10 hit in France, United Kingdom, Wallonia in Belgium and the Republic of Ireland. In Canada, "All by Myself '' was released as a promotional single only, hitting number 1 on the Adult Contemporary Chart. "All by Myself '' was certified gold in the US (500,000), and silver in the UK (200,000) and France (165,000).
The track was included on some editions of Dion 's greatest hits All the Way... A Decade of Song in 1999 and on My Love: Essential Collection in 2008.
This version also features on the ITV game show Take Me Out if the contestant leaves the show without a date.
Dion 's cover received positive reviews. New York Times editor Stephen Holden wrote that the remake, along with "Because You Loved Me, '' "are the strongest cuts on an album crammed with formulaic romantic bombast. '' Music.uk.launch.yahoo.com editor, Dan Leroy, wrote: "Trying to out - emote Eric Carmen was almost crazy enough to work. '' Entertainment Weekly editor Chuck Eddy said: ''... But only in her desolate cover of Eric Carmen 's All by Myself does she truly crash through the glass ceiling of passion. ''
shipments figures based on certification alone
In 1994, "All By Myself '' was covered by New Zealand singer Margaret Urlich. Her version reached # 100 in Australia in November 1994, and # 26 in New Zealand in March 1995.
The 2001 motion picture Bridget Jones 's Diary featured a cover version performed by Jamie O'Neal showing actress Renée Zellweger singing to it in the famous pajamas scene. This track is also played over the other Bridget Jones 's Films Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason (film) and Bridget Jones 's Baby.
In 2008, the male voice choir Only Men Aloud! covered the song on their self - named album and also released it as a single.
The Carmen version is used in the video introduction for Conan O'Brien 's "Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour '', when an obese and bearded version of the talk show host struggles to cope with losing his job as host of Tonight Show. The Carmen version is also featured in the second season 's episode 17 of the popular 1990s sitcom Friends (set on Joey & Chandler 's friendship), and a season 4 episode of the hit sitcom That ' 70s Show. It was also featured in the films Under Wraps, "Bridget Jones ' Diary '' and To Die For. The version is used also in the film I nuovi mostri directed by Dino Risi, with Ornella Muti and Yorgo Voyagis. In the Disney film Zootopia, a snippet is heard of it as the main character, Judy Hopps browses through one depressing song after another on her clock radio.
A character is featured performing the song as karaoke in the Angel episode Happy Anniversary, 2001
The song was used in advertisements:
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what is the meaning of physics in science | Physics - wikipedia
Physics (from Ancient Greek: φυσική (ἐπιστήμη), translit. phusikḗ (epistḗmē), lit. ' knowledge of nature ', from φύσις phúsis "nature '') is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental scientific disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves.
Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy. Over the last two millennia, physics was a part of natural philosophy along with chemistry, biology, and certain branches of mathematics, but during the scientific revolution in the 17th century, the natural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their own right. Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics and philosophy.
Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism or nuclear physics led directly to the development of new products that have dramatically transformed modern - day society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons; advances in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization, and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus. See glossary of physics.
Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences. The earliest civilizations dating back to beyond 3000 BCE, such as the Sumerians, ancient Egyptians, and the Indus Valley Civilization, all had a predictive knowledge and a basic understanding of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars. The stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, these early observations laid the foundation for later astronomy.
According to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. Egyptian astronomers left monuments showing knowledge of the constellations and the motions of the celestial bodies, while Greek poet Homer wrote of various celestial objects in his Iliad and Odyssey; later Greek astronomers provided names, which are still used today, for most constellations visible from the northern hemisphere.
Natural philosophy has its origins in Greece during the Archaic period, (650 BCE -- 480 BCE), when pre-Socratic philosophers like Thales rejected non-naturalistic explanations for natural phenomena and proclaimed that every event had a natural cause. They proposed ideas verified by reason and observation, and many of their hypotheses proved successful in experiment; for example, atomism was found to be correct approximately 2000 years after it was first proposed by Leucippus and his pupil Democritus.
Islamic scholarship had inherited Aristotelian physics from the Greeks and during the Islamic Golden Age developed it further, especially placing emphasis on observation and a priori reasoning, developing early forms of the scientific method.
The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al - Kindi, Ibn al - Haytham, Al - Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics (also known as Kitāb al - Manāẓir), written by Ibn al - Haytham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the camera obscura (his thousand - year - old version of the pinhole camera) and delved further into the way the eye itself works. Using dissections and the knowledge of previous scholars, he was able to begin to explain how light enters the eye. He asserted that the light ray is focused, but the actual explanation of how light projected to the back of the eye had to wait until 1604. His Treatise on Light explained the world 's first camera obscura, hundreds of years before the modern development of photography.
The seven - volume Book of Optics (Kitab al - Manathir) hugely influenced thinking across disciplines from the theory of visual perception to the nature of perspective in medieval art, in both the East and the West, for more than 600 years. Many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al - Haytham 's Optics ranks alongside that of Newton 's work of the same title, published 700 years later.
The translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build devices that replicated those Ibn al - Haytham had built, and understand the way light works. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, and cameras were developed.
Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics.
Major developments in this period include the replacement of the geocentric model of the solar system with the heliocentric Copernican model, the laws governing the motion of planetary bodies determined by Johannes Kepler between 1609 and 1619, pioneering work on telescopes and observational astronomy by Galileo Galilei in the 16th and 17th Centuries, and Isaac Newton 's discovery and unification of the laws of motion and universal gravitation that would come to bear his name. Newton also developed calculus, the mathematical study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems.
The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased. The laws comprising classical physics remain very widely used for objects on everyday scales travelling at non-relativistic speeds, since they provide a very close approximation in such situations, and theories such as quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity simplify to their classical equivalents at such scales. However, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century.
Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory and Albert Einstein 's theory of relativity. Both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Classical mechanics predicted a varying speed of light, which could not be resolved with the constant speed predicted by Maxwell 's equations of electromagnetism; this discrepancy was corrected by Einstein 's theory of special relativity, which replaced classical mechanics for fast - moving bodies and allowed for a constant speed of light. Black body radiation provided another problem for classical physics, which was corrected when Planck proposed that the excitation of material oscillators is possible only in discrete steps proportional to their frequency; this, along with the photoelectric effect and a complete theory predicting discrete energy levels of electron orbitals, led to the theory of quantum mechanics taking over from classical physics at very small scales.
Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger and Paul Dirac. From this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Following the discovery of a particle with properties consistent with the Higgs boson at CERN in 2012, all fundamental particles predicted by the standard model, and no others, appear to exist; however, physics beyond the Standard Model, with theories such as supersymmetry, is an active area of research. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities and groups.
In many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy. From Thales ' first attempt to characterise matter, to Democritus ' deduction that matter ought to reduce to an invariant state, the Ptolemaic astronomy of a crystalline firmament, and Aristotle 's book Physics (an early book on physics, which attempted to analyze and define motion from a philosophical point of view), various Greek philosophers advanced their own theories of nature. Physics was known as natural philosophy until the late 18th century.
By the 19th century, physics was realised as a discipline distinct from philosophy and the other sciences. Physics, as with the rest of science, relies on philosophy of science and its "scientific method '' to advance our knowledge of the physical world. The scientific method employs a priori reasoning as well as a posteriori reasoning and the use of Bayesian inference to measure the validity of a given theory.
The development of physics has answered many questions of early philosophers, but has also raised new questions. Study of the philosophical issues surrounding physics, the philosophy of physics, involves issues such as the nature of space and time, determinism, and metaphysical outlooks such as empiricism, naturalism and realism.
Many physicists have written about the philosophical implications of their work, for instance Laplace, who championed causal determinism, and Erwin Schrödinger, who wrote on quantum mechanics. The mathematical physicist Roger Penrose has been called a Platonist by Stephen Hawking, a view Penrose discusses in his book, The Road to Reality. Hawking refers to himself as an "unashamed reductionist '' and takes issue with Penrose 's views.
Though physics deals with a wide variety of systems, certain theories are used by all physicists. Each of these theories were experimentally tested numerous times and found to be an adequate approximation of nature. For instance, the theory of classical mechanics accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger than atoms and moving at much less than the speed of light. These theories continue to be areas of active research today. Chaos theory, a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics was discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics by Isaac Newton (1642 -- 1727).
These central theories are important tools for research into more specialised topics, and any physicist, regardless of their specialisation, is expected to be literate in them. These include classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, electromagnetism, and special relativity.
Classical physics includes the traditional branches and topics that were recognised and well - developed before the beginning of the 20th century -- classical mechanics, acoustics, optics, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism. Classical mechanics is concerned with bodies acted on by forces and bodies in motion and may be divided into statics (study of the forces on a body or bodies not subject to an acceleration), kinematics (study of motion without regard to its causes), and dynamics (study of motion and the forces that affect it); mechanics may also be divided into solid mechanics and fluid mechanics (known together as continuum mechanics), the latter include such branches as hydrostatics, hydrodynamics, aerodynamics, and pneumatics. Acoustics is the study of how sound is produced, controlled, transmitted and received. Important modern branches of acoustics include ultrasonics, the study of sound waves of very high frequency beyond the range of human hearing; bioacoustics, the physics of animal calls and hearing, and electroacoustics, the manipulation of audible sound waves using electronics.
Optics, the study of light, is concerned not only with visible light but also with infrared and ultraviolet radiation, which exhibit all of the phenomena of visible light except visibility, e.g., reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, dispersion, and polarization of light. Heat is a form of energy, the internal energy possessed by the particles of which a substance is composed; thermodynamics deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy. Electricity and magnetism have been studied as a single branch of physics since the intimate connection between them was discovered in the early 19th century; an electric current gives rise to a magnetic field, and a changing magnetic field induces an electric current. Electrostatics deals with electric charges at rest, electrodynamics with moving charges, and magnetostatics with magnetic poles at rest.
Classical physics is generally concerned with matter and energy on the normal scale of observation, while much of modern physics is concerned with the behavior of matter and energy under extreme conditions or on a very large or very small scale. For example, atomic and nuclear physics studies matter on the smallest scale at which chemical elements can be identified. The physics of elementary particles is on an even smaller scale since it is concerned with the most basic units of matter; this branch of physics is also known as high - energy physics because of the extremely high energies necessary to produce many types of particles in particle accelerators. On this scale, ordinary, commonsense notions of space, time, matter, and energy are no longer valid.
The two chief theories of modern physics present a different picture of the concepts of space, time, and matter from that presented by classical physics. Classical mechanics approximates nature as continuous, while quantum theory is concerned with the discrete nature of many phenomena at the atomic and subatomic level and with the complementary aspects of particles and waves in the description of such phenomena. The theory of relativity is concerned with the description of phenomena that take place in a frame of reference that is in motion with respect to an observer; the special theory of relativity is concerned with relative uniform motion in a straight line and the general theory of relativity with accelerated motion and its connection with gravitation. Both quantum theory and the theory of relativity find applications in all areas of modern physics.
While physics aims to discover universal laws, its theories lie in explicit domains of applicability. Loosely speaking, the laws of classical physics accurately describe systems whose important length scales are greater than the atomic scale and whose motions are much slower than the speed of light. Outside of this domain, observations do not match predictions provided by classical mechanics. Albert Einstein contributed the framework of special relativity, which replaced notions of absolute time and space with spacetime and allowed an accurate description of systems whose components have speeds approaching the speed of light. Max Planck, Erwin Schrödinger, and others introduced quantum mechanics, a probabilistic notion of particles and interactions that allowed an accurate description of atomic and subatomic scales. Later, quantum field theory unified quantum mechanics and special relativity. General relativity allowed for a dynamical, curved spacetime, with which highly massive systems and the large - scale structure of the universe can be well - described. General relativity has not yet been unified with the other fundamental descriptions; several candidate theories of quantum gravity are being developed.
Mathematics provides a compact and exact language used to describe of the order in nature. This was noted and advocated by Pythagoras, Plato, Galileo, and Newton.
Physics uses mathematics to organise and formulate experimental results. From those results, precise or estimated solutions, quantitative results from which new predictions can be made and experimentally confirmed or negated. The results from physics experiments are numerical measurements. Technologies based on mathematics, like computation have made computational physics an active area of research.
Ontology is a prerequisite for physics, but not for mathematics. It means physics is ultimately concerned with descriptions of the real world, while mathematics is concerned with abstract patterns, even beyond the real world. Thus physics statements are synthetic, while mathematical statements are analytic. Mathematics contains hypotheses, while physics contains theories. Mathematics statements have to be only logically true, while predictions of physics statements must match observed and experimental data.
The distinction is clear - cut, but not always obvious. For example, mathematical physics is the application of mathematics in physics. Its methods are mathematical, but its subject is physical. The problems in this field start with a "mathematical model of a physical situation '' (system) and a "mathematical description of a physical law '' that will be applied to that system. Every mathematical statement used for solving has a hard - to - find physical meaning. The final mathematical solution has an easier - to - find meaning, because it is what the solver is looking for.
Physics is a branch of fundamental science, not practical science. Physics is also called "the fundamental science '' because the subject of study of all branches of natural science like chemistry, astronomy, geology, and biology are constrained by laws of physics, similar to how chemistry is often called the central science because of its role in linking the physical sciences. For example, chemistry studies properties, structures, and reactions of matter (chemistry 's focus on the atomic scale distinguishes it from physics). Structures are formed because particles exert electrical forces on each other, properties include physical characteristics of given substances, and reactions are bound by laws of physics, like conservation of energy, mass, and charge.
Physics is applied in industries like engineering and medicine.
Applied physics is a general term for physics research which is intended for a particular use. An applied physics curriculum usually contains a few classes in an applied discipline, like geology or electrical engineering. It usually differs from engineering in that an applied physicist may not be designing something in particular, but rather is using physics or conducting physics research with the aim of developing new technologies or solving a problem.
The approach is similar to that of applied mathematics. Applied physicists use physics in scientific research. For instance, people working on accelerator physics might seek to build better particle detectors for research in theoretical physics.
Physics is used heavily in engineering. For example, statics, a subfield of mechanics, is used in the building of bridges and other static structures. The understanding and use of acoustics results in sound control and better concert halls; similarly, the use of optics creates better optical devices. An understanding of physics makes for more realistic flight simulators, video games, and movies, and is often critical in forensic investigations.
With the standard consensus that the laws of physics are universal and do not change with time, physics can be used to study things that would ordinarily be mired in uncertainty. For example, in the study of the origin of the earth, one can reasonably model earth 's mass, temperature, and rate of rotation, as a function of time allowing one to extrapolate forward or backward in time and so predict future or prior events. It also allows for simulations in engineering which drastically speed up the development of a new technology.
But there is also considerable interdisciplinarity in the physicist 's methods, so many other important fields are influenced by physics (e.g., the fields of econophysics and sociophysics).
Physicists use the scientific method to test the validity of a physical theory. By using a methodical approach to compare the implications of a theory with the conclusions drawn from its related experiments and observations, physicists are better able to test the validity of a theory in a logical, unbiased, and repeatable way. To that end, experiments are performed and observations are made in order to determine the validity or invalidity of the theory.
A scientific law is a concise verbal or mathematical statement of a relation which expresses a fundamental principle of some theory, such as Newton 's law of universal gravitation.
Theorists seek to develop mathematical models that both agree with existing experiments and successfully predict future experimental results, while experimentalists devise and perform experiments to test theoretical predictions and explore new phenomena. Although theory and experiment are developed separately, they are strongly dependent upon each other. Progress in physics frequently comes about when experimentalists make a discovery that existing theories can not explain, or when new theories generate experimentally testable predictions, which inspire new experiments.
Physicists who work at the interplay of theory and experiment are called phenomenologists, who study complex phenomena observed in experiment and work to relate them to a fundamental theory.
Theoretical physics has historically taken inspiration from philosophy; electromagnetism was unified this way. Beyond the known universe, the field of theoretical physics also deals with hypothetical issues, such as parallel universes, a multiverse, and higher dimensions. Theorists invoke these ideas in hopes of solving particular problems with existing theories. They then explore the consequences of these ideas and work toward making testable predictions.
Experimental physics expands, and is expanded by, engineering and technology. Experimental physicists involved in basic research design and perform experiments with equipment such as particle accelerators and lasers, whereas those involved in applied research often work in industry developing technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and transistors. Feynman has noted that experimentalists may seek areas which are not well - explored by theorists.
Physics covers a wide range of phenomena, from elementary particles (such as quarks, neutrinos, and electrons) to the largest superclusters of galaxies. Included in these phenomena are the most basic objects composing all other things. Therefore, physics is sometimes called the "fundamental science ''. Physics aims to describe the various phenomena that occur in nature in terms of simpler phenomena. Thus, physics aims to both connect the things observable to humans to root causes, and then connect these causes together.
For example, the ancient Chinese observed that certain rocks (lodestone and magnetite) were attracted to one another by an invisible force. This effect was later called magnetism, which was first rigorously studied in the 17th century. But even before the Chinese discovered magnetism, the ancient Greeks knew of other objects such as amber, that when rubbed with fur would cause a similar invisible attraction between the two. This was also first studied rigorously in the 17th century and came to be called electricity. Thus, physics had come to understand two observations of nature in terms of some root cause (electricity and magnetism). However, further work in the 19th century revealed that these two forces were just two different aspects of one force -- electromagnetism. This process of "unifying '' forces continues today, and electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force are now considered to be two aspects of the electroweak interaction. Physics hopes to find an ultimate reason (Theory of Everything) for why nature is as it is (see section Current research below for more information).
Contemporary research in physics can be broadly divided into nuclear and particle physics; condensed matter physics; atomic, molecular, and optical physics; astrophysics; and applied physics. Some physics departments also support physics education research and physics outreach.
Since the 20th century, the individual fields of physics have become increasingly specialised, and today most physicists work in a single field for their entire careers. "Universalists '' such as Albert Einstein (1879 -- 1955) and Lev Landau (1908 -- 1968), who worked in multiple fields of physics, are now very rare.
The major fields of physics, along with their subfields and the theories and concepts they employ, are shown in the following table.
Particle physics is the study of the elementary constituents of matter and energy and the interactions between them. In addition, particle physicists design and develop the high energy accelerators, detectors, and computer programs necessary for this research. The field is also called "high - energy physics '' because many elementary particles do not occur naturally but are created only during high - energy collisions of other particles.
Currently, the interactions of elementary particles and fields are described by the Standard Model. The model accounts for the 12 known particles of matter (quarks and leptons) that interact via the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental forces. Dynamics are described in terms of matter particles exchanging gauge bosons (gluons, W and Z bosons, and photons, respectively). The Standard Model also predicts a particle known as the Higgs boson. In July 2012 CERN, the European laboratory for particle physics, announced the detection of a particle consistent with the Higgs boson, an integral part of a Higgs mechanism.
Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the constituents and interactions of atomic nuclei. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons technology, but the research has provided application in many fields, including those in nuclear medicine and magnetic resonance imaging, ion implantation in materials engineering, and radiocarbon dating in geology and archaeology.
Atomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter -- matter and light -- matter interactions on the scale of single atoms and molecules. The three areas are grouped together because of their interrelationships, the similarity of methods used, and the commonality of their relevant energy scales. All three areas include both classical, semi-classical and quantum treatments; they can treat their subject from a microscopic view (in contrast to a macroscopic view).
Atomic physics studies the electron shells of atoms. Current research focuses on activities in quantum control, cooling and trapping of atoms and ions, low - temperature collision dynamics and the effects of electron correlation on structure and dynamics. Atomic physics is influenced by the nucleus (see, e.g., hyperfine splitting), but intra-nuclear phenomena such as fission and fusion are considered part of nuclear physics.
Molecular physics focuses on multi-atomic structures and their internal and external interactions with matter and light. Optical physics is distinct from optics in that it tends to focus not on the control of classical light fields by macroscopic objects but on the fundamental properties of optical fields and their interactions with matter in the microscopic realm.
Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter. In particular, it is concerned with the "condensed '' phases that appear whenever the number of particles in a system is extremely large and the interactions between them are strong.
The most familiar examples of condensed phases are solids and liquids, which arise from the bonding by way of the electromagnetic force between atoms. More exotic condensed phases include the superfluid and the Bose -- Einstein condensate found in certain atomic systems at very low temperature, the superconducting phase exhibited by conduction electrons in certain materials, and the ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phases of spins on atomic lattices.
Condensed matter physics is the largest field of contemporary physics. Historically, condensed matter physics grew out of solid - state physics, which is now considered one of its main subfields. The term condensed matter physics was apparently coined by Philip Anderson when he renamed his research group -- previously solid - state theory -- in 1967. In 1978, the Division of Solid State Physics of the American Physical Society was renamed as the Division of Condensed Matter Physics. Condensed matter physics has a large overlap with chemistry, materials science, nanotechnology and engineering.
Astrophysics and astronomy are the application of the theories and methods of physics to the study of stellar structure, stellar evolution, the origin of the Solar System, and related problems of cosmology. Because astrophysics is a broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics.
The discovery by Karl Jansky in 1931 that radio signals were emitted by celestial bodies initiated the science of radio astronomy. Most recently, the frontiers of astronomy have been expanded by space exploration. Perturbations and interference from the earth 's atmosphere make space - based observations necessary for infrared, ultraviolet, gamma - ray, and X-ray astronomy.
Physical cosmology is the study of the formation and evolution of the universe on its largest scales. Albert Einstein 's theory of relativity plays a central role in all modern cosmological theories. In the early 20th century, Hubble 's discovery that the universe is expanding, as shown by the Hubble diagram, prompted rival explanations known as the steady state universe and the Big Bang.
The Big Bang was confirmed by the success of Big Bang nucleosynthesis and the discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1964. The Big Bang model rests on two theoretical pillars: Albert Einstein 's general relativity and the cosmological principle. Cosmologists have recently established the ΛCDM model of the evolution of the universe, which includes cosmic inflation, dark energy, and dark matter.
Numerous possibilities and discoveries are anticipated to emerge from new data from the Fermi Gamma - ray Space Telescope over the upcoming decade and vastly revise or clarify existing models of the universe. In particular, the potential for a tremendous discovery surrounding dark matter is possible over the next several years. Fermi will search for evidence that dark matter is composed of weakly interacting massive particles, complementing similar experiments with the Large Hadron Collider and other underground detectors.
IBEX is already yielding new astrophysical discoveries: "No one knows what is creating the ENA (energetic neutral atoms) ribbon '' along the termination shock of the solar wind, "but everyone agrees that it means the textbook picture of the heliosphere -- in which the Solar System 's enveloping pocket filled with the solar wind 's charged particles is plowing through the onrushing ' galactic wind ' of the interstellar medium in the shape of a comet -- is wrong. ''
Research in physics is continually progressing on a large number of fronts.
In condensed matter physics, an important unsolved theoretical problem is that of high - temperature superconductivity. Many condensed matter experiments are aiming to fabricate workable spintronics and quantum computers.
In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model have begun to appear. Foremost among these are indications that neutrinos have non-zero mass. These experimental results appear to have solved the long - standing solar neutrino problem, and the physics of massive neutrinos remains an area of active theoretical and experimental research. The Large Hadron Collider has already found the Higgs Boson, but future research aims to prove or disprove the supersymmetry, which extends the Standard Model of particle physics. Research on the nature of the major mysteries of dark matter and dark energy is also currently ongoing.
Theoretical attempts to unify quantum mechanics and general relativity into a single theory of quantum gravity, a program ongoing for over half a century, have not yet been decisively resolved. The current leading candidates are M - theory, superstring theory and loop quantum gravity.
Many astronomical and cosmological phenomena have yet to be satisfactorily explained, including the origin of ultra-high energy cosmic rays, the baryon asymmetry, the acceleration of the universe and the anomalous rotation rates of galaxies.
Although much progress has been made in high - energy, quantum, and astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena involving complexity, chaos, or turbulence are still poorly understood. Complex problems that seem like they could be solved by a clever application of dynamics and mechanics remain unsolved; examples include the formation of sandpiles, nodes in trickling water, the shape of water droplets, mechanisms of surface tension catastrophes, and self - sorting in shaken heterogeneous collections.
These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, including the availability of modern mathematical methods and computers, which enabled complex systems to be modeled in new ways. Complex physics has become part of increasingly interdisciplinary research, as exemplified by the study of turbulence in aerodynamics and the observation of pattern formation in biological systems. In the 1932 Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, Horace Lamb said:
I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on which I hope for enlightenment. One is quantum electrodynamics, and the other is the turbulent motion of fluids. And about the former I am rather optimistic.
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when was the last time england made the quarter final world cup | England at the FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The England national football team has competed at the FIFA World Cup since 1950. The FIFA World Cup is the premier competitive international football tournament, first played in 1930, whose finals stage has been held every four years since, except 1942 and 1946, due to the Second World War.
The tournament consists of two parts, the qualification phase and the final phase (officially called the World Cup Finals). The qualification phase, which currently take place over the three years preceding the finals, is used to determine which teams qualify for the finals. The current format of the finals involves thirty - two teams competing for the title, at venues within the host nation (or nations) over a period of about a month. The World Cup Finals is the most widely viewed sporting event in the world, with an estimated 715.1 million people watching the 2006 Final.
England did not enter the competition until 1950, but have entered all eighteen subsequent tournaments. They have failed to qualify for the finals on three occasions, 1974 (West Germany), 1978 (Argentina) and 1994 (United States), and have failed to advance from the group stages on three occasions; at the 1950 FIFA World Cup, the 1958 FIFA World Cup and the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Their best ever performance is winning the Cup in the 1966 tournament held in England, whilst they also finished in fourth place in 1990, in Italy, and in 2018 in Russia. Other than that, the team have reached the quarter - finals on nine occasions, the latest of which were at the 2002 (South Korea / Japan) and the 2006 (Germany).
England are the only team not representing a sovereign state to win the World Cup, which they did in 1966 when they hosted the finals. They defeated West Germany 4 -- 2 after extra time to win the World Cup title. Since then, they have generally reached the knockout stages of almost every competition they have qualified for, including a fourth - place finish in the 1990 and 2018 World Cups. At the world cup, England have had more goalless draws than any other team.
England 's first qualifying campaign for the FIFA World Cup doubled as the 1950 British Home Championship. The series kicked off for England on 15 October 1949 at Ninian Park, Cardiff, against Wales. Stan Mortensen gave England the lead after twenty two minutes, and just seven minutes later, Jackie Milburn doubled the lead. This was the first goal of Milburn 's hat trick, which left England 4 -- 0 up with 20 minutes to play. Mal Griffiths scored a consolation goal for Wales ten minutes from time, but England held on for a comfortable victory.
A month later, England welcomed Ireland to Maine Road, and it began well for the home side as Jack Rowley scored inside six minutes. England were already 6 -- 0 up, thanks to Jack Froggatt, two for Stan Pearson, Stan Mortensen and a second from Rowley, by the time Ireland struck back through Samuel Smyth after 55 minutes. Rowley added a third and a fourth to his tally in the three minutes following Smyth 's goal, however, leaving the score at 8 -- 1 at the hour mark. The frantic scoring rate calmed down after that, with only one apeice before the final whistle, with Stan Pearson completing his brace for England 's ninth, and Bobby Brennan scoring for Ireland.
It was not until May 1950 that England travelled to Hampden Park to face Scotland, who were also undefeated after their games against Ireland and Wales. With the top two from the group qualifying, both teams were guaranteed progression to the finals, and the game was solely for the honour of winning the British Home Championship, and the seeding advantage to be enjoyed upon reaching Brazil. A solitary goal from Roy Bentley gave England the victory, the title and the top spot in the group.
England were seeded in pot one for the finals, which meant they were the favourites to progress from Group 2, which also contained Spain, Chile and the United States. England 's campaign kicked off against Chile in Rio de Janeiro, and, as was expected, England cruised to a 2 -- 0 victory, courtesy of goals from Stan Mortensen and Wilf Mannion.
Their troubles began four days later when they faced the Americans in Belo Horizonte in what has become one of the most famous matches of all time. Joe Gaetjens scored the only goal of the match to give the United States an unlikely victory, which has gone down as one of the World Cup 's greatest upsets. A myth arose that the English newspapers were so confident of an English victory that when the result was telegrammed back, they assumed a misprint and printed the score as 10 -- 1 in England 's favour. However, this has proven to be untrue.
This left England in a sticky situation prior to their final match, against Spain in Rio. They needed to win, and for Chile to beat the United States to stand any chance of going through, and even then they would need the goal averages to fall in their favour. As it turned out, no such calculations were necessary, despite Chile 's victory, as Spain 's Zarra scored the only goal of the game, eliminating England from the competition.
As with their first World Cup, England 's qualifying for the 1954 edition also constituted the 1953 -- 54 British Home Championship. They played Wales at Ninian Park as their first match once again, and the 4 -- 1 result was the same. However, unlike four years earlier, it was the home side that went into the lead, after twenty two minutes through Ivor Allchurch. Despite being 1 -- 0 down at half time, England scored four within eight minutes of the restart; two each for Dennis Wilshaw and Nat Lofthouse.
Goodison Park was the venue for England 's home clash against Ireland, who were newly renamed Northern Ireland. Harold Hassall got England off to a good start with a goal after just ten minutes. Eddie McMorran put the Irish back on terms just before the hour mark, but Hassall completed his brace six minutes later. Lofthouse completed a comfortable 3 -- 1 win for England.
With the top two in the group qualifying for the finals, the final game between England and Scotland, at Hampden Park, settled nothing except the placings within the group, despite Scotland having dropped a point with a 3 -- 3 draw at home to Wales. Allan Brown put the home side ahead after just seven minutes, but it was all square again thanks to Ivor Broadis just four minutes later. Johnny Nicholls gave England the lead for the first time just after half time, and they began to extend a lead after Ronnie Allen 's 68th - minute goal. Jimmy Mullen made the game all but certain seven minutes from time, and although Willie Ormond scored a consolation for Scotland with just 1 minute to play, England topped the competition for the second time in a row.
England were drawn in Group 4 for the finals, with hosts Switzerland, Italy and Belgium. In an odd twist, unique to the 1954 tournament, England and Italy, as the two seeded teams in the group, did not have to play each other.
Equally, Switzerland and Belgium did not have to play each other. England 's first game in Switzerland was against Belgium in Basel, and they suffered a shock as Léopold Anoul put the Belgians into the lead after just five minutes. Ivor Broadis put the favourites back on terms just over twenty minutes later, and although Nat Lofthouse gave England the lead 10 minutes later, it was proving to be tougher than they had expected against the Belgians.
Broadis scored his second just after the hour, but Henri Coppens hit back four minutes later to keep Belgium in the game at only 3 -- 2 down. Anoul completed his brace another four minutes after that to level the scores again. In another oddity peculiar to this World Cup, drawn matches in the group stage would go to extra time, and as such the teams played on with the score at 3 -- 3.
Just one minute into the added period, Lofthouse added a fourth for England and they seemed to have won it, but Jimmy Dickinson scored an own goal three minutes later to put the score back at 4 -- 4. It stayed this way until the extra period was up, and as penalty shoot - outs were yet to be invented and replays were not used in the group, the match was recorded as a draw.
England 's second and final group game was against the hosts in Bern. This proved to be an easier game for the Three Lions, and they scored one goal in each half (from Jimmy Mullen and Dennis Wilshaw respectively) to give them a comfortable win of 2 -- 0. As Switzerland (against England), Italy (against Switzerland) and Belgium (against Italy) had all lost one game, England progressed as group winners, along with Switzerland, who won a play - off against Italy.
England faced the winners of group three and defending champions Uruguay in the quarter - finals. Carlos Borges gave the South Americans the lead inside 5 minutes, but Lofthouse put England back on terms ten minutes later. England were clearly struggling, but held on until just before half time, when Obdulio Varela gave the lead back Uruguay.
Juan Alberto Schiaffino doubled the lead just after the break, but Tom Finney kept England 's foot in the door with his sixty seventh - minute goal. However, it was all over after Javier Ambrois restored the two goal lead with twelve minutes to play. The score remained at 4 -- 2, and England were eliminated from the cup.
For the first time, England had to play against countries other than the Home Nations to reach the Finals in Sweden. They were drawn against the Republic of Ireland and Denmark. In the qualifying round, England won three out of the four games and drew the other. Four months before the World Cup, Roger Byrne, Duncan Edwards, David Pegg and Tommy Taylor all lost their lives in the Munich air disaster while playing for Manchester United. At the finals, which is the only tournament to have seen all Home Nations take part, the Home Nations were all drawn in different groups.
England were drawn against the Soviet Union (2 -- 2), Brazil (0 -- 0) and Austria (2 -- 2), who finished third in the 1954 World Cup. At the end of the group stage, Soviet Union and England each had three points, and had scored four goals and conceded four goals. This meant there was a play - off to decide the second - placed team in the group, the winner to qualify. England lost the play - off 1 -- 0 and were thus knocked out. The only consolation for England was that they were the only team to play the eventual winners Brazil and not lose.
The third World Cup which took place in South America, saw England qualify by successfully qualifying from the group, which contained Portugal and Luxembourg, defeating Luxembourg on both occasions, and defeating Portugal at home, and drawing in Lisbon.
At the finals, England were drawn in a group with Hungary, Argentina and Bulgaria. England defeated Argentina 3 - 1, thanks to goals from Ron Flowers, Bobby Charlton and Jimmy Greaves, before playing out a goalless draw with Bulgaria, and a 2 -- 1 defeat to Hungary.
England finished in second place behind Hungary and played the winners of group 3, defending champions Brazil, in the quarter - finals. Brazil scored first through Garrincha, before an equaliser for Gerry Hitchens before half time. However, second - half goals from Garrincha and Vavá meant Brazil won the game 3 -- 1, and eliminated England from the competition. This defeat was manager Walter Winterbottom 's last game in charge. Winterbottom had led England to four World Cup Finals. From May 1963, Alf Ramsey became the manager of England.
In the 1966 World Cup Finals, England used their home advantage and, under Ramsey, won their first, and only, World Cup title. England played all their games at Wembley Stadium in London, which became the last time that the hosts were granted this privilege. After drawing 0 -- 0 in the opening game against former champions Uruguay, which started a run of four games all ending goalless. England then beat both France and Mexico 2 -- 0 and qualified for the quarter - finals.
The quarter - finals saw England play Argentina, which ended in a 1 -- 0 win to England. This match saw the start of the rivalry between England and Argentina, when Argentinian Antonio Rattín was dismissed by German referee Rudolf Kreitlein in a very fierce game. A 2 -- 1 win against Portugal in the semi-final then followed. Portugal were the first team to score against England in the tournament. The final saw England play West Germany, with the result finishing in a 4 -- 2 win for England, after extra time.
1970 saw the first World Cup finals take place in North America and England qualified automatically for the tournament by winning the 1966 FIFA World Cup. England were drawn in a group with Romania, former world champions Brazil and Czechoslovakia. Each of the matches only saw one goal, with England defeating Romania and Czechoslovakia, and losing to Brazil. The quarter - final saw a repeat of the 1966 final, with England playing West Germany. England were hampered by the fact that first - choice goalkeeper Gordon Banks was ill, and Peter Bonetti played instead. England led 2 -- 0 with goals by Alan Mullery and Martin Peters, but in the 70th minute, Franz Beckenbauer pulled one goal back for West Germany.
After Beckenbauer 's goal, Ramsey substituted Bobby Charlton, who overtook Billy Wright as England 's most capped player ever, with caps totalling 106. Uwe Seeler equalised for the Germans in the eighty first minute, thereby taking the game into extra time. During extra time, Gerd Müller scored the winning goal for West Germany which saw the German side win 3 -- 2. This turned out to be Charlton 's last game for England.
For the first time, England did not qualify for a World Cup. In a group with Olympic champions Poland and Wales, England could not overtake Poland. After only drawing at home to Wales 1 -- 1 and losing the first leg 2 -- 0 to Poland, meant that England had to beat Poland at home, whilst Poland only needed to draw. Poland managed to withstand England 's attacks in the first half, who had Martin Peters playing for them. Poland took the lead in the 57th minute with a goal from Jan Domarski.
England equalised six minutes later, with a penalty converted by Allan Clarke. England were unable to score any more goals with goalkeeper Jan Tomaszewski keeping England at bay. Brian Clough had previously called Tomaszewski a "clown ''. The commentator of the game then said "it 's all over ''. Poland took this good form to the finals and ended in third place. After failing to qualify, Alf Ramsey resigned from his post and after a time, where Ramsey and his predecessor had lasted a total of 29 years, no manager was able to last in the job for longer than eight years. This ended when Bobby Robson became England manager.
England also did not qualify for the fourth World Cup which took place in South America. This time, England were denied by Italy, who had scored three more goals than England after both teams finished on the same points. Goals scored dictated who qualified after the head - to - head record between the two sides finished the same, following a 2 -- 0 home win for each team. The lower - ranked teams in the group were Finland and Luxembourg, but the size of the wins against them proved to be decisive. Nevertheless, Ron Greenwood was given a second chance in charge of England, after taking the role in 1977.
1982 saw the first time where the European Qualifying Rounds were divided into groups of five teams, where the top two teams qualify for the World Cup. Greenwood used his second chance and took England to Spain by finishing second behind Hungary and above Romania, Switzerland and Norway.
At the finals, England won all three group games, defeating France 3 - 1, with a brace from Bryan Robson, before beating Czechoslovakia 2 -- 0, with a Jozef Barmos own goal, and World Cup newcomers Kuwait 1 -- 0, thanks to a Trevor Francis goal.
The next round saw a second group stage consisting of three teams, a first time event at the World Cup. England drew with West Germany 0 -- 0 and after the Germans beat Spain 2 -- 1, England then had to beat Spain with a two - goal difference to progress to the next round. England, however, only managed a 0 -- 0 draw against the Spanish. England remained unbeaten at the end of the tournament. After the World Cup, Ron Greenwood 's time as England manager ended, and he was replaced by Bobby Robson.
1986 saw the second World Cup to take place in Mexico. England qualified for Mexico 1986 by winning four games and drawing four times against Northern Ireland, who qualified in second place, Romania, Finland and Turkey. In Mexico, England lost their opening game to Portugal 1 -- 0 and could only manage a goalless draw against Morocco. The final group game, however, saw England beat Poland 3 -- 0, which is one of the three highest scores for England at the World Cup, with Gary Lineker scoring a hat - trick.
This result took England to second place and finished behind Morocco. England then also beat Paraguay 3 -- 0 in the Round of 16. In the quarter - finals, England renewed their rivalry with Argentina in a game that has become notorious for the Argentina goals, both scored by Diego Maradona. Maradona 's first goal, known as the Hand of God, was illegal and should not have counted, as he used his hand to punch the ball into the net. However, the referee missed this infringement, and ruled that the goal should stand. Maradona then made the score 2 - 0, famously dribbling from inside Argentina 's half and around several English players before scoring. Gary Lineker pulled back the score to 2 - 1, but England ran out of time to equalise, and were eliminated. Nevertheless, Lineker finished with the Golden Boot by scoring six goals and thereby becoming England 's first Golden Boot winner.
By winning three and drawing three, England qualified for Italia ' 90, the second World Cup to be held in Italy, scoring ten goals and conceding none. England were unbeaten through qualification, winning three games, and drawing the remaining three, but still finished second to Sweden, whom they drew with twice. England profited from Romania 's 3 -- 1 win over Denmark, who, had they won, would have qualified as the third - best second - placed team. West Germany and England were able to qualify for Italia ' 90 as the best second - placed teams in the groups with four teams.
Because a few years previously saw English hooligans at European competition matches, England were forced to play their group games on Sardinia and Sicily. In group F, was the European champions Netherlands, the Republic of Ireland and Egypt and England. After opening the tournament with a 1 -- 1 draw against Ireland and a 0 -- 0 draw against the Dutch, England then beat Egypt 1 -- 0. This was Egypt 's first appearance since the 1934 World Cup. England won the group with four points.
In the next round, England had to play Belgium. The game went to extra time, and in the hundredth and nineteenth minute, David Platt scored the winning goal. England also had to play extra time against Cameroon in the quarter - finals. Cameroon were the first African team to have reached the quarter - finals. England opened the scoring through David Platt, but Cameroon quickly turned around the game to lead 2 - 1. Lineker subsequently won and scored a penalty in the 83rd minute to ensure the game went to extra time. He then scored a second penalty, to see England reach the semi-finals.
In the semi-finals, England met West Germany. There was no separating the two teams after 90 minutes, which made England the first team to have played extra time in three successive World Cup games. There was also no separating the two teams after extra time, thereby taking the game to penalties.
