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who plays the yoga guy in couples retreat | Carlos Ponce - wikipedia
Carlos Ponce (born September 4, 1972) is a Puerto Rican actor, singer, composer and television personality. Ponce began his acting career by participating in Spanish language soap operas for Televisa and Telemundo. Ponce continued to expand his acting career by participating in various American television series. He did not limit himself solely to a career in television. Ponce, who is also a singer, is also active in the American movie industry as a character actor.
Ponce was born Carlos Ponce Freyre in Santurce, Puerto Rico. His parents, Carlos Ponce, Sr. and Esther Freyre, emigrated from Cuba after the Cuban Revolution led by Fidel Castro. After his birth, the family moved to Humacao, where Ponce was raised. As a child, he actively participated in his school 's plays and at home he would often put on a show for the family where he would sing the latest tunes. "Carlitos '', as he is known in Puerto Rico, started to appear in television commercials at the age of six. He attended high school in Humacao and was a member of the school 's drama club.
In 1986, the Ponce family moved to Miami, Florida and Ponce continued to participate in his school 's productions at South Miami Senior High. He was named the best student actor of the southern region of the United States.
In 1990, Ponce participated in the Southeastern Theatre Conference and competed for the chance to win a scholarship. He won and enrolled in the New World School of the Arts conservatory. However, the Spanish - language television station Univision offered Ponce the opportunity to host a show called Hablando (Talking). This was his first serious television debut and after his debut he gave up his university studies.
After the show came to its end, Ponce went to Mexico to visit a friend. While there he visited the Televisa television station. The talent director of the station met Ponce and offered Ponce his first role in a soap opera: Guadalupe, starring Adela Noriega and Eduardo Yáñez. He participated in another soap opera for Televisa, Sentimientos Ajenos, in which he played the main character. Ponce also sang the theme song for the production. He received the "Actor Revelation of 1997 Award '' by Eres magazine and named "Best Actor '' by TV y Novelas magazine (both are Mexican publications).
In between productions, Ponce returned to Miami and Univision hired him as the host of a new show, Control. He hosted the show for three years and won an "ACE Award ''.
In 2003, Ponce joined Entertainment Tonight as a correspondent. He also hosted An Entertainment Tonight Event -- Celebrity Weddings Unveiled, a CBS primetime special. Ponce hosted the 2006 Miss Universe pageant in Los Angeles, with Shandi Finnessey, Nancy O'Dell and Carson Kressley. In 2007, he starred in the Telemundo NBC Universal telenovela Dame Chocolate (Give Me Chocolate) alongside Génesis Rodríguez and Karla Monroig. Ponce also starred in Perro Amor in 2010 on the same network. In 2012, Ponce began hosting the hit Puerto Rican singing competition for kids on Wapa Television called Idol Kids Puerto Rico. In 2013, Ponce appeared on Telemundo 's Santa Diabla as Humberto Cano.
From 2014 - 2015 Ponce co-starred in the ABC comedy Cristela as Felix, the male lead on the show.
In 1998, Emilio Estefan Jr. and Kike Santander signed Ponce to a record contract. His first album was entitled Carlos Ponce, and included three of his own compositions. The album reached the # 1 spot in the Latin Billboards for nine weeks in the Hispanic community of the United States. It also reached the # 1 spot in Central America and South America. He was Awarded a Double Platinum Award for the sales which his album generated.
On the Billboard Hot Latin Tracks Carlos Ponce reached the number - one spot three times with "Rezo '' (I Pray), "Decir Adiós '' (Say Good - Bye) and "Escúchame '' (Listen to Me).
In 1999, Ponce received many awards, including:
During this period he also made his debut in American television with his participation in the TV series Beverly Hills, 90210 and 7th Heaven where he played the on - screen husband of Jessica Biel 's character Mary Camden. He also made guest appearances in Live with Regis and Kathie Lee and in Donny & Marie.
In 1999, Ponce recorded his second studio album, Todo lo que Soy (Everything that I Am). The World Athletic Games held in Seville, Spain adopted the song "Amelia '' from Ponce 's second album as its official theme. That same year, he was contracted by the Walt Disney Studios to vocalize the song "Bella Notte '' for the animated film, Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp 's Adventure. He also appeared in ABC 's drama series Once and Again.
After the tragedy of the September 11, 2001 attacks, Ponce joined a group of 100 Latin American singers, who united to pay tribute to the victims by recording "Ultimo Adios '' ("Last Good - Bye ''). The proceeds of the recording were donated to families of the victims. That same year Ponce participated in Televisa production, Sin Pecado Concebido, along with Mexican actress, Angélica Rivera. In 2002, he recorded his third studio album, Ponce; later that year he signed a contract with Telemundo to host a reality show called Protagonista de la Musica ", which became one of the most popular Hispanic programs in the U.S. and Puerto Rico.
In 2006, Ponce participated in the controversial recording of the Spanish - language version of the Star - Spangled Banner, called "Nuestro Himno '', alongside Wyclef Jean, Gloria Trevi and Olga Tañón. That same year Ponce also played a role in a Lifetime movie, Break - In. A Suspense Thriller, A nightmare honeymoon for newlyweds vacationing at a remote location in the Caribbean when intruders take them hostage in the middle of the night.
In May 2008, VH1 began a search for America 's "numero uno telenovela star '' and will chronicle the journey to stardom in its newest original series, "¡ Viva Hollywood! ''. The "¡ Viva Hollywood! '' cast of aspiring Latino and Latina telenovela stars will move into the "Casa De Locos '' where they must master the "7 Deadly Sins of Telenovelas '': passion, lust, charisma, drama, fire, seduction and scandal. The "sins '' are disciplines each cast member must learn in order to capture the over-the - top style and flair of a true telenovela star and impress the celebrity judges: the award - winning actress and singer María Conchita Alonso and accomplished actor singer / song - writer Carlos Ponce. International celebrity astrologer and Latino legend, Walter Mercado, will appear in each episode to give the contestants guidance on their journey and alert the cast of their upcoming challenges. Daisy Fuentes, Angélica Vale, Charo, Cristián de la Fuente, Lorena Rojas, María Celeste Arrarás and Perez Hilton have signed on as celebrity guest judges that will assist in determining who gets to stay and who will need to go. Each week contestants up for elimination discover their fate by watching their own over the top telenovela death scenes. Ponce started in the second season of Lipstick Jungle, where he played a character called "Rodrigo ''. He has noted that he selected the program because it could "benefit '' his career.
Ponce married his high school sweetheart, photographer Veronica Rubio (who is the sister of current U.S. Senator Marco Rubio). They resided in Miami, Florida with their four children, Giancarlo (born 1999), Sebastián (born 2001), and twins Savannah and Sienna (born 2002). In 2010, the couple divorced. From 2010 to 2015 he was in a relationship with Colombian actress Ximena Duque.
In 2003, Ponce played himself in the movie Chasing Papi alongside fellow Latinos: Puerto Ricans Roselyn Sánchez, Lisa Vidal, Walter Mercado, Colombian actress Sofía Vergara, and Latin pop singer Jaci Velásquez. After this experience, he left for New Zealand, where he participated in the independent film Meet Me in Miami.
In 2005, Ponce briefly appeared in the movie Deuce Bigalow: European Gigolo. In 2006, Ponce lent his voice to the controversial recording of the Spanish - language version of "the Star - Spangled Banner '', entitled "Nuestro Himno '', alongside Wyclef Jean, Gloria Trevi and Olga Tañón.
He hosted the Miss Universe 2006 pageant in Los Angeles, along with Shandi Finnessey, Nancy O'Dell and Carson Kressley. He also appears in the movie Just My Luck, with Lindsay Lohan, Chris Pine and McFly.
Ponce was cast as Salvadore, a sexy yoga instructor, in the 2009 comedy Couples Retreat.
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how many representatives does alaska have in the house of representatives | United States House of Representatives - Wikipedia
Majority (236)
Minority (193)
Vacant (6)
The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress, the Senate being the upper chamber. Together they comprise the legislature of the United States.
The composition of the House is established by Article One of the United States Constitution. The House is composed of Representatives who sit in congressional districts that are allocated to each of the 50 states on a basis of population as measured by the U.S. Census, with each district entitled to one representative. Since its inception in 1789, all Representatives have been directly elected. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435. As of the 2010 Census, the largest delegation is that of California, with fifty - three representatives. Seven states have the smallest delegation possible, a single representative: Alaska, Delaware, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming.
The House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. In addition to this basic power, the House has certain exclusive powers which include the power to initiate all bills related to revenue, the impeachment of federal officers, who are sent to trial before the Senate, and in cases wherein no candidate receives a majority of electors for President, the duty falls upon the House to elect one of the top three recipients of electors for that office, with one vote given to each state for that purpose.
The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is therefore traditionally the leader of the controlling party. The Speaker and other floor leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conference, depending on whichever party has more voting members. The House meets in the south wing of the United States Capitol.
Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a unicameral body in which each state was equally represented, and in which each state had a veto over most action. After eight years of a more limited confederal government under the Articles, numerous political leaders such as James Madison and Alexander Hamilton initiated the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which received the Confederation Congress 's sanction to "amend the Articles of Confederation ''. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates.
The issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. Edmund Randolph 's Virginia Plan called for a bicameral Congress: the lower house would be "of the people '', elected directly by the people of the United States and representing public opinion, and a more deliberative upper house that would represent the individual states, and would be less susceptible to variations of mass sentiment, would be elected by the lower house.
The House is referred to as the lower house, with the Senate being the upper house, although the United States Constitution does not use that terminology. Both houses ' approval is necessary for the passage of legislation. The Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, which called for a unicameral Congress with equal representation for the states.
Eventually, the Convention reached the Connecticut Compromise or Great Compromise, under which one house of Congress (the House of Representatives) would provide representation proportional to each state 's population, whereas the other (the Senate) would provide equal representation amongst the states. The Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states (nine out of the 13) in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4, 1789. The House began work on April 1, 1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time.
During the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives. However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed.
Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery. One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican -- American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War (1861 -- 1865), which began soon after several southern states attempted to secede from the Union. The war culminated in the South 's defeat and in the abolition of slavery. All southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, and therefore the Senate did not hold the balance of power between North and South during the war.
The years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Union 's victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877; the ensuing era, known as the Gilded Age, was marked by sharp political divisions in the electorate. The Democratic Party and Republican Party each held majorities in the House at various times.
The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw a dramatic increase in the power of the Speaker of the House. The rise of the Speaker 's influence began in the 1890s, during the tenure of Republican Thomas Brackett Reed. "Czar Reed '', as he was nicknamed, attempted to put into effect his view that "The best system is to have one party govern and the other party watch. '' The leadership structure of the House also developed during approximately the same period, with the positions of Majority Leader and Minority Leader being created in 1899. While the Minority Leader was the head of the minority party, the Majority Leader remained subordinate to the Speaker. The Speakership reached its zenith during the term of Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon, from 1903 to 1911. The powers of the Speaker included chairmanship of the influential Rules Committee and the ability to appoint members of other House committees. These powers, however, were curtailed in the "Revolution of 1910 '' because of the efforts of Democrats and dissatisfied Republicans who opposed Cannon 's arguably heavy - handed tactics.
The Democratic Party dominated the House of Representatives during the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933 -- 1945), often winning over two - thirds of the seats. Both Democrats and Republicans were in power at various times during the next decade. The Democratic Party maintained control of the House from 1955 until 1995. In the mid-1970s, there were major reforms of the House, strengthening the power of sub-committees at the expense of committee chairs and allowing party leaders to nominate committee chairs. These actions were taken to undermine the seniority system, and to reduce the ability of a small number of senior members to obstruct legislation they did not favor. There was also a shift from the 1990s to greater control of the legislative program by the majority party; the power of party leaders (especially the Speaker) grew considerably.
The Republicans took control of the House in 1995, under the leadership of Speaker Newt Gingrich. Gingrich attempted to pass a major legislative program, the Contract with America, on which the House Republicans had been elected, and made major reforms of the House, notably reducing the tenure of committee chairs to three two - year terms. Many elements of the Contract did not pass Congress, were vetoed by President Bill Clinton, or were substantially altered in negotiations with Clinton. The Republicans held on to the House until 2006, when the Democrats won control and Nancy Pelosi was subsequently elected by the House as the first female Speaker. The Republicans retook the House in 2011, with the largest shift of power since the 1930s.
Under Article I, Section 2 of the Constitution, seats in the House of Representatives are apportioned among the states by population, as determined by the census conducted every ten years. Each state is entitled to at least one Representative, however small its population.
The only constitutional rule relating to the size of the House states: "The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative. '' Congress regularly increased the size of the House to account for population growth until it fixed the number of voting House members at 435 in 1911. In 1959, upon the admission of Alaska and Hawaii, the number was temporarily increased to 437 (seating one Representative from each of those states without changing existing apportionment), and returned to 435 four years later, after the reapportionment consequent to the 1960 census.
The Constitution does not provide for the representation of the District of Columbia or of territories. The District of Columbia and the territories of Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands are each represented by one non-voting delegate. Puerto Rico elects a Resident Commissioner, but other than having a four - year term, the Resident Commissioner 's role is identical to the delegates from the other territories. The five Delegates and Resident Commissioner may participate in debates; prior to 2011, they were also allowed to vote in committees and the Committee of the Whole when their votes would not be decisive.
States that are entitled to more than one Representative are divided into single - member districts. This has been a federal statutory requirement since 1967. Prior to that law, general ticket representation was used by some states.
States typically redraw district boundaries after each census, though they may do so at other times, such as the 2003 Texas redistricting. Each state determines its own district boundaries, either through legislation or through non-partisan panels. "Malapportionment '' is unconstitutional and districts must be approximately equal in population (see Wesberry v. Sanders). Additionally, Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibits redistricting plans that are intended to, or have the effect of, discriminating against racial or language minority voters. Aside from malapportionment and discrimination against racial or language minorities, federal courts have allowed state legislatures to engage in gerrymandering for the benefit of political parties or incumbents. In a 1984 case, Davis v. Bandemer, the Supreme Court held that gerrymandered districts could be struck down on the basis of the Equal Protection Clause, but the Court did not articulate a standard for when districts are impermissibly gerrymandered. However, the Court overruled Davis in 2004 in Vieth v. Jubelirer, and Court precedent currently holds gerrymandering to be a political question. According to calculations made by Burt Neuborne using criteria set forth by the American Political Science Association, about 40 seats, less than 10 % of the House membership, are chosen through a genuinely contested electoral process, given partisan gerrymandering.
Article I, Section 2 of the Constitution sets three qualifications for representatives. Each representative must: (1) be at least twenty - five years old; (2) have been a citizen of the United States for the past seven years; and (3) be (at the time of the election) an inhabitant of the state he or she represents. Members are not required to live in the districts they represent, but they traditionally do. The age and citizenship qualifications for representatives are less than those for senators. The constitutional requirements of Article I, Section 2 for election to Congress are the maximum requirements that can be imposed on a candidate. Therefore, Article I, Section 5, which permits each House to be the judge of the qualifications of its own members does not permit either House to establish additional qualifications. Likewise a State could not establish additional qualifications.
Disqualification: under the Fourteenth Amendment, a federal or state officer who takes the requisite oath to support the Constitution, but later engages in rebellion or aids the enemies of the United States, is disqualified from becoming a representative. This post -- Civil War provision was intended to prevent those who sided with the Confederacy from serving. However, disqualified individuals may serve if they gain the consent of two - thirds of both houses of Congress.
Elections for representatives are held in every even - numbered year, on Election Day the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. By law, Representatives must be elected from single - member districts. After a census is taken (in a year ending in 0), the year ending in 2 is the first year in which elections for U.S. House districts are based on that census (with the Congress based on those districts starting its term on the following Jan. 3).
In most states, major party candidates for each district are nominated in partisan primary elections, typically held in spring to late summer. In some states, the Republican and Democratic parties choose their respective candidates for each district in their political conventions in spring or early summer, which often use unanimous voice votes to reflect either confidence in the incumbent or the result of bargaining in earlier private discussions. Exceptions can result in so - called floor fight -- convention votes by delegates, with outcomes that can be hard to predict. Especially if a convention is closely divided, a losing candidate may contend further by meeting the conditions for a primary election.
The courts generally do not consider ballot access rules for independent and third party candidates to be additional qualifications for holding office and there are no federal regulations regarding ballot access. As a result, the process to gain ballot access varies greatly from state to state, and in the case of a third party may be affected by results of previous years ' elections.
In 1967, the United States Congress passed the Uniform Congressional District Act, which requires almost all representatives be elected from single - member - districts, Following the Wesberry v. Sanders decision, Congress was motivated by fears that courts would impose at - large plurality districts on states that did not redistrict to comply with the new mandates for districts roughly equal in population, and Congress also sought to prevent attempts by southern states to use such voting systems to dilute the vote of racial minorities. Several states have used multi-member districts in the past, although only two states (Hawaii and New Mexico) used multi-member districts in 1967. Hawaii and New Mexico were made exempt from the Uniform Congressional District Act, and are free to use multi-member districts, although neither state chooses to do so.
Louisiana is unique in that it holds an all - party "primary election '' on the general Election Day with a subsequent runoff election between the top two finishers (regardless of party) if no candidate received a majority in the primary. The states of Washington and California now use a similar (though not identical) system to that used by Louisiana. Seats vacated during a term are filled through special elections, unless the vacancy occurs closer to the next general election date than a pre-established deadline. The term of a member chosen in a special election usually begins the next day, or as soon as the results are certified.
Additionally, Washington D.C. and the five inhabited U.S. territories each elect a non-voting delegate. With the exception of the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, each representative and delegate serves for a two - year term. They have a voice and can introduce bills on the floor, but can not vote there.
Representatives and Delegates serve for two - year terms, while the Resident Commissioner serves for four years. The Constitution permits the House to expel a member with a two - thirds vote. In the history of the United States, only five members have been expelled from the House; in 1861, three were removed for supporting the Confederate states ' secession: John Bullock Clark (D - MO), John William Reid (D - MO) and Henry Cornelius Burnett (D - KY). Michael Myers (D - PA) was expelled after his criminal conviction for accepting bribes in 1980, and James Traficant (D - OH) was expelled in 2002 following his conviction for corruption. The House also has the power to formally censure or reprimand its members; censure or reprimand of a member requires only a simple majority, and does not remove that member from office.
As a check on the regional, popular, and rapidly changing politics of the House, the Senate has several distinct powers. For example, the "advice and consent '' powers (such as the power to approve treaties) are a sole Senate privilege. The House, however, has the exclusive power to initiate bills for raising revenue, to impeach officials, and to choose the President in the event that a presidential candidate fails to get a majority of the Electoral College votes. The Senate and House are further differentiated by term lengths and the number of districts represented: the Senate has longer terms of six years, fewer members (currently one hundred, two for each state), and (in all but seven delegations) larger constituencies per member. The Senate is informally referred to as the "upper '' house, and the House of Representatives as the "lower '' house.
As of December 2014, the annual salary of each Representative is $ 174,000. The Speaker of the House and the Majority and Minority Leaders earn more: $223,500 for the Speaker and $193,400 for their party leaders (the same as Senate leaders). A cost - of - living - adjustment (COLA) increase takes effect annually unless Congress votes to not accept it. Congress sets members ' salaries; however, the Twenty - seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits a change in salary (but not COLA) from taking effect until after the next election of the whole House. Representatives are eligible for retirement benefits after serving for five years. Outside pay is limited to 15 % of congressional pay, and certain types of income involving a fiduciary responsibility or personal endorsement are prohibited.
Representatives use the prefix "The Honorable '' before their names. A member of the House is referred to as a representative, congressman, or congresswoman. While senators are members of Congress, the terms congressman and congresswoman are not generally used by them.
All members of Congress are automatically (without the option of withdrawal) enrolled in the Federal Employees Retirement System, a pension system also used for federal civil servants. They become eligible to receive benefits after five years of service (two and one - half terms in the House). The FERS is composed of three elements:
Members of Congress may retire with full benefits at age 62 after five years of service, at age 50 after twenty years of service, and at any age after twenty - five years of service. They may retire with reduced benefits at ages 55 to 59 after five years of service. Depending on birth year, they may receive a reduced pension after ten years of service if they are between 55 years and 57 years of age.
Members of Congress are permitted to deduct up to $3,000 of living expenses per year incurred while living away from their district or home state.
Prior to 2014, members of Congress and their staff had access to essentially the same health benefits as federal civil servants; they could voluntarily enroll in the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program (FEHBP), an employer - sponsored health insurance program, and were eligible to participate in other programs, such as the Federal Flexible Spending Account Program (FSAFEDS).
However, Section 1312 (d) (3) (D) of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) provided that the only health plans that the federal government can make available to members of Congress and certain congressional staff are those created under the ACA or offered through a health care exchange. The Office of Personnel Management promulgated a final rule to comply with Section 1312 (d) (3) (D). Under the rule, effective January 1, 2014, members and designated staff are no longer able to purchase FEHBP plans as active employees. However, if members enroll in a health plan offered through a Small Business Health Options Program (SHOP) exchange, they remain eligible for an employer contribution toward coverage, and members and designated staff who are eligible for retirement may enroll in a FEHBP plan upon retirement.
The ACA and the final rule do not affect members ' or staffers ' eligibility for Medicare benefits. The ACA and the final rule also do not affect members ' and staffers ' eligibility for other health benefits related to federal employment, so current members and staff are eligible to participate in FSAFEDS (which has three options within the program), the Federal Employees Dental and Vision Insurance Program, and the Federal Long Term Care Insurance Program.
There is an Office of the Attending Physician at the U.S. Capitol, which current members may seek health care from for an annual fee. The attending physician provides routine exams, consultations, and certain diagnostics, and may write prescriptions (although it does not dispense them). The office does not provide vision or dental care.
Current members (but not their dependents, and not former members) may also receive medical and emergency dental care at military treatment facilities. There is no charge for outpatient care if it is provided in the National Capital Region, but members are billed at full reimbursement rates (set by the Department of Defense) for inpatient care. (Outside the National Capital Region, charges are at full reimbursement rates for both inpatient and outpatient care).
House members are eligible for a Member 's Representational Allowance (MRA) to support them in their official and representational duties to their district. The MRA is calculated based on three components: one for personnel, one for official office expenses and one for official or franked mail. The personnel allowance is the same for all members; the office and mail allowances vary based on the members ' district 's distance from Washington, D.C., the cost of office space in the member 's district, and the number of non-business addresses in their district. These three components are used to calculate a single MRA that can fund any expense -- even though each component is calculated individually, the franking allowance can be used to pay for personnel expenses if the member so chooses. In 2011 this allowance averaged $1.4 million per member, and ranged from $1.35 to $1.67 million.
The Personnel allowance was $944,671 per member in 2010. Each member may employ no more than 18 permanent employees. Members ' employees ' salary is capped at $168,411 as of 2009.
Each member - elect and one staffer can be paid for one round trip between their home in their congressional district and Washington, D.C. for organization caucuses.
The party with a majority of seats in the House is known as the majority party. The next - largest party is the minority party. The Speaker, committee chairs, and some other officials are generally from the majority party; they have counterparts (for instance, the "ranking members '' of committees) in the minority party.
The Constitution provides that the House may choose its own Speaker. Although not explicitly required by the Constitution, every Speaker has been a member of the House. The Constitution does not specify the duties and powers of the Speaker, which are instead regulated by the rules and customs of the House. Speakers have a role both as a leader of the House and the leader of their party (which need not be the majority party; theoretically, a member of the minority party could be elected as Speaker with the support of a fraction of members of the majority party). Under the Presidential Succession Act (1947), the Speaker is second in the line of presidential succession behind the Vice President.
The Speaker is the presiding officer of the House but does not preside over every debate. Instead, s / he delegates the responsibility of presiding to other members in most cases. The presiding officer sits in a chair in the front of the House chamber. The powers of the presiding officer are extensive; one important power is that of controlling the order in which members of the House speak. No member may make a speech or a motion unless s / he has first been recognized by the presiding officer. Moreover, the presiding officer may rule on a "point of order '' (a member 's objection that a rule has been breached); the decision is subject to appeal to the whole House.
Speakers serve as chairs of their party 's steering committee, which is responsible for assigning party members to other House committees. The Speaker chooses the chairmen of standing committees, appoints most of the members of the Rules Committee, appoints all members of conference committees, and determines which committees consider bills.
Each party elects a floor leader, who is known as the Majority Leader or Minority Leader. The Minority Leader heads their party in the House, and the Majority Leader is their party 's second - highest - ranking official, behind the Speaker. Party leaders decide what legislation members of their party should either support or oppose.
Each party also elects a Whip, who works to ensure that the party 's members vote as the party leadership desires. The current majority whip in the House of Representatives is Steve Scalise, who is a member of the Republican Party. The current minority whip is Steny Hoyer, who is a member of the Democratic Party. The whip is supported by chief deputy whips.
In the 112th Congress, the Democratic Party has an additional Assistant Minority Leader, Jim Clyburn, who ranks between the whips and the caucus / conference chair.
After the whips, the next ranking official in the House party 's leadership is the Party Conference Chair (styled as the Republican Conference Chair and Democratic Caucus Chair).
After the Conference Chair, there are differences between each party 's subsequent leadership ranks. After the Democratic Caucus Chair is the Campaign Committee Chair (Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee), then the co-chairs of the Steering Committee. For the Republicans it is the Chair of the House Republican Policy Committee, followed by the Campaign Committee Chairman (styled as the National Republican Congressional Committee).
The chairs of House committees, particularly influential standing committees such as Appropriations, Ways and Means, and Rules, are powerful but not officially part of House leadership hierarchy. Until the post of Majority Leader was created, the Chair of Ways and Means was the de facto majority leader.
When the Presidency and Senate are controlled by a different party from the one controlling the House, the Speaker can become the de facto "leader of the opposition ''. Some notable examples include Tip O'Neill in the 1980s, Newt Gingrich in the 1990s, and John Boehner in the 2010s. Since the Speaker is a partisan officer with substantial power to control the business of the House, the position is often used for partisan advantage.
In the instance when the Presidency and both Houses of Congress are controlled by one party, the Speaker normally takes a low profile and defers to the President. For that situation the House Minority Leader can play the role of a de facto "leader of the opposition '', often more so than the Senate Minority Leader, due to the more partisan nature of the House and the greater role of leadership.
The House is also served by several officials who are not members. The House 's chief such officer is the Clerk, who maintains public records, prepares documents, and oversees junior officials, including pages, until the discontinuation of the House pages in 2011. The Clerk also presides over the House at the beginning of each new Congress pending the election of a Speaker. Another officer is the Chief Administrative Officer, responsible for the day - to - day administrative support to the House of Representatives. This includes everything from payroll to foodservice.
The position of Chief Administrative Officer (CAO) was created by the 104th Congress following the 1994 mid-term elections, replacing the positions of Doorkeeper and Director of Non-Legislative and Financial Services (created by the previous congress to administer the non-partisan functions of the House). The CAO also assumed some of the responsibilities of the House Information Services, which previously had been controlled directly by the Committee on House Administration, then headed by Representative Charlie Rose of North Carolina, along with the House "Folding Room ''.
The Chaplain leads the House in prayer at the opening of the day. There is also a Sergeant at Arms, who as the House 's chief law enforcement officer maintains order and security on House premises. Finally, routine police work is handled by the United States Capitol Police, which is supervised by the Capitol Police Board, a body to which the Sergeant at Arms belongs, and chairs in even - numbered years.
Like the Senate, the House of Representatives meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. At one end of the chamber of the House is a rostrum from which the Speaker, Speaker Pro Tempore, or (when in the Committee of the Whole) the Chair presides. The lower tier of the rostrum is used by clerks and other officials. Members ' seats are arranged in the chamber in a semicircular pattern facing the rostrum and are divided by a wide central aisle. By tradition, Democrats sit on the left of the center aisle, while Republicans sit on the right, facing the presiding officer 's chair. Sittings are normally held on weekdays; meetings on Saturdays and Sundays are rare. Sittings of the House are generally open to the public; visitors must obtain a House Gallery pass from a congressional office. Sittings are broadcast live on television and have been streamed live on C - SPAN since March 19, 1979, and on HouseLive, the official streaming service operated by the Clerk, since the early 2010s.
The procedure of the House depends not only on the rules, but also on a variety of customs, precedents, and traditions. In many cases, the House waives some of its stricter rules (including time limits on debates) by unanimous consent. A member may block a unanimous consent agreement; in practice, objections are rare. The presiding officer, the Speaker of the House enforces the rules of the House, and may warn members who deviate from them. The Speaker uses a gavel to maintain order. The box in which legislation is placed to be considered by the House is called the hopper.
In one of its first resolutions, the U.S. House of Representatives established the Office of the Sergeant at Arms. In an American tradition adopted from English custom in 1789 by the first Speaker of the House, Frederick Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania, the Mace of the United States House of Representatives is used to open all sessions of the House. It is also used during the inaugural ceremonies for all Presidents of the United States. For daily sessions of the House, the sergeant at Arms carries the mace in front of the Speaker in procession to the rostrum. It is placed on a green marble pedestal to the Speaker 's right. When the House is in committee, the mace is moved to a pedestal next to the desk of the Sergeant at Arms.
The Constitution provides that a majority of the House constitutes a quorum to do business. Under the rules and customs of the House, a quorum is always assumed present unless a quorum call explicitly demonstrates otherwise. House rules prevent a member from making a point of order that a quorum is not present unless a question is being voted on. The presiding officer does not accept a point of order of no quorum during general debate, or when a question is not before the House.
During debates, a member may speak only if called upon by the presiding officer. The presiding officer decides which members to recognize, and can therefore control the course of debate. All speeches must be addressed to the presiding officer, using the words "Mr. Speaker '' or "Madam Speaker ''. Only the presiding officer may be directly addressed in speeches; other members must be referred to in the third person. In most cases, members do not refer to each other only by name, but also by state, using forms such as "the gentleman from Virginia '', "the distinguished gentlewoman from California '', or "my distinguished friend from Alabama ''.
There are 448 permanent seats on the House Floor and four tables, two on each side. These tables are occupied by members of the committee that have brought a bill to the floor for consideration and by the respective party leadership. Members address the House from microphones at any table or "the well, '' the area immediately in front of the rostrum.
Per the constitution, the House determines the rules according to which it passes legislation. The rules are in principle open to change with each new Congress, but in practice each new session amends a standing set of rules built up over the history of the body in an early resolution published for public inspection. Before legislation reaches the floor of the House, the Rules Committee normally passes a rule to govern debate on that measure (which then must be passed by the full House before it becomes effective). For instance, the committee determines if amendments to the bill are permitted. An "open rule '' permits all germane amendments, but a "closed rule '' restricts or even prohibits amendment. Debate on a bill is generally restricted to one hour, equally divided between the majority and minority parties. Each side is led during the debate by a "floor manager '', who allocates debate time to members who wish to speak. On contentious matters, many members may wish to speak; thus, a member may receive as little as one minute, or even thirty seconds, to make his / her point.
When debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote. In many cases, the House votes by voice vote; the presiding officer puts the question, and members respond either "yea '' or "aye '' (in favor of the motion) or "nay '' or "no '' (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote. A member may however challenge the presiding officer 's assessment and "request the yeas and nays '' or "request a recorded vote ''. The request may be granted only if it is seconded by one - fifth of the members present. In practice, however, members of congress second requests for recorded votes as a matter of courtesy. Some votes are always recorded, such as those on the annual budget.
A recorded vote may be taken in one of three different ways. One is electronically. Members use a personal identification card to record their votes at 46 voting stations in the chamber. Votes are usually held in this way. A second mode of recorded vote is by teller. Members hand in colored cards to indicate their votes: green for "yea '', red for "nay '', and orange for "present '' (i.e., to abstain). Teller votes are normally held only when electronic voting breaks down. Finally, the House may conduct a roll call vote. The Clerk reads the list of members of the House, each of whom announces their vote when their name is called. This procedure is only used rarely (such as for the election of a Speaker) because of the time consumed by calling over four hundred names.
Voting traditionally lasts for, at most, fifteen minutes, but it may be extended if the leadership needs to "whip '' more members into alignment. The 2003 vote on the prescription drug benefit was open for three hours, from 3: 00 to 6: 00 a.m., to receive four additional votes, three of which were necessary to pass the legislation. The 2005 vote on the Central American Free Trade Agreement was open for one hour, from 11: 00 p.m. to midnight. An October 2005 vote on facilitating refinery construction was kept open for forty minutes.
Presiding officers may vote like other members. They may not, however, vote twice in the event of a tie; rather, a tie vote defeats the motion.
The House uses committees and their subcommittees for a variety of purposes, including the review of bills and the oversight of the executive branch. The appointment of committee members is formally made by the whole House, but the choice of members is actually made by the political parties. Generally, each party honors the preferences of individual members, giving priority on the basis of seniority. Historically, membership on committees has been in rough proportion to the party 's strength in the House as a whole, with two exceptions: on the Rules Committee, the majority party fills nine of the thirteen seats; and on the Ethics Committee, each party has an equal number of seats. However, when party control in the House is closely divided, extra seats on committees are sometimes allocated to the majority party. In the 109th Congress, for example, the Republicans controlled about 53 % of the House as a whole, but had 54 % of the Appropriations Committee members, 55 % of the members on the Energy and Commerce Committee, 58 % of the members on the Judiciary Committee, and 69 % of the members on the Rules Committee.
The largest committee of the House is the Committee of the Whole, which, as its name suggests, consists of all members of the House. The Committee meets in the House chamber; it may consider and amend bills, but may not grant them final passage. Generally, the debate procedures of the Committee of the Whole are more flexible than those of the House itself. One advantage of the Committee of the Whole is its ability to include otherwise non-voting members of Congress.
Most committee work is performed by twenty standing committees, each of which has jurisdiction over a specific set of issues, such as Agriculture or Foreign Affairs. Each standing committee considers, amends, and reports bills that fall under its jurisdiction. Committees have extensive powers with regard to bills; they may block legislation from reaching the floor of the House. Standing committees also oversee the departments and agencies of the executive branch. In discharging their duties, standing committees have the power to hold hearings and to subpoena witnesses and evidence.
The House also has one permanent committee that is not a standing committee, the Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, and from time to time may establish committees that are temporary and advisory in nature, such as the Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming. This latter committee, created in the 110th Congress and reauthorized for the 111th, has no jurisdiction over legislation and must be chartered anew at the start of every Congress. The House also appoints members to serve on joint committees, which include members of the Senate and House. Some joint committees oversee independent government bodies; for instance, the Joint Committee on the Library oversees the Library of Congress. Other joint committees serve to make advisory reports; for example, there exists a Joint Committee on Taxation. Bills and nominees are not referred to joint committees. Hence, the power of joint committees is considerably lower than those of standing committees.
Each House committee and subcommittee is led by a chairman (always a member of the majority party). From 1910 to the 1970s, committee chairs were powerful. Woodrow Wilson in his classic study, suggested:
Power is nowhere concentrated; it is rather deliberately and of set policy scattered amongst many small chiefs. It is divided up, as it were, into forty - seven seigniories, in each of which a Standing Committee is the court - baron and its chairman lord - proprietor. These petty barons, some of them not a little powerful, but none of them within the reach of the full powers of rule, may at will exercise almost despotic sway within their own shires, and may sometimes threaten to convulse even the realm itself.
From 1910 to 1975 committee and subcommittee chairmanship was determined purely by seniority; congressmembers sometimes had to wait 30 years to get one, but their chairship was independent of party leadership. The rules were changed in 1975 to permit party caucuses to elect chairmen, shifting power upward to the party leaders. In 1995, Republicans under Newt Gingrich set a limit of three two - year terms for committee chairs. The chairman 's powers are extensive; he controls the committee / subcommittee agenda, and may prevent the committee from dealing with a bill. The senior member of the minority party is known as the Ranking Member. In some committees like Appropriations, partisan disputes are few.
Most bills may be introduced in either House of Congress. However, the Constitution states, "All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ''. As a result of the Origination Clause, the Senate can not initiate bills imposing taxes. This provision barring the Senate from introducing revenue bills is based on the practice of the British Parliament, in which only the House of Commons may originate such measures. Furthermore, congressional tradition holds that the House of Representatives originates appropriation bills.
Although it can not originate revenue bills, the Senate retains the power to amend or reject them. Woodrow Wilson wrote the following about appropriations bills:
(T) he constitutional prerogative of the House has been held to apply to all the general appropriations bills, and the Senate 's right to amend these has been allowed the widest possible scope. The upper house may add to them what it pleases; may go altogether outside of their original provisions and tack to them entirely new features of legislation, altering not only the amounts but even the objects of expenditure, and making out of the materials sent them by the popular chamber measures of an almost totally new character.
The approval of the Senate and the House of Representatives is required for a bill to become law. Both Houses must pass the same version of the bill; if there are differences, they may be resolved by a conference committee, which includes members of both bodies. For the stages through which bills pass in the Senate, see Act of Congress.
The President may veto a bill passed by the House and Senate. If he does, the bill does not become law unless each House, by a two - thirds vote, votes to override the veto.
The Constitution provides that the Senate 's "advice and consent '' is necessary for the President to make appointments and to ratify treaties. Thus, with its potential to frustrate Presidential appointments, the Senate is more powerful than the House.
The Constitution empowers the House of Representatives to impeach federal officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors '' and empowers the Senate to try such impeachments. The House may approve "articles of impeachment '' by a simple majority vote; however, a two - thirds vote is required for conviction in the Senate. A convicted official is automatically removed from office and may be disqualified from holding future office under the United States. No further punishment is permitted during the impeachment proceedings; however, the party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law.
In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. (Another, Richard Nixon, resigned after the House Judiciary Committee passed articles of impeachment but before a formal impeachment vote by the full House.) Only two Presidents of the United States have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998. Both trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson 's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two - thirds majority required for conviction.
Under the Twelfth Amendment, the House has the power to elect the President if no presidential candidate receives a majority of votes in the Electoral College. The Twelfth Amendment requires the House to choose from the three candidates with the highest numbers of electoral votes. The Constitution provides that "the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote. '' It is rare for no presidential candidate to receive a majority of electoral votes. In the history of the United States, the House has only had to choose a President twice. In 1800, which was before the adoption of the Twelfth Amendment, it elected Thomas Jefferson over Aaron Burr. In 1824, it elected John Quincy Adams over Andrew Jackson and William H. Crawford. (If no vice-presidential candidate receives a majority of the electoral votes, the Senate elects the Vice President from the two candidates with the highest numbers of electoral votes.)
Coordinates: 38 ° 53 ′ 20 '' N 77 ° 0 ′ 32 '' W / 38.88889 ° N 77.00889 ° W / 38.88889; - 77.00889
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why did soldiers need to make their own bullets | Tracer ammunition - wikipedia
Tracer ammunition (tracers) are bullets or cannon caliber projectiles that are built with a small pyrotechnic charge in their base. Ignited by the burning powder, the pyrotechnic composition burns very brightly, making the projectile trajectory visible to the naked eye during daylight, and very bright during nighttime firing. This enables the shooter to make aiming corrections without observing the impact of the rounds fired and without using the sights of the weapon. Tracer fire can also be used to signal to other shooters where to concentrate their fire during battle.
When used, tracers are usually loaded as every fifth round in machine gun belts, referred to as four - to - one tracer. Platoon and squad leaders will load some tracer rounds in their magazine or even use solely tracers to mark targets for their soldiers to fire on. Tracers are also sometimes placed two or three rounds from the bottom of magazines to alert the shooter that his weapon is almost empty. During World War II, aircraft with fixed machine guns or cannons mounted would sometimes have a series of tracer rounds added near the end of the ammunition belts, to alert the pilot that he was almost out of ammunition. Unfortunately, this practice would similarly alert an astute enemy that his foe was nearly out of ammunition. More often, however, the entire magazine was loaded four - to - one, on both fixed offensive and flexible defensive guns, to help mitigate the difficulties of aerial gunnery. Tracers were very common on most WWII aircraft, with the exception of night fighters, which needed to be able to attack and shoot down the enemy before they realized they were under attack, and without betraying its own location to the enemy defensive gunners. The United States relied heavily on tracer ammunition for the defensive Browning M2. 50 caliber machine guns on its heavy bombers such as the B - 24 Liberator, but they found that during deflection shooting, gunners who tried to aim using the tracers rather than the sights ended up not "leading '' the enemy aircraft enough and missing, because of an optical illusion that made it appear that the tracers were striking the aircraft, when in reality they were passing significantly behind it. This proved true of fixed forward firing guns as well. In some cases, gunners were ordered not to use tracer ammunition at all, but in the end, with greater emphasis during training on using the sights and not trusting the tracers, the problem was solved to a large degree.
Tracer rounds can also have a mild incendiary effect, and can ignite flammable substances on contact, provided the tracer compound has started burning and is still burning on impact.
Before the development of tracers, gunners relied on seeing their bullet impacts to adjust their aim. However, these were not always visible, especially as the effective range of ammunition increased dramatically during the later half of the 19th century, meaning the bullets could impact a mile or more away in long range area fire. In the early 20th century, ammunition designers developed "spotlight '' bullets, which would create a flash or smoke puff on impact to increase their visibility. However, these projectiles were deemed in violation of the Hague Conventions ' prohibition of "exploding bullets. '' This strategy was also useless when firing at aircraft, as there was nothing for the projectiles to impact on if they missed the target. Designers also developed bullets that would trail white smoke. However, these designs required an excessive amount of mass loss to generate a satisfactory trail. The loss of mass en route to the target severely affected the bullet 's ballistics.
The United Kingdom was the first to develop and introduce a tracer round, a version of the. 303 cartridge in 1915. The United States introduced a. 30 - 06 tracer in 1917. Prior to adopting red (and later, other color) bullet tips for tracers, American tracers were identified by blackened cartridge cases.
Tracers proved useful as a countermeasure against Zeppelins used by Germany during World War I. The airships were used for reconnaissance, surveillance and bombing operations. Normal bullets merely had the effect of causing a slow leak, but tracers could ignite the hydrogen gasbags, and bring down the airship quickly.
In World War II US naval and marine aircrew were issued tracer rounds with their side arms for emergency signaling use as well as defense.
A tracer projectile is constructed with a hollow base filled with a pyrotechnic flare material, made of a mixture of a very finely ground metallic fuel, oxidizer, and a small amount of organic fuel. Metallic fuels include magnesium, aluminum, and occasionally zirconium. The oxidizer is a salt molecule which contains oxygen combined with a specific atom responsible for the desired color output. Upon ignition, the heated salt releases its oxygen to sustain combustion of the fuel in the mixture. The color - emitting atom in the salt is also released and reacts chemically with excess oxygen providing the source of the colored flame. In NATO standard ammunition (including US), the oxidizer salt is usually a mixture of strontium compounds (nitrate, peroxide, etc.) and the metallic fuel is magnesium. Burning strontium yields a bright red light. Russian and Chinese tracer ammunition generates green light using barium salts. An oxidizer and metallic fuel alone, however, do not make a practical pyrotechnic for the purposes of producing colored light. The reaction is too energetic, consuming all materials in one big flash of white light -- white light being the characteristic output of magnesium - oxide (MgO), for example. Therefore, in the case of using strontium nitrate and magnesium, to produce a red colored flame that is not over-powered by the white light from the burning fuel, a chlorine donor is provided in the pyrotechnic mixture, so that strontium chloride can also form in the flame, cooling it so that the white light of MgO is greatly reduced. Cooling the flame in this manner also lengthens the reaction rate so that the mixture has an appreciable burn time. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a typical organic fuel in colored light for this purpose. Some modern designs use compositions that produce little to no visible light and radiate mainly in infrared, being visible only on night vision equipment.
There are three types of tracers: bright tracer, subdued tracer and dim tracer. Bright tracers are the standard type, which start burning very shortly after exiting the muzzle. A disadvantage of bright tracers is that they give away the shooter 's location to the enemy; as a military adage puts it, "tracers work both ways ''. Bright tracers can also overwhelm night - vision devices, rendering them useless. Subdued tracers burn at full brightness after a hundred or more yards to avoid giving away the gunner 's position. Dim tracers burn very dimly but are clearly visible through night - vision equipment.
The M196 tracer cartridge (54 - grain bullet) 5.56 mmx45mm NATO was developed for the original M16 rifle and is compatible with the M16A1 barrel also using 1: 12 rifling twist. It has a red tip and is designed to trace out to 500 yards, and trajectory match the M193 (56 - grain) ball cartridge, which has no tip color. Trajectory match, or ballistic match, is achieved between two bullets of slightly different weight and aerodynamic characteristics by adjusting the cartridge propellant weight, propellant type, and muzzle velocity, to remain within safe pressure limits, yet provide each bullet with a trajectory to the target that is nearly identical over all atmospheric conditions and target engagement ranges, while using the same gunsight aimpoint. Trajectory match is not intended to be perfect, an engineering impossibility under the closest of similarities between the two bullets, that is further complicated in the case of the tracer losing mass and changing its drag properties as it flies. The intent is that the tracer matches the ball round well enough for the purposes of machinegun fire.
The M856 tracer cartridge (63.7 - grain bullet) is used in the M16A2 / 3 / 4, M4 - series, and M249 weapons (among other 5.56 mm NATO weapons). This round is designed to trace out to 875 yards and has an orange tip color, and is trajectory matched to the M855 (62 - grain, green tip) ball cartridge. The M856 tracer should not be used in the M16A1 except under emergency conditions and only in relatively warm weather, because the M16A1 's slower 1: 12 rifling twist is not sufficient to properly stabilize this projectile at colder combat service temperatures (freezing down to -- 40 degrees), when the air density is much greater, disrupting the gyroscopic stability of the bullet. The M16A2 and newer models have a rifling twist of 1 in 7 '' necessary to stabilize the M856 tracer round under all temperature conditions. (The M196, however, does function safely in all 1: 7 twist barrels, as well as those with 1: 12 twist.)
The M25 is an orange - tipped. 30 - 06 Springfield tracer cartridge consisting of a 145 gr bullet with 50 grains of IMR 4895 powder. The tracer compound contains composition R 321 which is 16 % polyvinyl chloride, 26 % magnesium powder, 52 % strontium nitrate.
The M62 is an orange - tipped 7.62 × 51mm NATO tracer consisting of a 142 gr bullet with 46 grains of WC 846 powder. The tracer compound contains composition R 284 which is 17 % polyvinyl chloride, 28 % magnesium powder, and 55 % strontium nitrate. (This is the same composition used on the M196.)
The M276 is a violet - tipped 7.62 × 51mm NATO dim tracer that uses composition R 440, which is barium peroxide, strontium peroxide, calcium resinate for example calcium abietate, and magnesium carbonate.
Tracer compositions can also emit primarily in infrared, for use with night - vision devices. An example composition is boron, potassium perchlorate, sodium salicylate, iron carbonate or magnesium carbonate (as combustion retardant), and binder. Many variants exist.
Tracers can also serve to direct fire at a given target, because it is visible to other combatants. The disadvantage is that they betray the gunner 's position; the tracer path leads back to its source. To make it more difficult for an enemy to do this, most modern tracers have a delay element, which results in the trace becoming visible some distance from the muzzle. Depending on the target, tracer bullet lethality may be similar to standard ball ammunition. The forward portion of a tracer bullet contains a substantial slug of lead filler, nearly as much as the non-tracer ball round that it trajectory matches. In the case of the M196 / M193 bullet set, the lethality differences are probably negligible for this reason. However, with the M856 / M855 bullet set, the M855 ball round contains a steel penetrator tip that is not present in the M856 tracer bullet. As a result, different lethality effects can be expected against various targets. Nevertheless, under some circumstances, a slight degradation in lethality can often be made up for by the psychological and suppressive - fire effects tracer bullets can have on an enemy who is receiving them.
Besides guiding the shooter 's direction of fire, tracer rounds can also be loaded at the end of a magazine to alert the shooter that the magazine is almost empty. This is particularly useful in weapons that do not lock the bolt back when empty (such as the AK - 47). During World War II, the Soviet Air Force also used this practice for aircraft machine guns. One disadvantage in this practice is that the enemy is alerted that the pilot or shooter is low on ammunition and possibly vulnerable. For ground forces, this generally offers no tactical advantage to the enemy, since a soldier with a crew - served weapon such as a machine gun who is out of ammunition is supposed to alert his team that he is "dry '' and rely on their cover fire while he reloads the machine gun. Thus, an enemy must risk exposing himself in order to attack the reloading soldier. Modern jet fighters primarily rely on radar and infrared seeker missiles to track and destroy enemy planes and laser - guided missiles to attack surface targets, rather than the plane 's cannon, which may be just an ancillary weapon for air - to - air combat; although in the ground attack role, cannon fire may be emphasized. However, modern fighter aircraft use gyroscopes and inertial sensors coupled with radar and optical computing gunsights that make the use of tracers in cannon ammunition unnecessary. As long as the pilot can put the "pipper '' (aiming point) in the HUD (head - up - display) onto the target, he can be assured that the burst will be on target, since the computers automatically compute range, closing rate, deflection, lateral accelerations, even weather conditions to calculate target lead and aimpoint. Thus one of the primary reasons for using tracers on aircraft in the first place, uncertainty over where the bullets will end up in relation to the target, is removed. Another use for the tracer is in tank hull machineguns, of mostly out - dated tanks, where the machinegun operator can not sight directly along the barrel, thus he has to rely on tracer bullets to guide his aim. Modern main battle tanks and armored fighting vehicles, however, employ advanced fire control systems that can accurately aim secondary weapons along with the main armament; although the continued use of tracers provides reassurance to gunners on the direction of machinegun fire.
In the UK, use of tracer rounds is restricted on National Rifle Association of the United Kingdom - operated ranges, due to an increased risk of fire. Unauthorized use is punished at the discretion of the acting range officer. Use of tracers is usually only authorized during military training.
In July 2009, a large fire was started by tracer ammunition near Marseille, France, an area where shrub vegetation is very dry and flammable in the summer, and where normally this kind of ammunition should not be used.
On February 24, 2013, a fire was started at DFW Gun Club in Dallas, TX by the use of a tracer round inside the facility.
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when do amy and rory leave doctor who | Amy Pond - wikipedia
Amelia Pond, commonly known as Amy Pond, is a fictional character portrayed by Karen Gillan in the long - running British science fiction television series Doctor Who. Amy is a companion of the series protagonist the Doctor, in his eleventh incarnation, played by Matt Smith. She appears in the programme from the fifth series (2010) to midway through the seventh series (2012).
The Doctor first meets Amelia when she is seven years old (Caitlin Blackwood) and disturbed by a crack in her wall (that is actually one of several cracks in the universe). He promises to return to the lonely girl in five minutes and take her with him in the TARDIS (his time and space machine), but accidentally arrives twelve years later, by which time Amy has become sceptical about her "imaginary friend ''. However, she eventually decides to travel with him, and the duo are later joined by her fiancé Rory Williams (Arthur Darvill). Amy and Rory marry at the end of the fifth series. In the sixth series, Amy gives birth to their daughter, Melody Pond, who is revealed to be recurring character (since the fourth series) River Song (Alex Kingston).