Although English goalkeeper Peter Shilton dived the right way for every penalty, he was unable to save any. German goalkeeper Bodo Illgner, having failed to save any of England 's first three penalties, saved England 's fourth penalty, taken by Stuart Pearce. Olaf Thon then scored for Germany, meaning that England 's Chris Waddle would have to score his fifth penalty and hope that Shilton saved the Germans ' fifth penalty. However, Waddle 's penalty missed completely, going high over the crossbar, thereby resulting in England 's being knocked out of the competition. The third - place playoff between England and Italy saw England lose their only game of the tournament in normal time. Even though this was England 's best finish since the 1966 World Cup, Bobby Robson 's time as England manager had come to an end.
For the 1994 World Cup in the United States, under the leadership of new manager Graham Taylor, England surprisingly did not qualify for the tournament. In a group with six teams, England lost to Norway and the Netherlands, finishing third above Poland, Turkey and San Marino.
England went into their final game with San Marino knowing they would need a seven - goal victory and for Poland to beat the Netherlands in the other match in order to qualify. In the game against San Marino, Davide Gualtieri scored against England after nine seconds, taking the lead for the outsiders. England went on to win 7 -- 1, which was too small a goal margin. Additionally, despite the half - time score between the Poles and the Dutch being 1 - 1, the Dutch went on to win 3 - 1, meaning that however many goals England scored, they could still not qualify. Taylor 's tenure in charge ended and he was replaced by Terry Venables, who was dismissed after England lost the semi-final of Euro 1996, hosted in England.
After missing out on the World Cup in 1994, England, managed by Glenn Hoddle, qualified for the World Cup in France. England were drawn in Group 2 of UEFA qualifying with Italy, Poland, Georgia and Moldova. England beat Poland, Georgia and Moldova both home and away, but a home defeat to Italy in their fourth match meant they went into the final qualifier at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome just a point ahead of the Azzurri and only needing a draw to qualify automatically; defeat would see them have to navigate a play - off to secure qualification. The match finished as a goalless draw and England finished top of the group.
At the finals in France, England played in Group G. England defeated Tunisia 2 -- 0 in the first game, with goals from Alan Shearer and Paul Scholes. Their second match saw England lose 2 -- 1 to Romania; despite an 81st - minute equaliser from Michael Owen, Dan Petrescu scored a winner shortly before injury time. In their final group game, England defeated Colombia 2 -- 0 in the decisive match, thanks to goals from midfielders Darren Anderton and David Beckham. England finished second in Group G, which saw them qualify for the last 16 phase, and play the winner of 1998 FIFA World Cup Group H, Argentina.
In a fiery game containing six yellow cards and two penalties, David Beckham was controversially sent off in the 47th minute for what many felt was at most a yellow card offence, knocking over Diego Simeone. Gabriel Batistuta opened the scoring from the penalty spot in the fifth minute of the game, before an equaliser also from the spot by Alan Shearer four minutes later. England took the lead through Owen, in the 16th minute. Argentina drew level through Javier Zanetti in injury time of the first half.
The game finished 2 - 2, and, as neither team were able to find a winner in extra time, penalties were needed to decide the team that qualified to the next round. While David Seaman did save one penalty, Argentine goalkeeper Carlos Roa managed to save two, including the vital one from David Batty, thereby knocking England out of the World Cup. Beckham subsequently received death threats and was sent bullets in the post.
In 2002 the World Cup took place in Asia for the first time. England, under its first ever foreign manager in Swedish Sven - Göran Eriksson, were able to qualify for the tournament. England were drawn in Group 9, alongside Germany, Finland, Greece and Albania. In the last ever game in the original Wembley Stadium, (which closed after the match) England played Germany, losing 1 -- 0, the only goal scored by Dietmar Hamann. The match was the last under the management of Kevin Keegan, who resigned at the end of the match, and was replaced by Eriksson. By beating Germany 5 -- 1 in Munich, England 's qualifying campaign was revitalised, and they qualified automatically, by drawing 2 -- 2 with Greece. Germany, who could only draw 0 -- 0 with Finland, had to play a play - off game against Ukraine, with England qualifying ahead winning the group.
In Japan, England had to play against Eriksson 's homeland, Sweden, and both settled out for a 1 -- 1 draw. England and Beckham gained a measure of revenge for their previous 1998 defeat in defeating Argentina 1 - 0, thanks to a Beckham penalty. However, England could only manage a disappointing 0 - 0 draw against Nigeria, meaning that although they were able to qualify for the second round, where they played Denmark, they qualified as runners up, which meant that they would meet favourites Brazil in the quarter - finals if they qualified.
England played Denmark in the round of 16 defeating Denmark 3 -- 0, thanks to goals from Micheal Owen, Rio Ferdinand, and Emile Heskey. England played four - time World Cup winners and 1998 runners - up Brazil in the quarter - finals. Despite leading through a Michael Owen goal, a mistake by David Seaman saw England lose 2 -- 1, and Brazil won their fourth World Cup match against England, and went on to win the tournament.
England were drawn into Group 6 of European qualifying for the 2006 World Cup. The group featured other home nations in Wales, and Northern Ireland, as well as Poland (who had eliminated England the last time the World Cup took place in Germany), Azerbaijan and Austria. England won eight of the 10 games, and qualified as group winners, in front of Portugal, despite drawing to Austria in Vienna, and losing to Northern Ireland in Belfast.
In Germany, however, England were less convincing. England played in Group B, alongside Paraguay, Trinidad and Tobago, and Sweden. England started with a 1 -- 0 win against Paraguay; which was won due to a 3rd minute own goal. The second game against first time qualifiers Trinidad and Tobago saw England have to wait until the 83rd minute for England to take the lead, with Peter Crouch opened the scoring with a goal many felt was illegal, and the second goal of the game coming in added time from Steven Gerrard. The last group game saw England play against Sweden, where an eventual 2 - 2 draw saw them qualify for the next round as group winners, thereby avoiding playing hosts Germany.
In the last 16 stage, a free kick from David Beckham saw England win 1 -- 0 against Ecuador and reach the quarter - finals, where they faced Portugal. The game finished goalless, and England once again were knocked out on penalties and Portuguese goalkeeper Ricardo became the first goalkeeper to save three penalties in a penalty shoot - out. Ricardo saved from Frank Lampard, Steven Gerrard, and Jamie Carragher; the only England player who successfully converted his penalty was Owen Hargreaves. Portugal won the shoot - out 3 - 1, despite misses from Petit and Hugo Viana. This game was also Erickson 's final match as England manager.
Qualification for the first African World Cup went successfully for new England manager Fabio Capello, after previous manager Steve McClaren was unable to secure qualification to the Euro 2008. By winning nine times and only losing to Ukraine, England qualified ahead of Croatia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Andorra. England 's group was seen as a favourable one, containing comparatively much weaker teams. However, England opened up their campaign with a 1 -- 1 draw against the United States, thanks to a major error by goalkeeper Robert Green. They then drew 0 -- 0 against Algeria and were booed off the field by their own fans, drawing the ire of striker Wayne Rooney. England eventually qualified for the next round by beating Slovenia 1 -- 0, but only qualified as runners up to the United States, thereby meaning they would draw favourites Germany.
In the second round match, Germany took the lead after 20 minutes after goalkeeper Manuel Neuer played the ball down the pitch to Miroslav Klose, who opened the scoring. The score became 2 -- 0 to Germany after 32 minutes. Shortly after, England defender Matthew Upson scored a header. Later, Frank Lampard had a shot at goal which was disallowed despite crossing the line; which was confirmed on replays. German goalkeeper Manuel Neuer admitted subsequently he knew the ball had crossed the line, but decided to deceive the referee. The German media reported it was "revenge for Wembley '', while the English media criticised FIFA 's refusal to implement goal - line technology. Ironically, despite his earlier opposition to goal - line technology, Sepp Blatter said that it should be introduced after a Ukrainian goal against England at Euro 2012 was ruled out. As England tried to equalise, Germany used this to their advantage and scored two more goals. This became Germany 's biggest win against England in a World Cup, winning 4 - 1.
Under Roy Hodgson, who replaced Fabio Capello after Euro 2012 after a disagreement between Capello and The FA, England qualified for the second World Cup to be held in Brazil. Ukraine were again one of the opponents in the qualifying rounds. The other opponents included Montenegro, Poland, Moldova and San Marino. After winning six games and drawing four, England qualified unbeaten.
The draw for the finals saw England have to play against Italy and Uruguay, both former world champions, which meant that it was the first ever time three World Champions were drawn in the same group, along with Costa Rica. England lost to Italy and Uruguay, and were thus knocked out after two games. The final match against Costa Rica finished as a goalless draw. This performance was statistically their worst ever performance at a World Cup, ending up with just one point after two losses to Uruguay and Italy and a goalless draw with Costa Rica in the dead rubber match, their lowest points total in the group stage of a world cup.
England played in UEFA Group F in qualification for the 2018 World Cup, in a group of six with Slovakia, Slovenia, Scotland, Lithuania and Malta, with only the winner of the group guaranteed qualification. England went into the qualification process under manager Sam Allardyce, only for Allardyce to leave the post after just one game due to controversy regarding discussing breaking FIFA rules.
Under Allardyce 's replacement, Gareth Southgate, England went undefeated throughout qualification, winning eight matches out of 10, drawing with Slovenia 0 -- 0 in Ljubljana, and drawing 2 -- 2 with Scotland in Glasgow thanks to a 90th - minute equaliser from Harry Kane. This was the third successive major tournament that England were undefeated, having been undefeated in 2014 World Cup, and Euro 2016 qualifying.
Under Gareth Southgate, the England team began their tournament in group G against Tunisia. The game started well for England with a goal from Harry Kane in the 11th minute. Tunisia equalised through Sassi from the penalty spot in the 35th minute following a foul by Kyle Walker. Some controversy followed as various potential offences against Harry Kane, inside the penalty area were ignored by the referee and no VAR checks were carried out. England persevered and scored a second goal in the 91st minute, again by Harry Kane, resulting in a 2 -- 1 victory.
In the second group stage match, England surpassed their record for goals scored in a World Cup match by beating Panama 6 - 1. Jesse Lingard scored the third goal, John Stones scored the first and fourth goals and Harry Kane scored a hat - trick with the second, fifth and sixth goals.
In the final group stage match, England narrowly lost 1 - 0 to Belgium. Adnan Januzaj scored the sole goal of the game; but with both teams having fielded reserve teams, with England specificially making 9 changes. Before the game media outlets stating that a loss could potentially become beneficial, as the winner would be in the half of the draw with four of the top seven sides in the world. The result that meant Belgium topped the group and England finished second, setting up a last 16 clash with Group H winners Colombia.
England played their last 16 match in the Otkritie Arena, Moscow, with the same team as against Tunisia. Harry Kane scored his sixth goal of the tournament, and the third penalty, after once again being fouled in the box from a corner, similarly as against Panama. The score remained at 1 - 0, until stoppage time, where a header from Yerry Mina beat Jordan Pickford in goal to bring the game to extra time. Neither team managed to score in extra time, and the match went to penalties, which England won 4 - 3. As well as being the first knockout match England had won at a major tournament since 2006 (last defeating Ecuador in the last 16); it was the first time England won a World Cup penalty shoot - out. The match was notable for the heated atmosphere the game was played in, with a total of eight yellow cards being shown in the match.
England played against Sweden in their quarter - final at Cosmos Arena, Samara on 7 July 2018. They won the match 2 -- 0, with defender Harry Maguire scoring his first England goal, a header scored from a corner, and Dele Alli a second header from close range. This would send them through to their third World Cup semi-final and their first since 1990, and third overall. The team played Croatia in the semi-final, resulting in a 2 -- 1 loss after extra time. England would later finish fourth in the competition, the best result since 1990. England would lose again to Belgium in the 3rd place playoff, thanks to goals from Thomas Meunier and Eden Hazard, despite a Eric Dier shot being cleared off the line by Toby Alderweireld.
The tournament would see England score nine goals from set - pieces -- the most by a team in a single World Cup tournament since 1966.
Last update: 14 July 2018
Current as of 3 July 2018 after the match against Colombia
Historically, very few English World Cup squad members were playing for a club in a foreign league at the time of their selection to the national squad.
Team Awards
Individual Awards
Team Records
Individual Records
Four FIFA World Cup finals were officiated by English referees, more than by any other football association. The first Englishman to officiate a final, George Reader, is also the oldest World Cup referee to date, as he was 53 years and 236 days old at the 1950 decisive match between Uruguay and Brazil. The other final referees are William Ling (1954), Jack Taylor (1974) and Howard Webb (2010).
Arthur Ellis, who was a linesman at the 1950 final, is part of an elite group of referees who has been called up for three consecutive World Cups (1950 -- 1958).
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who landed the first quad in figure skating | Quad (Figure Skating) - wikipedia
A quad, or quadruple, is a figure skating jump with at least four but less than five revolutions. Most quadruple jumps have exactly four revolutions; the quadruple Axel has 41⁄2 revolutions, although no figure skater to date has completed this jump in competition. The quadruple toe loop and quadruple Salchow are the two most commonly skated in the discipline. Quadruple jumps have become increasingly common among World and Olympic level men 's single skaters, to the point that not having one in a program may be considered a handicap.
In singles competition for men:
In singles competition for ladies, only Miki Ando has landed a ratified quadruple jump. In pair skating competition, top skaters are executing either quad throw jumps or quad twist lifts.
A jump harness is often employed in training quads. Max Aaron stated that the smallest error may make the difference in the success of a quad attempt: "The minute your left arm is behind you, or your three - turn is too fast, if your hips do n't turn in time, if your foot is n't in the right place, anything will throw you off. '' Ross Miner stated that the quality of the ice sometimes plays a role but more on the quad salchow than the toe loop. Practicing quads increases the risk of injury and wear and tear on a skater 's body.
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what does if a body catch a body comin thro the rye mean | Comin ' thro ' the rye - wikipedia
"Comin ' Thro ' the Rye '' is a poem written in 1782 by Robert Burns (1759 -- 96). The words are put to the melody of the Scottish Minstrel Common ' Frae The Town. This is a variant of the tune to which Auld Lang Syne is usually sung -- the melodic shape is almost identical, the difference lying in the tempo and rhythm.
G.W. Napier, in an 1876 Notes and Queries, wrote that,
The original words of "Comin ' thro ' the rye '' can not be satisfactorily traced. There are many different versions of the song. The version which is now to be found in the Works of Burns is the one given in Johnson 's Museum, which passed through the hands of Burns; but the song itself, in some form or other, was known long before Burns.
The protagonist, "Jenny '', is not further identified, but there has been reference to a "Jenny from Dalry '' and a longstanding legend in the Drakemyre suburb of the town of Dalry, North Ayrshire, holds that "comin thro ' the rye '' describes crossing a ford through the Rye Water at Drakemyre to the north of the town, downstream from Ryefield House and not far from the confluence of the Rye with the River Garnock. When this story appeared in the Glasgow Herald in 1867, it was soon disputed with the assertion that everyone understood the rye to be a field of rye, wet with dew, which also fits better with other stanzas that substitute "wheat '' and "grain '' for "rye ''. An alternative suggestion is that "the rye '' was a long narrow cobblestone paved lane, prone to puddles of water.
While the original poem is already full of sexual imagery, an alternative version makes this more explicit. It has a different chorus, referring to a phallic "staun o ' staunin ' graith '' (roughly "an erection of astonishing size ''), "kiss '' is replaced by "fuck '', and Jenny 's "thing '' in stanza four is identified as her "cunt ''.
O, Jenny 's a ' weet, poor body, Jenny 's seldom dry: She draigl 't a ' her petticoatie, Comin thro ' the rye! Chorus: Comin thro ' the rye, poor body, Comin thro ' the rye, She draigl 't a ' her petticoatie, Comin thro ' the rye! Gin a body meet a body Comin thro ' the rye, Gin a body kiss a body, Need a body cry? (chorus) Gin a body meet a body Comin thro ' the glen Gin a body kiss a body, Need the warl ' ken? (chorus) Gin a body meet a body Comin thro ' the grain; Gin a body kiss a body, The thing 's a body 's ain. (chorus)
Even the "cleaner '' version of the Burns lyrics is very bawdy, and it is this one, or an "Anglized '' version of it, that is most commonly "covered ''.
Gin a body meet a body Comin ' thro ' the rye Gin a body kiss a body Need a body cry? Chorus: Ilka lassie has her laddie Nane, they say, hae I Yet a ' the lads they smile at me When comin ' thro ' the rye. Gin a body meet a body Comin ' frae the town Gin a body kiss a body Need a body frown? (Chorus) Gin a body meet a body, Comin ' frae the well, Gin a body kiss a body, Need a body tell? (Chorus) ' Mang the train there is a swain I dearly lo'e myself But what his name or whaur his hame I dinna care to tell (Chorus)
The title of the novel The Catcher in the Rye (1951) by J.D. Salinger comes from the poem 's name. Holden Caulfield, the protagonist, misinterprets a part of this poem to mean "if a body catch a body '' rather than "if a body meet a body. '' He keeps picturing children playing in a field of rye near the edge of a cliff, and him catching them when they start to fall off.
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an important ottonian church was built at hildesheim under | Hildesheim cathedral - wikipedia
Hildesheim Cathedral (German: Hildesheimer Dom), officially the Cathedral of the Assumption of Mary (German: St. Mariä Himmelfahrt), is a medieval Roman Catholic cathedral in the city centre of Hildesheim, Germany, that has been on the UNESCO World Cultural Heritage list since 1985, together with the nearby St. Michael 's Church.
The cathedral church was built between 1010 and 1020 in the Romanesque style. It follows a symmetrical plan with two apses, that is characteristic of Ottonian Romanesque architecture in Old Saxony. The cathedral 's treasures include world - famous artworks, bronze works from the time of Bishop Bernward, Bernward Doors and Bernward Column, as well as two of the four notable Romanesque wheel chandeliers: the Hezilo chandelier and the Azelin chandelier.
After renovations and extensions in the 11th, 12th and 14th centuries, the cathedral was completely destroyed during an air raid on 22 March 1945 and rebuilt from 1950 to 1960. A thorough renovation of the cathedral began in 2010, including technical and conservation measures. Some of the cathedral 's treasures have been shown further afield, including at an exhibition at New York 's Metropolitan Museum of Art. The cathedral was reopened on 15 August 2014.
After the establishment of the Diocese of Hildesheim in 815 by Louis the Pious, a Chapel of St. Mary was built on the locations of the modern apse. Bishop Gunthar of Hildesheim, who was in office from 815 to 834, had a small basilica with two round towers built immediately to the south of the chapel, which he dedicated to Saint Cecilia. This served as the original cathedral and Stift church. The first four bishops were buried there. Only traces of the foundations of these two buildings remain. An older Hildesheim parish church probably once stood on the site of the Chapel of Saint Stephen next to the gatehouse at the eastern entrance to the chapel of St. Hellweg, which might date back to Hildegrim of Châlons and his expedition to East Saxony.
The Cathedral was built in 872 under Bishop Altfrid as a cruciform three - aisled basilica with a two - story westwork. It is an example of Ottonian architecture, with alternating column support and semi circular apses completing the naves. The building suffered severe fire damage in 1046. Bishop Azelin planned to erect a new, larger building further to the west and to extend the nave. His successor, Hezilo of Hildesheim, abandoned this plan and instead built on the old foundations, incorporating the surviving walls into the new building. Further important renovations occurred up to the end of the fourteenth century but did not deviate from the ground plan of Bishop Altfrid 's basilica. The north and south side chapels date from the gothic period and the tower above the crossing from the baroque period. In the nineteenth century, the original westwork was replaced by a Neo-Romanesque two - tower facade, which stood until 1945.
The Hildesheim Cathedral School (Hildesheimer Domschule, de), which had rooms in the cloisters, was one of the most significant educational institutions of the Ottonian and Salian periods. Its library has served as the Hildesheim Cathedral library (German: Dombibliothek Hildesheim) since 815; it is the oldest library in Northern Germany.
Foundation of the first cathedral under the crypt dating from 815
Crossing and northern side chapels
Cloister, built from 1060 to 1070
Cloister with St. Anne 's Chapel, c. 1845
Westwork before 1840
Neo-Romanesque westwork, 1890
Anne 's chapel
Hezilo chandelier in the crossing, 2009
During the aerial bombardment of Hildesheim by the RAF and RCAF in World War II, the main building was almost entirely destroyed; only the westwork and the outer walls survived. Of the ancillary buildings, only the Gothic Anne 's chapel (Annenkapelle), erected in 1321 in the middle of the cathedral 's courtyard, was mostly undamaged. It was the only cathedral in Germany that had to be newly consecrated after its reconstruction, on 27 March 1960 by Bishop Heinrich Maria Janssen.
The building was rebuilt between 1950 and 1960 in a simplified form. The baroque elements were abandoned in favour of a form which took its cue from the early Romanesque style. The most visible aspect of this on the exterior was that upper stories, and side towers added to the westwork in 1840 were not restored, and the westwork was reconstructed closer to its earlier state based on the model of the westwork of Minden Cathedral. In addition, the gatehouse in front of the westwork was reduced by about half. Otherwise, the exterior appeared as it had done before the destruction -- in particular, the baroque crossing - tower was rebuilt.
The reconstruction was carried out under tight constraints. Because of the lack of sandstone tiles, the floor was relaid in marble. The roofs of the nave, transept, and cloisters were cast in concrete and covered with wooden boards on the inside to recall the appearance of ceiling beams. The interior walls, as well as the walls of the nave, were rebuilt in brick and limestone, hidden from view by a dimension stone coating on the outside and by a coat of smooth plaster on the inside. The ground level was raised by 60 cm, which resulted in the rooms having a squat appearance, especially in the transepts. The columns of the nave were cast in concrete, and the pilasters were coated in sandstone.
The reconsecration took until 1960 to complete because of various problems, chiefly the "Hildesheim Cathedral construction dispute '' (Hildesheimer Dombaustreit), an argument between the Diocese of Hildesheim and the Land of Lower Saxony about the cost of the reconstruction and particularly about whether Lower Saxony was one of the legal successors of the Free State of Prussia which had undertaken to cover the cathedral 's building expenses in 1803 (when it was still the Kingdom of Prussia) during the process of German mediatization. The parties reached a settlement in 1957.
After many years of planning, a thorough renovation of the cathedral began in January 2010, the first since 1960. Along with technical and conservation measures, there were alterations to the design. The floor was lowered to the original level, the Hezilo and Azelin chandeliers were restored to their places in the nave and the high choir, and Bernward Doors were again mounted facing outwards, behind an antechamber, as originally intended. In addition, a bishop 's crypt was created.
On 10 January 2010, the cathedral was closed for the work to begin. During the reconstruction, the basilica of St. Godehard served as the bishop 's church (cathedra), as it had in the postwar years. The cathedral renovation was the largest church construction project in Germany. The solemn reopening of the cathedral was on 15 August 2014, coinciding with the beginning of the Diocese 's 1200 year jubilee.
The cathedral building is widely known for the "Thousand - year Rose '' (Tausendjähriger Rosenstock) which grows outside the building on the outer wall of the apse in the courtyard of the cloisters. The exact age of the rose is no longer precisely known, but the legend of the rose bush claims that it dates to 815. It is an important symbol of Hildesheim - according to folklore, as long as the bush flourishes, Hildesheim will prosper.
According to the story, Emperor Louis the Pious had to hold a Mass while out hunting in the middle of the forest. For this purpose, a reliquary of St. Mary which he had with him was hung from the branch of a wild rose. After the mass, the reliquary could not be removed from the branch. The Emperor considered this a sign that the new bishopric should be established here (not in Elze as he had planned) and he should dedicate it to St. Mary, whose symbol is the rose.
The existence of the rose bush has been attested for at least four hundred years. The aerial bombardment of 22 March 1945 which damaged the cathedral and the apse also killed the main growth of the rose bush above the ground; under the rubble, only the charred stump of the rose remained. It was thought that the end of the famous rose had come, but the roots were largely intact, and in the spring of 1945 it put out 25 new shoots. The first sparse flowers bloomed in 1947, and by 1948 there were 122 flowers. Since then, the new branches of the "Thousand - year Rose '' (as it was already known before the bombing) have been marked with little metal signs with the year in which they first appeared. It is believed to be the oldest living rose in the world.
In excavations during the 2010 - 2014 renovations of the cathedral, ninth - century foundations of the St. Mary 's chapel were found. The first cathedral building was a small church measuring 6 x 6 m with an apse to the east. The remains of the first altar were found in the apse. The foundations of this first cathedral building consist of sandstone and are extraordinarily thick.
An even older cemetery was found to the west and south. Twenty graves were uncovered, including, in August 2012, the skeleton of a young woman who died around 800, with glass beads (the remnants of a necklace) and a little knife as grave goods. This is the oldest complete burial ever found in Hildesheim cathedral.
The cathedral houses numerous works of art. These include the world - famous cast - bronze doors, depicting scenes from the Gospels and the Book of Genesis; and a cast - bronze column depicting scenes from the life of Christ. These bronzeworks date from the early 11th century and were commissioned by Bishop Bernward of Hildesheim. (The column was originally in St Michael 's, where Bernward was buried, and has been moved there again during the restoration of the cathedral, possibly to stay.)
There are also four notable Romanesque wheel chandeliers, also called corona or circular chandeliers, the larger Hezilo chandelier (Heziloleuchter), and the older Azelin chandelier (Azelinleuchter). The Ringelheim Crucifix was made c. 1000 from linden wood for the body and oak for the arms.
Other treasures include:
During the 2010 - 2014 renovations, many religious items from the Cathedral were displayed at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, until 5 January 2014.
Bernward Column
Bronze baptismal font
Shrine of St. Epiphanius
Statue of Bishop Godehard
The history of the organ in Hildesheim Cathedral goes back to the fourteenth century. By 1378 there was an organ in the north aisle, above the chapel of the Three Kings. This instrument was moved to the Godehard choir in the fifteenth century and was sold in 1713.
The first large cathedral organ was built by master organ - builder Conrad Abtt (Minden), probably in 1616 / 7. The instrument had 31 registers in two manuals and pedals. Over the course of time the instrument was repeatedly rebuilt, expanded, and extended, especially at the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth centuries. A complete rebuild by the organ - builders Furtwängler & Hammer (Hannover) in 1909, after which the organ had 54 registers in three manuals and pedals, is particularly important. Its original appearance remained largely intact through the course of all these renovations, but on 22 March 1945 the organ was destroyed in the air raid on Hildesheim.
During the restoration of the cathedral, the organ builder Franz Breil (Dorsten) built a new organ with 52 registers in four manuals. The instrument was completed in 1960. As well as the usual works (main organ, chair organ, choir organ and pedals), this organ included a unique feature - a Spanish reed organ with three registers, which could be played from the fourth manual.
Breil 's organ proved insufficiently sonorous, so in 1989 it was rebuilt using new techniques and expanded to 66 registers by the organ firm Klais (Bonn). By arrangement with the heritage society, the organ 's appearance, which reflected the stylistic fashions of the 1950s and 60s, was retained, as were the pipes and housing.
In the course of the renovations, the organ firm Seifert (Kevelaer) are constructing a new cathedral organ system from the existing organ, consisting of a main organ and a choir organ. The system should be complete for the diocese 's 1200th jubilee in 2015. The main organ was dismantled in February 2010 to make way for this new organ.
The new main organ should have 77 registers in five manuals (able to be played at a four manual console) and pedals. The 56 registers and the windchests of the old organ will be reused. Since the choir and organ gallery were demolished during the renovation, the new main organ 's appearance will be modified and it will be adjusted to suit the new acoustic environment.
A new choir organ will be built in the nave for the accompaniment of the choir, which will henceforth be in the front portion of the cathedral. The slider chest organ will have 20 registers (including a half - draw register in its main organ, as well as two borrowed stops and a derived quint in the pedal) in two manuals and a pedal. The choir organ will be capable of being played along with the main organ.
Until the Second World War, the cathedral contained over sixteen ringing and quarter bells. The basis of the pre-war peal was five great bells with the tones F - sharp, A, C - sharp, F - sharp, G - sharp. Nine bells of the pre-war peal survived the war; the great Godehard bell in the west tower was so severely damaged in an air raid that it could no longer be rung. The Bernard bell is in the Bell cemetery in Hamburg and was irreparably damaged during transport there. Two bells were capable of being reused: the historical Apostolica bell of bellfounder Johann Martin Roth of Mainz (1765), which could be integrated into the new peal, and another historic bell of Johann Martin Roth, the Nikolaus bell, which was originally hung in the crossing tower and was moved to the Nordparadies in 2010.
After the Second World War it was planned to create a 12 - toned peal, with six great bells in the west tower and six smaller bells in the crossing tower (the planned tones: G, B - flat, C, E-flat, F and G). At first only a six tone peal was produced. In 1960 the bellfounder Friedrich Wilhelm Schilling (de) (Heidelberg) cast five new bells, which were installed in the west tower together with the Apostolica bell. In the lower belfry of the tower hung the three deepest bells (1 - 3), while the three smaller bells (4 -- 6) were in the upper belfry. The new peal (co-ordinated with the bells of the surrounding churches) was a semitone deeper than the original, so the Apostolica bell had to be tuned a semitone lower to fit with the new bells.
Since the quarter bells had also been destroyed in the Second World War, the quarter - hour chimes were now struck by bell No. 5, the chime on the hour by bell No. 4 and the chime at noon by bell No. 1. Bell No. 6 was used for the call to worship (the Angelusglocke).
In the course of the 2010 - 14 renovation, the peal is being expanded by six bells to the 12 - tone peal which had originally been planned in the 1960s, though, the tone sequence will be slightly different. The new cathedral bells will be named after witnesses of the faith, who enjoy particular veneration in the Diocese of Hildesheim. Thus bell No. 8 will be named for Bishop Altfrid, one of the most important bishops of Hildesheim, who secured large contributions for the construction of the Cathedral. Bell No. 9 will be named after Hedwig of Schlesien (or of Andechs), patron of refugees - since many refugees came to Hildesheim after the Second World War and were crucial in shaping it.
In 2013 the old yoke in the upper belfry was taken apart and replaced by a new yoke of oak. It will hold the six new bells and some of the old ones. In the lower belfry the deepest bells will remain in place.
On 16 November 2013 the new bells were cast by Glockengießerei Bachert (de) (Karlsruhe).
The Cantabona bell is the second biggest of Lower - Saxony after the Christus - und Friedensglocke (Bell of Christ and Peace) in the Marktkirche, Hanover.
Hildesheim Cathedral was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1985.
On 15 August 2014, the cathedral was reopened after restoration. Bishop Norbert Trelle opened the Bernward doors and entered the cathedral, followed by 30 other bishops and guests including the Protestant bishop Christoph Meyns (de), Robert Zollitsch, Stephan Weil and Christian Wulff. Trelle said in his sermon: "Die Kirche muss auf die Zukunft hin leben, so wie sie aus der Vergangenheit heraus lebt. '' (The church has to live towards a future, as it lives from by the past). He added, regarding the situation in Syria: "Während wir hier einen Dom wiedereröffnen, brennen dort die Kirchen. '' (While we reopen a cathedral here, churches are burnt there). The cathedral was restored to an appearance closer to the original building from the medieval age, for example a ceiling inserted after World War II was removed, and the original floor level restored. A new altar was created by Ulrich Rückriem.
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who is responsible for creating the standards used on the internet | Internet Standard - wikipedia
In computer network engineering, an Internet Standard is a normative specification of a technology or methodology applicable to the Internet. Internet Standards are created and published by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
Engineering contributions to the IETF start as an Internet Draft, may be promoted to a Request for Comments, and may eventually become an Internet Standard.
An Internet Standard is characterized by technical maturity and usefulness. The IETF also defines a Proposed Standard as a less mature but stable and well - reviewed specification. A Draft Standard is a third classification that was discontinued in 2011. A Draft Standard was an intermediary step that occurred after a Proposed Standard but prior to an Internet Standard.
As put in RFC 2026:
In general, an Internet Standard is a specification that is stable and well - understood, is technically competent, has multiple, independent, and interoperable implementations with substantial operational experience, enjoys significant public support, and is recognizably useful in some or all parts of the Internet.
An Internet Standard is documented by a Request for Comments (RFC) or a set of RFCs. A specification that is to become a Standard or part of a Standard begins as an Internet Draft, and is later, usually after several revisions, accepted and published by the RFC Editor as an RFC and labeled a Proposed Standard. Later, an RFC is elevated as Internet Standard, with an additional sequence number, when maturity has reached an acceptable level. Collectively, these stages are known as the Standards Track, and are defined in RFC 2026 and RFC 6410. The label Historic is applied to deprecated Standards Track documents or obsolete RFCs that were published before the Standards Track was established.
Only the IETF, represented by the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG), can approve Standards Track RFCs. The definitive list of Internet Standards is maintained in the Official Internet Protocol Standards. Previously, STD 1 used to maintain a snapshot of the list.
Becoming a standard is a two - step process within the Internet Standards Process: Proposed Standard and Internet Standard. These are called maturity levels and the process is called the Standards Track.
If an RFC is part of a proposal that is on the Standards Track, then at the first stage, the standard is proposed and subsequently organizations decide whether to implement this Proposed Standard. After the criteria in RFC 6410 is met (two separate implementations, widespread use, no errata etc.), the RFC can advance to Internet Standard.
The Internet Standards Process is defined in several "Best Current Practice '' documents, notably BCP 9 (currently RFC 2026 and RFC 6410). There were previously three standard maturity levels: Proposed Standard, Draft Standard and Internet Standard. RFC 6410 reduced this to two maturity levels.
RFC 2026 originally characterized Proposed Standards as immature specifications, but this stance was annulled by RFC 7127.
A Proposed Standard specification is stable, has resolved known design choices, has received significant community review, and appears to enjoy enough community interest to be considered valuable. Usually, neither implementation nor operational experience is required for the designation of a specification as a Proposed Standard.
Proposed Standards are of such quality that implementations can be deployed in the Internet. However, as with all technical specifications, Proposed Standards may be revised if problems are found or better solutions are identified, when experiences with deploying implementations of such technologies at scale is gathered.
Many Proposed Standards are actually deployed on the Internet and used extensively, as stable protocols. Actual practice has been that full progression through the sequence of standards levels is typically quite rare, and most popular IETF protocols remain at Proposed Standard.
In October 2011, RFC 6410 merged the second and third maturity levels into one Draft Standard. Existing older Draft Standards retain that classification. The IESG can reclassify an old Draft Standard as Proposed Standard after two years (October 2013).
An Internet Standard is characterized by a high degree of technical maturity and by a generally held belief that the specified protocol or service provides significant benefit to the Internet community. Generally Internet Standards cover interoperability of systems on the Internet through defining protocols, message formats, schemas, and languages. The most fundamental of the Internet Standards are the ones defining the Internet Protocol.
An Internet Standard ensures that hardware and software produced by different vendors can work together. Having a standard makes it much easier to develop software and hardware that link different networks because software and hardware can be developed one layer at a time. Normally, the standards used in data communication are called protocols.
All Internet Standards are given a number in the STD series. The series was summarized in its first document, STD 1 (RFC 5000), until 2013, but this practice was retired in RFC 7100. The definitive list of Internet Standards is now maintained by the RFC Editor.
Documents submitted to the IETF editor and accepted as an RFC are not revised; if the document has to be changed, it is submitted again and assigned a new RFC number. When an RFC becomes an Internet Standard (STD), it is assigned an STD number but retains its RFC number. When an Internet Standard is updated, its number is unchanged but refers to a different RFC or set of RFCs. For example, in 2007 RFC 3700 was an Internet Standard (STD 1) and in May 2008 it was replaced with RFC 5000. RFC 3700 received Historic status, and RFC 5000 became STD 1.
The list of Internet standards in RFC 5000 ends with STD 68 (RFC 5234, ABNF) published in 2008. It does not cover STD 69 (a set of five EPP RFCs), STD 70 (RFC 5652, CMS) published in 2009, STD 71 (RFC 6152, 8BITMIME), and STD 72 (RFC 6409, Mail Submission) published in 2011.
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cast of the movie ricki and the flash | Ricki and the Flash - wikipedia
Ricki and the Flash is a 2015 American comedy - drama film directed by Jonathan Demme and written by Diablo Cody, about a woman who leaves her family to become a rock star and later gets a chance to make amends. The film stars Meryl Streep, Mamie Gummer, Kevin Kline, Sebastian Stan, Rick Springfield, Audra McDonald, and Ben Platt. The film marks Streep and Kline 's third collaboration after Sophie 's Choice (1982) and A Prairie Home Companion (2006). It was Demme 's final dramatic film before his death in April 2017.
Principal photography began on October 13, 2014, in Rye, New York. TriStar Pictures financed, and released the film on August 7, 2015.
Ricki chased her dreams of becoming a famous rock star by abandoning her family. She gets a chance to put things right when her ex-husband Pete asks her to visit Indianapolis and help their estranged daughter Julie through a difficult time.
Ricki has a rock band that plays a regular gig at a small bar, when she is not working as a cashier to make ends meet. Julie recently attempted suicide because her husband cheated on her and is divorcing her. Despite being broke, Ricki comes to Indianapolis to help her daughter, but Julie is hostile. Likewise, her two sons are hostile and unwelcoming. One is gay and the other recently became engaged, though no one told their mother. Still, Ricki gets through to Julie. Unfortunately, her husband 's second wife, Maureen, returns unexpectedly, confronting Ricki with some hard truths. She was n't there for her children when they needed her and Maureen was. Ashamed, Ricki returns to her band in California angry and bitter, insulting her guitarist who is in love with her. He makes her realize he cares and they make love. Maureen sends Ricki an invitation to the son 's wedding as an olive branch, but Ricki ca n't afford to go. Her boyfriend sells his best guitar to pay for the tickets. Despite her attempts at reconciliation, she 's clearly still an outsider. The wedding guests look askance at Ricki when she gets up to toast the bride and groom. As her gift, having no money, she has her band take over and play for the guests. Her son and his bride start the wedding dance and slowly the guests join in.
Diablo Cody based the script in part on her mother - in - law Terry Cieri, who has fronted a New Jersey bar band for years. Cody said, "I watched her on stage so many times, and I thought to myself, ' This woman 's life is a movie. ' '' Cody specifically wrote the role of Ricki with Streep in her mind noting that actresses over 50 in Hollywood typically do n't get complicated parts. Streep 's costar is played by her real life daughter, Mamie Gummer marking the third film the two have made together, after 1986 's Heartburn and 2007 's Evening. ``
The film was dedicated to "Rick the Bass Player '', which is the stage name for Rick Rosas who played "Buster '', the Flash 's bass player in the movie.
Filming was first set to begin on October 1, 2014 in New York City. Principal photography officially began on October 13, 2014, in Rye, New York. On October 14, Streep was spotted filming some scenes at Numi & Co. Hair Salon in Rye. On November 3, 2014, she was also seen filming in Nyack, New York. The wedding sequence was shot at Untermyer Park in Yonkers, New York.
On May 6, 2014, Sony 's TriStar set the film for a June 26, 2015 release. The release date was later changed to August 7, 2015. The film was chosen as the opening selection for the 2015 Locarno Film Festival which was held on August 5, 2015 in Locarno, Switzerland.
Ricki and the Flash grossed $26.8 million in North America and $13.3 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $40.1 million, against a budget of $18 million.
The film grossed $6.6 million from 1,603 theaters in its opening weekend, finishing 7th at the box office. The film added 461 theaters in its second week (a total of 2,064 screens), but dropped to ninth place with $4.6 million (a decline of 31 percent). In its third week the film grossed $3 million from 2,013 screens.
The film opened in Italy on September 11, 2015 and came in fifth place with a weekend total of $413,800.
Ricki and the Flash has received mixed to positive reviews from critics. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 64 %, based on 160 reviews, with an average rating of 6 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Meryl Streep 's outstanding work helps Ricki and the Flash overcome its inconsistent tone and fairly - predictable premise. '' Metacritic gives the film a score of 54 out of 100, based on reviews from 36 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. CinemaScore announced that audiences gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale.
IGN gave the film a score of 7.8 / 10, saying, "Ricki and the Flash offers a breezy, heartwarming, if somewhat manufactured tale about an aging rocker reconnecting with her family ''.
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who played the deaf guy on chicago med | Chicago Med - wikipedia
Chicago Med is an American medical drama television series created by Dick Wolf and Matt Olmstead, and is the third installment of Dick Wolf 's Chicago franchise. The series premiered on NBC on November 17, 2015. Chicago Med follows the emergency department doctors and nurses of the fictional Gaffney Chicago Medical Center.
On May 9, 2018, NBC renewed the series for a fourth season. The season premiered on September 26, 2018.
Set in Chicago, Chicago Med is the third series in Dick Wolf 's Chicago franchise. It focuses on the emergency department at Gaffney Chicago Medical Center and on its doctors and nurses as they work to save patients ' lives. It sometimes crosses over with characters from Chicago Fire and Chicago P.D.
The series was greenlighted by NBC for the show 's pilot episode on May 1, 2015.
On August 21, 2015, Andrew Dettman stepped down as showrunner due to "creative differences '' following his appointment in June. Andrew Schneider and Diane Frolov were appointed as new showrunners on August 27, 2015.
NBC originally ordered 13 episodes for season one; on December 11, 2015, an additional 5 episodes were ordered, bringing the season to 18 episodes.
On February 1, 2016, NBC renewed the series for a second season. On May 15, 2016, it was announced that the series would be moving to Thursdays. The second season premiered on September 22, 2016.
On May 10, 2017, NBC renewed the series for a third season but opted to remove it from the fall schedule to midseason, after the premiere of Dick Wolf 's sixth Law & Order series Law & Order True Crime. The series moved back to Tuesdays after spending one season on Thursdays.
The Walking Dead star Laurie Holden was originally cast as Dr. Hannah Tramble, but dropped out due to "family reasons ''. On May 29, 2015, Arrow star Colin Donnell was cast as Dr. Connor Rhodes, the hospital 's newest ED physician. In July 2015, Jurassic World star Brian Tee joined the cast as Dr. Ethan Choi, an expert in infectious disease prevention and a Navy Reserve medical officer. Pretty Little Liars star Torrey DeVitto was cast on August 13, 2015, as Dr. Natalie Manning, the ED pediatrician. On August 14, 2015, Jane the Virgin star Rachel DiPillo was cast as Sarah Reese, a fourth - year medical student.
Metacritic 's aggregate score currently stands at 52 out of 100, based on 17 "mixed or average '' reviews. Meanwhile, Rotten Tomatoes gives the show a 48 % "rotten '' grade, with an average rating of 5.52 / 10.
Chicago Med airs on NBC and is available through the network 's streaming platforms, on demand and Hulu with previous season "stacking rights '' on the former, and pay - per - episode purchase via electronic sell - through platforms.
In Canada, the series airs on the Global Television Network and currently airs at the start of the week ahead of the NBC air date later in the week. In the UK, Chicago Med premiered on March 20, 2016, on Universal Channel in the United Kingdom and Ireland. The second season is set to air October 23, 2016. In Australia, the series debuted on November 23, 2016 on the Nine Network.
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when does chris brown's new album drop 2017 | Heartbreak on a Full Moon - wikipedia
Heartbreak on a Full Moon is the upcoming eighth studio album by American singer Chris Brown. The album is scheduled to release on October 31, 2017 by RCA Records. The track listing was announced by Brown on his Instagram account on May 1, 2017, and it will be a double album.
Brown started working and recording tracks for the album some weeks before the dropping of Royalty, his seventh studio album, in late 2015, then he continued working on the album during 2016 and 2017, also during his "The Party tour '', also building a recording studio inside of his house. Brown said about the album during an interview for Complex:
On January 10, 2016 Brown had previewed 11 unreleased songs on his Periscope and Instagram profiles, showing him dancing and lip - synching these songs. Later on January, February and March, 2016, he released videos on his Instagram profile where he was lip - synching snippets from the unreleased songs "Sirens '', "Lost And Found '', and "Dead Wrong ''.
On April 27 through Twitter, he announced the release of a new single on May 5. On May 3 he revealed that the single would be "Grass Ai n't Greener '', showing its cover art and announcing it as the first single from Heartbreak on a Full Moon. The single was released on May 5, 2016, the day of Brown 's 27th birthday, but it was not included on the album.
In November and December, 2016, he released videos on his Instagram profile where he was lip - synching snippets from other unreleased songs: "For Me '', "Post & Delete '', and "Yellow Tape ''.
On December 16, 2016, he released the first official single from the album, "Party '', that features guest vocals from American R&B singer Usher and rapper Gucci Mane. On January 4, 2017 Brown had previewed two snippets on his Instagram profile from the songs "Privacy '' and "Tell Me Baby '', then in February announced that "Privacy '' would have been released as the next single from Heartbreak on a Full Moon. The single was released on March 24, 2017.
The initial track listing was announced by Brown on his Instagram account on May 1, 2017, saying that it will be a double - disc album. In the first days of June, 2017 46 songs discarded from the album were leaked, most of them were unfinished versions while a few were demos.
In July, 2017 he announced the pending release of upcoming singles from his album. Later on August 4, 2017, he released the promotional single "Pills & Automobiles '', that features guest vocals from American trap artists Yo Gotti, A Boogie Wit Da Hoodie and Kodak Black. Then on 14 August 2017 he announced the release of the fourth official single from the album, "Questions '', on August 16, announcing the album release date, saying that it would be released on October 31, 2017.
Sample credits
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when did michael jackson start his solo career | Michael Jackson - Wikipedia
Michael Joseph Jackson (August 29, 1958 -- June 25, 2009) was an American singer, songwriter, and dancer. Dubbed the "King of Pop '', he was one of the most popular entertainers in the world, and was the best - selling music artist at the time of his death. Jackson 's contributions to music, dance, and fashion along with his publicized personal life made him a global figure in popular culture for over four decades.
The eighth child of the Jackson family, Michael made his professional debut in 1964 with his elder brothers Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, and Marlon as a member of the Jackson 5. He began his solo career in 1971 while at Motown Records. In the early 1980s, Jackson became a dominant figure in popular music. His music videos, including those of "Beat It '', "Billie Jean '', and "Thriller '' from his 1982 album Thriller, are credited with breaking racial barriers and transforming the medium into an art form and promotional tool. The popularity of these videos helped bring the television channel MTV to fame. Jackson 's 1987 album Bad spawned the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles "I Just Ca n't Stop Loving You '', "Bad '', "The Way You Make Me Feel '', "Man in the Mirror '', and "Dirty Diana '', becoming the first album to have five number - one singles in the nation. He continued to innovate with videos such as "Black or White '' and "Scream '' throughout the 1990s, and forged a reputation as a touring solo artist. Through stage and video performances, Jackson popularized a number of complicated dance techniques, such as the robot and the moonwalk, to which he gave the name. His distinctive sound and style has influenced numerous artists of various music genres.
Thriller is the best - selling album of all time, with estimated sales of 65 million copies worldwide. Jackson 's other albums, including Off the Wall (1979), Bad (1987), Dangerous (1991), and HIStory (1995), also rank among the world 's best - selling albums. He is one of the few artists to have been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame twice, and was also inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame and the Dance Hall of Fame as the only dancer from pop and rock music. His other achievements include multiple Guinness World Records including the Most Successful Entertainer of All Time, 13 Grammy Awards, the Grammy Legend Award, the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award, 26 American Music Awards -- more than any other artist -- including the "Artist of the Century '' and "Artist of the 1980s '', 13 number - one singles in the United States during his solo career -- more than any other male artist in the Hot 100 era -- and estimated sales of over 350 million records worldwide. Jackson won hundreds of awards, making him the most awarded recording artist in the history of popular music. He became the first artist in history to have a top ten single in the Billboard Hot 100 in five different decades when "Love Never Felt So Good '' reached number nine in 2014. Jackson traveled the world attending events honoring his humanitarianism, and, in 2000, the Guinness World Records recognized him for supporting 39 charities, more than any other entertainer.
Aspects of Jackson 's personal life, including his changing appearance, personal relationships, and behavior, generated controversy. In 1993, he was accused of child sexual abuse, but the civil case was settled out of court for an undisclosed amount and no formal charges were brought. In 2005, he was tried and acquitted of further child sexual abuse allegations and several other charges after the jury found him not guilty on all counts. While preparing for his comeback concert series, This Is It, Jackson died of acute propofol and benzodiazepine intoxication on June 25, 2009, after suffering from cardiac arrest. The Los Angeles County Coroner ruled his death a homicide, and his personal physician, Conrad Murray, was convicted of involuntary manslaughter. Jackson 's death triggered a global outpouring of grief, and a live broadcast of his public memorial service was viewed around the world. Forbes ranks Jackson the top - earning dead celebrity, with earnings of $825 million in 2016, the highest yearly amount ever recorded by the publication. Jackson is also remembered for his generous philanthropy and his pioneering efforts in charitable fundraising within the entertainment industry. In October 2017, Forbes announced that Jackson had topped the publication 's list of top - earning dead celebrities for the fifth straight year with annual earnings of $75 million
Michael Joseph Jackson was born on August 29, 1958. He was the eighth of ten children in the Jackson family, a working - class African - American family living in a two - bedroom house on Jackson Street in Gary, Indiana, an industrial city in the Chicago metropolitan area. His mother, Katherine Esther Scruse, was a devout Jehovah 's Witness. She played clarinet and piano and once aspired to be a country - and - western performer, but worked part - time at Sears to support the family. Michael 's father, Joseph Walter "Joe '' Jackson, a former boxer, was a steelworker at U.S. Steel. Joe performed on guitar with a local rhythm and blues band, the Falcons, to supplement the family 's income. Michael grew up with three sisters (Rebbie, La Toya, and Janet) and five brothers (Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, Marlon, and Randy). A sixth brother, Marlon 's twin Brandon, died shortly after birth.
Jackson had a troubled relationship with his father. In 2003, Joe acknowledged that he regularly whipped him as a boy. Joe was also said to have verbally abused his son, often saying that he had a "fat nose ''. Jackson stated that he was physically and emotionally abused during incessant rehearsals, though he credited his father 's strict discipline with playing a large role in his success. In an interview with Martin Bashir for the 2003 documentary Living with Michael Jackson, Jackson recalled that Joe often sat in a chair with a belt in his hand as he and his siblings rehearsed, and that "if you did n't do it the right way, he would tear you up, really get you. '' Jackson 's parents have disputed the longstanding allegations of abuse, with Katherine stating that while whipping is considered abuse today, it was a common way to discipline children at the time. Jackie, Tito, Jermaine and Marlon have also said that their father was not abusive and that the whippings, which were harder on Michael because he was younger, kept them disciplined and out of trouble. Speaking openly about his childhood in an interview with Oprah Winfrey broadcast in February 1993, Jackson acknowledged that his youth had been lonely and isolating. His deep dissatisfaction with his appearance, his nightmares and chronic sleep problems, his tendency to remain hyper - compliant, especially with his father, and to remain childlike in adulthood are consistent with the effects of the maltreatment he endured as a child.
In 1964, Michael and Marlon joined the Jackson Brothers -- a band formed by their father which included brothers Jackie, Tito, and Jermaine -- as backup musicians playing congas and tambourine. In 1965, Michael began sharing lead vocals with his older brother Jermaine, and the group 's name was changed to the Jackson 5. The following year, the group won a major local talent show with Jackson performing the dance to Robert Parker 's 1965 hit "Barefootin ' ''. From 1966 to 1968 they toured the Midwest, frequently performing at a string of black clubs known as the "chitlin ' circuit '' as the opening act for artists such as Sam & Dave, the O'Jays, Gladys Knight, and Etta James. The Jackson 5 also performed at clubs and cocktail lounges, where striptease shows and other adult acts were featured, and at local auditoriums and high school dances. In August 1967, while touring the East coast, the group won a weekly amateur night concert at the Apollo Theater in Harlem.
The Jackson 5 recorded several songs, including their first single "Big Boy '' (1968), for Steeltown Records, a Gary record label, before signing with Motown in 1969. They left Gary in 1969 and relocated to Los Angeles, where they continued to record music for Motown. Rolling Stone later described the young Michael as "a prodigy '' with "overwhelming musical gifts '' who "quickly emerged as the main draw and lead singer. '' The group set a chart record when its first four singles -- "I Want You Back '' (1969), "ABC '' (1970), "The Love You Save '' (1970), and "I 'll Be There '' (1970) -- peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100. In May 1971, the Jackson family moved into a large home on two - acre estate in Encino, California. During this period, Michael evolved from child performer into a teen idol. As Jackson began to emerge as a solo performer in the early 1970s, he maintained ties to the Jackson 5 and Motown. Between 1972 and 1975, Michael released four solo studio albums with Motown: Got to Be There (1972), Ben (1972), Music & Me (1973), and Forever, Michael (1975). "Got to Be There '' and "Ben '', the title tracks from his first two solo albums, became successful singles, as did a cover of Bobby Day 's "Rockin ' Robin ''.
The Jackson 5 were later described as "a cutting - edge example of black crossover artists. '' Although the group 's sales began to decline in 1973, and the members chafed under Motown 's refusal to allow them creative input, they achieved several top 40 hits, including the top five single "Dancing Machine '' (1974), before leaving Motown in 1975.
In June 1975, the Jackson 5 signed with Epic Records, a subsidiary of CBS Records, and renamed themselves the Jacksons. Younger brother Randy formally joined the band around this time, while Jermaine chose to stay with Motown and pursue a solo career. The Jacksons continued to tour internationally, and released six more albums between 1976 and 1984. Michael, the group 's lead songwriter during this time, wrote hits such as "Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground) '' (1979), "This Place Hotel '' (1980), and "Can You Feel It '' (1980).
Jackson 's work in film began in 1978, when he moved to New York City to star as the Scarecrow in The Wiz, a musical directed by Sidney Lumet. It costarred Diana Ross, Nipsey Russell, and Ted Ross. The film was a box - office failure. Its score was arranged by Quincy Jones, whom Jackson had previously met when he was 12 at Sammy Davis Jr. 's house. Jones agreed to produce Jackson 's next solo album. During his time in New York, Jackson frequented the Studio 54 nightclub and was exposed to early hip hop, influencing his beatboxing on future tracks such as "Working Day and Night ''. In 1979, Jackson broke his nose during a complex dance routine. His subsequent rhinoplasty was not a complete success; he complained of breathing difficulties that would affect his career. He was referred to Dr. Steven Hoefflin, who performed Jackson 's second rhinoplasty and subsequent operations.
Jackson 's fifth solo album, Off the Wall (1979), co-produced by Jackson and Jones, established Jackson as a solo performer. The album helped Jackson transition from the bubblegum pop of his youth to the more complex sounds he would create as an adult. Songwriters for the album included Jackson, Rod Temperton, Stevie Wonder, and Paul McCartney. Off the Wall was the first solo album to generate four top 10 hits in the United States: "Off the Wall '', "She 's Out of My Life '', and the chart - topping singles "Do n't Stop ' Til You Get Enough '' and "Rock with You ''. The album reached number three on the Billboard 200 and eventually sold over 20 million copies worldwide. In 1980, Jackson won three awards at the American Music Awards for his solo efforts: Favorite Soul / R&B Album, Favorite Soul / R&B Male Artist, and Favorite Soul / R&B Single for "Do n't Stop ' Til You Get Enough ''. He also won Billboard Year - End awards for Top Black Artist and Top Black Album, and a Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance for 1979 with "Do n't Stop ' Til You Get Enough ''. In 1981 Jackson was the American Music Awards winner for Favorite Soul / R&B Album and Favorite Soul / R&B Male Artist. Despite its commercial success, Jackson felt Off the Wall should have made a bigger impact, and was determined to exceed expectations with his next release. In 1980, he secured the highest royalty rate in the music industry: 37 percent of wholesale album profit.
Jackson recorded with Queen singer Freddie Mercury from 1981 to 1983, including a demo of "State of Shock '', "Victory '' and "There Must Be More to Life Than This ''. The recordings were intended for an album of duets but, according to Queen 's then - manager Jim Beach, the relationship between the singers soured when Jackson insisted on bringing a llama into the recording studio. The collaborations were not officially released until 2014. Jackson went on to record the single "State of Shock '' with Mick Jagger for the Jacksons ' album Victory (1984). Mercury included the solo version of "There Must Be More To Life Than This '' on his Mr. Bad Guy album (1985). In 1982, Jackson combined his interests in songwriting and film when he contributed the song "Someone in the Dark '' to the storybook for the film E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial. The song, with Jones as its producer, won a Grammy for Best Recording for Children for 1983.
More success came with Jackson 's sixth album, Thriller, released in late 1982. The album earned Jackson seven more Grammys and eight American Music Awards, including the Award of Merit, the youngest artist to win it. It was the best - selling album worldwide in 1983, and became the best - selling album of all time in the United States and the best - selling album of all time worldwide, selling an estimated 65 million copies. It topped the Billboard 200 chart for 37 weeks and was in the top 10 of the 200 for 80 consecutive weeks. It was the first album to have seven Billboard Hot 100 top 10 singles, including "Billie Jean '', "Beat It '', and "Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' ''. In December 2015, Thriller was certified for 30 million shipments by the RIAA, making it the only album to achieve that feat in the United States. Thriller won Jackson and Quincy Jones the Grammy award for Producer of the Year (Non-Classical) for 1983. It also won Album of the Year, with Jackson as the album 's artist and Jones as its co-producer, and a Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male, award for Jackson. "Beat It '' won Record of the Year, with Jackson as artist and Jones as co-producer, and a Best Rock Vocal Performance, Male, award for Jackson. "Billie Jean '' won Jackson two Grammy awards, Best R&B Song, with Jackson as its songwriter, and Best R&B Vocal Performance, Male, as its artist. Thriller also won another Grammy for Best Engineered Recording -- Non Classical in 1984, awarding Bruce Swedien for his work on the album. The AMA Awards for 1984 provided Jackson with an Award of Merit and AMAs for Favorite Male Artist, Soul / R&B, and Favorite Male Artist, Pop / Rock. "Beat It '' won Jackson AMAs for Favorite Video, Soul / R&B, Favorite Video, Pop / Rock, and Favorite Single, Pop / Rock. Thriller won him AMAs for Favorite Album, Soul / R&B, and Favorite Album, Pop / Rock.
In addition to the album, Jackson released "Thriller '', a 14 - minute music video directed by John Landis, in 1983. The zombie - themed video "defined music videos and broke racial barriers '' on the Music Television Channel (MTV), a fledgling entertainment television channel at the time. In December 2009, the Library of Congress selected the "Thriller '' music video for inclusion in the National Film Registry. It was one of 25 films named that year as "works of enduring importance to American culture '' that would be "preserved for all time. '' As of 2009, "Thriller '' is the only music video to have been inducted into the registry.
Jackson had the highest royalty rate in the music industry at that point, approximately $2 for every album sold, and was making record - breaking profits from sales of his recordings. The videocassette of the documentary The Making of Michael Jackson 's Thriller sold over 350,000 copies in a few months. The era saw the arrival of novelties such as dolls modeled after Jackson, which appeared in stores in May 1984 at a price of $12. Biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli writes that "Thriller stopped selling like a leisure item -- like a magazine, a toy, tickets to a hit movie -- and started selling like a household staple. '' In 1985, The Making of Michael Jackson 's Thriller won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Longform. Time described Jackson 's influence at that point as "star of records, radio, rock video. A one - man rescue team for the music business. A songwriter who sets the beat for a decade. A dancer with the fanciest feet on the street. A singer who cuts across all boundaries of taste and style and color too ''. The New York Times wrote that "in the world of pop music, there is Michael Jackson and there is everybody else ''.
On March 25, 1983, Jackson reunited with his brothers for a performance taped at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium for Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever, an NBC television special. The show aired on May 16, 1983, to an estimated audience of 47 million, and featured the Jacksons and other Motown stars. It is best remembered for Jackson 's solo performance of "Billie Jean '', which earned Jackson his first Emmy nomination. Wearing a distinctive black - sequined jacket and a golf glove decorated with rhinestones, he debuted his signature dance move, the moonwalk, which former Soul Train dancer and Shalamar member Jeffrey Daniel had taught him three years earlier. Jackson had originally turned down the invitation to perform at the show, believing he had been doing too much television at the time; at the request of Motown founder Berry Gordy, he agreed to perform in exchange for time to do a solo performance. According to Rolling Stone reporter Mikal Gilmore, "There are times when you know you are hearing or seeing something extraordinary... that came that night. '' Jackson 's performance drew comparisons to Elvis Presley 's and the Beatles ' appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show. Anna Kisselgoff of The New York Times wrote in 1988: "The moonwalk that he made famous is an apt metaphor for his dance style. How does he do it? As a technician, he is a great illusionist, a genuine mime. His ability to keep one leg straight as he glides while the other bends and seems to walk requires perfect timing. '' Gordy said of the performance: "From the first beat of ' Billie Jean ', I was mesmerized, and when he did his iconic moonwalk, I was shocked, it was magic, Michael Jackson went into orbit, and never came down. ''
In November 1983 Jackson and his brothers partnered with PepsiCo in a $5 million promotional deal that broke records for a celebrity endorsement. The first Pepsi Cola campaign, which ran in the United States from 1983 to 1984 and launched its iconic "New Generation '' theme, included tour sponsorship, public relations events, and in - store displays. Jackson, who was involved in creating the advertisement, suggested using his song "Billie Jean '' as its jingle with revised lyrics. According to a Billboard report in 2009, Brian J. Murphy, executive VP of branded management at TBA Global, said: "You could n't separate the tour from the endorsement from the licensing of the music, and then the integration of the music into the Pepsi fabric. ''
On January 27, 1984, Michael and other members of the Jacksons filmed a Pepsi commercial overseen by executive Phil Dusenberry, a BBDO ad agency executive, and Alan Pottasch, Pepsi 's Worldwide Creative Director, at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles. During a simulated concert before a full house of fans, pyrotechnics accidentally set Jackson 's hair on fire, causing second - degree burns to his scalp. Jackson underwent treatment to hide the scars and had his third rhinoplasty shortly thereafter. Pepsi settled out of court, and Jackson donated the $1.5 million settlement to the Brotman Medical Center in Culver City, California; its Michael Jackson Burn Center is named in his honor. Dusenberry recounted the episode in his memoir, Then We Set His Hair on Fire: Insights and Accidents from a Hall of Fame Career in Advertising. Jackson signed a second agreement with Pepsi in the late 1980s for a reported $10 million. The second campaign had a global reach of more than 20 countries and would provide financial support for Jackson 's Bad album and 1987 -- 88 world tour. Although Jackson had endorsements and advertising deals with other companies, such as LA Gear, Suzuki, and Sony, none were as significant as his deals with Pepsi, which later signed other music stars such as Britney Spears and Beyoncé to promote its products.
Jackson 's humanitarian work was recognized on May 14, 1984, when he was invited to the White House to receive an award from President Ronald Reagan for his support of charities that helped people overcome alcohol and drug abuse, and in recognition of his support for the Ad Council 's and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 's Drunk Driving Prevention campaign. Jackson donated the use of "Beat It '' for the campaign 's public service announcements.
Unlike later albums, Thriller did not have an official tour, but the Victory Tour of 1984 headlined the Jacksons and showcased much of Jackson 's new solo material to more than two million Americans. It was the last tour he would do with his brothers. Following controversy over the concert 's ticket sales, Jackson held a press conference and announced that he would donate his share of the proceeds, an estimated $3 to 5 million, to charity. His charitable work and humanitarian awards continued with the release of "We Are the World '' (1985), co-written with Lionel Richie. The song was recorded on January 28, 1985 and released worldwide in March 1985 to aid the poor in the United States and Africa. The song earned $63 million for famine relief, and became one of the best - selling singles of all time, with 20 million copies sold. It won four Grammys for 1985, including Song of the Year for Jackson and Richie as its writers. Although the American Music Award directors removed the charity song from the competition because they felt it would be inappropriate, the AMA show in 1986 concluded with a tribute to the song in honor of its first anniversary. The project 's creators received two special AMA honors: one for the creation of the song and another for the USA for Africa idea. Jackson, Jones, and entertainment promoter Ken Kragan received special awards for their roles in the song 's creation.
Jackson 's financial interests in the music publishing business grew after he collaborated with Paul McCartney in the early 1980s and learned that McCartney was making approximately $40 million a year from other people 's songs. By 1983, Jackson had begun investing in publishing rights to songs that others had written, but he was careful with his acquisitions, only bidding on a few of the dozens that were offered to him. Jackson 's early acquisitions of music catalogs and song copyrights such as the Sly Stone collection included "Everyday People '' (1968), Len Barry 's "1 - 2 - 3 '' (1965), and Dion DiMucci 's "The Wanderer '' (1961) and "Runaround Sue '' (1961); however, his most significant purchase came in 1985, when he acquired the publishing rights to ATV Music Publishing after months of negotiation. ATV had acquired the publishing rights to nearly 4000 songs, including the Northern Songs catalog that contained the majority of the Lennon -- McCartney compositions recorded by the Beatles.
In 1984 Robert Holmes à Court, the wealthy Australian investor who owned ATV Music Publishing, announced he was putting the ATV catalog up for sale. In 1981, McCartney was offered the ATV music catalog for £ 20 million ($40 million). According to McCartney, he contacted Yoko Ono about making a joint purchase by splitting the cost at £ 10 million each, but Ono thought they could buy it for £ 5 million each. When they were unable to make a joint purchase, McCartney, who did not want to be the sole owner of the Beatles ' songs, did not pursue an offer on his own. According to a negotiator for Holmes à Court in the 1984 sale, McCartney was given first right of refusal and declined to purchase. Jackson was informed of the sale by his attorney, John Branca, in September 1984. An attorney for McCartney also assured Branca that McCartney was not interested in bidding. McCartney reportedly felt it was too expensive, but several other companies and investors were interested in bidding. Jackson submitted a bid of $46 million on November 20, 1984. His agents thought they had a deal several times, but encountered new bidders or new areas of debate. In May 1985, Jackson 's team left talks after having spent more than $1 million and four months of due diligence work on the negotiations. In June 1985, Jackson and Branca learned that Charles Koppelman 's and Marty Bandier 's The Entertainment Company had made a tentative agreement with Holmes à Court to buy ATV Music for $50 million; however, in early August, Holmes à Court 's team contacted Jackson and talks resumed. Jackson raised his bid to $47.5 million, which was accepted because he could close the deal more quickly, having already completed due diligence of ATV Music. Jackson also agreed to visit Holmes à Court in Australia, where he would appear on the Channel Seven Perth Telethon. Jackson 's purchase of ATV Music was finalized on August 10, 1985.
Jackson 's skin had been a medium - brown color during his youth, but from the mid-1980s gradually grew paler. The change gained widespread media coverage, including rumors that he might have been bleaching his skin. According to J. Randy Taraborrelli 's biography, Jackson was diagnosed with vitiligo in 1984; vitiligo results in white patches on the skin. Although Jackson was diagnosed with vitiligo, Taraborrelli stated that Jackson had been skin bleaching. He said that Jackson was diagnosed with lupus, and that while the vitiligo partially lightened Jackson 's skin, the lupus was in remission. Both illnesses made Jackson 's skin sensitive to sunlight. The treatments Jackson used for his condition further lightened his skin, and, with the application of pancake makeup to even out blotches he could appear pale. Jackson stated that although he used makeup to control the patchy appearance of his skin, he never purposely bleached his skin. He said of his vitiligo: "It is something I can not help. When people make up stories that I do n't want to be who I am, it hurts me. It 's a problem for me. I ca n't control it. '' Jackson was also diagnosed with vitiligo in his autopsy, though not lupus.
Jackson stated he had had only two rhinoplasties and no other facial surgery, although at one point mentioned having had a dimple created in his chin. He lost weight in the early 1980s because of a change in diet and a desire for "a dancer 's body ''. Witnesses reported that he was often dizzy, and speculated he was suffering from anorexia nervosa. Periods of weight loss would become a recurring problem later in life. During the course of his treatment, Jackson made two close friends: his dermatologist, Dr. Arnold Klein, and Klein 's nurse Debbie Rowe. Rowe eventually became Jackson 's second wife and the mother of his two eldest children. He also relied heavily on Klein for medical and business advice.
Jackson became the subject of increasingly sensational reports. In 1986, the tabloids ran a story claiming that he slept in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber to slow the aging process; he was pictured lying in a glass box. Although the claim was untrue, according to tabloid reports that are widely cited, Jackson disseminated the fabricated story himself. When Jackson bought a chimpanzee named Bubbles from a laboratory, he was reported to be increasingly detached from reality. It was reported that Jackson had offered to buy the bones of Joseph Merrick (the "Elephant Man '') and, although untrue, Jackson did not deny the story. Although he initially saw these stories as opportunities for publicity, he stopped leaking untruths to the press as they became more sensational. Consequently, the media began fabricating stories. These reports became embedded in the public consciousness, inspiring the nickname "Wacko Jacko '', which Jackson came to despise. Responding to the gossip, Jackson remarked to Taraborrelli:
Why not just tell people I 'm an alien from Mars? Tell them I eat live chickens and do a voodoo dance at midnight. They 'll believe anything you say, because you 're a reporter. But if I, Michael Jackson, were to say, "I 'm an alien from Mars and I eat live chickens and do a voodoo dance at midnight, '' people would say, "Oh, man, that Michael Jackson is nuts. He 's cracked up. You ca n't believe a single word that comes out of his mouth. ''
Jackson collaborated with filmmakers George Lucas and Francis Ford Coppola on the 17 - minute 3D film Captain EO, which debuted in September 1986 at both the original Disneyland and at Epcot in Florida, and in March 1987 at Tokyo Disneyland. The $30 million movie was a popular attraction at all three parks. A Captain EO attraction was later featured at Euro Disneyland after that park opened in 1992. All four parks ' Captain EO installations stayed open well into the 1990s: the Paris installation was the last to close, in 1998. The attraction would later return to Disneyland in 2010 after Jackson 's death. In 1987, Jackson disassociated himself from the Jehovah 's Witnesses, in response to their disapproval of the Thriller video.
With the industry expecting another major hit, Jackson 's first album in five years, Bad (1987), was highly anticipated. The album produced nine singles with seven charting in the U.S. Five of these singles ("I Just Ca n't Stop Loving You '', "Bad '', "The Way You Make Me Feel '', "Man in the Mirror '', and "Dirty Diana '') reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100, a record for most number - one Hot 100 singles from any one album, including Thriller. By 2012, the album had sold between 30 and 45 million copies worldwide. Bruce Swedien and Humberto Gatica won one Grammy in 1988 for Best Engineered Recording -- Non Classical and Michael Jackson won one Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form for "Leave Me Alone '' in 1989. In the same year, Jackson won an Award of Achievement at the American Music Awards after Bad became the first album to generate five number - one singles in the U.S., the first album to top in 25 countries, and the best - selling album worldwide in 1987 and 1988. In 1988, "Bad '' won an American Music Award for Favorite Soul / R&B Single.
The Bad World Tour began on September 12 that year, finishing on January 14, 1989. In Japan alone, the tour had 14 sellouts and drew 570,000 people, nearly tripling the previous record of 200,000 in a single tour. Jackson broke a Guinness World Record when 504,000 people attended seven sold - out shows at Wembley Stadium. He performed a total of 123 concerts to an audience of 4.4 million people.
In 1988, Jackson released his only autobiography, Moonwalk, which took four years to complete and sold 200,000 copies. He wrote about his childhood, the Jackson 5, and the abuse he had suffered. He also wrote about his changing facial appearance, attributing it to puberty, weight loss, a strict vegetarian diet, a change in hairstyle, and stage lighting. Moonwalk reached the top position on The New York Times best sellers ' list. Jackson released a film, Moonwalker, which featured live footage and short films starring Jackson and Joe Pesci. Due to financial issues, the film was only released theatrically in Germany; in other markets it was released direct - to - video. It debuted at the top of the Billboard Top Music Video Cassette chart, staying there for 22 weeks. It was eventually knocked off the top spot by Michael Jackson: The Legend Continues.
In March 1988, Jackson purchased land near Santa Ynez, California, to build Neverland Ranch at a cost of $17 million. He installed several carnival rides on the 2,700 - acre (11 km) property, including a Ferris wheel, carousel, menagerie, movie theater and zoo. A security staff of 40 patrolled the grounds. In 2003, it was valued at approximately $100 million. In 1989, Jackson 's annual earnings from album sales, endorsements, and concerts were estimated at $125 million for that year alone. Shortly afterwards, he became the first Westerner to appear in a television ad in the Soviet Union.
Jackson 's success earned him the nickname the "King of Pop ''. It was popularized by Elizabeth Taylor when she presented him with the Soul Train Heritage Award in 1989, proclaiming him "the true king of pop, rock and soul. '' President George H.W. Bush designated him the White House 's "Artist of the Decade ''. From 1985 to 1990, he donated $455,000 to the United Negro College Fund, and all profits from his single "Man in the Mirror '' went to charity. Jackson 's live rendition of "You Were There '' at Sammy Davis Jr. 's 60th birthday celebration won Jackson a second Emmy nomination.
In March 1991, Jackson renewed his contract with Sony for $65 million, a record - breaking deal at the time, displacing Neil Diamond 's renewal contract with Columbia Records. In 1991, he released his eighth album, Dangerous, co-produced with Teddy Riley. Dangerous was certified seven times platinum in the U.S., and by 2008 had sold approximately 30 million copies worldwide. In the United States, the album 's first single "Black or White '' was its biggest hit, reaching number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and remaining there for seven weeks, with similar chart performances worldwide. The second single, "Remember the Time '', spent eight weeks in the top five in the United States, peaking at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart. At the end of 1992, Dangerous was awarded the best - selling album of the year worldwide and "Black or White '' was awarded best - selling single of the year worldwide at the Billboard Music Awards. Jackson also won an award as best - selling artist of the 1980s. In 1993, he performed the song at the Soul Train Music Awards in a chair, saying he had suffered an injury in rehearsals. In the UK and other parts of Europe, "Heal the World '' was the album 's most successful song; it sold 450,000 copies in the UK and spent five weeks at number two in 1992.
Jackson founded the Heal the World Foundation in 1992. The charity brought underprivileged children to Jackson 's ranch to enjoy the property 's theme park rides, and sent millions of dollars around the globe to help children threatened by war, poverty, and disease. In the same year, Jackson published his second book, Dancing the Dream, a collection of poetry, revealing a more intimate side. While it was a commercial success, it received mostly negative reviews. In 2009, the book was republished by Doubleday and was more positively received by some critics in the wake of Jackson 's death. The Dangerous World Tour began on June 27, 1992, and finished on November 11, 1993, having grossed $100 million; Jackson performed to 3.5 million people in 70 concerts. He sold the broadcast rights to his Dangerous world tour to HBO for $20 million, a record - breaking deal that still stands.
Following the illness and death of AIDS spokesperson Ryan White, Jackson helped draw public attention to HIV / AIDS, something that was controversial at the time. He publicly pleaded with the Clinton Administration at Bill Clinton 's Inaugural Gala to give more money to HIV / AIDS charities and research. In a high - profile visit to Africa, Jackson visited countries including Gabon and Egypt. His first stop to Gabon was greeted with an enthusiastic reception of more than 100,000 people, some of them carrying signs that read "Welcome Home Michael. '' In his trip to Ivory Coast, Jackson was crowned "King Sani '' by a tribal chief. He thanked the dignitaries in French and English, signed official documents formalizing his kingship, and sat on a golden throne while presiding over ceremonial dances.
In January 1993, Jackson performed at the Super Bowl XXVII halftime show in Pasadena, California. Because of a dwindling interest during halftime in the preceding years -- a special live episode of In Living Color eroded the previous halftime show 's audience by 10 ratings points -- the NFL decided to seek big - name talent that would keep ratings high, with Jackson selected for his universal appeal. It was the first Super Bowl whose half - time performance drew greater audience figures than the game itself. The performance began with Jackson catapulting onto the stage as fireworks went off behind him, followed by four songs: "Jam '', "Billie Jean '', "Black or White '', and "Heal the World ''. Jackson 's Dangerous album rose 90 places in the album chart after the performance.
Jackson gave a 90 - minute interview to Oprah Winfrey on February 10, 1993, his second television interview since 1979. He grimaced when speaking of his childhood abuse at the hands of his father; he believed he had missed out on much of his childhood years, admitting that he often cried from loneliness. He denied tabloid rumors that he had bought the bones of the Elephant Man, slept in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber, or bleached his skin, and stated for the first time that he had vitiligo. Dangerous re-entered the album chart in the top 10, more than a year after its original release.
In February 1993, Jackson was given the "Living Legend Award '' at the 35th Annual Grammy Awards in Los Angeles. "Black or White '' was Grammy - nominated for best vocal performance. "Jam '' gained two nominations: Best R&B Vocal Performance and Best R&B Song. The Dangerous album won a Grammy for Best Engineered -- Non Classical, awarding the work of Bruce Swedien and Teddy Riley. In the same year, Michael Jackson won three American Music Awards for Favorite Pop / Rock Album (Dangerous), Favorite Soul / R&B Single ("Remember the Time ''), and was the first to win the International Artist Award of Excellence, for his global performances and humanitarian concerns.
Jackson agreed to produce the soundtrack for Sega 's 1994 video game Sonic the Hedgehog 3 with collaborators Brad Buxer, Bobby Brooks, Darryl Ross, Geoff Grace, Doug Grigsby, and Cirocco Jones. Jackson left the project before completion and was not credited; some sources state Jackson was dissatisfied with the Sega Genesis console 's audio chip, while others suggest Sega distanced itself from Jackson following the first allegations of child sexual abuse against him.
In the summer of 1993, Jackson was accused of child sexual abuse by a 13 - year - old boy, Jordan Chandler, and his father, Evan Chandler, a dentist. The Chandler family demanded payment from Jackson, which he refused. Jordan Chandler eventually told the police that Jackson had sexually abused him. Jordan 's mother was, however, adamant that there had been no wrongdoing on Jackson 's part. Evan was recorded discussing his intention to pursue charges, saying, "If I go through with this, I win big - time. There 's no way I lose. I will get everything I want and they will be destroyed forever... Michael 's career will be over. '' Jackson used the recording to argue that he was the victim of a jealous father whose only goal was to extort money. In January 1994, after an investigation, deputy Los Angeles County district attorney Michael J. Montagna stated that Chandler would not be charged with extortion, due to lack of cooperation from Jackson 's party and its willingness to negotiate with Chandler for several weeks, among other reasons.
In August 1993, police raided Jackson 's home and, according to court documents, found books and photographs in his bedroom featuring young boys with little or no clothing. Since the books were legal to purchase and own, the jury decided not to indict Jackson. Jordan Chandler gave police a description of Jackson 's intimate parts; a strip search revealed that Jordan had correctly claimed Jackson had patchy - colored buttocks, short pubic hair, and pink and brown marked testicles. Reportedly, Jordan had also drawn accurate pictures of a dark spot on Jackson 's penis only visible when his penis was lifted. Despite differing initial internal reports from prosecutors and investigators, with reports of jurors feeling that the photos did not match the description, the DA stated his belief in a sworn affidavit that the description was accurate, along with the sheriff 's photographer stating the description was accurate. A 2004 motion filed by Jackson 's defense asserted that Jackson was never criminally indicted by any grand jury and that his settlement admitted no wrongdoing and contained no evidence of criminal misconduct.
The investigation was inconclusive and no charges were filed. Jackson described the search in an emotional public statement, and proclaimed his innocence. On January 1, 1994, Jackson settled with the Chandlers out of court for $22 million. A Santa Barbara County grand jury and a Los Angeles County grand jury disbanded on May 2, 1994, without indicting Jackson. The Chandlers stopped co-operating with the criminal investigation around July 6, 1994. The out - of - court settlement 's documentation stated Jackson admitted no wrongdoing and no liability; the Chandlers and their family lawyer Larry Feldman signed it without contest. Feldman stated "nobody bought anybody 's silence ''.
A decade after the fact, during the second round of child abuse allegations, Jackson 's lawyers would file a memo stating that the 1994 settlement was made without his consent. A later disclosure by the FBI of investigation documents compiled over nearly 20 years led Jackson 's attorney to suggest that no evidence of molestation or sexual impropriety from Jackson toward minors existed. According to reports, the Department of Children and Family Services (Los Angeles County) investigated Jackson beginning in 1993 with the Chandler allegation and again in 2003. Reports show the LAPD and DCFS did not find credible evidence of abuse or sexual misconduct.