Amelia Pond is introduced in the first episode of the fifth series (2010), "The Eleventh Hour '', as a seven - year - old girl living with only her aunt when the Doctor (Matt Smith) crashes into her front yard one night. She asks him to investigate an unusual crack in her wall, but he is interrupted by an alert from his time machine, the TARDIS. He promises Amelia that he will return in five minutes, but is inadvertently late by twelve years. In the intervening period, Amelia 's family and friends believe the Doctor is just her imaginary friend; her insistence that he is real leads to her being treated by psychiatrists. When the Doctor returns, Amy is nineteen years old and working as a kissogram. She helps him save Earth from the galactic police force the Atraxi, and when he returns two years later she begins travelling with him as his companion. At the end of "Flesh and Stone '', Amy reveals that they had left Earth on the eve of her marriage to Rory Williams (Arthur Darvill) and attempts to seduce the Doctor. The Doctor finds Rory and takes him and Amy to 16th century Venice on an intended romantic date after which Rory continues travelling with them. In "Amy 's Choice '', Amy is pressured to resolve her conflicted feelings for the Doctor and Rory and realises the depth of her love for Rory. At the end of "Cold Blood '', Rory is killed by a Silurian, then is erased from history by the cracks in the universe. Because he is part of Amy 's own time - line, she ceases to remember him. The Doctor takes Amy to 19th century France to lessen his guilt about Rory 's loss and she forms a close friendship with famed painter Vincent van Gogh (Tony Curran).
In the fifth series finale, "The Pandorica Opens '' / "The Big Bang '', Rory reappears in 102 AD as a Roman centurion. He triggers Amy 's memories, but as she remembers, it is revealed that the centurion Rory is actually an Auton -- a duplicate of living plastic -- created from Amy 's memories to help capture the Doctor. Rory 's consciousness tries to fight his programming, but he is compelled to shoot and kill her. Amy 's body is kept alive in the Pandorica, a special prison intended to trap the Doctor. The Auton Rory protects it for 2000 years. The Doctor realises that Amy is connected to the cracks in the universe which originated from a temporal explosion on her wedding day. He tells her that her parents had been erased by the crack in her wall and urges her to remember them. After he uses the Pandorica to reboot the universe, the Doctor travels back through his timeline and is able to plant memories in Amy of the TARDIS. Amy awakes on her wedding day in a timeline where her parents are again part of reality and marries a restored Rory. Her memories are stirred by the TARDIS - shaped diary River Song (Alex Kingston) leaves for her. Once Amy remembers the Doctor, he is restored to reality. It is mentioned in The Sarah Jane Adventures serial Death of the Doctor that the Doctor dropped Amy and Rory off on a "honeymoon planet '', and the couple continues their honeymoon aboard an interstellar cruise ship which the Doctor saves from crashing into a populated planet.
The sixth series (2011) begins with Amy and Rory living a normal domestic life. They receive an anonymous invitation to the Utah desert where they reunite with the Doctor -- now aged nearly two hundred years since they have last met -- and fellow invitee River Song. Amy witnesses the Doctor 's death at the hand of an astronaut in an Apollo space suit, but they discover the Doctor also invited a younger version of himself, with whom they travel to 1969 Washington, D.C. to investigate strange occurrences involving the Silence, an alien race who can not be remembered after they are encountered. While there, Amy informs the Doctor she is pregnant before attempting to shoot a little girl in an Apollo space suit, believing it will stop her from killing the future Doctor. In the girl 's orphanage room, Amy finds strange pictures of herself holding a newborn baby. When the Doctor questions Amy about the pregnancy, she insists she was wrong and further investigation by the Doctor is inconclusive. Throughout their adventures, Amy is plagued by strange visions of a woman wearing an eye - patch (Frances Barber) appearing sporadically only to her. In "The Almost People '' it is revealed that the Amy present since she insisted she is not pregnant is actually a Ganger -- a duplicate animated by the real Amy 's consciousness -- while the real Amy is in the captivity of the eye - patched woman and about to give birth. In "A Good Man Goes to War '', her baby -- named Melody Pond -- is kidnapped by the eye - patched woman, Madame Kovarian, who will train her to one day kill the Doctor. River Song then arrives and tells Amy that she is an adult Melody.
A flashback in "Let 's Kill Hitler '' introduces Amy and Rory 's childhood friend Mels (Nina Toussaint - White). As teenagers, it was Mels who pointed out that Rory had been in love with Amy for some time, which led to the two dating. In the present, Mels hijacks the TARDIS and directs it to 1939 where she is shot by Hitler (Albert Welling) and regenerates into River Song, revealing that Amy had grown up alongside her daughter, who was trained by the Silence to kill the Doctor. Amy is later persuaded by the Doctor to let her adult daughter make her own way in life. In "The Girl Who Waited '', Amy becomes separated from the Doctor and Rory on a planet 's quarantine facility and lives on her own for 36 years before they return. The Doctor wants to go back in time to rescue the younger Amy, but the older Amy insists that they take both of her. However, the Doctor knows the TARDIS will not accept the paradox and is forced to leave the older Amy behind. In "The God Complex '', the Doctor breaks Amy 's faith in him after he discovers that they are trapped in a prison for a being that kills by feeding on faith. At the conclusion of that episode, not wanting to risk their lives further, he parts ways with her and Rory after giving them a house and car. Amy appears briefly in "Closing Time '', where she is shown to have become a fashion model, noted for a perfume campaign with the slogan "For The Girl Who Is Tired Of Waiting ''. Series finale "The Wedding of River Song '' depicts an alternate universe created by River refusing to kill the Doctor in Utah, as previously shown. Amy leads a secret organisation which fights the Silence. She reunites the Doctor with River and later kills Madame Kovarian for kidnapping Melody and depriving her of raising her baby. After history is restored, River visits Amy and reveals that the Doctor has faked his death. At the end of the 2011 Christmas special, the Doctor returns to Amy and Rory two years later (in their time) and has Christmas dinner with them.
The series seven opener "Asylum of the Daleks '' (2012) shows Amy, still working as a fashion model, signing papers for her and Rory 's divorce. In the episode, the Doctor engineers a reconciliation between the two during the mission, allowing them to discuss their feelings for each other. It is revealed Amy left Rory because she has been infertile since "A Good Man Goes to War '', and knew he wanted children. The couple continue traveling with the Doctor on small adventures in "Dinosaurs on a Spaceship '' and "A Town Called Mercy '', but leave at the end of each to return to their normal lives. In "The Power of Three '', Amy says that the Doctor has been in her and Rory 's life for ten years, and she now works as a journalist. The couple realise they have to choose between their normal lives and their life with the Doctor. They are inclined to choose the former, but Rory 's father Brian (Mark Williams) encourages the pair to continue travelling with the Doctor. Their next adventure, "The Angels Take Manhattan '', is their last. In the story, Amy and Rory are threatened by the evil Weeping Angels, whose touch will send them into the distant past to die alone. Having witnessed this eventuality, they attempt suicide, creating a paradox which destroys all but one Angel, but also renders the area permanently off - limits to the Doctor 's TARDIS. In the present, the surviving Angel sends Rory back in time, and knowing the Doctor can not recover him, Amy allows the Angel to touch her too so she can be with him. Gravestones in a New York cemetery reveal that Rory died at the age of 82 and Amy died at the age of 87. River arranges for Amy to leave the Doctor a message in the afterword of a 1930s pulp fiction novel, where she says she is happy with Rory and that they worry about the Doctor travelling alone. "P.S. '', a mini shows - episode supplement based on the original script for this episode, shows that Rory and Amy adopted a son, in 1946, and named him Anthony Brian Williams. Blackwood and Gillan both reprise the role in "The Time of the Doctor '' (2013), in which Matt Smith departs the series. During the Eleventh Doctor 's regeneration, he hallucinates images of young Amelia Pond on board his TARDIS, before a vision of adult Amy approaches and says a final goodbye.
In addition to the television series, Amy has appeared in several BBC - licensed Doctor Who novels, audio dramas, and comics. The first set of corresponding New Series Adventures novels -- Apollo 23, Night of the Humans and The Forgotten Army -- were published in April 2010 and feature solely the Eleventh Doctor and Amy. The next set -- comprising Nuclear Time, The King 's Dragon and The Glamour Chase -- were released in July 2010 and feature the Doctor, Amy, and Rory. In Michael Moorcock 's lengthier The Coming of the Terraphiles, which takes place during a time in the fifth series Rory is absent, Amy is proposed to by one of the characters, to whom she declines. In April 2011, another set of New Series Adventures were released to correspond with Amy and Rory 's travels in the sixth series, containing Dead of Winter, The Way Through the Woods, and Hunter 's Moon. A subsequent series of three books were published in June. In September, another longer novel was published, The Silent Stars Go By, which sees the trio face the Ice Warriors. In addition, Amy appears singularly alongside the Doctor in four 2010 "Decide Your Destiny '' books, as well as alongside Rory in six "2in1 '' adventure chapter books. The three also feature in the Quick Reads Initiative novella Magic of the Angels.
Amy, Rory, and the Doctor appear in IDW Publishing 's comic book series Assimilation, published from May to December 2012, which is a crossover between Doctor Who and Star Trek: The Next Generation. They team up with the crew of the USS Enterprise - D to stop an alliance between the Borg and the Cybermen. Amy and Rory appear briefly in the mini-series "Prisoners of Time '' where they join other past companions and versions of the Doctor in battling the main villains of the series. During a battle with some Autons, 11 introduces them to Clara Oswald.
Amy Pond has appeared in several Doctor Who video games. Voiced by Gillan, she appears in all five episodes of Doctor Who: The Adventure Games which were marketed as extra episodes. The virtual character was created using rotoscoping of Gillan 's movements. She also is featured, voiced by Gillan, in the 2010 video games Doctor Who: Evacuation Earth and Doctor Who: Return to Earth, made for the DS and Nintendo Wii respectively. Amy also appears in the smartphone app game Doctor Who: The Mazes of Time.
Doctor Who executive producer and head writer Steven Moffat came up with the name for the character. Moffat chose the name "Pond '' to create a link between Amy and River Song, who would be revealed to be Amy 's daughter. Moffat 's predecessor, Russell T Davies, stated in an interview with Dose magazine that "We 've held off on companions for a long time, so you 'll get rewarded with a great, big, strong character in Amy Pond, when she arrives. I think that plan 's been good. ''
Andy Pryor, the casting director, suggested Gillan to Moffat after her performance in the fourth series episode "The Fires of Pompeii '', in which she played a soothsayer, but Moffat originally thought Gillan was "short and dumpy ''. Later, however, he stated that she was "exactly right for the role '', though she portrayed the character differently from how Moffat originally wrote. Gillan was reportedly the last to audition for the role, and stood out as she was "a bit kookier '' than the others. Moffat said of the casting, "We saw some amazing actresses for this part. But when Karen came through the door, the game was up -- she was funny, clever, gorgeous and sexy. Or Scottish, which is the quick way of saying it. A generation of little girls will want to be her. And a generation of little boys will want them to be her too. '' Doctor Who executive producer and drama chief at BBC Wales Piers Wenger concurred, "We knew Karen was perfect for the role the moment we saw her. She brought an energy and excitement to the part that was just fantastic. '' Gillan was aware of the show but was not as big a fan of it as her mother was, due to it not being on when she was growing up. However, she watched some with her mother after it returned in 2005, and was also a fan of other science fiction such as The X-Files, The Outer Limits, Star Trek: The Next Generation and Star Trek: Voyager.
Gillan auditioned for the role in both her natural Scottish accent and an English one, and it was not until after she was cast that it was decided Amy would be Scottish. Gillan commented that she felt the Scottish accent better suited the character. A younger version of Amy, known as "Amelia '', appears in several episodes. Amelia was played by Gillan 's real - life 10 - year - old cousin Caitlin Blackwood. Though the two actresses had not met until the set of the show, Gillan recommended Blackwood for the role; Blackwood, however, still had to undergo rigorous auditions first. Blackwood and Gillan did get to act together in "The Big Bang '', which Gillan initially found "weird '', though the two actresses became used to it quickly.
Karen Gillan
Gillan stated that "having read the first episode I was utterly smitten (with the show), and with the character. Amy 's a sassy lady, funny and passionate, and her relationship with the Doctor has a really interesting dynamic ''. Gillan believed that the Doctor still saw Amy as the same seven - year - old girl he first met, and described their relationship as brother and sister, with Amy sometimes acting as an "annoying little sister ''. She also did not want Amy, like previous companions, to stand around "in awe of the Doctor all the time '' or "mope around '' while he was not there; Amy would "do her own thing, whether it 's fighting monsters in strange new worlds or just getting on with her life in her own village ''. During her first series, Gillan wanted Amy to act "like a child in an adult body '' because she had not properly grown up. She appears more guarded because "she does n't like to show her emotions because she wants to be strong ''. However, she begins her second series as a more settled person, and shows more emotion, especially with the birth of her daughter.
Gillan had substantial input into Amy 's costume, as well as her hair and make - up. In the first episode, costume designer Ray Holman stated that Amy 's identity was not clear and that she wore her own clothes later on. Gillan thought that Amy had inner confidence to wear clothes that showed "a bit of skin from time to time ''. Gillan said she tried on many things, but when it came to short skirts she "just thought it was right '' and showed that Amy was "comfortable and confident about her look ''. She believed that the skirts reflected what young women typically wear at her age. Executive producer Piers Wenger also noted that Amy 's 1970s flying jacket, which she wears "quite a lot '', reflected Gillan was a "born adventurer '' and Amy developed a love for travel and adventure. In the sixth series, Amy wears more jeans and longer trousers; Gillan stated, "she 's getting a little bit more tomboyish as she becomes more of an action girl ''. Amy never wears heels, as Gillan desired that the footwear be functional for saving the world.
As the Doctor accidentally did not return for her until twelve years later, Amy grew up a different person than she would have. She had become "cynical '' and "distrustful '' as the Doctor did not return as he had promised and she was forced to believe he was just an imaginary friend, and had resorted to being "tough ''. Moffat theorised that Amy would have taken her anger out on Rory and would have been "mean '' about things such as Santa Claus and the Tooth Fairy. The second episode, "The Beast Below '', was to introduce Amy into the role of the Doctor 's companion and how much he needed one. Though Amy soon tries to seduce the Doctor, Moffat believed that it was consistent with the cynical character he had built up. It was also a reflection of how the two had just escaped from death and shared a hard time together, and Amy 's tendency to do things "in the heat of the moment ''. In "Amy 's Choice '', meant to challenge the Doctor and Amy 's relationship, Rory dies in an alternate universe that was a result of psychic pollen that had entered the TARDIS. This is when Amy truly realises her feelings for Rory. As a primary part of the series ' story arc, Rory officially dies and is erased from history and Amy 's memory. Though Rory later returns, he is an Auton duplicate who kills her, which reflected Moffat 's belief that all good love stories end in tragedy. The end of "The Big Bang '', in which Amy stands up at her wedding and declares the Doctor is real, was the Doctor 's success at restoring Amy to the spirit of the girl he first met.
Moffat had always intended for Amy and Rory to get married "from the off ''. Gillan stated, "What I love about that relationship is that we really saw it develop to get to the stage where they were happy together. Because we started off at a point where Amy did n't want to be committed to him, and he absolutely did, and that just gave us somewhere to go with it, rather than just them being happy together. So it was interesting, and it evolved, and Rory really became a hero in the process ''. She was pleased that the audience was able to see Amy 's life "pan out '', starting when she was a child and through her marriage and daughter. Gillan stated that the aftermath of "A Good Man Goes to War '' would "change her in a big way for the long run and I think we are going to get to see Amy in a really different light ''. According to Moffat, by the seventh series, Amy and Rory had become "a crack team ''; so used to being the Doctor 's companions that instead of marvelling at him they "treat him like a big kid they have to look after ''.
In December 2011, it was announced that the seventh series would be Amy and Rory 's last. Previously in November, Gillan had stated that once Amy had left, she did not want to make returning cameos, as she believed it would "take away from the big, emotional goodbye ''. Gillan had arranged her exit with Moffat and the two decided on how Amy should leave. Gillan stated that she wanted to go "on a high when the character was at her prime '' and that she "(wanted) to see her go with everything that she wants ''. Gillan would make a brief appearance at the end of the 2013 Christmas special, The Time of the Doctor, with Amy Pond saying a final goodbye to the Eleventh Doctor just before he regenerates, bringing actors Gillan and Matt Smith together for a brief moment at the conclusion of Smith 's last regular appearance as the Doctor.
With the premiere of "The Eleventh Hour '', two viewers anonymously quoted in The Telegraph complained that Amy 's character was too "sexy '' for a family programme like Doctor Who. Executive producer Piers Wenger stated that Amy was intended to be "feisty and outspoken and a bit of a number. Amy is probably the wildest companion that the Doctor has travelled with, but she is n't promiscuous. '' On a similar note, Gavin Fuller, writing for The Daily Telegraph 's website, criticised Amy 's "attempted seduction of the Doctor '' in the episode "Flesh and Stone '', claiming that it "did seem out of keeping with the usual tone of the series '', and that "Given the number of young children who watch, it may not have been the most appropriate of scenes to screen ''. The Daily Mail claimed that the seduction scene led to complaints from some viewers who accused the BBC of trying to "' sex up ' the show to attract more adult viewers. '' The article quotes a representative from pressure group Mediawatch - uk and an anonymous contributor to an internet message board. A BBC spokesman confirmed they had received 43 complaints of the scene out of the millions who watched the episode.
Critics noted that Amy did not develop much throughout the 2010 series. Dan Martin of The Guardian, in a mid-series review, wrote, "I wonder whether I really know Amy Pond. Beneath the sass and the sauce and the wit and (there 's no getting away from this) the skirts, I 've yet to completely empathise with her, or work out what makes her tick ''. In a review before the finale, Martin called her "a revelation '', although she sometimes "felt a little one note... But I 'd put all of that down to guest writers responding to a character brief that probably said little more than ' feisty redhead ' ''. IGN 's Matt Wales shared similar sentiments, writing, "Despite Gillan 's effortless charisma, Pond was frequently painted in largely two - dimensional strokes that made for a brash, sometimes irritating turn. It 's testament to Gillan 's abilities and brilliant chemistry with Smith that she remained thoroughly watchable throughout but, bereft of back story (albeit intentionally), it was hard to really get involved with the character ''. Paul Kerton of Zap2it, however, wrote in a review of "The Eleventh Hour '' that Amy 's "brilliantly executed introduction to the show stood out. Amy 's character after just one episode is already one with depth ''. Tor.com 's Teresa Jusino was also more positive towards Amy in the fifth series, writing that she was equally "competent, intelligent, and (quick - thinking) '' as she was flawed and made mistakes, which made her relatable and "a successful female character ''.
Chris Haydon of Den of Geek argued that Amy was "much more than the supposed eye candy many journalists unfairly referred to her as, or indeed much more than a female human to accompany the Gallifreyan Time Lord. She is far more three - dimensional and developed than the pre-existing judgements made her out to be ''. He also praised Gillan 's acting abilities and the way her relationship with Rory helped "render (her) character into something quite special ''. The Daily Telegraph 's Michael Hogan considered Amy "the joint best assistant of the rebooted Who era -- far superior to Catherine Tate and Freema Agyeman, equally as excellent as Billie Piper ''. He also praised her relationship with the Doctor, saying that they were "totally believable as best friends ''. Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times praised Amy for being "cheerfully free... of the emotional baggage that mired her predecessors '' and also reacted positively to her attempted seduction of the Doctor. SFX named Amy and Rory the second - best science fiction and fantasy romance. In 2012, leading up to her departure, Martin wrote that Gillan 's acting had improved, becoming less of "a rootless collection of personality traits and enunciated sentence peaks '' and someone more rounded. He also noted that Amy was unique because so much had happened to her and she became intwined in the Doctor 's life, which allowed the audience to see her "develop and change ''.
The Guardian 's Krystina Nellis argued that Amy functioned more as a plot prop than a strong female character, citing the importance of giving birth to River Song. Charlie Jane Anders of io9, while positive towards her relationship with Rory, opined that Amy was still "a bit of a cartoon character '' in "The Wedding of River Song '', believing that her killing Madame Kovarian was "no substitute '' for dealing with what Kovarian had done to her child.
The character has gone on to be referenced in popular culture. American supernatural drama Supernatural ' 's seventh season "The Girl Next Door '' (2011), a character played by Jewel Staite operates under the alias Amy Pond. Digital Spy felt the Doctor Who reference was "rather random '', while IGN "loved '' the shoutout.
Gillan has won over six awards up to date for playing the role of Amy Pond. In 2010 she won Cosmopolitan ' Women Of The Year ' Award. In 2011 Gillan won an SFX Award, a TV Choice Award, and in 2012 she won at the National Television Awards. In an online poll, with 3,000 participants, taken in late 2010, Amy Pond was listed as the fifth most popular companion.
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who has most stage wins in tour de france | Tour de France records and statistics - wikipedia
This is a list of records and statistics in the Tour de France, road cycling 's premier competitive event.
One rider has been King of the Mountains, won the combination classification, combativity award, the points competition, and the Tour in the same year - Eddy Merckx in 1969, which was also the first year he participated.
Twice the Tour was won by a racer who never wore the yellow jersey until the race was over. In 1947, Jean Robic overturned a three - minute deficit on a 257 km final stage into Paris. In 1968, Jan Janssen of the Netherlands secured his win in the individual time trial on the last day.
The Tour has been won four times by a racer who led the general classification on the first stage and held the lead all the way to Paris. Maurice Garin did it during the Tour 's very first edition, 1903; he repeated the feat the next year, but the results were nullified as a response to widespread cheating. Ottavio Bottechia completed a GC start - to - finish sweep in 1924. In 1928, Nicolas Frantz also led the GC for the entire race, and the final podium was made up of three riders from his Alcyon -- Dunlop team. 1935, Belgian Romain Maes took the lead in the first stage, and never gave it away. There have been four tours in which a racer has taken over the GC lead on the second stage and held the lead all the way to Paris. After dominating the ITT during Stage 1B of the 1961 Tour de France Jacques Anquetil held the Maillot Jaune from the first day all the way to Paris.
Laurent Fignon, winner in 1983, was the last rider to win the race in his first appearance.
René Pottier, Roger Lapébie, Sylvère Maes, Fausto Coppi and Bradley Wiggins all won the Tour de France the last time they appeared in the race.
The record for most appearances is held by Sylvain Chavanel with 18. George Hincapie had held the mark for the biggest number of consecutive finishes with sixteen, having completed every Tour de France that he participated in except his first one, before his disqualification in October 2012 from the 2004, 2005 and 2006 Tour de France for the use of performance - enhancing drugs. Joop Zoetemelk and Chavanel jointly hold the record for the most finishes with sixteen each, with the former having completed all 16 of the Tours that he started. Zoetemelk held the record for the most Tour de France stages completed with 365, a record that was broken when Chavanel finished Stage 18 of the 2018 Tour de France.
Riders who are still active are indicated in bold.
In the early years of the Tour, cyclists rode individually, and were sometimes forbidden to ride together. This led to large gaps between the winner and the number two. Since the cyclists now tend to stay together in a peloton, the margins of the winner have become smaller, as the difference usually originates from time trials, breakaways or on mountain top finishes, or from being left behind the peloton. In the table below, the nine smallest margins between the winner and the second placed cyclists at the end of the Tour are given. The largest margin, by comparison, remains that of the first Tour in 1903: 2h 49m 45s between Maurice Garin and Lucien Pothier. The nine smallest margins between first and second placed riders are as follows:
The longest successful post-war breakaway by a single rider was by Albert Bourlon in the 1947 Tour de France. In the stage Carcassone - Luchon, he stayed away for 253 kilometres (157 mi). It was one of seven breakaways longer than 200 km, the last being Thierry Marie 's 234 km escape in 1991. Bourlon finished 16 m 30s ahead. This is one of the biggest time gaps but not the greatest. That record belongs to José - Luis Viejo, who beat the peloton by 22 mins 50 secs in the 1976 stage Montgenèvre - Manosque. He was the fourth and most recent rider to win a stage by more than 20 minutes.
The 2005 edition was the fastest Tour de France in history. Lance Armstrong rode 3,592.5 km in 86h 15 ' 02 ", thus realising an overall speed of 41.7 km / h (25.9 mph), though his win was later annulled.
The slowest Tour de France was the edition of 1919, when Firmin Lambot 's average speed was 24.1 km / h.
The fastest massed - start stage was in 1999 from Laval to Blois (194.5 km), won by Mario Cipollini at 50.4 km / h (31.32 mph). The fastest time - trial is Rohan Dennis ' stage 1 of the 2015 Tour de France in Utrecht, won at an average of 55.446 km / h (34.5 mph). The fastest stage win was by the 2013 Orica GreenEDGE team in a team time - trial. It completed the 25 km time - trial at 57.7 km / h (35.85 mph).
The fastest climb of Alpe d'Huez was by Marco Pantani in 1997 Tour de France at 23.1 km / h (14.35 mph).
34 riders have won 10 or more stages (including half - stages, excluding Team Time Trials). Riders who are still active are indicated in bold. Riders with the same number of stage wins are listed alphabetically.
Three riders have won 8 stages in a single year:
Mark Cavendish has the most mass finish stage wins with 30 ahead of André Darrigade and André Leducq with 22, François Faber with 19 and Eddy Merckx with 18.
The youngest Tour de France stage winner is Fabio Battesini, who was 19 when he won one stage in the 1931 Tour de France.
Riders from 33 countries have won at least one stage in the Tour de France.
Some cities and towns have hosted 25 or more stage starts and finishes:
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what is the average annual salary in usa | Household income in the United States - Wikipedia
Household income is an economic measure that can be applied to one household, or aggregated across a large group such as a county, city, or the whole country. It is commonly used by the United States government and private institutions to describe a household 's economic status or to track economic trends in the US.
One key measure is the real median level, meaning half of households have income above that level and half below, adjusted for inflation. According to the Census, this measure was $59,039 in 2016, a record high. This was the largest two year increase percentage increase on record.
The distribution of U.S. household income has become more unequal since around 1980, with the income share received by the top 1 % trending upward from around 10 % or less over the 1953 -- 1981 period to over 20 % by 2007. After falling somewhat due to the Great Recession in 2008 and 2009, inequality rose again during the economic recovery, a typical pattern historically.
A household 's income can be calculated various ways but the US Census as of 2009 measured it in the following manner: the income of every resident of that house that is over the age of 15, including wages and salaries, as well as any kind of governmental entitlement such as unemployment insurance, disability payments or child support payments received, along with any personal business, investment, or other recurring sources of income.
The residents of the household do not have to be related to the head of the household for their earnings to be considered part of the household 's income. As households tend to share a similar economic context, the use of household income remains among the most widely accepted measures of income. That the size of a household is not commonly taken into account in such measures may distort any analysis of fluctuations within or among the household income categories, and may render direct comparisons between quintiles difficult or even impossible.
The U.S. Census Bureau reported in September 2017 that real median household income was $59,039 in 2016, exceeding any previous year. This was the fourth consecutive year with a statistically significant increase by their measure.
Changes in median income reflect several trends: the aging of the population, changing patterns in work and schooling, and the evolving makeup of the American family, as well as long - and short - term trends in the economy itself. For instance, the retirement of the Baby Boom generation should push down overall median income, as more persons enter lower - income retirement. However, analysis of different working age groups indicate a similar pattern of stagnating median income as well.
Journalist Annie Lowrey wrote in September 2014: "The root causes (of wage stagnation) include technological change, the decline of labor unions, and globalization, economists think, though they disagree sharply on how much to weight each factor. But foreign - produced goods became sharply cheaper, meaning imports climbed and production moved overseas. And computers took over for humans in many manufacturing, clerical, and administrative tasks, eroding middle - class jobs growth and suppressing wages. ''
Another line of analysis, known as "total compensation, '' presents a more complete picture of real wages. The Kaiser Family Foundation conducted a study in 2013 which shows that employer contributions to employee healthcare costs went up 78 % from 2003 to 2013. The marketplace has made a trade - off: expanding benefits packages vs. increasing wages.
Measured relative to GDP, total compensation and its component wages and salaries have been declining since 1970. This indicates a shift in income from labor (persons who derive income from hourly wages and salaries) to capital (persons who derive income via ownership of businesses, land and assets). This trend is common across the developed world, due in part to globalization. Wages and salaries have fallen from approximately 51 % GDP in 1970 to 43 % GDP in 2013. Total compensation has fallen from approximately 58 % GDP in 1970 to 53 % GDP in 2013.
However, as indicated by the charts below, household income has still increased significantly since the late 1970s and early 80s in real terms, partly due to higher individual median wages, and partly due to increased opportunities for women.
According to the CBO, between 1979 and 2011, gross median household income, adjusted for inflation, rose from $59,400 to $75,200, or 26.5 %. However, once adjusted for household size and looking at taxes from an after - tax perspective, real median household income grew 46 %, representing significant growth.
Use of individual household income: The government and organizations may look at one particular household 's income to decide if a person is eligible for certain programs, such as nutrition assistance or need - based financial aid, among many others.
Use at the aggregate level: Summaries of household incomes across groups of people - often the entire country - are also studied as part of economic trends like standard of living and distribution of income and wealth. Household income as an economic measure can be represented as a median, a mean, a distribution, and other ways. Household income can be studied across time, region, education level, race / ethnicity, and many other dimensions. As an indicator of economic trends, it may be studied along with related economic measures such as disposable income, debt, household net worth (which includes debt and investments, durable goods like cars and houses), wealth, and employment statistics.
Median inflation - adjusted ("real '') household income generally increases and decreases with the business cycle, declining in each year during the periods 1979 through 1983, 1990 through 1993, 2000 through 2004 and 2008 through 2012, while rising in each of the intervening years. Extreme poverty in the United States, meaning households living on less than $2 per day before government benefits, more than doubled from 636,000 to 1.46 million households (including 2.8 million children) between 1996 and 2011, with most of this increase occurring between late 2008 and early 2011.
The nonpartisan Congressional Budget Office conducted a study analyzing household income throughout the income distribution, by combining the Census and IRS income data sources. Unlike the Census measure of household income, the CBO showed income before and after taxes, and by also taking into account household size. Also, the CBO definition of income is much broader, and includes in kind transfers as well as all monetary transfers from the government. The Census ' official definition of money income excludes food stamps and the EITC, for example, while CBO includes it.
Between 1979 and 2011, gross median household income, adjusted for inflation, rose from $59,400 to $75,200, or 26.5 %. This compares with the Census ' growth of 10 %. However, once adjusted for household size and looking at taxes from an after - tax perspective, real median household income grew 46 %, representing significant growth.
While median gross household income showed much stronger growth than depicted by the Census, inequality was shown to still have increased. The top 10 % saw gross household income grow by 78 %, versus 26.5 % for the median. Interestingly, the bottom 10 %, using the same measure, saw higher growth than the median (40 %).
Another common measurement of personal income is the mean household income. Unlike the median household income, which divides all households in two halves, the mean income is the average income earned by American households. In the case of mean income, the income of all households is divided by the number of all households. The mean income is usually more affected by the relatively unequal distribution of income which tilts towards the top. As a result, the mean tends to be higher than the median income, with the top earning households boosting it. Overall, the mean household income in the United States, according to the US Census Bureau 2014 Annual Social and Economic Supplement, was $72,641.
The US Census Bureau also provides a breakdown by self - identified ethnic groups as follows (as of March 2014):
Median income is the amount which divides the income distribution into two equal groups, half having income above that amount, and half having income below that amount. Mean income (average) is the amount obtained by dividing the total aggregate income of a group by the number of units in that group. The means and medians for households and families are based on all households and families. Means and medians for people are based on people 15 years old and over with income.
The aggregate income measures the combined income earned by all persons in a particular income group. In 2007, all households in the United States earned roughly $7.723 trillion. One half, 49.98 %, of all income in the US was earned by households with an income over $100,000, the top twenty percent. Over one quarter, 28.5 %, of all income was earned by the top 8 %, those households earning more than $150,000 a year. The top 3.65 %, with incomes over $200,000, earned 17.5 %. Households with annual incomes from $50,000 to $75,000, 18.2 % of households, earned 16.5 % of all income. Households with annual incomes from $50,000 to $95,000, 28.1 % of households, earned 28.8 % of all income. The bottom 10.3 % earned 1.06 % of all income.
White Americans made up roughly 75.1 % of all people in 2000, 87.93 % of all households in the top 5 % were headed by a person who identified as being White alone. Only 4.75 % of all household in the top 5 % were headed by someone who identified as Hispanic or Latino of any race, versus 12.5 % of persons identifying themselves as Hispanic or Latino in the general population.
Overall, 86.01 % of all households in the top two quintiles with upper - middle range incomes of over $55,331 were headed by someone identifying as White alone, while 7.21 % were being headed by someone who identified as Hispanic and 7.37 % by someone who identified as African American or Black. Overall, households headed by Hispanics and African Americans were underrepresented in the top two quintiles and overrepresented in the bottom two quintiles. Households headed by people who identified as being Asian alone were also overrepresented among the top two quintiles. In the top five percent the percentage of Asians was nearly twice as high as the percentage of Asians among the general population. Whites were relatively even distributed throughout the quintiles only being underrepresented in the lowest quintile and slightly overrepresented in the top quintile and the top five percent.
In terms of race in 2010 data, Asian American households had the highest median household income of $57,518, European - American households ranked second with $48,977, Hispanic or Latino households ranked third with $34,241. African - American or Black households had the lowest median household income of all races with $30,134.
Source: US Census Bureau, 2004
Household income as well as per capita income in the United States rise significantly as the educational attainment increases. In 2005 graduates with a Master 's in Business Administration (MBA) who accepted job offers were expected to earn a base salary of $88,626. They were also expected to receive an "average signing bonus of $17,428. ''
According to the US Census Bureau persons with doctorates in the United States had an average income of roughly $81,400. The average for an advanced degree was $72,824, with men averaging $90,761 and women averaging $50,756 annually. Year - round full - time workers with a professional degree had an average income of $109,600 while those with a master 's degree had an average income of $62,300. Overall, "... (a) verage earnings ranged from $18,900 for high school dropouts to $25,900 for high school graduates, $45,400 for college graduates and $99,300 for workers with professional degrees (M.D., D.P.T., D.P.M., D.O., J.D., Pharm. D., D.D.S., or D.V.M.).
Individuals with graduate degrees have an average per capita income exceeding the median household income of married couple families among the general population ($63,813 annually). Higher educational attainment did not, however, help close the income gap between the genders as the life - time earnings for a male with a professional degree were roughly forty percent (39.59 %) higher than those of a female with a professional degree. The lifetime earnings gap between males and females was the smallest for those individuals holding an associate degrees with male life - time earnings being 27.77 % higher than those of females. While educational attainment did not help reduce the income inequality between men and women, it did increase the earnings potential of individuals of both sexes, enabling many households with one or more graduate degree householders to enter the top household income quintile. These data were not adjusted for preferential differences among men and women whom attend college. For example, men often study fields of engineering while women often pursue social sciences. Since the difference between earnings in said fields of study are often quite large, it is natural for us to observe men earning more than women. That is to say, not all degrees are created equally.
Household income also increased significantly with the educational attainment of the householder. The US Census Bureau publishes educational attainment and income data for all households with a householder who was aged twenty - five or older. The biggest income difference was between those with some college education and those who had a Bachelor 's degree, with the latter making $23,874 more annually. Income also increased substantially with increased post-secondary education. While the median annual household income for a household with a householder having an associate degree was $51,970, the median annual household income for householders with a bachelor 's degree or higher was $73,446. Those with doctorates had the second highest median household with a median of $96,830; $18,289 more than that for those at the master 's degree level, but $3,170 lower than the median for households with a professional degree holding householder.
SOURCE: US Census Bureau, 2003
The change in median personal and household since 1991 also varied greatly with educational attainment. The following table shows the median household income according to the educational attainment of the householder. All data is in 2003 dollars and only applies to householders whose householder is aged twenty - five or older. The highest and lowest points of the median household income are presented in bold face. Since 2003, median income has continued to rise for the nation as a whole, with the biggest gains going to those with associate degrees, bachelor 's degree or more, and master 's degrees. High - school dropouts fared worse with negative growth.
SOURCE: US Census Bureau, 2003
Household income in the United States varies substantially with the age of the person who heads the household. Overall, the median household income increased with the age of householder until retirement age when household income started to decline. The highest median household income was found among households headed by working baby - boomers.
Households headed by persons between the ages of 45 and 54 had a median household income of $61,111 and a mean household income of $77,634. The median income per member of household for this particular group was $27,924. The highest median income per member of household was among those between the ages of 54 and 64 with $30,544 (The reason this figure is lower than the next group is because pensions and Social Security add to income while a portion of older individuals also have work - related income.).
The group with the second highest median household income, were households headed by persons between the ages 35 and 44 with a median income of $56,785, followed by those in the age group between 55 and 64 with $50,400. Not surprisingly the lowest income group was composed of those households headed by individuals younger than 24, followed by those headed by persons over the age of 75. Overall, households headed by persons above the age of seventy - five had a median household income of $20,467 with the median household income per member of household being $18,645. These figures support the general assumption that median household income as well as the median income per member of household peaked among those households headed by middle aged persons, increasing with the age of the householder and the size of the household until the householder reaches the age of 64. With retirement income replacing salaries and the size of the household declining, the median household income decreases as well.
While median household income has a tendency to increase up to four persons per household, it declines for households beyond four persons. For example, in the state of Alabama in 2004, two - person households had a median income of $39,755, with $48,957 for three - person households, $54,338 for four - person households, $50,905 for five - person households, $45,435 for six - person households, with seven - or - more - person households having the second lowest median income of only $42,471.
Considering other racial and geographical differences in regards to household income, it should come as no surprise that the median household income varies with race, size of household and geography. The state with the highest median household income in the United States as of the US Census Bureau 2009 is Maryland with $69,272, followed by New Jersey, Connecticut and Alaska, making the Northeastern United States the wealthiest area by income in the entire country.
Regionally, in 2010, the Northeast reached a median income of $53,283, the West, $53,142, the South, $45,492, and the Midwest, $48,445. Each figure represents a decline from the previous year.
In 2010, the median household income by state ranged from $35,693 in Mississippi to $66,334 in Maryland. Despite having the highest median home price in the nation and home prices that far outpaced incomes, California ranked only ninth in income, with a median household income of $61,021. While California 's median income was not near enough to afford the average California home or even a starter home, West Virginia, which had one of the nation 's lowest median household incomes, also had the nation 's lowest median home price.
By Census Bureau Region, of the 15 states with the highest median household income, only Minnesota is located in the Mid-West, while eight are in the Northeast (New Jersey, Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, and New York) and the other six (Alaska, Hawaii, California, Washington, Colorado and Utah) are in the West.
The southern states had, on average, the lowest median household income, with nine of the country 's fifteen poorest states located in the South. However, most of the poverty in the South is located in rural areas. Metropolitan areas such as Atlanta, Nashville, Charlotte, Raleigh, Birmingham, Dallas, Houston, and Miami are areas within the southern states that have above average income levels. Overall, median household income tended to be the highest in the nation 's most urbanized northeastern, upper midwestern and west coast states, while rural areas, mostly in the southern and mountain states (like New Mexico, Montana and Idaho), had the lowest median household income.
As of 2015, the median household income ranged from $40,037 in Mississippi to $75,675 in New Hampshire.
Household income is one of the most commonly used measures of income and, therefore, also one of the most prominent indicators of social class. Household income and education do not, however, always reflect perceived class status correctly. Sociologist Dennis Gilbert acknowledges that "... the class structure... does not exactly match the distribution of household income '' with "the mismatch (being) greatest in the middle... '' (Gilbert, 1998: 92) As social classes commonly overlap, it is not possible to define exact class boundaries.
According to Leonard Beeghley a household income of roughly $95,000 would be typical of a dual - earner middle class household while $60,000 would be typical of a dual - earner working class household and $18,000 typical for an impoverished household. William Thompson and Joseph Hickey see common incomes for the upper class as those exceeding $500,000 with upper middle class incomes ranging from the high 5 - figures to most commonly in excess of $100,000. They claim the lower middle class ranges from $35,000 to $75,000; $16,000 to $30,000 for the working class and less than $2,000 for the lower class.
Thompson, W. & Hickey, J. (2005). Society in Focus. Boston, MA: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon; Beeghley, L. (2004). The Structure of Social Stratification in the United States. Boston, MA: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon.
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who is gluttony in the seven deadly sins anime | List of the Seven Deadly Sins characters - wikipedia
The Seven Deadly Sins (7DS) is a manga series written and illustrated by Nakaba Suzuki, set in a fictitious Britannia (ブリタニア, Buritania) in a time period superficially akin to the European Middle Ages. Likewise superficially, and frequently in ironic or contradictory ways, 7DS references widely varying traditions, including western Christianity (e.g., The Seven Deadly Sins, the Ten Commandments) and the Arthurian legend (e.g., in naming Meliodas, Escanor, Merlin, Arthur Pendragon, etc.). The contradictory nature of the names given to the groups and characters is reflected in the emergence of the title 7DS group as the protagonists and the group of "Holy Knights '' as the antagonists of the series.
In accord with the medieval theme, many of the 7DS characters are depicted as types of knights, broadly construed, who are clad in stylized variations of medieval armor, many of whom perform magic. The members of the four other major clans in 7DS -- the Giants, Fairies, Goddesses, and Demons -- possess powerful abilities and magical prowess as well. In the naming of 7DS characters, the manga offers a wide variety of further mythical, historical, geographical and cultural allusions, including in the naming of Gowther, Zaratras (Zoroaster), Dreyfus, Gustaf, Frisia, Jericho, Galand, Derierrie, Albions, The Vampires, and Zhivago. Adding to other series ironies and prototypical anime fan service (in representations of female characters), 7DS presents the leader of its group of protagonists, the boyishly drawn Meliodas, with behaviour that has been referred to as "groping '' and "perverted '' in relation to his female leads.
The Seven Deadly Sins (七 つの 大罪, Nanatsu no Taizai) were the strongest and cruelest order of Holy Knights in the kingdom, formed by brutal criminals who carved symbols of beasts onto their bodies. Each of the members of the group had the highest Holy Knight ranking, Diamond. They were branded as traitors of Britannia as a result of being framed for assassinating the Great Holy Knight, Zaratras. It is suspected that one of the members in the Seven Deadly Sins is a traitor who helped in the plot (later revealed to be Merlin, who stole Meliodas ' power in order to prevent him from destroying the country). It seems that none of the Sins are members of the same race.
The Holy Knights (聖 騎士, Seikishi) are the most powerful knights in Britannia who protect the kingdom, being terrifying individuals who are each able to match an entire country 's army in strength. They are people that are killers. Sometime before the beginning of the series, the Holy Knights orchestrated a coup d'état and captured the king of Liones. The kingdom, now under the control of the Holy Knights, fell into a state of distress as citizens from towns and villages surrounding the kingdom were enslaved or forcefully recruited into joining a furtive war effort: the men trained as soldiers, while women and children forced to amass food for storage, as well as the elderly made to construct castle walls. Under the rule of the Holy Knights, death is the penalty for insubordination. After Hendrickson is defeated and Dreyfus disappears, King Baltra forgives most of them, since he preferred they atone for their actions since punishing them would n't reverse the damage they caused.
The Weird Fangs (不気味 な 牙 (ウィアード ・ ファング), Wiādo Fangu) are a group of knights protecting Baste Dungeon (バステ 監獄, Basute Kangoku).
Dawn Roar (暁闇 の 咆哮 (ドーン ・ ロアー), Dōn Roā) are a group of independent Knights known for their tenacity, sent to hunt down the Armored Giant.
Evil beings who were sealed 3000 years ago by the combined efforts of the Giant, Fairy, Goddess races and humans, but were released by Hendrickson and Dreyfus (who was being possessed by the demon Fraudrin) using some of Elizabeth 's blood.
Ten incredibly powerful demons selected personally by the King of Demons.
A Vampire Clan who had a treaty with the Demon Clan, but were sealed in a sarcophagus by the Demon Zeldris 3000 years ago, and 12 years before the story, they escaped their seal and took over the Kingdom of Edinburgh, killing or turning into vampires all of its inhabitants, including the Holy Knights. Since their presence threatened Liones and all of Britannia, The Seven Deadly Sins were sent to deal with them. It turns that it was the Vampire King Izraf who broke the treaty by rebelling against the Demon Clan and Zeldris was intended to be the executioner, but instead he sealed them, since he was in love with the Royal Vampire Gelda.
One of the five races of Britannia. 3,000 years ago the Goddess clan, alongside the Giant, Fairy and human clans, with the aid of Meliodas, declared war on the Demon clan. Although they won the war, most of them lost their physical bodies, while the Giant and Fairy clan were also severely weakened, leaving humans as the dominant race of Britannia.
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who has won the most trophies messi or ronaldo | Messi -- Ronaldo rivalry - wikipedia
Argentine professional footballer
Films
Portuguese professional footballer
Namesakes
Films
The Messi -- Ronaldo rivalry is a football rivalry between fans of Argentinian forward Lionel Messi and Portuguese forward Cristiano Ronaldo and supposedly between the athletes themselves. Having won a combined ten Ballon d'Or / FIFA Ballon d'Or awards (5 each), both are widely regarded not only as the two best players of their generation, but also regarded by many as the greatest of all time. Both players have regularly broken the 50 goal barrier in a single season and have scored over 600 goals each in their careers for club and country. Sports journalists and pundits regularly argue the individual merits of both players in an attempt to establish who they believe is the best player in modern football. It has been compared to past global sports rivalries such as the Muhammad Ali -- Joe Frazier rivalry in boxing, the Björn Borg -- John McEnroe rivalry in tennis and the Ayrton Senna -- Alain Prost rivalry in Formula One motor racing.
Some commentators choose to analyse the differing physiques and playing styles of the two while part of the debate revolves around the contrasting personalities of the two players: Ronaldo is sometimes described as someone of temperamental character while Messi is portrayed with reserved character. It could be the case that this is why Messi is considered trustworthier and more likable by the public, even though Ronaldo improved his reputation during 2013.
At club level, Messi and Ronaldo represented rivals FC Barcelona and Real Madrid C.F., the two players facing each other at least twice every season in the world 's most popular regular - season club game, El Clásico (among the most viewed annual sporting events), until Ronaldo 's transfer to Italian club Juventus F.C. in 2018. Off the field, they are the face of two rival sportswear manufacturers, Messi of Adidas and Ronaldo of Nike, which are also the kit suppliers of their national teams and the opposite for their clubs. The two highest paid players in football, Ronaldo and Messi are among the world 's best paid sports ' stars in combined income from salaries, bonuses and off - field earnings. In 2016, Ronaldo was first on Forbes list of the best paid athletes, earning $88 million, with Messi being second at $81.4 million. They have the two biggest social media followings in the world among sportspeople with a combined 211 million Facebook fans, with Ronaldo having 122 million and Messi having 89 million. With a combined Facebook, Instagram and Twitter, Ronaldo has 321 million to be the most famous celebrity on social media and Messi has 181 million excluding Twitter.
-- Messi addresses his perceived rivalry with Ronaldo
-- Ronaldo talks about Messi in an interview with Fox Sports Argentina
In 2007, Ronaldo and Messi finished as runners - up to A.C. Milan 's Kaká in both the Ballon d'Or, an award rewarded to the player voted as the best in the world by an international panel of sports journalists; and the FIFA World Player of the Year, an award voted for by coaches and captains of international teams. In an interview that year, Messi was quoted as saying "Cristiano Ronaldo is an extraordinary player and it would be brilliant to be in the same team as him ''.
They first played in a game together when Manchester United were drawn to play Barcelona in the 2007 -- 08 UEFA Champions League semi-finals and were immediately pitted as major rivals. Ronaldo missed a penalty in the first leg, but United eventually advanced to the final via a Paul Scholes goal. At the end of the year, Ronaldo was awarded the Ballon d'Or and vowed that he would win the award again.
The 2009 UEFA Champions League Final was contested between Manchester United and Barcelona on 27 May 2009 at Stadio Olimpico in Rome, Italy. The match, described as a "dream clash '', was again hyped as the latest battle between the two, this time to settle who was the best player in the world; Ronaldo claimed he was the better of the two while Messi 's club - mate Xavi sided with him. United manager Alex Ferguson was more diplomatic, praising both players as being amongst the world 's elite talents. Messi, playing in a central role he was unaccustomed to so he would avoid a direct battle with United left - back Patrice Evra, scored Barcelona 's second in a 2 -- 0 victory with a header in the 70th minute. Meanwhile, Ronaldo was subdued for much of the game despite some early chances to score and his frustration eventually showed when he was booked for a rash tackle on Carles Puyol.
In a 2015 interview, Ronaldo commented on the rivalry by saying that "I think we push each other sometimes in the competition, this is why the competition is so high '' while Ronaldo 's manager during his time at Manchester United Alex Ferguson opined that "I do n't think the rivalry against each other bothers them. I think they have their own personal pride in terms of wanting to be the best ''. Messi has denied any rivalry, saying that it was "only the media, the press, who wants us to be at loggerheads but I 've never fought with Cristiano ''.
However, it is widely argued and documented that there 's an atmosphere of tension between the duo, with Guillem Balagué claiming in Messi that Ronaldo refers to the Argentine counterpart as "motherfucker '' behind his back, and Luca Caioli saying in his book, Ronaldo: The Obsession for Perfection, that according to his sources, Ronaldo heats up when watching Messi play. In response to claims that he and Messi do not get on well on a personal level, Ronaldo commented: "We do n't have a relationship outside the world of football, just as we do n't with a lot of other players '', before adding that in years to come he hopes they can laugh about it together, stating: "We have to look on this rivalry with a positive spirit, because it 's a good thing ''. On 13 November 2014, Ronaldo also threatened to take legal action over the remarks made by Balagué.
Throughout the existence of the rivalry, the pair have dominated awards ceremonies and broken a multitude of goalscoring records for both club and country, feats which have been described as "incredible '', "ridiculous '' and "remarkable ''. The rivalry itself has been described as one about records and reputation of the players, rather than one based in loathing.
Ronaldo is the UEFA Champions League all - time top goalscorer while Messi is second. The two had broken each other 's record over the course of 2015 after Messi surpassed the previous record holder Raúl in November 2014. Ronaldo opened a gap in the 2015 -- 16 season when he became the first player to score double figures in the group stage of the Champions League, setting the record at 11 goals. They are the first two players to score 100 goals in UEFA Champions League history.
In recent years, it has been said that the rivalry between Real Madrid and Barcelona has been "encapsulated '' by the individual rivalry between Ronaldo and Messi, with neither player ever participating in a goalless El Clásico.
Last updated 6 May 2018
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who does the voice of oscar in shark tale | Shark Tale - Wikipedia
Shark Tale is a 2004 American computer - animated comedy film produced by DreamWorks Animation and directed by Vicky Jenson, Bibo Bergeron and Rob Letterman. The first computer - animated film by DreamWorks Animation to be produced at the Glendale studio, the film stars Will Smith, Robert De Niro, Renée Zellweger, Angelina Jolie, Jack Black, and Martin Scorsese. Other voices were provided by Ziggy Marley, Doug E. Doug, Michael Imperioli, Vincent Pastore and Peter Falk. It tells the story of a fish named Oscar (Smith) who falsely claims to have killed the son of a shark mob boss (De Niro) to advance his own community standing.