In May 1994, Jackson married Lisa Marie Presley, the daughter of Elvis and Priscilla Presley. They had met in 1975, when a seven - year - old Presley attended one of Jackson 's family engagements at the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino, and reconnected through a mutual friend. According to a friend of Presley 's, "their adult friendship began in November 1992 in L.A. '' They stayed in contact every day over the telephone. As the child molestation accusations became public, Jackson became dependent on Presley for emotional support; she was concerned about his faltering health and addiction to drugs. Presley said: "I believed he did n't do anything wrong and that he was wrongly accused and yes I started falling for him. I wanted to save him. I felt that I could do it. '' She eventually persuaded him to settle the civil case out of court and go into rehabilitation to recover.
Jackson proposed to Presley over the telephone towards the fall of 1993, saying: "If I asked you to marry me, would you do it? '' They married in the Dominican Republic in secrecy, denying it for nearly two months afterwards. The marriage was, in her words, "a married couple 's life... that was sexually active. '' The tabloid media speculated that the wedding was a ploy to prop up Jackson 's public image. The marriage ended less than two years later with an amicable divorce settlement. In a 2010 interview with Oprah, Presley said they had spent four more years after the divorce "getting back together and breaking up '' until she decided to stop.
In June 1995, Jackson released the double album HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I. The first disc, HIStory Begins, is a 15 - track greatest hits album (later reissued as Greatest Hits: HIStory, Volume I in 2001); the second disc, HIStory Continues, contains 13 original songs and two cover versions. The album debuted at number one on the charts and has been certified for seven million shipments in the US. It is the best - selling multiple - disc album of all - time, with 20 million copies (40 million units) sold worldwide. HIStory received a Grammy nomination for Album of the Year.
The first single released from HIStory was "Scream / Childhood ''. "Scream '', a duet with Jackson 's youngest sister Janet, protests the media, particularly its treatment of him during the 1993 child abuse allegations. The single had the highest debut on the Billboard Hot 100 at number five, and received a Grammy nomination for "Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals ''. "You Are Not Alone '' was the second single released from HIStory; it holds the Guinness World Record for the first song ever to debut at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. It was seen as a major artistic and commercial success, receiving a Grammy nomination for "Best Pop Vocal Performance ''.
In late 1995, Jackson was rushed to a hospital after collapsing during rehearsals for a televised performance, caused by a stress - related panic attack. In November, Jackson merged his ATV Music catalog with Sony 's music publishing division, creating Sony / ATV Music Publishing. He retained ownership of half the company, earning $95 million up front as well as the rights to more songs. "Earth Song '' was the third single released from HIStory, and topped the UK Singles Chart for six weeks over Christmas 1995; it sold a million copies, making it Jackson 's most successful single in the UK. The track "They Do n't Care About Us '' became controversial when the Anti-Defamation League and other groups criticized its allegedly antisemitic lyrics. Jackson quickly released a revised version of the song without the offending lyrics. In 1996, Jackson won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form for "Scream '' and an American Music Award for Favorite Pop / Rock Male Artist.
HIStory was promoted with the successful HIStory World Tour, beginning on September 7, 1996, and ending on October 15, 1997. Jackson performed 82 concerts in five continents, 35 countries and 58 cities to over 4.5 million fans, and grossed a total of $165 million, becoming Jackson 's most successful tour in terms of audience figures. During the tour, Jackson married his longtime friend Deborah Jeanne Rowe, a dermatology nurse, in an impromptu ceremony in Sydney, Australia. Rowe was approximately six months pregnant with the couple 's first child at the time. Originally, Rowe and Jackson had no plans to marry, but Jackson 's mother Katherine persuaded them to do so. Michael Joseph Jackson Jr (commonly known as Prince) was born on February 13, 1997; his sister Paris - Michael Katherine Jackson was born a year later on April 3, 1998. The couple divorced in 1999, and Jackson received full custody of the children. The divorce was relatively amicable, but a subsequent custody suit was not settled until 2006.
In 1997, Jackson released Blood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix, which contained remixes of hit singles from HIStory and five new songs. Worldwide sales stand at 6 million copies, making it the best - selling remix album of all time. It reached number one in the UK, as did the title track. In the US, the album was certified platinum, but only reached number 24. Forbes placed Jackson 's annual income at $35 million in 1996 and $20 million in 1997.
From October 1997 to September 2001, Jackson worked with collaborators including Teddy Riley and Rodney Jerkins to produce what would be his tenth solo album, Invincible. The album cost $30 million to record, not including promotional expenditures. Throughout June 1999, Jackson was involved in a number of charitable events. He joined Luciano Pavarotti for a benefit concert in Modena, Italy. The show was in support of the nonprofit organization War Child, and raised a million dollars for the refugees of Kosovo, FR Yugoslavia, and additional funds for the children of Guatemala. Later that month, Jackson organized a series of "Michael Jackson & Friends '' benefit concerts in Germany and Korea. Other artists involved included Slash, The Scorpions, Boyz II Men, Luther Vandross, Mariah Carey, A.R. Rahman, Prabhu Deva Sundaram, Shobana, Andrea Bocelli, and Luciano Pavarotti. The proceeds went to the Nelson Mandela Children 's Fund, the Red Cross and UNESCO. From August 1999 through 2000, he lived in New York City at 4 East 74th Street. At the turn of the century, Jackson won an American Music Award as Artist of the 1980s.
In September 2001, two 30th Anniversary concerts were held at Madison Square Garden to mark Jackson 's 30th year as a solo artist. Jackson appeared onstage alongside his brothers for the first time since 1984. The show also featured performances by artists including Mýa, Usher, Whitney Houston, NSYNC, Destiny 's Child, Monica, Luther Vandross, and Slash. The second show took place the night before the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. After 9 / 11, Jackson helped organize the United We Stand: What More Can I Give benefit concert at RFK Stadium in Washington, D.C. The concert took place on October 21, 2001, and included performances from dozens of major artists, including Jackson, who performed his song "What More Can I Give '' as the finale. Due to contractual issues related to the earlier 30th Anniversary concerts, later edited into a two - hour TV special titled Michael Jackson: 30th Anniversary Celebration broadcast in November 2001, Jackson 's solo performances were omitted from the televised benefit concert, although he could still be seen singing backing vocals.
The release of Invincible was preceded by a dispute between Jackson and his record label, Sony Music Entertainment. Jackson had expected the licenses to the masters of his albums to revert to him some time in the early 2000s, after which he would be able to promote the material however he pleased and keep the profits; however, clauses in the contract set the revert date years into the future. Jackson discovered that the attorney who had represented him in the deal had also been representing Sony. He was also concerned that for years Sony had been pressuring him to sell his share in its music catalog venture; he feared that Sony might have had a conflict of interest, since if Jackson 's career failed, he would have had to sell his share of the catalog at a low price. Jackson sought an early exit from his contract.
Invincible was released on October 30, 2001 to much anticipation. It was Jackson 's first full - length album in six years, and the last album of original material he released in his lifetime. It debuted at number one in 13 countries and went on to sell approximately 13 million copies worldwide. It received double - platinum certification in the U.S. However, sales for Invincible were lower than Jackson 's previous releases, due in part to the record label dispute and the lack of promotion or tour, and its release at a bad time for the music industry in general. Invincible spawned three singles, "You Rock My World '', "Cry '', and "Butterflies '', the latter without a music video.
On January 22, 2002, Jackson won his 22nd American Music Award for Artist of the Century. On February 22 of the same year, his third child, Prince Michael Jackson II (nicknamed "Blanket '') was born. The mother 's identity was not announced, but Jackson said Prince was the result of artificial insemination from a surrogate mother and his own sperm. Jackson alleged in July 2002 that the then - Sony Music chairman Tommy Mottola was a "devil '' and "racist '' who did not support his African - American artists, using them merely for his own gain. He charged that Mottola had called his colleague Irv Gotti a "fat nigger ''. Sony refused to renew Jackson 's contract, and claimed that a $25 million promotional campaign had failed because Jackson refused to tour in the United States.
Beginning in May 2002, Jackson allowed a documentary film crew, led by British TV personality Martin Bashir, to follow him around nearly everywhere he went. On November 20 of that year, Jackson brought his infant son Prince onto the balcony of his room at the Hotel Adlon in Berlin as fans stood below, holding him in his right arm with a cloth loosely draped over Prince 's face. Prince was briefly extended over a railing, four stories above ground level, prompting widespread criticism in the media. Jackson later apologized for the incident, calling it "a terrible mistake ''. Bashir 's crew was with Jackson during this incident; the program was broadcast in March 2003 as Living with Michael Jackson. In a particularly controversial scene, Jackson was seen holding hands and discussing sleeping arrangements with a young boy.
As soon as the documentary aired, the Santa Barbara county attorney 's office began a criminal investigation. After an initial probe from the LAPD and DCFS was conducted in February 2003, they had initially concluded that molestation allegations were "unfounded '' at the time. After the young boy involved in the documentary and his mother had told investigators that Jackson had behaved improperly, Jackson was arrested in November 2003 and charged with seven counts of child molestation and two counts of administering an intoxicating agent in relation to the 13 - year - old boy shown in the film. Jackson denied the allegations, saying the sleepovers were not sexual in nature. The People v. Jackson trial began on January 31, 2005, in Santa Maria, California, and lasted until the end of May. On June 13, 2005, Jackson was acquitted on all counts. After the trial, in a highly publicized relocation, he moved to the Persian Gulf island of Bahrain as a guest of Sheikh Abdullah. Unknown to Jackson, Bahrain was also where the family had intended to send Jackson if he had been convicted, according to a statement by Jermaine Jackson printed in The Times of London in September 2011.
On November 17, 2003, three days before Jackson 's arrest, Sony released Number Ones, a compilation of Jackson 's hits on CD and DVD. In the U.S., the album was certified triple platinum by the RIAA; in the UK it was certified six times platinum for shipments of at least 1.2 million units.
In March 2006, amidst reports that Jackson was having financial problems, the main house at Neverland Ranch was closed as a cost - cutting measure. Jackson had been delinquent on his repayments of a $270 million loan secured against his music - publishing holdings, even though the holdings were reportedly making him as much as $75 million a year. Bank of America sold the debt to Fortress Investments. Sony reportedly proposed a restructuring deal which would give them a future option to buy half of Jackson 's stake in their jointly - owned publishing company, leaving Jackson with a 25 % stake. Jackson agreed to a Sony - backed refinancing deal in April 2006, although the details were not made public. Jackson did not have a recording contract at the time. In early 2006, it was announced that Jackson had signed a contract with a Bahrain - based startup, Two Seas Records; nothing came of the deal, and Two Seas CEO Guy Holmes later stated that it had never been finalized.
Throughout 2006, Sony repackaged 20 singles from the 1980s and 1990s as the Michael Jackson: Visionary series, which subsequently became a box set. Most of the singles returned to the charts as a result. In September 2006, Jackson and his ex-wife Debbie Rowe confirmed reports that they had settled their long - running child custody suit. The terms were never made public. Jackson continued to be the custodial parent of the couple 's two children.
In October 2006, Fox News entertainment reporter Roger Friedman said that Jackson had been recording at a studio in rural Westmeath, Ireland. It was not known at the time what Jackson was working on, or who had paid for the sessions, since his publicist had recently issued a statement claiming that he had left Two Seas. In November 2006, Jackson invited an Access Hollywood camera crew into the studio in Westmeath, and MSNBC reported that he was working on a new album, produced by will.i.am. Jackson performed at the World Music Awards in London on November 15, 2006, and accepted a Diamond Award for selling over 100 million records. During his period in Ireland he sought Dr. Patrick Treacy for cosmetic treatment after reading about his experience with HLA fillers and his charitable work in Africa. Treacy became his only doctor when he lived in Ireland in 2006. He started as Jackson 's personal dermatologist and developed a friendship with the singer. Jackson returned to the United States after Christmas 2006 to attend James Brown 's funeral in Augusta, Georgia, where he gave one of the eulogies, saying that "James Brown is my greatest inspiration. '' In 2011, Treacy appeared on the Dr. Drew show on CNN and said that he had gave propofol to Michael Jackson on two occasions but the singer always requested an anaesthetist to be present.
In 2007, Jackson and Sony bought another music publishing company, Famous Music LLC, formerly owned by Viacom. This deal gave him the rights to songs by Eminem and Beck, among others. In March 2007, Jackson gave a brief interview to the Associated Press in Tokyo, where he said: "I 've been in the entertainment industry since I was 6 years old, and as Charles Dickens would say, ' It 's been the best of times, the worst of times. ' But I would not change my career... While some have made deliberate attempts to hurt me, I take it in stride because I have a loving family, a strong faith and wonderful friends and fans who have, and continue, to support me. '' That month, Jackson visited a U.S. Army post in Japan, Camp Zama, to greet over 3,000 U.S. troops and their families. The hosts presented Jackson with a Certificate of Appreciation.
In September 2007, Jackson was still working on his next album, but it was never completed. In 2008, Jackson and Sony released Thriller 25 to mark the 25th anniversary of the original Thriller. The album featured the previously unreleased song "For All Time '', an outtake from the original sessions, as well as remixes by younger artists who had been inspired by Jackson 's work. Two remixes were released as singles with modest success: "The Girl Is Mine 2008 '' (with will.i.am), based on an early demo version of the original song without Paul McCartney, and "Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' 2008 '' (with Akon). The album was a commercial success. In anticipation of Jackson 's 50th birthday, Sony BMG released a series of greatest hits albums, King of Pop. Slightly different versions were released in various countries, based on polls of local fans. King of Pop reached the top 10 in most countries where it was issued, and also sold well as an import in other countries (such as the United States).
In late 2008, Fortress Investments threatened to foreclose on Neverland Ranch, which Jackson used as collateral for loans running into many tens of millions of dollars. However, Fortress opted to sell Jackson 's debts to Colony Capital LLC. In November, Jackson transferred Neverland Ranch 's title to Sycamore Valley Ranch Company LLC, a joint venture between Jackson and Colony Capital LLC. The deal cleared Jackson 's debt and reportedly earned him an additional $35 million. At the time of his death, Jackson still owned a stake of unknown size in Neverland / Sycamore Valley. In September 2008, Jackson entered negotiations with Julien 's Auction House to display and auction a large collection of memorabilia amounting to approximately 1,390 lots. The auction was scheduled to take place between April 22 and 25. An exhibition of the lots opened as scheduled on April 14, but Jackson eventually cancelled the auction.
In March 2009, Jackson held a press conference at London 's O Arena to announce a series of comeback concerts titled This Is It. The shows would have been Jackson 's first major series of concerts since the HIStory World Tour finished in 1997. Jackson suggested retirement after the shows, saying it would be his "final curtain call ''. The initial plan was for 10 concerts in London, followed by shows in Paris, New York City and Mumbai. Randy Phillips, president and chief executive of AEG Live, stated that the first 10 dates alone would earn the singer approximately £ 50 million. The London residency was increased to 50 dates after record - breaking ticket sales: over one million were sold in less than two hours. The concerts would have commenced on July 13, 2009, and finished on March 6, 2010. Jackson rehearsed in Los Angeles in the weeks leading up to the tour under the direction of choreographer Kenny Ortega. Most of these rehearsals took place at the Staples Center, owned by AEG. Less than three weeks before the first show was due to begin in London, with all concerts sold out, Jackson died after suffering cardiac arrest. Some time before his death, it was reported that he was starting a clothing line with Christian Audigier.
Jackson 's first posthumous song released entirely by his estate was "This Is It '', which he had co-written in the 1980s with Paul Anka. It was not on the setlists for the concerts, and the recording was based on an old demo tape. The surviving brothers reunited in the studio for the first time since 1989 to record backing vocals. On October 28, 2009, Sony released a documentary film about the rehearsals, Michael Jackson 's This Is It. Despite a limited two - week engagement, it became the highest - grossing documentary or concert film of all time, with earnings of more than $260 million worldwide. Jackson 's estate received 90 % of the profits. The film was accompanied by a compilation album of the same name. Two versions of "This Is It '' appear on the album, which also featured original masters of Jackson 's hits in the order in which they appear in the film, along with a bonus disc with previously unreleased versions of more Jackson hits and a spoken - word poem, "Planet Earth ''. At the 2009 American Music Awards, Jackson won four posthumous awards, two for him and two for his album Number Ones, bringing his total American Music Awards to 26.
On June 25, 2009, Jackson stopped breathing while attempting to sleep under the care of Conrad Murray, his personal physician. Murray had reportedly given Jackson an array of medications in an attempt to help him sleep at his rented mansion in Holmby Hills, Los Angeles. Attempts at resuscitating Jackson were unsuccessful. Los Angeles Fire Department paramedics received a 911 call at 12: 22 pm (PDT, 19: 22 UTC), arriving three minutes later. Jackson was reportedly not breathing and CPR was performed. Resuscitation efforts continued en route to Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, and for more than an hour after arriving there at 1: 13 pm (20: 13 UTC). He was pronounced dead at 2: 26 pm Pacific time (21: 26 UTC).
Jackson 's death triggered a global outpouring of grief. The news spread quickly online, causing websites to slow down and crash from user overload, and putting unprecedented strain on services and websites including Google, AOL Instant Messenger, Twitter, and Wikipedia. Overall, web traffic ranged from 11 % to at least 20 % higher than normal. MTV and BET aired marathons of Jackson 's music videos. Jackson specials aired on television stations around the world. MTV briefly returned to its original music video format, airing hours of Jackson 's music videos, accompanied by live news specials featuring reactions from MTV personalities and other celebrities.
Jackson 's memorial was held on July 7, 2009 at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, preceded by a private family service at Forest Lawn Memorial Park 's Hall of Liberty. Tickets to the memorial were distributed via lottery; over 1.6 million fans applied for tickets during the two - day application period. 8,750 names were drawn at random, and each recipient received two tickets. Jackson 's casket was present during the memorial but no information was released about the final disposition of the body. The memorial service was one of the most watched events in streaming history, with an estimated U.S. audience of 31.1 million, an amount comparable to the estimated 35.1 million that watched the 2004 burial of former president Ronald Reagan and the estimated 33.1 million Americans who watched the 1997 funeral for Princess Diana.
Mariah Carey, Stevie Wonder, Lionel Richie, John Mayer, Jennifer Hudson, Usher, Jermaine Jackson, and Shaheen Jafargholi performed at the event. Berry Gordy and Smokey Robinson gave eulogies, while Queen Latifah read "We Had Him '', a poem written for the occasion by Maya Angelou. The Reverend Al Sharpton received a standing ovation with cheers when he told Jackson 's children: "Was n't nothing strange about your daddy. It was strange what your daddy had to deal with. But he dealt with it anyway. '' Jackson 's 11 - year - old daughter Paris Katherine, speaking publicly for the first time, wept as she told the crowd: "Ever since I was born, Daddy has been the best father you could ever imagine... I just wanted to say I love him... so much. '' Reverend Lucious Smith provided a closing prayer.
At the time of death, Jackson had been administered propofol, lorazepam, and midazolam, and the Los Angeles coroner decided to treat the death as a homicide. Law enforcement officials conducted a manslaughter investigation of his personal physician Conrad Murray, and charged him with involuntary manslaughter in Los Angeles on February 8, 2010. Jackson 's body was entombed on September 3, 2009, at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California.
On June 25, 2010, the first anniversary of Jackson 's death, fans traveled to Los Angeles to pay tribute. They visited Jackson 's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, his family home, and Forest Lawn Memorial Park. Many carried sunflowers and other tributes to leave at the sites. Members of the Jackson family and close friends arrived to pay their respects. Katherine returned to Gary, Indiana to unveil a granite monument constructed in the front yard of the family home. The memorial continued with a candlelight vigil and a special performance of "We Are the World ''.
On June 26, fans marched in front of the Los Angeles Police Department 's Robbery - Homicide Division at the old Parker Center building, and assembled a petition with thousands of signatures, demanding justice in the homicide investigation. The Jackson Family Foundation, in conjunction with Voiceplate, presented "Forever Michael '', an event bringing together Jackson family members, celebrities, fans, supporters and the community to celebrate and honor his legacy. A portion of the proceeds were presented to some of Jackson 's favorite charities.
In the 12 months after his death, Jackson sold more than 8.2 million albums in the United States and 35 million albums worldwide, making him the best - selling albums artist of 2009. He became the first artist to sell one million downloads in a week in music download history, with a record - breaking 2.6 million downloads of his songs. Three of his albums, Thriller, Number Ones and The Essential Michael Jackson, sold more than any new album, the first time a catalog album has ever scanned more sales than any new album. Jackson also became the first artist in history to have four of the top 20 best - selling albums in a single year in the United States. Following this surge in sales, Sony extended its distribution rights for Jackson 's material, which had been due to expire in 2015. On March 16, 2010, Sony Music Entertainment, spearheaded by its Columbia / Epic Label Group division, signed a new deal with the Jackson estate to extend their distribution rights to his back catalogue until at least 2017, and release ten new albums of previously unreleased material and new collections of released work.
On November 4, 2010, Sony announced the first posthumous album, Michael, released on December 14, with the promotional single, "Breaking News '', released to radio on November 8. Sony Music paid the Jackson estate $250 million for the deal, plus royalties, making it the most expensive music contract pertaining to a single artist in history. Video game developer Ubisoft announced a dancing - and - singing game featuring Michael Jackson for the 2010 holiday season, Michael Jackson: The Experience; it was among the first games to use Kinect and PlayStation Move, the motion - detecting camera systems for Microsoft 's Xbox 360 and Sony 's PlayStation 3 respectively.
On November 3, 2010, the theatre company Cirque du Soleil announced that it would launch Michael Jackson: The Immortal World Tour in October 2011 in Montreal, while a permanent show would reside in Las Vegas. The 90 - minute $57 - million production combined Jackson 's music and choreography with the Cirque 's artistry, dance and aerial displays involving 65 artists. On October 3, 2011, a compilation soundtrack album accompanying the tour, Immortal, was announced. A second, larger and more theatrical Cirque show, Michael Jackson: One, designed for residency at the Mandalay Bay resort in Las Vegas, was announced on February 21, 2013. This show began its run on May 23, 2013 in a newly renovated theater to critical and commercial success.
In April 2011, billionaire businessman Mohamed Al - Fayed, chairman of Fulham Football Club, unveiled a statue of Michael Jackson outside the club 's stadium, Craven Cottage. Fulham fans were bemused by the statue and failed to understand the relevance of Jackson to the club. Al - Fayed defended the statue and told the fans to "go to hell '' if they did not appreciate it. The statue was removed in September 2013 and moved to the National Football Museum in Manchester in May 2014.
In 2012, in an attempt to end public family feuding, Jackson 's brother Jermaine Jackson retracted his signature on a public letter criticizing executors of Michael Jackson 's estate and his mother 's advisers concerning the legitimacy of his brother 's will. T.J. Jackson, son of Tito Jackson, was given co-guardianship of Michael Jackson 's children after false reports surfaced of Katherine Jackson going missing.
On May 16, 2013, choreographer Wade Robson alleged on The Today Show that Jackson sexually abused him for 7 years, beginning when Robson was 7 years old. Robson had previously testified in defence of Jackson at the singer 's 2005 child molestation trial. The attorney for Jackson 's estate described Robson 's claim as "outrageous and pathetic ''. The date for the hearing which will determine whether Robson can sue Jackson 's estate was scheduled for June 2, 2014. In February 2014, the Internal Revenue Service reported that Jackson 's estate owed $702 million, including $505 million in taxes, plus $197 million in penalties after the estate had undervalued Jackson 's fortune.
On March 31, 2014, Epic Records announced Xscape, an album of eight songs of unreleased material. It was released on May 13, 2014. On May 12, 2014, another man, Jimmy Safechuck, sued Jackson 's estate, claiming Jackson sexually abused him "from the age of 10 to about 14 or 15 '' in the 1980s. During the 2014 Billboard Music Awards on May 18, a "Pepper 's ghost '' likeness of Jackson appeared, dancing to "Slave to the Rhythm '', one of the tracks from Xscape. Later that year, Queen released three duets that Freddie Mercury had recorded with Jackson in the 1980s. A new compilation album, Scream, was released on September 29, 2017.
Jackson 's earnings have exponentially increased following his death. According to a report by Forbes in 2016, he had been the top - earning dead celebrity each year since his death, with triple - digit millions per annum ($825 million in 2016). In December 2015, Thriller became the first album in the United States to surpass 30 million shipments, certifying it 30 × platinum. One year later, the album was certified again at 33 × platinum, surpassing 33 million shipments after Soundscan added streams and audio downloads to album certifications.
Jackson was influenced by musicians including Little Richard, James Brown, Jackie Wilson, Diana Ross, Fred Astaire, Sammy Davis Jr., Gene Kelly, David Ruffin, the Isley Brothers, and the Bee Gees. While Little Richard had a substantial influence on Jackson, James Brown was his greatest inspiration; he said: "Ever since I was a small child, no more than like six years old, my mother would wake me no matter what time it was, if I was sleeping, no matter what I was doing, to watch the television to see the master at work. And when I saw him move, I was mesmerized. I had never seen a performer perform like James Brown, and right then and there I knew that was exactly what I wanted to do for the rest of my life because of James Brown. ''
Jackson owed his vocal technique in large part to Diana Ross, especially his use of the oooh interjection, which he used from a young age; Ross had used this effect on many of the songs recorded with the Supremes. Not only a mother figure to him, she was often observed in rehearsal as an accomplished performer. He said: "I got to know her well. She taught me so much. I used to just sit in the corner and watch the way she moved. She was art in motion. I studied the way she moved, the way she sang -- just the way she was. '' He told her: "I want to be just like you, Diana. '' She said: "You just be yourself. ''
According to choreographer David Winters, who met and befriended Jackson while choreographing the 1971 Diana Ross TV special Diana!, Jackson watched the musical West Side Story almost every week, and it was his favorite film; he paid tribute to it in "Beat It '' and the "Bad '' video.
Jackson explored a variety of music genres, including pop, soul, rhythm and blues, funk, rock, disco, post-disco, dance - pop and new jack swing. Unlike many artists, Jackson did not write his songs on paper and instead dictated into a sound recorder. When composing music, he preferred to beatbox and imitate instruments vocally rather than use instruments.
According to Steve Huey of AllMusic, Thriller refined the strengths of Off the Wall; the dance and rock tracks were more aggressive, while the pop tunes and ballads were softer and more soulful. Its tracks included the ballads "The Lady in My Life '', "Human Nature '', and "The Girl Is Mine '', the funk pieces "Billie Jean '' and "Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' '', and the disco set "Baby Be Mine '' and "P.Y.T. (Pretty Young Thing) ''. With Thriller, Christopher Connelly of Rolling Stone commented that Jackson developed his long association with the subliminal theme of paranoia and darker imagery. AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine noted this is evident on the songs "Billie Jean '' and "Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' ''. In "Billie Jean '', Jackson sings about an obsessive fan who alleges he has fathered a child of hers. In "Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' '' he argues against gossip and the media. "Beat It '' decried gang violence in an homage to West Side Story, and was Jackson 's first successful rock cross-over piece, according to Huey. He also observed that the title track "Thriller '' began Jackson 's interest with the theme of the supernatural, a topic he revisited in subsequent years. In 1985, Jackson co-wrote the charity anthem "We Are the World ''; humanitarian themes later became a recurring theme in his lyrics and public persona.
In Bad, Jackson 's concept of the predatory lover can be seen on the rock song "Dirty Diana ''. The lead single "I Just Ca n't Stop Loving You '' is a traditional love ballad, while "Man in the Mirror '' is an anthemic ballad of confession and resolution. "Smooth Criminal '' is an evocation of bloody assault, rape and likely murder. AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine states that Dangerous presents Jackson as a paradoxical individual. He comments the album is more diverse than his previous Bad, as it appeals to an urban audience while also attracting the middle class with anthems like "Heal the World ''. The first half of the record is dedicated to new jack swing, including songs like "Jam '' and "Remember the Time ''. It was the first Jackson album in which social ills become a primary theme; "Why You Wanna Trip on Me '', for example, protests world hunger, AIDS, homelessness and drugs. Dangerous contains sexually charged songs such as the multifaceted love song "In the Closet ''. The title track continues the theme of the predatory lover and compulsive desire. The second half includes introspective, pop - gospel anthems such as "Will You Be There '', "Heal the World '' and "Keep the Faith ''; these songs show Jackson opening up about various personal struggles and worries. In the ballad "Gone Too Soon '', Jackson gives tribute to his friend Ryan White and the plight of those with AIDS.
HIStory creates an atmosphere of paranoia. Its content focuses on the hardships and public struggles Jackson went through prior to its production. In the new jack swing - funk - rock tracks "Scream '' and "Tabloid Junkie '', and the R&B ballad "You Are Not Alone '', Jackson retaliates against the injustice and isolation he feels, and directs much of his anger at the media. In the introspective ballad "Stranger in Moscow '', Jackson laments over his "fall from grace '', while songs like "Earth Song '', "Childhood '', "Little Susie '' and "Smile '' are operatic pop pieces. In the track "D.S. '', Jackson launched a verbal attack against the lawyer Tom Sneddon, who had prosecuted him in both child sexual abuse cases. He describes Sneddon as an antisocial white supremacist who wanted to "get my ass, dead or alive ''. Of the song, Sneddon said: "I have not -- shall we say -- done him the honor of listening to it, but I 've been told that it ends with the sound of a gunshot. '' Invincible found Jackson working heavily with producer Rodney Jerkins. The album comprises urban soul tracks such as "Cry '' and "The Lost Children '', ballads such as "Speechless '', "Break of Dawn '', and "Butterflies '' and mixes hip hop, pop, and R&B in "2000 Watts '', "Heartbreaker '' and "Invincible ''.
Jackson sang from childhood, and over time his voice and vocal style changed noticeably. Between 1971 and 1975, his voice descended from boy soprano to high tenor. His vocal range as an adult was F2 - E ♭ 6. Jackson first used the "vocal hiccup '' technique, similar to gulping for air or gasping, in 1973, with the song "It 's Too Late to Change the Time '' from the Jackson 5 's album G.I.T.: Get It Together. Jackson did not use the technique fully until the recording of Off the Wall: it can be seen in full force in the "Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground) '' promotional video. With the arrival of Off the Wall in the late 1970s, Jackson 's abilities as a vocalist were well regarded; at the time, Rolling Stone compared his vocals to the "breathless, dreamy stutter '' of Stevie Wonder, and wrote that "Jackson 's feathery - timbred tenor is extraordinarily beautiful. It slides smoothly into a startling falsetto that 's used very daringly. '' 1982 saw the release of Thriller, and Rolling Stone was of the opinion that Jackson was then singing in a "fully adult voice '' that was "tinged by sadness ''.
A distinctive deliberate mispronunciation of "come on '', used frequently by Jackson, occasionally spelled "c'mon '', "cha'mone '', or "shamone '', is also a staple in impressions and caricatures of him. The turn of the 1990s saw the release of the introspective album Dangerous. The New York Times noted that on some tracks, "he gulps for breath, his voice quivers with anxiety or drops to a desperate whisper, hissing through clenched teeth '' and he had a "wretched tone ''. When singing of brotherhood or self - esteem the musician would return to "smooth '' vocals. Of Invincible, Rolling Stone was of the opinion that, at age 43, Jackson still performed "exquisitely voiced rhythm tracks and vibrating vocal harmonies ''. Nelson George wrote: "The grace, the aggression, the growling, the natural boyishness, the falsetto, the smoothness -- that combination of elements mark him as a major vocalist ''. Cultural critic Joseph Vogel notes that Jackson had a "distinctive styles is his ability to convey emotion without the use of language: there are his trademark gulps, grunts, gasps, cries, exclamations; he also frequently scats or twists and contorts words until they are barely discernible. '' Neil McCormick notes that Jackson 's unorthodox singing style "was original and utterly distinctive, from his almost ethereal falsetto to his soft, sweet mid-tones; his fluid, seamless control of often very fast moving series of notes; his percussive yet still melodic outbursts, ululations and interjections (from those spooky "tee - hee - hees '' to grunts and wails). Unusually for someone coming from a black American soul tradition, he did not often sing straight, unadorned ballads, though when he did (from ' Ben ' to ' She 's Out of My Life ') the effect was of a powerful simplicity and truth. ''
Jackson has been called the King of Music Videos. Steve Huey of AllMusic observed how Jackson transformed the music video into an art form and a promotional tool through complex story lines, dance routines, special effects and famous cameo appearances, simultaneously breaking down racial barriers. Before Thriller, Jackson struggled to receive coverage on MTV, allegedly because he was African American. Pressure from CBS Records persuaded MTV to start showing "Billie Jean '' and later "Beat It '', leading to a lengthy partnership with Jackson, also helping other black music artists gain recognition. MTV employees deny any racism in their coverage, or pressure to change their stance. MTV maintains that they played rock music, regardless of race. The popularity of his videos on MTV helped to put the relatively young channel "on the map ''; MTV 's focus shifted in favor of pop and R&B. His performance on Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever changed the scope of live stage show; "That Jackson lip - synced ' Billie Jean ' is, in itself, not extraordinary, but the fact that it did not change the impact of the performance is extraordinary; whether the performance was live or lip - synced made no difference to the audience '' thus creating an era in which artists re-create the spectacle of music video imagery on stage. Short films like Thriller largely remained unique to Jackson, while the group dance sequence in "Beat It '' has frequently been imitated. The choreography in Thriller has become a part of global pop culture, replicated everywhere from Indian films to prisons in the Philippines. The Thriller short film marked an increase in scale for music videos, and has been named the most successful music video ever by the Guinness World Records.
In the 19 - minute music video for "Bad '' -- directed by Martin Scorsese -- Jackson began using sexual imagery and choreography not previously seen in his work. He occasionally grabbed or touched his chest, torso and crotch. When asked by Oprah in the 1993 interview about why he grabbed his crotch, he replied, "I think it happens subliminally '' and he described it as something that was not planned, but rather, as something that was compelled by the music. "Bad '' garnered a mixed reception from both fans and critics; Time magazine described it as "infamous ''. The video also featured Wesley Snipes; in the future Jackson 's videos would often feature famous cameo roles. For the "Smooth Criminal '' video, Jackson experimented with an anti-gravity lean where the performer leans forward at a 45 degree angle, beyond the performer 's center of gravity. To accomplish this move live, Jackson and designers developed a special shoe that locks the performer 's feet to the stage, allowing them to lean forward. They were granted U.S. Patent 5,255,452 for the device. Although the music video for "Leave Me Alone '' was not officially released in the US, in 1989 it was nominated for three Billboard Music Video Awards; the same year it won a Golden Lion Award for the quality of the special effects used in its production. In 1990, "Leave Me Alone '' won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form.
He received the MTV Video Vanguard Award in 1988 and the MTV Video Vanguard Artist of the Decade Award in 1990 to celebrate his accomplishments in the art form in the 1980s; in 1991 the first award was renamed in his honor. "Black or White '' was accompanied by a controversial music video, which, on November 14, 1991, simultaneously premiered in 27 countries with an estimated audience of 500 million people, the largest viewing ever for a music video at that time. It featured scenes construed as having a sexual nature as well as depictions of violence. The offending scenes in the final half of the 14 - minute version were edited out to prevent the video from being banned, and Jackson apologized. Along with Jackson, it featured Macaulay Culkin, Peggy Lipton, and George Wendt. It helped usher in morphing as an important technology in music videos.
"Remember the Time '' was an elaborate production, and became one of his longest videos at over nine minutes. Set in ancient Egypt, it featured groundbreaking visual effects and appearances by Eddie Murphy, Iman, and Magic Johnson, along with a distinct complex dance routine. The video for "In the Closet '' was Jackson 's most sexually provocative piece. It featured supermodel Naomi Campbell in a courtship dance with Jackson. The video was banned in South Africa because of its imagery.
The music video for "Scream '', directed by Mark Romanek and production designer Tom Foden, is one of Jackson 's most critically acclaimed. In 1995, it gained eleven MTV Video Music Award Nominations -- more than any other music video -- and won "Best Dance Video '', "Best Choreography '', and "Best Art Direction ''. The song and its accompanying video are a response to the backlash Jackson received from the media after being accused of child molestation in 1993. A year later, it won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form; shortly afterwards Guinness World Records listed it as the most expensive music video ever made, at a cost of $7 million.
"Earth Song '' was accompanied by an expensive and well - received music video, which gained a Grammy nomination for Best Music Video, Short Form in 1997. The video had an environmental theme, showing images of animal cruelty, deforestation, pollution and war. Using special effects, time is reversed so that life returns, wars end, and the forests re-grow. Released in 1997 and premiering at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival, Michael Jackson 's Ghosts was a short film written by Jackson and Stephen King and directed by Stan Winston. The video for Ghosts is over 38 minutes long and holds the Guinness World Record as the world 's longest music video.
The music video for "You Rock My World '', which is thirteen and a half minutes long, was directed by Paul Hunter, and was released in 2001. The video features appearances from Chris Tucker and Marlon Brando. The video won an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Music Video at the award shows 2002 ceremony.
The media has commonly referred to Jackson as the "King of Pop '' because, throughout his career, he transformed the art of music videos and paved the way for modern pop music. For much of Jackson 's career, he had an unparalleled worldwide influence over the younger generation through his musical and humanitarian works. His music and videos, such as Thriller, fostered racial diversity in MTV 's roster and steered its focus from rock to pop music and R&B, shaping the channel into a form that proved enduring. Jackson 's work continues to influence numerous artists of various music genres. He is recognized as the Most Successful Entertainer of All Time by Guinness World Records.
Danyel Smith, the chief content officer of Vibe Media Group and the editor - in - chief of Vibe describes Jackson as "The Greatest Star ''. AllMusic 's Steve Huey describes Jackson as "an unstoppable juggernaut, possessed of all the skills to dominate the charts seemingly at will: an instantly identifiable voice, eye - popping dance moves, stunning musical versatility and loads of sheer star power ''. BET described Jackson "as quite simply the greatest entertainer of all time '' and someone who "revolutionized the music video and brought dances like the moonwalk to the world. Jackson 's sound, style, movement and legacy continues to inspire artists of all genres. ''
In 1984, Time magazine 's pop critic Jay Cocks wrote that "Jackson is the biggest thing since the Beatles. He is the hottest single phenomenon since Elvis Presley. He just may be the most popular black singer ever. '' In 1990, Vanity Fair cited Jackson as the most popular artist in the history of show business. In 2003, Daily Telegraph writer Tom Utley described Jackson as "extremely important '' and a "genius ''. In 2007, Jackson said: "Music has been my outlet, my gift to all of the lovers in this world. Through it, my music, I know I will live forever. ''
At Jackson 's memorial service on July 7, 2009, Motown founder Berry Gordy proclaimed Jackson "the greatest entertainer that ever lived ''. In a June 28, 2009 Baltimore Sun article titled "7 Ways Michael Jackson Changed The World '', Jill Rosen wrote that Jackson 's legacy was "as enduring as it is multi-faceted '', influencing fields including sound, dance, fashion, music videos and celebrity. On December 19, 2014, the British Council of Cultural Relations named Jackson 's life one of the 80 most important cultural moments of the 20th century.
In July 2009, the Lunar Republic Society, which promotes the exploration, settlement, and development of the Moon, named a Moon crater after Jackson. In the same year, for Jackson 's 51st birthday, Google dedicated their Google Doodle to him. In 2010, two university librarians found that Jackson 's influence extended to academia, with references to Jackson in reports concerning music, popular culture, chemistry and an array of other topics.
Michael Jackson was inducted onto the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1980 as member of the Jacksons and in 1984 as solo artist. Throughout his career he received numerous honors and awards, including the World Music Awards ' Best - Selling Pop Male Artist of the Millennium, the American Music Award 's Artist of the Century Award and the Bambi Pop Artist of the Millennium Award. He was a double - inductee of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, once as a member of The Jackson 5 in 1997 and later as a solo artist in 2001. Jackson was also inducted in several other halls of fame, including Vocal Group Hall of Fame (as a Jackson 5 member) in 1999 and the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2002. In 2010, Jackson was inducted into the Dance Hall of Fame as the first (and currently only) dancer from the world of pop and rock ' n ' roll. In 2014, Jackson was inducted into the second class of inductees to the Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame; his father Joe Jackson accepted on his behalf.
His awards include many Guinness World Records (eight in 2006 alone), including for the Most Successful Entertainer of All Time, 13 Grammy Awards (as well as the Grammy Legend Award and the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award), 26 American Music Awards (including the "Artist of the Century '' and "Artist of the 1980s ''), -- more than any artist -- 13 number - one singles in the US in his solo career -- more than any other male artist in the Hot 100 era -- and estimated sales of over 350 million records worldwide making him one of the best - selling artists in modern music history. On December 29, 2009, the American Film Institute recognized Jackson 's death as a "moment of significance '' saying, "Michael Jackson 's sudden death in June at age 50 was notable for the worldwide outpouring of grief and the unprecedented global eulogy of his posthumous concert rehearsal movie This Is It. '' Michael Jackson also received an Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters Degree from the United Negro College Fund and also an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from Fisk University.
It is estimated that Michael Jackson earned about $750 million in his lifetime. Sales of his recordings through Sony 's music unit earned him an estimated $300 million in royalties. He may have also earned an additional $400 million from concerts, music publishing (including his share of the Beatles catalog), endorsements, merchandising and music videos. Estimating how much of these earnings Jackson was able to personally pocket is difficult because one has to account for taxes, recording costs and production costs.
There have also been several detailed estimates of Jackson 's net worth during his life, which range from negative $285 million to positive $350 million for the years 2002, 2003 and 2007.
On July 26, 2013, the executors of the Estate of Michael Jackson filed a petition in the United States Tax Court as a result of a dispute with the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) over U.S. federal estate taxes imposed on the value of Jackson 's Estate at the time of his death. The executors claim that the Estate was worth about $7 million. The IRS asserts that the Estate was worth over $1.1 billion, and that over $700 million in federal estate taxes (including penalties) are due. A trial was held from February 6 to 24, 2017. As of early July 2017, no decision has been rendered.
In 2016, Forbes magazine estimated annual gross earnings by the Jackson Estate at $825 million, the largest ever recorded for a celebrity. The majority was due to the sale of the Sony / ATV catalog. It marked the seventh consecutive year since his death where Jackson 's annual earnings were over $100 million.
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what is the origin of the trinity doctrine | Trinity - wikipedia
The Christian doctrine of the Trinity (Latin: Trinitas, lit. ' triad ', from Greek τριάς and τριάδα, from Latin: trinus "threefold '') holds that God is one God, but three coeternal consubstantial persons or hypostases -- the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit -- as "one God in three Divine Persons ''. The three Persons are distinct, yet are one "substance, essence or nature '' (homoousios). In this context, a "nature '' is what one is, whereas a "person '' is who one is. Sometimes differing views are referred to as nontrinitarian.
According to this central mystery of most Christian faiths, there is only one God in three Persons: while distinct in their relations with each other ("it is the Father who generates, the Son who is begotten, and the Holy Spirit who proceeds ''), they are stated to be one in all else, co-equal, co-eternal and consubstantial, and each is God, whole and entire. Accordingly, the whole work of creation and grace in Christianity is seen as a single operation common to all three divine persons, in which each shows forth what is proper to him in the Trinity, so that all things are "from the Father '', "through the Son '' and "in the Holy Spirit ''. C.S. Lewis makes the analogy to a cube and its six square faces: God is like the solid mass of the cube, invisible inside it, while the three Persons are like the squares, which are each equally its visible faces.
Trinitarian theologians believe that manifestations of the Trinity are made evident from the very beginning of the Bible. Genesis 1: 1 - 3 posits God, His Spirit and the "creative word of God '' together in the initial Genesis creation narrative account. While the Fathers of the Church saw Old Testament elements such as the appearance of three men to Abraham in Book of Genesis, chapter 18, as foreshadowings of the Trinity, it was the New Testament that they saw as a basis for developing the concept of the Trinity. One of the most influential of the New Testament texts seen as implying the teaching of the Trinity was Matthew 28: 19, which mandated baptizing "in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit ''. Another New Testament text pointing to the Trinity was John 1: 1 - 14, in which the inter-relationships of the Triune God are reflected in the gospel author 's description of "the Word '', again showing the elements of the Triune God and their eternal (always was, always is, and always shall be) existence. (Revelation 1: 8)
Reflection, proclamation, and dialogue led to the formulation of the doctrine that was felt to correspond to the data in the Bible.
While scripture does not contain the word Trinity, an indication of three distinct persons can be found in 1 John 5: 7 for the validity of which exist a controversy known as Johannine Comma. Early Christian belief in the deity of Jesus Christ existed since the first century in the writings of John the Apostle (John 1: 1, 20: 28), Paul the Apostle (Titus 2: 13, Romans 9: 5, Hebrews 1: 8 - 10), Peter the Apostle (2 Peter 1: 1), as well as in the writings of Ignatius of Antioch, a disciple of John who was born about the beginning of the Apostolic age (c. 35). Jesus is also quoted as attesting to being one with and equal with the Father, sharing in the glory of the Father before the world began. (John 8: 58, 10: 30, 17: 5).
Romans 8: 9 - 11 implies the interdependency or interrelatedness of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, while examining the redeemed individual, saved by grace, as evidenced by the indwelling Spirit of God.
Subsequently, in the understanding of Trinitarian theology, Scripture "bears witness to '' the activity of a God who can only be understood in Trinitarian terms. The doctrine did not take its definitive shape until late in the fourth century. During the intervening period, various tentative solutions, some more and some less satisfactory, were proposed.
Trinitarianism contrasts with positions such as Binitarianism (one deity in two persons, or two deities) and Monarchianism (no pluratity of persons within God), of which Modalistic Monarchianism (one deity revealed in three modes) and Unitarianism (one deity in one person) are subsets. Additionally, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints believes the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost are three separate deities, two of which possess separate bodies of flesh and bones, while the Holy Ghost has only a body of spirit; and that their unity is not physical, but in purpose.
The word "trinity '' is derived from Latin trinitas, meaning "the number three, a triad, tri ''. This abstract noun is formed from the adjective trinus (three each, threefold, triple), as the word unitas is the abstract noun formed from unus (one).
The corresponding word in Greek is tριάς, meaning "a set of three '' or "the number three ''. The first recorded use of this Greek word in Christian theology was by Theophilus of Antioch in about the year of 170. He wrote:
In like manner also the three days which were before the luminaries, are types of the Trinity (Τριάδος), of God, and His Word, and His wisdom. And the fourth is the type of man, who needs light, that so there may be God, the Word, wisdom, man.
Tertullian, a Latin theologian who wrote in the early 3rd century, is credited as being the first to use the Latin words "Trinity '', "person '' and "substance '' to explain that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are "tres personae, una substantia ''. While "personae '' is often translated as "persons, '' the Latin word personae is better understood as referring to roles as opposed to individual centers of consciousness.
The Ante - Nicene Fathers asserted Christ 's deity and spoke of "Father, Son and Holy Spirit '', even though their language is not that of the traditional doctrine as formalized in the fourth century. Trinitarians view these as elements of the codified doctrine. Ignatius of Antioch provides early support for the Trinity around 110, exhorting obedience to "Christ, and to the Father, and to the Spirit ''. Justin Martyr (AD 100 -- c. 165) also writes, "in the name of God, the Father and Lord of the universe, and of our Saviour Jesus Christ, and of the Holy Spirit ''. The first of the early church fathers to be recorded using the word "Trinity '' was Theophilus of Antioch writing in the late 2nd century. He defines the Trinity as God, His Word (Logos) and His Wisdom (Sophia) in the context of a discussion of the first three days of creation, following the early Christian practice of identifying the Holy Spirit as the Wisdom of God. The first defense of the doctrine of the Trinity was in the early 3rd century by the early church father Tertullian. He explicitly defined the Trinity as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and defended his theology against "Praxeas '', though he noted that the majority of the believers in his day found issue with his doctrine. St. Justin and Clement of Alexandra used the Trinity in their doxologies and St. Basil likewise, in the evening lighting of lamps. Origen of Alexandria (AD 185 - c. 253) has often been interpreted as Subordinationist, but some modern researchers have argued that Origen might have actually been anti-Subordinationist.
Fourth century theologian Marcellus of Ancyra attributes an earlier formulation of the Trinity to the Gnostic teacher Valentinus (lived c. 100 -- c. 160), whom he identifies as "the first to devise the notion of three subsistent entities (hypostases)... in a work that he entitled On the Three Natures, '' which he says Valentinus "filched from Hermes and Plato. '' This statement is problematic, however, in that Marcellus was known for launching unsubstantiated attacks against his opponents, and his statements contradict existing evidence. In the work cited by him, On the Three Natures, the three natures are the three natures of mankind, not Deity. Likewise, Irenaeus indicates that Valentinus believed in the pre-existent Aeon known as Proarche, Propator, and Bythus who existed alongside Ennœa, and they together begot Monogenes and Aletheia: and these constituted first - begotten Pythagorean Tetrad, from whom thirty Aeons were produced.
Although there is much debate as to whether the beliefs of the Apostles were merely articulated and explained in the Trinitarian Creeds, or were corrupted and replaced with new beliefs, all scholars recognize that the Creeds themselves were created in reaction to disagreements over the nature of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. These controversies took some centuries to be resolved.
Of these controversies, the most significant developments were articulated in the first four centuries by the Church Fathers in reaction to Adoptionism, Sabellianism, and Arianism. Adoptionism was the belief that Jesus was an ordinary man, born of Joseph and Mary, who became the Christ and Son of God at his baptism. In 269, the Synods of Antioch condemned Paul of Samosata for his Adoptionist theology, and also condemned the term homoousios (ὁμοούσιος, "of the same being '') in the modelist sense in which he used it.
Sabellianism taught that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit are essentially one and the same, the difference being simply verbal, describing different aspects or roles of a single being. For this view Sabellius was excommunicated for heresy in Rome c. 220.
In the fourth century, Arius, as traditionally understood, taught that the Father existed prior to the Son who was not, by nature, God but rather a changeable creature who was granted the dignity of becoming "Son of God ''. In 325, the Council of Nicaea adopted the Nicene Creed which described Christ as "God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father ''. The creed used the term homoousios (of one substance) to define the relationship between the Father and the Son. After more than fifty years of debate, homoousios was recognised as the hallmark of orthodoxy, and was further developed into the formula of "three persons, one being ''.
The third Council of Sirmium, in 357, was the high point of Arianism. The Seventh Arian Confession (Second Sirmium Confession) held that both homoousios (of one substance) and homoiousios (of similar substance) were unbiblical and that the Father is greater than the Son. (This confession was later known as the Blasphemy of Sirmium)
But since many persons are disturbed by questions concerning what is called in Latin substantia, but in Greek ousia, that is, to make it understood more exactly, as to ' coessential, ' or what is called, ' like - in - essence, ' there ought to be no mention of any of these at all, nor exposition of them in the Church, for this reason and for this consideration, that in divine Scripture nothing is written about them, and that they are above men 's knowledge and above men 's understanding;
Athanasius (293 -- 373), who was present at the Council as one of the Bishop of Alexandria 's assistants, stated that the bishops were forced to use this terminology, which is not found in Scripture, because the biblical phrases that they would have preferred to use were claimed by the Arians to be capable of being interpreted in what the bishops considered to be a heretical sense. Moreover, the meanings of "ousia '' and "hypostasis '' overlapped then, so that "hypostasis '' for some meant "essence '' and for others "person ''.
The Confession of the Council of Nicaea said little about the Holy Spirit. The doctrine of the divinity and personality of the Holy Spirit was developed by Athanasius in the last decades of his life. He defended and refined the Nicene formula. By the end of the 4th century, under the leadership of Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus (the Cappadocian Fathers), the doctrine had reached substantially its current form.
Gregory of Nazianzus would say of the Trinity, "No sooner do I conceive of the One than I am illumined by the splendour of the Three; no sooner do I distinguish Three than I am carried back into the One. When I think of any of the Three, I think of Him as the Whole, and my eyes are filled, and the greater part of what I am thinking escapes me. I can not grasp the greatness of that One so as to attribute a greater greatness to the rest. When I contemplate the Three together, I see but one torch, and can not divide or measure out the undivided light. ''
Devotion to the Trinity centered in the French monasteries at Tours and Aniane where Saint Benedict dedicated the abbey church to the Trinity in 872. Feast Days were not instituted until 1091 at Cluny and 1162 at Canterbury and papal resistance continued until 1331.
In the synoptic Gospels the baptism of Jesus is often interpreted as a manifestation of all three persons of the Trinity: "And when Jesus was baptized, he went up immediately from the water, and behold, the heavens were opened and he saw the spirit of God descending like a dove, and alighting on him; and lo, a voice from heaven, saying, ' This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased. ' '' Baptism is generally conferred with the Trinitarian formula, "in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit ''. Trinitarians identify this name with the Christian faith into which baptism is an initiation, as seen for example in the statement of Basil the Great (330 -- 379): "We are bound to be baptized in the terms we have received, and to profess faith in the terms in which we have been baptized. '' The First Council of Constantinople (381) also says, "This is the Faith of our baptism that teaches us to believe in the Name of the Father, of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. According to this Faith there is one Godhead, Power, and Being of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. '' Matthew 28: 19 may be taken to indicate that baptism was associated with this formula from the earliest decades of the Church 's existence.
Oneness Pentecostals demur from the Trinitarian view of baptism and emphasize baptism ' in the name of Jesus Christ ' as the original apostolic formula. For this reason, they often focus on the baptisms in Acts. Those who place great emphasis on the baptisms in Acts often likewise question the authenticity of Matthew 28: 19 in its present form. Most scholars of New Testament textual criticism accept the authenticity of the passage, since there are no variant manuscripts regarding the formula, and the extant form of the passage is attested in the Didache and other patristic works of the 1st and 2nd centuries: Ignatius, Tertullian, Hippolytus, Cyprian, and Gregory Thaumaturgus.
Commenting on Matthew 28: 19, Gerhard Kittel states:
This threefold relation (of Father, Son and Spirit) soon found fixed expression in the triadic formulae in 2 Cor. 13: 14 and in 1 Cor. 12: 4 -- 6. The form is first found in the baptismal formula in Matthew 28: 19; Did., 7. 1 and 3... (I) t is self - evident that Father, Son and Spirit are here linked in an indissoluble threefold relationship.
Christianity, having emerged from Judaism, is a monotheistic religion. According to Baptist theologian Frank Stagg never in the New Testament does the Trinitarian concept become a "tritheism '' (three Gods) nor even two. God is one, and that God is a single being is declared in the Bible:
In the Trinitarian view, the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit share the one essence, substance or being. The central and crucial affirmation of Christian faith is that there is one savior, God, and one salvation, manifest in Jesus Christ, to which there is access only because of the Holy Spirit. The God of the Old Testament is still the same as the God of the New. In Christianity, statements about a single God are intended to distinguish the Hebraic understanding from the polytheistic view, which see divine power as shared by several beings, beings which can and do disagree and have conflicts with each other.
In Trinitarian doctrine, God exists as three persons or hypostases, but is one being, having a single divine nature. The members of the Trinity are co-equal and co-eternal, one in essence, nature, power, action, and will. As stated in the Athanasian Creed, the Father is uncreated, the Son is uncreated, and the Holy Spirit is uncreated, and all three are eternal without beginning. "The Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit '' are not names for different parts of God, but one name for God because three persons exist in God as one entity. They can not be separate from one another. Each person is understood as having the identical essence or nature, not merely similar natures.
For Trinitarians, emphasis in Genesis 1: 26 is on the plurality in the Deity, and in 1: 27 on the unity of the divine Essence. A possible interpretation of Genesis 1: 26 is that God 's relationships in the Trinity are mirrored in man by the ideal relationship between husband and wife, two persons becoming one flesh, as described in Eve 's creation later in the next chapter.
Perichoresis (from Greek, "going around '', "envelopment '') is a term used by some theologians to describe the relationship among the members of the Trinity. The Latin equivalent for this term is circumincessio. This concept refers for its basis to John 14 -- 17, where Jesus is instructing the disciples concerning the meaning of his departure. His going to the Father, he says, is for their sake; so that he might come to them when the "other comforter '' is given to them. Then, he says, his disciples will dwell in him, as he dwells in the Father, and the Father dwells in him, and the Father will dwell in them. This is so, according to the theory of perichoresis, because the persons of the Trinity "reciprocally contain one another, so that one permanently envelopes and is permanently enveloped by, the other whom he yet envelopes ''. (Hilary of Poitiers, Concerning the Trinity 3: 1).
Perichoresis effectively excludes the idea that God has parts, but rather is a simple being. It also harmonizes well with the doctrine that the Christian 's union with the Son in his humanity brings him into union with one who contains in himself, in the Apostle Paul 's words, "all the fullness of deity '' and not a part. (See also: Divinization (Christian)). Perichoresis provides an intuitive figure of what this might mean. The Son, the eternal Word, is from all eternity the dwelling place of God; he is the "Father 's house '', just as the Son dwells in the Father and the Spirit; so that, when the Spirit is "given '', then it happens as Jesus said, "I will not leave you as orphans; for I will come to you. ''
According to the words of Jesus, married persons are in some sense no longer two but are joined into one. Therefore, Orthodox theologians also see the marriage relationship between a man and a woman to be an example of this sacred union. "Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave unto his wife: and they shall be one flesh. '' Gen. 2: 24. "Wherefore they are no more twain but one flesh. What therefore God hath joined together, let no man put asunder. '' Matt. 19: 6.
Trinitarianism affirms that the Son is "begotten '' (or "generated '') of the Father and that the Spirit "proceeds '' from the Father, but the Father is "neither begotten nor proceeds ''. The argument over whether the Spirit proceeds from the Father alone, or from the Father and the Son, was one of the catalysts of the Great Schism, in this case concerning the Western addition of the Filioque clause to the Nicene Creed. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that, in the sense of the Latin verb procedere (which does not have to indicate ultimate origin and is therefore compatible with proceeding through), but not in that of the Greek verb ἐκπορεύεσθαι (which implies ultimate origin), the Spirit "proceeds '' from the Father and the Son, and the Eastern Orthodox Church, which teaches that the Spirit "proceeds '' from the Father alone, has made no statement on the claim of a difference in meaning between the two words, one Greek and one Latin, both of which are translated as "proceeds ''. The Eastern Orthodox Churches object to the Filioque clause on ecclesiological and theological grounds, holding that "from the Father '' means "from the Father alone ''.
This language is often considered difficult because, if used regarding humans or other created things, it would imply time and change; when used here, no beginning, change in being, or process within time is intended and is excluded. The Son is generated ("born '' or "begotten ''), and the Spirit proceeds, eternally. Augustine of Hippo explains, "Thy years are one day, and Thy day is not daily, but today; because Thy today yields not to tomorrow, for neither does it follow yesterday. Thy today is eternity; therefore Thou begat the Co-eternal, to whom Thou saidst, ' This day have I begotten Thee. ' ''
Most Protestant groups that use the creed also include the Filioque clause. Its controversial use is addressed in several confessions: the Westminster Confession 2: 3, the London Baptist Confession 2: 3, and the Lutheran Augsburg Confession 1: 1 -- 6.
The term "immanent Trinity '' focuses on who God is; the term "economic Trinity '' focuses on what God does.
According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church,
The Fathers of the Church distinguish between theology (theologia) and economy (oikonomia). "Theology '' refers to the mystery of God 's inmost life within the Blessed Trinity and "economy '' to all the works by which God reveals himself and communicates his life. Through the oikonomia the theologia is revealed to us; but conversely, the theologia illuminates the whole oikonomia. God 's works reveal who he is in himself; the mystery of his inmost being enlightens our understanding of all his works. So it is, analogously, among human persons. A person discloses himself in his actions, and the better we know a person, the better we understand his actions.
The ancient Nicene theologians argued that everything the Trinity does is done by Father, Son, and Spirit working in unity with one will. The three persons of the Trinity always work inseparably, for their work is always the work of the one God. The Son 's will can not be different from the Father 's because it is the Father 's. They have but one will as they have but one being. Otherwise they would not be one God. According to Phillip Cary, if there were relations of command and obedience between the Father and the Son, there would be no Trinity at all but rather three gods. On this point St. Basil observes "When then He says, ' I have not spoken of myself ', and again, ' As the Father said unto me, so I speak ', and ' The word which ye hear is not mine, but (the Father 's) which sent me ', and in another place, ' As the Father gave me commandment, even so I do ', it is not because He lacks deliberate purpose or power of initiation, nor yet because He has to wait for the preconcerted key - note, that he employs language of this kind. His object is to make it plain that His own will is connected in indissoluble union with the Father. Do not then let us understand by what is called a ' commandment ' a peremptory mandate delivered by organs of speech, and giving orders to the Son, as to a subordinate, concerning what He ought to do. Let us rather, in a sense befitting the Godhead, perceive a transmission of will, like the reflexion of an object in a mirror, passing without note of time from Father to Son. ''
Athanasius of Alexandria explained that the Son is eternally one in being with the Father, temporally and voluntarily subordinate in his incarnate ministry. Such human traits, he argued, were not to be read back into the eternal Trinity. Likewise, the Cappadocian Fathers also insisted there was no economic inequality present within the Trinity. As Basil wrote: "We perceive the operation of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit to be one and the same, in no respect showing differences or variation; from this identity of operation we necessarily infer the unity of nature. ''
The traditional theory of "appropriation '' consists in attributing certain names, qualities, or operations to one of the Persons of the Trinity, not, however, to the exclusion of the others, but in preference to the others. This theory was established by the Latin Fathers of the fourth and fifth centuries, especially by Hilary of Poitiers, Augustine, and Leo the Great. In the Middle Ages, the theory was systematically taught by the Schoolmen such as Bonaventure.
Augustine "coupled the doctrine of the Trinity with anthropology. Proceeding from the idea that humans are created by God according to the divine image, he attempted to explain the mystery of the Trinity by uncovering traces of the Trinity in the human personality ''. The first key of his exegesis is an interpersonal analogy of mutual love. In De trinitate (399 -- 419) he wrote,
"We are now eager to see whether that most excellent love is proper to the Holy Spirit, and if it is not so, whether the Father, or the Son, or the Holy Trinity itself is love, since we can not contradict the most certain faith and the most weighty authority of Scripture which says: ' God is love ' ''.
The Bible reveals it although only in the two neighboring verses 1 John 4: 8; 16, therefore one must ask if love itself is triune. Augustine found that it is, and consists of "three: the lover, the beloved, and the love. ''
In the "Preface to the Second Edition '' of his 1970 German book Theologie der Drei Tage (English translation: Mysterium Paschale), Hans Urs von Balthasar takes a cue from Revelation 13: 8 (Vulgate: agni qui occisus est ab origine mundi, NIV: "the Lamb who was slain from the creation of the world '') to explore the "God is love '' idea as an "eternal super-kenosis ''.
The underlying question is if the three Persons of the Trinity can live a self - love (amor sui), as well as if for them, with the conciliar dogmatic formulation in terms that today we would call ontotheological, it is possible that the aseity (causa sui) is valid. If the Father is not the Son or the Spirit since the generator / begetter is not the generated / begotten nor the generation / generative process and vice versa, and since the lover is neither the beloved nor the love dynamic between them and vice versa, Christianity has provided as a response a concept of divine ontology and love different from common sense (omnipotence, omnibenevolence, impassibility, etc.): a sacrificial, martyring, crucifying, precisely kenotic concept.
1946 Kitamori 's Theology of the Pain of God and 1971 Moltmann 's The Crucified God are two 1900s books that have taken up the ancient theological idea of theopaschism, i.e. that at least unus de Trinitate passus est. In the words of Balthasar himself: "At this point, where the subject undergoing the ' hour ' is the Son speaking with the Father, the controversial ' Theopaschist formula ' has its proper place: ' One of the Trinity has suffered. ' The formula can already be found in Gregory Nazianzen: ' We needed a... crucified God '. ''
As we will see in the next section, the same problem also arises in terms of the will between the commander / normer / legislator, commanded / normed / legislated and the process between them: is each Trinity 's Person lex sui or not?
Roger E. Olson says that a number of evangelical theologians hold the view that there is a hierarchy of authority in the Trinity with the Son being subordinate to the Father. "The Gospel of John makes this clear as Jesus repeatedly mentions that he came to do the Father 's will. '' Olsen cautions, however, that the hierarchy in the "economic Trinity '' should be distinguished from the "immanent Trinity ''. He cites the Cappadocian Fathers, "the Father is the source or "fount '' of divinity within the Godhead; the Son and the Spirit derive their deity from the Father eternally (so there is no question of inequality of being). Their favorite analogy was the sun and its light and heat. There is no imagining the sun without its light and heat and yet it is the source of them. ''
Benjamin B. Warfield saw a principle of subordination in the "modes of operation '' of the Trinity, but was also hesitant to ascribe the same to the "modes of subsistence '' in relation of one to another. While noting that it is natural to see a subordination in function as reflecting a similar subordination in substance, he suggests that this might be the result of "... an agreement by Persons of the Trinity -- a "Covenant '' as it is technically called -- by virtue of which a distinct function in the work of redemption is assumed by each ".
Richard E. Rubenstein says that Emperor Constantine and his advisor Hosius of Corduba were aware of the usefulness of having a divinely ordained church in which the church authority, and not the individual, was able to determine individual salvation, and threw their support toward the homoousion Nicene formula. According to Eusebius, Constantine suggested the term homoousios at the Council of Nicaea, though most scholars have doubted that Constantine had such knowledge and have thought that most likely Hosius had suggested the term to him. Constantine later changed his view about the Arians, who opposed the Nicene formula, and supported the bishops who rejected the formula, as did several of his successors, the first emperor to be baptized in the Nicene faith being Theodosius the Great, emperor from 379 to 395.
From the Old Testament, the early church retained the conviction that God is one. The New Testament does not use the word Τριάς (Trinity) nor explicitly teach the Nicene Trinitarian doctrine, but it contains several passages that use twofold and threefold patterns to speak of God. Binitarian passages include Rom. 8: 11, 2 Cor. 4: 14, Galatians 1: 1, Eph. 1: 20, 1 Tim. 1: 2, 1 Pet. 1: 21, and 2 John 1: 13. Passages which refer to the Godhead with a threefold pattern include Matt. 28: 19, 1 Cor. 6: 11 and 12: 4ff., Gal. 3: 11 -- 14, Heb. 10: 29, 1 Pet. 1: 2 and 1 John 5: 7. These passages provided the material with which Christians would develop doctrines of the Trinity. Reflection by early Christians on passages such as the Great Commission: "Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit '' and Paul the Apostle 's blessing: "The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ and the love of God and the fellowship of the Holy Spirit be with you all '', while at the same time the Jewish Shema Yisrael: "Hear, O Israel: The Lord is our God, the Lord alone. '' has led some Christians to question how the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are "one ''. Eventually, the diverse references to God, Jesus, and the Spirit found in the New Testament were brought together to form the doctrine of the Trinity -- one God subsisting in three persons and one substance. The doctrine of the Trinity was used to combat heretical tendencies of how the three are related and to defend the church against charges of worshiping two or three gods.
Some scholars dispute the idea that support for the Trinity can be found in the Bible, and argue that the doctrine is the result of theological interpretations rather than sound exegesis of scripture.
According to The New Encyclopædia Britannica: "Neither the word Trinity nor the explicit doctrine appears in the New Testament. ''
"In order to articulate the dogma of the Trinity, the Church had to develop her own terminology with the help of certain notions of philosophical origin. '' -- Catechism of the Catholic Church.
"The Christian Bible, including the New Testament, has no trinitarian statements or speculations concerning a trinitary deity. '' -- Encyclopædia Britannica.
Dominican priest Marie - Émile Boismard wrote in his book À l'aube du christianisme -- La naissance des dogmes (At the Dawn of Christianity -- The Birth of Dogmas): "The statement that there are three persons in the one God... can not be read anywhere in the New Testament. ''
"The impression could arise that the Trinitarian dogma is in the last analysis a late 4th - century invention. In a sense, this is true... The formulation ' one God in three Persons ' was not solidly established, certainly not fully assimilated into Christian life and its profession of faith, prior to the end of the 4th century. '' -- New Catholic Encyclopedia (1967), Volume 14, page 299.
The Encyclopedia Americana says: "Fourth century Trinitarianism did not reflect accurately early Christian teaching regarding the nature of God; it was, on the contrary, a deviation from this teaching. ''
"The doctrine of the trinity... is not a product of the earliest Christian period, and we do not find it carefully expressed before the end of the second century. '' -- Library of Early Christianity -- Gods and the One God.
The concept was expressed in early writings from the beginning of the 2nd century forward, and other scholars hold that the way the New Testament repeatedly speaks of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit is such as to require one to accept a Trinitarian understanding.
The Comma Johanneum, 1 John 5: 7, is a disputed text which states: "For there are three that bear record in heaven, the Father, the Word, and the Holy Ghost: and these three are one. '' However, this passage is not considered to be part of the genuine text, and most scholars agree that the phrase was a gloss.
It should be noted that the expression ' Jesus is God ' is not same as ' Jesus as God ' as in an example, "Jesus is worshiped as God ''.
The Gospel of John has been seen as especially aimed at emphasizing Jesus ' divinity, presenting Jesus as the Logos, pre-existent and divine, from its first words, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. '' The Gospel of John ends with Thomas 's declaration that he believed Jesus was God, "My Lord and my God! '' There is no significant tendency among modern scholars to deny that John 1: 1 and John 20: 28 identify Jesus with God. John also portrays Jesus as the agent of creation of the universe.
There are also a few possible biblical supports for the divinity of Jesus found in the Synoptic Gospels. The Gospel of Matthew, for example, quotes Jesus as saying, "All things have been handed over to me by my Father. '' This is similar to John, who wrote that Jesus said, "All that the Father has is mine. '' These verses have been quoted to defend the omnipotence of Christ, having all power, as well as the omniscience of Christ, having all wisdom.
Expressions also in the Pauline epistles have been interpreted as attributing divinity to Jesus. They include: "For by him all things were created: things in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or powers or rulers or authorities; all things were created by him and for him '' and "For in Christ all the fullness of the Deity lives in bodily form '', and in Paul the Apostle 's claim to have been "sent not from men nor by man, but by Jesus Christ and God the Father ''.
Some have suggested that John presents a hierarchy when he quotes Jesus as saying, "The Father is greater than I '', a statement which was appealed to by nontrinitarian groups such as Arianism. However, Church Fathers such as Augustine of Hippo argued this statement was to be understood as Jesus speaking in as to his human nature.
As the Arian controversy was dissipating, the debate moved from the deity of Jesus Christ to the equality of the Holy Spirit with the Father and Son. On one hand, the Pneumatomachi sect declared that the Holy Spirit was an inferior person to the Father and Son. On the other hand, the Cappadocian Fathers argued that the Holy Spirit was an equal person to the Father and Son.
Although the main text used in defense of the deity of the Holy Spirit was Matthew 28: 19, Cappadocian Fathers such as Basil the Great argued from other verses such as "But Peter said, ' Ananias, why has Satan filled your heart to lie to the Holy Spirit and to keep back for yourself part of the proceeds of the land? While it remained unsold, did it not remain your own? And after it was sold, was it not at your disposal? Why is it that you have contrived this deed in your heart? You have not lied to men but to God. ' ''
Another passage the Cappadocian Fathers quoted from was "By the word of the Lord the heavens were made, and by the breath of his mouth all their host. '' According to their understanding, because "breath '' and "spirit '' in Hebrew are both "רוּחַ '' ("ruach ''), Psalm 33: 6 is revealing the roles of the Son and Holy Spirit as co-creators. And since, according to them, because only the holy God can create holy beings such as the angels, the Son and Holy Spirit must be God.
Yet another argument from the Cappadocian Fathers to prove that the Holy Spirit is of the same nature as the Father and Son comes from "For who knows a person 's thoughts except the spirit of that person, which is in him? So also no one comprehends the thoughts of God except the Spirit of God. '' They reasoned that this passage proves that the Holy Spirit has the same relationship to God as the spirit within us has to us.
The Cappadocian Fathers also quoted, "Do you not know that you are God 's temple and that God 's Spirit dwells in you? '' and reasoned that it would be blasphemous for an inferior being to take up residence in a temple of God, thus proving that the Holy Spirit is equal with the Father and the Son.
They also combined "the servant does not know what his master is doing '' with 1 Corinthians 2: 11 in an attempt to show that the Holy Spirit is not the slave of God, and therefore his equal.
The Pneumatomachi contradicted the Cappadocian Fathers by quoting, "Are they not all ministering spirits sent out to serve for the sake of those who are to inherit salvation? '' in effect arguing that the Holy Spirit is no different from other created angelic spirits. The Church Fathers disagreed, saying that the Holy Spirit is greater than the angels, since the Holy Spirit is the one who grants the foreknowledge for prophecy so that the angels could announce events to come.
The usage of the word "paraclete '' (Greek: parakletos) for the Holy Spirit in John 14: 16, which can be translated as advocate, intercessor, counsellor or protector, and the Holy Spirit 's essence and action characterized by truth, as all three persons of the Trinity are linked with truth (see v. 17), are seen as arguments that he is a divine person; especially that Jesus calls him another counsellor, in this way expressing that the Holy Spirit is similar to himself in regard to our counsel.
In addition, the Old Testament has also been interpreted as foreshadowing the Trinity, by referring to God 's word, his spirit, and Wisdom, as well as narratives such as the appearance of the three men to Abraham. However, it is generally agreed among Trinitarian Christian scholars that it would go beyond the intention and spirit of the Old Testament to correlate these notions directly with later Trinitarian doctrine.
Some Church Fathers believed that a knowledge of the mystery was granted to the prophets and saints of the Old Testament, and that they identified the divine messenger of Genesis 16: 7, 21: 17, 31: 11, Exodus 3: 2 and Wisdom of the sapiential books with the Son, and "the spirit of the Lord '' with the Holy Spirit. Other Church Fathers, such as Gregory Nazianzen, argued in his Orations that the revelation was gradual, claiming that the Father was proclaimed in the Old Testament openly, but the Son only obscurely, because "it was not safe, when the Godhead of the Father was not yet acknowledged, plainly to proclaim the Son ''.
Genesis 18 -- 19 has been interpreted by Christians as a Trinitarian text. The narrative has the Lord appearing to Abraham, who was visited by three men. Then in Genesis 19, "the two angels '' visited Lot at Sodom. The interplay between Abraham on the one hand and the Lord / three men / the two angels on the other was an intriguing text for those who believed in a single God in three persons. Justin Martyr, and John Calvin similarly, interpreted it such that Abraham was visited by God, who was accompanied by two angels. Justin supposed that the God who visited Abraham was distinguishable from the God who remains in the heavens, but was nevertheless identified as the (monotheistic) God. Justin appropriated the God who visited Abraham to Jesus, the second person of the Trinity.
Augustine, in contrast, held that the three visitors to Abraham were the three persons of the Trinity. He saw no indication that the visitors were unequal, as would be the case in Justin 's reading. Then in Genesis 19, two of the visitors were addressed by Lot in the singular: "Lot said to them, ' Not so, my lord. ' '' Augustine saw that Lot could address them as one because they had a single substance, despite the plurality of persons.
According to Swedenborg, the three angels which appeared to Abraham do represent the Trinity, but a Trinity of one being: the Divine Itself, the Divine Human and the Divine Proceeding. That one being is represented is indicated by the fact that they are referred to in the singular as Jehovah and Lord. The reason why only two of the angels went to visit Sodom and Gomorrah is that they represent the Divine Human and the Divine Proceeding, and to those aspects of the Divine belongs judgment, as Jesus declared that all judgment was entrusted by the Father to the Son. The three angels did indeed appear to Abraham as three men, but they are only a symbolic representation of the Trinity, which should not be taken literally as three distinct persons. In the Old Testament, Swedenborg finds the earliest direct reference to a Trine in the Divinity in the account of Moses ' encounter with the Lord in Exodus which states, "And Jehovah passed by upon his face, and called, Jehovah, Jehovah, a God merciful and gracious. ''
Some Christians interpret the theophanies or appearances of the Angel of the Lord as revelations of a person distinct from God, who is nonetheless called God. This interpretation is found in Christianity as early as Justin Martyr and Melito of Sardis, and reflects ideas that were already present in Philo. The Old Testament theophanies were thus seen as Christophanies, each a "preincarnate appearance of the Messiah ''.
In the introduction to his 1964 translation of Meditations, the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth discussed the profound influence of Stoic philosophy on Christianity. In particular:
Again in the doctrine of the Trinity, the ecclesiastical conception of Father, Word, and Spirit finds its germ in the different Stoic names of the Divine Unity. Thus Seneca, writing of the supreme Power which shapes the universe, states, ' This Power we sometimes call the All - ruling God, sometimes the incorporeal Wisdom, sometimes the holy Spirit, sometimes Destiny. ' The Church had only to reject the last of these terms to arrive at its own acceptable definition of the Divine Nature; while the further assertion ' these three are One ', which the modern mind finds paradoxical, was no more than commonplace to those familiar with Stoic notions.
The Trinity is most commonly seen in Christian art with the Spirit represented by a dove, as specified in the Gospel accounts of the Baptism of Christ; he is nearly always shown with wings outspread. However depictions using three human figures appear occasionally in most periods of art.
The Father and the Son are usually differentiated by age, and later by dress, but this too is not always the case. The usual depiction of the Father as an older man with a white beard may derive from the biblical Ancient of Days, which is often cited in defense of this sometimes controversial representation. However, in Eastern Orthodoxy the Ancient of Days is usually understood to be God the Son, not God the Father (see below) -- early Byzantine images show Christ as the Ancient of Days, but this iconography became rare. When the Father is depicted in art, he is sometimes shown with a halo shaped like an equilateral triangle, instead of a circle. The Son is often shown at the Father 's right hand. He may be represented by a symbol -- typically the Lamb (agnus dei) or a cross -- or on a crucifix, so that the Father is the only human figure shown at full size. In early medieval art, the Father may be represented by a hand appearing from a cloud in a blessing gesture, for example in scenes of the Baptism of Christ. Later, in the West, the Throne of Mercy (or "Throne of Grace '') became a common depiction. In this style, the Father (sometimes seated on a throne) is shown supporting either a crucifix or, later, a slumped crucified Son, similar to the Pietà (this type is distinguished in German as the Not Gottes) in his outstretched arms, while the Dove hovers above or in between them. This subject continued to be popular until the 18th century at least.
By the end of the 15th century, larger representations, other than the Throne of Mercy, became effectively standardised, showing an older figure in plain robes for the Father, Christ with his torso partly bare to display the wounds of his Passion, and the dove above or around them. In earlier representations both Father, especially, and Son often wear elaborate robes and crowns. Sometimes the Father alone wears a crown, or even a papal tiara.
In the later part of the Christian Era, in Renaissance European iconography, the Eye of Providence began to be used as an explicit image of the Christian Trinity and associated with the concept of Divine Providence. Seventeenth - century depictions of the Eye of Providence sometimes show it surrounded by clouds or sunbursts.
Depiction of Trinity from Saint Denis Basilica in Paris (12th century)
Father, The Holy Spirit, and Christ Crucified, depicted in a Welsh manuscript. c. 1390 -- 1400
God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit as a dove, by Lucas Cranach the Elder (d. 1553)
God the Father (top), and the Holy Spirit (represented by a dove) depicted above Jesus. Painting by Francesco Albani (d. 1660)
God the Father (top), the Holy Spirit (a dove), and child Jesus, painting by Bartolomé Esteban Murillo (d. 1682)
Pope Clement I prays to the Trinity, in a typical post-Renaissance depiction by Gianbattista Tiepolo (d. 1770)
Atypical depiction. The Son is identified by a lamb, the Father an Eye of Providence, and the Spirit a dove, painting by Fridolin Leiber (d. 1912)
13th Century depiction of the Trinity from a Roman de la Rose manuscript
A Christian version of the Eye of Providence, emphasizing the triangle representing the Trinity
Nontrinitarianism (or antitrinitarianism) refers to Christian belief systems that reject the doctrine of the Trinity as found in the Nicene Creed as not having a scriptural origin. Nontrinitarian views differ widely on the nature of God, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit. Various nontrinitarian views, such as Adoptionism, Monarchianism and Arianism existed prior to the formal definition of the Trinity doctrine in AD 325, 360, and 431, at the Councils of Nicaea, Constantinople, and Ephesus, respectively. Following the final victory of orthodoxy at Constantinople in 381, Arianism was driven from the Empire, retaining a foothold amongst the Teutonic tribes. When the Franks converted to Catholicism in 496, however, it gradually faded out. Nontrinitarianism was later renewed in the Gnosticism of the Cathars in the 11th through 13th centuries, in the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, and in some groups arising during the Second Great Awakening of the 19th century. Also binitarianism.
Modern nontrinitarian groups or denominations include Christadelphians, Christian Scientists, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints, Dawn Bible Students, Friends General Conference, Iglesia ni Cristo, Jehovah 's Witnesses, Living Church of God, Oneness Pentecostals, the Seventh Day Church of God, Unitarian Universalist Christians, United Church of God, The Shepherd 's Chapel and Spiritism.