Shark Tale opened at # 1 with $47.6 million, which was the second - highest opening for a DreamWorks Animation film at the time, behind Shrek 2 ($108 million). It remained as the # 1 film in the U.S. and Canada for its second and third weekends, and made $367 million worldwide against its $75 million budget. It was also nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.
In Reef City, an underachieving bluestreak cleaner wrasse named Oscar fantasizes about being rich and famous while making his way to work as a tongue scrubber at the local Whale Wash, a job in which he is following in his father 's footsteps. Soon after arriving he is called to the office of his boss, a pufferfish named Sykes, to discuss the fact that he owes "five thousand clams '' and has to pay it back by the next day. After explaining this to his angelfish best friend Angie, she offers him a chance to pay back the money by pawning a pink pearl that was a gift from her grandmother. Oscar brings the money to the race track to meet Sykes, but becomes distracted by his dreams of grandeur. Upon hearing that the race is rigged, he places it all on a long - shot bet by the name of "Lucky Day ''. Such a million dollar bet is noticed nearby by a beautiful lionfish named Lola, who flagrantly seduces an excited Oscar, but Oscar is disappointed when she leaves upon learning that he is a whale washer. Sykes is furious that Oscar bet the money but nonetheless agrees to see how the race turns out. Moments before their betted "horse '' crosses the finish line, he trips and falls on the line.
Meanwhile, outside of the reef in the wreck of an old ocean liner a family of criminally - inclined great white sharks has a problem with one of their sons, Lenny, who is a vegetarian and refuses to act the part of a killer, wishing not to have to live up to those expectations. His crime lord father, Don Edward Lino, orders Lenny 's more savage older brother Frankie to tutor Lenny in the family business. After the two sharks depart their father, Frankie sees Oscar being electrocuted by Sykes ' two jellyfish enforcers Ernie and Bernie and sends Lenny off to attack. The jellyfish spot Lenny and flee, leaving Oscar alone with him. Lenny frees him, upsetting Frankie who becomes annoyed and charges at Oscar. However, Frankie is killed when an anchor falls on him. Lenny flees, overcome with grief and guilt. As no other witnesses were present and Oscar was seen near the body, everyone comes to believe that he killed Frankie, an opportunity that Oscar decides to exploit for fame.
Oscar returns to the city with a new title of the Sharkslayer. Sykes becomes his manager, Lola becomes his girlfriend, and Oscar moves to the "top of the reef '' to live in luxury. At the same time, after Frankie 's funeral, Don Lino, very worried about Lenny, has everyone out looking for Lenny. When several sharks get close to Oscar 's neighborhood, Oscar 's neighbors expect him to drive them away so he goes and runs into Lenny. Since he does not wish to return home, Lenny forces Oscar to let him stay with him since he is aware of Oscar 's lie. Soon, Angie finds out about the lie as well and threatens to tell everyone. Oscar and Lenny convince her to keep quiet, though she is heartbroken by Oscar 's dishonesty. Oscar 's situation is not helped by the shallowed Lola, who indicates to him that her interest in him extends only as far as he remains famous. With Don Lino planning revenge, Oscar and Lenny stage an event in which Lenny pretends to terrorize the town and Oscar must defeat him throwing him into the depths of the ocean. Though this further cements Oscar as the Sharkslayer, it greatly angers Don Lino. Oscar leaves Lola for Angie after Angie reveals that she had feelings for Oscar even before he became famous, but this leaves the rebuffed Lola determined to get revenge.
Oscar buys some Valentine 's Day gifts for Angie, but before he can present them to her, he finds that Don Lino has kidnapped Angie to force a sit - down. Lenny comes along now disguised as a dolphin named Sebastian. They arrive at the meeting to find Lola next to Don Lino, while Angie is tied up and gagged and presented to Don Lino on a plate who prepares to eat her if Oscar does not comply. Lenny grabs Angie into his mouth, but later regurgitates her. When Don Lino realizes that "Sebastian '' is really Lenny, he chases Oscar through the reef. Oscar heads for the Whale Wash and ends up trapping both sharks. He is given an ovation by the other fish, but Oscar confesses that he is not a "Sharkslayer '' and reveals the truth behind Frankie 's death. He then tells Don Lino that everyone likes Lenny for who he is and strongly urges him not to prejudge people before he knows them properly and make the mistakes he made in prejudging his wealth. Realizing that Oscar is right, Don Lino apologizes to Lenny and reconciles with him while making peace with Oscar, stating that he and his gang bear him no ill will. Oscar forsakes all the wealth he has acquired, makes peace with the sharks, becomes co-manager of the Whale Wash (now frequented by sharks, killer whales, and swordfish), and starts dating Angie and enjoys a happy, honest life.
At the mid-credits scene, Lola tries to find Oscar to make amends, but all she finds is a hermit crab named Crazy Joe, one of Oscar 's friends.
The film was originally developed under the title of Sharkslayer. By September 2003, however, it had been retitled Shark Tale, to make it less violent and more family friendly. Bill Damaschke, the producer of the film, explained the change of the title: "We set out to make a movie a little more noir, perhaps a little darker than where we 've landed. '' In April 2002, production officially began.
The film was produced concurrently with Finding Nemo, another animated film set underwater, which was released a year and a half before Shark Tale. DreamWorks Animation 's CEO, Jeffrey Katzenberg, defended the film, saying that "any similarities are mere coincidence. We 've been open with the Pixar people so we do n't step on each other 's toes. ''
Shark Tale had its worldwide premiere on September 10, 2004 in Piazza San Marco in Venice, Italy. Screening as part of the Venice Film Festival, it marked the first time that Piazza San Marco was closed for a premiere of a major feature film. The film was projected on the largest inflatable screen in the world, measuring more than six stories tall and over 3,900 square feet (360 m). It required 20,000 cubic feet (570 m) of air to inflate and more than 50 tons of water for stabilization. The premiere was attended by 6,000 visitors, including Will Smith, Angelina Jolie, Robert De Niro, and Michael Imperioli. Jeffrey Katzenberg, the executive producer of the film, explained that they "wanted to find a unique way to introduce this movie to the world. We needed a big idea.... More than anything, we are in showbusiness. This is the show part. ''
Shark Tale opened at # 1 with $47.6 million, which was, at the time, the second - highest opening for a DreamWorks Animation film behind Shrek 2 ($108 million). It remained as the # 1 film in the U.S. and Canada for its second and third weekends.
Overall, the movie grossed $160,861,908 in North America and $206,413,111 internationally, bringing its worldwide total to $367,275,019.
The film received a 35 % "Rotten '' rating at the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, with the consensus: "Derivative and full of pop culture in - jokes. '' On another review aggregator, Metacritic, the film holds a 48 out of 100 rating or "mixed or average reviews. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A - '' on an A+ to F scale.
John Mancini, the founder of the Italic Institute of America, protested Shark Tale for perpetuating negative stereotypes of Italian - Americans. DreamWorks reacted by changing the name of Peter Falk 's character from Don Brizzi to Don Feinberg. However, Mancini demanded that everything Italian -- character names, the mannerisms, the forms of speech -- be dropped. The American Family Association, a Christian conservative organization, raised concerns about Shark Tale, suggesting that it was designed to promote the acceptance of gay rights by children.
Roger Ebert gave Shark Tale two out of four stars, observing, "Since the target audience for Shark Tale is presumably kids and younger teenagers, how many of them have seen the R - rated Godfather and will get all the inside jokes? Not a few, I suppose, and some of its characters and dialogue have passed into common knowledge. But it 's strange that a kid - oriented film would be based on parody of a 1972 gangster movie for adults. '' He also opined that younger viewers would have trouble enjoying a film about adult characters with adult problems, such as an elaborate love triangle and a main character wanting to clear his debt with loan sharks, and compared it to more successful fish - focused animated features like Pixar Animation Studios ' Finding Nemo, which Ebert felt featured a simpler plot that audiences could more easily identify with. However, Richard Roeper commented that although the film was n't on the same level as Finding Nemo, it was definitely a film worth seeing.
Shark Tale was released on DVD and VHS on February 8, 2005, accompanied with a DVD - exclusive animated short film Club Oscar. The three - and - a-half - minute short film continues where the main film ends, showing the characters of Shark Tale dancing at the whale wash to a spoof of Saturday Night Fever. It was also released on Game Boy Advance Video in October 2005.
Shark Tale: Motion Picture Soundtrack was released on September 21, 2004. The soundtrack features newly recorded music by various artists, including Justin Timberlake with Timbaland, Christina Aguilera, JoJo, Ludacris, Mary J. Blige, and Will Smith, and also features the first song recorded by pop group The Pussycat Dolls as well as the film 's closing theme composed by Hans Zimmer.
Janet Jackson and Beyoncé initially planned to record a duet for the film 's soundtrack. Jackson 's frequent collaborator Jimmy Jam, who had recently worked with Beyoncé for The Fighting Temptations soundtrack, commented "Obviously we 'd love to have the involvement of Janet and Beyonce, who we just worked with on Fighting Temptations. They 've already expressed interest '', adding "There are a lot of opportunities with an animated piece to work with some different people. '' Jeffrey Katzenberg, CEO of DreamWorks ' Animations, had appointed Jackson 's producers Jam & Lewis to be involved with the soundtrack, though the duo only ended up producing only one song for the film, with Jam saying "We worked for DreamWorks before on the Bryan Adams song for Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron and the Boyz II Men tune for The Prince of Egypt, and Katzenberg is a fan of what we do. He thought we would be perfect to do the music for Shark Tale. ''
In April 2011, Jeffrey Katzenberg commented that the studio did not have plans to produce future movie genre parodies, like Shark Tale, Monsters vs. Aliens, and Megamind, saying that these films "all shared an approach and tone and idea of parody, and did not travel well internationally. We do n't have anything like that coming on our schedule now. ''
A video game based on the film was released on September 29, 2004 for Microsoft Windows, Xbox, GameCube, PlayStation 2, and Game Boy Advance. Published by Activision, Edge of Reality developed the console versions of the game, while Vicarious Visions developed the Game Boy Advance version, and Amaze Entertainment developed the PC version. The cast from the film did not reprise their roles in the game.
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how many places are there in super mario odyssey | Super Mario Odyssey - Wikipedia
Super Mario Odyssey is a 3D platform - adventure video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo Switch. An installment in the Super Mario series, the story follows Mario and Cappy, a spirit that possesses Mario 's hat and allows him to take control of other characters and objects, as they set on a journey across various worlds to save Princess Peach from his nemesis Bowser, who plans to marry her. In contrast to the linear gameplay of prior entries, the game returns to the primarily open - ended, exploration - based gameplay previously featured in Super Mario 64 and Super Mario Sunshine.
Development began after the completion of Super Mario 3D World in 2013. Various ideas were suggested during development, and to incorporate them all, the team decided to employ a sandbox - style of gameplay. Unlike the more casual - oriented 3D World, Odyssey was designed to specifically appeal to the series ' core audience. The game also features a theme song with lyrics, "Jump Up, Super Star! '', which was a first for the series. Super Mario Odyssey was released worldwide on October 27, 2017, receiving universal acclaim from critics, with many calling it one of the best games in the series. Within three days of its release, the game had sold over two million copies worldwide.
Super Mario Odyssey is a platform game in which players control the titular protagonist, Mario, as he travels across many worlds on the Odyssey, his hat - shaped ship, in an effort to rescue Princess Peach from Bowser, who plans to marry her. The game sees Mario traveling to various worlds known as "Kingdoms '', which return to the free - roaming exploration - based level design featured in Super Mario 64 and Super Mario Sunshine, with each featuring unique designs ranging from photo - realistic cities to more fantasy - based worlds. Each kingdom has Mario searching for and clearing various objectives in order to obtain items known as Power Moons, which can power up the Odyssey and grant access to new worlds. Checkpoint flags littered throughout each world allow Mario to instantly warp to them once activated. Certain levels feature areas called "flat '' zones, where Mario is placed in a side - scrolling environment similar to his appearance in the original Super Mario Bros.
In addition to Mario 's existing repertoire of moves, such as triple - jumping and wall - jumping, Mario is able to throw out his cap, which is the physical form of a spirit named Cappy. The cap can be thrown in multiple directions to attack enemies and can also be used as a temporary platform. When the cap is thrown at certain objects, enemies, or non-playable characters, Mario is able to take possession of them, referred to as "capturing '', allowing him to use unique abilities. For example, Mario can possess a Bullet Bill to fly across large gaps, a bolt of electricity to climb up electric wires, and a tank to fire at enemies. Some actions can be accelerated through the use of the motion controls in the Joy - Con controllers, though the game is otherwise fully playable when the Joy - Cons are attached to the Switch console. Throughout the game, Mario can pick up coins, including purple ones unique to each kingdom, to be spent on items such as new hats and outfits, some of which are required for completing certain objectives. Mario loses ten coins if he dies, either by falling into a pit or taking damage; there is otherwise no penalty for death. The game also features cooperative play, in which a second player takes control of Cappy and can attack enemies independently of Mario.
The game requires a minimum number of Power Moons to be collected from each Kingdom to move onto the next, though these may be obtained from any source, making major objectives largely optional. Once Bowser is defeated, each level is repopulated with even more Power Moons, some of which require advanced techniques to obtain. Collecting enough Power Moons allows for additional outfits to be purchased and unlocks two bonus areas, one of which is a boss rush. There is also a level based on Peach 's castle from Super Mario 64 that allows Mario to jump through paintings and face harder versions of previously - defeated bosses; this level also has additional Power Moons that can be earned by completing in - game achievements.
The game features a photo mode that allows players to use a free - moving camera to take and save screenshots, with additional options such as filters and stickers. Use of the Odyssey - themed Mario, Peach, and Bowser Amiibo figurines each allow for special in - game abilities as well as unlocking special costumes which are otherwise unavailable until after the player completes the game and collects enough Power Moons. Other Amiibo can be scanned to provide hints to finding Power Moons.
Mario attempts to stop Bowser from kidnapping Princess Peach to force her to marry him, but Bowser, with help of the Broodals, a group of anthropomorphic rabbit wedding planners, knocks Mario off Bowser 's airship and shreds his signature cap in the process. Mario wakes up in the Cap Kingdom and meets Cappy, one of several sentient hat - like creatures called Bonneters that inhabit it. Cappy tells Mario that Bowser has taken his sister Tiara for use as Peach 's wedding tiara, and deduces Bowser is collecting more objects related to his planned wedding from other kingdoms. Cappy, seeing a scrap from Mario 's cap, transforms into a duplicate of it, and provides Mario with the ability to fling him at and possess the bodies of other creatures and objects (euphemistically referred to as "capturing ''), allowing them to set off and rescue Peach and Tiara. They first travel to the nearby Cascade Kingdom and recover the Odyssey, an airship capable of chasing after Bowser once fuelled with a number of Power Moons.
As Mario and Cappy explore the various kingdoms of the world, they find their progress stalled by Bowser and the Broodals, at times damaging the Odyssey and forcing the pair to restore it with Power Moons before they can travel again. Eventually, they catch up to Bowser in his own kingdom and defeat the Broodals, but Bowser departs for his wedding on the Moon. Mario and Cappy give chase and make their way to a cathedral on the Moon where the wedding is about to take place. After being dropped into a cavern under the Moon 's surface, Mario and Bowser face off once again, and Mario gains the upper hand, knocking Bowser out and freeing Peach and Tiara. However, the cavern suddenly starts to collapse. To escape with Peach from the core of the Moon, Mario uses Cappy to capture Bowser, using his powerful claws to burst their way free. Peach is grateful for Mario 's help, but as he tries to propose to her, Bowser wakes up and attempts to woo her as well. Mario competes with Bowser, but Peach rejects them both, inexplicably leaving with Cappy and Tiara aboard the Odyssey. Mario jumps off Bowser and makes it aboard just in time as they head back to the Mushroom Kingdom, leaving Bowser stranded on the Moon.
The game 's development began after Super Mario 3D World released in late 2013, and was created by the same development team. Under director Kenta Motokura, the team experimented to find fun concepts based on the series ' "theme of surprise ''. For example, the team found that throwing a hat was the most pleasing action to perform with the Joy - Con controller, resulting in the hat "capture '' game mechanic. The brainstorm resulted in a large number of eccentric prototypes, and the developers sought to incorporate them by orienting the game as a series of dense, sandbox environments. This led to the game 's varied Kingdom environments, each with unique game mechanics. The developers prioritized the city environment when selecting which environments to represent in Odyssey. They wanted a familiar aspect from the series to anchor players in the novel setting, and so chose Pauline, a character who first appeared alongside Mario in Donkey Kong, to be the mayor of the world known as New Donk City. Some of Mario 's in - game costume options reference his various prior appearances in other games of the series, such as Mario 's Picross and Super Mario Maker.
Odyssey was designed to appeal to Mario 's core audience -- a departure from the series ' recent focus on casual players. Unlike prior titles which send Mario back to the beginning of the level after finding each main collectible, the Power Moons are designed to be found in continual exploration, with the game having more major collectibles than previous ones in the series. The lack of required Power Moons for game progression gave players a wider liberty to explore at their leisure rather than advancing the story -- a new direction for the series and a design challenge for development staff. The developers wanted players to check everything that aroused their attention for secrets. Shigeru Miyamoto, the series ' creator, was not involved in the game 's daily decision - making, but rather served as an executive producer, with the development team consulting him on the best ways to express game concepts. Miyamoto 's feedback was specific, offering suggestions rather than ultimatums, but was highly supportive overall.
A first in the series, Nintendo 's character development of Pauline led to them writing a theme song with vocals, which eventually ended up representing the entire game. The swing music - inspired song, "Jump Up, Super Star! '', was composed by the game 's lead composer Naoto Kubo and performed by Kate Davis, who also did the voice acting for Pauline. The lyrics were originally written in Japanese by Nobuyoshi Suzuki, which was later localized in English by Nintendo of America employee Rob Tunstall, who refined them along with Rob Heiret, the game 's lead English writer. Nintendo 's intent with the song was to create a "fun '' jazz track that could be enjoyed outside of the game, but with references to the Mario franchise that could be further appreciated by fans of the series. Additionally, they wanted a chorus that was simple enough for non-English speakers to sing along to. Another vocal track featured in the game, "Break Free (Lead the Way) '', was written following the same process. Additional music for the game was composed by Shiho Fujii and longtime series composer Koji Kondo.
Two weeks before the game 's release, Nintendo uploaded a Broadway - inspired promotional music video of the song, which featured a CGI Mario alongside live action dancers. The song was released on iTunes shortly after, breaking into the top 40 best sellers in the United States. A four - disc, 136 track complete soundtrack is set to be released in Japan by Being Inc. in February 2018. The soundtrack will also include comments from Aimi Mukohara, who performed a Japanese version of "Jump Up, Super Star! '', among other staff members who worked on the game. In addition to the full soundtrack, a 12 - track digital album featuring a selection of the game 's music was released worldwide on iTunes in December 2017.
The game was teased in the 2016 announcement trailer of the Nintendo Switch, and formally announced at Nintendo 's January 2017 presentation on the new console. Gameplay footage soon followed. At E3 2017, a New Donk City - themed section with multiple kiosks was set up, allowing attendees to demo the game.
The game was released worldwide on October 27, 2017. White wedding - themed Mario, Bowser, and Princess Peach Amiibo figurines were released to complement the game. Nintendo released a limited edition Switch console bundle, which includes the console, a pair of Cappy - red - colored Joy - Cons, a Switch carrying case, and an eShop download code for the game. In addition, Nintendo partnered with food manufacturing company Kellogg 's in December 2017 to release a Mario - themed breakfast cereal in the United States, known as "Super Mario Cereal ''. The back of the box contains an NFC tag to function as an Amiibo for use in the game.
At its announcement at E3 2017, Odyssey was the show 's most popular game on social media and was considered best in show among developers in attendance. Early impressions from critics noted that the game was dense with secrets and more focused on exploration than progression. Andrew Webster of The Verge thought that the structure of the game lent itself well to the portable nature of the Switch, which players could play for either long sessions in order to follow the missions, or in short bursts while collecting "Power Moons '', which the author compared to the "shrines '', or hidden mini-dungeons, which were scattered throughout Breath of the Wild. Despite the praise, Webster noted that the motion controls "felt frustratingly imprecise '', preferring the accuracy of standard controls. The ability for Mario to turn into his 2D Super Mario Bros. form in certain constrained segments was compared to the puzzles featured in The Legend of Zelda: A Link Between Worlds, while VentureBeat made note of the game 's similarities to the Sonic the Hedgehog series.
Upon release, Super Mario Odyssey received "universal acclaim '' from critics according to review aggregator Metacritic, where it is the fifth - highest rated game on the platform, tied with a number of others. Edge praised the inventiveness of the game 's new ideas and the risks Nintendo had taken to deviate from the established formula of Mario games, which they believed had paid off. They likened the game to Super Mario 64 and called it the spiritual successor that had previously not yet been achieved. The magazine also complimented the introduction of Cappy and the capturing mechanic, which they called the most versatile ability in the Mario series to date, and enjoyed how the ability allowed Nintendo to reinvent a number of their favorite gameplay activities. Famitsu gave the game a score of 39 / 40, the same as Super Mario 64 and the highest score for a 3D Mario game since then. Perfect 10 / 10 scores were also awarded by IGN and GameSpot, who both praised the game 's originality.
Entertainment Weekly and Giant Bomb both ranked the game second in their list of the "Best Games of 2017 '', while Eurogamer ranked it third on their list of the "Top 50 Games of 2017 ''. Readers of Game Informer voted it as the best platforming game of the year, while also voting it as Game of the Year, along with Best Nintendo Game.
More than two million copies of the game were sold worldwide three days after release, with more than 500,000 of those being in Japan. During its launch week, the game competed with Assassin 's Creed Origins, which it was narrowly outsold by in the UK. In the United States and Europe, it became Nintendo 's fastest - selling Super Mario game ever, with 1.1 million copies sold in the US within five days. According to the NPD Group, the game was the best - selling video game of October 2017, and was listed by Amazon as the online retailer 's highest - selling game of the year. It sold 63,538 digital copies in Japan between September 25 and the end of October 2017.
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how did germany violate the freedom of the seas | Freedom of the seas - wikipedia
Freedom of the seas (Latin: mare liberum, lit. "free sea '') is a principle in the international law and sea. It stresses freedom to navigate the oceans. It also disapproves of war fought in water. The freedom is to be breached only in a necessary international agreement.
This principle was one of U.S. President Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points proposed during the First World War. In his speech to the Congress, the president said:
Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of international covenants.
The United States ' allies Britain and France were opposed to this point, as Great Britain was also a considerable naval power at the time. As with Wilson 's other points, freedom of the seas was rejected by the German government.
Today, the concept of "freedom of the seas '' can be found in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea under Article 87 (1) which states: "the high seas are open to all states, whether coastal or land - locked ''. Article 87 (1) (a) to (f) gives a non-exhaustive list of freedoms including navigation, overflight, the laying of submarine cables, building artificial islands, fishing and scientific research.
Between the end of the 15th century up until the 17th century various powers claimed sovereignty over parts of the sea. In 1609, Dutch jurist and philosopher Hugo Grotius wrote what is considered the foundation of international legal doctrine regarding the seas and oceans -- Mare Liberum, a Latin title that translates to "freedom of the seas ''. The Grotian concept of "freedom of the sea '' was only accepted after a century long debate between Grotius ' ideas and John Selden 's.
While it is generally assumed that Grotius first propounded the principle of freedom of the seas, countries in the Indian Ocean and other Asian seas accepted the right of unobstructed navigation long before Grotius wrote his De Jure Praedae (On the Law of Spoils) in the year of 1604. Previously, in the 16th century, Spanish theologian Francisco de Vitoria postulated the idea of freedom of the seas in a more rudimentary fashion under the principles of jus gentium.
During World War II, nations started to expand and claim many resources and water territories all over their surrounding coasts. There were four international treaties meticulously drafted in the late 1950s and onto the 1970s, but the issues were not resolved between nations until 1982 when the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea was introduced.
UNCLOS is a Law of the Sea treaty: an agreement of rights and responsibilities of nations and their use of the world 's ocean with guidelines of trade, environment, and the management of marine and open seas resources. UNCLOS replaced the four international treaties drafted in the late 1950s through 1970s. As of 2013, 165 countries and the European Union have joined the Convention.
According to international law, Article 92 of the convention which describes ships shall sail under the flag of one state only and, save in exceptional cases expressly provided for in international treaties or in this Convention, shall be subject to its exclusive jurisdiction on the high seas; however, when a ship is involved in certain criminal acts, such as piracy, any nation can exercise jurisdiction under the doctrine of universal jurisdiction. High seas were defined as any part of the sea that was not either territorial sea or internal waters, territorial waters and exclusive economic zones. Article 88 of the 1982 Convention states that the high seas shall be reserved for peaceful purposes. Many countries engage in military maneuvers and the testing of conventional weapons and nuclear weapons on the high seas. In order to deliver the right punishment to the right person or state, ships must be registered to a country to show proof of ownership. The owner of the vessel sometimes prefers to pay the lower registration fees by picking countries such as Panama, Bermuda, Italy, Malta and the Netherlands. According to Cruise Lines International Association, 90 % of commercial vessels calling on U.S. ports fly foreign flags. To avoid the high cost with more rules and regulations, ships and tankers sometime prefer lower cost registration with a lower standard of inspection and regulation by picking a country that exercises less control over their registered ships, though many ships are owned by individuals or companies in another country (most commonly Japan and Greece) under a system called "flag of convenience ''. Registering a ship in Panama means that the ship is governed by the maritime rules of Panama rather than the ship owner 's country. Ship owners do this because Panama has low taxes and fewer labor and safety regulations than most other countries. Ship owners can make their staff work longer hours in less safe environments, and therefore maximize their profits. Other countries, including Liberia, Cyprus and the Bahamas also offer flags of convenience, but Panama has the most ships registered under the scheme. Ships registered with the US will cost more, and the employee wages will be even higher. Freedom of the seas allows a ship to move freely on the ocean as long as it follows international law.
From the Vikings to the European, Central Asia, Africa and North and South America, trade has served an important role in history, and has been a key factor of a growing economy. Trade transfers the ownership of goods from one person or entity to another by getting a product or service in exchange from the buyer. When a ship sets sail, there may be many ports waiting for it to bring goods from all over the world for trade and sale. Free trade opening up markets to foreign suppliers increases competition. Without free trade, domestic companies may have enjoyed monopolies or oligopolies that enabled them to keep prices well above marginal costs. Trade liberalization will undermine that market power.
The World Trade Organization states that "The ocean is a big part of the free trade happening around the world. Every day we see silk imported from China, fruits from Mexico, spices from India, chocolate from Africa and many more goods in our home were imported from another country. The ocean made it possible for many countries to put their cargoes on to ships and transfer them across the ocean. Hundreds of nations joined the World Trade Organization. With goods to be traded from one nation to another through the transportation on various size vessels from coast to coast, trade promoted more economic value to goods where goods and services are produced to support the supply and demand of the participants in the organization. ''
The Merchant Marine Act of 1920, also known as the Jones Act (46 USC § 883) is a maritime law that controls coastal trade within the United States and determines which ships may lawfully engage in that trade and the rules under which they must operate. The act is in place to protect jobs for US citizens and its people working at U.S. ports, and on U.S. vessels. Many vessels around the globe sail under many different flags, and have different crews from different parts of the world where the pay rate is much lower than the U.S. The Jones Act protects the Americans ' jobs and restricts coastwise transportation of passengers. 46 USC § 12108 additionally restricts the use of foreign vessels to commercially catch or transport fish in U.S. waters.
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who did the song living on tulsa time | Dottie West - wikipedia
Dottie West (born Dorothy Marie Marsh; October 11, 1932 -- September 4, 1991) was an American country music singer and songwriter. Along with her friends and fellow recording artists Patsy Cline and Loretta Lynn, she is considered one of the genre 's most influential and groundbreaking female artists. Dottie West 's career started in the 1960s, with her Top 10 hit, "Here Comes My Baby Back Again '', which won her a Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance in 1965, the first female in Country Music to receive a Grammy.
In the early 1970s, West wrote a popular commercial for the Coca - Cola company, titled "Country Sunshine '', which reached No. 2 on Billboard 's Hot Country Singles in 1973. In the late - 70s, she teamed up with country pop superstar, Kenny Rogers for a series of duets which took her career to new highs, earning Platinum selling albums and No. 1 records for the very first time.
Her duet recordings with Rogers, "Every Time Two Fools Collide '', "All I Ever Need Is You '', and "What Are We Doin ' in Love '', became country music standards. In the mid-1970s, her image and music underwent a metamorphosis, bringing her to the very peak of her popularity as a solo act, and reaching # 1 on her own for the first time in 1980 with "A Lesson in Leavin ' ''.
Dorothy Marie "Dottie '' Marsh was born on October 11, 1932 in a community called Frog Pond just outside McMinnville, Tennessee, to Pelina Artha (née Jones; 1915 -- 1970) and William Hollis Marsh (1908 -- 1967). She was the eldest of ten children. The family was poor and to make ends meet, Pelina opened up a restaurant. West often helped her mother run the establishment. Dottie 's father, Hollis Marsh, was an alcoholic who beat and sexually abused her. The abuse continued until she was 17, when she finally reported him to the local sheriff. She testified against her father in court, and he was sentenced to 40 years in prison, and eventually died there in 1967.
After living with the sheriff for a short time, she moved to McMinnville with her mother and siblings. She also joined her high school band, "The Cookskins '', where she sang and played guitar. In 1951, she obtained a music scholarship to Tennessee Technological University in Cookeville, Tennessee. There she met her first husband, a steel guitarist named Bill West, with whom she had four children. She continued to use his surname professionally. She was a lifelong active Democrat.
After graduation, Dottie West moved with her family to Cleveland, Ohio, where she began appearing on the television program Landmark Jamboree as one half of a country pop vocal duo called the "Kay - Dots '' alongside partner Kathy Dee. At the same time, West made numerous trips to Nashville in the hopes of landing a recording deal. In 1959, she and Bill auditioned for producer Don Pierce at Starday, and were immediately offered a contract. The singles West cut for the label proved unsuccessful, but she moved to Nashville two years later, where she and her husband fell in with aspiring songwriters, including Willie Nelson, Roger Miller, Hank Cochran and Harlan Howard. West often played hostess to these struggling songwriters, offering them a place to stay and eat. In return, they taught West about the structure of songwriting. During this time, she also became a close friend of groundbreaking female country singer Patsy Cline and her husband Charlie Dick.
Cline would become one of West 's biggest career inspirations. As West related to Ellis Nassour in the 1980 book Patsy Cline, the greatest advice Cline ever gave her was, "When you 're onstage sing to the audience with all of your heart and mean it. Then cast a spell over them. If you ca n't do it with feeling, then do n't. '' In their early days in Nashville, West and her family would often not have enough to pay the rent or buy the week 's groceries, so Cline would hire her to help with her wardrobe and West 's husband Bill to play in her band. Cline even offered to help pay West 's rent or buy groceries when she and Bill were struggling to stay in Nashville.
On March 5, 1963, Cline died in a plane crash along with Cowboy Copas, Hawkshaw Hawkins, and her pilot and manager Randy Hughes on her way home from a benefit at Memorial Hall in Kansas City, a concert West also attended. West had asked Cline to ride with her and Bill in their car, but Cline, anxious to get back home to her children, opted to fly instead. In 1963, Jim Reeves recorded a song written by West called "Is This Me ''. It became a No. 3 hit that year. As a result, Reeves helped West secure a recording contract with RCA Victor.
West earned her first Top 40 hit in 1963 with "Let Me Off at the Corner '', followed a year later by the Top Ten duet with Jim Reeves "Love Is No Excuse ''. Also in 1964, she auditioned for RCA Victor producer Chet Atkins, the architect of the Nashville sound, who agreed to produce her composition "Here Comes My Baby ''. The single made Dottie the first female country artist to win a Grammy Award (Best Female Country Vocal Performance), leading to an invitation to join the Grand Ole Opry. "Here Comes My Baby '' reached No. 10 on Billboard Magazine 's Country charts in 1964. After releasing the Here Comes My Baby LP in 1965, Dottie and producer Chet Atkins reunited the following year for Suffer Time, which generated her biggest hit yet in "Would You Hold It Against Me ''. In 1967, the West / Atkins pairing issued three separate albums: With All My Heart and Soul (featuring the No. 8 smash "Paper Mansions ''), Dottie West Sings Sacred Ballads and I 'll Help You Forget Her.
During the same period, she also appeared in a pair of films, Second Fiddle to a Steel Guitar and There 's a Still on the Hill. She continued to have success as a solo artist during the late 1960s with such songs as "What 's Come Over My Baby '' and "Country Girl '' which garnered her an offer to write a commercial based on it for Coca - Cola in 1970. The soft drink company liked the result so much that it signed her to a lifetime contract as a jingle writer.
After the 1968 LP Country Girl, West teamed with Don Gibson for a record of duets, Dottie and Don, featuring the number two hit "Rings of Gold '' released in 1969. The album was her last with Atkins, and she followed it in 1970 with two releases, Forever Yours and Country Boy and Country Girl, a collection of pairings with Jimmy Dean. Around the time of Have You Heard Dottie West, released in 1971, she left her husband Bill and, in 1972, married drummer Byron Metcalf, who was 12 years her junior. Due possibly in part to her recent stratospheric success with duets, her solo career suffered between 1969 and 1972. Most of her singles released at the time had failed even to peak in the Top 40, and her album sales were declining.
In 1973, West provided Coca - Cola with another ad, featuring a song called "Country Sunshine ''. The popularity of the commercial prompted her to release the song as a single, and it became one of her biggest hits, reaching No. 2 on the country charts and No. 49 on the Pop charts. The ad itself netted a Clio Award for commercial of the year and she became the first country artist ever to win that particular honor. "Country Sunshine '' proved to be a solid comeback as she was nominated for two Grammys for the song, Best Country Song and Best Female Country Vocal Performance a year later.
After the release of House of Love in 1974, West notched a number of Top 40 hits including the Top 10 "Last Time I Saw Him '', "House of Love '', and "Lay Back Lover ''. Before signing with United Artists Records in 1976, her final RCA album, Carolina Cousins, was released in 1975.
In the late 1970s, West 's image underwent a major metamorphosis; the woman who had once performed outfitted in conservative gingham dresses, and had originally refused to record Kris Kristofferson 's "Help Me Make It Through the Night '' because it was "too sexy '', began appearing in spandex - sequined Bob Mackie designs. (She had relented in late 1970 and recorded "Help Me Make It Through the Night '' on the album Careless Hands, which was released in 1971.) As the sexual revolution peaked, so did West 's career. Under United Artists, West 's material changed from traditional country to up - tempo and slow - tempo Adult Contemporary - styled music. In 1977, West released her first album under United Artists, When It 's Just You and Me. The title track peaked at No. 19 on the country charts.
In 1977, she was recording the song "Every Time Two Fools Collide '' when, according to legend, Kenny Rogers suddenly entered the studio and began singing along. Released as a duet, the single hit number one, West 's first; the duo 's 1979 "All I Ever Need Is You '' and 1981 "What Are We Doin ' in Love '' topped the charts as well. A 1979 duets album, Classics, also proved successful. The duo proved popular enough to be booked in some of the biggest venues in the United States and other countries. In 1978 and 1979, the duo won the Country Music Association 's "Vocal Duo of the Year '' award, one of West 's few major awards.
During the 1980s, West continued to generate solo hits, most notably "A Lesson in Leavin ' ''. Her popularity as a featured performer on the Grand Ole Opry endured as well. "A Lesson in Leavin ' '' was West 's first No. 1 solo hit. It also peaked at No. 73 on the pop charts. A week before "A Lesson in Leavin ' '' reached the No. 1 spot, it was part of a historic Top 5 in country music, when the Top 5 spots were all held by women. The album that included this song, Special Delivery, included two other Top 15 Country hits from 1980, "You Pick Me Up (And Put Me Down) '' and "Leavin 's for Unbelievers ''. In 1981, West had a pair of back - to - back No. 1 hits, "Are You Happy Baby '' and "What Are We Doin ' in Love '' with Kenny Rogers. "What Are We Doin ' in Love '' was West 's only Top 40 hit on the pop charts, reaching No. 14, becoming a major crossover hit in mid-1981. Her 1981 album Wild West was one of her biggest sellers.
As the 1980s progressed, West 's popularity began to slip. However, she did introduce herself to younger audiences as she lent her voice to Melissa Raccoon in the film The Raccoons and the Lost Star (1983), a precursor to the later series produced by Kevin Gillis, The Raccoons. West 's 1982 album High Time spawned her last Top 20 hit, "It 's High Time '', which reached No. 16. The album 's other single, "You 're Not Easy to Forget '', only peaked at No. 26. West 's next two albums under Liberty Records, Full Circle and New Horizons, were both commercial failures. West 's last Top 40 hit was "Tulsa Ballroom '' (1983) In 1984, West departed from her label and switched to the independent label Permian.
In 1981, West 's daughter Shelly also made a career in country music; she is best known for her hit duet with David Frizzell, "You 're the Reason God Made Oklahoma '', which hit No. 1 that year. As a solo artist, Shelly notched her own No. 1 in 1983 entitled "José Cuervo ''. During the early and mid 1980s, Shelly achieved several more hits, including Top 10 solo hits "Flight 309 to Tennessee '' and "Another Motel Memory. '' After getting married in the late 1980s, Shelly left the music business. In 1980, Dottie West filed for divorce from Byron Metcalf, citing his drinking and infidelity.
In 1982, she was asked to play the lead role in the stage production of The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas. That summer, she toured for four weeks in the stage production, performing across the country. She had her own float in the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade that year. She also posed for a revealing photo in the men 's magazine Oui. In 1983, she married her sound man, Al Winters, 22 years her junior. In 1984, she appeared in the play Bring It On Home. In 1986, she made her screen debut in the science fiction film The Aurora Encounter. In 1984, West released her final studio album, Just Dottie. This album was not very successful; all three of the singles that it contained failed to chart in the Top 40. Her last chart hit, "We Know Better Now '', reached only number 53 in 1985.
Although she remained a popular touring act, West 's financial problems mounted. West and Winters filed for divorce in 1990, and he sued her for $7,500. By this time, extravagant spending and a string of bad investments by her investors had left her nearly broke. In March, her Los Angeles manager sued her for $130,000, and her former manager sued her for $110,295. Furthermore, a local bank foreclosed on her mansion outside of Nashville, and sent West an eviction notice on August 1, 1990. At this time, West owed the IRS $1.3 million and filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy; she later switched to Chapter 7, which allowed her to liquidate her assets. West 's fan - club president, Sandy Orwig, told The Nashville Network in a 1995 interview that according to West, the "IRS would show up at her door anytime of the day or night, taking her possessions. They even separated and took apart her award plaques, throwing half in one box and the other in another. ''
After a car accident in her Corvette and a public auction of her mansion and possessions, West began making plans for a comeback, including an album of duets and an autobiography. The album was to feature West 's friends and fellow artists Kenny Rogers, Roger Miller, Tanya Tucker and Tammy Wynette. However, the album never materialized. She recorded her last song in July 1991 called "As For Me '', a duet with Norwegian country singer Arne Benoni.
On August 30, 1991, West was scheduled to perform at the Grand Ole Opry. Shortly after leaving her apartment at Nashville 's Wessex Towers, West 's car, a Chrysler New Yorker that Kenny Rogers had given her following the loss of her possessions at the IRS auction, stalled in front of the old Belle Meade theater on Harding Road. West 's 81 - year - old neighbor, George Thackston, spotted her on the side of the road and offered to drive her to the Opry for her scheduled appearance. Frantic about getting to the Opry on time, West had urged Thackston to speed.
Thackston lost control of his vehicle while exiting at the Opryland exit on Briley Parkway at a speed of 55 miles per hour; the exit ramp was posted for 25 miles per hour. The car left the ramp, went airborne and struck the central division. West did not believe that she was as badly injured as her neighbor had been and insisted he be treated first. Officers who responded to the scene incorrectly reported that she did not seem harmed at the time. West herself was under the same impression, however she suffered severe internal injuries and proved to have suffered both a ruptured spleen and a lacerated liver. Her spleen was removed that Friday and, the following Monday, she underwent two more surgeries to stop her liver from bleeding; these ultimately failed in that effort. Doctors said that West knew the extent of her injuries and even visited with Kenny Rogers shortly before her last operation. On September 4, 1991, during her third operation, West died on the operating table at 9: 43 a.m., at the age of 58.
West 's friend and fellow artist Tammy Wynette stated that she had put aside visiting her in the hospital, saying that she planned to allow her to heal first, something she admitted to later regretting. In his autobiography, Kenny Rogers, who maintained a close friendship with West, stated that he did pay a visit her in hospital a few times prior to her death. On his last visit (the day of West 's death), Rogers recalled that although he was told it was unlikely that West could hear him, he still spoke to her for a considerable amount of time in the hope she could hear what he was saying.
West 's funeral was held at Christ Church on Old Hickory Boulevard with 600 friends and family attendees, including Emmylou Harris, Connie Smith, Johnny Cash and June Carter Cash and Larry Gatlin. West 's friend and fellow artist, Steve Wariner, whom she had helped moved to Nashville as a young artist, sang "Amazing Grace ''. A couple of weeks later, President George H.W. Bush, a longtime fan for whom she had performed at the White House, expressed his condolences at the CMA Awards. West 's hometown of McMinnville, Tennessee dedicated Highway 56 to her memory, naming it the Dottie West Memorial Highway.
A previously planned country music - themed week for the 1991 - 92 season of the syndicated Family Feud scheduled to feature Grand Ole Opry stars playing for charity was dedicated in her memory.
George Thackston pleaded no contest to a charge of reckless endangerment arising out of the fatal accident. On March 26, 1992, a judge sentenced him to 11 months and 29 days of probation and also ordered him to complete an alcohol treatment program. A blood alcohol test performed after the crash found that Thackston had a blood alcohol level of. 08, which was not enough for him to be considered intoxicated under Tennessee law.
In 1995, actress Michele Lee, with the help of West 's daughter, Shelly, produced and starred in the made - for - TV biopic Big Dreams and Broken Hearts: The Dottie West Story that premiered on CBS. Lee starred with Kenny Rogers; wore all of West 's original clothes, including her famed Bob Mackie outfits; and even sang West 's hits for the movie. It proved to be one of the most successful TV movies in CBS history. That same year, a biography called Country Sunshine: The Dottie West Story was released, written by Judy Berryhill and Francis Meeker.
In 1999, country music singer Jo Dee Messina covered West 's biggest solo hit, "A Lesson in Leavin ' '' for her album I 'm Alright. The song stayed at No. 2 for seven weeks on the Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart that year, and was one of the year 's biggest songs.
In 2000, West was honored with the BMI Golden Voice Awards with the Female Golden Legacy Award. She was the second woman to win this type of BMI award, the first being her friend and mentor Patsy Cline. Today, her hometown of McMinnville, Tennessee holds a "Dottie West Music Festival '' each year in October. West was ranked No. 23 in Country Music Television 's 40 Greatest Women of Country Music in 2002.
In November 2003, CMT television voted West on their special countdown of the 40 Greatest Fashion Statements in Country Music at No. 32 for her glittery costumes and tight spandex outfits from the 1980s time period.
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how many babies r us stores in usa | Toys "R '' Us - wikipedia
Toys "R '' Us, Inc. is an American toy and juvenile - products retailer founded in 1948 and headquartered in Wayne, New Jersey, in the New York City metropolitan area.
The company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the U.S. on September 18, 2017, and has also filed for bankruptcy protection in Canada (see Companies ' Creditors Arrangement Act). They have stated their stores will continue to operate. Operations in Europe and Australia, licensed stores and joint venture partnership in Asia, which are separate entities, are not part of the Chapter 11 filing.
The company 's brands include Toys "R '' Us, and Babies "R '' Us. It also operates e-commerce sites including ToysRUs.com and BabiesRUs.com.
The company owns or licenses 866 Toys "R '' Us and Babies "R '' Us stores in the United States and Puerto Rico, more than 750 international stores and more than 245 licensed stores in 37 countries and jurisdictions.
Charles P. Lazarus (born 1923) founded Children 's Supermart (which would evolve into Toys "R '' Us) in Washington, D.C., during the post-war baby boom era in 1948 as a baby - furniture retailer. Its first location was at 2461 18th St. NW, where the nightclub Madam 's Organ Blues Bar is located. Lazarus began receiving requests from customers for baby toys. After adding baby toys, he got requests for toys for older children. The focus of the store changed in 1957, and Toys "R '' Us was born in Rockville, Maryland. Toys "R '' Us was acquired in 1966 by Interstate Department Stores, Inc., owner of the White Front, Topps Chains and Children 's Bargain Town USA, a toy - store chain related to Toys "R '' Us in the American Midwest that would later be combined with the rest of the Toys "R '' Us chain. The original Toys "R '' Us store design from 1969 to 1989 consisted of vertical rainbow stripes and a brown roof with a front entrance and side exit.
At its peak, Toys "R '' Us was considered a classic example of a category killer, a business that specializes so thoroughly and efficiently in one sector that it pushes out competition from both smaller specialty stores and larger general retailers. Since the rise of mass merchants like Walmart, Target and Amazon, however, Toys "R '' Us has lost much of its share of the toy market, and fell behind Walmart in toy sales for 1998.
To improve the company, the board of directors installed John Eyler (formerly of FAO Schwarz). Eyler launched an unsuccessful, expensive plan to remodel and re-launch the chain. Blaming market pressures (primarily competition from Wal - Mart and Target), Toys "R '' Us considered splitting its toy and baby businesses. On July 21, 2005, a consortium of Bain Capital Partners LLC, Kohlberg Kravis Roberts (KKR) and Vornado Realty Trust invested $1.3 billion to complete a $6.6 billion leveraged buyout of the company. Public stock closed for the last time at $26.74 -- pennies from the 68 - week high, but far short of its all - time high of almost $45 in fourth - quarter 1993 and its five - year high of $31 in Q2 2001. Toys "R '' Us is now a privately owned entity. However, the company still files with the Securities and Exchange Commission (as required by its debt agreements).
Formerly known as Dr. G. Raffe, the company 's mascot Geoffrey the Giraffe made his debut during 1957 in print advertisements for Children 's Bargain Town. During 1969, when Children 's Bargain Town became Toys "R '' Us, Dr. G. Raffe was renamed Geoffrey and became the official Toys "R '' Us "spokesanimal ''.
On September 18, 2017, Toys "R '' Us, Inc. filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, stating the move would give it flexibility to deal with $5 billion in long - term debt, borrow $2 billion so it can pay suppliers for the upcoming holiday season and invest in improving current operations. Despite this, the company has stated that their brick - and - mortar stores and online sales sites will continue to operate.
A company statement quoted in The Sydney Morning Herald said only U.S. and Canadian operations are affected:
The company has not had an annual profit since 2013. It reported a net loss of $ US164 million in the quarter ended April 29, 2017. It lost $ US 126 million in the same period in the prior year.
Kids "R '' Us was a children 's clothing retailer. Their first locations opened in 1983 in Paramus, New Jersey and Brooklyn, New York. The chain folded in 2003.
1983 -- 2003, original logo over the Imaginarium logo
1986 -- 2003, last logo
Babies "R '' Us operates as a specialty baby products retailer and has grown to approximately 260 locations in the United States. The stores offers an assortment of products for newborns, infants, and toddlers.
A Babies "R '' Us store with the 1996 -- 2006 logo.
2007 -- present (next to the 1986 -- 2006 Toys "R '' US logo)
In addition to its expansion in the United States, Toys "R '' Us launched a worldwide presence in 1984 when the company opened its first international wholly owned store in Canada (70 stores headquartered in Concord, Ontario) and licensed operation in Singapore. Toys "R '' Us, International operates more than 600 international stores and over 140 licensed stores in 35 countries and jurisdictions outside the United States, including Australia, Canada, France, the Netherlands, Germany (60), Switzerland (7), Austria (14), Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom, among others. The company continues to grow internationally, and made its most recent entry into a new market in October 2011 when it opened its first licensed location in Poland (Blue City).
In 2006, Toys "R '' Us purchased remaining shares of Toys "R '' Us, Japan from McDonald 's Holdings Co., increasing its ownership from approximately 62 % to slightly over 90 %.
In May 2006, Toys "R '' Us, Inc. acquired toy retailer FAO Schwarz including the retailer 's flagship store on Fifth Avenue in New York City, as well as its e-commerce site, FAO.com. The company closed the FAO Schwarz flagship store in New York on July 15, 2015 citing rising rental costs, but continues to carry FAO Schwarz branded toys in its Toys "R '' Us and Babies "R '' Us stores.
For the 2009 holiday - shopping season, Toys "R '' Us tried a smaller - store concept to attract customers and 90 "Holiday Express '' stores across the United States and Canada were opened. The Holiday Express stores are smaller than regular Toys "R '' Us locations, often located in malls, and offer a more limited selection of merchandise than would be available at a stand - alone Toys "R '' Us store. Most (if not all) of these 90 stores were opened in shopping - center and mall spaces that had been vacated by store chains closing their doors during the recession (including KB Toys, several of which were taken over by Toys "R '' Us). Toys "R '' Us 's plan was to keep the Holiday Express stores open until early January 2010 and close them shortly thereafter, but the success of so many prompted the company to reconsider and several were kept open. These stores are known as "Toys "R '' Us Express ". Beginning in June 2010, Toys "R '' Us opened a total of 600 Express locations. Four more were converted to Toys "R '' Us outlet stores.
Following a disastrous Christmas 1999 trading period where it failed to deliver gifts on time, it entered into a ten - year contract with Amazon.com to be the exclusive supplier of toys on the website. Amazon eventually reneged on the terms of the contract by allowing third - party retailers to use its marketplace to sell toys, citing Toys "R '' Us 's failure to carry a sufficiently large range of goods, including the most popular lines. In 2006 Toys "R '' Us won a lawsuit against Amazon and in 2009 were awarded $51 million, just over half of the $93 million damages claimed for in their filing.
It placed at # 29 in the Internet Retailer Top 500 Guide for 2012. Toysrus.com is one of the most visited sites in the specialty toy and baby products retail category with an assortment of toys. In addition, Babiesrus.com offers a wide selection of baby products and supplies and access to the company 's baby registry.
Looking to expand its web portfolio, in February 2009, the company acquired online toy seller eToys.com from Parent Co., which filed for bankruptcy protection in December 2008. Financial terms were not disclosed. Around the same time, it was reported that Toys "R '' Us, Inc. bought Toys.com for an estimated $5.1 million. Today, the company operates Toys.com to list unadvertised and exclusive deals available on its portfolio of e-commerce sites.
In 2010, Toys "R '' Us, Inc. reported that its Internet sales grew 29.9 % year - over-year to $782 million from $602 million, and in April 2011, the company announced plans to open a dedicated e-commerce fulfillment center in McCarran, Nevada. The company later reported online sales of $1 billion for 2011 and $1.1 billion for 2012.
On April 11, 2011, Toys "R '' Us announced that it plans to cover 70 percent of the roof of its distribution center (located in Flanders, New Jersey) with a solar installation. The company claims this 5.38 - megawatt solar project will be the largest rooftop solar installation in North America.