Islam considers Jesus to be a prophet, but not divine, and Allah to be absolutely indivisible (a concept known as tawhid). Several verses of the Qur'an state that the doctrine of the Trinity is blasphemous.
"Say: He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him.
Certainly they disbelieve who say: Surely Allah is the third (person) of the three; and there is no god but the one Allah, and if they desist not from what they say, a painful chastisement shall befall those among them who disbelieve.
And when Allah will say: O Isa son of Marium! did you say to men, Take me and my mother for two gods besides Allah he will say: Glory be to Thee, it did not befit me that I should say what I had no right to (say); if I had said it, Thou wouldst indeed have known it; Thou knowest what is in my mind, and I do not know what is in Thy mind, surely Thou art the great Knower of the unseen things.
Interpretation of these verses by modern scholars has been varied. Verse 5: 73 has been interpreted as a potential criticism of Syriac literature that references Jesus as "the third of three '' and thus an attack on the view that Christ was divine.
Edward Hulmes writes:
"The Qur'anic interpretation of trinitarian orthodoxy as belief in the Father, the Son, and the Virgin Mary, may owe less to a misunderstanding of the New Testament itself than to a recognition of the role accorded by local Christians (see Choloridians) to Mary as mother in a special sense. ''
There is also debate about whether this verse should be taken literally. For example, Thomas states that verse 5: 116 need not be seen as describing actually professed beliefs, but rather, giving examples of shirk (claiming divinity for beings other than God) and a "warning against excessive devotion to Jesus and extravagant veneration of Mary, a reminder linked to the central theme of the Qur'an that there is only one God and He alone is to be worshipped. '' When read in this light, it can be understood as an admonition, "Against the divinization of Jesus that is given elsewhere in the Qur'an and a warning against the virtual divinization of Mary in the declaration of the fifth - century church councils that she is ' God - bearer '. ''
Judaism traditionally maintains a tradition of monotheism to the exclusion of the possibility of a Trinity. In Judaism, God is understood to be the absolute one, indivisible, and incomparable being who is the ultimate cause of all existence. The idea of God as a duality or trinity is heretical -- it is even considered by some polytheistic.
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who organised kisan sabha at munger in 1922 and 23 | All India Kisan Sabha - Wikipedia
All India Kisan Sabha (All India Peasants Union, also known as the Akhil Bharatiya Kisan Sabha), was the name of the peasants front of the undivided Communist Party of India, an important peasant movement formed by Sahajanand Saraswati in 1936. It later split into two organisations known by the same name: AIKS (Ajoy Bhavan) and AIKS (Ashoka Road).
The Kisan Sabha movement started in Bihar under the leadership of Sahajanand Saraswati who had formed in 1929 the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS) in order to mobilise peasant grievances against the zamindari attacks on their occupancy rights, and thus sparking the farmers ' movements in India.
Gradually the peasant movement intensified and spread across the rest of India. The formation of Congress Socialist Party (CSP) in 1934 helped the Communists to work together with the Indian National Congress, however temporarily, then in April 1935, noted peasant leaders N.G. Ranga and E.M.S. Namboodiripad, then secretary and joint secretary respectively of South Indian Federation of Peasants and Agricultural Labour, suggested the formation of an all - India farmers body, and soon all these radical developments culminated in the formation of the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) at the Lucknow session of the Indian National Congress on 11 April 1936 with Saraswati elected as its first President, and it involved people such as Ranga, Namboodiripad, Karyanand Sharma, Yamuna Karjee, Yadunandan (Jadunandan) Sharma, Rahul Sankrityayan, P. Sundarayya, Ram Manohar Lohia, Jayaprakash Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev and Bankim Mukherjee. The Kisan Manifesto released in August 1936, demanded abolition of the zamindari system and cancellation of rural debts, and in October 1937, it adopted red flag as its banner. Soon, its leaders became increasingly distant with Congress, and repeatedly came in confrontation with Congress governments, in Bihar and United Province.
In the subsequent years, the movement was increasingly dominated by Socialists and Communists as it moved away from the Congress, by 1938 Haripura session of the Congress, under the presidency of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, the rift became evident, and by May 1942, the Communist Party of India, which was finally legalised by then government in July 1942, had taken over AIKS, all across India including Bengal where its membership grew considerably. It took on the Communist party 's line of People 's War, and stayed away from the Quit India Movement, which started in August 1942, though this also meant its losing its popular base. Many of its members defied party orders and joined the movement, and prominent members like Ranga, Indulal Yagnik and Saraswati soon left the organisation, which increasing found it difficult to approach the peasants without the watered - down approach of pro-British and pro-war, and increasing its pro-nationalist agenda, much to the dismay of the British Raj which always thought the Communists would help them in countering the nationalist movement.
The Communist Party of India split into two in 1964. Following this, so too did the All India Kisan Sabha, with each faction affiliated to the splinters.
Currently two organisations work under the name of AIKS:
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a mountain on which four us presidents are carved | Mount Rushmore - wikipedia
Mount Rushmore National Memorial is a sculpture carved into the granite face of Mount Rushmore, a batholith in the Black Hills in Keystone, South Dakota, United States. Sculptor Gutzon Borglum created the sculpture 's design and oversaw the project 's execution from 1927 to 1941 with the help of his son, Lincoln Borglum. Mount Rushmore features 60 - foot (18 m) sculptures of the heads of four United States presidents: George Washington (1732 -- 1799), Thomas Jefferson (1743 -- 1826), Theodore Roosevelt (1858 -- 1919), and Abraham Lincoln (1809 -- 1865). The memorial park covers 1,278.45 acres (2.00 sq mi; 5.17 km) and is 5,725 feet (1,745 m) above sea level.
South Dakota historian Doane Robinson is credited with conceiving the idea of carving the likenesses of famous people into the Black Hills region of South Dakota in order to promote tourism in the region. Robinson 's initial idea was to sculpt the Needles; however, Gutzon Borglum rejected the Needles because of the poor quality of the granite and strong opposition from Native American groups. They settled on Mount Rushmore, which also has the advantage of facing southeast for maximum sun exposure. Robinson wanted it to feature American West heroes like Lewis and Clark, Red Cloud, and Buffalo Bill Cody, but Borglum decided the sculpture should have broader appeal and chose the four presidents.
After securing federal funding through the enthusiastic sponsorship of "Mount Rushmore 's great political patron '' U.S. Senator Peter Norbeck, construction on the memorial began in 1927, and the presidents ' faces were completed between 1934 and 1939. Upon Gutzon Borglum 's death in March 1941, his son Lincoln Borglum took over as leader of the construction project. Each president was originally to be depicted from head to waist. Lack of funding forced construction to end on October 31, 1941.
Mount Rushmore has become an iconic symbol of the United States, and it has appeared in works of fiction, as well as being discussed or depicted in other popular works. It attracts over two million visitors annually.
Originally known to the Lakota Sioux as "The Six Grandfathers '' (Tunkasila Sakpe) or "Cougar Mountain '' (Igmu Tanka Paha), the mountain was renamed after Charles E. Rushmore, a prominent New York lawyer, during an expedition in 1885. At first, the project of carving Rushmore was undertaken to increase tourism in the Black Hills region of South Dakota. After long negotiations involving a Congressional delegation and President Calvin Coolidge, the project received Congressional approval. The carving started in 1927 and ended in 1941 with no fatalities.
As Six Grandfathers, the mountain was part of the route that Lakota leader Black Elk took in a spiritual journey that culminated at Black Elk Peak. Following a series of military campaigns from 1876 to 1878, the United States asserted control over the area, a claim that is still disputed on the basis of the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie (see section "Controversy '' below). Among American settlers, the peak was known variously as Cougar Mountain, Sugarloaf Mountain, Slaughterhouse Mountain, and Keystone Cliffs. It was named Mount Rushmore during a prospecting expedition by Charles Rushmore, David Swanzey (husband of Carrie Ingalls), and Bill Challis.
Historian Doane Robinson conceived the idea for Mount Rushmore in 1923 to promote tourism in South Dakota. In 1924, Robinson persuaded sculptor Gutzon Borglum to travel to the Black Hills region to ensure the carving could be accomplished. Borglum had been involved in sculpting the Confederate Memorial Carving, a massive bas - relief memorial to Confederate leaders on Stone Mountain in Georgia, but was in disagreement with the officials there.
The original plan was to make the carvings in granite pillars known as the Needles. However, Borglum realized that the eroded Needles were too thin to support sculpting. He chose Mount Rushmore, a grander location, partly because it faced southeast and enjoyed maximum exposure to the sun. Borglum said upon seeing Mount Rushmore, "America will march along that skyline. '' Congress authorized the Mount Rushmore National Memorial Commission on March 3, 1925.
Between October 4, 1927, and October 31, 1941, Gutzon Borglum and 400 workers sculpted the colossal 60 foot (18 m) high carvings of U.S. presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln to represent the first 130 years of American history. These presidents were selected by Borglum because of their role in preserving the Republic and expanding its territory. The carving of Mount Rushmore involved the use of dynamite, followed by the process of "honeycombing '', a process where workers drill holes close together, allowing small pieces to be removed by hand. In total, about 450,000 short tons (410,000 t) of rock were blasted off the mountainside. The image of Thomas Jefferson was originally intended to appear in the area at Washington 's right, but after the work there was begun, the rock was found to be unsuitable, so the work on the Jefferson figure was dynamited, and a new figure was sculpted to Washington 's left.
The Chief Carver of the mountain was Luigi del Bianco, artisan and headstone carver in Port Chester, NY. Del Bianco emigrated to the U.S. from Friuli in Italy, and was chosen to work on this project because of his remarkable skill at etching emotions and personality into his carved portraits.
In 1933, the National Park Service took Mount Rushmore under its jurisdiction. Julian Spotts helped with the project by improving its infrastructure. For example, he had the tram upgraded so it could reach the top of Mount Rushmore for the ease of workers. By July 4, 1934, Washington 's face had been completed and was dedicated. The face of Thomas Jefferson was dedicated in 1936, and the face of Abraham Lincoln was dedicated on September 17, 1937. In 1937, a bill was introduced in Congress to add the head of civil - rights leader Susan B. Anthony, but a rider was passed on an appropriations bill requiring federal funds be used to finish only those heads that had already been started at that time. In 1939, the face of Theodore Roosevelt was dedicated.
The Sculptor 's Studio -- a display of unique plaster models and tools related to the sculpting -- was built in 1939 under the direction of Borglum. Borglum had planned to make a secret room behind the hairline of Abraham Lincoln which was supposed to be a doorway to a chamber originally intended to hold some of America 's most treasured documents but was left unfinished due to his death. Borglum died from an embolism in March 1941. His son, Lincoln Borglum, continued the project. Originally, it was planned that the figures would be carved from head to waist, but insufficient funding forced the carving to end. Borglum had also planned a massive panel in the shape of the Louisiana Purchase commemorating in eight - foot - tall gilded letters the Declaration of Independence, U.S. Constitution, Louisiana Purchase, and seven other territorial acquisitions from Alaska to Texas to the Panama Canal Zone. In total, the entire project cost US $989,992.32. Unusually for a project of such size, no workers died during the carving.
Harold Spitznagel and Cecil Doty designed the original visitor center, finished in 1957. These structures were part of the Mission 66 effort to improve visitors ' facilities at national parks and monuments across the country.
On October 15, 1966, Mount Rushmore was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. A 500 - word essay giving the history of the United States by Nebraska student William Andrew Burkett was selected as the college - age group winner in a 1934 competition, and that essay was placed on the Entablature on a bronze plate in 1973. In 1991, President George H.W. Bush officially dedicated Mount Rushmore.
In a canyon behind the carved faces is a chamber, cut only 70 feet (21 m) into the rock, containing a vault with sixteen porcelain enamel panels. The panels include the text of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, biographies of the four presidents and Borglum, and the history of the U.S. The chamber was created as the entrance - way to a planned "Hall of Records ''; the vault was installed in 1998.
Ten years of redevelopment work culminated with the completion of extensive visitor facilities and sidewalks in 1998, such as a Visitor Center, the Lincoln Borglum Museum, and the Presidential Trail. Maintenance of the memorial requires mountain climbers to monitor and seal cracks annually. Due to budget constraints, the memorial is not regularly cleaned to remove lichens. However, on July 8, 2005, Alfred Kärcher GmbH, a German manufacturer of pressure washing and steam cleaning machines, conducted a free cleanup operation which lasted several weeks, using pressurized water at over 200 ° F (93 ° C).
The flora and fauna of Mount Rushmore are similar to those of the rest of the Black Hills region of South Dakota. Birds including the turkey vulture, bald eagle, hawk, and meadowlark fly around Mount Rushmore, occasionally making nesting spots in the ledges of the mountain. Smaller birds, including songbirds, nuthatches, and woodpeckers, inhabit the surrounding pine forests. Terrestrial mammals include the mouse, least chipmunk, red squirrel, skunk, porcupine, raccoon, beaver, badger, coyote, bighorn sheep, bobcat, elk, mule deer, yellow - bellied marmot, and American bison. The striped chorus frog, western chorus frog, and northern leopard frog also inhabit the area, along with several species of snake. Grizzly Bear Brook and Starling Basin Brook, the two streams in the memorial, support fish such as the longnose dace and the brook trout. Mountain goats are not indigenous to the region. Those living near Mount Rushmore are descendants of a tribe that Canada gifted to Custer State Park in 1924, which later escaped.
At lower elevations, coniferous trees, mainly the ponderosa pine, surround most of the monument, providing shade from the sun. Other trees include the bur oak, the Black Hills spruce, and the cottonwood. Nine species of shrubs grow near Mount Rushmore. There is also a wide variety of wildflowers, including especially the snapdragon, sunflower, and violet. Towards higher elevations, plant life becomes sparser. However, only approximately five percent of the plant species found in the Black Hills are indigenous to the region.
The area receives about 18 inches (460 mm) of precipitation on average per year, enough to support abundant animal and plant life. Trees and other plants help to control surface runoff. Dikes, seeps, and springs help to dam up water that is flowing downhill, providing watering spots for animals. In addition, stones like sandstone and limestone help to hold groundwater, creating aquifers.
A study of the fire scars present in tree ring samples indicates that forest fires occur in the ponderosa forests surrounding Mount Rushmore around every 27 years. Large fires are not common. Most events have been ground fires that serve to clear forest debris. The area is a climax community. Recent pine beetle infestations have threatened the forest.
Mount Rushmore is largely composed of granite. The memorial is carved on the northwest margin of the Black Elk Peak granite batholith in the Black Hills of South Dakota, so the geologic formations of the heart of the Black Hills region are also evident at Mount Rushmore. The batholith magma intruded into the pre-existing mica schist rocks during the Proterozoic, 1.6 billion years ago. Coarse grained pegmatite dikes are associated with the granite intrusion of Black Elk Peak and are visibly lighter in color, thus explaining the light - colored streaks on the foreheads of the presidents.
The Black Hills granites were exposed to erosion during the Neoproterozoic, but were later buried by sandstone and other sediments during the Cambrian. Remaining buried throughout the Paleozoic, they were re-exposed again during the Laramide orogeny around 70 million years ago. The Black Hills area was uplifted as an elongated geologic dome. Subsequent erosion stripped the granite of the overlying sediments and the softer adjacent schist. Some schist does remain and can be seen as the darker material just below the sculpture of Washington.
The tallest mountain in the region is Black Elk Peak (7,242 ft or 2,207 m). Borglum selected Mount Rushmore as the site for several reasons. The rock of the mountain is composed of smooth, fine - grained granite. The durable granite erodes only 1 inch (25 mm) every 10,000 years, thus was more than sturdy enough to support the sculpture and its long - term exposure. The mountain 's height of 5,725 feet (1,745 m) above sea level made it suitable, and because it faces the southeast, the workers also had the advantage of sunlight for most of the day.
The Mount Rushmore area is underlain by well drained alfisol soils of very gravelly loam (Mocmount) to silt loam (Buska) texture, brown to dark grayish brown.
Mount Rushmore has a humid continental climate (Dwb in the Köppen climate classification). It is inside a USDA Plant Hardiness Zone of 5a, meaning certain plant life in the area can withstand a low temperature of no less than − 20 ° F (− 29 ° C).
The two wettest months of the year are May and June. Orographic lift causes brief but strong afternoon thunderstorms during the summer.
Tourism is South Dakota 's second - largest industry, and Mount Rushmore is the state 's top tourist attraction. In 2012, 2,185,447 people visited the park. In the 1950s and 1960s, Sioux Benjamin Black Elk (son of medicine man Black Elk) was the "Fifth Face of Mount Rushmore '', posing for photographs with thousands of tourists. He became one of the most photographed people in the world.
The ongoing conservation of the site is overseen by the US National Park Service. Physical efforts to conserve the monument have included replacement of the sealant applied originally by Gutzon Borglum, which had proved ineffective at providing water resistance (components include linseed oil, granite dust and white lead). A modern silicone replacement was used, disguised with granite dust.
In 1998, electronic monitoring devices were installed to track movement in the topology of the sculpture to an accuracy of 3 mm. The site has been subsequently digitally recorded using a terrestrial laser scanning methodology in 2009 as part of the international Scottish Ten project, providing a record of unprecedented resolution and accuracy to inform the conservation of the site. This data was made accessible online to be freely used by the wider community to aid further interpretation and public access.
The United States seized the area from the Lakota tribe after the Great Sioux War of 1876. The Treaty of Fort Laramie from 1868 had previously granted the Black Hills to the Lakota in perpetuity. Members of the American Indian Movement led an occupation of the monument in 1971, naming it "Mount Crazy Horse ''. Among the participants were young activists, grandparents, children and Lakota holy man John Fire Lame Deer, who planted a prayer staff atop the mountain. Lame Deer said the staff formed a symbolic shroud over the presidents ' faces "which shall remain dirty until the treaties concerning the Black Hills are fulfilled. ''
In 2004, the first Native American superintendent of the park, Gerard Baker, was appointed. Baker has stated that he will open up more "avenues of interpretation '', and that the four presidents are "only one avenue and only one focus. ''
The Crazy Horse Memorial is being constructed elsewhere in the Black Hills to commemorate the famous Native American leader as a response to Mount Rushmore. Upon completion, it would be larger than Mount Rushmore and has the support of Lakota chiefs. The Crazy Horse Memorial Foundation has rejected offers of federal funds. However, this memorial is likewise the subject of controversy, even within the Native American community.
Because of its fame as a monument, Mount Rushmore has been depicted in multiple places in popular culture. It is often depicted as a cover for a secret location; shown with faces removed or modified (as in Superman II), or added; or parodied. Trey Parker and Matt Stone used the location as the headquarters for their film Team America: World Police. National Treasure: Book of Secrets also depicts this location as a secret cover for a fictional gold city. The memorial was also famously used as the location of the climactic chase scene in Alfred Hitchcock 's 1959 movie North by Northwest. Deep Purple 's breakthrough album, 1970 's In Rock, parodies the sculpture.
On August 11, 1952, the U.S. Post Office issued the Mount Rushmore Memorial commemorative stamp on the 25th anniversary of the dedication of the Mt. Rushmore National Memorial in the Black Hills of South Dakota. On January 2, 1974, a 26 - cent airmail stamp depicting the monument was also issued.
Notes
Further reading
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who voiced snow white in the 1937 movie | Adriana Caselotti - wikipedia
Adriana Caselotti (May 6, 1916 -- January 18, 1997) was an American voice actress and singer. Caselotti was the voice of the title character of the first Walt Disney animated feature Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, for which she was named as a Disney Legend in 1994, making her the first female voice actor so named.
Adriana Caselotti was born in Bridgeport, Connecticut to an Italian American family. Her father, Guido Caselotti (1884 - 1978), was an immigrant from Udine, and worked as a teacher of music and a vocal coach. Her mother, Maria Orefice (1893 - 1961), from Naples, was a singer in the Royal Opera Theatre of Rome. Her older sister, Louise, sang opera and gave voice lessons (for example, to Maria Callas, from 1946 to 1947). When Caselotti was seven years old, her family left Connecticut for Italy while her mother toured with an opera company. Caselotti was educated at an Italian convent, San Getulio, near Rome, while her mother performed in the opera. When her family returned to New York three years later, Caselotti relearned English and studied singing with her father.
In 1935, after a brief stint as a chorus girl at MGM, Walt Disney hired Caselotti as the voice of his heroine Snow White. She was paid a total of $970 for working on the film (equivalent to $16,160 in 2016). She was under contract with Disney, and Disney prevented her from appearing in further film and other media, even for Disney, after Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. Jack Benny specifically mentioned that he had asked Disney for permission to use her on his radio show and was told, "I 'm sorry, but that voice ca n't be used anywhere. I do n't want to spoil the illusion of Snow White. '' The only other work Caselotti did following her premiere was an uncredited role in MGM 's The Wizard of Oz (1939); she provided the voice of Juliet during the Tin Man 's song, "If I Only Had a Heart '', speaking the line, "Wherefore art thou Romeo? '' In 1946, she had an uncredited role in Frank Capra 's It 's a Wonderful Life, singing in Martini 's bar as James Stewart was praying.
Adriana Caselotti appeared in several promotional spots for Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, signing memorabilia. On November 22, 1972 (Thanksgiving Day), she guest - starred on an episode of The Julie Andrews Hour saluting the music of Walt Disney, singing "I 'm Wishing '' and "Someday My Prince Will Come '' with Julie Andrews. She also made a guest appearance on the syndicated The Mike Douglas Show. Caselotti later wrote a how - to book, Do You Like to Sing?.
Later in life, she sold autographs and also made an attempt at an opera career (for example, Rigoletto). In the early 1990s, when the Snow White Grotto at Disneyland was refurbished, Caselotti re-recorded "I 'm Wishing '' for the Snow White Wishing Well at the age of 75. In 1994, she was named a Disney Legend.
Caselotti was married four times. Her first husband was Robert Chard, a local theater ticket broker whom she married in 1945. The marriage ended in divorce. She later met bit actor Norval Mitchell, whom she married in 1952. He retired after marrying her, and died in 1972. The same year, she was married to a podiatrist, Dr. Joseph Dana Costigan, who died in 1982. Caselotti married her last husband, Florian St. Pierre, a retired postal employee, in 1989 and later divorced. On January 18, 1997, Caselotti died of respiratory failure from lung cancer at her Los Angeles home. She was cremated and her ashes were scattered at Newport Beach, California.
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what type of boundary is the himalayan mountains | Convergent boundary - wikipedia
In plate tectonics, a convergent boundary, also known as a destructive plate boundary, is a region of active deformation where two or more tectonic plates or fragments of the lithosphere are near the end of their life cycle. This is in contrast to a constructive plate boundary (also known as a mid-ocean ridge or spreading center). As a result of pressure, friction, and plate material melting in the mantle, earthquakes and volcanoes are common near destructive boundaries, where subduction zones or an area of continental collision (depending on the nature of the plates involved) occurs. The subducting plate in a subduction zone is normally oceanic crust, and moves beneath the other plate, which can be made of either oceanic or continental crust. During collisions between two continental plates, large mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas are formed. In other regions, a divergent boundary or transform faults may be present.
The reason for the existence of convergent boundaries are the mid-ocean ridges that were only beginning to be understood with the acceptance of the theory of plate tectonics in the mid-1960s. The radioactive decay of elements within the rocks in the interior of the earth generates large amounts of heat that moves magma to the surface of the crust in a process called mantle convection. This results in a new oceanic crust or sea floor being formed that slowly moves away from the ridges (sometimes called spreading centers) towards the subduction zones. In other words, new seafloor originates from the upwelling rock as it emerges from the depths of the mantle and it slowly cools as it is transported over the millennia to the collision or subduction zones where it is consumed or recycled.
Large, shallow earthquakes on subduction zone interfaces are the largest types of earthquakes. They accounted for 90 % of the total seismic moment released for the period 1900 -- 1989, but these events usually occur offshore and far from population centers. Non-subduction interface earthquakes also occur in the region of the trench including shallow upper plate shocks, deeper events within the downgoing slab, and events that are related to outer trench swell.
A volcanic arc is formed on the continental plate, above the location of the downgoing oceanic slab. The volcanic arc is the surface expression of the magma that is generated by hydrous melting of the mantle above the downgoing slab. Hydrated minerals (e.g., phlogopite, lawsonite, amphibole) within the oceanic lithosphere become unstable at certain depths due to increased temperature and pressure, causing the crystal structure of the hydrated minerals break down and release water. The buoyant fluids then rise into the asthenosphere, where they lower the melting temperature of the mantle and cause partial melting. These melts rise to the surface and are the source of some of the most explosive volcanism on Earth because of their high volumes of extremely pressurized gases.
When two plates with oceanic crust converge, they typically create an island arc as one plate is subducted below the other. The arc is formed from volcanoes which erupt through the overriding plate as the descending plate melts below it. The arc shape occurs because of the spherical surface of the earth (nick the peel of an orange with a knife and note the arc formed by the straight - edge of the knife). A deep oceanic trench is located in front of such arcs where the descending slab dips downward, such as the Mariana Trench near the Mariana Islands.
Some convergent margins have zones of active seafloor spreading behind the island arc, known as back - arc basins. When one plate is composed of oceanic lithosphere and the other is composed of continental lithosphere, the denser oceanic plate is subducted, often forming an orogenic belt and associated mountain range. This type of convergent boundary is similar to the Andes or the Cascade Range in North America.
An oceanic trench is found where the denser plate is subducted underneath the other plate. There is water in the rocks of the oceanic plate (because they are underwater), and as this plate moves further down into the subduction zone, much of the water contained in the plate is squeezed out when the plate begins to subduct. However, the recrystallization of ocean floor rocks, such as serpentinite, which are unstable in the upper mantle, recrystallize into olivine, causing dehydration through loss of hydroxyl groups. This addition of water to the mantle causes partial melting of the mantle, generating magma, which then rises, and which normally results in volcanoes. This normally happens at a certain depth, about 70 to 80 miles below the Earth 's surface, and so volcanoes are formed fairly close to, but not right next to, the trench.
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flash and the pan hole in the middle | Flash and the Pan (album) - wikipedia
Flash and the Pan was Flash and the Pan 's 1978 debut album release. The album covers differed between the Australian, the international and United States, and UK releases (UK pictured). The track "And The Band Played On (Down Among the Dead Men) '' -- about the sinking of the Titanic -- was released as a UK single, reaching No. 54 in September 1978. "Hey St. Peter '' was released as a single in the United States in 1979, and reached number 76 on Billboard Hot 100.
"Walking in the Rain '' was later covered by Grace Jones, as part of her 1981 Nightclubbing album. The song was also recorded by South African icon Johannes Kerkorrel, who included it on his album Die Ander Kant in 2000.
Reviews of Flash and the Pan 's 1979 self - titled album are ambivalent about the vocal style and lyrics, fascinated by the weirdness, but upbeat and sometimes glowing in their overall assessment. Alan Niester in the Globe & Mail calls the album "surrealistic in its detachment at times, '' and "one of the strangest but ultimately finest records to surface in the seventies. '' Niester concludes that the album is "the closest thing to a masterpiece we 're likely to get this year, and you have to have it. '' David Fricke in Rolling Stone notes unfavourably the "rampant punning '' and "mind games '' of the lyrics, but says that the songwriters, Vanda & Young, "never underestimate the simple joy of a good hummable tune. '' The same reviewer goes on to say that the album is a "flawlessly executed operetta of applied rock & roll knowledge '' Steve Simels in Stereo Review calls the album a "minor pop masterpiece '' but says that the synthesizer sound "verges on Eurodisco, with some tacky New Wave organ. '' Simels describes the lyrics as "frankly melodramatic (...) declaimed (in the verses) more often than sung. '' But Simels gives up trying to pigeonhole the record with, "Let 's just say that it 's excellent music and let it go at that. '' Jon Pareles, writing for Creem says Flash and the Pan 's songs are "incorrigibly catchy '' but he earlier notes the detachment of the vocal style and the insincerity of lyrics; like Simels, he counters his own criticism, saying, "(If) You want sincerity, go watch Merv Griffin. '' Simon Frith in Melody Maker factors the experience of Vanda & Young into the album 's "pop mastery, (which is) evident in the hooks, the minor chords, the insidious orchestrations. '' When Frith goes on to express doubts about the "bland monotone '' of the vocals, saying that it "adds to the joke, but I 'm not sure it adds to the pleasure, '' he later adds, "But then I 'm still listening to this LP, and Vanda and Young may be cleverer than I think, and make easy listening out of this robotic sound. ''
Reviews compared Flash and the Pan 's debut album to the group 10CC, albeit "early 10CC, before they took themselves seriously, '' and "10CC gone maniac. '' Alan Niester adds more comparisons: "a hungover Lou Reed '' and "Tom Waits with a Jack the Ripper fetish. '' Jon Pareles says the music is arranged "Brian Eno - style. '' David Fricke notes the "shameless pirating '' of The Kinks ' You Really Got Me on the song, "The Man Who Knew the Answer, '' and compares the vocal narrative in "California '' to that in The Beach Boys ' "Sloop John B '' -- the result sounding like "an outtake from David Bowie 's Low. ''
All songs written by Harry Vanda and George Young except where noted.
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what episode in criminal minds does hotchner's wife die | Aaron Hotchner - wikipedia
Aaron Hotchner is a fictional character from the CBS crime drama Criminal Minds, portrayed by Thomas Gibson. He is a Supervisory Special Agent and the unit chief of the FBI 's Behavioral Analysis Unit, and has appeared from the series ' pilot episode "Extreme Aggressor '', which was originally broadcast on September 22, 2005.
Hotch begins the series married to his high school sweetheart Haley (Meredith Monroe). They have a son named Jack (Cade Owens), though they later separated over Hotch 's dedication to his job. Meredith Monroe 's character Haley was later killed in season five by serial killer George Foyet.
On August 12, 2016, CBS producers announced that Gibson had been dismissed from Criminal Minds following a physical altercation with one of the show 's writers and that "creative details '' regarding the character 's departure would be announced at a later date. After appearing in the first two episodes of the 2016 - 2017 season, the Hotchner character was removed from the opening credits of subsequent episodes. At the start of the third episode, one character explained Hotch 's absence by remarking that he was on TDY.
In episode 12.6 titled "Elliott 's Pond '' it was revealed that Gibson 's character, Aaron Hotchner, was leaving his post as longtime head of the Behavioral Analysis Unit after Peter Lewis (aka Mr. Scratch) began stalking Hotch 's son, Jack. The two decided to enter the Witness Protection Program. The move would make it nearly impossible for Hotch to return to his field of work at the BAU, prompting him to resign from the position in effort to protect Jack. After Peter Lewis 's death, Hotch and Jack left the Witness Protection Program and Hotch chose not return in the BAU to spend time with his child as a full - time dad.
A new BAU chief had to be named and Hotch personally requested Emily Prentiss (Paget Brewster), who did n't really know what to think about the position, but she decided to accept it.
Gibson was cast as Hotchner having previously starred in the comedy series Dharma and Greg. Of the transition to Criminal Minds, he explained: "It 's very nice to do a little bit of the darkness after a little bit of the lightness. Variety is the spice of life. I enjoy both and hopefully I will be able to do as big a variety as I possibly can. '' Gibson 's family lives in San Antonio, Texas, while he commutes to Los Angeles to film Criminal Minds on a weekly basis, something he feels gives him an insight into Hotch 's divided priorities. Discussing the effect working in the BAU has on the agents ' personal lives, Gibson opined: "I think it ca n't help but take some toll. And the first casualty may not be the agents themselves, but their families, spouses and children. '' Prior to Hotch and Haley 's separation, in a 2007 interview Gibson stated that he hoped the two would make their relationship last, explaining: "Marriage can certainly survive lots of hardships. You think about in real life the marriages that survive. They certainly suffer... and I think it 's going to be very interesting to see how they work it out because I know it 's certainly taking its toll. Haley wanted the marriage to work out. '' Discussing the conflict between Hotch 's career and home life, Gibson detailed:
He knows his family is getting the short shift. He knows his job is costing him in time spent with his wife and son. I think he 's sincere when he says he wants to be there for his family. But it 's really, really hard doing what they do - being on call and dedicated to the job. To be able to pull both of those things off, I think that his ambitions have to come face to face with a certain reality that 's in contradiction with what he thought was possible. It 'll be very interesting to see how it all shakes out, because I think his realistic appraisal of all the balls he thought he was capable of keeping in the air at the same time - something 's got ta give... I 'm not sure he 's reconciled what 's got ta give. His job is very important.
Gibson characterized Hotch as having "moments of levity '', but continued: "Unfortunately, he has a very, very, probably - dusty - it 's - so - dry sense of humor. It 's pretty dark. It 's pretty bone dry. We all need a little levity, but I would n't necessarily look for him to break into song and dance. I think Hotch feels there 's a lot at stake all the time. '' Prior to the departure of Mandy Patinkin 's Jason Gideon from the series, Gibson described Gideon and Hotch as "an old married couple '', deeming them father figures to the rest of the BAU and professional peers to one another. Of Hotch 's relationship with the rest of the BAU team, Gibson commented:
I think they all know he is dedicated to doing the job. I think he understands how to negotiate both his responsibilities to the team and his own responsibilities to the job and put aside some of the things that might be sources of conflict within the time. When you spend that much time with people you 're going to have conflict, and he 's aware of that... There 's also a kind of detachment that has to be there for you to do this job acceptably, but at the same time there 's a very engaged quality to the work where you have to dedicate yourself to the idea that you 're putting yourself in these criminals ' shoes, because that 's how they 're effective at doing it.
Before Gibson was cast in the role, the character was originally envisioned as a "blonde haired, blue - eyed Mormon ''.
Hotch first met his future wife Haley Brooks in high school. They married soon thereafter, and were initially happy together. Before joining the FBI, Hotch worked as a prosecutor for the District Attorney 's office. He has a younger brother named Sean (Eric Johnson), a New York City - based chef. His mother is an alumna of Mary Baldwin College in Staunton, VA.. Their father was a workaholic lawyer who survived cancer, and suffered a heart attack at 47, dying while Sean was still a child.
Upon joining the FBI, Hotch was initially assigned to the Field Office in Seattle, Washington, before transferring to Quantico, Virginia.
In "Natural Born Killer '', Hotchner spoke to a serial killer, Vincent Perotta (Patrick Kilpatrick), and discussed the physical abuse he suffered as a child at the hands of his father. Perotta claimed that everyone who is abused as a child becomes a serial killer, with Hotchner correcting him by saying that "some people grow up to become serial killers ''. When Perotta caught the correction, he asked what the use of "some '' meant. Hotchner replied by saying "and some people grow up to catch them ''. From his explanation to Perotta earlier, it seems Hotchner and his mother were abused, but she did not do anything with the issue.
In general, Hotchner is depicted as a hard - working, (mostly) humorless, no - nonsense agent who rarely smiles or acts out in anger; his aloof demeanor and composure tend to be mistaken for a complete lack of emotion. He takes great care to avoid antagonizing witnesses, local law enforcement and suspects unless he believes provoking them will cause them to reveal information, occasionally chastising his team mates for needlessly flippant or hostile behavior. With few exceptions, he takes the ethics of his profession very seriously, as evidenced by his angry reaction to Elle Greenaway 's killing of a suspect, which he (correctly) believed was cold - blooded murder. Though lacking evidence, he very clearly stated he would arrest her if he had such. He occasionally sympathizes with the subjects he pursues, although he universally condemns their behavior and never allows them to justify it.
Following the birth of his son Jack, Hotch 's work with the BAU began disrupting his family life. Following a two - week suspension in 2007 (engineered by office rival Section Chief Erin Strauss after a case at a college campus in Flagstaff, Arizona that ended in disaster when both serial killer Nathan Tubbs and copycat killer Anna Begley died), he requested a transfer to a different division, which pleased Haley, until Derek Morgan (Shemar Moore) convinced him to help the team with a case in Milwaukee. He changed his mind about leaving the department, and when he returned home, he found that Haley had taken Jack and left him. He was later served with divorce papers at work. Hotch attempted to see Jack weekly, but was unable to spend time with him as often as he would like.
At the beginning of the show 's fourth season, it was shown that the car exploding at the end of season three was Hotch 's SUV. Both he and SSA Kate Joyner were caught in the bombing outside the New York City Federal Plaza. Kate eventually died from her injuries, and Hotch suffered shrapnel wounds and a punctured eardrum which resulted in hyperacusis, causing temporary hearing problems. Later in the season, the team worked one of Hotch 's old cases: the case of the Boston Reaper. Hotch revealed to Rossi that he had maintained an interest in the case over the ten years since he had investigated it. It was also shown that the Reaper, a power - hungry predator, had taken an interest in Hotch himself.
After being misled for a time, Hotch and the team finally identified the Reaper as George Foyet, the only one to have supposedly survived the Reaper by injuring himself. Hotch and the team arrested Foyet but he escaped from prison shortly afterward, going on the run. In the season four finale, "... And Back '', Hotch was confronted in his apartment by the Reaper (identified by his trademark mask). Foyet stabbed Hotch nine times and tortured him with a knife before delivering him to the hospital. Although Hotch survived, Foyet took Haley 's and Jack 's address from Hotch 's apartment, requiring them to be placed in protective custody and unable to contact Hotch while Foyet was at large. Following the encounter with Foyet and subsequent loss of contact with Hotch 's family, there was concern within the Bureau, and also on the part of Agent Morgan, that Agent Hotchner was suffering the effects of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, and Hotchner 's actions were analyzed more closely. In season 9, Hotch is hospitalized due to complications from the old stab wounds after collapsing in the team 's conference room.
When Chief Strauss began putting pressure on Hotchner to justify all of his tactical decisions, Hotch decided to step down as unit chief to avoid being reassigned to a different unit. He relinquished his position to Morgan, which he accepted on the condition that he would step down once Foyet had been captured. Shortly thereafter Foyet reappeared, baiting Hotchner through correspondence with an old unsub (The Fox) who had been convicted and imprisoned after being captured in the Season 1 episode, "The Fox ''. With the help of the team, Hotchner proceeded to track Foyet, who posed as a US Marshal in order to locate Haley and Jack. Having gained access to her Witsec - issued home, Foyet forced Haley to call Hotch on speaker phone. Hotch managed to issue a code to their son, Jack, which meant for him to go hide in his secret place. However, Hotch was unable to save Haley, whom Foyet murdered while she was still talking to him on the phone.
Upon arriving at the house, Hotch found Haley 's body in the bedroom and noticed Foyet hiding behind the curtains. He repeatedly shot at his shadow outlined in the curtains only to discover Foyet was wearing a bullit - proof vest. A full - out hand - to - hand fight then ensued, with Foyet eventually lying on the floor with Hotch sitting on top of him. In shock, enraged and afraid for his son 's life, Hotchner continued to pummel Foyet 's head and face, literally beating him to death. Although dead, he continued pounding on Foyet until the rest of the team arrived; Morgan had to physically restrain Hotch to get him to stop. During the post-incident inquiry by Section Chief Strauss, the team demonstrated complete support of Agent Hotchner and his actions, despite Strauss 's persistence in painting them as premeditated. Her position towards the events eventually changed upon speaking directly with Agent Hotchner who, when asked what he believed would have happened if Foyet had lived, responded: "I do n't have to think; I know that he would have tried to kill my son, too. '' Chief Strauss concluded that Hotchner 's actions were entirely justifiable.
After his ex-wife's murder, Hotch took time off to grieve and spend time with his son. He spoke at Haley 's funeral. It was clear that Jack was missing his mother, and was comforted by sleeping in his dad 's bed. Hotch was offered early retirement from the BAU in order to be with his son. However, after Haley 's sister, Jessica, offered to stay with Jack when Hotch had to go away, Hotch agreed and decided to return to the BAU. Since then, Hotch has attempted to build a better relationship with his son by being his pillar of support. Many of Jack 's actions make it clear that he holds his father in high regard. For example, in one scene, Jack is shown playing with two figures at the dinner table. He explains to his father that one figure is Hotch, while the other is a "bad guy ''. When Jack 's Aunt Jessica, who is making pancakes for dinner, asks Jack who is going to win, he replies: "Daddy. No one beats Daddy. ''
In another episode, he refuses to dress up as Spider - Man for Halloween because "he 's not a real super hero ''. Instead Jack puts on a suit that is slightly too large for him, and when Hotch asks him what hero he 's supposed to be, he says, "I 'm you, Daddy. '' Later on, Hotch is asked to coach Jack 's soccer team when the team 's performance lacks and he decides to do it with a little help from Rossi, whom he takes on as his assistant. At the end of the episode, Hotch and Rossi are shown coaching Jack 's team and making them win. Despite his many responsibilities, after JJ 's departure from the team, Hotch has chosen to take on part of JJ 's role as media liaison, a move that he shares with Penelope Garcia. Former Media Communications Officer Jennifer "JJ '' Jareau has moved on to become an official full - time profiler.
Hotchner requested to run the psych review on his team following Prentiss ' "death ''. This request was granted by Strauss, and saw the different reactions from his team. Strauss questioned why he had not submitted a psych report for himself, he made an excuse. Hotch is also very protective of Spencer Reid, which is shown in small ways throughout the episodes. In the pilot episode "Extreme Aggressor '', Hotch explains that they introduce him as Dr. Spencer Reid instead of Special Agent Spencer Reid so that people will respect him despite his youth. He has mostly taken over the fatherly role with Spencer after Gideon 's departure. In the season seven premiere, it was revealed that Hotch was assigned to temporary duty with an investigative task force in Pakistan during the period between seasons. Once Hotch gets back, he tells JJ it 's time for the team to learn that Prentiss is alive.
Although JJ is n't sure it 's a good idea, Hotch tells her Prentiss is already on her way. He quickly tells the team what happened with Prentiss on the operating table. Rossi, Morgan, Reid, and Garcia are all shocked. Later, in "Proof '', Hotch witnesses Reid 's hostile behavior towards JJ and tells him to take his anger out on him and not JJ. Reid only replies that it was n't to Hotch whom he spent ten weeks crying over Prentiss, it was JJ, and she never said a word. In addition to being a BAU Special Agent and also the BAU Unit Chief, Hotch has been promoted to Section Chief because Erin Strauss, the former Section Chief, resigned in the episode "Self - Fulfilling Prophecy '' because she had been drinking on the job. This was despite the fact that his involvement in the above mentioned, bungled Arizona case led to his being told that he was not likely to be considered for a promotion.
Later, Hotch makes a connection with a female runner while training for a triathlon. Hotch is hesitant and Rossi feels that is because Hotch does n't think enough time has passed since Haley was murdered two years ago. While on the plane, the group - including Garcia - debate the issue of Hotch 's dating. After their recent case, Hotch admits to Rossi that he will go on a bike ride with the woman. At the end of the episode, the woman, Beth, makes it clear that she 's interested in him romantically, which leaves Hotch smiling. During the beginning of the episode "Closing Time '', it is revealed that Hotch and Beth have continued training as well as having lunches together. Hotch then asks her out on a date, which she says yes to. At the end of the episode Hotch shows up a day early with roses, and he and Beth have their first kiss. Later, after running the triathlon, Hotch finally introduces his son to Beth.
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how old is hinduism and where did it start | Hinduism - Wikipedia
Hinduism is an Indian Dharma, or a way of life, widely practiced in South Asia. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal tradition, '' or the "eternal way, '' beyond human history. Scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This "Hindu synthesis '' started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE, following the Vedic period (1500 BCE to 500 BCE).
Although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Śruti ("heard '') and Smṛti ("remembered ''). These texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Agamas. Sources of authority and eternal truths in its texts play an important role, but there is also a strong Hindu tradition of the questioning of this authority, to deepen the understanding of these truths and to further develop the tradition.
Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma (ethics / duties), Artha (prosperity / work), Kama (desires / passions) and Moksha (liberation / freedom / salvation); karma (action, intent and consequences), Saṃsāra (cycle of rebirth), and the various Yogas (paths or practices to attain moksha). Hindu practices include rituals such as puja (worship) and recitations, meditation, family - oriented rites of passage, annual festivals, and occasional pilgrimages. Some Hindus leave their social world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa (monastic practices) to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings (ahimsa), patience, forbearance, self - restraint, and compassion, among others. The four largest denominations of Hinduism are the Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism.
Hinduism is the world 's third largest religion; its followers, known as Hindus, number about 1.15 billion, or 15 - 16 % of the global population. Hindus form the majority of the population in India, Nepal and Mauritius. Significant Hindu communities are also found in other countries.
The word Hindu is derived from the Indo - Aryan / Sanskrit root Sindhu, the name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent (modern day Pakistan and Northern India). According to Gavin Flood, "The actual term ' Hindu ' first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: Sindhu) '', more specifically in the 6th - century BCE inscription of Darius I (550 -- 486 BCE). The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term and did not refer to a religion. Among the earliest known records of ' Hindu ' with connotations of religion may be in the 7th - century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by Xuanzang, and 14th - century Persian text Futuhu 's - salatin by ' Abd al - Malik Isami.
Thapar states that the word Hindu is found as heptahindu in Avesta -- equivalent to Rigvedic sapta sindhu, while hndstn (pronounced Hindustan) is found in a Sasanian inscription from the 3rd century CE, both of which refer to parts of northwestern South Asia. The Arabic term al - Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was itself taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū, which refers to all Indians. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name of India, meaning the "land of Hindus ''.
The term Hindu was later used occasionally in some Sanskrit texts such as the later Rajataranginis of Kashmir (Hinduka, c. 1450) and some 16th - to 18th - century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts including Chaitanya Charitamrita and Chaitanya Bhagavata. These texts used it to distinguish Hindus from Muslims who are called Yavanas (foreigners) or Mlecchas (barbarians), with the 16th - century Chaitanya Charitamrita text and the 17th century Bhakta Mala text using the phrase "Hindu dharma ''. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th - century to denote the religious, philosophical, and cultural traditions native to India.
Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but has no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet (s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist. Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion "defies our desire to define and categorize it ''. Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and "a way of life. '' From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion. In India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion.
The study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of "Hinduism '', has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, and have also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India.
Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six darsanas (philosophies), two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, are currently the most prominent. Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents are Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Devi) and Smartism (five deities treated as same). Hinduism also accepts numerous divine beings, with many Hindus considering the deities to be aspects or manifestations of a single impersonal absolute or ultimate reality or God, while some Hindus maintain that a specific deity represents the supreme and various deities are lower manifestations of this supreme. Other notable characteristics include a belief in existence of ātman (soul, self), reincarnation of one 's ātman, and karma as well as a belief in dharma (duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and right way of living).
McDaniel (2007) classifies Hinduism into six major kinds and numerous minor kinds, in order to understand expression of emotions among the Hindus. The major kinds, according to McDaniel are, Folk Hinduism, based on local traditions and cults of local deities and is the oldest, non-literate system; Vedic Hinduism based on the earliest layers of the Vedas traceable to 2nd millennium BCE; Vedantic Hinduism based on the philosophy of the Upanishads, including Advaita Vedanta, emphasizing knowledge and wisdom; Yogic Hinduism, following the text of Yoga Sutras of Patanjali emphasizing introspective awareness; Dharmic Hinduism or "daily morality '', which McDaniel states is stereotyped in some books as the "only form of Hindu religion with a belief in karma, cows and caste ''; and Bhakti or devotional Hinduism, where intense emotions are elaborately incorporated in the pursuit of the spiritual.
Michaels distinguishes three Hindu religions and four forms of Hindu religiosity. The three Hindu religions are "Brahmanic - Sanskritic Hinduism, '', "folk religions and tribal religions, '' and "founded religions. The four forms of Hindu religiosity are the classical "karma - marga '', jnana - marga, bhakti - marga, and "heroism, '' which is rooted in militaristic traditions, such as Ramaism and parts of political Hinduism. This is also called virya - marga. According to Michaels, one out of nine Hindu belongs by birth to one or both of the Brahmanic - Sanskritic Hinduism and Folk religion typology, whether practicing or non-practicing. He classifies most Hindus as belonging by choice to one of the "founded religions '' such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism that are salvation - focussed and often de-emphasize Brahman priestly authority yet incorporate ritual grammar of Brahmanic - Sanskritic Hinduism. He includes among "founded religions '' Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism that are now distinct religions, syncretic movements such as Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society, as well as various "Guru - isms '' and new religious movements such as Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and ISKCON.
Inden states that the attempt to classify Hinduism by typology started in the imperial times, when proselytizing missionaries and colonial officials sought to understand and portray Hinduism from their interests. Hinduism was construed as emanating not from a reason of spirit but fantasy and creative imagination, not conceptual but symbolical, not ethical but emotive, not rational or spiritual but of cognitive mysticism. This stereotype followed and fit, states Inden, with the imperial imperatives of the era, providing the moral justification for the colonial project. From tribal Animism to Buddhism, everything was subsumed as part of Hinduism. The early reports set the tradition and scholarly premises for typology of Hinduism, as well as the major assumptions and flawed presuppositions that has been at the foundation of Indology. Hinduism, according to Inden, has been neither what imperial religionists stereotyped it to be, nor is it appropriate to equate Hinduism to be merely monist pantheism and philosophical idealism of Advaita Vedanta.
To its adherents, Hinduism is a traditional way of life. Many practitioners refer to the "orthodox '' form of Hinduism as Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal law '' or the "eternal way ''. The Sanskrit word dharma has a much broader meaning than religion and is not its equivalent. All aspects of a Hindu life, namely acquiring wealth (artha), fulfillment of desires (kama), and attaining liberation (moksha) are part of dharma which encapsulates the "right way of living '' and eternal harmonious principles in their fulfillment.
Sanātana Dharma refers to the "eternal '' duties all Hindus have to follow, regardless of class, caste, or sect, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, purity, goodwill, mercy, patience, forbearance, self - restraint, generosity, and asceticism. This is contrasted with svadharma, one 's "own duty '', the duties to be followed by members of a specific varna and jāti. According to Knott, this also
... refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history, and its truths have been divinely revealed (Shruti) and passed down through the ages to the present day in the most ancient of the world 's scriptures, the Veda. (Knott 1998, p. 5)
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica,
The term has also more recently been used by Hindu leaders, reformers, and nationalists to refer to Hinduism as a unified world religion. Sanatana dharma has thus become a synonym for the "eternal '' truth and teachings of Hinduism, the latter conceived of as not only transcendent of history and unchanging but also as indivisible and ultimately nonsectarian.
Beginning in the 19th century, Indian modernists re-asserted Hinduism as a major asset of Indian civilisation, meanwhile "purifying '' Hinduism from its Tantric elements and elevating the Vedic elements. Western stereotypes were reversed, emphasizing the universal aspects, and introducing modern approaches of social problems. This approach had a great appeal, not only in India, but also in the west. Major representatives of "Hindu modernism '' are Raja Rammohan Roy, Vivekananda, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Mahatma Gandhi.
Raja Rammohan Roy is known as the father of the Hindu Renaissance. He was a major influence on Swami Vivekananda (1863 -- 1902), who, according to Flood, was "a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self - understanding and in formulating the West 's view of Hinduism. '' Central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings, that all human beings can achieve union with this "innate divinity '', and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony. According to Vivekananda, there is an essential unity to Hinduism, which underlies the diversity of its many forms. According to Flood, Vivekananda 's vision of Hinduism "is one generally accepted by most English - speaking middle - class Hindus today. '' Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan sought to reconcile western rationalism with Hinduism, "presenting Hinduism as an essentially rationalistic and humanistic religious experience. ''
This "Global Hinduism '' has a worldwide appeal, transcending national boundaries and, according to Flood, "becoming a world religion alongside Christianity, Islam and Buddhism '', both for the Hindu diaspora communities and for westerners who are attracted to non-western cultures and religions. It emphasizes universal spiritual values such as social justice, peace and "the spiritual transformation of humanity. '' It has developed partly due to "re-enculturation '', or the Pizza effect, in which elements of Hindu culture have been exported to the West, gaining popularity there, and as a consequence also gained greater popularity in India. This globalization of Hindu culture brought "to the West teachings which have become an important cultural force in western societies, and which in turn have become an important cultural force in India, their place of origin. ''
Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions. which emerged after the Vedic period, between 500 - 200 BCE and c. 300 CE, the beginning of the "Epic and Puranic '' c.q. "Preclassical '' period.
Hinduism 's tolerance to variations in belief and its broad range of traditions make it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western conceptions.
Some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges '' rather than as a well - defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism and others, while not as central, still remain within the category. Based on this idea Ferro - Luzzi has developed a ' Prototype Theory approach ' to the definition of Hinduism.
Hinduism has been described as a tradition having a "complex, organic, multileveled and sometimes internally inconsistent nature. '' Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or a creed '', but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena of India. According to the Supreme Court of India,
Unlike other religions in the World, the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet, it does not worship any one God, it does not believe in any one philosophic concept, it does not follow any one act of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not satisfy the traditional features of a religion or creed. It is a way of life and nothing more ".
Part of the problem with a single definition of the term Hinduism is the fact that Hinduism does not have a founder. It is a synthesis of various traditions, the "Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions. ''
Some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation, of sustenance, and of the destruction of the universe, yet some Hindus are atheists, as they view Hinduism more as philosophy than religion.
Despite the differences, there is also a sense of unity. Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacred literature, the Vedas, although there are exceptions. These texts are a reminder of the ancient cultural heritage and point of pride for Hindus, with Louis Renou stating that "even in the most orthodox domains, the reverence to the Vedas has come to be a simple raising of the hat ''.
Halbfass states that, although Shaivism and Vaishaism may be regarded as "self - contained religious constellations '', there is a degree of interaction and reference between the "theoreticians and literary representatives '' of each tradition which indicates the presence of "a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon ''.
The notion of common denominators for several religions and traditions of India was already noted from the 12th century CE on. Lorenzen traces the emergence of a "family resemblance '', and what he calls as "beginnings of medieval and modern Hinduism '' taking shape, at c. 300 - 600 CE, with the development of the early Puranas, and continuities with the earlier Vedic religion. Lorenzen states that the establishment of a Hindu self - identity took place "through a process of mutual self - definition with a contrasting Muslim Other. '' According to Lorenzen, this "presence of the Other '' is necessary to recognise the "loose family resemblance '' among the various traditions and schools,
According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th centuries "certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems '' (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy. '' The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions '' has also been noted by Burley. Hacker called this "inclusivism '' and Michaels speaks of "the identificatory habit ''. Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus, and a process of "mutual self - definition with a contrasting Muslim other '', which started well before 1800. Michaels notes:
As a counteraction to Islamic supremacy and as part of the continuing process of regionalization, two religious innovations developed in the Hindu religions: the formation of sects and a historicization which preceded later nationalism (...) (S) aints and sometimes militant sect leaders, such as the Marathi poet Tukaram (1609 - 1649) and Ramdas (1608 - 1681), articulated ideas in which they glorified Hinduism and the past. The Brahmins also produced increasingly historical texts, especially eulogies and chronicles of sacred sites (Mahatmyas), or developed a reflexive passion for collecting and compiling extensive collections of quotations on various subjects.
This inclusivism was further developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by Hindu reform movements and Neo-Vedanta, and has become characteristic of modern Hinduism.
The notion and reports on "Hinduism '' as a "single world religious tradition '' was popularised by 19th - century proselytizing missionaries and European Indologists, roles sometimes served by the same person, who relied on texts preserved by Brahmins (priests) for their information of Indian religions, and animist observations which the missionary Orientalists presumed was Hinduism. These reports influenced perceptions about Hinduism. Some scholars state that the colonial polemical reports led to fabricated stereotypes where Hinduism was mere mystic paganism devoted to the service of devils, while other scholars state that the colonial constructions influenced the belief that the Vedas, Bhagavad Gita, Manusmriti and such texts were the essence of Hindu religiosity, and in the modern association of ' Hindu doctrine ' with the schools of Vedanta (in particular Advaita Vedanta) as paradigmatic example of Hinduism 's mystical nature ". Pennington, while concurring that the study of Hinduism as a world religion began in the colonial era, disagrees that Hinduism is a colonial European era invention. He states that the shared theology, common ritual grammar and way of life of those who identify themselves as Hindus is traceable to ancient times.
Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to) Dharma (ethics / duties), Samsāra (the continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action, intent and consequences), Moksha (liberation from samsara or liberation in this life), and the various Yogas (paths or practices).
Classical Hindu thought accepts four proper goals or aims of human life: Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. These are known as the Puruṣārthas:
Dharma is considered the foremost goal of a human being in Hinduism. The concept Dharma includes behaviors that are considered to be in accord with rta, the order that makes life and universe possible, and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living ''. Hindu Dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviors that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous. Dharma, according to Van Buitenen, is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is, states Van Buitenen, the pursuit and execution of one 's nature and true calling, thus playing one 's role in cosmic concert. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad states it as:
Nothing is higher than Dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by Dharma, as over a king. Truly that Dharma is the Truth (Satya); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma ''; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth! '' For both are one.
In the Mahabharata, Krishna defines dharma as upholding both this - worldly and other - worldly affairs. (Mbh 12.110. 11). The word Sanātana means eternal, perennial, or forever; thus, Sanātana Dharma signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.
Artha is objective and virtuous pursuit of wealth for livelihood, obligations and economic prosperity. It is inclusive of political life, diplomacy and material well - being. The Artha concept includes all "means of life '', activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in, wealth, career and financial security. The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.
Kāma (Sanskrit, Pali; Devanagari: काम) means desire, wish, passion, longing, pleasure of the senses, the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love, with or without sexual connotations. In Hinduism, Kama is considered an essential and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing Dharma, Artha and Moksha.
Moksha (Sanskrit: मोक्ष mokṣa) or mukti (Sanskrit: मुक्ति) is the ultimate, most important goal in Hinduism. In one sense, Moksha is a concept associated with liberation from sorrow, suffering and saṃsāra (birth - rebirth cycle). A release from this eschatological cycle, in after life, particularly in theistic schools of Hinduism is called moksha. In other schools of Hinduism, such as monistic, moksha is a goal achievable in current life, as a state of bliss through self - realization, of comprehending the nature of one 's soul, of freedom and of "realizing the whole universe as the Self ''.
Karma translates literally as action, work, or deed, and also refers to a Vedic theory of "moral law of cause and effect ''. The theory is a combination of (1) causality that may be ethical or non-ethical; (2) ethicization, that is good or bad actions have consequences; and (3) rebirth. Karma theory is interpreted as explaining the present circumstances of an individual with reference to his or her actions in past. These actions may be those in a person 's current life, or, in some schools of Hinduism, possibly actions in their past lives; furthermore, the consequences may result in current life, or a person 's future lives. This cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth is called samsara. Liberation from samsara through moksha is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace. Hindu scriptures teach that the future is both a function of current human effort derived from free will and past human actions that set the circumstances.
The ultimate goal of life, referred to as moksha, nirvana or samadhi, is understood in several different ways: as the realization of one 's union with God; as the realization of one 's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; as the attainment of perfect mental peace; and as detachment from worldly desires. Such realization liberates one from samsara, thereby ending the cycle of rebirth, sorrow and suffering. Due to belief in the indestructibility of the soul, death is deemed insignificant with respect to the cosmic self.
The meaning of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example, Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha a person knows their "soul, self '' and identifies it as one with Brahman and everyone in all respects. The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) schools, in moksha state, identify individual "soul, self '' as distinct from Brahman but infinitesimally close, and after attaining moksha expect to spend eternity in a loka (heaven). To theistic schools of Hinduism, moksha is liberation from samsara, while for other schools such as the monistic school, moksha is possible in current life and is a psychological concept. According to Deutsche, moksha is transcendental consciousness to the latter, the perfect state of being, of self - realization, of freedom and of "realizing the whole universe as the Self ''. Moksha in these schools of Hinduism, suggests Klaus Klostermaier, implies a setting free of hitherto fettered faculties, a removing of obstacles to an unrestricted life, permitting a person to be more truly a person in the full sense; the concept presumes an unused human potential of creativity, compassion and understanding which had been blocked and shut out. Moksha is more than liberation from life - rebirth cycle of suffering (samsara); Vedantic school separates this into two: jivanmukti (liberation in this life) and videhamukti (liberation after death).
Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, pandeism, monism, and atheism among others; and its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization.
The Nasadiya Sukta (Creation Hymn) of the Rig Veda is one of the earliest texts which "demonstrates a sense of metaphysical speculation '' about what created the universe, the concept of god (s) and The One, and whether even The One knows how the universe came into being. The Rig Veda praises various deities, none superior nor inferior, in a henotheistic manner. The hymns repeatedly refer to One Truth and Reality. The "One Truth '' of Vedic literature, in modern era scholarship, has been interpreted as monotheism, monism, as well as a deified Hidden Principles behind the great happenings and processes of nature.
Hindus believe that all living creatures have a soul. This soul -- the spirit or true "self '' of every person, is called the ātman. The soul is believed to be eternal. According to the monistic / pantheistic (non-dualist) theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), this Atman is indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realise that one 's soul is identical to supreme soul, that the supreme soul is present in everything and everyone, all life is interconnected and there is oneness in all life. Dualistic schools (see Dvaita and Bhakti) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being separate from individual souls. They worship the Supreme Being variously as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, or Shakti, depending upon the sect. God is called Ishvara, Bhagavan, Parameshwara, Deva or Devi, and these terms have different meanings in different schools of Hinduism.
Hindu texts accept a polytheistic framework, but this is generally conceptualized as the divine essence or luminosity that gives vitality and animation to the inanimate natural substances. There is a divine in everything, human beings, animals, trees and rivers. It is observable in offerings to rivers, trees, tools of one 's work, animals and birds, rising sun, friends and guests, teachers and parents. It is the divine in these that makes each sacred and worthy of reverence. This seeing divinity in everything, state Buttimer and Wallin, makes the Vedic foundations of Hinduism quite distinct from Animism. The animistic premise sees multiplicity, power differences and competition between man and man, man and animal, as well as man and nature. The Vedic view does not see this competition, rather sees a unifying divinity that connects everyone and everything.
The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities called Devas (or devī in feminine form; devatā used synonymously for Deva in Hindi), which may be translated into English as gods or heavenly beings. The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons, and stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas. They are, however, often distinguished from Ishvara, a personal god, with many Hindus worshipping Ishvara in one of its particular manifestations as their iṣṭa devatā, or chosen ideal. The choice is a matter of individual preference, and of regional and family traditions. The multitude of Devas are considered as manifestations of Brahman.
The word avatar does not appear in the Vedic literature, but appears in verb forms in post-Vedic literature, and as a noun particularly in the Puranic literature after the 6th century CE. Theologically, the reincarnation idea is most often associated with the avatars of Hindu god Vishnu, though the idea has been applied to other deities. Varying lists of avatars of Vishnu appear in Hindu scriptures, including the ten Dashavatara of the Garuda Purana and the twenty - two avatars in the Bhagavata Purana, though the latter adds that the incarnations of Vishnu are innumerable. The avatars of Vishnu are important in Vaishnavism theology. In the goddess - based Shaktism tradition of Hinduism, avatars of the Devi are found and all goddesses are considered to be different aspects of the same metaphysical Brahman and Shakti (energy). While avatars of other deities such as Ganesha and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional.
Both theistic and atheistic ideas, for epistemological and metaphysical reasons, are profuse in different schools of Hinduism. The early Nyaya school of Hinduism, for example, was non-theist / atheist, but later Nyaya school scholars argued that God exists and offered proofs using its theory of logic. Other schools disagreed with Nyaya scholars. Samkhya, Mimamsa and Carvaka schools of Hinduism, were non-theist / atheist, arguing that "God was an unnecessary metaphysical assumption ''. Its Vaisheshika school started as another non-theistic tradition relying on naturalism and that all matter is eternal, but it later introduced the concept of a non-creator God. The Yoga school of Hinduism accepted the concept of a "personal god '' and left it to the Hindu to define his or her god. Advaita Vedanta taught a monistic, abstract Self and Oneness in everything, with no room for gods or deity, a perspective that Mohanty calls, "spiritual, not religious ''. Bhakti sub-schools of Vedanta taught a creator God that is distinct from each human being.
According to Graham Schweig, Hinduism has the strongest presence of the divine feminine in world religion from ancient times to the present. The goddess is viewed as the heart of the most esoteric Saiva traditions.
Authority and eternal truths play an important role in Hinduism. Religious traditions and truths are believed to be contained in its sacred texts, which are accessed and taught by sages, gurus, saints or avatars. But there is also a strong tradition of the questioning of authority, internal debate and challenging of religious texts in Hinduism. The Hindus believe that this deepens the understanding of the eternal truths and further develops the tradition. Authority "was mediated through (...) an intellectual culture that tended to develop ideas collaboratively, and according to the shared logic of natural reason. '' Narratives in the Upanishads present characters questioning persons of authority. The Kena Upanishad repeatedly asks kena, ' by what ' power something is the case. The Katha Upanishad and Bhagavad Gita present narratives where the student criticizes the teacher 's inferior answers. In the Shiva Purana, Shiva questions Vishnu and Brahma. Doubt plays a repeated role in the Mahabharata. Jayadeva 's Gita Govinda presents criticism via the character of Radha.
Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition. Four major denominations are, however, used in scholarly studies: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism. These denominations differ primarily in the central deity worshipped, the traditions and the soteriological outlook. The denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practicing more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism ''.
Vaishnavism is the devotional religious tradition that worships Vishnu and his avatars, particularly Krishna and Rama. The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic, oriented towards community events and devotionalism practices inspired by "intimate loving, joyous, playful '' Krishna and other Vishnu avatars. These practices sometimes include community dancing, singing of Kirtans and Bhajans, with sound and music believed by some to have meditative and spiritual powers. Temple worship and festivals are typically elaborate in Vaishnavism. The Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana, along with Vishnu - oriented Puranas provide its theistic foundations. Philosophically, their beliefs are rooted in the dualism sub-schools of Vedantic Hinduism.
Shaivism is the tradition that focuses on Shiva. Shaivas are more attracted to ascetic individualism, and it has several sub-schools. Their practices include Bhakti - style devotionalism, yet their beliefs lean towards nondual, monistic schools of Hinduism such as Advaita and Yoga. Some Shaivas worship in temples, while others emphasize yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within. Avatars are uncommon, and some Shaivas visualize god as half male, half female, as a fusion of the male and female principles (Ardhanarishvara). Shaivism is related to Shaktism, wherein Shakti is seen as spouse of Shiva. Community celebrations include festivals, and participation, with Vaishnavas, in pilgrimages such as the Kumbh Mela. Shaivism has been more commonly practiced in the Himalayan north from Kashmir to Nepal, and in south India.
Shaktism focuses on goddess worship of Shakti or Devi as cosmic mother, and it is particularly common in northeastern and eastern states of India such as Assam and Bengal. Devi is depicted as in gentler forms like Parvati, the consort of Shiva; or, as fierce warrior goddesses like Kali and Durga. Followers of Shaktism recognize Shakti as the power that underlies the male principle. Shaktism is also associated with Tantra practices. Community celebrations include festivals, some of which include processions and idol immersion into sea or other water bodies.
Smartism centers its worship simultaneously on all the major Hindu deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha, Surya and Skanda. The Smarta tradition developed during the (early) Classical Period of Hinduism around the beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism emerged from the interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions. The Smarta tradition is aligned with Advaita Vedanta, and regards Adi Shankara as its founder or reformer, who considered worship of God - with - attributes (saguna Brahman) as a journey towards ultimately realizing God - without - attributes (nirguna Brahman, Atman, Self - knowledge). The term Smartism is derived from Smriti texts of Hinduism, meaning those who remember the traditions in the texts. This Hindu sect practices a philosophical Jnana yoga, scriptural studies, reflection, meditative path seeking an understanding of Self 's oneness with God.
The ancient scriptures of Hinduism are in Sanskrit. These texts are classified into two: Shruti and Smriti. Hindu scriptures were composed, memorized and transmitted verbally, across generations, for many centuries before they were written down. Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the Shruti and Smriti, as well as developed Shastras with epistemological and metaphysical theories of six classical schools of Hinduism.
Shruti (lit. that which is heard) primarily refers to the Vedas, which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures, and are regarded as eternal truths revealed to the ancient sages (rishis). There are four Vedas - Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types -- the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic - sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge). The first two parts of the Vedas were subsequently called the Karmakāṇḍa (ritualistic portion), while the last two form the Jñānakāṇḍa (knowledge portion, discussing spiritual insight and philosophical teachings).
The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought, and have profoundly influenced diverse traditions. Of the Shrutis (Vedic corpus), they alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan states that the Upanishads have played a dominating role ever since their appearance. There are 108 Muktikā Upanishads in Hinduism, of which between 10 and 13 are variously counted by scholars as Principal Upanishads.
The most notable of the Smritis ("remembered '') are the Hindu epics and the Puranas. The epics consist of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The Bhagavad Gita is an integral part of the Mahabharata and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It is sometimes called Gitopanishad, then placed in the Shruti ("heard '') category, being Upanishadic in content. The Puranas, which started to be composed from c. 300 CE onward, contain extensive mythologies, and are central in the distribution of common themes of Hinduism through vivid narratives. The Yoga Sutras is a classical text for the Hindu Yoga tradition, which gained a renewed popularity in the 20th century.
Since the 19th century Indian modernists have re-asserted the ' Aryan origins ' of Hinduism, "purifying '' Hinduism from its Tantric elements and elevating the Vedic elements. Hindu modernists like Vivekananda see the Vedas as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages. In Tantric tradition, the Agamas refer to authoritative scriptures or the teachings of Shiva to Shakti, while Nigamas refers to the Vedas and the teachings of Shakti to Shiva. In Agamic schools of Hinduism, the Vedic literature and the Agamas are equally authoritative.
Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home. The rituals vary greatly among regions, villages, and individuals. They are not mandatory in Hinduism. The nature and place of rituals is an individual 's choice. Some devout Hindus perform daily rituals such as worshiping at dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing devotional hymns, yoga, meditation, chanting mantras and others.
Vedic rituals of fire - oblation (yajna) and chanting of Vedic hymns are observed on special occasions, such as a Hindu wedding. Other major life - stage events, such as rituals after death, include the yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras.
Major life stage milestones are celebrated as sanskara (saṃskāra, rites of passage) in Hinduism. The rites of passage are not mandatory, and vary in details by gender, community and regionally. Gautama Dharmasutras composed in about the middle of 1st millennium BCE lists 48 sanskaras, while Gryhasutra and other texts composed centuries later list between 12 and 16 sanskaras. The list of sanskaras in Hinduism include both external rituals such as those marking a baby 's birth and a baby 's name giving ceremony, as well as inner rites of resolutions and ethics such as compassion towards all living beings and positive attitude.
The major traditional rites of passage in Hinduism include Garbhadhana (pregnancy), Pumsavana (rite before the fetus begins moving and kicking in womb), Simantonnayana (parting of pregnant woman 's hair, baby shower), Jatakarman (rite celebrating the new born baby), Namakarana (naming the child), Nishkramana (baby 's first outing from home into the world), Annaprashana (baby 's first feeding of solid food), Chudakarana (baby 's first haircut, tonsure), Karnavedha (ear piercing), Vidyarambha (baby 's start with knowledge), Upanayana (entry into a school rite), Keshanta and Ritusuddhi (first shave for boys, menarche for girls), Samavartana (graduation ceremony), Vivaha (wedding), Vratas (fasting, spiritual studies) and Antyeshti (cremation for an adult, burial for a child). In contemporary times, there is regional variation among Hindus as to which of these sanskaras are observed; in some cases, additional regional rites of passage such as Śrāddha (ritual of feeding people after cremation) are practiced.
Bhakti refers to devotion, participation in and the love of a personal god or a representational god by a devotee. Bhakti marga is considered in Hinduism as one of many possible paths of spirituality and alternate means to moksha. The other paths, left to the choice of a Hindu, are Jnana marga (path of knowledge), Karma marga (path of works), Rāja marga (path of contemplation and meditation).
Bhakti is practiced in a number of ways, ranging from reciting mantras, japas (incantations), to individual private prayers within one 's home shrine, or in a temple or near a river bank, sometimes in the presence of an idol or image of a deity. Hindu temples and domestic altars, states Lynn Foulston, are important elements of worship in contemporary theistic Hinduism. While many visit a temple on a special occasion, most offer a brief prayer on an everyday basis at the domestic altar. This bhakti is expressed in a domestic shrine which typically is a dedicated part of the home and includes the images of deities or the gurus the Hindu chooses. Among Vaishnavism sub-traditions such as Swaminarayan, the home shrines can be elaborate with either a room dedicated to it or a dedicated part of the kitchen. The devotee uses this space for daily prayers or meditation, either before breakfast or after day 's work.
Bhakti is sometimes private inside household shrines and sometimes practiced as a community. It may include Puja, Aarti, musical Kirtan or singing Bhajan, where devotional verses and hymns are read or poems are sung by a group of devotees. While the choice of the deity is at the discretion of the Hindu, the most observed traditions of Hindu devotionalism include Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva) and Shaktism (Shakti). A Hindu may worship multiple deities, all as henotheistic manifestations of the same ultimate reality, cosmic spirit and absolute spiritual concept called Brahman in Hinduism.
Bhakti marga, states Pechelis, is more than ritual devotionalism, it includes practices and spiritual activities aimed at refining one 's state of mind, knowing god, participating in god, and internalizing god. While Bhakti practices are popular and easily observable aspect of Hinduism, not all Hindus practice Bhakti, or believe in god - with - attributes (saguna Brahman). Concurrent Hindu practices include a belief in god - without - attributes, and god within oneself.
Hindu festivals (Sanskrit: Utsava; literally: "to lift higher '') are ceremonies that weave individual and social life to dharma. Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year, where the dates are set by the lunisolar Hindu calendar, many coinciding with either the full moon (Holi) or the new moon (Diwali), often with seasonal changes. Some festivals are found only regionally and they celebrate local traditions, while a few such as Holi and Diwali are pan-Hindu.
The festivals typically celebrate events from Hinduism, connoting spiritual themes and celebrating aspects of human relationships such as the Sister - Brother bond over the Raksha Bandhan (or Bhai Dooj) festival. The same festival sometimes marks different stories depending on the Hindu denomination, and the celebrations incorporate regional themes, traditional agriculture, local arts, family get togethers, Puja rituals and feasts.
Some major regional or pan-Hindu festivals include:
Pilgrimage sites are called Tirtha, Kshetra, Gopitha or Mahalaya in Hinduism. The process or journey associated with Tirtha is called Tirtha - yatra. According to the Hindu text Skanda Purana, Tirtha are of three kinds: Jangam Tirtha is to a place movable of a sadhu, a rishi, a guru; Sthawar Tirtha is to a place immovable, like Benaras, Hardwar, Mount Kailash, holy rivers; while Manas Tirtha is to a place of mind of truth, charity, patience, compassion, soft speech, soul. Tīrtha - yatra is, states Knut A. Jacobsen, anything that has a salvific value to a Hindu, and includes pilgrimage sites such as mountains or forests or seashore or rivers or ponds, as well as virtues, actions, studies or state of mind.
Pilgrimage sites of Hinduism are mentioned in the epic Mahabharata and the Puranas. Most Puranas include large sections on Tirtha Mahatmya along with tourist guides, which describe sacred sites and places to visit. In these texts, Varanasi (Benares, Kashi), Rameshwaram, Kanchipuram, Dwarka, Puri, Haridwar, Sri Rangam, Vrindavan, Ayodhya, Tirupati, Mayapur, Nathdwara, twelve Jyotirlinga and Shakti Peetha have been mentioned as particularly holy sites, along with geographies where major rivers meet (sangam) or join the sea. Kumbhamela is another major pilgrimage on the eve of the solar festival Makar Sankranti. This pilgrimage rotates at a gap of three years among four sites: Allahabad at the confluence the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, Hardwar near source of the Ganges, Ujjain on the Shipra river and Nasik on the bank of the Godavari river. This is one of world 's largest mass pilgrimage, with an estimated 40 to 100 million people attending the event. At this event, they say a prayer to the sun and bathe in the river, a tradition attributed to Adi Shankara.
Some pilgrimages are part of a Vrata (vow), which a Hindu may make for a number of reasons. It may mark a special occasion, such as the birth of a baby, or as part of a rite of passage such as a baby 's first haircut, or after healing from a sickness. It may, states Eck, also be the result of prayers answered. An alternate reason for Tirtha, for some Hindus, is to respect wishes or in memory of a beloved person after his or her death. This may include dispersing their cremation ashes in a Tirtha region in a stream, river or sea to honor the wishes of the dead. The journey to a Tirtha, assert some Hindu texts, helps one overcome the sorrow of the loss.
Other reasons for a Tirtha in Hinduism is to rejuvenate or gain spiritual merit by traveling to famed temples or bathe in rivers such as the Ganges. Tirtha has been one of the recommended means of addressing remorse and to perform penance, for unintentional errors and intentional sins, in the Hindu tradition. The proper procedure for a pilgrimage is widely discussed in Hindu texts. The most accepted view is that the greatest austerity comes from traveling on foot, or part of the journey is on foot, and that the use of a conveyance is only acceptable if the pilgrimage is otherwise impossible. Pilgrimage is not mandatory in Hinduism, though many adherents undertake them.
Hindu society has been categorised into four classes, called varnas. They are the Brahmins: Vedic teachers and priests; the Kshatriyas: warriors and kings; the Vaishyas: farmers and merchants; and the Shudras: servants and labourers.
The Bhagavad Gītā links the varna to an individual 's duty (svadharma), inborn nature (svabhāva), and natural tendencies (guṇa). The Manusmṛiti categorises the different castes.
Some mobility and flexibility within the varnas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists, although some other scholars disagree. Scholars debate whether the so - called caste system is part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or social custom. And various contemporary scholars have argued that the caste system was constructed by the British colonial regime.
A renunciant man of knowledge is usually called Varnatita or "beyond all varnas '' in Vedantic works. The bhiksu is advised to not bother about the caste of the family from which he begs his food. Scholars like Adi Sankara affirm that not only is Brahman beyond all varnas, the man who is identified with Him also transcends the distinctions and limitations of caste.
In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. Yoga is a Hindu discipline which trains the body, mind and consciousness for health, tranquility and spiritual insight. This is done through a system of postures and exercises to practise control of the body and mind. Texts dedicated to Yoga include the Yoga Sutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Bhagavad Gita and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads. Yoga is means, and the four major marga (paths) discussed in Hinduism are: Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion), Karma Yoga (the path of right action), Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation), Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom) An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, according to his or her inclination and understanding. Practice of one yoga does not exclude others.
Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures or cultural traditions. The syllable Om (which represents the Brahman and Atman) has grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as the Swastika sign represent auspiciousness, and Tilaka (literally, seed) on forehead -- considered to be the location of spiritual third eye, marks ceremonious welcome, blessing or one 's participation in a ritual or rite of passage. Elaborate Tilaka with lines may also identify a devotee of a particular denomination. Flowers, birds, animals, instruments, symmetric mandala drawings, objects, idols are all part of symbolic iconography in Hinduism.
Hindus advocate the practice of ahiṃsā (non-violence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals. The term ahiṃsā appears in the Upanishads, the epic Mahabharata and ahiṃsā is the first of the five Yamas (vows of self - restraint) in Patanjali 's Yoga Sutras.
In accordance with ahiṃsā, many Hindus embrace vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life. Estimates of strict lacto vegetarians in India (includes adherents of all religions) who never eat any meat, fish or eggs vary between 20 % and 42 %, while others are either less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians. Those who eat meat seek Jhatka (quick death) method of meat production, and dislike Halal (slow bled death) method, believing that quick death method reduces suffering to the animal. The food habits vary with region, with Bengali Hindus and Hindus living in Himalayan regions, or river delta regions, regularly eating meat and fish. Some avoid meat on specific festivals or occasions. Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. The cow in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure, and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving.
There are many Hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strict vegetarian diet in modern times. Some adhere to a diet that is devoid of meat, eggs, and seafood. Food affects body, mind and spirit in Hindu beliefs. Hindu texts such as Śāṇḍilya Upanishad and Svātmārāma recommend Mitahara (eating in moderation) as one of the Yamas (virtuous self restraints). The Bhagavad Gita links body and mind to food one consumes in verses 17.8 through 17.10.
Some Hindus such as those belonging to the Shaktism tradition, and Hindus in regions such as Bali and Nepal practise animal sacrifice. The sacrificed animal is eaten as ritual food. In contrast, the Vaishnava Hindus abhor and vigorously oppose animal sacrifice. The principle of non-violence to animals has been so thoroughly adopted in Hinduism that animal sacrifice is uncommon and historically reduced to a vestigial marginal practice.
According to a study by Pew Research Centre, Hindus are among the religious groups having least years of formal education. It further claims that they are among the fastest improving communities too.