On August 23, 2011, Toys "R '' Us Inc. announced it would open 21 new stores before year 's end, as part of an overall strategy the company has been pursuing since 2006 to house Toys "R '' Us and Babies "R '' Us in the same building. The company says the stores provide more shopper convenience. The privately held toy company said this will include 11 "R '' Superstores -- which have full - size Toys "R '' Us and Babies "R '' Us stores in one location -- and 10 stores that will have smaller Toys "R '' Us and Babies "R '' Us stores in the same location. The stores will be in 13 states including Alabama, California, Georgia, New Jersey, and Texas. It 's also remodeling 23 existing stores so that the two stores will be in the same location.
Toys "R '' Us has reportedly implemented high safety standards, and in 2007 vowed to take an aggressive approach towards holding vendors accountable for meeting those standards. Former Chairman and CEO Gerald L. Storch, testifying before the Senate Appropriations Subcommittee on Financial Services and General Government on toy safety in September 2007, said he supported new legislation strengthening toy - safety standards and outlined new initiatives the retailer had set forth to ensure that its customers receive timely information on recalls (including a new website).
In 2008, the company introduced stricter product safety standards exceeding federal requirements. Among the new standards was a requirement for materials inside toys to meet a standard of 250 parts per million of lead for all products manufactured exclusively for the retailer (compared with the federal standard of 600 ppm.) Toys "R '' Us also announced the requirement that baby products be produced without the addition of phthalates, which have raised concerns about infant safety. The company has since adjusted its requirements to meet new federal standards enacted with the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008.
In early 2014, Toys "R '' Us, Inc. announced its "TRU Transformation '' strategy, which concentrates on efforts to fix foundational issues in order to position the company for growth in the future. The company will focus on improving shopping experiences in - store and online. To improve the customer experience, the company plans to manage inventory better, make stores less cluttered and easier to shop, and develop a clear pricing strategy with simpler promotional offers. The company will also focus on integrating its in - store and online businesses more fully.
In 2013, Quartz called Toys "R '' Us the largest standalone toy store chain in the world. Since the toy business is incredibly seasonal, more than 40 % of the company 's sales come in during the fourth quarter of the year.
In December 2013, eight days before Christmas, Toys "R '' Us announced that their stores in the United States will stay open for 87 hours straight. The flagship store of the retailer in New York Times Square was open for 24 hours a day from December 1 up to December 24 -- for a total of 566 consecutive hours to cater to shoppers who were mostly tourists. The announcement came after snow and rain caused a nearly 9 percent year - over-year decline in store foot traffic in the United States.
This move also pushed the retailer to hire an additional 45,000 seasonal workers to cater to the demand of the extended store hours.
1975 -- 2007 (U.S.), 1985 -- May 2008 (UK / Ireland), prototype logo
The logo used from 1986 to 2006 in the United States and in the United Kingdom and Ireland from 1986 to May 2008. This logo can still be seen at many older stores.
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what does do not use the lord's name in vain mean | Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain - wikipedia
"Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain '' (KJV; also "You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord your God '' (NRSV) and variants) is one of the Ten Commandments.
It is a prohibition of blasphemy, specifically, the misuse or "taking in vain '' of the name of the God of Israel. Exodus 20: 7 reads:
Based on this commandment, Second Temple Judaism by the Hellenistic period developed a taboo of pronouncing the name of God at all, resulting in the replacement of the Tetragrammaton by "Adonai '' (literally "my lords '' -- see Adonai) in pronunciation.
In the Hebrew Bible itself, the commandment is directed against abuse of the name of God, not against any use; there are numerous examples in the Hebrew Bible and a few in the New Testament where God 's name is called upon in oaths to tell the truth or to support the truth of the statement being sworn to, and the books of Daniel and Revelation include instances where an angel sent by God invokes the name of God to support the truth of apocalyptic revelations. God himself is presented as swearing by his own name ("As surely as I live... '') to guarantee the certainty of various events foretold through the prophets.
The Hebrew לא תשא לשוא is translated as "thou shalt not take in vain ''. The word here translated as "in vain '' is שוא shav ' "emptiness, vanity; emptiness of speech, lying '', while "take '' is נשא nasa ' "to lift, carry, bear, take, take away '' (appearing in the second person as תשא). The expression "to take in vain '' is also translated less literally as "to misuse '' or variants. Some have interpreted the commandment to be against perjury, since invoking God 's name in an oath was considered a guarantee of the truth of a statement or promise. Other scholars believe the original intent was to prohibit using the name in the magical practice of conjuration.
Hebrew Bible passages also refer to God 's name being profaned by hypocritical behavior of people and false representation of God 's words or character. Many scholars also believe the commandment applies to the casual use of God 's name in interjections and curses (blasphemy).
The object of the command "thou shalt not take in vain '' is את ־ שם ־ יהוה אלהיך at - shem - YHWH elohik "this - same name of YHWH, thy elohim '', making explicit that the commandment is against the misuse of the proper name Yahweh specifically.
In the Hebrew Bible, as well as in the Ancient Near East and throughout classical antiquity more generally, an oath is a conditional self - curse invoking deities that are asked to inflict punishment on the oath - breaker. There are numerous examples in the Book of Samuel of people strengthening their statements or promises with the phrase, "As surely as Yahweh lives... '' and such statements are referred to in Jeremiah as well. The value of invoking punishment from God was based on the belief that God can not be deceived or evaded. For example, a narrative in the Book of Numbers describes how such an oath is to be administered by a priest to a woman suspected of adultery, with the expectation that the accompanying curse will have no effect on an innocent person.
Such oaths may have been used in civil claims, regarding supposed theft, for example, and the commandment is repeated in the context of honest dealings between people in Leviticus 19: 12. At one point of the account of the dedication of the Temple of Solomon, Solomon prays to Yahweh, asking him to hear and act upon curses uttered in a dispute that are then brought before his altar, to distinguish between the person in the right and the one in the wrong.
The prophet Isaiah rebuked Israel as the Babylonian Captivity drew near, pointing out that they bore the name of God, and swore by him, but their swearing was hypocritical since they had forsaken the exclusive worship of Yahweh for the worship of idols. The Israelites had been told in Leviticus that sacrificing their children to idols and then coming to worship God caused God 's name to be profaned, thus breaking the commandment. According to the Book of Jeremiah, Yahweh told him to look around Jerusalem, asserting that he would not be able to find an honest man -- "Even when they say, As Yahweh lives, ' they are sure to be swearing falsely. '' Jeremiah refers to a situation in which Israelites repented and took oaths in God 's name -- only to renege by reclaiming as slaves persons they had freed as part of their repentance. This hypocritical act was also considered profaning God 's name. In Jeremiah 12, an opportunity is also described for Israel 's neighbors to avoid destruction and prosper if they stop swearing by their idol and swear only by the name of Yahweh.
To avoid coming under guilt by accidentally misusing God 's name, Jewish scholars do not write or pronounce the proper name in most circumstances, but use substitutes such as "Adonai (the Lord), '' or "HaShem (the Name). '' In English translations of the Bible, the name Adonai is often translated "Lord, '' while the proper name Yahweh represented by the tetragrammaton is often indicated by the use of capital and small capital letters, Lᴏʀᴅ.
Joseph Telushkin, a Modern Orthodox rabbi, wrote that the commandment is much more than a prohibition against casual interjections using God 's name. He pointed out that the more literal translation of Lo tissa is "you shall not carry '' rather than "you shall not take '', and that understanding this helps one understand why the commandment ranks with such as "You shall not murder '' and "You shall not commit adultery ''.
One of the first commandments listed by Maimonides in the Mishneh Torah is the responsibility to sanctify God 's name. Maimonides thought the commandment should be taken as generally as possible, and therefore he considered it forbidden to mention God 's name unnecessarily at any time. Jewish scholars referred to this as "motzi shem shamayim lavatalah '', "uttering the Name of Heaven uselessly. '' To avoid guilt associated with accidentally breaking the commandment, Jewish scholars applied the prohibition to all seven biblical titles of God in addition to the proper name, and established the safeguard of circumlocution when referring to the Name of God. In writing names of God, a common practice includes substituting letters or syllables so that the written word is not exactly the name, or writing the name in an abbreviated manner. Orthodox Jews will not even pronounce a name of God unless it is said in prayer or religious study. The Sacred Name (Tetragrammaton), is never pronounced by these Jews but always read as "Adonai (the Lord), '' "HaShem (the Name), '' or sometimes "AdoShem ''.
May His great Name be blessed forever and ever.
The Kaddish is an important prayer in a Jewish prayer service whose central theme is the magnification and sanctification of God 's name. Along with the Shema and Amidah, it is one of the most important and central prayers of Jewish liturgy.
In his Sermon on the Mount, Jesus taught that a person 's word should be reliable and one should not swear by God or his creation. In his letter, the Apostle James reiterates the instruction to just say ' yes ' or ' no ' and keep your word, "so that you may not fall into condemnation. ''
According to David Cook, appeals to authorities to validate the truth of a promise had expanded in Jesus ' day, which was not in line with the original commandment. Jesus is quoted as warning that they were blind and foolish who gave credibility to such arguments.
According to the Gospel of John, Jesus made appeals to the power of the name of God and also claimed the name of God as his own, which constituted blasphemy if it were not true. The Gospel of John relates an incident where a group attempts to stone Jesus after he speaks God 's name. Jesus says that he is the Messiah, and makes parallels between himself and the "Son of Man '' referred to by the prophet Daniel, which evokes an emphatic response that he has blasphemed (broken the commandment) and deserves death.
Jesus came to them and said, "All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. ''
The Apostle Paul occasionally invokes God 's name in his letters, calling God as witness to the purity of his motives and honesty of his dealings with the churches to whom he ministered.
The author of Hebrews reviewed God 's promise to Abraham as assurance that outstanding promises will yet be fulfilled. "Human beings, of course, swear by someone greater than themselves, and an oath given as confirmation puts an end to all dispute. '' In the case of the promise of God to Abraham, God swore by his own name to guarantee the promise, since there was nothing greater for him to swear by. Philo pointed out that it is natural that God would swear by himself, even though this is "a thing impossible for anyone else. ''
Similar to the events described in the Book of Daniel, the Book of Revelation includes a description of an angel who swears by God to the truth of the end - time events being revealed to John.
O Lord, our Lord, how majestic is your name in all the earth!
The Catholic Church teaches that the Lord 's name is holy and should be introduced into one 's speech only to bless, praise or glorify that name. The name should be used respectfully, with an awareness of the presence of God. It must not be abused by careless speech, false oaths, or words of hatred, reproach or defiance toward God, or used in magic. Since Jesus Christ is believed to be the Messiah, and "the image of the invisible God, '' this commandment is applied to the name of Jesus Christ as well.
The sentiment behind this commandment is expressed in the Lord 's Prayer, which begins, "Our Father who art in heaven, hallowed be thy name. '' According to Pope Benedict XVI, when God revealed his name to Moses he established a relationship with mankind; Benedict stated that the Incarnation was the culmination of a process that "had begun with the giving of the divine name. '' Benedict elaborated that this means the divine name could be misused and that Jesus ' inclusion of "hallowed be thy name '' is a plea for the sanctification of God 's name, to "protect the wonderful mystery of his accessibility to us, and constantly assert his true identity as opposed to our distortion of it. ''
Taking an oath or swearing is to take God as witness to what one affirms. It is to invoke the divine truthfulness as a pledge of one 's own truthfulness.
Promises made to others in God 's name engage the divine honor, fidelity, truthfulness, and authority. They must be respected in justice. To be unfaithful to them is to misuse God 's name and in some way to make God out to be a liar. (1 John 1: 10)
For the same reason, the Catholic Catechism teaches that it is a duty to reject false oaths that others might try to impose; an oath may be made false because it attests to a lie, because an illegitimate authority is requiring it, or because the purpose of the oath is contrary to God 's law or human dignity.
Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints believe in this commandment as written in Exodus 20. This commandment has been repeated in the LDS Scriptures such as the Book of Mormon and in Doctrine and Covenants.
Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain.
Keep yourselves from evil to take the name of the Lord in vain, for I am the Lord your God, even the God of your fathers, the God of Abraham and of Isaac and of Jacob.
And again, the Lord God hath commanded that men should not murder; that they should not lie; that they should not steal; that they should not take the name of the Lord their God in vain; that they should not envy; that they should not have malice; that they should not contend one with another; that they should not commit whoredoms; and that they should do none of these things; for whoso doeth them shall perish.
Former prophet and president of the Church, Spencer W. Kimball told the following story to inspire believers: President Kimball underwent surgery many years ago, he was wheeled from the operating room to the intensive care room. The attendant who pushed the gurney which carried him stumbled and let out an oath using the name of the Lord. President Kimball, who was barely conscious, said weakly, "Please! Please! That is my Lord whose names you revile. '' There was a deathly silence; then the young man whispered with a subdued voice, "I am sorry. ''
Matthew Henry described five categories of actions that constitute taking God 's name in vain: 1) hypocrisy -- making a profession of God 's name, but not living up to that profession; 2) covenant breaking -- if one makes promises to God yet does not carry out the promised actions; 3) rash swearing; 4) false swearing; and 5) using the name of God lightly and carelessly, for charms or spells, jest or sport. He pointed out that though a person may hold himself guiltless in one of these matters, the commandment specifically states that God will not.
The Lutheran Witness, a doctrinal document representing the Lutheran faith, supports the view that oaths should not generally be taken at all, except "for the glory of God and the welfare of our neighbor. '' Specifically, it states that proper use of God 's name includes administration of oaths in court, and in swearing - in a spiritual or political leader to their respective offices, which include responsibilities toward God and fellow human beings.
In his Institutes of the Christian Religion, John Calvin sets the stage for discussing this commandment by noting that an oath is calling God to witness that what we say is true, and that an appropriate oath is a kind of worship of God in that it implies a profession of faith. When human testimony fails, people appeal to God as witness, as the only one able to bring hidden things to light and know what is in the heart. False swearing robs God of his truth (to the observer), and therefore it is a serious matter. With regard to the casual use of God 's name, Calvin summarized, "remember that an oath is not appointed or allowed for passion or pleasure, but for necessity. '' He wrote that the frequency of casual use of the name of God has dulled the public conscience but that the commandment, with its penalty, still stands.
Historian Winwood Reade has a different interpretation of the third commandment: "Invention of the Oath: But the chief benefit which religion ever conferred upon mankind, whether in ancient or in modern times, was undoubtedly the oath. The priests taught that if a promise was made in the name of the gods, and that promise was broken, the gods would kill those who took their name in vain. Such is the true meaning of the third commandment. Before that time treaties of peace and contracts of every kind in which mutual confidence was required could only be effected by the interchange of hostages. But now by means of this purely theological device a verbal form became itself a sacred pledge: men could at all times confide in one another; and foreign tribes met freely together beneath the shelter of this useful superstition which yet survives in our courts of law. ''
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who plays haiti's in clash of the titans | Wrath of the Titans - wikipedia
Wrath of the Titans is a 2012 3D epic action adventure fantasy film that is a sequel to the 2010 film Clash of the Titans. The film stars Sam Worthington, Rosamund Pike, Bill Nighy, Édgar Ramírez, Toby Kebbell, Danny Huston, Ralph Fiennes, and Liam Neeson, with Jonathan Liebesman directing a screenplay by Dan Mazeau and David Leslie Johnson. Wrath of the Titans takes place a decade after the events of the preceding film as the gods lose control over the imprisoned Titans (thanks to humanity 's lack of prayers which also is draining their immortality) and Perseus is called, this time to rescue his father Zeus, overthrow the Titans, and save mankind.
Talk of a sequel began with the release of Clash of the Titans in March 2010. Scribes Dan Mazeau and David Leslie Johnson were hired in June 2010 and director Jonathan Liebesman was brought on board in August 2010. The majority of the casting took place between January and February 2011. Principal photography began in London in March 2011. Like its predecessor, the film was converted to 3D in post-production. Wrath of the Titans was released in 2D and 3D on March 30, 2012 in the United States. The film received widespread negative reception from critics and grossed $305 million worldwide. A sequel entitled Revenge of the Titans was planned for a 2013 release, but was cancelled due to the two films ' critical failures and too few ideas for the script.
Perseus (Sam Worthington), a son of Zeus (Liam Neeson), lives as a fisherman after the death of his wife, Io (portrayed by Gemma Arterton in the previous film), with his young son, Helius (John Bell). Zeus visits Perseus and asks for his help, saying that humans are not praying to the gods and as a result the gods are losing their power and becoming mortal. They can no longer sustain the walls of Tartarus which are crumbling, and the imprisoned Titan Kronos will soon be free. Perseus, valuing his family 's safety, refuses to get involved.
Zeus meets his brothers Hades (Ralph Fiennes) and Poseidon (Danny Huston), and his son Ares (Édgar Ramírez) in Tartarus. He asks Hades 's help in rebuilding Tartarus 's walls, but Hades rejects the offer and attacks Zeus. Ares betrays Zeus, imprisoning him and stealing his thunderbolt. Hades and Ares plan to make a deal with Kronos: in exchange for remaining immortal, they will drain Zeus 's divine power to revive Kronos. The walls of Tartarus break, unleashing monsters onto the world.
After killing a Chimera that attacked his village, Perseus travels to meet his father. He instead finds a dying Poseidon who informs him of the circumstances and tells him to find his Demigod son Agenor (Toby Kebbell) who will lead him to Hephaestus, who knows the way into Tartarus. Poseidon then gives Perseus his trident and succumbs to the injuries he sustained when meeting Hades and dissolves into dust. Perseus, Andromeda (Rosamund Pike), and Agenor set out to find Hephaestus on a hidden island. Agenor explains that Hephaestus created three weapons which Zeus, Hades, and Poseidon wield: Zeus 's thunderbolt, Hades 's pitchfork, and Poseidon 's trident, and that these weapons can jointly form the Spear of Trium, the only weapon that can defeat Kronos. After an encounter with 30 ft. Cyclopes, the travelers eventually meet the now mortal Hephaestus (Bill Nighy) and reach the entrance of a labyrinth leading to Tartarus. Hephaestus sacrifices himself during an attack by Ares to enable Perseus, Andromeda, and Agenor to enter the labyrinth.
The group eventually enters Tartarus. Meanwhile, Zeus has been almost entirely drained of power as Kronos awakens. Zeus apologizes to Hades for banishing him to the underworld and asks his forgiveness, as he has forgiven Hades for his actions. Hades decides to help Zeus and stop Kronos in contrast to Ares, who still wants to proceed to the former 's revival. Perseus arrives and frees Zeus. Ares wounds Zeus with Hades ' pitchfork, allowing Perseus to obtain it before he and the others escape Tartarus with Hades.
Aiming to retrieve Zeus ' thunderbolt from Ares in order to defeat Kronos, Perseus challenges him to a duel. Ares accepts. Meanwhile, Andromeda 's army is overwhelmed by the Makhai. Hades revives Zeus and together they defeat the creatures. Kronos appears and begins to attack Andromeda 's army. Zeus and Hades hold off Kronos while Perseus duels Ares eventually killing him with the thunderbolt. Combining the gods ' weapons into the Spear of Trium, Perseus destroys Kronos, traveling to his heart and throwing the spear into it.
Zeus reconciles with Perseus and then dies of his wounds as he dissolves. Hades tells Perseus that now he is powerless and leaves. Perseus kisses Andromeda. Helius tells his father that he wants to return to his life as a fisherman, but Perseus tells him they ca n't. Perseus encourages Helius to be proud of himself, as his son and the grandson of Zeus. The film ends with Perseus giving his sword to Helius.
Talks of a sequel to Clash of the Titans began as early as March 2010. Tamer Hassan, who played Ares in the first film, stated at the film 's world premiere that, "They want this one to do well so they can go ahead with the sequel, Return of the Gods ''. In April 2010 it was reported that director Louis Leterrier would not return to direct, but would be an executive producer on the second installment. The report also stated that Sam Worthington was on board and that Greg Berlanti would write the story.
In June 2010, Warner Bros. hired screenwriters David Leslie Johnson and Dan Mazeau to write the screenplay, with Basil Iwanyk returning as the producer. Rather than being converted to 3D, it was announced that the sequel would be filmed in 3D. In August 2010, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Jonathan Liebesman had signed a deal to direct the sequel.
In September 2010, director Jonathan Liebesman confirmed that Sam Worthington, Gemma Arterton, Ralph Fiennes, and Liam Neeson would be returning. However, Arterton did not reprise her role for unknown reasons, leaving her character, Io, dead in the film. In December 2010, Neeson revealed that the film would be titled Wrath of the Titans and that filming was expected to begin next March.
In January 2011, it was reported that Édgar Ramírez and Toby Kebbell were in negotiations to play Ares and Agenor respectively. It was also reported that Bill Nighy was being courted to play Hephaestus. Additionally, Hayley Atwell was on the shortlist of actresses screen testing for the role of Andromeda, played in the previous film by Alexa Davalos who left due to a scheduling conflict. Other actresses being considered for Andromeda included Georgina Haig, Janet Montgomery, Dominique McElligott, and Clémence Poésy.
In February 2011, it was reported that Rosamund Pike was near a deal for the part. Also in February, Liebesman announced that Wrath of the Titans would be converted to 3D rather than shot in 3D as previously reported despite the negative criticism the first Clash of the Titans received for its use of post-conversion 3D. Liebesman explained, "I think what you have to remember is the first film was neither shot nor edited with 3D in mind. It was shot as a 2D movie and edited as a 2D film, and they decided to convert it with six or seven weeks to go until release, which is insane; the technology was not there. That 's why we 're conceiving it from the start, from the ground up, in 3D, editing in 3D for 3D. '' Liebesman also stated the reason behind the conversion was because he wants to shoot on film, which will give the film 's imagery better texture than he would get shooting digitally.
Principal photography began on March 23, 2011. Filming took place in studios outside London and later shot on location in Surrey, South Wales and in the Canary Islands on the island of Tenerife and Torres del Paine National Park in Chilean Patagonia.
Wrath of the Titans premiered on Monday, March 26, 2012 at the AMC Lincoln Square Theater in New York City.
Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 26 % of 166 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 4.5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Its 3D effects are an improvement over its predecessor 's, but in nearly every other respect, Wrath of the Titans fails to improve upon the stilted acting, wooden dialogue, and chaos - driven plot of the franchise 's first installment ''. Metacritic assigned the film an average score of 37 out of 100 based on 32 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, audiences gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale, slightly better than the first film 's "B '' grade.
The film earned a Razzie Award nomination for Neeson as Worst Supporting Actor. Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter called it, "A relentlessly mechanical piece of work that will not or can not take the imaginative leaps to yield even fleeting moments of awe, wonder or charm ''. Roger Ebert, who gave the first film three stars, awarded Wrath with only two, remarking "It lacks a comprehensible story, and you wo n't need your CliffsNotes on the Greek myths. You get an idea of who the major players are, and then they spend a modest amount of time shouting laughable dialogue at one another while being all but forced off the screen by special effects. ''. Mark Olsen of the Los Angeles Times criticized, "Directed this time out by Jonathan Liebesman, the film lacks inspiration or zest in storytelling, performance or action. This is pure product, a movie desperately without energy or enthusiasm of any kind ''. However, there have been some positive reviews. Andrew Barker of Variety noted that, "The (Clash of the Titans) franchise has matured ever so slightly with Wrath of the Titans, hewing incrementally more faithfully to its Greek origins and trimming the fat in essential places ''. Richard Corliss of Time magazine wrote, "Wrath (of the Titans) radiates the straight - forward, straight - faced pleasures of the mytho - muscular epics, like Hercules and Jason and the Argonauts, produced in Europe a half - century ago ''. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly commented, "For a movie that 's basically all warmed - over pseudo-mythology and special effects, Wrath of the Titans is certainly more fun, in its solemnly junky way, than John Carter. It may also be a little more fun than its cheeseball predecessor, the 2010 remake of Clash of the Titans ''.
Wrath of the Titans became a commercial disappointment. It earned a mediocre $83.6 million in North America and $221.6 million internationally for a worldwide total of $305.2 million, less than the $493 million grossed by its predecessor. The film was co-financed by Warner Bros. and Legendary Pictures for about $150 million, about $25 million more than it cost to produce the original. It debuted day - and - date in 61 markets worldwide sans Japan and delivered a global opening of $110.3 million.
In the United States and Canada, the film was released in a total of 3,545 theaters with 2,900 3D locations (4,400 3D screens), and 290 IMAX locations. Initially, it was projected open around with $35 -- 40 million. It opened Friday, March 30, 2012 with $1 million from midnight screenings in 1,490 theaters. The film went on to earn an estimated $34.2 million in North America through the weekend, which fell in line with the studio 's projection and debuted in second place behind The Hunger Games which was playing its second weekend run. The opening is over half of the original 's $61.2 million debut. It played well in IMAX representing $4.7 million of the total weekend 's gross. Not surprisingly, the follow - up attracted a large male contingent on its opening weekend with 66 %. Roughly 65 % of the moviegoers -- about 55 % of whom were over the age of 25 -- saw the film in 3D.
Dan Fellman, Warner Bros. president of domestic distribution, said the comparison between the opening of the first and second film was not fair because the original opened on Good Friday, when more teenagers were out on spring break. He lamented on the film 's poor box office performance saying, "we made a decision to open a week before the holiday this time and generate positive word - of - mouth since we had issues with the last one regarding the 3 - D conversion, we 're gon na get there -- we 're just gon na get there in a different way. '' However, despite not opening on a holiday weekend, the film had to the advantage of playing a week before Easter in which the company could avail the spring break, which was staggered over the next two weeks. Howbeit, all these did n't necessarily aided the film 's further box office performance. Warner Bros. said they did n't expect the sequel to reach the same level.
Outside North America, the film had a more successful opening but later on dwindled down due to bad word of mouth and eventually was unable to topple the first film 's final $332 million international gross. It opened in first place -- dethroning The Hunger Games -- with $76.1 million from 14,600 screens (9,766 of which were in 3D) in 60 territories. It debuted in first place in 46 markets, notably in nine of the top 12 international territories including Korea ($4.3 million), France ($3.1 million) and Italy ($1.8 million). Its biggest opening territories were Russia and the CIS ($12.8 million, representing 18 % of the total weekend foreign take), Mexico ($5.2 millio) and Brazil ($4.1 million). The film was ranked No. 1 in 11 markets across Latin America. Also internationally, it had an IMAX opening of $4 million from 176 screens -- or $22,000 per site -- with Russia contributing about $55,000 per - screen at 19 IMAX locations.
Following the release of this film, a sequel called Revenge of the Titans was in the pipeline. However, due to Wrath 's disappointing critical reception and box - office returns, the project was later shelved; this was confirmed by Sam Worthington in a 2013 interview.
Wrath of the Titans was released on Blu - ray, 3D Blu - ray, DVD and digital download on June 26, 2012.
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dr who the seeds of doom part 1 | The Seeds of Doom - Wikipedia
The Seeds of Doom is the sixth and final serial of the 13th season of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who, which was first broadcast in six weekly parts from 31 January to 6 March 1976.
In Antarctica, British scientists Charles Winlett and Derek Moberley discover a pod buried in the permafrost and take it back to their camp. John Stevenson, the base botanist, identifies it as vegetable - based and estimates it has been buried in the ice for twenty thousand years.
In London, Richard Dunbar of the World Ecology Bureau shows the Doctor photographs of the pod at the urging of his superior, Sir Colin Thackeray. The Doctor believes it to be extraterrestrial. He tells Dunbar to tell the expedition not to touch it until he arrives.
Back at the base, Stevenson discovers that the pod is growing larger and he believes it is absorbing ultraviolet radiation. In England, Dunbar visits the estate of millionaire Harrison Chase, who considers it his mission to protect the plant life of Mother Earth. Dunbar gives Chase the location of the pod. Chase sends his men, Scorby and Keeler, to retrieve the pod.
At the base, the pod opens and stings Winlett. When Stevenson and Moberley find him, Winlett 's face is covered with green hives. The Doctor and Sarah arrive at the base, and find that Winlett 's face and body are rapidly becoming covered with green fungus. Outside the base, the Doctor uncovers another pod and notes that they travel in pairs. Winlett 's blood is found to contain no blood platelets, but instead has schizophytes -- microscopic organisms akin to plant bacteria. The Doctor tells Sarah that Winlett is turning into a Krynoid, a galactic weed that settles on planets and eats the animal life. Scorby and Keeler arrive, claiming that their private plane got lost.
Moberly is killed by the mutated Winlett. Transformed into a Krynoid, Winlett flees the base and shelters in the outside generator hut. Scorby and Keeler steal the remaining pod, then escape in their plane. The Doctor and the others are attacked by the Krynoid, which kills Stevenson. The Doctor and Sarah flee the base as a bomb set by Scorby and Keeler destroys the area. The Doctor and Sarah are picked up by a team from South Bend, while Scorby and Keeler return to Chase in England with the second pod. Dunbar warns Chase that the Doctor and Sarah are still alive and are scheduled to meet with him and Sir Colin in two hours.
At the meeting, the Doctor and Sarah describe the theft of the pod. He tells Dunbar to arrange for him to go to the Botanic Institute. As they leave a driver meets them. However, the limousine stops in the countryside, and the driver orders them out at gunpoint. The Doctor jumps the driver and punches him out. The Doctor and Sarah search the car and find a painting by Amelia Ducat, a flower artist. When they visit her, Ducat tells them that the owner of the painting is Harrison Chase, who never paid her for it.
Chase orders Keeler to inject the pod with fixed nitrogen. When the Doctor and Sarah try to sneak into the mansion, they are captured and brought before Chase, who decides to show them around the mansion and his plant laboratory before he executes them. When Scorby escorts the Doctor and Sarah into the gardens to kill them, the two overpower him. Sarah escapes but is captured again. The Doctor rescues her and in the confusion, a frond from the pod stings Keeler 's arm. Keeler soon begins to transform.
When the Doctor returns to the laboratory, he is captured and taken to the compost room, where Scorby activates the crusher. Meanwhile, Sarah escapes back to the house, attracts Ducat 's attention and asks her to take a message to Sir Colin. Outside, Ducat enters a car with Sir Colin and Dunbar inside and tells them what Sarah said. Dunbar, realising he has made a terrible mistake, says he will get the Doctor. He tells Sir Colin that, if he does not return in half an hour, to return to London and call UNIT.
Sarah turns off the crusher in time to save the Doctor. Hargreaves finds that Keeler has almost completed his transformation and runs in a panic as the creature frees itself. In the mansion, Dunbar pleads with Chase to abandon the experiment as Hargreaves reports Keeler 's transformation to Chase. Dunbar goes to get help and is pursued by Scorby.
The Doctor realizes that Keeler is missing, and goes with Sarah to search for the Krynoid. Dunbar runs into the monster and is killed. His screams attract the attention of Scorby and the guards as well as the Doctor and Sarah. They escape to a cottage and barricade themselves in. The Krynoid speaks using Keeler 's voice, demanding that the Doctor join it and it will spare the others. Scorby throws a Molotov cocktail at the Krynoid, allowing the Doctor to escape. Chase makes his way through the grounds and confronts the Krynoid. It notices him and he approaches, taking photographs.
The Doctor arrives at the Bureau, where UNIT Major Beresford warns he ca n't do anything without evidence. The Doctor shows reports of people near Chase 's estates being killed by plants. He then calls Sarah Jane and tells them Beresford is preparing to attack the Krynoid with a laser gun, but the Krynoid cuts the phone wires. Chase arrives and tells them that it 's the plants ' world, and humans are parasites. He goes to the manor to develop his photographs, then begins speaking to the plants in his greenhouse.
Scorby, Sarah Jane, and Hargreaves confront Chase, and he speaks of how the world will be made perfect. Sarah Jane notices that the plants are closing in on them. The Doctor and a UNIT soldier drive onto the grounds while the plants overwhelm Sarah Jane and the others and start to strangle them.
The Doctor and UNIT Sgt. Henderson arrive with chemical plant - killer. They dispose of the plants, saving Scorby and Sarah Jane, but Hargreaves is killed. Chase runs away, and the Doctor and the others go into the lab and start removing the plants. Once they 're outside, Chase locks the door behind them and they watch as the now enormous Krynoid towers over them. UNIT soldiers arrive and open fire with their laser gun, distracting the Krynoid so that the Doctor and his group can get to another door.
After they leave, Chase slips back into the laboratory and destroys the loudspeaker system. The others return to the laboratory, and the Krynoid tries to break in. Meanwhile, Chase puts Henderson in the compost machine and activates it, killing the unconscious soldier.
The Doctor works to repair the loudspeaker system as the Krynoid renews its attack, and Scorby panics and runs. He makes his way across a pond, but the plants grab and pull him underwater, killing him.
The Doctor and Sarah Jane realize that Henderson is gone, and Sarah Jane goes to look for him. She makes her way to the compost machine room, and Chase confronts her, telling him he 's become part of the plant world thanks to the Krynoid. Chase plans to support the Krynoid and refers to humanity as parasites, then attacks Sarah Jane and knocks her unconscious.
Beresford contacts the Doctor, who warns they have 15 minutes until the Krynoid germinates, spreading its seeds across England. The Doctor tells them to launch an air strike before it 's too late.
Chase has tied up Sarah Jane and starts feeding her into the compost machine. The Doctor arrives and shuts off the machine. In the ensuing struggle, Sarah Jane is saved, but Chase is pulled into the machine.
The RAF launches a sighting run as Beresford and Sir Colin look for the Doctor. Sarah Jane and the Doctor can not get out through the plant life covering the house, but the Doctor rigs a steam pipe and they blast their way out. They make their way through the hostile plant life and take refuge as the RAF opens fire and destroys the Krynoid and the mansion.
Scorby quotes Voltaire 's line "when it is a question of money, everybody is of the same religion '', but the Doctor seems to attribute it to Franklin Pierce Adams.
The serial was written by established television writer Robert Banks Stewart, who was influenced in the writing of this ecological tale of rampant flora by his home abutting Kew Gardens as well as his familial connection to botanist Joseph Banks. The Doctor 's dialogue with Amelia Ducat about the car boot and model is an homage to Oscar Wilde 's The Importance of Being Earnest. After a long association with Doctor Who, this story was director Douglas Camfield 's last involvement with the show.
Location shooting at Chase 's estate took place at Athelhampton Hall in Dorset. This is the third serial of the programme to shoot exterior location scenes on Outside Broadcast (OB) videotape rather than film; the previous two were Robot and The Sontaran Experiment. On 7 December 1975, whilst location filming the closing scene outside the TARDIS at Buckland, the TARDIS prop collapsed on Elisabeth Sladen; it was the original prop used since 1963.
None of the established UNIT characters are seen in this story (the last regular appearance of the organisation), as Nicholas Courtney was unavailable to reprise the role of Brigadier Lethbridge - Stewart.
The Seeds of Doom was one of the Doctor Who serials which drew criticism from Mary Whitehouse for violent imagery. She wrote, "Strangulation -- by hand, by claw, by obscene vegetable matter -- is the latest gimmick, sufficiently close up so they get the point. And just for a little variety show the children how to make a Molotov Cocktail. '' In reply, the BBC stated that Doctor Who was aimed at families, not just children.
In The Discontinuity Guide, Paul Cornell, Martin Day, and Keith Topping described the serial as "an Avengers episode in disguise '' and called it "Another gem, and one much benefitting from an excellent performance from Tony Beckley as Harrison Chase ''. In The Television Companion (1998), David J. Howe and Stephen James Walker praised how the story was split between two settings and the monster in general, though they felt some aspects of the Krynoid were "rubbish ''. They wrote that the only real disappointment was UNIT, which contained none of the old characters and as a result "(came) across as a faceless and characterless bunch whose sole function in the story is to resolve the situation ''. In 2010, Mark Braxton of Radio Times described The Seeds of Doom as "a rich, classy serving, with plenty of meat accompanying the vegetables ''. He praised Baker and the guest actors and their characters. However, he noted that the plot contained a "giant crevasse '' in that "it takes a ridiculous amount of time for the Doctor et al to know how to tackle the Keeler - Krynoid, having seemingly forgotten that the Winlett - Krynoid was killed by an explosion ''. The A.V. Club reviewer Christopher Bahn said that the serial was "one of the greats '' of the era, particularly praising the pacing and Baker 's performance. DVD Talk 's Ian Jane gave The Seeds of Doom four out of five stars, calling the script "a good one ''. Ian Berriman of SFX gave the story five out of five stars, writing, "Often bleakly grotesque, blessed with an eerie, mournful score and shot with real brio, this is a rare Who six - parter that you can consume in one sitting, with nary a moment of boredom. '' He also was positive towards the performances of Beckley and Baker.
A novelisation of this serial, written by Philip Hinchcliffe, was published by Target Books in February 1977. A slightly "Americanized '' version of Hinchcliffe 's novel was released as # 10 in the Pinnacle Books series in March 1980 with a foreword by Harlan Ellison and a cover illustration by David Mann
The Seeds of Doom was released on a double VHS in 1994 in the United Kingdom. In North America it was released as a single VHS. The story was released on DVD on 25 October 2010 in the United Kingdom, and on 8 March 2011 in the United States. Music from this serial was released on the CD Doctor Who: Terror of the Zygons. This serial was also released as part of the Doctor Who DVD Files in Issue 120 on 7 August 2013.
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is anakin a jedi master in episode 3 | Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith - Wikipedia
Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith is a 2005 American epic space opera film written and directed by George Lucas. It is the sixth entry of the Star Wars film series and stars Ewan McGregor, Natalie Portman, Hayden Christensen, Ian McDiarmid, Samuel L. Jackson, Christopher Lee, Anthony Daniels, Kenny Baker, and Frank Oz. A sequel to The Phantom Menace (1999) and Attack of the Clones (2002), the film is the third and final installment of the Star Wars prequel trilogy.
The film begins three years after the onset of the Clone Wars. The Jedi Knights are spread across the galaxy, leading a massive war against the Separatists. The Jedi Council dispatches Jedi Master Obi - Wan Kenobi to eliminate the notorious General Grievous, leader of the Separatist Army. Meanwhile, Jedi Knight Anakin Skywalker grows close to Palpatine, the Supreme Chancellor of the Galactic Republic and, unknown to the public, a Sith Lord. Their deepening friendship threatens the Jedi Order, the Republic, and Anakin himself.
Lucas began writing the script before production of Attack of the Clones ended. Production of Revenge of the Sith started in September 2003, and filming took place in Australia with additional locations in Thailand, Switzerland, China, Italy and the United Kingdom. Revenge of the Sith premiered on May 15, 2005, at the Cannes Film Festival, then released worldwide on May 19, 2005. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, especially in contrast to the less positive reviews of the previous two prequels, including praise for its storyline, action scenes, John Williams ' musical score, visual effects, and performances from Ewan McGregor, Ian McDiarmid, Frank Oz, and Jimmy Smits. It is the final film in the Star Wars franchise to be distributed by 20th Century Fox prior to the acquisition of Lucasfilm by The Walt Disney Company in 2012.
Revenge of the Sith broke several box office records during its opening week and went on to earn over $848 million worldwide, making it, at the time, the third - highest - grossing film in the Star Wars franchise, unadjusted for inflation. It was the highest - grossing film of 2005 in the U.S. and the second - highest - grossing film of 2005 behind Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. The film also holds the record for the highest opening day gross on a thursday, making $50,013,859.00. The Star Wars saga continued with the release of The Force Awakens, the first installment of the sequel trilogy, in 2015.
Three years after Count Dooku 's raid on Geonosis, the galaxy is in a state of civil war. During a space battle over the planet Coruscant, Jedi Knights Obi - Wan Kenobi and Anakin Skywalker lead a mission to rescue the kidnapped Supreme Chancellor Palpatine from Separatist commander General Grievous. After infiltrating Grievous 's flagship, the Jedi battle Dooku, who Anakin eventually subdues and, on Palpatine 's urging, executes. Grievous flees the battle - torn cruiser, which the Jedi crash - land on Coruscant. There, Anakin reunites with his wife, Padmé Amidala, who reveals she is pregnant. While initially excited, Anakin begins to have prophetic visions of Padmé dying in childbirth, and his worry steadily grows.
Palpatine appoints Anakin to the Jedi Council as his representative, but the Council declines to grant Anakin the rank of Jedi Master and orders him to spy on Palpatine, causing Anakin 's faith in the Jedi to diminish significantly. Palpatine tantalizes Anakin with secret knowledge of the dark side of the Force, including the power to save his loved ones from dying. Meanwhile, Obi - Wan travels to the planet Utapau, where he kills Grievous, and Yoda travels to Kashyyyk to defend the planet from invasion. Tempting Anakin, Palpatine eventually reveals that he is the Sith Lord Darth Sidious, saying that only he has the knowledge to save Padmé from dying. Anakin reports Palpatine 's treachery to Mace Windu, who confronts and subdues the Sith Lord, severely disfiguring him in the process. Fearing that he will lose Padmé, Anakin intervenes on Palpatine 's behalf and severs Windu 's hand, allowing Palpatine to throw him out of a window to his death. Anakin pledges himself to Palpatine, who dubs him Darth Vader. Palpatine issues an order for the clone troopers to kill their Jedi commanders and dispatches Vader along with a legion of clones to kill everyone in the Jedi Temple. Vader then massacres the remaining Separatist leaders hiding on the volcanic planet Mustafar, while Palpatine addresses the Galactic Senate, transforming the Republic into the Galactic Empire and declaring himself Emperor. Having survived the chaos, Obi - Wan and Yoda return to Coruscant and learn of Anakin 's treachery.
Unable to convince Padmé about Anakin 's turn to the dark side, Obi - Wan stows aboard her ship. Padmé travels to Mustafar and implores Vader to leave the dark side. He refuses, and upon witnessing Obi - Wan, chokes Padmé into unconsciousness in a fit of rage. Obi - Wan duels and defeats Vader, severing most of his limbs and leaving him at the bank of a lava river where he is horribly burned. On Coruscant, Yoda battles Palpatine until their duel reaches a stalemate. Yoda flees with Bail Organa while Palpatine, sensing that his apprentice is in danger, travels to Mustafar.
On the asteroid Polis Massa, Obi - Wan regroups with Yoda and Padmé gives birth to twins named Luke and Leia before dying shortly thereafter. A funeral procession is held for Padmé on Naboo, who is buried with the necklace Anakin made her years earlier. On Mustafar, Palpatine finds a severely burnt Vader still alive. After returning to Coruscant, Vader 's mutilated body is treated and covered in a black armored suit. Palpatine explains to Vader that he killed Padmé in his anger. Meanwhile, Obi - Wan and Yoda decide to conceal the twins from the Sith, as they are the galaxy 's only hope for freedom. Yoda exiles himself to the planet Dagobah, while Vader and the Emperor oversee the construction of a superstation, the Death Star. Bail Organa adopts Leia as his own daughter and takes her to Alderaan, while Obi - Wan delivers Luke to his step - family Owen and Beru Lars on Tatooine, where Obi - Wan intends to watch over Luke until the time is right to challenge the Empire.
Jimmy Smits, Peter Mayhew, Oliver Ford Davies, Ahmed Best and Silas Carson reprise their roles as Senator Bail Organa, Chewbacca, Sio Bibble, Jar Jar Binks, Nute Gunray and Ki - Adi - Mundi, respectively from the previous films. Joel Edgerton and Bonnie Piesse also reprise their roles as Owen Lars and Beru Lars, respectively from Attack of the Clones. Matthew Wood provides the voice of General Grievous, the fearsome cyborg commander of the Separatists ' droid army; Temuera Morrison portrays the Clone Troopers and Commander Cody, who are clones of the bounty hunter, Jango Fett; Bruce Spence portrays Tion Medon, local administrator of Utapau; Jeremy Bulloch, who played Boba Fett in The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi, appears as Captain Colton, the pilot of the Rebel Blockade Runner Tantive IV, Wayne Pygram appears as a younger Grand Moff Tarkin; and stunt coordinator Nick Gillard appears as a Jedi named Cin Drallig (his name spelled backward, without the k). Editor Roger Barton 's son Aidan Barton portrays Luke Skywalker and Leia Organa as infants. James Earl Jones possibly provides the uncredited voice of Darth Vader; when specifically asked if he had supplied the voice -- either newly or from a previous recording -- Jones answered, "You 'd have to ask Lucas about that. I do n't know ''.
Director George Lucas has a cameo as Baron Papanoida, a blue - faced alien in attendance at the Coruscant Opera House. Lucas ' son Jett portrays a young Jedi - in - training named Zett Jukassa. Lucas ' daughter Amanda appears as a character called Terr Taneel, seen in the security hologram; while his other daughter Katie plays a blue - skinned Pantoran named Chi Eekway, visible when Palpatine arrives at the Senate after being saved by the Jedi, and talking to Baron Papanoida at the Opera House (she also has a brief speaking role in one of the deleted scenes where Padmé is meeting in secret with other senators). Christian Simpson appeared as a stunt double for Hayden Christensen. When Anakin, Obi - Wan, and Palpatine arrive via shuttle to the Senate docks after crash landing on Coruscant, the Millennium Falcon can be seen landing on one of the lower platforms as the shuttle approaches.
Lucas stated that he conceived the Star Wars saga 's story in the form of a plot outline in 1973. However, he later clarified that, at the time of the saga 's conception, he had not fully realized the details -- only major plot points. He began working on Episode III even before the previous film, Attack of the Clones, was released, proposing to concept artists that the film would open with a montage of seven battles on seven planets. Michael Kaminski, in The Secret History of Star Wars, surmises that Lucas found flaws with Anakin 's fall to the dark side and radically re-organized the plot. For instance, instead of opening the film with various Clone Wars battles, Lucas decided instead to focus on Anakin, ending the film 's first act with his killing of Count Dooku, an action that signals his descent to the dark side.
A significant number of fans speculated online about the film 's subtitle; rumored titles included Rise of the Empire, The Creeping Fear (which was also named as the film 's title on the official website on April Fool 's 2004), and Birth of the Empire. Eventually, Revenge of the Sith also became a "guessed title '' that George Lucas would later announce to be true. The title is a reference to Revenge of the Jedi, the original title of Return of the Jedi; Lucas changed the title scant weeks before the premiere of Return of the Jedi, declaring that Jedi do not seek revenge.
Since Lucas refocused the film on Anakin, he had to sacrifice certain extraneous plot points relating to Attack of the Clones. Lucas had previously promised fans that he would explain the mystery behind the erasure of the planet Kamino from the Jedi Archives. However, Lucas abandoned this plot thread in order to devote more time to Anakin 's story, leaving the matter unresolved on film. As a compromise, Lucas permitted author James Luceno to explain the mystery of Kamino 's erasure and the origins of the Clone army in his expanded universe novel Labyrinth of Evil.
Lucas had originally planned to include even more ties to the original trilogy, and wrote early drafts of the script in which a 10 - year - old Han Solo appeared on Kashyyyk, but the role was not cast or shot. He also wrote a scene in which Palpatine reveals to Anakin that he created him from midichlorians, and is thus his "father '', a clear parallel to Vader 's revelation to Luke in The Empire Strikes Back, but Lucas ejected this scene as well. Another planned scene by Lucas that was written during the early development of the film was a conversation between Master Yoda and the ghostly Qui Gon - Jinn, with Liam Neeson reprising his role as Jinn (he also hinted his possible appearance in the film). However, the scene was never filmed and Neeson was never recorded, although the scene was present in the film 's novelization. Also, Neeson finally reprised the role in an episode of Star Wars: The Clone Wars in 2011.
After principal photography was complete in 2003, Lucas made even more changes in Anakin 's character, sharpening Anakin 's motivations for turning to the dark side. Lucas accomplished this "rewrite '' through editing the principal footage and filming new scenes during pick - ups in London in 2004. In the previous versions, Anakin had myriad reasons for turning to the dark side, one of which was his sincere belief that the Jedi were plotting to take over the Republic. Although this is still intact in the finished film, by revising and refilming many scenes, Lucas emphasized Anakin 's desire to save Padmé from death. Thus, in the version that made it to theatres, Anakin falls to the dark side primarily to save Padmé.
After the screenplay 's earliest draft was submitted, the art department began designing the various ways that each element could appear on screen.
For the Kashyyyk environment, the art department turned to the much derided Star Wars Holiday Special for inspiration. Over a period of months, Lucas would approve hundreds of designs that would eventually appear in the film. He would later rewrite entire scenes and action sequences to correspond to certain designs he had chosen. The designs were then shipped to "pre-visualization '' to create moving CGI versions known as "animatics ''. Ben Burtt would edit these scenes with Lucas in order to previsualize what the film would look like before the scenes were even filmed. The pre-visualization footage featured a basic raw CGI environment with equally unprocessed CGI characters performing a scene (typically an action sequence). Steven Spielberg was also allowed to assist both the art and pre-visualization department 's designs for several action sequences in Revenge of the Sith. Later, the pre-visualization and art department designs were sent to the production department to begin "bringing the film out of the concept phase '' by building the various sets, props and costumes. To determine the required sets, Lucas analyzed each scene with the staff to see which moments the actors would come in most contact with the set, warranting the set to be constructed.
Although the first scene filmed was the final scene to appear in the film (shot during the filming of Attack of the Clones in 2000), principal photography on the film occurred from June 30, 2003 to September 17, 2003, with additional photography occurring at Shepperton Studios and Elstree Studios in London from August 2004 to January 31, 2005. The initial filming took place on sound stages at Fox Studios Australia in Sydney, although practical environments were shot as background footage later to be composited into the film. These included the limestone mountains depicting Kashyyyk, which were filmed in Phuket, Thailand (they were later damaged by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami). The production company was also fortunate enough to be shooting at the same time that Mount Etna erupted in Italy. Camera crews were sent to the location to shoot several angles of the volcano that were later spliced into the background of the animatics and the final film version of the planet Mustafar.
While shooting key dramatic scenes, Lucas would often use an "A camera '' and "B camera '', or the "V technique '', a process that involves shooting with two or more cameras at the same time in order to gain several angles of the same performance. Using the HD technology developed for the film, the filmmakers were able to send footage to the editors the same day it was shot, a process that would require a full 24 hours had it been shot on film. Footage featuring the planet Mustafar was given to editor Roger Barton, who was on location in Sydney, Australia cutting the climactic duel. All other footage was forwarded to lead editor Ben Burtt at Skywalker Ranch in California.
Hayden Christensen says Lucas asked him "to bulk up and physically show the maturity that had taken place between the two films ''. The actor says he worked out with a trainer in Sydney for three months and ate "six meals a day and on every protein, weight gain supplement that man has created '' to go from 160 pounds to 185 pounds.
Christensen and Ewan McGregor began rehearsing their climactic lightsaber duel long before Lucas would shoot it. They trained extensively with stunt coordinator Nick Gillard to memorize and perform their duel together. As in the previous two prequel films, McGregor and Christensen performed their own lightsaber fighting scenes without the use of stunt doubles. The speed at which Vader and Obi - Wan engage in their duel is mostly the speed at which it was filmed, although there are instances where single frames were removed to increase the velocity of particular strikes. An example of this occurs as Obi - Wan strikes down on Vader after applying an armlock in the duel 's first half.
Revenge of the Sith eventually became the first Star Wars film in which Anakin Skywalker and the suited Darth Vader were played by the same actor in the same film. As Christensen recounted, it was originally intended to simply have a "tall guy '' in the Darth Vader costume, but after "begging and pleading '' Christensen persuaded Lucas to have the Vader costume used in the film created specifically to fit him. The new costume featured shoe lifts and a muscle suit. It also required Christensen (who is 6 feet 1 inch or 1.85 metres tall) to look through the helmet 's mouthpiece.