A Hindu temple is a house of god (s). It is a space and structure designed to bring human beings and gods together, infused with symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism. A temple incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmology, the highest spire or dome representing Mount Meru -- reminder of the abode of Brahma and the center of spiritual universe, the carvings and iconography symbolically presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksha and karma. The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism. Hindu temples are spiritual destinations for many Hindus (not all), as well as landmarks for arts, annual festivals, rite of passage rituals, and community celebrations.
Hindu temples come in many styles, diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs. Two major styles of Hindu temples include the Gopuram style found in south India, and Nagara style found in north India. Other styles include cave, forest and mountain temples. Yet, despite their differences, almost all Hindu temples share certain common architectural principles, core ideas, symbolism and themes.
Many temples feature one or more idols (murtis). The idol and Grabhgriya in the Brahma - pada (the center of the temple), under the main spire, serves as a focal point (darsana, a sight) in a Hindu temple. In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa (Brahman), the universal essence.
Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āśramas (phases or life stages; another meaning includes monastery). The four ashramas are: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (retired) and Sannyasa (renunciation).
Brahmacharya represents the bachelor student stage of life. Grihastha refers to the individual 's married life, with the duties of maintaining a household, raising a family, educating one 's children, and leading a family - centred and a dharmic social life. Grihastha stage starts with Hindu wedding, and has been considered as the most important of all stages in sociological context, as Hindus in this stage not only pursued a virtuous life, they produced food and wealth that sustained people in other stages of life, as well as the offsprings that continued mankind. Vanaprastha is the retirement stage, where a person hands over household responsibilities to the next generation, took an advisory role, and gradually withdrew from the world. The Sannyasa stage marks renunciation and a state of disinterest and detachment from material life, generally without any meaningful property or home (ascetic state), and focused on Moksha, peace and simple spiritual life.
The Ashramas system has been one facet of the Dharma concept in Hinduism. Combined with four proper goals of human life (Purusartha), the Ashramas system traditionally aimed at providing a Hindu with fulfilling life and spiritual liberation. While these stages are typically sequential, any person can enter Sannyasa (ascetic) stage and become an Ascetic at any time after the Brahmacharya stage. Sannyasa is not religiously mandatory in Hinduism, and elderly people are free to live with their families.
Some Hindus choose to live a monastic life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of liberation (moksha) or another form of spiritual perfection. Monastics commit themselves to a simple and celibate life, detached from material pursuits, of meditation and spiritual contemplation. A Hindu monk is called a Sanyāsī, Sādhu, or Swāmi. A female renunciate is called a Sanyāsini. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because of their simple ahimsa - driven lifestyle and dedication to spiritual liberation (moksha) -- believed to be the ultimate goal of life in Hinduism. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, depending on donated food and charity for their needs.
James Mill (1773 -- 1836), in his The History of British India (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations. This periodisation has been criticised for the misconceptions it has given rise to. Another periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods ''. An elaborate periodisation may be as follows:
Hinduism is a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions. Among the roots of Hinduism are the historical Vedic religion of Iron Age India, itself already the product of "a composite of the indo - Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations '', but also the Sramana or renouncer traditions of northeast India, and mesolithic and neolithic cultures of India, such as the religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation, Dravidian traditions, and the local traditions and tribal religions.
This "Hindu synthesis '' emerged after the Vedic period, between 500 - 200 BCE and c. 300 CE, the beginning of the "Epic and Puranic '' c.q. "Preclassical '' period, and incorporated śramaṇic and Buddhist influences and the emerging bhakti tradition into the Brahmanical fold via the Smriti literature. From northern India this "Hindu synthesis '', and its societal divisions, spread to southern India and parts of Southeast Asia.
The earliest prehistoric religion in India that may have left its traces in Hinduism comes from mesolithic as observed in the sites such as the rock paintings of Bhimbetka rock shelters dating to a period of 30,000 BCE or older, as well as neolithic times. Some of the religious practices can be considered to have originated in 4000 BCE. Several tribal religions still exist, though their practices may not resemble those of prehistoric religions.
According to anthropologist Possehl, the Indus Valley Civilization "provides a logical, if somewhat arbitrary, starting point for some aspects of the later Hindu tradition ''. The religion of this period included worship of a Great male god, which is compared to a proto - Shiva, and probably a Mother Goddess, that may prefigure Shakti. However these links of deities and practices of the Indus religion to later - day Hinduism are subject to both political contention and scholarly dispute.
The Vedic period, named after the Vedic religion of the Indo - Aryans, lasted from c. 1500 to 500 BCE. The Indo - Aryans were pastoralists who migrated into north - western India after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization.
During the early Vedic period (c. 1500 -- 1100 BCE) Vedic tribes were pastoralists, wandering around in north - west India. After 1100 BCE the Vedic tribes moved into the western Ganges Plain, adapting an agrarical lifestyle. Rudimentary state - forms appeared, of which the Kuru - Pañcāla union was the most influential. It was a tribal union, which developed into the first recorded state - level society in South Asia around 1000 BCE. This, according to Witzel, decisively changed the Vedic heritage of the early Vedic period, collecting the Vedic hymns into collections, and shifting ritual exchange within a tribe to social exchange within the larger Kuru realm through complicated Srauta rituals. In this period, states Samuel, emerged the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of Vedic texts, which merged into the earliest Upanishads. These texts began to ask the meaning of a ritual, adding increasing levels of philosophical and metaphysical speculation, or "Hindu synthesis ''.
The Indo - Aryans brought with them their language and religion. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto - Indo - European religion, and the Indo - Iranian religion.
The Vedic religion history is unclear and "heavily contested '', states Samuel. In the later Vedic period, it co-existed with local religions, such as the mother goddess worshipping Yaksha cults. The Vedic was itself likely the product of "a composite of the indo - Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations ''. David Gordon White cites three other mainstream scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated '' that Vedic religion is partially derived from the Indus Valley Civilizations. Their religion was further developed when they migrated into the Ganges Plain after c. 1100 BCE and became settled farmers, further syncretising with the native cultures of northern India.
The composition of the Vedic literature began in the 2nd millennium BCE. The oldest of these Vedic texts is the Rigveda, composed between c. 1500 - 1200 BCE, though a wider approximation of c. 1700 -- 1100 BCE has also been given.
The first half of the 1st millennium BCE was a period of great intellectual and social - cultural ferment in ancient India. New ideas developed both in the Vedic tradition in the form of the Upanishads, and outside of the Vedic tradition through the Śramaṇa movements. For example, prior to the birth of the Buddha and the Mahavira, and related Sramana movements, the Brahmanical tradition had questioned the meaning and efficacy of Vedic rituals, then internalized and variously reinterpreted the Vedic fire rituals as ethical concepts such as Truth, Rite, Tranquility or Restraint. The 9th and 8th centuries BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads with such ideas. Other ancient Principal Upanishads were composed in the centuries that followed, forming the foundation of classical Hinduism and the Vedanta (conclusion of the Veda) literature.
Increasing urbanisation of India between 800 and 400 BCE, and possibly the spread of urban diseases, contributed to the rise of ascetic movements and of new ideas which challenged the orthodox Brahmanism. These ideas led to Sramana movements, of which Mahavira (c. 549 -- 477 BCE), proponent of Jainism, and Buddha (c. 563 - 483), founder of Buddhism, were the most prominent icons.
The ascetic tradition of Vedic period in part created the foundational theories of samsara and of moksha (liberation from samsara), which became characteristic for Hinduism, along with Buddhism and Jainism.
These ascetic concepts were adopted by schools of Hinduism as well as other major Indian religions, but key differences between their premises defined their further development. Hinduism, for example, developed its ideas with the premise that every human being has a soul (atman, self), while Buddhism developed with the premise that there is no soul or self.
The chronology of these religious concepts is unclear, and scholars contest which religion affected the other as well as the chronological sequence of the ancient texts. Pratt notes that Oldenberg (1854 -- 1920), Neumann (1865 -- 1915) and Radhakrishnan (1888 -- 1975) believed that the Buddhist canon had been influenced by Upanishads, while la Vallee Poussin thinks the influence was nihil, and "Eliot and several others insist that on some points such as the existence of soul or self the Buddha was directly antithetical to the Upanishads ''.
From about 500 BCE through about 300 CE, the Vedic - Brahmanic synthesis or "Hindu synthesis '' continued. Classical Hindu and Sramanic (particularly Buddhist) ideas spread within Indian subcontinent, as well outside India such as in Central Asia, and the parts of Southeast Asia (coasts of Indonesia and peninsular Thailand).
The "Hindu synthesis '' or "Brahmanical synthesis '' incorporated Sramanic and Buddhist influences into the "Brahmanical fold '' via the Smriti ("remembered '') literature. According to Embree, several other religious traditions had existed side by side with the Vedic religion. These indigenous religions "eventually found a place under the broad mantle of the Vedic religion ''. The Smriti texts of the period between 200 BCE - 100 CE affirmed the authority of the Vedas. The acceptance of the ideas in the Vedas and Upanishads became a central criterium for defining Hinduism, while the heterodox movements rejected those ideas.
The major Sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, which belong to the Smriti, were compiled over a protracted period during the late centuries BCE and the early centuries CE. These are legendary dialogues interspersed with philosophical treatises. The Bhagavad Gita was composed in this period and consolidated diverse philosophies and soteriological ideas.
During this period, the foundational texts of several schools of Hindu philosophy were formally written down, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva - Mimamsa and Vedanta. The Smriti literature of Hinduism, particularly the Sutras, as well as other Hindu texts such as the Arthashastra and Sushruta Samhita were also written or expanded during this period.
Many influential Yoga Upanishads, states Gavin Flood, were composed before the 3rd century CE. Seven Sannyasa Upanishads of Hinduism were composed between the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE and before the 3rd century CE. All these texts describe Hindu renunciation and monastic values, and express strongly Advaita Vedanta tradition ideas. This, state Patrick Olivelle and other scholars, is likely because the monasteries of Advaita tradition of Hinduism had become well established in ancient times. The first version of Natyasastra -- a Hindu text on performance arts that integrates Vedic ideology -- was also completed before the 2nd century CE.
During the Gupta period, the first stone and cave Hindu temples dedicated to Hindu deities were built, some of which have survived into the modern era. Numerous monasteries and universities were also built during the Gupta dynasty era, which supported Vedic and non-Vedic studies, including the famed Nalanda.
The first version of early Puranas, likely composed between 250 and 500 CE, show continuities with the Vedic religion, but also an expanded mythology of Vishnu, Shiva and Devi (goddess). The Puranas were living texts that were revised over time, and Lorenzen suggests these texts may reflect the beginnings of "medieval Hinduism ''.
After the end of the Gupta Empire, power became decentralised in India. The disintegration of central power also led to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry. Rural and devotional movements arose within Hinduism, along with Shaivism, Vaisnavism, Bhakti and Tantra, that competed with each other, as well as with numerous sects of Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhism declined, though many of its ideas, and even the Buddha himself, were absorbed into certain Brahmanical traditions.
Srauta rituals declined in India and were replaced with Buddhist and Hindu initiatory rituals for royal courts. Over time, some Buddhist practices were integrated into Hinduism, monumental Hindu temples were built in South Asia and Southeast Asia, while Vajrayana Buddhism literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Saivism.
The first edition of many Puranas were composed in this period. Examples include Bhagavata Purana and Vishnu Purana with legends of Krishna, while Padma Purana and Kurma Purana expressed reverence for Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti with equal enthusiasm; all of them included topics such as Yoga practice and pilgrimage tour guides to Hindu holy sites. Early colonial era orientalists proposed that the Puranas were religious texts of medieval Hinduism. However, modern era scholars, such as Urs App, Ronald Inden and Ludo Rocher state that this is highly misleading because these texts were continuously revised, exist in numerous very different versions and are too inconsistent to be religious texts.
Bhakti ideas centered around loving devotion to Vishnu and Shiva with songs and music, were pioneered in this period by the Alvars and Nayanars of South India. Major Hinduism scholars of this period included Adi Shankara, Maṇḍana - Miśra, Padmapada and Sureśvara of the Advaita schools; Sabara, Vatsyayana and Samkarasvamin of Nyaya - Vaisesika schools; Mathara and Yuktidipika (author unknown) of Samkhya - Yoga; Bhartrhari, Vasugupta and Abhinavagupta of Kashmir Shaivism, and Ramanuja of Vishishtadvaita school of Hinduism (Sri Vaishnavism).
The Islamic rule period witnessed Hindu - Muslim confrontation and violence, but "violence did not normally characterize the relations of Muslim and Hindu. '' Enslavement of non-Muslims, especially Hindus in India, was part of the Muslim raids and conquests, but after the 14th century slavery become less common, and in 1562 "Akbar abolished the practice of enslaving the families of war captives. '' Akbar recognized Hinduism, protected Hindu temples, and abolished discriminatory Jizya (head taxes) against Hindus, but occasionally, Muslim rulers of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, before and after Akbar, from the 12th century to the 18th century, destroyed Hindu temples and persecuted non-Muslims.
Though Islam came to Indian subcontinent in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders, it started impacting Indian religions after the 10th century, and particularly after the 12th century with the establishment and then expansion of Islamic rule. During this period Buddhism declined rapidly, and a distinct Indo - Islamic culture emerged. Under Akbar an "intriguing blend of Perso - Islamic and Rajput - Hindu traditions became manifest. '' Nevertheless, many orthodox ulamas ("learned Islamic jurists '') opposed the rapprochement of Hinduism and Islam, and the two merely co-existed, although there was more accommodation at the peasantry level of Indian society.
According to Hardy, the Muslim rulers were not concerned with the number of converts, since the stability and continuity of their regime did not depend on the number of Muslims. In general, religious conversion was a gradual process, with some converts attracted to pious Muslim saints, while others converted to Islam to gain tax relief, land grant, marriage partners, social and economic advancement, or freedom from slavery. In border regions such as the Punjab and eastern Bengal, the share of Muslims grew as large as 70 % to 90 % of the population, whereas in the heartland of Muslim rule, the upper Gangetic Plain, the Muslims constituted only 10 to 15 % of the population.
Between the 14th and 18th century, Hinduism was revived in certain provinces of India under two powerful states, viz. Vijayanagar and Maratha. The 14th and 15th century Southern India saw the rise of the Hindu Vijayanagar Empire, which served as a barrier against invasion by the Muslim sultanates of the north, and it fostered the reconstruction of Hindu life and administration. Vidyaranya, also known as Madhava, who was the 12th Jagadguru of the Śringeri Śarada Pītham from 1380 - 6, and a minister in the Vijayanagara Empire, helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, and helped spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara 's Vedanta philosophies. The Hindu Maratha Confederacy rose to power in the 18th century and ended up overthrowing Muslim power in India
Hinduism underwent profound changes, aided in part by teachers such as Ramanuja, Madhva, and Chaitanya. Tantra disappeared in northern India, partly due to Muslim rule, while the Bhakti movement grew, with followers engaging in emotional, passionate and community - oriented devotional worship, participating in saguna or nirguna Brahman ideologies. According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th century, "certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems '' (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy. '' Michaels notes that a historicization emerged which preceded later nationalism, articulating ideas which glorified Hinduism and the past.
With the onset of the British Raj, the colonization of India by the British, there also started a Hindu renaissance in the 19th century, which profoundly changed the understanding of Hinduism in both India and the west. Indology as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by scholars such as Max Müller and John Woodroffe. They brought Vedic, Puranic and Tantric literature and philosophy to Europe and the United States. Western orientalist searched for the "essence '' of the Indian religions, discerning this in the Vedas, and meanwhile creating the notion of "Hinduism '' as a unified body of religious praxis and the popular picture of ' mystical India '. This idea of a Vedic essence was taken over by Hindu reform movements as the Brahmo Samaj, which was supported for a while by the Unitarian Church, together with the ideas of Universalism and Perennialism, the idea that all religions share a common mystic ground. This "Hindu modernism '', with proponents like Vivekananda, Aurobindo and Radhakrishnan, became central in the popular understanding of Hinduism.
Influential 20th - century Hindus were Ramana Maharshi, B.K.S. Iyengar, Paramahansa Yogananda, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Prabhupada (founder of ISKCON), Sri Chinmoy, Swami Rama and others who translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism 's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, raising the profiles of Yoga and Vedanta in the West and attracting followers and attention in India and abroad.
Hindu practices such as Yoga, Ayurvedic health, Tantric sexuality through Neotantra and the Kama Sutra have spread beyond Hindu communities and have been accepted by several non-Hindus:
Hinduism is attracting Western adherents through the affiliated practice of yoga. Yoga centers in the West -- which generally advocate vegetarianism -- attract young, well - educated Westerners who are drawn by yoga 's benefits for the physical and emotional health; there they are introduced to the Hindu philosophical system taught by most yoga teachers, known as Vedanta.
It is estimated that around 30 million Americans and 5 million Europeans regularly practice some form of Hatha Yoga. In Australia, the number of practitioners is about 300,000. In New Zealand the number is also around 300,000.
In the 20th century, Hinduism also gained prominence as a political force and a source for national identity in India. With origins traced back to the establishment of the Hindu Mahasabha in the 1910s, the movement grew with the formulation and development of the Hindutva ideology in the following decades; the establishment of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) in 1925; and the entry, and later success, of RSS offshoots Jana Sangha and Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in electoral politics in post-independence India. Hindu religiosity plays an important role in the nationalist movement.
Hinduism is a major religion in India. Hinduism was followed by around 79.8 % of the country 's population of 1.21 billion (2011 census) (960 million adherents). Other significant populations are found in Nepal (23 million), Bangladesh (15 million) and the Indonesian island of Bali (3.9 million). The majority of the Vietnamese Cham people also follow Hinduism.
Countries with the greatest proportion of Hindus (as of 2008):
Demographically, Hinduism is the world 's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam.
In the modern era, religious conversion from and to Hinduism has been a controversial subject. Some state the concept of missionary conversion, either way, is anathema to the precepts of Hinduism.
Religious conversion to Hinduism has a long history outside India. Merchants and traders of India, particularly from the Indian peninsula, carried their religious ideas, which led to religious conversions to Hinduism in southeast Asia. Within India, archeological and textual evidence such as the 2nd century BCE Heliodorus pillar suggest that Greeks and other foreigners converted to Hinduism. The debate on proselytization and religious conversion between Christianity, Islam and Hinduism is more recent, and started in the 19th century.
Religious leaders of some Hindu reform movements such as the Arya Samaj launched Shuddhi movement to proselytize and reconvert Muslims and Christians back to Hinduism, while those such as the Brahmo Samaj suggested Hinduism to be a non-missionary religion. All these sects of Hinduism have welcomed new members to their group, while other leaders of Hinduism 's diverse schools have stated that given the intensive proselytization activities from missionary Islam and Christianity, this "there is no such thing as proselytism in Hinduism '' view must be re-examined.
The appropriateness of conversion from major religions to Hinduism, and vice versa, has been and remains an actively debated topic in India, and in Indonesia.
Hinduism
Related systems and religions
Subnotes
Introductory
Origins
Texts
Research on Hinduism
Audio on Hinduism
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who plays randall's dad on this is us | This Is Us (TV series) - wikipedia
This Is Us is an American television series created by Dan Fogelman that premiered on NBC on September 20, 2016. The series stars an ensemble cast featuring Milo Ventimiglia, Mandy Moore, Sterling K. Brown, Chrissy Metz, Justin Hartley, Susan Kelechi Watson, Chris Sullivan, Ron Cephas Jones, Jon Huertas, Alexandra Breckenridge, Niles Fitch, Logan Shroyer, Hannah Zeile, Mackenzie Hancsicsak, Parker Bates, Lonnie Chavis, Eris Baker, and Faithe Herman. It is about the family lives and connections of several people who all share the same birthday and the ways in which they are similar and different.
The series has received positive reviews since its premiere, receiving nominations for Best Television Series -- Drama at the 74th Golden Globe Awards and Best Drama Series at the 7th Critics ' Choice Awards, as well as being chosen as a Top Television Program by the American Film Institute. The cast has received accolades, with Mandy Moore and Chrissy Metz receiving Golden Globe nominations for Best Supporting Actress, and Sterling K. Brown receiving a SAG nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series. In 2017, the series received ten Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series with Brown winning for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series.
On September 27, 2016, NBC picked up the series for a full season of 18 episodes. In January 2017, NBC renewed the series for two additional seasons of 18 episodes each. The second season premiered on September 26, 2017.
The series follows siblings Kate, Kevin and Randall as their lives intertwine. Kate and Kevin were originally part of a triplet pregnancy, conceived in the bathroom of Froggy 's, a bar, during Super Bowl XIV. Their due date was October 12, 1980, but they were born six weeks early on August 31; their biological brother was stillborn. Their parents, Jack and Rebecca, having expected to bring home three babies, decide to adopt another newborn: Randall, a black child born the same day and brought to the same hospital after his biological father abandoned him at a fire station.
Episodes weave through the stories of the past and present of the characters, with most scenes taking place in 1980, 1989 -- 1995, and the present day (2016 -- 2017). Flashback scenes take place in Pittsburgh, while current scenes are typically split between Los Angeles, New Jersey, and New York City.
In May 2017, Hulu acquired the SVOD rights to new and past episodes of the series to air exclusively on Hulu, in addition to NBC.com and the NBC app.
The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 89 % approval rating for the first season with an average rating of 7.7 / 10 based on 56 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Featuring full - tilt heartstring - tugging family drama, This Is Us will provide a suitable surrogate for those who have felt a void in their lives since Parenthood went off the air. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 76 out of 100 based on 34 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Season 2 received a 92 % approval rating from Rotten Tomatoes based on 15 reviews.
Entertainment Weekly gave the first few episodes of This Is Us a rating of B, calling it "a refreshing respite from the relational violence and pessimism that marks the other buzz soaps that have bubbled forth from a culture of divisiveness ''. Moreover, they praised all the actors, specifically Sterling K. Brown, for being able to navigate "his scenes with such intelligence, authenticity, and charisma ''.
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how much salt is in a cup of ocean water | Seawater - wikipedia
Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world 's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5 % (35 g / L, 599 mM) This means that every kilogram (roughly one litre by volume) of seawater has approximately 35 grams (1.2 oz) of dissolved salts (predominantly sodium (Na +) and chloride (Cl −) ions). Average density at the surface is 1.025 kg / L. Seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water (density 1.0 kg / L at 4 ° C (39 ° F)) because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases. At typical salinity, it freezes at about − 2 ° C (28 ° F). The coldest seawater ever recorded (in a liquid state) was in 2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier, and measured − 2.6 ° C (27.3 ° F). Seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. However, there is no universally accepted reference pH - scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units.
Although the vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 31 g / kg and 38 g / kg, that is 3.1 - 3.8 %, seawater is not uniformly saline throughout the world. Where mixing occurs with fresh water runoff from river mouths, near melting glaciers or vast amounts of precipitation (e.g. Monsoon), seawater can be substantially less saline. The most saline open sea is the Red Sea, where high rates of evaporation, low precipitation and low river run - off, and confined circulation result in unusually salty water. The salinity in isolated bodies of water can be considerably greater still - about ten times higher in the case of the Dead Sea. Historically, several salinity scales were used to approximate the absolute salinity of seawater. A popular scale was the "Practical Salinity Scale '' where salinity was measured in "practical salinity units (psu) ''. The current standard for salinity is the "Reference Salinity '' scale with the salinity expressed in units of "g / kg ''.
The density of surface seawater ranges from about 1020 to 1029 kg / m, depending on the temperature and salinity. At a temperature of 25 ° C, salinity of 35 g / kg and 1 atm pressure, the density of seawater is 1023.6 kg / m. Deep in the ocean, under high pressure, seawater can reach a density of 1050 kg / m or higher. The density of seawater also changes with salinity. Brines generated by seawater desalination plants can have salinities up to 120 g / kg. The density of typical seawater brine of 120 g / kg salinity at 25 ° C and atmospheric pressure is 1088 kg / m. Seawater pH is limited to the range 7.5 to 8.4. The speed of sound in seawater is about 1,500 m / s (whereas speed of sound is usually around 330 m / s in air at roughly 1000hPa pressure, 1 atmosphere), and varies with water temperature, salinity, and pressure. The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W / mK at 25 ° C and a salinity of 35 g / kg. The thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature.
Seawater contains more dissolved ions than all types of freshwater. However, the ratios of solutes differ dramatically. For instance, although seawater contains about 2.8 times more bicarbonate than river water based on molarity, the percentage of bicarbonate in seawater as a ratio of all dissolved ions is far lower than in river water. Bicarbonate ions also constitute 48 % of river water solutes but only 0.14 % of all seawater ions. Differences like these are due to the varying residence times of seawater solutes; sodium and chloride have very long residence times, while calcium (vital for carbonate formation) tends to precipitate much more quickly. The most abundant dissolved ions in seawater are sodium, chloride, magnesium, sulfate and calcium. Its osmolarity is about 1000 mOsm / l.
Small amounts of other substances are found, including amino acids at concentrations of up to 2 micrograms of nitrogen atoms per liter, which are thought to have played a key role in the origin of life.
Research in 1957 by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography sampled water in both pelagic and neritic locations in the Pacific Ocean. Direct microscopic counts and cultures were used, the direct counts in some cases showing up to 10 000 times that obtained from cultures. These differences were attributed to the occurrence of bacteria in aggregates, selective effects of the culture media, and the presence of inactive cells. A marked reduction in bacterial culture numbers was noted below the thermocline, but not by direct microscopic observation. Large numbers of spirilli - like forms were seen by microscope but not under cultivation. The disparity in numbers obtained by the two methods is well known in this and other fields. In the 1990s, improved techniques of detection and identification of microbes by probing just small snippets of DNA, enabled researchers taking part in the Census of Marine Life to identify thousands of previously unknown microbes usually present only in small numbers. This revealed a far greater diversity than previously suspected, so that a litre of seawater may hold more than 20,000 species. Dr. Mitchell Sogin from the Marine Biological Laboratory feels that "the number of different kinds of bacteria in the oceans could eclipse five to 10 million. ''
Bacteria are found at all depths in the water column, as well as in the sediments, some being aerobic, others anaerobic. Most are free - swimming, but some exist as symbionts within other organisms -- examples of these being bioluminescent bacteria. Cyanobacteria played an important role in the evolution of ocean processes, enabling the development of stromatolites and oxygen in the atmosphere.
Some bacteria interact with diatoms, and form a critical link in the cycling of silicon in the ocean. One anaerobic species, Thiomargarita namibiensis, plays an important part in the breakdown of hydrogen sulphide eruptions from diatomaceous sediments off the Namibian coast, and generated by high rates of phytoplankton growth in the Benguela Current upwelling zone, eventually falling to the seafloor.
Bacteria - like Archaea surprised marine microbiologists by their survival and thriving in extreme environments, such as the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. Alkalotolerant marine bacteria such as Pseudomonas and Vibrio spp. survive in a pH range of 7.3 to 10.6, while some species will grow only at pH 10 to 10.6. Archaea also exist in pelagic waters and may constitute as much as half the ocean 's biomass, clearly playing an important part in oceanic processes. In 2000 sediments from the ocean floor revealed a species of Archaea that breaks down methane, an important greenhouse gas and a major contributor to atmospheric warming. Some bacteria break down the rocks of the sea floor, influencing seawater chemistry. Oil spills, and runoff containing human sewage and chemical pollutants have a marked effect on microbial life in the vicinity, as well as harbouring pathogens and toxins affecting all forms of marine life. The protist dinoflagellates may at certain times undergo population explosions called blooms or red tides, often after human - caused pollution. The process may produce metabolites known as biotoxins, which move along the ocean food chain, tainting higher - order animal consumers.
Pandoravirus salinus, a species of very large virus, with a genome much larger than that of any other virus species, was discovered in 2013. Like the other very large viruses Mimivirus and Megavirus, Pandoravirus infects amoebas, but its genome, containing 1.9 to 2.5 megabases of DNA, is twice as large as that of Megavirus, and it differs greatly from the other large viruses in appearance and in genome structure.
In 2013 researchers from Aberdeen University announced that they were starting a hunt for undiscovered chemicals in organisms that have evolved in deep sea trenches, hoping to find "the next generation '' of antibiotics, anticipating an "antibiotic apocalypse '' with a dearth of new infection - fighting drugs. The EU - funded research will start in the Atacama Trench and then move on to search trenches off New Zealand and Antarctica.
The ocean has a long history of human waste disposal on the assumption that its vast size makes it capable of absorbing and diluting all noxious material. While this may be true on a small scale, the large amounts of sewage routinely dumped has damaged many coastal ecosystems, and rendered them life - threatening. Pathogenic viruses and bacteria occur in such waters, such as Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae the cause of cholera, hepatitis A, hepatitis E and polio, along with protozoans causing giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. These pathogens are routinely present in the ballast water of large vessels, and are widely spread when the ballast is discharged.
Scientific theories behind the origins of sea salt started with Sir Edmond Halley in 1715, who proposed that salt and other minerals were carried into the sea by rivers after rainfall washed it out of the ground. Upon reaching the ocean, these salts concentrated as more salt arrived over time (see Hydrologic cycle). Halley noted that most lakes that do n't have ocean outlets (such as the Dead Sea and the Caspian Sea, see endorheic basin), have high salt content. Halley termed this process "continental weathering ''.
Halley 's theory was partly correct. In addition, sodium leached out of the ocean floor when the ocean formed. The presence of salt 's other dominant ion, chloride, results from outgassing of chloride (as hydrochloric acid) with other gases from Earth 's interior via volcanos and hydrothermal vents. The sodium and chloride ions subsequently became the most abundant constituents of sea salt.
Ocean salinity has been stable for billions of years, most likely as a consequence of a chemical / tectonic system which removes as much salt as is deposited; for instance, sodium and chloride sinks include evaporite deposits, pore - water burial, and reactions with seafloor basalts.
Climate change, rising atmospheric carbon dioxide, excess nutrients, and pollution in many forms are altering global oceanic geochemistry. Rates of change for some aspects greatly exceed those in the historical and recent geological record. Major trends include an increasing acidity, reduced subsurface oxygen in both near - shore and pelagic waters, rising coastal nitrogen levels, and widespread increases in mercury and persistent organic pollutants. Most of these perturbations are tied either directly or indirectly to human fossil fuel combustion, fertilizer, and industrial activity. Concentrations are projected to grow in coming decades, with negative impacts on ocean biota and other marine resources.
One of the most striking features of this is ocean acidification, resulting from increased CO uptake of the oceans related to higher atmospheric concentration of CO and higher temperatures, because it severely affects coral reefs and crustaceans (see coral bleaching).
Accidentally consuming small quantities of clean seawater is not harmful, especially if the seawater is taken along with a larger quantity of fresh water. However, drinking seawater to maintain hydration is counterproductive; more water must be excreted to eliminate the salt (via urine) than the amount of water obtained from the seawater itself.
The renal system actively regulates sodium chloride in the blood within a very narrow range around 9 g / L (0.9 % by weight).
In most open waters concentrations vary somewhat around typical values of about 3.5 %, far higher than the body can tolerate and most beyond what the kidney can process. A point frequently overlooked in claims that the kidney can excrete NaCl in Baltic concentrations of 2 % (in arguments to the contrary) is that the gut can not absorb water at such concentrations, so that there is no benefit in drinking such water. Drinking seawater temporarily increases blood 's NaCl concentration. This signals the kidney to excrete sodium, but seawater 's sodium concentration is above the kidney 's maximum concentrating ability. Eventually the blood 's sodium concentration rises to toxic levels, removing water from cells and interfering with nerve conduction, ultimately producing fatal seizure and cardiac arrhythmia.
Survival manuals consistently advise against drinking seawater. A summary of 163 life raft voyages estimated the risk of death at 39 % for those who drank seawater, compared to 3 % for those who did not. The effect of seawater intake on rats confirmed the negative effects of drinking seawater when dehydrated.
The temptation to drink seawater was greatest for sailors who had expended their supply of fresh water, and were unable to capture enough rainwater for drinking. This frustration was described famously by a line from Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner:
Although humans can not survive on seawater, some people claim that up to two cups a day, mixed with fresh water in a 2: 3 ratio, produces no ill effect. The French physician Alain Bombard survived an ocean crossing in a small Zodiak rubber boat using mainly raw fish meat, which contains about 40 percent water (like most living tissues), as well as small amounts of seawater and other provisions harvested from the ocean. His findings were challenged, but an alternative explanation was not given. In his 1948 book, Kon - Tiki, Thor Heyerdahl reported drinking seawater mixed with fresh in a 2: 3 ratio during the 1947 expedition. A few years later, another adventurer, William Willis, claimed to have drunk two cups of seawater and one cup of fresh per day for 70 days without ill effect when he lost part of his water supply.
During the 18th century, Richard Russell advocated the practice 's medical use in the UK, and René Quinton expanded the advocation of the practice other countries, notably France, in the 20th century. Currently, the practice is widely used in Nicaragua and other countries, supposedly taking advantage of the latest medical discoveries.
Most ocean - going vessels desalinate potable water from seawater using processes such as vacuum distillation or multi-stage flash distillation in an evaporator, or, more recently, reverse osmosis. These energy - intensive processes were not usually available during the Age of Sail. Larger sailing warships with large crews, such as Nelson 's HMS Victory, were fitted with distilling apparatuses in their galleys. Animals such as fish, whales, sea turtles, and seabirds, such as penguins and albatrosses have adapted to living in a high saline habitat. For example, sea turtles and saltwater crocodiles remove excess salt from their bodies through their tear ducts.
ASTM International has an international standard for artificial seawater: ASTM D1141 - 98 (Original Standard ASTM D1141 - 52). It is used in many research testing labs as a reproducible solution for seawater such as tests on corrosion, oil contamination, and detergency evaluation.
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when is the central nervous system fully developed | Development of the nervous system in humans - wikipedia
The study of neural development in humans draws on both neuroscience and developmental biology to describe the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which complex nervous systems emerge during embryonic development and throughout life.
Some landmarks of embryonic neural development include the birth and differentiation of neurons from stem cell precursors, the migration of immature neurons from their birthplaces in the embryo to their final positions, outgrowth of axons from neurons and guidance of the motile growth cone through the embryo towards postsynaptic partners, the generation of synapses between these axons and their postsynaptic partners, the neuron pruning that occurs in adolescence, and finally the lifelong changes in synapses which are thought to underlie learning and memory.
Typically, these neurodevelopmental processes can be broadly divided into two classes: activity - independent mechanisms and activity - dependent mechanisms. Activity - independent mechanisms are generally believed to occur as hardwired processes determined by genetic programs played out within individual neurons. These include differentiation, migration and axon guidance to their initial target areas. These processes are thought of as being independent of neural activity and sensory experience. Once axons reach their target areas, activity - dependent mechanisms come into play. Neural activity and sensory experience will mediate formation of new synapses, as well as synaptic plasticity, which will be responsible for refinement of the nascent neural circuits.
Neurulation is the formation of the neural tube from the ectoderm of the embryo. It follows gastrulation in all vertebrates.
During gastrulation cells migrate to the interior of embryo, forming three germ layers -- the endoderm (the deepest layer), mesoderm and ectoderm (the surface layer) -- from which all tissues and organs will arise. In a simplified way, it can be said that the ectoderm gives rise to skin and nervous system, the endoderm to the guts and the mesoderm to the rest of the organs.
After gastrulation the notochord -- a flexible, rod - shaped body that runs along the back of the embryo -- has been formed from the mesoderm. During the third week of gestation the notochord sends signals to the overlying ectoderm, inducing it to become neuroectoderm. This results in a strip of neuronal stem cells that runs along the back of the embryo. This strip is called the neural plate, and is the origin of the entire nervous system. The neural plate folds outwards to form the neural groove. Beginning in the future neck region, the neural folds of this groove close to create the neural tube (this form of neurulation is called primary neurulation). The ventral (front) part of the neural tube is called the basal plate; the dorsal (rear) part is called the alar plate. The hollow interior is called the neural canal. By the end of the fourth week of gestation, the open ends of the neural tube (the neuropores) close off.
The spinal cord forms from the lower part of the neural tube. The wall of the neural tube consists of neuroepithelial cells, which differentiate into neuroblasts, forming the mantle layer (the gray matter). Nerve fibers emerge from these neuroblasts to form the marginal layer (the white matter).
The ventral part of the mantle layer (the basal plates) forms the motor areas of the spinal cord, whilst the dorsal part (the alar plates) forms the sensory areas. Between the basal and alar plates is an intermediate layer that contains neurons of the autonomic nervous system.
Late in the fourth week, the superior part of the neural tube flexes at the level of the future midbrain -- the mesencephalon. Above the mesencephalon is the prosencephalon (future forebrain) and beneath it is the rhombencephalon (future hindbrain). The optical vesicle (which will eventually become the optic nerve, retina and iris) forms at the basal plate of the prosencephalon.
In the fifth week, the alar plate of the prosencephalon expands to form the cerebral hemispheres (the telencephalon). The basal plate becomes the diencephalon.
The diencephalon, mesencephalon and rhombencephalon constitute the brain stem of the embryo. It continues to flex at the mesencephalon. The rhombencephalon folds posteriorly, which causes its alar plate to flare and form the fourth ventricle of the brain. The pons and the cerebellum form in the upper part of the rhombencephalon, whilst the medulla oblongata forms in the lower part.
About 400 million years ago, iodine, T4 (and PUFAs) stimulated the evolution of the nervous system in amphibians transforming the aquatic, vegetarian tadpole into the terrestrial, carnivorous frog with better neurological abilities for hunting. Contrary, hypothyroidism in mammals causes cretinism and in adults a neurological regression, as a general slowdown of nervous reflexes with lethargic cerebration, metabolism, digestion, heart rate, hypothermia.
Neuronal migration is the method by which neurons travel from their origin or birthplace to their final position in the brain. There are several ways they can do this, e.g. by radial migration or tangential migration.
Neuronal precursor cells proliferate in the ventricular zone of the developing neocortex. The first postmitotic cells to migrate from the preplate which are destined to become Cajal - Retzius cells and subplate neurons. These cells do so by somal translocation. Neurons migrating with this mode of locomotion are bipolar and attach the leading edge of the process to the pia. The soma is then transported to the pial surface by nucleokenisis, a process by which a microtubule "cage '' around the nucleus elongates and contracts in association with the centrosome to guide the nucleus to its final destination. Radial fibres (also known as radial glia) can translocate to the cortical plate and differentiate either into astrocytes or neurons. Somal translocation can occur at any time during development.
Subsequent waves of neurons split the preplate by migrating along radial glial fibres to form the cortical plate. Each wave of migrating cells travel past their predecessors forming layers in an inside - out manner, meaning that the youngest neurons are the closest to the surface. It is estimated that glial guided migration represents 80 - 90 % of migrating neurons.
Many neurons migrating along the anterior - posterior axis of the body use existing axon tracts to migrate along; this is called axophilic migration. An example of this mode of migration is in GnRH - expressing neurons, which make a long journey from their birthplace in the nose, through the forebrain, and into the hypothalamus. Many of the mechanisms of this migration have been worked out, starting with the extracellular guidance cues that trigger intracellular signaling. These intracellular signals, such as calcium signaling, lead to actin and microtubule cytoskeletal dynamics, which produce cellular forces that interact with the extracellular environment through cell adhesion proteins to cause the movement of these cells.
Most interneurons migrate tangentially through multiple modes of migration to reach their appropriate location in the cortex. An example of tangential migration is the movement of Cajal - Retzius cells from the cortical hem to the superfitial part of cortical neuroepithelium.
There is also a method of neuronal migration called multipolar migration. This is seen in multipolar cells, which are abundantly present in the cortical intermediate zone. They do not resemble the cells migrating by locomotion or somal translocation. Instead these multipolar cells express neuronal markers and extend multiple thin processes in various directions independently of the radial glial fibers.
Neurotrophic factors are molecules which promote and regulate neuronal survival in the developing nervous system. They are distinguished from ubiquitous metabolites necessary for cellular maintenance and growth by their specificity; each neurotrophic factor promotes the survival of only certain kinds of neurons during a particular stage of their development. In addition, it had been argued that neurotropihic factors are involved in many other aspects of neuronal development ranging from axonal guidance to regulation of neurotransmitter synthesis.
Contrary to popular belief, neurogenesis also occurs in specific parts of the adult brain.
Neurodevelopment in the adult nervous system includes mechanisms such as remyelination, generation of new neurons, glia, axons, myelin or synapses. Neuroregeneration differs between the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and the central nervous system (CNS) by the functional mechanisms and especially, the extent and speed.
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