In 2004, Gary Oldman was originally approached to provide the voice of General Grievous; however, complications arose during contract negotiations after Oldman learned the film was to be made outside of the Screen Actors Guild, of which he is a member. He backed out of the role rather than violate the union 's rules. Matthew Wood, who ultimately voiced Grievous, disputed this story at Celebration III, held in Indianapolis. According to him, Oldman is a friend of producer Rick McCallum, and thus recorded an audition as a favor to him, but was not chosen. Wood, who was also the supervising sound editor, was in charge of the auditions and submitted his audition anonymously in the midst of 30 others, under the initials "A.S. '' for Alan Smithee. Days later, he received a phone call asking for the full name to the initials "A.S. '' An internet hoax said John Rhys - Davies was considered for the role.
The post-production department began work during filming and continued until weeks before the film was released in 2005. Special effects were created using almost all formats, including model work, CGI and practical effects. The same department later composited all such work into the filmed scenes -- both processes taking nearly two years to complete. Revenge of the Sith has 2,151 shots that use special effects, a world record.
As the DVD featurette Within a Minute illustrates, the film required 910 artists and 70,441 man - hours to create 49 seconds of footage for the Mustafar duel alone. Members of Hyperspace, the Official Star Wars Fan Club, received a special look into the production. Benefits included not only special articles, but they also received access to a webcam that transmitted a new image every 20 seconds during the time it was operating in Fox Studios Australia. Many times the stars, and Lucas himself, were spotted on the webcam.
During the process of shaping the film for its theatrical release, Lucas and his editors dropped many scenes, and even an entire subplot, from the completed film.
Lucas excised all the scenes of a group of Senators, including Padmé, Bail Organa, and Mon Mothma (Genevieve O'Reilly), organising an alliance to prevent the Chancellor from receiving any more emergency powers. Though this is essentially the Rebel Alliance 's birth, the scenes were discarded to achieve more focus on Anakin 's story. The scene where Yoda arrives on Dagobah to begin his self - imposed exile was also cut, but is featured in a deleted scene in the DVD release, although McCallum stated he hopes Lucas may add it to the release if Lucas releases a six - episode DVD box set.
Many scenes concerning Jedi deaths during the execution of Order 66 were cut. The deaths of Barriss Offee and Luminara Unduli were either cut from the film or not filmed in the first place.
Bai Ling filmed minor scenes for the film playing a senator, but her role was cut during editing. She claimed this was because she posed for the June 2005 issue of Playboy, whose appearance on newsstands coincided with the film 's May release. Lucas denied this, stating that the cut had been made more than a year earlier, and that he had cut his own daughter 's scenes as well.
The music was composed and conducted by John Williams (who composed and conducted the score for the other six films in the Star Wars saga), and performed by the London Symphony Orchestra and London Voices. The film 's soundtrack was released by Sony Classical on May 3, 2005, more than two weeks before the film 's release. A music video titled A Hero Falls was created for the film 's theme, "Battle of the Heroes '', featuring footage from the film and was also available on the DVD.
The soundtrack also came with a collectors ' DVD, Star Wars: A Musical Journey, at no additional cost. The DVD, hosted by McDiarmid, features 16 music videos set to remastered selections of music from all six film scores, set chronologically through the saga. This album was chosen as one of Amazon.com 's Top 100 Editors ' Picks of 2005 (# 83).
Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith charity premieres took place in Seattle, Los Angeles, Chicago, Washington D.C., Boston, Denver, Atlanta, San Francisco, and Miami on Thursday, May 12, 2005; and on May 13, 2005, there were two additional charity premiere screenings in George Lucas 's hometown of Modesto. The official premiere was at the 2005 Cannes Film Festival (out of competition) on May 16. Its theatrical release in most other countries took place on May 19 to coincide with the 1999 release of The Phantom Menace (the 1977 release of A New Hope and the 1983 release of Return of the Jedi were also released on the same day and month, six years apart). The global outplacement firm Challenger, Gray & Christmas claimed one week before the premiere that it may have cost the U.S. economy approximately US $ 627 million in lost productivity because of employees who took a day off or reported in sick. Grauman 's Chinese Theatre, a traditional venue for the Star Wars films, did not show it. However, a line of people stood there for more than a month hoping to convince someone to change this. Most of them took advantage of an offer to see the film at a nearby cinema, ArcLight Cinemas (formerly the "Cinerama Dome ''). On May 16, the Empire Cinema in London 's Leicester Square hosted a day - long Star Wars marathon showing of all six films; an army of Imperial stormtroopers "guarded '' the area, and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra gave a free concert of Star Wars music.
A copy of the film leaked onto peer - to - peer file sharing networks just hours after opening in theaters. The film was a time - stamped workprint, suggesting it may have come from within the industry rather than from someone who videotaped an advance screening. Eight people were later charged with copyright infringement and distributing material illegally. Documents filed by the Los Angeles District Attorney allege that a copy of the film was taken from an unnamed Californian post-production office by an employee, who later pleaded guilty to his charges. The illegal copy was passed among seven people until reaching an eighth party, who also pleaded guilty to uploading to an unnamed P2P network.
Shortly after the above - mentioned print was leaked, it was released in Shanghai as a bootleg DVD with Chinese subtitles. The unknown producer of this DVD also chose to include English subtitles, which were in fact translated back into English from the Chinese translation, rather than using the original English script. This causes the subtitles to become heavily mis - translated, often causing unintentional humor. For example, in the opening crawl the title is mis - translated as Star War: The Third Gathers - Backstroke of the West. One error that recurs several times in the subtitles is that the phrase "it seems '' (好 象) was rendered as "good elephant ''. "Jedi Council '' is rendered as "Presbyterian Church '', and the mis - translation also caused the word "fuck '' to replace "work '' four times in the subtitles. Darth Vader 's cry of "Noooooooo '' (不要) is rendered as "Do not want ''. This last translation error would later be popularized as an internet meme. In 2016, a YouTube user named GratefulDeadpool uploaded a fan edit of Revenge of the Sith in which the cast 's voices were dubbed to match the bootleg subtitles.
Revenge of the Sith is the first Star Wars film to receive a PG - 13 rating from the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), officially for "sci - fi violence and some intense images '', namely for the scene in which Darth Vader is set aflame by lava and molten rock. Lucas had stated months before the MPAA 's decision that he felt the film should receive a PG - 13 rating, because of Anakin 's final moments and the film 's content being the darkest and most intense of all six films. Some critics, including Roger Ebert and Richard Roeper, later responded that children would be able to handle the film as long as they had parental guidance, hence a "PG rating ''. All previously released films in the series were rated PG. The PG - 13 rating had not existed when the films in the original trilogy were released; however, the original trilogy 's films were later re-submitted to the MPAA due to changes in the re-released versions and once again received PG ratings. When Revenge of the Sith was released in Canada, it was given a PG rating in most provinces, excluding Quebec, where it was rated G. In the United Kingdom it received a 12A rating by the British Board of Film Classification (BBFC). In Australia, the film was rated M for mature audiences by the Australian Classification Board (ACB).
The film was released on DVD and VHS on October 31, 2005 (Halloween), in the United Kingdom, on November 1, 2005 in the United States and Canada on DVD and on November 3, 2005, in Australia. It was also released in most major territories on or near the same day. The DVD was a two - disc set, with picture and sound mastered from the original digital source material.
The DVD included a number of documentaries including a new full - length documentary as well as two featurettes, one which explores the prophecy of Anakin Skywalker as the Chosen One, the other looking at the film 's stunts and a 15 - part collection of web - documentaries from the official web site. Like the other DVD releases, included is an audio commentary track featuring Lucas, producer Rick McCallum, animation director Rob Coleman, and ILM visual effects supervisors John Knoll and Roger Guyett. Six deleted scenes were included with introductions from Lucas and McCallum. An Xbox game demo for Star Wars: Battlefront II along with a trailer for the Star Wars: Empire at War PC game was featured on the second disc.
Also, a special two - pack exclusive, sold only at Wal - Mart stores, included another bonus DVD, The Story of Star Wars.
This release is notable because, due to marketing issues, it was the first Star Wars film never to be released on VHS in the United States. However, the film was released on VHS in Australia, the U.K. and other countries in the world.
The DVD was re-released in a prequel trilogy box set on November 4, 2008.
The Star Wars films were released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on Blu - ray Disc on September 16, 2011 in three different editions.
On April 7, 2015, Walt Disney Studios, 20th Century Fox, and Lucasfilm jointly announced the digital releases of the six released Star Wars films. Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released Revenge of the Sith through the iTunes Store, Amazon Video, Vudu, Google Play, and Disney Movies Anywhere on April 10, 2015.
On September 28, 2010, it was announced that all six films in the series were to be stereo - converted to 3D. The films would be re-released in chronological order beginning with The Phantom Menace on February 10, 2012. Revenge of the Sith was originally scheduled to be re-released in 3D on October 11, 2013 (later pushed up to October 4, 2013). However, on January 28, 2013, Lucasfilm announced that it was postponing the 3D release of episodes II and III in order to "focus 100 percent of our efforts on Star Wars: The Force Awakens '' and that further information about 3D release plans would be issued at a later date. The premiere of the 3D version was shown on April 17, 2015, at Star Wars Celebration Anaheim.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 79 % based on 284 reviews, with an average rating of 7.3 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "With Episode III: Revenge of the Sith, George Lucas brings his second Star Wars trilogy to a suitably thrilling and often poignant -- if still a bit uneven -- conclusion. '' On Metacritic the film has a score of 68 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
Most critics have considered the film to be the best of the prequel trilogy, with a few even calling it the best of the entire Star Wars saga. A.O. Scott of The New York Times concluded that it was "the best of the four episodes Mr. Lucas has directed '', and equal to The Empire Strikes Back as "the richest and most challenging movie in the cycle ''. In a 2007 summary of the 100 Best Science - Fiction Films on Rotten Tomatoes, Revenge of the Sith was placed 51 out of 100, making it the only prequel film in the Star Wars series to earn a ranking. Jonathan Rosenbaum, a critic who disliked A New Hope and The Empire Strikes Back, gave the film a positive review saying that it had a "relatively thoughtful story ''. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three - and - a-half stars out of four, writing "If (Lucas) got bogged down in solemnity and theory in Episode II: Attack of the Clones, the Force is in a jollier mood this time, and Revenge of the Sith is a great entertainment. ''
In 2012, art critic Camille Paglia praised the film in Glittering Images, comparing some of its scenes to works by modern painters and calling it "the greatest work of art in recent memory ''. Paglia explained that the film 's finale, "has more inherent artistic value, emotional power, and global impact than anything by the artists you name. It 's because the art world has flat - lined and become an echo chamber of received opinion and toxic over-praise. It 's like the emperor 's new clothes -- people are too intimidated to admit what they secretly think or what they might think with their blinders off. Episode III epitomizes the modern digital art movement, more so than other piece from the last 30 years. I had considered using Japanese anime for the digital art chapter of the book, but it lacked the overwhelming operatic power and yes, seriousness of Lucas 's Revenge of the Sith. ''
Though many critics and fans saw Revenge of the Sith as the strongest of the three prequels, some saw it as more or less on par with The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones. Much of the criticism for the film was directed towards the dialogue, particularly the film 's romantic scenes, and for Hayden Christensen 's performance (which won him his second Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actor). Critics and fans alike were quick to jump on such lines as "Hold me, Ani. Hold me, like you did by the lake on Naboo... where there was nothing but our love... '' Critics have claimed this demonstrated Lucas 's weakness as a writer of dialogue, a subject with which Lucas openly agreed when receiving the Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Film Institute.
Some American conservatives criticized the film, claiming it has a liberal bias and is a commentary on the George W. Bush administration and the Iraq War. Some websites went so far as to propose a boycott of the film. Lucas defended the film, stating that the film 's storyline was written during the Vietnam War and was influenced by that conflict rather than the war in Iraq. Lucas did say, however, that "The parallels between Vietnam and what we 're doing in Iraq now are unbelievable ''.
The film was released in 115 countries. Its worldwide gross eventually reached $849 million -- making it the second most financially successful film of 2005, behind Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. The film earned an estimated $16.91 million from 2,900 midnight screenings in North America upon its release. In total, it earned a record $50 million on its opening day. It was surpassed the following year by Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man 's Chest, which earned $55.5 million on its opening day.
With only the May 19 earnings, the film broke four box office records: midnight screenings gross (previously held by The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King, $8 million), opening day gross (Spider - Man 2, with $40.4 million), single day gross (Shrek 2 with $44.8 million) and Thursday gross (The Matrix Reloaded with $37.5 million). Its single day and opening day gross records were later surpassed by Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man 's Chest on July 7, 2006, when that movie grossed $55.5 million on its opening day, and its midnight screening gross was broken by The Dark Knight on July 18, 2008 with $18.5 million. It still retains its record for Thursday gross, however.
According to box office analysis sites, the film set American records for highest gross in a given number of days for each of its first 12 days of release except for the seventh and eighth, where the record is narrowly held by Spider - Man 2. On its fifth day, it became the highest - grossing film of 2005, surpassing Hitch ($177.6 million). The film earned $158.5 million in its first four - day period, surpassing the previous four - day record held by The Matrix Reloaded ($134.3 million), and joining Spider - Man, The Matrix Reloaded and Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire as one the only films to make $100 million in three days. In eight days, it reached the $200 million mark (a record tied with Spider - Man 2) and by its 17th day, the film had passed $300 million (surpassing the record of 18 days of Shrek 2). It was eventually the third - fastest film (after Shrek 2 and Spider - Man) to reach $350 million.
The film ended its run in American theaters on October 20, 2005, finishing with a total gross of $380,270,577. It ranks 29th in all - time domestic grosses and is the highest - grossing U.S. of 2005, outgrossing second - place The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe by nearly $90 million. The film sold an estimated 59,324,600 tickets in the US.
International grosses that exceeded $460 million include those Australia ($27.2 million), France and Algeria ($56.9 million), Germany ($47.3 million), Italy ($11.3 million), Japan ($82.7 million), Mexico ($15.3 million), South Korea ($10.3 million), Spain ($23.8 million), and the United Kingdom and Ireland ($72.8 million).
Following the release of Revenge of the Sith -- the completion of the original and prequel Star Wars series -- on June 9, 2005, George Lucas was presented with the 33rd American Film Institute Lifetime Achievement Award. The institute honored his "astonishing contributions to the art and technology of filmmaking, as well as the impact of the epic Star Wars series ''.
Despite being the prequel trilogy 's best reviewed and received film, it received fewer award nominations than the previous films. It became the only Star Wars film not to be nominated for an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects; however, it was nominated for Best Makeup (Dave Elsey and Nikki Gooley), losing to The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. It also won "Favorite Motion Picture '' and "Favorite Dramatic Motion Picture '' awards at the People 's Choice Awards, "Hollywood Movie of the Year '' award at the Hollywood Film Festival, Empire Awards (Sci - Fi / Fantasy Film), and the Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie - Action. It also was nominated for Best Score Soundtrack Album at the 48th Grammy Awards in 2006.
As did every film of the original trilogy, the film won the Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film. Williams also won Best Music. The film was nominated for ten Saturn Awards overall, including Best Director and Best Writing for Lucas, Best Actor for Christensen, Best Actress for Natalie Portman and Best Supporting Actor for Ian McDiarmid.
The film did, however, receive the fewest Golden Raspberry Awards nominations: only one, for Christensen as Worst Supporting Actor, which he won. (The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones received seven nominations each, with one and two wins, respectively.) It is the only Star Wars prequel not to receive a Razzie nomination for "Worst Picture ''. Christensen further won the "Best Villain '' award at the MTV Movie Awards.
Throughout Revenge of the Sith, Lucas refers to a wide range of films and other sources, drawing on political, military, and mythological motifs to enhance his story 's impact. Perhaps the most media coverage was given to a particular exchange between Anakin and Obi - Wan, which led to the aforementioned controversy: "If you 're not with me, then you 're my enemy '', Anakin declares. Despite Lucas ' insistence to the contrary, The Seattle Times concluded, "Without naming Bush or the Patriot Act, it 's all unmistakable no matter what your own politics may be. ''
McDiarmid, Lucas, and others have also called Anakin 's journey to the dark side Faustian in the sense of making a "pact with the devil '' for short - term gain, with the fiery volcano planet Mustafar representing hell. Midway through the film, Lucas intercuts between Anakin and Padmé by themselves, thinking about one another in the Jedi Temple and their apartment, respectively, during sunset. The sequence is without dialogue and complemented by a moody, synthesized soundtrack. Lucas ' coverage of the exterior cityscapes, skylines and interior isolation in the so - called "Ruminations '' sequence is similar to the cinematography and mise - en - scène of Rosemary 's Baby, a film in which a husband makes a literal pact with the devil.
As with the previous film and its allusions to The Empire Strikes Back, some deliberately placed references have been made to draw allusions with Return of the Jedi. The title is similar in style to the original planned "Revenge of the Jedi ''. Some dialog is mirrored in both films especially the line "I can feel your anger! '' spoken by Palpatine, who also orders his personal entourage / bodyguards to "Leave us '' at important moments in both films. Darth Vader attempts to play on Luke 's fear of loss by taunting him with threats against Leia. His own fear of the loss of Padmé is what draws him to the dark side. Prior to settling on the Ewoks as the main helpers, the Wookiee race was originally planned to be in Jedi. Anakin 's decision to save Palpatine over Master Windu parallels the decision he would eventually make as Darth Vader to save Luke from Palpatine in "Return of the Jedi. ''
The film 's novelization was written by Matthew Stover. It includes much more dialogue than the film, including: a conversation between Count Dooku and Darth Sidious, where the reader learns Palpatine lied to Dooku about what the Empire would truly be; a conversation between Mace Windu and Obi - Wan Kenobi where Obi - Wan expresses self - doubt about whether he is the right Jedi to battle General Grievous; and a conversation between Anakin and Palpatine in which Palpatine promises to give Anakin anything he wants -- whether it be a new speeder or the star system Corellia. The novel includes many minor details. For example, during the Battle of Coruscant, Anakin 's callsign is Red 5, a reference to Luke 's callsign in the climactic battle of A New Hope, and one of the Republic capital ships is commanded by Lieutenant Commander Lorth Needa, who becomes Captain Needa in The Empire Strikes Back. There are also references to the Star Wars: Republic comic book series, such as the Battle of Jabiim (Volume 3). In addition to this, the siege of the Jedi Temple is much more violent and far more graphically explained than the cinematic version.
Some unseen or unheard - of elements of the story were fleshed out in the course of the novel. Such examples include more discussions between Anakin and Palpatine, in which Palpatine explicitly says that Darth Plagueis was his master; in the film, it is merely hinted at. Additionally, it is revealed that the primary reason for Anakin 's outrage over not becoming a Jedi Master is that only Masters have access to the holocrons in the Temple Archives, which is where Anakin had hoped to find information about how to prevent Padmé 's death. Not only is Saesee Tiin revealed to be a telepath, but his horn, lost in the Clone Wars, is revealed to have grown back. The book explains that Palpatine purposely manipulated the Council into sending Obi - Wan to fight General Grievous, because he knew he needed to get Obi - Wan off Coruscant before he could turn Anakin to the dark side. The novel also reveals Mace Windu 's rationale for not bringing Anakin along to the fight with Palpatine: he can sense Anakin 's fear and distress, and does not believe the young Jedi is in any mental state to fight a Sith Lord. These are a few examples of many descriptions of characters ' feelings and inner narrative. There are even some humorous lines added in, including extra dialogue in the battle between Grievous and Obi Wan - Grievous says, "I was trained by Count Dooku, '' and Obi - Wan replies, "What a coincidence; I trained the man who killed him. ''
An official prequel novel, Labyrinth of Evil (ISBN 0345475720) by James Luceno, was published in 2005. It is set near the end of the Clone Wars and directly before the events of Star Wars: Episode III Revenge of the Sith.
A video game based on the film was released on May 5, 2005, two weeks before the film. The game followed the film 's storyline for the most part, integrating scenes from the film. However, many sections of the game featured scenes cut from the film, or entirely new scenes for the game. The style of the game was mostly lightsaber combat and fighting as Obi - Wan or Anakin. It also has a form of multiplayer mode, which includes both "VS '' and "Cooperative '' mode. In the first mode, two players fight with characters of their choice against each other in a lightsaber duel to the death. In the latter mode, two players team up to combat increasingly difficult waves of enemies.
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outline the use of wood in australian history | Wood fuel - wikipedia
Wood fuel (or fuelwood) is a fuel, such as firewood, charcoal, chips, sheets, pellets, and sawdust. The particular form used depends upon factors such as source, quantity, quality and application. In many areas, wood is the most easily available form of fuel, requiring no tools in the case of picking up dead wood, or few tools, although as in any industry, specialized tools, such as skidders and hydraulic wood splitters, have been developed to mechanize production. Sawmill waste and construction industry by - products also include various forms of lumber tailings. The discovery of how to make fire for the purpose of burning wood is regarded as one of humanity 's most important advances. The use of wood as a fuel source for heating is much older than civilization and is assumed to have been used by Neanderthals. Today, burning of wood is the largest use of energy derived from a solid fuel biomass. Wood fuel can be used for cooking and heating, and occasionally for fueling steam engines and steam turbines that generate electricity. Wood may be used indoors in a furnace, stove, or fireplace, or outdoors in a furnace, campfire, or bonfire.
In permanent structures and in caves, hearths were constructed or established -- surfaces of stone or another noncombustible material upon which a fire could be built. Smoke escaped through a smoke hole in the roof.
In contrast to civilizations in relatively arid regions (such as Mesopotamia and Egypt), the Greeks, Romans, Celts, Britons, and Gauls all had access to forests suitable for using as fuel. Over the centuries there was a partial deforestation of climax forests and the evolution of the remainder to coppice with standards woodland as the primary source of wood fuel. These woodlands involved a continuous cycle of new stems harvested from old stumps, on rotations between seven and thirty years. One of the earliest printed books on woodland management, in English, was John Evelyn 's "Sylva, or a discourse on forest trees '' (1664) advising landowners on the proper management of forest estates. H.L. Edlin, in "Woodland Crafts in Britain '', 1949 outlines the extraordinary techniques employed, and range of wood products that have been produced from these managed forests since pre-Roman times. And throughout this time the preferred form of wood fuel was the branches of cut coppice stems bundled into faggots. Larger, bent or deformed stems that were of no other use to the woodland craftsmen were converted to the end of World War two. Since then much of these woodlands have been converted to broadscale agriculture. Total demand for fuel increased considerably with the industrial revolution but most of this increased demand was met by the new fuel source coal, which was more compact and more suited to the larger scale of the new industries.
During the Edo period of Japan, wood was used for many purposes, and the consumption of wood led Japan to develop a forest management policy during that era. Demand for timber resources was on the rise not only for fuel, but also for construction of ships and buildings, and consequently deforestation was widespread. As a result, forest fires occurred, along with floods and soil erosion. Around 1666, the shogun made it a policy to reduce logging and increase the planting of trees. This policy decreed that only the shogun, or a daimyō, could authorize the use of wood. By the 18th century, Japan had developed detailed scientific knowledge about silviculture and plantation forestry.
The development of the chimney and the fireplace allowed for more effective exhaustion of the smoke. Masonry heaters or stoves went a step further by capturing much of the heat of the fire and exhaust in a large thermal mass, becoming much more efficient than a fireplace alone.
The metal stove was a technological development concurrent with the industrial revolution. Stoves were manufactured or constructed pieces of equipment that contained the fire on all sides and provided a means for controlling the draft -- the amount of air allowed to reach the fire. Stoves have been made of a variety of materials. Cast iron is among the more common. Soapstone (talc), tile, and steel have all been used. Metal stoves are often lined with refractory materials such as firebrick, since the hottest part of a woodburning fire will burn away steel over the course of several years ' use.
The Franklin stove was developed in the United States by Benjamin Franklin. More a manufactured fireplace than a stove, it had an open front and a heat exchanger in the back that was designed to draw air from the cellar and heat it before releasing it out the sides. The heat exchanger was never a popular feature and was omitted in later versions. So - called "Franklin '' stoves today are made in a great variety of styles, though none resembles the original design.
The 1800s became the high point of the cast iron stove. Each local foundry would make their own design, and stoves were built for myriads of purposes -- parlour stoves, box stoves, camp stoves, railroad stoves, portable stoves, cooking stoves and so on. Elaborate nickel and chrome edged models took designs to the edge, with cast ornaments, feet and doors. Wood or coal could be burnt in the stoves and thus they were popular for over one hundred years. The action of the fire, combined with the causticity of the ash, ensured that the stove would eventually disintegrate or crack over time. Thus a steady supply of stoves was needed. The maintenance of stoves, needing to be blacked, their smokiness, and the need to split wood meant that oil or electric heat found favour.
The airtight stove, originally made of steel, allowed greater control of combustion, being more tightly fitted than other stoves of the day. Airtight stoves became common in the 19th century.
Use of wood heat declined in popularity with the growing availability of other, less labor - intensive fuels. Wood heat was gradually replaced by coal and later by fuel oil, natural gas and propane heating except in rural areas with available forests.
After the 1967 Oil Embargo, many people in the United States used wood as fuel for the first time. The EPA provided information on clean stoves, which burned much more efficiently.
A brief resurgence in popularity occurred during and after the 1973 energy crisis, when some believed that fossil fuels would become so expensive as to preclude their use. A period of innovation followed, with many small manufacturers producing stoves based on designs old and new. Notable innovations from that era include the Ashley heater, a thermostatically controlled stove with an optional perforated steel enclosure that prevented accidental contact with hot surfaces. The decade also saw a number of dual - fuel furnaces and boilers made, which utilized ductwork and piping to deliver heat throughout a house or other building.
The growth in popularity of wood heat also led to the development and marketing of a greater variety of equipment for cutting, splitting and processing firewood. Consumer grade hydraulic log splitters were developed to be powered by electricity, gasoline, or PTO of farm tractors. In 1987 the US Department of Agriculture published a method for producing kiln dried firewood, on the basis that better heat output and increased combustion efficiency can be achieved with logs containing lower moisture content.
The magazine "Wood Burning Quarterly '' was published for several years before changing its name to "Home Energy Digest '' and, subsequently, disappearing.
A pellet stove is an appliance that burns compressed wood or biomass pellets. Wood heat continues to be used in areas where firewood is abundant. For serious attempts at heating, rather than mere ambience (open fireplaces), stoves, fireplace inserts, and furnaces are most commonly used today. In rural, forested parts of the U.S., freestanding boilers are increasingly common. They are installed outdoors, some distance from the house, and connected to a heat exchanger in the house using underground piping. The mess of wood, bark, smoke, and ashes is kept outside and the risk of fire is reduced. The boilers are large enough to hold a fire all night, and can burn larger pieces of wood, so that less cutting and splitting is required. There is no need to retrofit a chimney in the house. However, outdoor wood boilers emit more wood smoke and associated pollutants than other wood - burning appliances. This is due to design characteristics such as the water - filled jacket surrounding the firebox, which acts to cool the fire and leads to incomplete combustion. Outdoor wood boilers also typically have short stack heights in comparison to other wood - burning appliances, contributing to ambient levels of particulates at ground level. An alternative that is increasing in popularity are wood gasification boilers, which burn wood at very high efficiencies (85 - 91 %) and can be placed indoors or in an outbuilding. There are plenty of ways to process wood fuel and the inventions today are maximizing by the minute.
Wood is still used today for cooking in many places, either in a stove or an open fire. It is also used as a fuel in many industrial processes, including smoking meat and making maple syrup.
As a sustainable energy source, wood fuel also remains viable for generating electricity in areas with easy access to forest products and by - products.
In the metric system, firewood is normally sold by the cubic metre or stere (1 m3 = ~ 0.276 cords).
In the United States and Canada, firewood is usually sold by the cord, 128 ft3 (3.62 m3), corresponding to a woodpile 8 ft wide × 4 ft high of 4 ft - long logs. The cord is legally defined by statute in most U.S. states. A "thrown cord '' is firewood that has not been stacked and is defined as 4 ft wide x 4 ft tall x 10 ft long. The additional volume is to make it equivalent to a standard stacked cord, where there is less void space. It is also common to see wood sold by the "face cord '', which is usually not legally defined, and varies from one area to another. For example, in one state a pile of wood 8 feet wide × 4 feet high of 16 "- long logs will often be sold as a "face cord '', though its volume is only one - third of a cord. In another state, or even another area of the same state, the volume of a face cord may be considerably different. Hence, it is risky to buy wood sold in this manner, as the transaction is not based on a legally enforceable unit of measure.
In Australia, it is normally sold by the tonne.
A common hardwood, red oak, has an energy content (heat value) of 14.9 mega joules per kilogram (6,388 BTU per pound), and 10.4 mega joules recoverable if burned at 70 % efficiency.
The Sustainable Energy Development Office (SEDO), part of the Government of Western Australia states that the energy content of wood is 16.2 megajoules per kilogram (4.5 kWh / kg).
According to The Bioenergy Knowledge Centre, the energy content of wood is more closely related to its moisture content than its species. The energy content improves as moisture content decreases.
In 2008, wood for fuel cost $15.15 per 1 million BTUs (0.041 EUR per kWh).
As with any fire, burning wood fuel creates numerous by - products, some of which may be useful (heat and steam), and others that are undesirable, irritating or dangerous.
One by - product of wood burning is wood ash, which in moderate amounts is a fertilizer (mainly potash), contributing minerals, but is strongly alkaline as it contains potassium hydroxide (lye). Wood ash can also be used to manufacture soap.
Smoke, containing water vapor, carbon dioxide and other chemicals and aerosol particulates, including caustic alkali fly ash, which can be an irritating (and potentially dangerous) by - product of partially burnt wood fuel. A major component of wood smoke is fine particles that may account for a large portion of particulate air pollution in some regions. During cooler months, wood heating accounts for as much as 60 % of fine particles in Melbourne, Australia.
Slow combustion stoves increase efficiency of wood heaters burning logs, but also increase particulate production. Low pollution / slow combustion stoves are a current area of research. An alternative approach is to use pyrolysis to produce several useful biochemical byproducts, and clean burning charcoal, or to burn fuel extremely quickly inside a large thermal mass, such as a masonry heater. This has the effect of allowing the fuel to burn completely without producing particulates while maintaining the efficiency of the system.
In some of the most efficient burners, the temperature of the smoke is raised to a much higher temperature where the smoke will itself burn (e.g. 609 ° C for igniting carbon monoxide gas). This may result in significant reduction of smoke hazards while also providing additional heat from the process. By using a catalytic converter, the temperature for obtaining cleaner smoke can be reduced. Some U.S. jurisdictions prohibit sale or installation of stoves that do not incorporate catalytic converters.
Depending on population density, topography, climatic conditions and combustion equipment used, wood heating may substantially contribute to air pollution, particularly particulates. The conditions in which wood is burnt will greatly influence the content of the emission. Particulate air pollution can contribute to human health problems and increased hospital admissions for asthma & heart diseases.
The technique of compressing wood pulp into pellets or artificial logs can reduce emissions. The combustion is cleaner, and the increased wood density and reduced water content can eliminate some of the transport bulk. The fossil energy consumed in transport is reduced and represents a small fraction of the fossil fuel consumed in producing and distributing heating oil or gas.
Wood combustion products can include toxic and carcinogenic substances. Generally, the heartwood of a tree contains the highest amounts of toxic substances, but precautions should be taken if one is burning wood of an unknown nature, since some trees ' woodsmoke can be highly toxic.
Much wood fuel comes from native forests around the world. Plantation wood is rarely used for firewood, as it is more valuable as timber or wood pulp, however, some wood fuel is gathered from trees planted amongst crops, also known as agroforestry. The collection or harvesting of this wood can have serious environmental implications for the collection area. The concerns are often specific to the particular area, but can include all the problems that regular logging create. The heavy removal of wood from forests can cause habitat destruction and soil erosion. However, in many countries, for example in Europe and Canada, the forest residues are being collected and turned into useful wood fuels with minimal impact on the environment. Consideration is given to soil nutrition as well as erosion. The environmental impact of using wood as a fuel depends on how it is burnt. Higher temperatures result in more complete combustion and less noxious gases as a result of pyrolysis. Some may regard the burning of wood from a sustainable source as carbon - neutral. A tree, over the course of its lifetime, absorbs as much carbon (or carbon dioxide) as it releases when burnt.
Some firewood is harvested in "woodlots '' managed for that purpose, but in heavily wooded areas it is more often harvested as a byproduct of natural forests. Deadfall that has not started to rot is preferred, since it is already partly seasoned. Standing dead timber is considered better still, as it is both seasoned, and has less rot. Harvesting this form of timber reduces the speed and intensity of bushfires. Harvesting timber for firewood is normally carried out by hand with chainsaws. Thus, longer pieces - requiring less manual labor, and less chainsaw fuel - are less expensive and only limited by the size of their firebox. Prices also vary considerably with the distance from wood lots, and quality of the wood. Firewood usually relates to timber or trees unsuitable for building or construction. Firewood is a renewable resource provided the consumption rate is controlled to sustainable levels. The shortage of suitable firewood in some places has seen local populations damaging huge tracts of bush possibly leading to further desertification.
Wood burning creates more atmospheric CO than biodegradation of wood in a forest (in a given period of time) because by the time the bark of a dead tree has rotted, the log has already been occupied by other plants and micro-organisms which continue to sequester the CO by integrating the hydrocarbons of the wood into their own life cycle. Wood harvesting and transport operations produce varying degrees of greenhouse gas pollution. Inefficient and incomplete combustion of wood can result in elevated levels of greenhouse gases other than CO, which may result in positive emissions where the byproducts have greater Carbon dioxide equivalent values. In an attempt to provide quantitative information about the relative output of CO to produce electricity of domestic heating, the United Kingdom Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) has published a comprehensive model comparing the burning of wood (wood chip) and other fuels, based on 33 scenarios. The model 's output is kilogram of CO produced per Megawatt hour of delivered energy. Scenario 33 for example, which concerns the production of heat from wood chips produced from UK small roundwood produced from bringing neglected broadleaf forests back into production, shows that burning oil releases 377 kg of CO while burning woodchip releases 1501 kg of CO per MW h delivered energy.
The intentional and controlled charring of wood and its incorporation into the soil is an effective method for carbon sequestration as well as an important technique to improve soil conditions for agriculture, particularly in heavily forested regions. It forms the basis of the rich soils known as Terra preta.
The environmental impact of burning wood fuel is debatable. Several cities have moved towards setting standards of use and / or bans of wood burning fireplaces. For example, the city of Montréal, Québec passed a resolution to ban wood fireplace installation in new construction. However many wood burning advocates claim that properly harvested wood is carbon - neutral, therefore off - setting the negative impact of by - product particles given off during the burning process. In the context of forest wildfires, wood removed from the forest setting for use as wood fuel can reduce overall emissions by decreasing the quantity of open burned wood and the severity of the burn while combusting the remaining material under regulated conditions.
Some European countries produce a significant fraction of their electricity needs from wood or wood wastes. In Scandinavian countries the costs of manual labor to process firewood is very high. Therefore, it is common to import firewood from countries with cheap labor and natural resources. The main exporters to Scandinavia are the Baltic countries (Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia). In Finland, there is a growing interest in using wood waste as fuel for home and industrial heating, in the form of compacted pellets.
In the United States, wood fuel is the second - leading form of renewable energy (behind hydro - electric).
About 1.5 million households in Australia use firewood as the main form of domestic heating. As of 1995, approximately 1.85 million cubic metres of firewood (1m3 equals approximately one car trailer load) was used in Victoria annually, with half being consumed in Melbourne. This amount is comparable to the wood consumed by all of Victoria 's sawlog and pulplog forestry operations (1.9 million m3).
Species used as sources of firewood include:
In 2014, the construction of the biggest pellet plant in the Baltic region was started in Võrumaa, Sõmerpalu, with an expected output of 110,000 tons of pellet / year. Different types of wood will be used in the process of pellet making (firewood, woodchips, shavings). The Warmeston OÜ plant started its activity by the end of 2014. In 2013, the main pellet consumers in Europe were the UK, Denmark, the Netherlands, Sweden, Germany and Belgium, as U.E. 's annual report on biofuels states. In Denmark and Sweden, pellets are used by power plants, households and medium scale consumers for district heating, compared to Austria and Italy, where pellets are mainly used as small - scale private residential and industrial boilers for heating.
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who did egypt play against in the world cup | Egypt at the FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The FIFA World Cup, sometimes called the Football World Cup or the Soccer World Cup, but usually referred to simply as the World Cup, is an international association football competition contested by the men 's national teams of the members of Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the sport 's global governing body. The championship has been awarded every four years since the first tournament in 1930, except in 1942 and 1946, due to World War II.
The tournament consists of two parts, the qualification phase and the final phase (officially called the World Cup Finals). The qualification phase, which currently take place over the three years preceding the Finals, is used to determine which teams qualify for the Finals. The current format of the Finals involves 32 teams competing for the title, at venues within the host nation (or nations) over a period of about a month. The World Cup Finals is the most widely viewed sporting event in the world, with an estimated 715.1 million people watching the 2006 tournament final.
Egypt have qualified for the FIFA World Cup finals on three occasions, in 1934, 1990 and 2018. With 2 draws and 5 losses, Egypt has never won a match in the World Cup finals. In 1934 Egypt became the first African team to play in the World Cup finals. When they qualified again in 1990, they became the team with the longest - ever gap between two FIFA World Cup matches: 56 years and 16 days had passed.
Group F
Group F, featured the Netherlands, England, the Republic of Ireland and Egypt. In the six group games, no team managed to score more than once in a match. England beat Egypt 1 -- 0, thanks to a 58th - minute goal from Mark Wright -- and that was enough to win the group.
The Republic of Ireland and the Netherlands finished with identical records. With both teams assured of progressing, they were split by the drawing of lots to determine second and third place. -- -
Assistant referees: Edgardo Codesal (Mexico) Juan Daniel Cardellino (Uruguay)
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Assistant referees: Joël Quiniou (France) Rosario Lo Bello (Italy)
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Assistant referees: Berny Ulloa Morera (Costa Rica) Edgardo Codesal (Mexico)
Group A
Due to the long time spans between Egypt 's World Cup participations, no player was able to play more than one tournament. 22 players share the record for most World Cup appearances for Egypt: Ten players from the 1990 FIFA World Cup, among them twin brothers Hossam and Ibrahim Hassan, and twelve players from 2018. The team of 1934 was only able to play one match because of a different tournament format.
An Egyptian player with a notable record is goalkeeper Essam El - Hadary. On 25 June 2018, he became the oldest player ever to appear in a World Cup match with 45 years and 5 months. He saved a penalty in the first half of the match against Saudi Arabia, but ultimately Egypt lost 1 - 2.
Scoring twice at Egypt 's first - ever World Cup match, their 2 - 4 defeat against Hungary, made Abdulrahman Fawzi the only African goal scorer at FIFA World Cup finals for decades. It took 84 years for another Egyptian, Mohamed Salah, to equal his tally.
The Egyptian Football association declined the invitation handed to it by FIFA because of the cost of the far trip to Uruguay to participate in the FIFA World Cup URUGUAY 1930
Main Article: 1934 FIFA World Cup qualification Group 12
The Palestine football team consisted of nine British footballers, six Jewish footballers and one Arab footballer. FIFA states in reference to the 1930s Palestine Mandate team that the ' Palestine team ' that had participated in previous competitions in the 1930s was actually the forerunner of today 's Israel team and as such bears no relation to the national team of the Palestinian authority although there were no state named Israel yet. However, the region currently known as Palestine is considered "one of the first Asian teams to compete in the FIFA World Cup qualifiers ''.
11 - 2 on aggregate; Egypt qualified.
Main Article: 1938 FIFA World Cup qualification
Group 4 Egypt were to play Romania in December 1937 however Egypt refused to play Romania due a Financial Problems Another Story says Egypt refused to play Romania during the Ramadan month, Egyptian officials had argued it was "impossible '' to play football during that time period. Egyptian officials went on to invite Austrian club side First Vienna FC to Egypt to participate in a friendly game against the national team during the holy month. As a result, Egypt were withdrawn from the competition by FIFA, so Romania qualified automatically.
Egypt did not participate in this version of the FIFA World Cup for no clear reasons
Main article: 1954 FIFA World Cup qualification
Group 9
EGYPT did n't qualify
Main Article: 1958 FIFA World Cup qualification Africa and Asia CAF / AFC First Round Group 3
Cyprus withdrew, so Egypt advanced to the Second Round automatically.
CAF / AFC Second Round
Indonesia withdrew after FIFA rejected their request to play against Israel on neutral ground. Israel advanced to the Final Round automatically. Egypt withdrew, so Sudan advanced to the Final Round automatically.
Main Article: 1962 FIFA World Cup qualification
CAF First Round Group 1
United Arab Republic and Sudan both withdrew as FIFA refused to allow them to rearrange their games to avoid the monsoon season. (3)
Main Article: 1966 FIFA World Cup qualification (Africa, Asia and Oceania)
Africa First Round No matches were played because of protests to the allocation of spots. The original group draws were.
Africa Second Round
The second round pairing were scheduled as following.
The winners were to advance to the final round.
Egypt did not participate in this version of the FIFA World Cup due to the postponement of all sports activities after 1967 war
Main article: 1974 FIFA World Cup qualification (CAF)
Egypt out of first Round.
Main article: 1978 FIFA World Cup qualification (CAF)
Egypt advanced to the Second Round.
Egypt advanced to the Third Round.
Egypt advanced to the Final Round.
Egypt out of Final Round.
Main article: 1982 FIFA World Cup qualification (CAF)
Egypt advanced to the Second Round, Ghana withdrew.
Egypt advanced to the Third Round, Libya withdrew.
Egypt out of Third Round.
Main article: 1986 FIFA World Cup qualification (CAF)
First Round
Egypt advanced to the Second Round.
Second Round
Egypt advanced to the Third Round on penalties.
Third Round
Egypt out of Third Round.
Main Article: 1990 FIFA World Cup qualification Second round Group B
Final round
Main article: 1994 FIFA World Cup qualification (CAF)
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how is the chronicles of narnia related to the bible | Religion in the Chronicles of Narnia - wikipedia
The Chronicles of Narnia is a series of seven fantasy novels for children written by C.S. Lewis. It is considered a classic of children 's literature and is the author 's best - known work, having sold over 100 million copies in 47 languages. In addition to numerous traditional Christian themes, the series borrows characters and ideas from Greek and Roman mythology, and from British and Irish folklore.
C.S. Lewis was an adult convert to Christianity and had previously authored some works on Christian apologetics and fiction with Christian themes. However, he did not originally set out to incorporate Christian theological concepts into his Narnia stories; it is something that occurred as he wrote them. As he wrote in Of Other Worlds (1982):
Some people seem to think that I began by asking myself how I could say something about Christianity to children; then fixed on the fairy tale as an instrument, then collected information about child psychology and decided what age group I 'd write for; then drew up a list of basic Christian truths and hammered out ' allegories ' to embody them. This is all pure moonshine. I could n't write in that way. It all began with images; a faun carrying an umbrella, a queen on a sledge, a magnificent lion. At first there was n't anything Christian about them; that element pushed itself in of its own accord.
Lewis, an expert on the subject of allegory and the author of The Allegory of Love, maintained that the Chronicles were not allegory on the basis that there is no one - to - one correspondence between characters and events in the books, and figures and events in Christian doctrine. He preferred to call the Christian aspects of them "suppositional ''. This indicates Lewis ' view of Narnia as a fictional parallel universe. As Lewis wrote in a letter to a Mrs Hook in December 1958:
If Aslan represented the immaterial Deity in the same way in which Giant Despair (a character in The Pilgrim 's Progress) represents despair, he would be an allegorical figure. In reality, however, he is an invention giving an imaginary answer to the question, ' What might Christ become like if there really were a world like Narnia, and He chose to be incarnate and die and rise again in that world as He actually has done in ours? ' This is not allegory at all.
Although Lewis did not consider them allegorical, and did not set out to incorporate Christian themes in Wardrobe, he was not hesitant to point them out after the fact. In one of his last letters, written in March 1961, Lewis writes:
With the release of the 2005 film there was renewed interest in the Christian parallels found in the books. Some find them distasteful, while noting that they are easy to miss if one is not familiar with Christianity. Alan Jacobs, author of The Narnian: The Life and Imagination of C.S. Lewis, implies that through these Christian aspects, Lewis becomes "a pawn in America 's culture wars ''. Some Christians see the Chronicles as excellent tools for Christian evangelism. The subject of Christianity in the novels has become the focal point of many books.
Rev. Abraham Tucker pointed out that "While there are in the Narnia tales many clear parallels with Biblical events, they are far from precise, one - on - one parallels. (...) Aslan sacrifices himself in order to redeem Edmund, the Traitor, who is completely reformed and forgiven. That is as if the New Testament were to tell us that Jesus Christ redeemed Judas Iscariot and that Judas later became one of the Apostles. (...) There had been times in Christian history when Lewis might have been branded a heretic for far smaller creative innovations in theology. ''
Alan Jacobs, professor of English at Wheaton College, describes The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe as "a twofold story: the rightful king of Narnia returns to re-establish his kingdom and bring peace; and that same king sacrifices himself to save a traitor... kingdom and salvation are what the story is all about. '' The similarity between the death and resurrection of Aslan and the death and resurrection of Jesus in the Bible has been noted; one author has noted that like Jesus, Aslan was ridiculed before his death, mourned, and then discovered to be absent from the place where his body had been laid. Other authors have likened the character of Edmund to the Judas of the four Gospels. Stanley Mattson, president of the Redlands, Calif. - based C.S. Lewis Foundation, states that the "Deeper Magic '' referred to in the book "is all about redemption, it 's all about reconciliation, it 's all about healing, and it 's all about... death being swallowed up in victory. ''
Lewis has also received criticism from some Christians and Christian organizations who feel that The Chronicles of Narnia promotes "soft - sell paganism and occultism '', because of the recurring pagan themes and the supposedly heretical depictions of Christ as an anthropomorphic lion. The Greek god Dionysus and the Maenads are depicted in a positive light (with the caveat that meeting them without Aslan around would not be safe), although they are generally considered distinctly pagan motifs. Even an animistic "River god '' is portrayed in a positive light. According to Josh Hurst of Christianity Today, "not only was Lewis hesitant to call his books Christian allegory, but the stories borrow just as much from pagan mythology as they do the Bible ''.
Lewis himself believed that pagan mythology could act as a preparation for Christianity, both in history and in the imaginative life of an individual, and even suggested that modern man was in such a lamentable state that perhaps it was necessary "first to make people good pagans, and after that to make them Christians ''. He also argued that imaginative enjoyment of (as opposed to belief in) classical mythology has been a feature of Christian culture through much of its history, and that European literature has always had three themes: the natural, the supernatural believed to be true (practiced religion), and the supernatural believed to be imaginary (mythology). Colin Duriez, author of three books on Lewis, suggests that Lewis believed that to reach a post-Christian culture one needed to employ pre-Christian ideas. Lewis disliked modernity, which he regarded as mechanized and sterile and cut off from natural ties to the world. By comparison, he had hardly any reservations about pre-Christian pagan culture. As Christian critics have pointed out, Lewis disdained the non-religious agnostic character of modernity, but not the polytheistic character of pagan religion.
Calormen is the only openly pagan society within the fictional Narnian world. Their practices centre around Tash, a god who is imagined to be an ancestor of the Calormene royal family. Additionally, there are lesser gods like Azaroth and Zardeenah. The Calormene religion can be compared to pre-Islamic Middle Eastern paganism.
The initial critical reception was generally positive, and the series quickly became popular with children. In the time since then, it has become clear that reaction to the stories, both positive and negative, cuts across religious viewpoints. Although some saw in the books potential proselytising material, others insisted that non-believing audiences could enjoy the books on their own merits.
The Narnia books have a large Christian following, and are widely used to promote Christian ideas. Churches like Memorial Drive United Methosist are even putting on Narnia musicals to teach Christian themes. Narnia ' tie - in ' material is marketed directly to Christian, even to Sunday school, audiences. As noted above, however, a number of Christians have criticized the series for including pagan imagery, or even for misrepresenting the Christian story. Christian authors who have criticised the books include fantasy author J.K. Rowling on ethical grounds and literary critic John Goldthwaite in The Natural History of Make - Believe for elitism and snobbery in the books.
J.R.R. Tolkien was a close friend of Lewis, a fellow author and was instrumental in Lewis ' own conversion to Christianity. As members of the Inklings literary group the two often read and critiqued drafts of their work. Nonetheless, Tolkien was not enthusiastic about the Narnia stories, in part due to the eclectic elements of the mythology and their haphazard incorporation, in part because he disapproved of stories involving travel between real and imaginary worlds. Though a Catholic himself, Tolkien felt that fantasy should incorporate Christian values without resorting to the obvious allegory Lewis employed.
Reaction from non-Christians has been mixed as well. Philip Pullman, an atheist supporter of secularism and humanism, has serious objections to the Narnia series. On the other hand, the books have appeared in Neo-pagan reading lists (by the Wiccan author Starhawk, among others). Positive reviews of the books by authors who share few of Lewis ' religious views can be found in Revisiting Narnia, edited by Shanna Caughey.
The producers of the 2005 film hoped to tap into the large religious audience revealed by the success of Mel Gibson 's film The Passion of the Christ, and at the same time hoped to produce an adventure film that would appeal to secular audiences; but they (and the reviewers as well) worried about aspects of the story that could variously alienate both groups.
Two full - length books examining Narnia from a non-religious point of view take diametrically opposite views of its literary merits. David Holbrook has written many psychoanalytic treatments of famous novelists, including Dickens, Lawrence, Lewis Carroll, and Ian Fleming. His 1991 book The Skeleton in the Wardrobe treats Narnia psychoanalytically, speculating that Lewis never recovered from the death of his mother and was frightened of adult female sexuality. He characterises the books as Lewis ' failed attempt to work out many of his inner conflicts. Holbrook does give higher praise to The Magician 's Nephew and Till We Have Faces (Lewis ' reworking of the myth of Cupid and Psyche), as reflecting greater personal and moral maturity. Holbrook also plainly states his non-belief in Christianity.
In contrast to Holbrook, Laura Miller 's The Magician 's Book: A Skeptic 's Guide to Narnia (2008) finds in the Narnia books a deep spiritual and moral meaning from a non-religious perspective. Blending autobiography and literary criticism, Miller (a co-founder of Salon.com) discusses how she resisted her Catholic upbringing as a child; she loved the Narnia books but felt betrayed when she discovered their Christian subtext. As an adult she found deep delight in the books, and decided that these works transcend their Christian elements. Ironically, a section in His Dark Materials by Philip Pullman, one of Narnia 's severest critics, about how children acquire grace from innocence but adults from experience, had a profound influence on Miller 's later appreciation of the Narnia books.
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does effy go to prison in skins fire | Skins Fire - Wikipedia
Skins Fire is a feature - length episode of E4 television series Skins. It aired in two parts in 2013 as part of a specially - commissioned seventh season marking the end of the programme. The first six series of Skins aired from 2007 to 2012, a teen drama focusing on the lives of three separate casts of Bristolian teenagers. While previous stories in the series were teen dramas, Fire like other stories in the seventh season revisits characters from the show 's first two casts, now facing young adulthood.
Fire focuses on Kaya Scodelario 's Effy Stonem, who appeared in the first four series of the show. In the story, former party girl Effy is a receptionist and later a stock trader for a London hedge fund who becomes embroiled in an insider trading scandal. Effy lives with Naomi Campbell (Lily Loveless), who is now her best friend. An ambitious idealist in the show 's third and fourth series, Naomi in the present day finds herself drifting through life without a steady income when she is diagnosed with cancer.
Effy - now aged 21, is working a dead - end job as a receptionist for a leading London hedge fund and lives in a flat with Naomi Campbell, who has become a slacker, while Emily is currently in New York on a lucrative internship. Her life is relatively dull, and her only relief comes in the form of cigarette breaks with her friends, Jane (Amy Wren), her work colleague, and Dominic (Craig Roberts), a stock market researcher who works for a different part of the industry, and who has a crush on her. Her home life is no better, as Naomi, who is bored with no job and no Emily, has taken to inviting her stoner friends round for parties, with no regard to Effy 's high workload. Although Effy is clearly annoyed by this, she is nevertheless very fond of Naomi, and continues to put up with her. She also occasionally allows her to share her bed when she has a fight with Emily on Skype. Unbeknownst to Effy, Naomi has been suffering from abdominal pains for some time, although when Effy notices, she brushes it off.
One day, Effy spots a mistake in the figures of one of the company reports she has been asked to put together, and mentions it to her superior, Victoria (Lara Pulver). Victoria, a stock trader who is in a relationship with the head of the company, Jake (Kayvan Novak), pretends to ignore her, and then takes credit for the discovery at the next board meeting. Enraged, Effy decides she will need to upstage Victoria if she is to move up the company ladder, so she approaches Dominic and asks him to teach her the skills of the trade. After a couple of sessions with him, she deliberately fails to inform one of Victoria 's investors of a delay in their meeting, holds the meeting herself, and manages to clinch the deal. Victoria is angered, but Jake is impressed by her initiative and skills in the trade, and offers her a job on the trade floor. Months later, Victoria has left the company after a falling out with Jake, but Effy is struggling to keep up, due to her lack of experience or real knowledge of the industry. Wanting another big breakthrough, Effy approaches Dominic again and, by playing on his attraction to her, convinces him to illegally give her some useful financial information about a deal that is about to fall through, with which she makes her company over a million pounds. Jake continues to be impressed by her, and the two begin to develop a relationship. Naomi, meanwhile, has decided to make her dreams of being a stand - up comedian a reality, and has managed to get a slot on an open - night gig at one of her favourite comedy bars, which Effy attends. The gig is a disaster, when Naomi 's weak material falls flat, and she is unable to properly deal with some homophobic hecklers. Secretly, Naomi decides to go to the doctor about her abdominal pains and is devastated by the results. Later that night, Effy is awoken by the sound of Naomi blaring loud music on the balcony, and Naomi angrily reveals that she is suffering from cancer.
A few months after Naomi 's revelation, Effy is in a fully fledged relationship with Jake and, despite her illness, Naomi is finding greater success as a stand - up comedian, even using her cancer as part of her routine. Her gigs are frequently attended by Effy and Jake, although Jake enjoys them more than Effy. As well as this, Emily has managed to get time off from her internship, and has flown over from New York to visit them, although Naomi is resistant to telling her the truth. Things are getting difficult at the Hedge Fund, however, and Jake, upon learning that Effy had help in her previous breakthrough, suggests she find help from the same source. However, things take a turn for the worse when Naomi 's doctor informs her that her radiotherapy has n't worked, and that she will have to start chemotherapy at once. Needing her breakthrough for her sake and Naomi 's, Effy goes back to Dominic and asks him for help. Dominic angrily declares his undying love for her and demands that she leave him alone. He nevertheless provides her with another crucial piece of information, and, with Jake 's help, they are able to make millions. A couple of months after that, Effy moves a considerably weaker Naomi to her new, lavishly furnished flat in Canary Wharf, although Naomi sadly states that she preferred her old flat. Soon after, though, Effy receives a call from the Financial Services Authority (which was abolished shortly after filming was completed, and whose financial crime duties were transferred to the newly formed Financial Conduct Authority), who have come up with evidence that her successful portfolios were the result of insider dealing, meaning she could face charges of market abuse. Effy is urged by Jake to deny everything. That night, Effy returns to the flat to find that Naomi has been vomiting incessantly all day, and is suffering with a horrific fever. Shocked by the state she is in, Effy quickly calls Dominic, who rushes over to help. The next day, while Dominic takes Naomi to the hospital, Effy goes to the FSA for her scheduled meeting, where she discovers that the FSA agent investigating her is Victoria. With Effy refusing to co-operate, Victoria decides to call in Dominic. Worried, Effy meets up with him at the hospital and tells him that the FSA are about to investigate him, but he is enraged that she is so preoccupied with her own life when her friend is alone in her hospital room, and storms off. Effy discovers that Naomi has disappeared from her room, and after a quick search, finds that she has gone up to the snowy roof to smoke a cigarette. A crying Naomi explains that her cancer has become terminal, and that she will now have to break her promise never to hurt Emily again. That night, Dominic turns up at her flat, angrily berating Effy for using him and for the way she has behaved, and announcing that the FSA has confiscated his laptop. Effy kisses him, and the two begin to initiate sex. However, Dominic sees that she is not genuinely willing and realises that she is just using sex as a means of pacifying him. Mortified, he leaves, never to return.
The next day, Effy goes into the office, and is confronted with the company 's legal adviser. Jake places the blame for the insider dealing squarely with Effy, and suspends her from the company, to her devastation. After Effy finally tells Emily the truth, she flies over from New York at once, and angrily berates her for her lack of support for Naomi, telling her that she does n't want her to visit Naomi that night. Deciding to do the right thing, Effy meets with Victoria, who sympathetically tells her that she knew Jake would just ditch Effy when it suited him, and convinces her to give a statement confessing to the market abuse charges and stating Jake 's complicity, which will reduce her prison sentence significantly. Before going through with it, Effy drops by the hospital, and urges Emily to forgive Naomi for not telling her sooner. Emily enters the bedroom, and tearfully embraces her girlfriend, and Naomi gives Effy a smile over Emily 's shoulder, knowing that she will die peacefully with her beloved Emily at her side. Effy then proceeds to the FSA 's offices and signs her statement. Effy then leaves the FSA offices and is taken into custody. Her trademark wry smile crosses her face as the episode ends.
Fire received mixed reviews, with Caroline Preece from Den of Geek noting that the two - parter became progressively more bleak as it went on. Writing of the first part, Adrian Michaels of The Daily Telegraph stated: "The fact that all the plot progression was extremely predictable, and that only the characters of Effy and her flatmate Naomi (Lily Loveless) were more than, er, skin - deep, would surely have sunk most drama. But happily it did not. Skins was a triumph of slick over substance. ''
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what schools are in the big sky conference | Big Sky Conference - Wikipedia
The Big Sky Conference is a collegiate athletic conference affiliated with the NCAA 's Division I, with football competing in the Football Championship Subdivision. Member institutions are located in the western United States in the nine states of Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Utah, and Washington. Four affiliate members each participate in one sport. Two schools from California are football - only participants, and two schools from the Northeast participate only in men 's golf.
Initially conceived for basketball, the Big Sky was founded 55 years ago in 1963 with six members in four states; four of the charter members have been in the league from its founding, and a fifth returned in 2014 after an 18 - year absence.
The name "Big Sky '' came from the popular 1947 western novel by A.B. Guthrie Jr.; it was proposed by Harry Missildine, a sports columnist of the Spokesman - Review just prior to the founding meetings of the conference in Spokane in February 1963, and was adopted with the announcement of the new conference five days later.
Starting in 1968, the conference competed at the highest level (university division) in all sports except football (college division). The sole exception was Idaho, in the university division for football through 1977 (except 1967, 1968).
In 1974, half of the Big Sky 's ten sports were dropped (baseball, skiing, swimming, golf, and tennis), leaving football, basketball, wrestling, track, and cross country.
Women 's sports were added 30 years ago in 1988, moving from the women 's - only Mountain West Athletic Conference (1982 -- 88).
The 2012 -- 13 season marked the completion of a half century of athletic competition and a quarter century sponsoring women 's collegiate athletics. Before the season the league introduced a new logo to celebrate this.
The 25th season of women 's athletics also marked a first for the league, as Portland State won the league 's inaugural softball championship. From 1982 to 1988, women 's sports were conducted in the Mountain West Athletic Conference.
The Big Sky sponsors championships in sixteen sports, including men 's and women 's cross country, golf, indoor and outdoor track and field, basketball, and tennis. There are also championships in football, and in women 's volleyball, soccer, and softball.
North Dakota left the Big Sky in 2018, with its non-football sports joining the Summit League. The football team became an FCS independent for the 2018 and 2019 seasons, but continues to play a full Big Sky football schedule due to contractual commitments. In those seasons, football games against North Dakota will count in the Big Sky standings for their opponents. Afterwards, North Dakota will join the Missouri Valley Football Conference in 2020.
Full members Assoc. members (football only) Full members (except football) Assoc. members (other sports) Other Conference Other Conference
As of the 2016 -- 17 school year, the Big Sky sponsors championships in seven men 's and nine women 's NCAA sanctioned sports. Each core member institution is required to participate in all of the 13 core sports. Men 's core sports are basketball, cross country, football, indoor track and field, outdoor track and field, and tennis. Women 's core sports are basketball, cross country, golf, indoor track and field, outdoor track and field, tennis, and volleyball.
Cal Poly San Luis Obispo and UC Davis participate as football - only affiliates, otherwise participating in the Big West Conference. Binghamton and Hartford are affiliates in men 's golf only, otherwise participating in the America East Conference. Before the 2014 -- 15 school year, the latter two schools had participated in men 's golf alongside five full Big Sky members in the single - sport America Sky Conference. The return of Idaho brought the number of members participating in men 's golf to six, which led to the Big Sky adding men 's golf and absorbing the America Sky Conference.
The Big Sky is unusual among Division I all - sports conferences in not sponsoring baseball. The conference originally sponsored baseball in 1964, with all members participating. When Boise State and Northern Arizona arrived for the 1971 season, competition was split into two divisions of four teams each, with the winners in a best - of - three championship series. Montana State and Montana soon dropped the sport and by the 1973 season, only six teams remained but the divisions were kept, and Boise State moved over to the North Division for two years.
In May 1974, the Big Sky announced its intention to discontinue five of its ten sponsored sports. It retained football, basketball, cross-country, track, and wrestling, and dropped conference competition in baseball, golf, tennis, swimming, and skiing. Of the eleven Big Sky baseball titles, four each went to Idaho (1964, ' 66, ' 67, ' 69) and Gonzaga (1965, ' 71, ' 73, ' 74), and three to Weber State (1968, ' 70, ' 72). Gonzaga won the final title in 1974 over Idaho State in three games, after losing the first game in Pocatello. Southern division champion Idaho State chose to end its baseball program weeks following the conference 's announcement, and Gonzaga, Idaho, and Boise State joined the new Northern Pacific Conference (NorPac) for baseball in 1975. Boise State and Idaho competed in the NorPac for six seasons, then discontinued baseball after the 1980 season.
In 2016, North Dakota announced on April 12 that it was their last baseball season. As of 2017, only Northern Colorado and Sacramento State compete in the sport, both as affiliate members in the Western Athletic Conference (WAC).
Men 's varsity sports not sponsored by the Big Sky Conference which are played by Big Sky schools:
Women 's varsity sports not sponsored by the Big Sky Conference which are played by Big Sky schools:
Note: The Idaho Vandals men 's basketball team plays early - season home games at Memorial Gym, home of the Vandals volleyball team.
Since 1968, the Big Sky champion has received a berth in NCAA Tournament; the conference tournament winner has been the representative since its introduction in 1976.
The best finish by a Big Sky team came in 1977, when the Idaho State Bengals of Jim Killingsworth advanced to the Elite Eight, with a one - point upset of UCLA in the Sweet Sixteen in Provo, Utah. Two days later, the Bengals led UNLV by a point at halftime, but lost by seventeen and finished at 25 -- 5.
Seeding was introduced in 1979 when it expanded to forty teams, and the highest seed granted a Big Sky team was in 1982: ranked eighth in the final polls with a 26 -- 2 record, the Idaho Vandals under Don Monson were seeded third in the West regional. After a first round bye, they beat Lute Olson 's Iowa Hawkeyes in nearby Pullman in overtime, but lost to second - seeded (and fourth - ranked) Oregon State in the regional semifinals (Sweet Sixteen), also played in Provo. (Idaho had defeated OSU by 22 points in December in the Far West Classic at Portland.)
Other Big Sky teams that advanced to regional semifinals (Sweet Sixteen) include the Weber State Wildcats in 1969 and 1972, when the total field was 25 teams, and the Montana Grizzlies under Jud Heathcote in the 32 - team field in 1975. The Griz fell to UCLA by just three points, who went on to win another title in John Wooden 's final year as head coach. (A year later, Heathcote was hired at Michigan State with Monson as an assistant for the first two years; in his third season, the Spartans won the national title in 1979.)
Since 1982, only three teams from the Big Sky have advanced within the NCAA tournament, and none past the round of 32. Weber State won in 1995 and 1999, coached by Ron Abegglen, and Montana in 2006, led by alumnus Larry Krystkowiak. Prior to Idaho in 1982, the Big Sky had been seeded seventh (Weber State, 1979 & 1980; and Idaho, 1981); the highest seed for the conference since 1982 is ninth (Weber State, 1983), and the highest since expanding to 64 teams in 1985 is twelfth (Weber State in 2003; Montana in 2006).
Through 2018, the Big Sky has yet to receive an at - large bid to the NCAA tournament. The first NIT appearance for the conference was Idaho in 1983; two Big Sky teams advanced to the NIT 's round of 16: Weber State (1984) and Boise State (1987).
Season, conference record, and champion
^ - winner of head - to - head matchup (s) in conference game (s) during the regular season. ^ ^ - vacated due to NCAA violations
This list goes through the 2013 season.
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when was divorce made legal in the uk | Divorce in England and Wales - wikipedia
In England and Wales, divorce is allowed on the ground that the marriage has irretrievably broken down. The Matrimonial Causes Act 1973 specifies that the marriage may be found to have irretrievably broken down if one of the following is established:
Civil remarriage is allowed. Religions and denominations differ on whether they permit religious remarriage.
A divorce in England and Wales is only possible for marriages of more than one year and when the marriage has irretrievably broken down. Whilst it is possible to defend a divorce, the vast majority proceed on an undefended basis. A decree of divorce is initially granted ' nisi ', i.e. (unless cause is later shown), before it is made ' absolute '.
As such, it was not administered by the barristers who practised in the common law courts but by the "advocates '' and "proctors '' who practised civil law from Doctors ' Commons, adding to the obscurity of the proceedings. Divorce was de facto restricted to the very wealthy as it demanded either a complex annulment process or a private bill leading to an act of parliament, with great costs for either. The latter entailed sometimes lengthy debates about a couple 's intimate marital relationship in public in the House of Commons.
The Matrimonial Causes Act 1937 made divorce easier to access, particularly for women, who until then could not get a divorce merely on grounds of adultery, as men could: women needed to show more causes than adultery, such as incest, sodomy, or cruelty. The need for the reforms was illustrated in the best - selling satirical novel Holy Deadlock (1934).
The Matrimonial Causes Act 1973 provided that a marriage had to have lasted for three years before a divorce could be applied for; the Matrimonial and Family Proceedings Act 1984 reduced this period to one year.
Relevant laws are:
There is only one ' ground ' for divorce under English law. That is that the marriage has irretrievably broken down.
There are however five ' facts ' that may constitute this ground. They are:
Here is a rough outline of the undefended divorce procedure from start to finish:
From beginning to end, if there are no further issues and Court permitting, it takes around six months.
If there are any outstanding financial issues between the parties, most solicitors would advise resolving these by way of a ' Clean Break ' Court order prior to obtaining the Decree Absolute.
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micr system is used in which of the following field | Magnetic ink character recognition - wikipedia
MICR code is a character - recognition technology used mainly by the banking industry to ease the processing and clearance of cheques and other documents. The MICR encoding, called the MICR line, is at the bottom of cheques and other vouchers and typically includes the document - type indicator, bank code, bank account number, cheque number, cheque amount, and a control indicator. The technology allows MICR readers to scan and read the information directly into a data - collection device. Unlike barcodes and similar technologies, MICR characters can be read easily by humans. The MICR E-13B font has been adopted as the international standard in ISO 1004: 1995, but the CMC - 7 font is widely used in Europe, Brazil and Mexico.
There are two major MICR fonts in use: E-13B and CMC - 7. E-13B has a 14 character set, while CMC - 7 has 15 -- the 10 numeric characters along with control characters.
The MICR E-13B font is the standard in Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States, and other countries. Besides decimal digits, it also contains the following symbols:
Major European countries, including France and Italy, and others like Brazil and Mexico use the CMC - 7 font, developed by Groupe Bull in 1957.
MICR characters are printed on documents in either of the MICR fonts. The ink used in the printing is a magnetic ink or toner, usually containing iron oxide. The MICR text is passed before a MICR reader. The ink in the plane of the paper is first magnetized. Then the characters are passed over a MICR reader head, a device similar to the playback head of a tape recorder. As each character passes over the head it produces a unique waveform that can be easily identified by the system.
The use of MICR allows the characters to be read reliably even if they have been overprinted or obscured by other marks, such as cancellation stamps and signature. The error rate for the magnetic scanning of a typical cheque is smaller than with optical character recognition systems. For well printed MICR documents, the "ca n't read '' rate is usually less than 1 % while the substitution rate (misread rate) is in the order of 1 per 100,000 characters.
Thus, when the cheque is inserted in the MICR reader (also called a cheque sorting machine), it can read the MICR code even if there are other marks or stamps on it. Thus, the machine easily finds out which bank branch and location the cheque belongs to. Eventually, the cheques are sorted bank, branch and location wise by MICR reader automatically based on the MICR code. Sorting of cheques is done as per the geographical coverage of banks in a nation.
MICR characters were added to the Unicode Standard in June, 1993 with the release of version 1.1.
The Unicode block that includes MICR characters is called Optical Character Recognition and covers U + 2440 -- U + 245F:
Before the mid-1940s, cheques were processed manually using the Sort - A-Matic or Top Tab Key method. The processing and clearance of cheques was very time consuming and was a significant cost in cheque clearance and bank operations. As the number of cheques increased, ways were sought for automating the process. Standards were developed to ensure uniformity in financial institutions. By the mid-1950s, the Stanford Research Institute and General Electric Computer Laboratory had developed the first automated system to process cheques using MICR. The same team also developed the E13B MICR font. "E '' refers to the font being the fifth considered, and "B '' to the fact that it was the second version. The "13 '' refers to the 0.013 inch character grid.
In 1958, the American Bankers Association (ABA) adopted E13B font as the MICR standard for negotiable documents in the United States. By the end of 1959, the first cheques had been printed using MICR. The ABA adopted MICR as its standard because machines could read MICR accurately, and MICR could be printed using existing technology. In addition, MICR remained machine readable, even through overstamping, marking, mutilation and more.
MICR technology has been adopted in many countries, with some variations. In 1963, ANSI adopted the ABA 's E13B font as the American standard for MICR printing. Although compliance with MICR standards is voluntary in the United States, their use with cheques is almost universal. E13B MICR has also been standardized as ISO 1004: 1995. The E13B font was adopted as the standard in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia and other countries.
The CMC - 7 font was developed in France by Groupe Bull in 1957. It was adopted as the MICR standard in Argentina, France, Italy, and some other European countries.
In the 1960s, the MICR fonts became a symbol of modernity or futurism, leading to the creation of lookalike "computer '' typefaces that imitated the appearance of the MICR fonts, which unlike real MICR fonts, had a full character set.
MICR, or E-13B, is also used to encode information in other applications like: sales promotions, coupons, credit cards, airline tickets, insurance premium receipts, deposit tickets, and more.
E13b is the specifically the version developed for Offset Litho printing. There was a subtly different version for letterpress, called E13a. Also, there was a Rival system named ' Fred ' (Figure Reading Electronic Device) which used figures that looked more conventional.
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how old are the turtles in tmnt 2012 | Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2012 TV series) - Wikipedia
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (also known as Tales of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles for its fifth season) is an American 3D rendered computer animated television series. It aired on Nickelodeon in the United States from September 29, 2012 to November 12, 2017. It is the third animated Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles television series. It is produced by Nickelodeon Animation Studio. Composer Sebastian Evans provides the show 's score.
On October 2, 2012 and February 26, 2013, Nickelodeon renewed the series for a second and third season, respectively.
On June 17, 2014, Nickelodeon ordered a fourth season of the show. On July 10, 2015, a fifth and final season was announced.
The series ended on November 12, 2017 and will be succeeded by Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles.
Ninjutsu master Hamato Yoshi (Splinter) is carrying his four pet turtles through the streets of Manhattan when he encounters members of an alien race called the Kraang. During an altercation with these aliens, Yoshi and the turtles are exposed to the Kraang 's chemical, called mutagen, which causes organic beings to undergo major physical transformations. Yoshi takes on characteristics of a brown rat and the turtles take on human characteristics. Yoshi retreats to the New York City sewers where he raises the four turtles as his sons and imparts to them his knowledge of ninjutsu.
Now teenagers, the turtles (Leonardo, Raphael, Donatello and Michelangelo) venture to the surface for the first time and learn that the Kraang are using the mutagen as part of their plan to take over New York City. They befriend the teenage April O'Neil after she and her psychologist father Kirby are abducted by the Kraang. Donatello, who has developed a crush on April, is able to rescue her. While Kirby remains a prisoner of the Kraang, April becomes an ally of the turtles, who try to help her locate her father. April is also trained by Splinter to be a kunoichi, a female ninja.
After learning of Splinter 's and the turtles 's presence in New York, Splinter 's adoptive brother and long - time enemy Oroku Saki (Shredder) travels there from Japan and orders his birth clan, the Foot to track down Splinter and his sons, and put an end to their clan. This family feud eventually earns the coincidence of two of Shredder 's disciples, martial arts star Chris Bradford and Brazilian street thug Xever Montes, getting mutated into Dogpound (later Rahzar) and Fishface. Learning about the Kraang 's presence through his adopted daughter Karai, Shredder enters an alliance with the aliens to destroy their mutual enemies in the Hamato Clan.
The turtles later discover that the Kraang came to Earth from Dimension X and built their headquarters with a company called T.C.R.I and are plotting to use the mutagen and a set of Kraang - like powers that April was born with to convert Earth into a planet suitable for their race. After the turtles rescue Kirby, the Kraang invade New York, but the turtles and April emerge triumphant when they send the Technodrome, the Kraang leader Kraang Prime 's ship, crashing into the sea. Meanwhile, Splinter battles Shredder and learns that Karai is his own daughter, Hamato Miwa, who was kidnapped by Shredder and who believes that Splinter killed her mother. The season ends with turtles celebrating their victory over the Kraang as Splinter hides the secret of Miwa from them.
The turtles struggle to contain an outbreak of mutations that occurs thanks to the leftover mutagen from the thwarted Kraang invasion. Kirby is among the victims of the outbreak, and a misunderstanding leads April to become very upset and ashamed of the turtles and break off their friendship. However, the turtles are able to earn her forgiveness when they save her from Karai, who has taken temporary command of the Foot while the Shredder is away in Japan. Along with April came her new friend Casey Jones, who helps repel an assault on the turtles ' lair. Kirby is eventually restored to his human form when Donatello manages to concoct another Kraang chemical called retro - mutagen, which causes organic beings to reverse their major physical transformations, and help keep it away from former T.C.R.I inventor Baxter Stockman, who gets mutated into Stockman - Fly while under Shredder 's employ.
Meanwhile, Shredder returns from Japan with the mutated Japanese bounty hunter Tiger Claw as his new second - in - command. Tiger Claw is later sent through a portal to the 1987 cartoon universe, but returns.
During a battle with the turtles, Karai is informed of her true nature by Leonardo (who has developed a crush on her since season 1), but she is too reluctant to accept it. When she is taken to the lair, she finally realizes the truth and disowns Shredder, who responds by imprisoning her. Repeated attempts to free Karai ultimately succeed, but Shredder captures her again and uses her as bait to kill the Hamato Clan. However, Karai ends up mutated into a serpent, to everyone 's horror.
In response to this, Shredder has the Foot Clan help the Kraang, who have just perfected the previously unstable mutagen, launch a second invasion of New York, starting by destroying the turtles ' lair and forcing them to abandon it. The Kraang begin mutating New York 's populace, including Kirby, despite the efforts of Earth 's military and the turtles. Leonardo is gravely wounded when he is ambushed by the entire Foot, and Splinter is seemingly killed during a battle with Shredder. The turtles, April, and Casey are forced to flee to the O'Neil family 's summer home in Upstate New York as the Kraang successfully conquers Manhattan.
The group takes refuge at the O'Neil family 's summer home in North Hampton in order to recuperate from their loss at the hands of the Kraang and the Foot Clan. Leonardo takes an extended amount of time to recover, but guided by an apparition of Splinter, is able to overcome his physical and mental wounds. They eventually return to New York with the goal of finding Splinter, Karai, Kirby, and their other missing allies and liberate the city from the Kraang. They are successful in finding Splinter and set up a temporary base in the abandoned Antonio 's Pizza, and Donatello begins work on new samples of retro - mutagen as the search for Kirby and Karai continues.
Meanwhile, Shredder mutates Russian arms dealer Ivan Steranko and his only known disciple, high - tech master thief Anton Zeck, into Bebop and Rocksteady for stealing his helmet, the Kuro Kabuto, and hunting Karai in exchange for a safe departure from the Kraang - invaded city before sending them to find her again. The duo succeed behind the Turtles 's backs and Shredder promises to cure Karai of her misery. The turtles, on the other hand, run into a recently founded mutant team called the Mighty Mutanimals (consisting of mutant allies that they made during the last two seasons, such as Slash, Leatherhead, Pigeon Pete and former British neurochemist Dr. Tyler Rockwell) who are backed by their human ally Jack J. Kurtzman. Together, they manage to banish the Kraang back to Dimension X and free New York, but the effect of the invasion eventually earns Shredder cemented control of the city 's criminal underworld for his efforts to create a mind - control serum meant for the turtles, Mutanimals and Karai.
The turtles are later offered by future time sorceress Renet to time travel to the past, where they meet up with a younger Hamato Yoshi and Oroku Saki, as well as Yoshi 's late wife and Karai 's mother, Teng Shen. During the battle between Yoshi and Saki inside the burning Hamato Clan dojo, Shen is accidentally killed by Saki, who meant to kill Yoshi instead. Saki leaves the dojo after his hair burns off from the fire and kidnaps Yoshi and Shen 's baby daughter Miwa, vowing to raise her as Karai and leaving Yoshi to die. After his escape, the turtles save Yoshi, as they were "always destined to '' before traveling back to the present with Renet.
When the Kraang return to Earth, the Turtles discover that the Kraang have another enemy from Dimension X in the form of the Triceraton Empire. Despite their best efforts and Shredder violating the Foot Clan 's temporary truce with the Turtles by stabbing Splinter during the fight, the ruthless Triceratons activate the Heart of Darkness, a black hole - creating machine which annihilates both the Kraang, the Earth, and everyone on it. But just as it comes to the worst for the Turtles, April, and Casey, they are rescued by a friendly robot by the name of Professor Honeycutt (aka the Fugitoid) who uses a spacecraft to take the Turtles, April and Casey to a journey into space.
After the Turtles, April, and Casey are saved from the destruction of Earth, the Fugitoid uses his spacecraft the Ulixes to turn back time to six months earlier in order for him and the Turtles to prevent the Triceraton Empire led by Emperor Zanmoran from assembling the three components of the Heart of Darkness that are scattered throughout the universe before everything on Earth is lost. Besides fighting the Triceratons, the Turtles also face new enemies in outer space like Lord Vringath Dregg of the planet Sectoid and the bounty hunter Armaggon, and even have an adventure with their interdimensional 1987 counterparts and their enemy Krang who is an exiled relative of Kraang Subprime. Despite the efforts of the Turtles, the Triceratons are still able to collect all three pieces of the Black Hole Generator, only for the Turtles to return to Earth and join forces with their past selves to warn Splinter before he is killed by the Shredder, stop the detonator of the Heart of Darkness, and defeat the Triceratons. The Fugitoid destroys the Black Hole Generator near the Triceraton spacefleet, causing to explode, presumably killing the Triceratons. In the aftermath of the fight against the Triceratons, the past versions of the Turtles, April, and Casey leave Earth with the past Fugitoid in the Ulixes while the present Fugitoid 's head reactivates in Earth 's orbit.
Weeks later following the Triceraton Invasion being thwarted and the Foot Clan 's disappearance, April is promoted to kunoichi at the time when the witch Shinigami arrives and is revealed that she is Karai 's friend as they plot to rebuild the Hamato Clan and dispose of Shredder who is still recuperating from his last fight with Splinter. While Karai and Shinigami got some ninjas on their side, the Foot Clan strengthens the Footbot army by creating the Elite Footbots. Furthermore, some other crime organizations have been plotting to take over the Foot Clan 's territory and a crystal shard of unimaginable power which April received from the alien Aeons during their space adventure is beginning to exert a baleful influence on her. Using a special mutagen formula made by Stockman - Fly, Oroku Saki recuperates and becomes Super-Shredder in order to take back control of the Foot Clan. Once a stable formula is made, Super-Shredder attacks the Turtles, the Mighty Mutanimals, Karai, and Shinigami which ends with Splinter falling in battle against Super-Shredder and is buried at the O'Neil family 's summer home in North Hampton. This leads up to the final battle at Super-Shredder's hidden mansion where Leonardo manages to slay Super-Shredder and throw his mutated Kuro Kabuto to the other Turtles in victory.
Following the death of the Super-Shredder, Tiger Claw has led the unspecified Foot Cultists into obtaining the Scroll of the Demodragon and a special control amulet called the Seal of the Ancients that would enable him to summon the demodragon Kavaxas. When Kavaxas is summoned from the Netherworld, Tiger Claw plans to use Kavaxas ' wish - granting abilities to revive the Shredder. Upon demonstrating the revival ability on Rahzar who fell in an underwater battle against Leatherhead, Kavaxas states that he will need the Kuro Kabuto that contains Shredder 's mental energies. Upon Rahzar and Tiger Claw reclaiming the Kuro Kabuto after Kavaxas drained the soul out of Shredder 's former right - hand man Hattori Tatsu, Kavaxas states that they will need the Shredder 's heart for the revival to occur. The Foot Clan obtains the Shredder 's heart that was in the possession of Don Vizioso. Upon Shredder 's heart being placed on his corpse, Kavaxas begins to work on reviving Shredder as the Zombie Shredder. This goes against what Tiger Claw eventually planned when Undead Shredder destroys the Seal of the Ancients which enables Kavaxas to raise the spirits of the Netherworld in order to rule both worlds. While Splinter 's ghost helps those fighting on the surface, Michelangelo managed to use gum to stick the Seal of the Ancients back together enabling him to have Kavaxas undo his damages and open the portal to the Netherworld as the Zombie Shredder drags Kavaxas back to the Netherworld.
Afterwards, the Turtles face different challenges like the return of Lord Dregg when he collaborates with Newtralizer, being transported to Miyamoto Usagi 's reality where they help to protect the pug Kintaro from the evil gray wolf Jei, an adventure featuring a possible future ruled by mutant animals, and another adventure involving the return of Savanti Romero where he collaborates with Count Dracula to make Earth habitable for monsters.
The Turtles, April, Casey, Karai, Shinigami, and the Mighty Mutanimals soon teamed up with the 1987 counterparts of the Ninja Turtles where they face the return of Bebop and Rocksteady where they are recruited by the 1987 counterparts of the Shredder and Krang to conquer Earth of both the 1987 and 2012 realities with a fully - powered Technodrome after their Bebop and Rocksteady were accidentally left behind. While the Turtles and their allies fight off a horde of Foot Soldiers from the 1980 's reality and the 2012 Rock Soldiers led by Traag and Granitor, Bebop and Rocksteady discovers Shredder and Krang 's treacherous scheme to destroy the Earth and choose to become heroes in order to save the planet.
On October 21, 2009, a press release was made indicating that Viacom had bought the complete rights of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles franchise from Peter Laird for $60 million, and would be developing a CGI animated TV series for its Nickelodeon family of channels for broadcast in 2012. A feature film, released by Paramount Pictures (also a division of Viacom), debuted in 2014.
Jason Biggs originally voiced Leonardo and Rob Paulsen voices Donatello. In June 2011, it was confirmed that Sean Astin is playing Raphael and Greg Cipes is Michelangelo. In August 2011, it was revealed that Mae Whitman would be the voice for April O'Neil. In April 2012, it was announced that Phil LaMarr would be playing the role of Baxter Stockman and Nolan North would be playing a race of aliens known as the Kraang, while Roseanne Barr is confirmed to voice their leader, Kraang Prime. Actress Kelly Hu confirmed her role as Karai in May 2012. Corey Feldman was confirmed to play the role of Slash. Recurring TMNT character Casey Jones began appearing in the second season, and is voiced by former Nickelodeon star Josh Peck.
Production art was leaked on the Nickelodeon website before it was taken down. The images showed the designs of all four turtles, Shredder, Splinter, a teenage April O'Neil and the Kraang, an alien race that combines elements of both Krang and the Utroms. A trailer for the series was released on June 21, 2012, on Nickelodeon USA. In June 2014, it was announced that Seth Green would replace Jason Biggs and Dominic Catrambone as the voice of Leonardo in season 3.
On November 22, 2015, Nickelodeon aired a 2D animated special, Half - Shell Heroes: Blast to the Past. In the special, the Ninja Turtles are accidentally transported back to the Cretaceous period by an ancient meteorite and must work together with Rocksteady and Bebop (along with some newly befriended dinosaur allies) to get back to their own time, while simultaneously fending off would - be predators and a faction of the Triceraton Army led by General Zera (voiced by Kate Mulgrew). Random House also released a book based on the special while Playmates released new dinosaur toys in the fall to coincide with the program. The special was seen by 1.41 million viewers. It was released on DVD, through Nickelodeon and Paramount Home Media Distribution, on March 15, 2016.
A series of shorts were released during the course of the series, including: Turtles in Time, Teenage Mecha Ninja Turtles, TMNT Team Up: The Short Series.
Teenage Mecha Ninja Turtles focuses on the eponymous group, four human teen mecha pilots trained by an aged Michelangelo (with Greg Cipes reprising his role from the series) set in a futuristic New York (circa 2090) inhabited both by humans and anthropormorphic animals, including a Scruff McGruff - like police chief. The four children each pilot colored turtle like mechs, and consist of the following: team leader Frida (voiced by America Young) pilots the red, Raphael - like mech; the blue mech with cloaking abilities that resembles Leonardo is piloted by Frida 's antagonistic teammate Jackson (Eric Artel); the battle happy Kusama (Tania Gunadi) pilots the Michelangelo - like orange mech; and the purple mech, which is heavily armored and wields a Bo staff that can transform into a hammer, is piloted by the nerdy and somewhat anxious Basque (Khary Payton). The short features the Mecha Turtles subduing a group of anthropomorphic thieves resembling Hyenas and other canines, consisting of wolf - like leader Grimm, spotted hyena - like members Jester Joe (both voiced by Eric Bauza) and Jester Jim (voiced by David Kaye, who also voices the armored police officer Sgt. Swat), and several other silent members.
The series premiered on Canadian channel YTV on September 29, 2012. It also premiered on Nickelodeon UK and Ireland in the UK and Ireland on October 1, 2012. It premiered on Nickelodeon Australia and New Zealand in Australia and New Zealand on October 8, 2012. In India, it airs on Teen Nick India. It premiered on Nickelodeon Canada in Canada on September 2, 2013. It also airs on Channel 5 in the UK.
The series has also been released to home video, mainly on DVD. Nickelodeon 's typical Region 1 DVD release schedule is to release each season across three volumes, consisting of four DVDs total, with each disc containing 6 - 7 sequential episodes.
Similar to the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures series from Archie Comics, IDW Publishing released a spin - off comic title named New Animated Adventures featuring original adventures, starting July 2013. The series was cancelled after 24 issues, and was succeeded by a revised story program entitled Amazing Adventures, which was launched in August 2015. One of the main reasons for this revision was the inclusion of the Shredder as a vital character into the comic stories, which had been neglected in New Animated Adventures. Amazing Adventures was published until September 2017, with a total of fourteen regular issues, one special story guest - starring Carmelo Anthony, a three - issue story arch titled Robotanimals, and the crossover mini-series Batman / Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures.
Playmates Toys created a new line of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles consumer products to go along with the show.
In mid 2012, Playmates Toys released their first wave of basic Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles action figures which consisted of "hero figures '' Leonardo, Donatello, Raphael, Michelangelo, Splinter and April O'Neil as well as "villain characters '' Shredder, Kraang, and a Foot Soldier. In early 2013, Playmates released series 2 which consisted of the new "hero '' character Metalhead as well as new villains Dogpound and Fishface. In April 2013, the third wave appeared which included the "hero '' character Leatherhead as well as villains Snakeweed and Baxter Stockman. Wave four was released in early August and it featured the villains Rat King and Spyroach as well as new "Stealth Tech '' versions of the four turtles. Wave 5 was released in October with a 7 pack of Mousers as well as four baby versions of the Turtles (Turtles in training) October saw the final release of 2013 with wave six which included two new villains: Spider Bytez and a newly sculpted Shredder figure featuring a removable helmet and cape. Wave seven first appeared in February 2014 with figures for Kirby Bat, Squirrelanoid, Casey Jones, and Mutagen Man.
The Lego Group released a Lego theme of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles in 2013.
in July 2014, Build - A-Bear Workshop released a series of plush versions of the Turtles, as well as other TMNT themed apparel including an outfit of Shredder, along with items such as the Turtles ' signature weapons.
In April 2014, Diamond Select Toys unveiled the first series of Minimates mini-figures based on the cartoon. Two unpainted promotional figures were given away at Comic - Con International 2014, and Series 1 was released in fall 2014 as blind bags at Kmart and comic shops, and in 2 - packs at Toys "R '' Us. Each location had one or two exclusive characters in addition to their shared characters. Series 2 was released in comic shops in spring of 2015 and at Toys "R '' Us in summer 2015, again with both shared and exclusive figures. Series 3 is scheduled for both locations for the fall of 2015. A Series 4 has been confirmed.
In 2013, Nickelodeon released Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Rooftop Run for iOS devices such as the iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch.
On August 28, 2013, Activision released Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of the Shadows, a downloadable 3D beat ' em up game, for Xbox 360 and Microsoft Windows. On April 15, 2014, a version was released for the PlayStation 3. The game features an online multiplayer co-op for up to four players.
Activision also released a Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles video game based on the series for Wii, Xbox 360, and Nintendo 3DS on October 22, 2013.
On September 4, 2014. Activision announced there being a second game based on the show called Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Danger of the Ooze. The game was released on October 28, 2014 for the Nintendo 3DS and Xbox 360, and the PlayStation 3. The game was developed by WayForward.
IGN has given the show positive reviews, with many episodes reviewed being given the "Editor 's Choice '' title. "Invasion '' has received the highest rating of 10 / 10. The series premiered in the U.S. to 3.9 million viewers.
Variety has praised the show, saying "... handsomely produced effort, with a strong vocal cast, considerable humor and scads of high - spirited action. If the goal was to introduce the Turtles to a new generation -- amphibious mission accomplished. ''
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who wrote the song i can't drink you away | Drink You Away - wikipedia
"Drink You Away '' is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Justin Timberlake for his fourth studio album, The 20 / 20 Experience -- 2 of 2 (2013). It was written and produced by Timberlake, Timothy "Timbaland '' Mosley and Jerome "J - Roc '' Harmon, with additional writing from James Fauntleroy. It was sent to US country radio stations on November 23, 2015 as the fourth and final single from the album. Musically, it was defined by critics as a multi-genre song including classic rock, country pop, gospel blues and Memphis soul. Lyrically, on the track, Timberlake compares love to alcoholism while making references to several alcoholic brands including Jack Daniel 's and Jim Beam. As of May 2016, the song has sold over 600,000 copies in the US.
"Drink You Away '' received generally positive response from contemporary critics, with some of them labeling the song as a highlight and one of the most impressive moments on the album. Timberlake performed the song at the 2013 American Music Awards and it was part of the set list of The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour (2013 -- 15). In November 2015, the singer together with Chris Stapleton gave a rendition of track at the 2015 Country Music Association Awards; following it, "Drink You Away '' sold 76,000 digital copies and debuted at number five on the US Hot Digital Songs chart. It also peaked at number 85 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart.
"Drink You Away '' was written by Timberlake, Timothy "Timbaland '' Mosley, Jerome "J - Roc '' Harmon and James Fauntleroy. The song was produced by Timbaland, Timberlake and Harmon while Jones provided additional production. It was recorded the Larrabee Studios in North Hollywood, Los Angeles. Timberlake arranged and produced his vocals. Harmon provided keyboards for the song, while Ives played the guitar. The track was engineered by Chris Godbey and mixed by Jimmy Douglass, Godbey and Timberlake; for the process they were assisted by Alejandro Baima. The keyboards were provided by Harmon. It was sent to country radio in the United States on November 23, 2015, as the fourth and final single from The 20 / 20 Experience -- 2 of 2 (2013). Regarding the single release, Sony Music Nashville executive vice president, promotion / artist development Steve Hodges stated, "we received several requests from key programmers and we decided to get them a shortened version (of "Drink You Away '') so they did n't have to air the longer cut from the album, '' adding "our promotion staffs will not be actively working the single, we simply wanted to make the song easily accessible for country radio. Now they have it and can play it if they 'd like '' in an interview for Billboard.
"Drink You Away '' runs for a duration of five minutes and thirty - one seconds, while its radio edit lasts for four minutes and fifteen seconds. Chris Bosman of Time magazine described the track as a country - pop. On the other hand, Greg Kot of Chicago Tribune thought that it was a gospel - blues song, while according to The A.V. Club 's Annie Zaleski it is a classic - rock "homage ''. Kira Willis of Starpulse.com noted that "Drink You Away '' is an "unabashed '' Memphis soul song, "steeped in a gritty country riff. '' Its instrumentation includes organ and acoustic guitar; elements of pop and rock music can be heard in the song 's guitar.
Lyrically, the song features references to several alcoholic drinks which can be seen in the lyrics, "I ca n't drink you away. I 've tried Jack, I 've tried Jim... Now, tell me baby, do they make a medicine for heartbreak. '' Brad Stern of MTV News described it as a "plethora of alcohol references, and a whole lot of bluesy sorrow. '' According to Stacy - Ann Ellis of Vibe magazine, the song 's lyrics continue the "druggy love analogy '' which Timberlake started with some of the lyrical themes on The 20 / 20 Experience (2013) most particularly on, "Pusher Love Girl ''; she noted that he is "trying to drown a bitter memory of her by opening up a bar tab and taking Tennessee whiskies to the head. '' Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine described "Drink You Away '' as a "honky - tonking '' song on which the singer compares his love to alcoholism.
HitFix 's Melinda Newman gave "Drink You Away '' an A grade and called it "the best '' and "the most captivating track '' on The 20 / 20 Experience -- 2 of 2, "with potential to be ' 2 of 2 's ' '' "Mirrors ''. Similarly, Stern of MTV News thought that the song was one of the biggest surprises and one of the most impressive tracks on the album. Lewis Corner of Digital Spy labeled it as a "highlight '' on the album and encouraged Timberlake to further explore the "Tennessee swagger '' present on the track.
PopMatters ' Brice Ezell called the song a "hat trick '' on the album and also described it as one of its most "weirdest '' and "successful '' moments. According to him, the way Timberlake lists the beverages in the lyrics it 's an unorthodox style for the singer and in addition it differs musically from the rest of the material on the album, however, "for whatever reason, though, it works ''. He also noted that the song would suit better on a Montgomery Gentry LP. Kory Grow of Rolling Stone described it as a "a big genre - bending, feel - good sing - along that really actually does feels good. '' Jason King for Spin called the song "organ - laced '' and thought it was "a surefire hit, a country twanger lifted to heaven by Timberlake 's quilted, hermetic harmonies. ''
Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork Media thought that "his heartbrokenness falls flat '' on the song which he further described as "plastic blues '' and compared it to the works of the American country singer, Kid Rock. Variety 's Andrew Barker described "Drink You Away '' as one of the "lows '' on the album and compared it to the music of Rock and Lynyrd Skynyrd. Stephen Carlick of Exclaim! concluded that the track, "relies too heavily on repetition ''.
Following Timberlake 's performance at the Country Music Association Awards, for the issue dated November 21, 2015, the song sold 76,000 digital copies and appeared at number five on the US Hot Digital Songs chart. It has since peaked at number 5. For the chart dated February 6, 2016, the song debuted at number 60 on Billboard 's Country Airplay chart and climbed 38 - 36 on the Mainstream Top 40 radio airplay chart. The single is his 26th entry on the latter as a solo artist. It has also peaked at number 17 on the US Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart. As of May 2016, it has sold 609,085 copies in the United States.
"Drink You Away '' also peaked at number 85 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart. In South Korea, following the release of the parent album, the song sold 2,358 digital copies and peaked at number 96 on the Gaon Digital Chart.
Timberlake performed "Drink You Away '' for the first time at the 2013 American Music Awards held at the Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles; Rolling Stone 's Grow ranked the performance at number five out of 16 performances that night. The song was part of the setlist of The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour (2013 -- 15). Timberlake and Chris Stapleton performed the song together along with the latter 's "Tennessee Whiskey '' at the Country Music Association Awards on November 4, 2015. Rolling Stone magazine praised it as "the best performance of the entire show '', while The New York Times editor Katie Rogers highlighted Timberlake 's crossover appeal. Entertainment Weekly declared it as one of the best performances of 2015 and wrote, "In an unapologetic display of talent, Nashville met Motown during country music 's biggest night for a hands - in - the - air, take - us - to - church mash - up that was everything you hope for from an all - star duet. ''
American country music artist Craig Morgan has performed the song at several of his concerts. David Fanning 's cover of "Drink You Away '' peaked at number 58 on the Country Airplay chart.
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The 20 / 20 Experience -- 2 of 2.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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describe the condition of the workers in 19 century in england | The Condition of the working class in England - wikipedia
The Condition of the Working Class in England (German: Die Lage der arbeitenden Klasse in England) is an 1845 book by the German philosopher Friedrich Engels, a study of the industrial working class in Victorian England. Engels ' first book, it was originally written in German as Die Lage der arbeitenden Klasse in England; an English translation was published in 1885. It was written during Engels 's 1842 -- 44 stay in Manchester, the city at the heart of the Industrial Revolution, and compiled from Engels ' own observations and detailed contemporary reports.
After their first meeting in 1844, Karl Marx read and was profoundly impressed by the book.
In Condition, Engels argues that the Industrial Revolution made workers worse off. He shows, for example, that in large industrial cities such as Manchester and Liverpool, mortality from disease (such as smallpox, measles, scarlet fever and whooping cough) was four times that in the surrounding countryside, and mortality from convulsions was ten times as high. The overall death - rate in Manchester and Liverpool was significantly higher than the national average (1 in 32.72, 1 in 31.90 and even 1 in 29.90, compared with 1 in 45 or 46). An interesting example shows the increase in the overall death - rates in the industrial town of Carlisle where before the introduction of mills (1779 -- 87), 4,408 out of 10,000 children died before reaching the age of five, and after their introduction the figure rose to 4,738. Before the introduction of mills, 1,006 out of 10,000 adults died before reaching 39 years old, and after their introduction the death rate rose to 1,261 out of 10,000.
Engels ' interpretation proved to be extremely influential with British historians of the Industrial Revolution. He focused on both the workers ' wages and their living conditions. He argued that the industrial workers had lower incomes than their pre-industrial peers and they lived in more unhealthy and unpleasant environments. This proved to be a very wide - ranging critique of industrialisation and one that was echoed by many of the Marxist historians who studied the industrial revolution in the 20th century.
Originally addressed to a German audience, the book is considered by many to be a classic account of the universal condition of the industrial working class during its time. The eldest son of a successful German textile industrialist, Engels became involved in radical journalism in his youth. Sent to England, what he saw there made him even more radical.
In 1844, in Paris, Engels met and formed his lifelong intellectual partnership with Karl Marx. Engels showed Marx his book; convincing Marx that the working class could be the agent and instrument of the final revolution in history.
W.O. Henderson and W.H. Chaloner, who edited a recent edition of The Condition of the Working Class in England, say that the book was based on incomplete evidence but that it established Engels 's reputation among socialists.
In the original German edition he said:
The condition of the working class is the real basis and point of departure of all social movements of the present because it is the highest and most unconcealed pinnacle of the social misery existing in our day. French and German working class Communism are its direct, Fourierism and English Socialism, as well as the Communism of the German educated bourgeoisie, are its indirect products. A knowledge of proletarian conditions is absolutely necessary to be able to provide solid ground for socialist theories, on the one hand, and for judgments about their right to exist, on the other; and to put an end to all sentimental dreams and fancies pro and con. But proletarian conditions exist in their classical form, in their perfection, only in the British Empire, particularly in England proper. Besides, only in England has the necessary material been so completely collected and put on record by official enquiries as is essential for any in the least exhaustive presentation of the subject.
We Germans more than anybody else stand in need of a knowledge of the facts concerning this question. And while the conditions of existence of Germany 's proletariat have not assumed the classical form that they have in England, we nevertheless have, at bottom, the same social order, which sooner or later must necessarily reach the same degree of acuteness as it has already attained across the North Sea, unless the intelligence of the nation brings about in time the adoption of measures that will provide a new basis for the whole social system. The root - causes whose effect in England has been the misery and oppression of the proletariat exist also in Germany and in the long run must engender the same results.
The book was translated into English in 1885 by an American, Florence Kelley (also known as Florence Kelley Wischnewetzky). Authorised by Engels and with a newly written preface by him, it was published in 1887 in New York and in London in 1891. These English editions had the qualification in 1844 added to the English title.
Engels in his 1892 preface said:
The author, at that time, was young, twenty - four years of age, and his production bears the stamp of his youth with its good and its faulty features, of neither of which he feels ashamed. The state of things described in this book belongs to - day, in many respects, to the past, as far as England is concerned. Though not expressly stated in our recognised treatises, it is still a law of modern Political Economy that the larger the scale on which capitalistic production is carried on, the less can it support the petty devices of swindling and pilfering which characterise its early stages.
Again, the repeated visitations of cholera, typhus, small - pox and other epidemics have shown the British bourgeois the urgent necessity of sanitation in his towns and cities, if he wishes to save himself and family from falling victims to such diseases. Accordingly, the most crying abuses described in this book have either disappeared or have been made less conspicuous.
But while England has thus outgrown the juvenile state of capitalist exploitation described by me, other countries have only just attained it. France, Germany and especially America, are the formidable competitors who, at this moment -- as foreseen by me in 1844 -- are more and more breaking up England 's industrial monopoly. Their manufactures are young as compared with those of England, but increasing at a far more rapid rate than the latter; and, curious enough, they have at this moment arrived at about the same phase of development as English manufacture in 1844. With regard to America, the parallel is indeed most striking. True, the external surroundings in which the working class is placed in America are very different, but the same economical laws are at work, and the results, if not identical in every respect, must still be of the same order. Hence we find in America the same struggles for a shorter working - day, for a legal limitation of the working - time, especially of women and children in factories; we find the truck - system in full blossom, and the cottage - system, in rural districts, made use of by the ' bosses ' as a means of domination over the workers.
It will be hardly necessary to point out that the general theoretical standpoint of this book -- philosophical, economical, political -- does not exactly coincide with my standpoint of to - day. Modern international Socialism, since fully developed as a science, chiefly and almost exclusively through the efforts of Marx, did not as yet exist in 1844. My, book represents one of the phases of its embryonic development; and as the human embryo, in its early stages, still reproduces the gill - arches of our fish - ancestors, so this book exhibits everywhere the traces of the descent of Modern Socialism from one of its ancestors, German philosophy.
The book has recently been reissued by Oxford University Press.
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which of the following nations has the highest public sector debt as a percentage of gdp in 2012 | List of countries by public debt - wikipedia
This is a list of countries by public debt to GDP ratio as listed by CIA 's World Factbook and IMF. Net debt figure is the cumulative total of all government borrowings less repayments that are denominated in a country 's home currency.
Gross government debt is the most relevant data for discussions of government default and debt ceilings. It is different from external debt, which includes the foreign currency liabilities of non-government entities.
The figures here are represented as a percentage of annual gross domestic product. The public debt relative information provided by national sources (CIA) is not always objective and true, given the fact that there is no independent research in these matters. Note that net debt figures are included where gross debt figures are unavailable in the CIA set.
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when did block buster go out of business | Blockbuster LLC - wikipedia
Blockbuster LLC (formerly Blockbuster Entertainment, Inc., also known as Blockbuster Video or just Blockbuster) was an American - based provider of home movie and video game rental services through video rental shops, DVD - by - mail, streaming, video on demand, and cinema theater. Blockbuster became internationally known throughout the 1990s. At its peak in 2004, Blockbuster employed 84,300 people worldwide, including about 58,500 in the United States and about 25,800 in other countries, and had 9,094 stores.
Competition from the Netflix mail - order service, Redbox automated kiosks, and video on demand services were the major factors that led to Blockbuster 's eventual demise. Blockbuster began to lose significant revenue during the 2000s, and in 2010, the company filed for bankruptcy protection. The following year, its remaining 1,700 stores were bought by satellite television provider Dish Network. While the Blockbuster brand has mostly been retired, Dish still maintains a relatively small number of Blockbuster franchise agreements, which allows some stores to remain open in a few markets.
Blockbuster 's early beginnings can be traced back to another company, Cook Data Services, that was founded by David Cook in 1978. The company 's primary goal was to supply software services to the oil and gas industries throughout Texas, but it was not very successful. Sandy Cook, David 's wife, suggested that he enter the video rental business. Cook sold his oil and gas software to its managers and founded Blockbuster Video in 1985.
The first Blockbuster store opened October 19, 1985, in Dallas, Texas. Cook 's experience with managing huge databases proved helpful in driving innovation within the industry. Following early success from the company 's first stores, Cook built a $6 - million warehouse in Garland, Texas, to help sustain and support future growth that allowed new stores to open quickly. Blockbuster would often custom - tailor a store 's inventory to its neighborhood, based on local demographics.
In 1987, the company won a court case against Nintendo, which paved the way for video game rental. Also that year, Waste Management co-founder Wayne Huizenga, who originally had reservations about entering the video rental industry, agreed to acquire several Blockbuster stores. Huizenga and associate John Melk utilized techniques from their waste business to rapidly expand Blockbuster, and soon they were opening a new store every 24 hours. They took over many of the existing Blockbuster franchise stores as well, and Huizenga even spent much of the late 1980s acquiring several of Blockbuster 's rivals, including Major Video.
In 1990, Blockbuster bought mid-Atlantic rival Erol 's which had more than 250 stores. In 1992, Blockbuster acquired the Sound Warehouse and Music Plus music retail chains and created Blockbuster Music. In October 1993, Blockbuster took controlling interest in Spelling Entertainment Group, a media company run by television producer Aaron Spelling. It also owned 35 % of Republic Pictures; that company merged with Spelling in April 1994.
Blockbuster became a multibillion - dollar company and in 1993 proposed a merger with Viacom. After both companies ' stocks tumbled in 1994, Viacom purchased Blockbuster for $8.4 billion.
The Blockbuster Block Party concept was test - marketed in Albuquerque, New Mexico and Indianapolis, Indiana in 1994. It was an "entertainment complex '' aimed at adults, containing eight themed areas housing a restaurant, games, laser tag arena, and motion simulator rides, and was housed in a windowless building the size of a city block.
During the 1990s, Blockbuster expanded in the United Kingdom, purchasing that country 's Ritz Video chain. The stores were rebranded to Blockbuster, making it the number one UK rental chain.
In 1996, the Blockbuster Entertainment Corporation was renamed Blockbuster Entertainment Inc. and the retail stores, then called Blockbuster Video, were renamed Blockbuster. The logo changed slightly, but retained the ITC Machine font. In November 1996 Blockbuster confirmed that it was moving its headquarters from Fort Lauderdale, Florida to the Renaissance Tower in downtown Dallas. Most of the workers at the Florida headquarters did not want to relocate, so Blockbuster planned to hire around 500 to 600 new employees for its Dallas headquarters. The company had offered various relocation packages to all of its Fort Lauderdale staff.
In 1998, Blockbuster created DEJ Productions, which acquired 225 films primarily to provide exclusive content to its Blockbuster stores prior to being sold off to First Look Studios in 2005. During that same year, Blockbuster bought the Irish video rental store Xtra - vision, with over 200 stores in Ireland and the UK. In 2009, Blockbuster sold off its Irish operations to Birchall Investments, with the few Xtra - vision stores in the UK being rebranded as Blockbuster.
In August 1998, Viacom sold the Blockbuster Music chain to Wherehouse Entertainment, which was subsequently purchased by Trans World Entertainment in 2003.
In 2000, the company partnered with Enron in an attempt to create a video - on - demand service. Initially, the partnership was supposed to last for 20 years, however, Enron chose to terminate the deal only a few months later over fears that Blockbuster could not provide sufficient films for the service. Also in 2000 Blockbuster turned down a chance to purchase the still fledgling Netflix for $50 million.
In 2002, Blockbuster acquired Movie Trading Company, a Dallas chain that buys, sells, and trades movies and games, to study potential business models for DVD and game trading. Also that year, it acquired Gamestation, a 64 - store UK computer and console games retailer chain.
Blockbuster separated from Viacom in 2004. Online DVD subscription was introduced on Blockbuster.com, also known as Blockbuster Online. Blockbuster also rolled out its "Game Rush '' store - in - store concept to approximately 450 domestic company - operated stores. Blockbuster began game and DVD trading in select U.S. stores.
At its peak in 2004, Blockbuster had more than 9,000 stores in the U.S. In December 2004, Blockbuster announced its intention to pursue a hostile takeover of Hollywood Video, its major U.S. competitor. After some extensions of the tender offer, Blockbuster eventually gave up due primarily to resistance from the FTC. In response to the Blockbuster offer, Hollywood Video agreed to a buyout in January 2005 by a smaller competitor, the Dothan, Alabama - based Movie Gallery. Since then, Movie Gallery has filed for bankruptcy twice and its entire chain of stores has been liquidated.
In May 2005, financier Carl Icahn waged a successful proxy fight to add himself and two other members to the board. Icahn accused Blockbuster of overpaying chairman and CEO John F. Antioco, who had served in that capacity since 1997, receiving $51.6 million in compensation for 2004. Icahn was also at odds with Antioco on how to revive profit at Blockbuster; Antioco scrapped late fees in January, started an internet service, and wanted to keep the company independent, while Icahn wanted to sell out to a private equity firm. Also in 2005 Blockbuster began running a campaign promoting a "No more late fees '' policy The campaign proved controversial with Associated Press reporting that the new policy actually charged users the full price of the movie or game after eight days which they could cancel by returning the product in question and paying a fee. More than 40 states filed suit against the company for false advertising. Blockbuster would later settle the suit agreeing to refund customers as well as promising to better explain the policy. In 2007, Antioco left the company, reportedly due to continued controversy over his compensation. He left with a $24.7 million severance package.
In 2006, Vintage Stock acquired the Movie Trading Company name from Blockbuster and continues to use the name for Dallas - area stores.
On June 19, 2007, after a pilot program launched in late 2006, Blockbuster announced that it had chosen Blu - ray over HD DVD rental format to rent in a majority of its stores. In the pilot program, Blockbuster offered selected titles for rental and sale in 250 stores. Blockbuster stocked Blu - ray titles in almost 5,000 stores across the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Mexico, and Australia.
On July 2, 2007, the company named James W. Keyes, former president and CEO of 7 - Eleven, as the new chairman and CEO. He introduced a new business strategy that included enhancements to existing stores along with a shift to streaming video with the acquisition of MovieLink in September 2008. Part of the plan was to de-emphasize the unprofitable Total Access (DVD - by - mail) service, in favor of online streaming.
On September 14, 2007, Blockbuster GB Ltd bought a number of retail stores from ChoicesUK plc. ChoicesUK is an AIM - listed multi-channel distributor and retailer of DVDs, computer games, and CDs. The sale secured employment for approximately 450 employees across 59 stores in the UK. As part of the transaction, Blockbuster GB rebranded the stores as Blockbuster.
On February 17, 2008, Blockbuster proposed a buyout of struggling Circuit City. However, after a due diligence review of Circuit City 's financial books, Blockbuster withdrew its offer in July 2008. Analysts were not favorable to the proposed deal, viewing it as a desperate effort to save two struggling retailers rather than a bold turnaround initiative. Subsequently, Circuit City filed for bankruptcy on November 10, 2008 and, after liquidating all of its stores, ceased operations on March 8, 2009.
At the beginning of 2010, Blockbuster had over 6,500 stores, of which 4,000 were in the U.S. In the United States, it planned to close between 810 and 960 retail stores and instead launch as many as 10,000 "Blockbuster Express '' video rental kiosks by the middle of 2010. It has been claimed that more than 43 million U.S. households had Blockbuster memberships.
On February 10, 2010, Blockbuster announced that it would cease all its operations in Portugal, closing down 17 outlets and leaving over 100 workers unemployed. Blockbuster representatives in Portugal blamed internet piracy and the lack of government response to it as the key factors to the company 's failure in the country.
In March 2010, Blockbuster began "Additional Daily Rates '', or "ADRs '', for rentals not returned by their due date in the United States, having already used this procedure in other countries such as the UK for many years. An ADR was charged for each day a member kept the rental beyond the rental terms. On March 12, 2010, PricewaterhouseCoopers, Blockbuster 's independent registered public accounting firm, issued its audit opinion disclosing substantial doubt about Blockbuster 's ability to continue as a going concern. This report was included in Blockbusters 's 10 - K SEC filing. On March 17, 2010, Blockbuster issued a bankruptcy warning after continued drops in revenue threatened its ability to service its nearly $1 billion debt load. By April 1, 2010, Carl Icahn had resigned from Blockbuster 's board of directors and sold nearly all his remaining Blockbuster stock. Blockbuster paired up with Time Warner to have Warner Bros. movies made available in Blockbuster stores on the DVD release date and not be subject to a four - week delay. Similar agreements were also made with Universal and 20th Century Fox.
In May 2010, the liquidation of Movie Gallery began, eliminating Blockbuster 's primary competitor. During the same month, a dissident shareholder, Gregory S. Meyer, in an effort to be elected to Blockbuster 's board of directors, engaged in a proxy battle with Blockbuster 's board, alleging that the board had been responsible for significant destruction of value to shareholders. Meyer was elected to the board at Blockbuster 's shareholder meeting in Dallas on June 24, 2010.
On July 1, 2010, the company was delisted from the New York Stock Exchange after its shareholders failed to pass a reverse stock split plan aimed at heading off involuntary delisting because of the stock 's trading at well below $1 per share. The stock was then traded on the OTCBB (over-the - counter bulletin board).
Blockbuster was unable to make a $42.4 million interest payment to bondholders and was given until August 13, 2010 to pay off the debt. The company hired Jeff Stegenga to be its chief restructuring officer (CRO) in an effort to satisfy bondholder demands and recapitalize the company. After failing to pay on August 13, bondholders gave Blockbuster until September 30, 2010.
On August 26, 2010, news media reported that Blockbuster was planning to file a pre-packaged Chapter 11 bankruptcy in mid-September. In light of this news, the company 's chief financial officer (CFO), Tom Casey, resigned on September 11. He was replaced by Dennis McGill, formerly CFO of Safety - Kleen Systems, Inc. On September 23, 2010, Blockbuster filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection due to challenging losses, $900 million in debt, and strong competition from Netflix, Redbox, and video on - demand services. Movie Gallery / Hollywood Video had filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy liquidation earlier in 2010 for similar reasons.
At the time of its Chapter 11 filing, Blockbuster said it would keep its 3,300 stores open; In December 2010, Blockbuster announced it would close an additional 182 stores by the end of April 2011 in attempts to emerge from bankruptcy. It was reported in February 2011 that Blockbuster and its creditors had not come up with a Chapter 11 exit plan and that the company would be sold for $300 million or more, along with taking over debts and leases. Blockbuster has admitted that it may not be able to meet financial obligations required under its Chapter 11 filing, a circumstance which could mandate conversion of the bankruptcy filing to Chapter 7 (liquidation). On March 1, 2011, the U.S. Department of Justice filed a claim disclosing that Blockbuster did not have the funds to continue reorganizing and should liquidate.
On March 28, 2011, South Korean telecommunications company SK Telecom made a surprise bid to buy Blockbuster. Dish Network had also expressed interest in bidding, as did Carl Icahn, despite calling Blockbuster "the worst investment I ever made ''. Dish eventually won the auction on April 6, 2011, agreeing to buy Blockbuster for $320 million and the assumption of $87 million in liabilities and other obligations. On April 19, 2011, it was announced that Dish would keep only 500 Blockbuster stores open. The acquisition was completed on April 26, 2011. In April 2011, Dish Network told the U.S. Bankruptcy Court that it needed more time to negotiate with landlords in an effort to keep more than 600 Blockbuster stores open. The deal was finalized on April 26, 2011.
In April 2011, Blockbuster 's landlords objected to its assumption of leases that it sought to assign to soon - to - be-owner Dish Network Corp., claiming that they did not have adequate assurance that the new owner would honor those leases. Blockbuster signed a deal with ITV Studios Global Entertainment to launch ITV Programmes released on DVDs, Blu - rays, etc.
On May 6, 2011, Keyes resigned as Blockbuster 's CEO, being replaced by Michael Kelly under the new title of president.
On August 31, 2011, the liquidators announced the closure of the remaining 253 Canadian stores and shutting of the entire Canadian unit.
On Friday, January 13, 2012, Dish CEO Aaron Kask announced that while Dish had planned to keep 90 % of the stores in operation, meaning around 15,000 employees would remain employed, because of market factors "there are ones that are n't going to make it. We will close unprofitable stores. We will close additional stores. '' Kask did not say when these additional closings would happen and only remarked that some stores were unprofitable. The Dish chief would not say which stores the company was planning to close, but that each potential closing was to be assessed on a "case by case basis ''.
On October 4, 2012, Dish Network announced that it was scrapping plans to make Blockbuster into a Netflix competitor and closed its "By Mail '' DVD service. On January 16, 2013, Blockbuster UK entered into administration and Deloitte was appointed to run the business while trying to find a buyer while some of the stores remained open.
In 2014, the Blockbuster official website identified 51 franchise locations remaining in operation in the U.S.
Until 2015, Dish kept its "Blockbuster on Demand '' video streaming service open along with a "Blockbuster@Home '' television package for Dish subscribers. In 2015, "Blockbuster@Home '' was renamed "DISH Movie Pack '' and "Blockbuster On Demand '' was shut down, redirecting all customers to Sling TV. As of September 2015, all Blockbuster retail stores in Mexico have been converted to "The B Store ''.
Since 2014, additional locations have been closed. As of August 2017, the number of franchise - owned stores remaining in operation in the U.S. is 10 according to the official website, with six in Alaska, three in Oregon, and one in Texas.
Blockbuster Inc. ran an awards show annually from 1995 to 2001 called the Blockbuster Entertainment Awards. In November 2001, Blockbuster announced that it would cancel the 2002 award show following concerns about viewership and celebrity attendance after the September 11 attacks. At the time, it said it had not ruled out the possibility of resuming the annual awards program for 2003.
Blockbuster Express was a movie - rental kiosk brand sublicensed for use by licensee NCR Corporation. In 2011, nearly 10,000 Blockbuster Express kiosks were in operation. Apart from the license to use the Blockbuster brand name, Blockbuster Express kiosks are unrelated to Blockbuster LLC, its stores, its DVD - by - mail service, or its online streaming service.
The names Blockbuster Express and Blockbuster Video Express had also been used for certain Blockbuster retail stores in the United Kingdom.
In the summer of 2003, Blockbuster started converting some stores to GameRush stores. These stores sold and bought DVDs, games, game consoles, and accessories. GameRush was positioned as a direct competitor to stores such as GameStop and Game Crazy. Blockbuster used its location status to get instant coverage; it also promoted these stores by hosting video - game tournaments, special trade - in offers, and a more "hip '' look to the selection and staff. However, when Blockbuster introduced the discontinuation of late fees, GameRush was put on the chopping block. In April 2007, GameRush stores were reduced back to just a games section.
Blockbuster UK operated trade functions in all their stores, buying and selling pre-owned consoles, including PS2, Xbox, Nintendo GameCube, Wii, PS3, Xbox 360 DVDs, DVD Games, games and accessories, and price - matching with competitors by offering either store credit or cash for trade - ins.
The standard business model for video rental stores had traditionally been to pay a large flat fee per video, approximately $65, and offer unlimited rentals for the lifetime of the medium itself. Sumner Redstone, whose Viacom conglomerate then owned Blockbuster, personally pioneered a new revenue - sharing arrangement for video in the mid-1980s. Blockbuster obtained videos for little cost and kept a 60 % of the rental fee, paying the other 40 % to the studio, and reporting rental information through Rentrak. In addition to benefiting from a lower initial price, Blockbuster also capitalized on the fact that movies were generally not available for purchase at affordable price points during initial release periods. Thus customers had a choice to rent, wait, or buy the film on tape at the much higher manufacturer 's suggested retail price targeted at other rental chains and film enthusiasts, which at that time ranged between $70 -- $100 per title.
Blockbuster, like most other rental stores, tended to stock more copies of new movies than of older releases, in order to capitalize on heavy consumer demand for new - release titles. Titles more than 12 months past their initial release dates were stored as "Blockbuster Favorite '' (non-new release) titles. Typically only one to four rental copies of each title were retained past the first year of release. The large volume of new release copies were typically sold after the initial renting rush. Some of these copies were sold as "previously viewed '' for around $10 - 15, sometimes as low as $3.99. Most Blockbuster locations also accepted trade - ins of used DVDs and games, which were sold alongside the existing stock of previously rented movies.
In an attempt to distinguish the brand as family - friendly, Blockbuster never rented or sold pornographic titles in the North American market, in contrast to most independent stores, which often had an adult section. However, the stores did carry R - rated and unrated films, including a large number of "soft porn '' titles, including Red Shoe Diaries, which was distributed exclusively by Blockbuster in an agreement with its sister cable network Showtime. Blockbuster required employees to check ID and did not allow rental of "Youth Restricted Viewing '' titles with an R rating to children under 17, unless their parents or guardians had specifically allowed it through a family account.
Blockbuster has been the exclusive rental chain for The Weinstein Company movies since January 1, 2007, although due to the First Sale Doctrine, other rental stores and online DVD rental - by - mail companies, like Netflix, could still rent DVDs released by The Weinstein Company.
In Australia, the first Blockbuster store was opened in 1991 in Melbourne. In 1992, the Virgin Group and Blockbuster Inc entered into a joint venture to set up Australia 's first Virgin Megastores in Sydney, Melbourne, and Adelaide. This lasted until Virgin sold its interest in the six stores to Blockbuster, which promptly rebranded them in 1993 as Blockbuster Music. In 1994 Australian store numbers rose to 54 with the acquisition of Major Video and Focus chains in both Victoria and South Australia. In 1995, the growth continued with the opening of the 100th video store in the country. By the end of 1998, Blockbuster Australia opened over 125 stores. In July 1998, Blockbuster Australia launched into franchising with the conversion of the former Video Flicks franchise group in Queensland, and the former Movieland group in Western Australia six months later. Also in 1998, the company sold its last two Australian Blockbuster Music stores in Pitt Street, Sydney, and Chapel Street, Melbourne to Brazin Limited, which incorporated them under its Sanity Entertainment brand. Throughout 1999 and 2000, Blockbuster Australia quickly expanded its franchise store network through the conversion of smaller groups and the granting of individual franchises. Before 2005, this was done through the acquisition of the Movies Plus Group and the conversion of some individual Movies 4U and Movieland outlets.
In February 2007, Blockbuster sold its entire Australian store network to Video Ezy Australasia Pty Ltd. At the time, Blockbuster Australia comprised 370 outlets nationwide -- 29 owned by the company and 341 owned by franchisees. Video Ezy had 518 Australian outlets, all of them being owned by franchisees, pushing the combined group 's market share to 40 % of the country 's video rental sector. Video Ezy committed to the master franchise agreement with Blockbuster for 10 years operating the brand with the possibility of renewal for a further 10 years after that. As a consequence of the deal, the company changed its name from Video Ezy Australasia Pty Ltd to Franchise Entertainment Group (FEG).
In October 2010, FEG transferred control of the Video Ezy Australia and Blockbuster Australia online businesses to its newly acquired and reorganized company, Élan Media Partners, leaving FEG to manage the franchise relationships with individual Video Ezy / Blockbuster outlets. However, since the two brands came together, the network has shrunk, reflected in Video Ezy / Blockbuster franchises closing 270 stores across Australia in the four years to August 2011.
Blockbuster was the largest video rental chain in the country, but finances were not good enough due to high rental prices. Lojas Americanas, the largest Brazilian department store, acquired half of the shares and now it is named under "Americanas Express Blockbuster ''. The store layout was similar to a regular American store with a Game Rush, but instead of games it offers electronics goods like computers and DVD players, groceries like candies and microwave popcorn, and even toys from Mattel and Hasbro 's board games. Blockbuster sold its Brazilian stake in 2007 for a steep loss.
In Canada, Blockbuster Canada (established in 1990) had operated independently, and it initially remained financially stable. It began a partnership with Wind Mobile in December 2009, selling mobile phones at all stores in cities where Wind 's service was available. Phone sales began in Toronto and Calgary, later expanding to other cities with Wind coverage. Some stores even featured a full Wind "store - in - a-store '' for postpaid activations and a larger selection of devices. However, on May 3, 2011, it was announced that the company had gone into receivership. On May 25, 2011, it was announced that 146 stores, accounting for approximately 35 % of the company 's stores in Canada, would be shut down effective June 18, 2011. On August 31, 2011, Blockbuster Canada announced that no buyer could be found for its remaining stores that were acceptable to the court - appointed bankruptcy receiver, and that it would wind down operations and close all stores by December 31, 2011. The company had acted as a guarantor towards Blockbuster 's remaining debt.
Blockbuster came to Denmark in 1996 with the acquisition of the 29 Christianshavn video stores. Blockbuster Video Denmark sold the rights for the Blockbuster brand to the Danish telecommunications corporation TDC in 2013 and continued as RecycleIT A / S diversifying in refurbishing and reselling consumer electronics. RecycleIT A / S filed for bankruptcy on August 1, 2014, and most stores were closed, with the exception of some still in operation by the company Blue City.
However, the Blockbuster On Demand service is still active in the Nordic Countries, offering both unlimited streaming and 48 - hour rental of films online. Several Smart TVs have the Blockbuster app pre-installed out - of - the - box.
Blockbuster opened 20 stores in Berlin and Munich and announced plans to open 250 more. Despite a business model that allowed multi-day rentals, in contrast to German video stores that would charge by calendar day, charging double if a film were returned the following morning, the chain left the German market in 1997.
In March 2010, Blockbuster announced that it intended to sell all operations in Europe. The company once had an Irish subsidiary, Xtravision, which did not operate under the Blockbuster brand name. Blockbuster sold Xtravision at a loss in August 2009 to Birchhall Investments Limited.
In March 1991, Fujita Den Trading (which was the master franchise owner of McDonald 's in Japan) and Blockbuster Inc entered into a joint venture to established Japan 's first Blockbuster Video stores. By October 1992, Fujita and Blockbuster opened 15 stores in the country -- four of them next to McDonald 's outlets and most being located in the greater Tokyo area. Unlike Blockbuster 's U.S. stores, each Japanese outlet only occupied about half the floor space at 5,000 square feet due to the country 's more limited available real estate. By June 1996, 32 stores were in operation with a public aim for 150 by 1998. Blockbuster Japan faced heavy competition from Osaka - based video rental chain, Tsutaya, with its 817 outlets, but the company saw opportunity in the population having high VCR ownership levels (at around 75 %), low satellite TV penetration (at around 27 %), and well - ordered store layouts (unique for most local video stores). However, Blockbuster 's business strategy of "wholesome home entertainment '' saw it not stock adult entertainment or extreme horror films where they account for 35 % of the Japanese video market. That meant Blockbuster was unable to fit into the Japanese market adequately, and was put at a disadvantage to other businesses selling and renting these movies. In 1999, Blockbuster handed its remaining shares over to Fujita Den Trading and exited the Japanese market.
In 2007, Blockbuster announced that it plans to shut down its stores in Peru due to poor revenues, which it blamed on the effect of movie piracy. The company had already closed down its stores in Ecuador, Spain, Portugal, Costa Rica, and El Salvador.
In 1989, the company entered the United Kingdom via its purchase of the 875 - store Ritz Video chain for $135 million, from parent company Citivision. Ritz Video was Europe 's largest rental chain, with a 20 % share of the United Kingdom video market, and annual sales of about $150 million. The first re-branded Blockbuster outlet opened on Walworth Road, South London, the same year. By November 1991, Blockbuster UK converted 30 stores to its brand.
In early 2013, the company had 528 locations in the United Kingdom. On January 16, 2013, Blockbuster placed its United Kingdom subsidiaries in administration, putting over 4,000 jobs at risk. Non-UK stores were unaffected by the administration, and continued to trade as normal. On February 1, 2013, a large number of Blockbuster stores in the UK were closed, and the UK business was purchased out of administration by restructuring firm Gordon Brothers Europe on March 23, 2013.
Blockbuster UK then traded as TS Operations, with only 264 branches retained. On October 29, 2013, Blockbuster UK announced it was to go into administration for a second time. On November 14, 2013, 72 store closures were announced, with another 62 made on December 5. A week later, with no success in finding a buyer, it was announced by Moorfields Corporate Recovery that all remaining stores in the country would cease operation on December 16, 2013, with stock cleared the day before.
In 1997, Enron Corporation had entered the broadband market, constructing and purchasing thousands of miles of fiber optic cables throughout the United States. In 2001, Enron and Blockbuster Inc. attempted to create a 20 - year deal to stream movies on demand over Enron 's fiber optic network. However, the "heavily promoted '' deal fell through, with Enron 's shares dropping following the announcement.
On August 11, 2004, Blockbuster introduced a DVD - by - mail service in the U.S. to compete with the established market leader, Netflix.
Blockbuster 's U.S. online operation started with around 10 warehouses; further expansions every year brought that number to 41, plus more than 1400 stores in the Blockbuster Online network. Most Blockbuster independent franchises did not honor the Total Access program. The company had 1.5 million subscribers at the end of the third quarter of 2006. Blockbuster 's move to follow the business pattern with its online rentals as was established by Netflix prompted Netflix to sue Blockbuster for patent infringement. Blockbuster counter sued with a counterclaim alleging deceptive practices with its patent which it alleged was designed to maintain an illegal monopoly. The suits were eventually settled, and while the terms were not disclosed it was later reported that Netflix recorded a settlement payment from Blockbuster of $4.1 million in the second quarter of 2007.
Blockbuster offered several online movie rental plans. In some cities customers could add games to their movie rental queue as if they were included in their plan, but game rentals resulted in a separate additional fee which was not displayed or charged until the end of the billing cycle. Until July 26, 2007, Blockbuster offered and advertised unlimited free in - store exchanges of online rentals with all plans. Since then there were several changes back and forth with regard to this policy; as of March 2010 customers were allowed a limited number of in - store exchanges.
At the end of 2006, Blockbuster Total Access had 2.2 million customers, exceeding their original goal of 2 million, according to its website. After an aggressive media campaign that accounted for much of Blockbuster 's $46.4 million net loss in the first quarter of 2007, the Total Access subscriber base surpassed 3 million customers in total, marking the company 's highest subscriber growth quarter ever. By 2009, however, the company was declining to provide figures when asked by The Wall Street Journal.
On January 5, 2007, Southern Stores Inc., one of Blockbuster 's largest franchise operators in the United States, filed a lawsuit in federal court alleging that, by introducing Blockbuster Online and Blockbuster Total Access, the rental chain has undercut the group 's franchise agreement.
On August 6, 2010, Blockbuster By Mail subscribers gained access to Blockbuster 's library of console games, in addition to movies and television shows.
On March 31, 2012, Blockbuster On Demand removed support from set - top box media players, including Vudu, WDTV, and Roku. Supported devices now only include computers, Blu - ray players, select television sets, and cellular phones.
On February 26, 2013, Roku, Inc. announced that Blockbuster On Demand was being launched on Roku 's channel store. Supported devices now include computers; Blu - ray players; select television sets; cellular phones; and the Roku set - top box.
In November 2013, Dish Network said its DVD - by - mail service would shut down by mid-December.
As of 2015, Blockbuster on Demand is part of Dish Network 's Sling TV product and no longer exists as a standalone service.
Rentals cost £ 3.50 to £ 4.50 and lasted for five nights, usually from Monday to Friday due to the postal service. Late fees of £ 0.70 to £ 0.90 per disc applied if a disc was not returned on time.
In May 2004, Blockbuster also introduced a conventional online subscription service. The unlimited three - disc plan costs £ 14.99 / month but does not allow in - store exchange, contrary to the U.S. service. Partial support for in - store exchange would not be added until April 2005 with the launch of an "OnlineXtra '' service. This service costed £ 2 per month, required an online subscription to a disc plan, and added two extra discs sent by mail. The OnlineXtra discs could be exchanged in store, but the non-OnlineXtra discs could not. The program was discontinued in 2006 with no grandfathering, but an in - store - only variant of it resurfaced in early 2008. A "Click & Collect '' service launched in September 2010 allows the reservation of Blockbuster movies in store, but the store 's regular rental fees applied until the company added in - store exchanged in May 2012. Support for game reservations was added in November 2011.
In 2008, Blockbuster UK 's website underwent an overhaul, with an online store; a retail store stock checker; improved search functionality; and a critically acclaimed layout. In - store pickup and exclusive titled were added in 2009. Some of the titles which had an exclusivity period at Blockbuster include Gran Torino, Changeling, Taken, and Knowing. Additionally, online rental downloads of Universal Pictures in the United Kingdom remains exclusive to Blockbuster. This provides an advantage to the rental company compared to its competitors HMV, Play, and LoveFilm.
In January 2010, Blockbuster UK launched an online blog. Improved search algorithms, product pages, and social network links were added to the site in April 2010. Blockbuster UK aired a monthly BB Insider online video show from May 2010 to January 2011 and launched an iPhone App in September 2010. Throughout the year 2011, Blockbuster UK announced several price cuts along with a new Blockbuster loyalty card program.
These price drops were followed by a price drop of the Blockbuster UK online pay per rent service. Although some Blockbuster UK advertisements claim that the company no longer charges late fees, the fine print and / or voiceover clarifies that rentals will be charged an extra pound for every additional night. A "Top Ticket '' feature was added in April 2011, allowing monthly subscription customers to rent an additional movie at no extra charge and to receive it before other movies they request. Support for online sales of used movie and game discs was added in July 2011. The Blockbuster UK website was enhanced in September 2011. During the following month, a new TV section was added to the website.
3D Blu - rays were added to Blockbuster UK in February 2012. In May 2012, Blockbuster UK partnered with IGN to launch a new Blockbuster VIP Gamer loyalty program.
On January 16, 2013, Blockbuster UK entered administration, appointing Deloitte as company administrators, casting doubt over the future of their 528 stores in the country. An announcement was then made by Deloitte that 160 UK stores would close.
On February 13, 2013 Deloitte announced a further 164 stores closures, leaving 204 stores trading in the UK. The business was sold to restructuring firm the Gordon Brothers Group on March 23, 2013. On October 29, 2013, Gordon Brothers filed notice of intention to appoint an administrator. On November 28, 2013, Blockbuster UK officially entered administration for the second time, and by December 2013, all stores were closed, as no buyer for the chain was found.
In January 2006, Blockbuster Brazil also introduced an online rental service now featuring both DVD and Blu - ray plans. There were four Block plans available with prices ranging from R $34.90 to R $79.90. The 3 - disc plan with unlimited exchanges was R $49.90 / month. Unlike the U.S. service, there was no in - store disk exchange.
On August 8, 2007, Blockbuster announced that it reached an agreement to purchase Movielink. According to the 8 - K filing by Blockbuster, the total purchase price was $6.6 million.
In 2000, Reed Hastings, the founder of Netflix, approached Blockbuster with an offer to sell his company to Blockbuster for US $50 million. John Antioco, the Blockbuster CEO, was not interested in the offer because he thought it was a "very small niche business '' and it was losing money at the time.
One of Blockbuster 's most well known advertising campaigns was launched during the 2002 Super Bowl. It starred the voices of Jim Belushi and James Woods, as a rabbit and a guinea pig in a pet shop, located across the road from a Blockbuster store. The first campaign ended in 2003. The Carl and Ray campaign started again in 2007 starting with a commercial in the first quarter of Super Bowl XLI.
In 2005, Blockbuster launched a marketing campaign describing changes in its late fees policy and offering "No Late Fees '' on rentals. The program sparked investigations and charges of misrepresentation in 48 states and the District of Columbia, as state attorneys general including Bill Lockyer of California, Greg Abbott of Texas, and Eliot Spitzer of New York argued that customers were being automatically charged the full purchase price of late rentals and a restocking fee for rentals returned after 30 days. In a settlement, Blockbuster agreed to reimburse the states the cost of their investigation, clarify communication to customers on the terms of the program, and offer reimbursement to customers charged fees prior to the clarification. New Jersey filed a separate lawsuit and was not a party to the settlement.
The 2005 controversy came after a related lawsuit settled in 2002 in Texas. That lawsuit, alleging exorbitant late fees, led the company to pay $9.25 million in attorney fees and offer $450 million in late fee refund coupons (which were rent - one get - one - free coupons, and thus required the customer to make an initial expenditure). The company estimated that the coupons would ultimately cost about $45 million depending on the redemption rate; an attorney for the plaintiffs estimated the final cost at closer to $100 million at a redemption rate of about 20 % (calculated based on a similar case in Michigan).
Such corrections were also sent to international stores such as those in Canada to prevent further lawsuits.
Blockbuster reintroduced late fees in the United States in 2010 under the name of "Additional Daily Rates ''. With this pricing scheme, rentals were once again limited to a certain number of days and accrued pay - per - day rates after the days allocated are exceeded.
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who sang lead vocals on let it be | Let It Be (song) - wikipedia
"Let It Be '' is a song by the English rock band the Beatles, released in March 1970 as a single, and (in an alternate mix) as the title track of their album Let It Be. At the time, it had the highest debut on the Billboard Hot 100, beginning its chart run at number 6. It was written and sung by Paul McCartney. It was their final single before McCartney announced his departure from the band. Both the Let It Be album and the US single "The Long and Winding Road '' were released after McCartney 's announced departure from and the subsequent break - up of the group. The alternate mix on their album Let It Be features an additional guitar solo and some minor differences in the orchestral sections.
In 1987, the song was recorded by charity supergroup Ferry Aid (which included McCartney). It reached number 1 on the UK Singles Chart for three weeks and reached the top ten in many other European countries. Paul McCartney 's verse used the original take from The Beatles ' "Let It Be '' sessions.
McCartney said he had the idea of "Let It Be '' after he had a dream about his mother during the tense period surrounding the sessions for The Beatles ("the White Album '') in 1968. According to McCartney, the song 's reference to "Mother Mary '' was not biblical. The phrase has at times been used as a reference to the Virgin Mary. Nevertheless, McCartney explained that his mother -- who died of cancer when he was fourteen -- was the inspiration for the "Mother Mary '' lyric. He later said: "It was great to visit with her again. I felt very blessed to have that dream. So that got me writing ' Let It Be '. '' He also said in a later interview about the dream that his mother had told him, "It will be all right, just let it be. '' When asked if the song referred to the Virgin Mary, McCartney has typically answered the question by assuring his fans that they can interpret the song however they like.
The first rehearsal of "Let It Be '' took place at Twickenham Film Studios on 3 January 1969, where the group had, the previous day, begun what would become the Let It Be film. During this stage of the film they were only recording on the mono decks used for syncing to the film cameras, and were not making multi-track recordings for release. A single take was recorded, with just McCartney on piano and vocals. The first attempt with the other Beatles was made on 8 January. Work continued on the song throughout the month. Multi-track recordings commenced on 23 January at Apple Studios.
The master take was recorded on 31 January 1969, as part of the "Apple studio performance '' for the project. McCartney played Blüthner piano, Lennon played six - string electric bass (replaced by McCartney 's own bass part on the final version at the behest of George Martin), George Harrison and Ringo Starr assumed their conventional roles, on guitar and drums respectively, and Billy Preston contributed on organ. This was one of two performances of "Let It Be '' that day. The first version, designated take 27 - A, would serve as the basis for all officially released versions of the song. The other version, take 27 - B, was performed as part of the "live studio performance '', along with "Two of Us '' and "The Long and Winding Road ''. This performance, in which Lennon and Harrison harmonised with McCartney 's lead vocal and Harrison contributed a subdued guitar solo, can be seen in the film Let It Be.
The film performance of "Let It Be '' has never been officially released as an audio recording. The lyrics in the two versions differ a little in the last verse. The studio version has mother Mary comes to me... there will be an answer, whereas the film version has mother Mary comes to me... there will be no sorrow. In addition, McCartney 's vocal performance is noticeably different in both versions: in the film version, it sounds rough in certain moments since he is not using anti-pop on his mic; there are also a couple of falsetto vocals performed by him (extending the vocal ' e ' on the word ' be '), for instance in the ' let it be ' line that precedes the second chorus. Finally, the instrumental progression featured on the middle of the song after the second chorus (that descends from F to C), which is played twice on all released studio versions, is played (or at least is shown being played) only once in the film.
On 30 April 1969, Harrison overdubbed a new guitar solo on the best take from 31 January. He overdubbed another solo on 4 January 1970. The first overdub solo was used for the original single release, and the second overdub solo was used for the original album release. Some fans mistakenly believe that there were two versions of the basic track -- based mostly on the different guitar solos, but also on other differences in overdubs and mixes.
The single used the same cover photographs as the Let It Be album, and was originally released on 6 March 1970, backed by "You Know My Name (Look Up the Number) '', with a production credit for George Martin. This version includes orchestration and backing vocals overdubbed on 4 January 1970, under the supervision of Martin and McCartney, with backing vocals that included the only known contribution by Linda McCartney to a Beatles song. It was during this same session that Harrison recorded the second overdubbed guitar solo. The intention at one point was to have the two overdub solos playing together. This idea was dropped for the final mix of the single, and only the 30 April solo was used, although the 4 January overdub can be heard faintly during the final verse. Martin mixed the orchestration very low in this version.
The single mix made its album debut on the Beatles ' 1967 -- 1970 compilation album. Original pressings erroneously show the running time of 4: 01 (from the Let It Be album), and not the single version 's running time of 3: 52. This version was also included on 20 Greatest Hits, Past Masters Volume 2 and 1.
On 26 March 1970, Phil Spector remixed the song for the Let It Be album. This version features the "more stinging '' 4 January 1970 guitar solo, no backing vocals (except during the first chorus), a delay effect on Starr 's hi - hat, and more prominent orchestration. The final chorus has three "let it be... '' lines, as the "there will be an answer '' line is repeated twice (instead of once as on the single) before the "whisper words of wisdom '' line to close the song. On the album, as the preceding track "Dig It '' ends, Lennon is heard saying in a falsetto voice, mimicking Gracie Fields: "That was ' Can You Dig It ' by Georgie Wood, and now we 'd like to do ' Hark, the Angels Come '. '' Allen Klein brought in Spector to mix the album without telling McCartney or asking for his agreement, because McCartney had not signed Klein 's management contract.
An early recording of the song appears on the 1996 compilation Anthology 3. This version, take 1, was recorded on 25 January 1969. It is a much simpler version, as McCartney had not written the final verse yet ("And when the night is cloudy... I wake up to the sound of music... ''). Instead, the first verse is repeated. The track, as released on Anthology 3 also features studio talk between Lennon and McCartney prior to a 31 January 1969 take:
John: Are we supposed to giggle (or perhaps ' get (a) little ') in the solo? Paul: Yeah. John: OK. Paul: This 'll -- this is gon na knock you out, boy.
Also, at the end of the song on the Anthology 3 version, Lennon can be heard saying, following another 31 January take, "I think that was rather grand. I 'd take one home with me. OK let 's track it. (Gasps) You bounder, you cheat! '' (This is a reference to the no - overdub policy that the Beatles had adopted for the Get Back project -- "tracking '' refers to double tracking the vocals on a recording.) The running time of the Anthology version is 4: 05.
Still another version of the song appeared on the Let It Be... Naked album in 2003. The majority of this remix is take 27 - A from 31 January 1969, with parts of take 27 - B (as used in the film "Let It Be ''), including the subdued guitar solo, spliced in.
This version contains a different piano track than the one on the studio and single version; it can be noted that in the intro, McCartney plays an extra A bass note during the A minor chord (very similar to the way he plays the intro in the film version) and also plays a standard A minor chord in the piano at the first beat of measure two in the last verse (on the lyric "mother '', also like in the film version), while the other versions have a different piano harmonisation which can be easily interpreted as an unfixed mistake. The backing vocals in the chorus of this version are similar to those in the single version, but are significantly reduced in volume while still retaining a reverb - heavy, choral effect. Starr disliked Spector 's version where his drumming was augmented by Spector 's "tape - delay - effect '' to his hi - hats during the song 's second verse and added shakers, so Let It Be... Naked features his original "stripped - down - approach '' drumming. Also departed were the tom - tom overdub rolls, heard after the guitar solo during the third verse. Starr also commented that after the release of Naked, he would now have to listen to McCartney saying, "I told you so '', when talking about Spector 's production. The song 's running time on Let It Be... Naked is 3: 52.
Glyn Johns mixed the song on 28 May 1969 as he finished the mixing for the Get Back album. This version was never released. He used the same mix on 5 January 1970, which was an attempt to compile an acceptable version of the LP. Again, this version of the LP was never officially released.
The piano introduces the song, through a series of chords in the right hand over single notes in the left hand.
In his review of the single, for the NME, Derek Johnson admired McCartney 's performance and the lyrics ' "pseudo-religious '' qualities. Although he considered that the melody paled beside some of the band 's previous singles, Johnson added: "As ever with The Beatles, this is a record to stop you dead in your tracks and compel you to listen attentively. '' John Gabree of High Fidelity magazine found the lyrics "dangerous politically '', but viewed the song as possibly "the best thing musically that McCartney has done ''.
In 2010, Rolling Stone magazine placed "Let It Be '' at number 8 on the Beatles ' 100 Greatest Songs. Mojo magazine ranked it at number 50 in a similar list, compiled in 2006. AllMusic said it was one of "the Beatles ' most popular and finest ballads ''. Ian MacDonald disagreed, writing that the song "achieved a popularity well out of proportion to its artistic weight '' and that it was "' Hey Jude ', without the musical and emotional release ''. Former Creem critic Richard Riegel included it on his 1996 list of the ten most overrated Beatles tracks, saying that, like Simon & Garfunkel 's "Bridge over Troubled Water '', the song "cater (ed) to the lowest - common - denominator emotional stasis of its listeners. ' Let It Be ' left the Beatles no artistic choice but dissolution. ''
Lennon also commented disparagingly on "Let It Be ''. In his Playboy interview in 1980, he disavowed any involvement with composing the song, saying: "That 's Paul. What can you say? Nothing to do with the Beatles. It could 've been Wings. I do n't know what he 's thinking when he writes "Let It Be ''. ''
"Let It Be '' holds the top spot on "The Fans ' Top 10 '' poll included in The 100 Best Beatles Songs: An Informed Fan 's Guide by Stephen J. Spignesi and Michael Lewis. The song is ranked third on the 100 Best Beatles Songs list, behind "A Day in the Life '' and "Strawberry Fields Forever ''.
Film of the Beatles performance was shown on the Ed Sullivan Show on February 15, 1970.
Although the song is performed regularly during McCartney 's performances, there are a few notable performances.
The Beatles
Additional musicians
Per John Winn 's "That Old Magic Feeling '', Mark Lewisohn 's "The Complete Beatles Chronicle '' and Steve Sullivan 's "Encyclopedia of Great Popular Song Recordings, Volume 1 ''
The Beatles:
On the US charts, the song set a number of milestones.
(see List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements and milestones)
"Let It Be '' has been covered numerous times by various artists:
shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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where did it ain't over till the fat lady sings come from | It ai n't over till the fat lady sings - wikipedia
It ai n't over till (or until) the fat lady sings is a colloquialism which is often used as a proverb. It means that one should not presume to know the outcome of an event which is still in progress. More specifically, the phrase is used when a situation is (or appears to be) nearing its conclusion. It cautions against assuming that the current state of an event is irreversible and clearly determines how or when the event will end. The phrase is most commonly used in association with organized competitions, particularly sports.
The phrase is generally understood to be referencing the stereotypically overweight sopranos of the opera. The imagery of Richard Wagner 's opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen and its last part, Götterdämmerung, is typically the one used in depictions accompanying reference to the phrase. The "fat lady '' is the valkyrie Brünnhilde, who is traditionally presented as a very buxom lady with horned helmet, spear and round shield (although Amalie Materna played Brünnhilde during Wagner 's lifetime (1876) with a winged helmet). Her farewell scene lasts almost twenty minutes and leads directly to the finale of the whole Ring Cycle. As Götterdämmerung is about the end of the world (or at least the world of the Norse gods), in a very significant way "it is (all) over when the fat lady sings. ''
The saying has become so well known that it was the subject of an article in the journal Obesity Reviews.
The first recorded use appeared in the Dallas Morning News on 10 March 1976:
Despite his obvious allegiance to the Red Raiders, Texas Tech sports information director Ralph Carpenter was the picture of professional objectivity when the Aggies rallied for a 72 -- 72 tie late in the SWC tournament finals. "Hey, Ralph, '' said Bill Morgan, "this... is going to be a tight one after all. '' "Right '', said Ralph, "the opera ai n't over until the fat lady sings. ''
In the same newspaper on 26 November 2006, Steve Blow followed up the discovery by contacting Bill Morgan about the incident:
Bill vividly remembers the comment and the uproar it caused throughout the press box. He always assumed it was coined on the spot. "Oh, yeah, it was vintage Carpenter. He was one of the world 's funniest guys, '' said Bill, a contender for that title himself.
The 1976 use of the phrase was discovered by Fred R. Shapiro, who published it in The Yale Book of Quotations. It had previously been attributed to sportswriter and broadcaster Dan Cook, who used the phrase after the first basketball game between the San Antonio Spurs and the Washington Bullets (now the Washington Wizards) during the 1978 NBA Playoffs. Cook used the line to illustrate that while the Spurs had won once, the series was not over yet. Shapiro called this a notable example of misattribution.
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where is the creator of i love you virus | ILOVEYOU - wikipedia
ILOVEYOU, sometimes referred to as Love Bug or Love Letter, was a computer worm that attacked tens of millions of Windows personal computers on and after 5 May 2000 local time in the Philippines when it started spreading as an email message with the subject line "ILOVEYOU '' and the attachment "LOVE - LETTER - FOR - YOU. txt. vbs ''. The latter file extension (' vbs ', a type of interpreted file) was most often hidden by default on Windows computers of the time (as it is an extensions for a file type that is known by Windows), leading unwitting users to think it was a normal text file. Opening the attachment activated the Visual Basic script. The worm did damage on the local machine, overwriting random types of files (including Office files, image files, and audio files; however after overwriting MP3 files the virus would hide the file), and sent a copy of itself to all addresses in the Windows Address Book used by Microsoft Outlook. In contrast, the Melissa virus only sent copies to the first 500 contacts. This made it spread much faster than any other previous email worm.
On the machine system level, ILOVEYOU relied on the scripting engine system setting (which runs scripting language files such as. vbs files) being enabled, and took advantage of a feature in Windows that hid file extensions by default, which malware authors would use as an exploit. Windows would parse file names from right to left, stopping at the first period character, showing only those elements to the left of this. The attachment, which had two periods, could thus display the inner fake "txt '' file extension. Text files are considered to be innocuous, as they are normally incapable of running executable code. The worm also used social engineering to entice users to open the attachment (out of actual desire to connect or simple curiosity) to ensure continued propagation. Systemic weaknesses in the design of Microsoft Outlook and Microsoft Windows were exploited that allowed malicious code capable of complete access to the operating system, secondary storage, and system and user data simply by unwitting users clicking on an icon.
Messages generated in the Philippines began to spread westwards through corporate email systems. Because the worm used mailing lists as its source of targets, the messages often appeared to come from acquaintances and were therefore often regarded as "safe '' by their victims, providing further incentive to open them. Only a few users at each site had to access the attachment to generate millions more messages that crippled mail systems and overwrote millions of files on computers in each successive network.
The malware originated in the Pandacan neighborhood of Manila in the Philippines on May 5, 2000, thereafter following daybreak westward across the world, moving first to Hong Kong, then to Europe, and finally the United States, as employees began their workday that Friday morning. The outbreak was later estimated to have caused US $5.5 -- 8.7 billion in damages worldwide, and estimated to cost US $15 billion to remove the worm. Within ten days, over fifty million infections had been reported, and it is estimated that 10 % of internet - connected computers in the world had been affected. Damage cited was mostly the time and effort spent getting rid of the infection and recovering files from backups. To protect themselves, The Pentagon, CIA, the British Parliament and most large corporations decided to completely shut down their mail systems. The ILOVEYOU virus infected computers all over the world. At the time it was one of the world 's most destructive computer related disasters ever.
The events inspired the song E-mail on the Pet Shop Boys ' UK top - ten album of 2002, Release, the lyrics of which play thematically on the human desires which enabled the mass destruction of this computer infection.
The ILOVEYOU Script (the attachment) was written in Microsoft Visual Basic Scripting (VBS) which runs in Microsoft Outlook and was enabled by default. The script added Windows Registry data for automatic startup on system boot.
The worm then searched connected drives and replaced files with extensions JPG, JPEG, VBS, VBE, JS, JSE, CSS, WSH, SCT, DOC, HTA, MP2, and MP3 with copies of itself, while appending the additional file extension VBS, making the user 's computer unbootable. However, MP3s and other sound related files were hidden rather than overwritten.
The worm propagated itself by sending out one copy of the payload to each entry in the Microsoft Outlook address book (Windows Address Book). It also downloaded the Barok trojan renamed for the occasion as "WIN - BUGSFIX. EXE ''.
The fact that the virus was written in VBS provided users a way to modify the virus. A user could easily modify the virus to replace important files in the system, and destroy it. This allowed many variations of ILOVEYOU to spread across the internet, each one doing different kinds of damage.
Some mail messages sent by ILOVEYOU:
On 5 May 2000, two young Filipino computer programmers named Reonel Ramones and Onel de Guzman became targets of a criminal investigation by agents of the Philippines ' National Bureau of Investigation (NBI). Local Internet service provider Sky Internet had reported receiving numerous contacts from European computer users alleging that malware (in the form of the "ILOVEYOU '' worm) had been sent via the ISP 's servers.
After surveillance and investigation by Darwin Bawasanta of Sky Internet, the NBI traced a frequently appearing telephone number to Ramones ' apartment in Manila. His residence was searched and Ramones was arrested and placed on inquest investigation before the Department of Justice (DOJ). Onel de Guzman was likewise charged in absentia.
At that point, the NBI were unsure what felony or crime would apply. It was suggested they be charged with violating Republic Act 8484 (the Access Device Regulation Act), a law designed mainly to penalise credit card fraud, since both used pre-paid (if not stolen) Internet cards to purchase access to ISPs. Another idea was that they be charged with malicious mischief, a felony (under the Philippines Revised Penal Code of 1932) involving damage to property. The drawback here was that one of its elements, aside from damage to property, was intent to damage, and de Guzman had claimed during custodial investigations that he may have unwittingly released the worm.
To show intent, the NBI investigated AMA Computer College, where de Guzman had dropped out at the very end of his final year. They found that, for his undergraduate thesis, de Guzman had proposed the implementation of a trojan to steal Internet login passwords. This way, he proposed, users would finally be able to afford an Internet connection. The proposal was rejected by the College of Computer Studies board, prompting de Guzman to cancel his studies the day before graduation.
Since there were no laws in the Philippines against writing malware at the time, both Ramones and de Guzman were released with all charges dropped by state prosecutors. To address this legislative deficiency, the Philippine Congress enacted Republic Act No. 8792, otherwise known as the E-Commerce Law, in July 2000, just two months after the worm outbreak. In 2002, the ILOVEYOU virus obtained a world record for being the most virulent computer virus at the time.
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where was mission san antonio de valero located | Alamo mission in San Antonio - wikipedia
The Alamo Mission in San Antonio is commonly called The Alamo and was originally known as Misión San Antonio de Valero. It was founded in the 18th century as a Roman Catholic mission and fortress compound, and today is part of the San Antonio Missions World Heritage Site in San Antonio, Texas, United States. It was the site of the Battle of the Alamo in 1836, and is now a museum in the Alamo Plaza Historic District.
The compound was one of the early Spanish missions in Texas, built for the education of area American Indians after their conversion to Christianity. The mission was secularized in 1793 and then abandoned. Ten years later, it became a fortress housing the Second Flying Company of San Carlos de Parras military unit, who likely gave the mission the name Alamo. During the Texas Revolution, Mexican General Martin Perfecto de Cos surrendered the fort to the Texian Army in December 1835, following the Siege of Béxar. A relatively small number of Texian soldiers then occupied the compound for several months. They were wiped out at the Battle of the Alamo on March 6, 1836. When the Mexican army retreated from Texas several months later, they tore down many of the Alamo walls and burned some of the buildings.
For the next five years, the Alamo was periodically used to garrison soldiers, both Texian and Mexican, but was ultimately abandoned. In 1849, several years after Texas was annexed to the United States, the U.S. Army began renting the facility for use as a quartermaster 's depot. The U.S. Army abandoned the mission in 1876 after nearby Fort Sam Houston was established. The Alamo chapel was sold to the state of Texas, which conducted occasional tours but made no effort to restore it. The remaining buildings were sold to a mercantile company which operated them as a wholesale grocery store.
The Daughters of the Republic of Texas (DRT) formed in 1895 and began trying to preserve the Alamo. Adina Emilia De Zavala and Clara Driscoll successfully convinced the state legislature in 1905 to purchase the remaining buildings and to name the DRT as the permanent custodian of the site. Over the next century, periodic attempts were made to transfer control of the Alamo from the DRT. In early 2015, Texas Land Commissioner George P. Bush officially removed control of the Alamo to the Texas General Land Office.
The Alamo and the four missions in the San Antonio Missions National Historical Park were designated UNESCO World Heritage sites on July 5, 2015.
In 1716, the Spanish government established several Roman Catholic missions in East Texas. The isolation of the missions -- the nearest Spanish settlement, San Juan Bautista, Coahuila was over 400 miles (644 km) away -- made it difficult to keep them adequately provisioned. To assist the missionaries, the new governor of Spanish Texas, Martín de Alarcón, wished to establish a way station between the settlements along the Rio Grande and the new missions in East Texas. In April 1718, Alarcón led an expedition to found a new community in Texas. On May 1, the group erected a temporary mud, brush, and straw structure near the headwaters of the San Antonio River. This building would serve as a new mission, San Antonio de Valero, named after Saint Anthony of Padua and the viceroy of New Spain, Baltasar de Zúñiga y Guzmán Sotomayor y Sarmiento, Marquess of Valero. The mission, headed by Father Antonio de San Buenaventura y Olivares, was located near a community of Coahuiltecans and was initially populated by three to five Indian converts from Mission San Francisco Solano near San Juan Bautista. One mile (two km) north of the mission, Alarcón built a presidio (fort), the Presidio San Antonio de Bexar. Close by, he founded the first civilian community in Texas, San Antonio de Bexar (now San Antonio, Texas).
Within a year, the mission moved to the western bank of the river, where it was less likely to flood. Over the next several years, a chain of missions were established nearby. In 1724, after remants of a Gulf Coast hurricane destroyed the existing structures at Mission San Antonio de Valero, the mission was moved to its current location. At the time, the new location was just across the San Antonio River from the town of San Antonio de Bexar, and just north of a group of huts known as La Villita.
Over the next several decades, the mission complex expanded to cover 3 acres (1.2 ha). The first permanent building was likely the two - story, L - shaped stone residence for the priests. The building served as parts of the west and south edges of an inner courtyard. A series of adobe barracks buildings were constructed to house the mission Indians and a textile workshop was erected. By 1744, over 300 Indian converts resided at San Antonio de Valero. The mission was largely self - sufficient, relying on its 2000 head of cattle and 1300 sheep for food and clothing. Each year, the mission 's farmland produced up to 2000 bushels of corn and 100 bushels of bean; cotton was also grown.
The first stones were laid for a more permanent church building in 1744, however, the church, its tower and the sacristy collapsed in the late 1750s. Reconstruction began in 1758, with the new chapel located at the south end of the inner courtyard. Constructed of 4 feet (1.2 m) thick limestone blocks, it was intended to be three stories high, topped by a dome, with bell towers on either side. Its shape was a traditional cross, with a long nave and short transepts. Although the first two levels were completed, the bell towers and third story were never begun. While four stone arches were erected to support the planned dome, the dome itself was never built. As the church was never completed, it is unlikely that it was ever used for religious services.
The chapel was intended to be highly decorated. Niches were carved on either side of the door to hold statues. The lower - level niches displayed Saint Francis and Saint Dominic, while the second - level niches contained statues of Saint Clare and Saint Margaret of Cortona. Carvings were also completed around the chapel 's door.
Up to 30 adobe or mud buildings were constructed to serve as workrooms, storerooms, and homes for the Indian residents. As the nearby presidio was perpetually understaffed, the mission was built to withstand attacks by Apache and Comanche raiders. In 1745, 100 mission Indians successfully drove off a band of 300 Apaches which had surrounded the presidio. Their actions saved the presidio, the mission, and likely the town from destruction. Walls were erected around the Indian homes in 1758, likely in response to a massacre at the San Saba mission. The convent and church were not fully enclosed within the 8 feet (2.4 m) walls. The walls were built 2 feet (0.61 m) thick and enclosed an area 480 feet (150 m) long (north - south) and 160 feet (49 m) wide (east - west). For additional protection, a turret housing three cannon was added near the main gate in 1762. By 1793 an additional one - pounder cannon had been placed on a rampart near the convent.
The population of Indians fluctuated, from a high of 328 in 1756 to a low of 44 in 1777. The new commandant general of the interior provinces, Teodoro de Croix, thought the missions were a liability and began taking actions to decrease their influence. In 1778, he ruled that all unbranded cattle belonged to the government. Raiding Apache tribes had stolen most of the mission 's horses, making it difficult to round up and brand the cattle. As a result, when the ruling took effect, the mission lost a great deal of its wealth and was unable to support a larger population of converts. By 1793, only 12 Indians remained. By this point, few of the hunting and gathering tribes in Texas had not been Christianized. In 1793, Mission San Antonio de Valero was secularized.
Shortly after, the mission was abandoned. Most locals were uninterested in the buildings. Visitors were often more impressed. In 1828, French naturalist Jean Louis Berlandier visited the area. He mentioned the Alamo complex: "An enormous battlement and some barracks are found there, as well as the ruins of a church which could pass for one of the loveliest monuments of the area, even if its architecture is overloaded with ornamentation like all the ecclesiastical buildings of the Spanish colonies. ''
In the 19th century, the mission complex became known as "the Alamo ''. The name may have been derived from the grove of nearby cottonwood trees, known in Spanish as álamo. Alternatively, in 1803, the abandoned compound was occupied by the Second Flying Company of San Carlos de Parras, from Álamo de Parras in Coahuila. Locals often called them simply the "Alamo Company ''.
During the Mexican War of Independence, parts of the mission frequently served as a political prison. Between 1806 and 1812 it served as San Antonio 's first hospital. Spanish records indicate that some renovations were made for this purpose, but no details were provided.
The buildings were transferred from Spanish to Mexican control in 1821 after Mexico gained its independence. Soldiers continued to garrison the complex until December 1835, when General Martín Perfecto de Cos surrendered to Texian forces during the Texas Revolution. In the few months that Cos supervised the troops garrisoned in San Antonio, he had ordered many improvements to the Alamo. Cos 's men likely demolished the four stone arches that were to support a future chapel dome. The debris from these was used to build a ramp to the apse of the chapel building. There, the Mexican soldiers placed three cannon, which could fire over the walls of the roofless building. To close a gap between the church and the barracks (formerly the convent building) and the south wall, the soldiers built a palisade. When Cos retreated, he left behind 19 cannons, including a 16 - pounder.
With Cos 's departure, there was no longer an organized garrison of Mexican troops in Texas, and many Texians believed the war was over. Colonel James C. Neill assumed command of the 100 soldiers who remained. Neill requested that an additional 200 men be sent to fortify the Alamo, and expressed fear that his garrison could be starved out of the Alamo after a four - day siege. However, the Texian government was in turmoil and unable to provide much assistance. Determined to make the best of the situation, Neill and engineer Green B. Jameson began working to fortify the Alamo. Jameson installed the cannons that Cos had left along the walls.
Heeding Neill 's warnings, General Sam Houston ordered Colonel James Bowie to take 35 -- 50 men to Bexar to help Neill move all of the artillery and destroy the fortress. There were not enough oxen to move the artillery someplace safer, and most of the men believed the complex was of strategic importance to protecting the settlements to the east. On January 26 the Texian soldiers passed a resolution in favor of holding the Alamo. On February 11, Neill went on furlough to pursue additional reinforcements and supplies for the garrison. William Travis and James Bowie agreed to share command of the Alamo.
On February 23 the Mexican army, under the command of General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, arrived in San Antonio de Bexar. For the next thirteen days, the Mexican Army laid siege to the Alamo, during which work continued on the interior of the Alamo. After Mexican soldiers tried to block the irrigation ditch leading into the fort, Jameson supervised the digging of a well at the south end of the plaza. Although the men hit water, they weakened an earth and timber parapet near the barracks, collapsing it and leaving no way to fire safely over that wall.
The siege ended in a fierce battle on March 6. As the Mexican army overran the walls, most of the Texians fell back to the long barracks (convent) and the chapel. During the siege, Texians had carved holes in many of the walls of these rooms so that they would be able to fire. Each room had only one door which led into the courtyard and which had been "buttressed by semicircular parapets of dirt secured with cowhides ''. Some of the rooms even had trenches dug into the floor to provide some cover for the defenders. Mexican soldiers used the abandoned Texian cannon to blow off the doors of the rooms, allowing Mexican soldiers to enter and defeat the Texians.
The last of the Texians to die were the eleven men manning the two 12 lb (5.4 kg) cannon in the chapel. The entrance to the church had been barricaded with sandbags, which the Texians were able to fire over. A shot from the 18 lb (8.2 kg) cannon destroyed the barricades, and Mexican soldiers entered the building after firing an initial musket volley. With no time to reload, the Texians, including Dickinson, Gregorio Esparza, and Bonham, grabbed rifles and fired before being bayoneted to death. Texian Robert Evans was master of ordnance and had been tasked with keeping the gunpowder from falling into Mexican hands. Wounded, he crawled towards the powder magazine but was killed by a musket ball with his torch only inches from the powder. If he had succeeded, the blast would have destroyed the church.
Santa Anna ordered that the Texian bodies be stacked and burned. All, or almost all, of the Texian defenders were killed, although some historians believe that at least one Texian, Henry Warnell, successfully escaped from the battle. Warnell would die several months later of wounds incurred either during the final battle or during his escape. Most Alamo historians agree that 400 -- 600 Mexicans were killed or wounded. This would represent about one - third of the Mexican soldiers involved in the final assault, which historian Terry Todish stated, was "a tremendous casualty rate by any standards ''.
Following the battle of the Alamo, one thousand Mexican soldiers, under General Juan Andrade, remained at the mission. For the next two months they repaired and fortified the complex, however no records remain of what improvements they made to the structure. After the Mexican army 's defeat at the Battle of San Jacinto and the capture of Santa Anna, the Mexican army agreed to leave Texas, effectively ending the Texas Revolution. As Andrade and his garrison joined the retreat on May 24, they spiked the cannons, tore down many of the Alamo walls, and set fires throughout the complex. Only a few buildings survived their efforts; the chapel was left in ruins, most of the Long Barracks was still standing, and the building that had contained the south wall gate and several rooms was mostly intact.
The Texians briefly used the Alamo as a fortress in December 1836 and again in January 1839. The Mexican army regained control in March 1841 and September 1842 as they briefly took San Antonio de Bexar. According to historians Roberts and Olson, "both groups carved names in the Alamo 's walls, dug musket rounds out of the holds, and knocked off stone carvings ''. Pieces of the debris were sold to tourists, and in 1840 the San Antonio town council passed a resolution allowing local citizens to take stone from the Alamo at a cost of $5 per wagonload. By the late 1840s, even the four statues located on the front wall of the chapel had been removed.
On January 13, 1841, the Republic of Texas legislature passed an act returning the sanctuary of the Alamo to the Roman Catholic Church. By 1845, when Texas was annexed to the United States, a colony of bats occupied the abandoned complex and weeds and grass covered many of the walls.
As the Mexican - American War loomed in 1846, 2000 United States Army soldiers were sent to San Antonio under Brigadier General John Wool. By the end of the year, they had appropriated part of the Alamo complex for the Quartermaster 's Department. Within eighteen months, the convent building had been restored to serve as offices and storerooms. The chapel remained vacant, however, as the army, the Roman Catholic Church, and the city of San Antonio bickered over its ownership. An 1855 decision by the Texas Supreme Court reaffirmed that the Catholic Church was the rightful owner of the chapel. Even while litigation was ongoing, the army rented the chapel from the Catholic Church for $150 per month.
Under the army 's oversight, the Alamo was greatly repaired. Soldiers cleared the grounds and rebuilt the old convent and the mission walls, primarily from original stone which was strewn along the ground. During the renovations, a new wooden roof was added to the chapel and the campanulate, or bell - shaped facade, was added to the front wall of the chapel. At the time, reports suggested that the soldiers found several skeletons while clearing the rubble from the chapel floor. The new chapel roof was destroyed in a fire in 1861. The army also cut additional windows into the chapel, adding two on the upper level of the facade as well as additional windows on the other three sides of the building. The complex eventually contained a supply depot, offices, storage facilities, a blacksmith shop, and stables.
During the American Civil War, Texas joined the Confederacy, and the Alamo complex was taken over by the Confederate Army. In February 1861, the Texan Militia, under direction from the Texas Secession Convention and led by Ben McCullough and Sam Maverick, confronted General Twiggs, commander of all US Forces in Texas and headquartered at the Alamo. Twiggs elected to surrender and all supplies were turned over to the Texans. Following the Confederacy 's defeat, the United States Army again maintained control over the Alamo. Shortly after the war ended, however, the Catholic Church requested that the army vacate the premises so that the Alamo could become a place of worship for local German Catholics. The army refused, and the church made no further attempts at retaking the complex.
The army abandoned the Alamo in 1876, when Fort Sam Houston was established in San Antonio. About that time, the Church sold the convent to Honore Grenet, who added a new two - story wood building to the complex. Grenet used the convent and the new building for a wholesale grocery business. After Grenet 's death in 1882, his business was purchased by the mercantile firm, Hugo & Schmeltzer, which continued to operate the store.
San Antonio 's first rail service began in 1877, and the city 's tourism industry began to grow. The city heavily advertised the Alamo, using photographs and drawings that showed only the chapel, not the surrounding city. Many of the visitors were disappointed with their visit; in 1877 tourist Harrier P. Spofford wrote that the chapel was "a reproach to all San Antonio. Its wall is overthrown and removed, its dormitories are piled with military stores, its battle - scarred front has been revamped and repainted and market carts roll to and fro on the spot where flames ascended... over the funeral pyre of heroes ''.
In 1883, the Catholic Church sold the chapel to the State of Texas for $20,000. The state hired Tom Rife to manage the building. He gave tours but did not make any efforts to restore the chapel, to the annoyance of many. In the past decades, soldiers and members of the local Masonic lodge, which had used the building for meetings, had inscribed various graffiti on the walls and statues. In May 1887 a devout Catholic who was incensed that Masonic emblems had been inscribed on a statue of Saint Theresa was arrested after breaking into the building and smashing statues with a sledgehammer.
The 50th anniversary of the fall of the Alamo received little attention. In an editorial after the fact, the San Antonio Express called for the formation of a new society that would help recognize important historical events. The Daughters of the Republic of Texas (DRT) organized in 1892 with one of their main goals being to preserve the Alamo. Among its early members was Adina Emilia De Zavala, granddaughter of the Republic of Texas Vice-President Lorenzo de Zavala. Shortly before the turn of the 20th century, Adina de Zavala convinced Gustav Schmeltzer, owner of the convent, to give the DRT first option in purchasing the building if it was ever sold. In 1903, when Schmeltzer wanted to sell the building to a developer, he offered the building first to the DRT for $75,000, which they did not have. During De Zavala 's attempts to raise the money, she met Clara Driscoll, an heiress who was very interested in Texas history, especially the Alamo.
Shortly thereafter, Driscoll joined the DRT and was appointed chair of the San Antonio chapter 's fund - raising committee. The DRT negotiated a 30 - day option on the property, wherein the group would pay $500 up front, with $4,500 due at the conclusion of the 30 days, with an additional $20,000 due on February 10, 1904, and the remainder paid in five annual installments of $10,000. Driscoll paid the initial $500 deposit out of her personal funds, and when fundraising efforts fell far short (only raising slightly over $1,000 of the needed $4,500), Driscoll paid the balance of the $4,500 from her own pocket.
At the urging of both Driscoll and de Zavala, the Texas Legislature approved $5,000 for the committee to use as part of the next payment. The appropriation was vetoed by Governor S.W.T. Lanham, who said it was "not a justifiable expenditure of the taxpayers ' money ''. DRT members set up a collection booth outside the Alamo and held several fundraising activities, collecting $5,662.23. Driscoll agreed to make up the difference, as well as agreeing to pay the final $50,000. After hearing of her generosity, various newspapers in Texas dubbed her the "Savior of the Alamo ''. Many groups began to petition the legislature to reimburse Driscoll. In January 1905, de Zavala drafted a bill that was sponsored by representative Samuel Ealy Johnson, Jr. (father of future US President Lyndon Baines Johnson), to reimburse Driscoll and name the DRT custodian of the Alamo. The bill passed, and Driscoll received all of her money back.
Driscoll and de Zavala argued over how best to preserve the building. De Zavala wished to restore the exterior of the buildings to a state similar to its 1836 appearance, focusing on the convent (then called the long barracks), while Driscoll wanted to tear down the long barracks and create a monument similar to those she had seen in Europe: "a city center opened by a large plaza and anchored by an ancient chapel ''.
Unable to reach an agreement, Driscoll and several others women formed a competing chapter of the DRT named the Alamo Mission chapter. The two chapters argued over which had oversight of the Alamo. Unable to resolve the dispute, in February 1908 the executive committee of the DRT leased out the building. Angry with that decision, de Zavala announced that a syndicate wanted to buy the chapel and tear it down. She then barricaded herself in the Hugo and Schmetlzer building for three days.
In response to de Zavala 's actions, on February 12, Governor Thomas Mitchell Campbell ordered that the superintendent of public buildings and grounds take control of the property. Eventually a judge named Driscoll 's chapter the official custodians of the Alamo. The DRT later expelled de Zavala and her followers.
Driscoll offered to donate the money required to tear down the convent, build a stone wall around the Alamo complex, and convert the interior into a park. The legislature postponed a decision until after the 1910 elections after which Texas had a new governor, Oscar Branch Colquitt. Both de Zavala and Driscoll spoke, and Colquitt toured the property; three months later, Colquitt removed the DRT as official custodians of the Alamo, citing that they had done nothing to restore the property since gaining control. He also announced an intent to rebuild the convent. Shortly thereafter, the legislature paid to demolish the building that had been added by Hugo and Schmeltzer and authorized $5,000 to restore the rest of the complex. The restorations were begun, but not finished, as the appropriations fell short of the costs.
Driscoll, upset over Colquitt 's decisions, used her influence as a major donor to the Democratic Party to undermine him. At the time, Colquitt was considered running for U.S. Senate. She told the New York Herald Tribune that "the Daughters desire to have a Spanish garden on the site of the old mission, but the governor will not consider it. Therefore, we are going to fight him from the stump... We are also going to make speeches in the districts of State Senators who voted against and killed the amendment '' to return control of the mission to the DRT. Subsequently, while Colquitt was out of state on a business trip, Lieutenant Governor William Harding Mayes allowed the removal of the upper - story walls of the long barracks from the convent, leaving only the one - story walls of the west and south portions of the building. This conflict became known as the Second Battle of the Alamo. Upon their deaths in 1945 and 1955, Driscoll and de Zavala, respectively, had their bodies laid in state in the Alamo Chapel.
In 1931, Driscoll convinced the state legislature to purchase two tracts of land between the chapel and Crockett street. In 1935, she convinced the city of San Antonio not to place a fire station in a building near the Alamo; the DRT later purchased that building and made it the DRT library. During the Great Depression, money from the Works Progress Administration and the National Youth Administration was used to construct a wall around the Alamo and a museum, and to raze several non-historic buildings on the Alamo property.
The Alamo was designated a National Historic Landmark on December 19, 1960, and was documented by the Historic American Buildings Survey in 1961. It was an inaugural listing on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966, and is a contributing property to the Alamo Plaza Historic District, which was designated in 1977. As San Antonio prepared to host the Hemisfair in 1968, the long barracks was roofed and turned into a museum. Few structural changes have taken place since then.
According to Herbert Malloy Mason 's Spanish Missions of Texas, the Alamo is one of "the finest examples of Spanish ecclesiastical building on the North American continent ''. The mission, along with others located in San Antonio, is at risk from environmental factors, however. The limestone used to construct the buildings was taken from the banks of the San Antonio River. It expands when confronted with moisture and then contracts when temperatures drop, shedding small pieces of limestone with each cycle. Measures have been taken to partially combat the problem.
In 1988, a theater near the Alamo unveiled a new movie, Alamo... the Price of Freedom. The 40 - minute - long film would be screened several times each day. The movie attracted much protest from Mexican American activists, who decried the anti-Mexican comments and complained that it ignored Tejano contributions to the battle. The movie was re-edited in response to the complaints, but the controversy grew to the point that many activists began pressuring the legislature to move control of the Alamo to the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC). In response to pressure from Hispanic groups, state representative Orlando Garcia of San Antonio began legislative hearings into DRT finances. The DRT agreed to make their financial records more open, and the hearings were canceled.
Shortly after that, San Antonio representative Jerry Beauchamp proposed that the Alamo be transferred from the DRT to the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. Many minority legislators agreed with him. However, the San Antonio mayor, Henry Cisneros, advocated that control remain with the DRT, and the legislature shelved the bill.
Several years later, Carlos Guerra, a reporter for the San Antonio Express - News, began writing columns attacking the DRT for its handling of the Alamo. Guerra claimed that the DRT had kept the temperature too low within the chapel, a situation which caused the formation of water vapor, which when mixed with automobile exhaust fumes damaged the limestone walls. These allegations prompted the legislature in 1993 to once more attempt to transfer control of the Alamo to the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. At the same time, State Senator Gregory Luna filed a competing bill to transfer oversight of the Alamo to the Texas Historical Commission.
By the following year, some advocacy groups in San Antonio had begun pressing for the mission to be turned into a larger historical park. They wished to restore the chapel to its 18th century appearance and focus the complex on its mission days rather than the activities of the Texas Revolution. The DRT was outraged. The head of the group 's Alamo Committee, Ana Hartman, claimed that the dispute was gender based. According to her, ""There 's something macho about it. Some of the men who are attacking us just resent what has been a successful female venture since 1905. ''
The dispute was mostly resolved in 1994, when then - Governor George W. Bush vowed to veto any legislation that would displace the DRT as caretakers of the Alamo. Later that year, the DRT erected a marker on the mission grounds recognizing that they had once served as Indian burial grounds.
In 2010, the office of the Texas Attorney General received a complaint that the DRT had been mismanaging not only the site, but the funds allocated for its management, and an investigation was begun.
After two years, the Attorney General 's office concluded that the DRT had mismanaged the Alamo, and cited numerous instances of misconduct on the DRT 's part, including failing to properly maintain the Alamo in good order and repair, mismanagement of state funds, and breach of fiduciary duty.
During the course of the investigation, in 2011, a state law was passed, signed by then - governor Rick Perry, to transfer custodianship of the Alamo from the DRT to the Texas General Land Office. The transfer was officially enacted in 2015. While the DRT initially objected to the Attorney General 's report, and even went so far as to file a lawsuit to prevent the transfer, the organization eventually said that it would work with the Texas GLO to preserve the Alamo for future generations.
As of 2002, the Alamo welcomed over four million visitors each year, making it one of the most popular historic sites in the United States. Visitors may tour the chapel, as well as the Long Barracks, which contains a small museum with paintings, weapons, and other artifacts from the era of the Texas Revolution. Additional artifacts are displayed in another complex building, alongside a large diorama that recreates the compound as it existed in 1836. A large mural, known as the Wall of History, portrays the history of the Alamo complex from its mission days to modern times.
The site has an annual operating budget of $6 million, primarily funded through sales in the gift store.
Under the 2011 law, which placed the Alamo under the care of the General Land Office, Commissioner George P. Bush announced on March 12, 2015, that his office would take charge of the daily operations of the Alamo from the Daughters of the Republic of Texas.
In October 2015, the state announced that it is purchasing three historic buildings on Alamo Plaza. B.J. "Red '' McCombs, a San Antonio businessman and a member of the Alamo Endowment Board, which raises funds for the preservation and management of the shrine, said that he envisions an expansion program consistent with the reality of the Alamo story to enhance the overall experience of future visitors to the historic site.
The General Land Office and the Alamo Endowment non-profit association have entered into a cooperative agreement to formulate a master plan for both the Alamo Complex and the Alamo Historic District. Future visitors can expect a full historical interpretation of the Alamo from its inception to the battle of 1836 and beyond. Along with four other Spanish colonial missions in San Antonio, the Alamo was designated in 2015 as a World Heritage Site by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, the first in Texas and one of twenty - three in the United States.
Renewed resistance to the General Land Office 's master plan for the site, which envisions a quadrupling of the site to include a 100,000 square foot museum, came from the recent consideration to move the Alamo Cenotaph to a different location. Other concerns expressed include the proposed $450 million cost of the project and any efforts to allow political correctness to alter or modify the story of the Alamo.
Alamo
Interior Alamo, cannon, San Antonio, Texas (postcard, circa 1901 - 1914)
Interior of the Alamo, San Antonio, Texas (postcard, circa 1907 - 1914)
Under six flags, Alamo, San Antonio, Texas (postcard, circa 1915 - 1924)
Plaque on a wall at the Alamo, recognizing ownership by the state of Texas and custodianship of the Daughters of the Republic of Texas
A plaque posted in remembrance of the contribution of the Alamo by Clara Driscoll to the state of Texas
Cactus shrub adjacent to main building at the Alamo
Old well and oak tree in courtyard of the Alamo
A stone memorial to the 32 men from Gonzales who perished at the Battle of the Alamo
Memorial poem carved in granite written by a Japanese geography professor in 1914 comparing the Battle to the siege of Nagashino Castle in 1575
See also: List of museums in Central Texas
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who sings there is a house in charming town | Cinderella (musical) - wikipedia
Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Cinderella is a musical written for television, with music by Richard Rodgers and a book and lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II. It is based upon the fairy tale Cinderella, particularly the French version Cendrillon, ou la Petite Pantoufle de Verre, by Charles Perrault. The story concerns a young woman forced into a life of servitude by her cruel stepmother and self - centered stepsisters, who dreams of a better life. With the help of her Fairy Godmother, Cinderella is transformed into a Princess and finds her Prince.
Cinderella is the only Rodgers and Hammerstein musical written for television. It was originally broadcast live on CBS on March 31, 1957 as a vehicle for Julie Andrews, who played the title role. The broadcast was viewed by more than 100 million people. It was subsequently remade for television twice, in 1965 and 1997. The 1965 version starred Lesley Ann Warren, and the 1997 one starred Brandy Norwood in the title role. Both remakes add songs from other Richard Rodgers musicals.
The musical has also been adapted for the stage in a number of versions, including a London West End pantomime adaptation, a New York City Opera production that follows the original television version closely and several touring productions. A 2013 adaptation starring Laura Osnes and Santino Fontana, with a new book by Douglas Carter Beane, opened in 2013 on Broadway.
In the 1950s, television adaptations of musicals were fairly common. Broadcast versions of Annie Get Your Gun, Wonderful Town, Anything Goes and Kiss Me, Kate were all seen during the decade. In 1955, NBC had broadcast the Broadway musical Peter Pan, starring Mary Martin. It was a hit, and the network looked for more family - oriented musical projects. Richard Rodgers had previously supplied the Emmy Award - winning score for Victory at Sea, a documentary series about World War II. NBC approached Rodgers and Hammerstein and asked them to write an original musical expressly for television (rather than merely adapting an existing one to the television special format), then a novel idea. The team decided to adapt the fairy tale Cinderella and, new to television, they sought the advice of an industry insider, Richard Lewine. Lewine was then the Vice President in charge of color television at CBS. He told Rodgers and Hammerstein that CBS was also seeking a musical project and had already signed Julie Andrews, who was then starring in My Fair Lady on Broadway. Rodgers recalled, in his autobiography: "What sold us immediately was the chance to work with Julie. '' Rodgers and Hammerstein signed with CBS.
Rodgers and Hammerstein retained ownership of the show and had control over casting, direction, set and costumes, while CBS controlled the technical aspects of the broadcast and had an option for a second broadcast. CBS announced the production on September 5, 1956. In adapting the famous fairy tale, "Rodgers and Hammerstein stayed faithful to the original Charles Perrault '' version. Hammerstein was interviewed by the Saturday Review about the adaptation: "We want the kids who see it to recognize the story they know. Children can be very critical on that score. But, of course, their parents will be watching too, so we have tried to humanize the characters without altering the familiar plot structure. '' The musical had to fit into the 90 - minute program with six commercial breaks, so it was divided into six short acts. In an interview with Time Magazine, Hammerstein said that "It took me seven months to write the book and lyrics for Cinderella ''.
Rehearsals started on February 21, 1957. Emmy Award - winning director Ralph Nelson and choreographer Jonathan Lucas, who had choreographed for The Milton Berle Show, were both experienced with musical material on television. Rodgers ' friend, Robert Russell Bennett, provided the orchestrations. Alfredo Antonini, a veteran with CBS, conducted. In early March, the company moved to CBS Television Color Studio 72, the first CBS - TV color studio in New York and the smallest color studio in the CBS empire at the time. The 56 performers, 33 musicians and 80 stagehands and crew worked crammed into the small studio together with four giant RCA TK - 40A color TV cameras, a wardrobe of up to 100 costumes, over half a dozen huge set pieces, and numerous props and special effects equipment. The orchestra played in a small room with special equipment to overcome the suppressed acoustics. CBS invested in a massive marketing campaign, as did the sponsors. Ed Sullivan also promoted the show, which would be seen in his usual Sunday night time slot, with an appearance by Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II on the previous Sunday. It was broadcast live on March 31, 1957.
In the village square, a Herald proclaims: "The Prince Is Giving a Ball '' to celebrate the Prince Christopher 's 21st birthday. The ladies of the kingdom are thrilled at the prospect of meeting him. Cinderella, whose beloved father has died, takes care of the home of her ill - tempered and selfish stepmother and stepsisters. She carries all of their shopping parcels for them, and when they return home, all three order Cinderella about. Left alone in her corner near the fire, she dreams of living an exotic life as a princess or anything other than a servant ("In My Own Little Corner ''). Meanwhile, the King and Queen get ready for the big celebration ("Royal Dressing Room Scene '') and the servants discuss the planning for the feast ("Your Majesties ''). They hope that their son will find a suitable bride, but the Prince is a bit apprehensive about meeting all the eager women of the kingdom. The Queen is touched by overhearing the King 's discussion with his son and tells him she loves him ("Boys and Girls Like You and Me '' (sometimes omitted, and not sung in any of the telecasts)).
As Cinderella 's stepsisters get ready for the Ball, hoping that they will catch the Prince 's eye, they laugh at Cinderella 's dreams. Finally they leave, and Cinderella imagines having gone with them ("In My Own Little Corner '' (reprise)). Cinderella 's Fairy Godmother appears and, persuaded by the fervor of Cinderella 's wish to go to the Ball, she transforms Cinderella into a beautifully gowned young lady and her little mouse friends and a pumpkin into a glittering carriage with impressive footmen ("Impossible; It 's Possible '') and she leaves for the Ball.
Cinderella arrives at the palace at 11: 30; before she enters, her Godmother warns her not to stay past midnight. The Prince has been bored by the attention of all the young ladies with whom he has had to dance, including the stepsisters. Cinderella 's grand entrance immediately attracts everyone 's attention and intrigues the Prince. They dance together and instantly fall in love ("Ten Minutes Ago ''). Seeing the Prince with a petite beauty (whom they do not recognize), the stepsisters ask why he would n't prefer a substantial "usual '' girl like them ("Stepsisters ' Lament ''). The Prince and Cinderella dance and find themselves with a private moment, and he declares his love for her ("Do I Love You Because You 're Beautiful? ''). As they share a kiss, the clock begins to strike midnight, and Cinderella flees before the magic wears off; but in her haste, she drops a glass slipper.
The next morning, Cinderella 's stepmother and stepsisters reminisce about the Ball and find that Cinderella is very intuitive about what it must have been like going to the Ball ("When You 're Driving Through the Moonlight '') and dancing with the Prince ("A Lovely Night ''). Meanwhile, the Prince is searching for the beauty with whom he danced, and who fled so quickly from the Ball. His Herald tries the slipper on all the women of the kingdom ("The Search ''). At Cinderella 's house, the slipper will not fit any of the ladies. Cinderella 's stepmother tries to steer the Herald away from the servant girl, Cinderella, but she is not home; she is hiding in the Palace garden. The Herald returns to the palace garden and regretfully informs the Prince that he has not found the missing girl. The Herald then sees Cinderella hiding and places her under arrest. Prodded by the fairy godmother, he tries the slipper on Cinderella. It fits, and the Prince is called back to the garden, where he recognizes his beloved ("Do I Love You Because You 're Beautiful? '' (reprise)). Cinderella and the Prince marry, and all ends happily.
The original version contains the following songs:
In some productions, additional numbers added include "Loneliness of Evening '' (cut from South Pacific and introduced in the 1965 broadcast), a song for the prince; and "Boys and Girls like You and Me '' (cut from Oklahoma! and subsequently other shows), for the queen and king (in the Royal Dressing Room Scene), which appears in the show 's published vocal score. The 1997 TV adaptation added "Falling in Love with Love '' for the Stepmother, "The Sweetest Sounds '' for Cinderella and the Prince, and "There 's Music in You '' (written for Main Street to Broadway), for the Fairy Godmother. The 2013 Broadway production was performed in two acts and included the songs "Me, Who Am I? '' (cut from Me & Juliet), "Loneliness of Evening '' and "Now Is the Time '' (cut from South Pacific), "The Pursuit '', and "There 's Music in You ''.
The original 1957 broadcast was directed by Nelson with choreography by Lucas and musical direction by Antonini. It starred Andrews in the title role and Jon Cypher as The Prince. It also featured Howard Lindsay as The King, Dorothy Stickney as The Queen, Edith Adams as the Fairy Godmother, Kaye Ballard and Alice Ghostley as stepsisters Portia and Joy, Ilka Chase as the Stepmother, and Iggie Wolfington as The Steward. Betty Noyes played a mother in the ensemble who sings a brief solo, and Joe Layton appeared uncredited in the ensemble.
On Sunday, March 31, 1957, at 8: 00pm Eastern time, Cinderella was broadcast live in the Eastern, Central and Mountain time zones in both black and white and compatible color; the West Coast received a delayed black and white - only broadcast starting at 8: 00pm Pacific time. Beyond the United States, it was carried by CBS affiliates in the U.S. territories of Alaska, Hawaii and Puerto Rico; in Canada it was broadcast on CBC. It was produced for $376,000, which was very expensive for its time, and was heavily promoted by its sponsors Pepsi - Cola and the Shulton Company (then maker of Old Spice). The Nielsen TV rating for the program was 18,864,000 "homes reached during an average minute '' of the broadcast. More than 107 million viewers saw the broadcast, and Andrews was nominated for an Emmy Award for her performance.
A black and white kinescope of the broadcast survives and has been issued on DVD. There is no evidence that Cinderella was recorded on videotape, which CBS used at that time only to time - delay news programming for the stations on the West Coast. The equipment was not yet capable of recording color video.
After the musical 's success in London and elsewhere as a stage production, the network decided to produce another television version. The 1957 premiere had been broadcast before videotape was available, so only one performance could be shown. CBS mounted a new production in 1965, with Richard Rodgers as Executive Producer and written by Joseph Schrank. The new script hewed closer to the traditional tale, although nearly all of the original songs were retained and sung in their original settings. A new sequence opens the story: the Prince stops at Cinderella 's house with his retinue for a drink of water after returning from his travels. Cinderella, home alone, and not knowing who the handsome traveler is until a page utters the words "Your Highness '', kindly gives the Prince water from the well. After the Prince leaves, he sings "Loneliness of Evening '', which had been composed for South Pacific in 1949 but not used in that musical. Cinderella sings "In My Own Little Corner '' before there is any mention of the prince giving a ball. The names of the stepsisters were changed from the original production, and the Royal Dressing Room Scene was omitted.
The 1965 version was directed by Charles S. Dubin with choreography by Eugene Loring and recorded on videotape (at CBS Television City in Hollywood) for later broadcast. The cast featured Ginger Rogers and Walter Pidgeon as the King and Queen; Celeste Holm as the Fairy Godmother; Jo Van Fleet as the Stepmother, with Pat Carroll and Barbara Ruick as her daughters Prunella and Esmerelda; and Stuart Damon as the Prince. Lesley Ann Warren, at age 18, played the title role. The film also features rare on camera appearances by dubbers Betty Noyes and Bill Lee, who play a couple that briefly sing about their daughter (played by Trudi Ames). The first broadcast was on February 22, 1965, and it was rebroadcast eight times through February 1974. The 1965 debut had a Nielsen rating of 42.3, making it the highest - rated non-sports special on CBS from the beginning of the Nielsen ratings until 2009, and the 50th highest - rated show of any kind during that period.
The 1997 television remake was adapted by Robert L. Freedman and directed by Robert Iscove, with choreography by Rob Marshall. It was produced by Whitney Houston and Debra Martin Chase for Walt Disney Television and aired on November 2, 1997. This version featured a racially diverse cast, with Brandy Norwood as Cinderella, Whitney Houston as her fairy godmother, Bernadette Peters as Cinderella 's stepmother, Paolo Montalbán as the prince, Whoopi Goldberg as the queen, Victor Garber as the king and Jason Alexander as Lionel, the herald. Several songs were added, including "Falling in Love with Love '' from the musical The Boys from Syracuse, sung by the Stepmother; "The Sweetest Sounds '' from the musical No Strings, sung by Cinderella and the Prince; and "There 's Music in You, '' written for the 1953 film Main Street to Broadway, sung as the finale by the Fairy Godmother. Sixty million viewers watched the broadcast.
Changes to the Hammerstein plot in this version include the following: The Fairy Godmother begins the story, explaining that nothing is impossible. The stepsisters ' names are changed to Calliope and Minerva. Disguised as a peasant, the Prince (feeling isolated in the castle) wanders in the marketplace (worrying his herald, Lionel), meets Cinderella, and they find each other charming. At the ball, embarrassed by questions about her family and background, Cinderella escapes to the garden in tears, where the Fairy Godmother appears for moral support. After her stepmother returns from the ball and is particularly cruel, Cinderella packs her belongings to run away from home. Her Fairy Godmother advises her to share her feelings with the Prince. After trying the slipper on all the other maidens, the Prince and Lionel overtake Cinderella on her journey to freedom. Meeting her gaze, the Prince recognizes her and places the slipper on her foot. At their wedding, the Fairy Godmother blesses the couple.
The musical was first performed on stage at the London Coliseum in 1958 in holiday pantomime adaptation that also used songs from Me & Juliet. Harold Fielding produced this version, which opened on December 18, 1958 and played through the holiday season. Yana (Pamella Guard), played Cinderella, with Tommy Steele, Jimmy Edwards, Kenneth Williams and Betty Marsden.
Stage versions began to appear in U.S. theatres by 1961. The New York City Opera produced the musical in 1993 and 1995, with the Fairy Godmother being played by Sally Ann Howes and the Stepmother by Nancy Marchand and Jean Stapleton. It revived the production in 2004 with Eartha Kitt as the Fairy Godmother and Dick Van Patten as the King, among other television stars. A United States tour played from November 2000 through 2001 and starred Kitt as the Fairy Godmother, Deborah Gibson and later Jamie - Lynn Sigler as Cinderella, Paolo Montalbán as the Prince, and a gender - bending Everett Quinton as the Stepmother, stopping at The Theatre at Madison Square Garden in 2001, where Sigler played the title role.
A 30 - week Asian tour of Cinderella starred Lea Salonga and Australian Peter Saide. The production was directed by Bobby Garcia, with choreography by Vince Pesce. Costume design was by Renato Balestra, with sets by David Gallo. The tour started in Manila, Philippines, on July 29, 2008. The show then went on to several cities in China, including Xian, Zhengzhou, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Gunagzhou, Shanghai, Beijing and Hong Kong. It then toured in Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Korea, and Japan. A cast album was issued in 2008.
An all - female production of the musical in Japan in 2008 featured J - Pop group Morning Musume and veteran members of the Takarazuka Revue. The production ran throughout August 2008, at Shinjuku Koma Theater in Tokyo. The lead roles of Cinderella and the Prince were performed by Morning Musume members Ai Takahashi and Risa Niigaki.
Douglas Carter Beane wrote a new book for the musical 's first Broadway production. In his plot, Cinderella opens Prince Topher 's eyes to the injustice in the kingdom. The prince 's parents have died, leaving the kingdom in the hands of a villainous minister who has been the prince 's mentor and has duped his young charge into approving oppressive legislation. The rebel Jean - Michel, a new character, and stepsister Gabrielle are in love and seek to overthrow the government. The score includes the best - known songs from the original version and four more songs from the Rodgers and Hammerstein catalogue.
The show began previews on Broadway on January 25 and officially opened on March 3, 2013 at the Broadway Theatre. Mark Brokaw directed the production, with Josh Rhodes choreographing, and the cast included Laura Osnes in the title role, Santino Fontana as the Prince, Victoria Clark as crazy Marie / the Fairy Godmother, Harriet Harris as Ella 's stepmother, Peter Bartlett as the Prime Minister, Ann Harada and Marla Mindelle as stepsisters Charlotte and Gabrielle, and Greg Hildreth as Jean - Michel. Designers included Anna Louizos (sets), William Ivey Long (costumes) and Kenneth Posner (lighting). The production was nominated for nine Tony Awards, winning one for Long 's costume design. Reviews were mixed, with most critics praising Osnes 's performance.
Keke Palmer was a replacement in the title role. A report in The Guardian commented that "casting an African American actor as such an iconic -- and typically pale -- character is emblematic of the progress Broadway is making, slowly and haltingly, in employing actors of color in a broader array of parts. '' In September 2014, Lesley Ann Warren joined the cast during the curtain call to celebrate the 50th anniversary release of her 1965 television version. The production closed on Broadway on January 3, 2015, after 41 previews and 770 regular performances. National tours followed.
The 1957 version of Cinderella was seen by the largest audience in history at the time of its premiere: 107,000,000 people in the USA, fully 60 % of the country 's population at that time. Variety estimated that 24.2 million households were tuned into the show, with an average of 4.43 viewers each. Jon Cypher later remembered leaving the studio a few minutes after the broadcast had ended and finding the Manhattan streets deserted because so many had stayed in to watch the broadcast.
A New York Times review by Jack Gould characterized the musical as "a pleasant Cinderella that lacked the magic touch. '' He wrote that the broadcast received an "extraordinary range of reactions; it was either unreservedly enjoyed, rather angrily rejected or generally approved, subject to significant reservations. '' He praised Andrews as a "beguiling vision '' in "lovely color video. '' But he complained about the book ("What possessed Mr. Hammerstein to turn the stepsisters into distasteful vaudeville clowns? ''); about errors in "the most elementary kind of showmanship; '' about costume ("could n't Cinderella have been dressed in a dreamlike ball gown of fantasy rather than a chic, form - fitting number? ''); and the staging ("cramped... excellent depth, but limited width marred the ballroom scene ''). He judged the songs "not top - drawer Rodgers and Hammerstein '' and "reminiscent and derivative of some of their earlier successes '' but praised four of them and said: "In television, where original music is virtually nonexistent, these add up to quite a treat... some current (Broadway) musicals can not boast as much melodically. ''
The 1965 version was broadcast repeatedly. The 1997 production was the # 1 show of the week, with over 60 million viewers. It became the highest - rated TV musical in a generation. Although it was a hit with audiences, it received mixed reviews. Theatre historian John Kenrick called it a "clumsy remake '' of the musical but commented that Bernadette Peters ' "shtick trying on the glass slipper is hilarious ''. The New York Times praised the performers (Montalban has "an old - fashioned luxurious voice ''; Jason Alexander "provides comic relief ''; Goldberg "winningly blends royal dignity with motherly meddling ''; Peters "brings vigor and sly comedy '') but commented that the musical "was always a pumpkin that never turned into a glittering coach... the songs are lesser Rodgers and Hammerstein... it does n't take that final leap into pure magic. Often charming and sometimes ordinary, this is a cobbled - together Cinderella for the moment, not the ages. '' Other critics, however, praised the presentation. One reviewer wrote: "Grade: A, a version both timely and timeless. '' Another agreed: "this version has much to recommend it. '' An encore broadcast on Valentine 's Night 1998 drew another 15,000,000 viewers.
Reviews for the Broadway version were mixed. Ben Brantley of The New York Times called the 2013 Broadway production a "glittery patchwork of a show '' that "wants to be reassuringly old - fashioned and refreshingly irreverent, sentimental and snarky, sincere and ironic, all at once. '' Brantley felt that the show "does n't seem to know quite what '' it wants to be. The Financial Times praised the cast, especially Osnes, the costumes and the choreography and opined that "the production is an absolute joy, marred only by occasional slowness of pace. '' Richard Zoglin, writing for Time magazine, noted that the new production is "brightly colored, high spirited and well sung '', but compared it unfavorably with the "emotionally alive '' 1957 broadcast. A reviewer from the Chicago Tribune wrote: "The fundamental problem with... Beane 's perplexing, wholly unromantic and mostly laugh - free new book... is that it denies the audience the pleasure of instant reversals of fortune... This new version ends up collapsing the basic logic of the familiar story and tramples all over the musical soul of a score from another era ''. On the other hand, the reviewer from USA Today liked the production, commenting that "Osnes and a gifted supporting cast make this fairy tale very much their own -- a scrumptious trifle that, for all its hokey moments, will charm theatergoers of all ages. '' An Associated Press review praised Beane 's script and wrote that it "crackles with sweetness and freshness, combining a little "Monty Python 's Spamalot '' with some "Les Misérables ''. It also found the cast "first - rate '' and the overall story "quirky, yet heart filled ''.
Columbia Records recorded the musical selections from the first telecast of Cinderella on March 18, 1957, nearly two weeks before the show aired, in monaural and stereophonic sound, releasing the mono version in 1957 and then the stereo version in 1958. The stereo version was later reissued on CD by Sony. The black - and - white kinescope recording of the dress rehearsal, made the night before the telecast, was broadcast on PBS in December 2004 as part of its Great Performances series. It was later released on DVD with a documentary including most of its original players, as well as a kinescope of Rodgers and Hammerstein 's appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show the preceding Sunday, featuring Hammerstein reciting one of the songs to orchestral accompaniment.
In 1959 RCA Victor released an abridged Cinderella with Mary Martin and The Little Orchestra Society, which was released on CD in 2010 (Sepia 1144). A cast LP album of the 1965 telecast was also issued by Columbia Masterworks Records and on a Sony Masterworks CD. All three of the telecast versions of Cinderella have been released on DVD. A cast recording of the 2013 Broadway production was issued by Ghostlight Records in 2013.
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when was the wizard of oz book written | The Wonderful Wizard of Oz - wikipedia
The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (/ ɑː z /) is an American children 's novel written by author L. Frank Baum and illustrated by W.W. Denslow, originally published by the George M. Hill Company in Chicago on May 17, 1900. It has since been reprinted on numerous occasions, most often under the title The Wizard of Oz, which is the title of the popular 1902 Broadway musical adaptation as well as the iconic 1939 musical film adaptation.
The story chronicles the adventures of a young farm girl named Dorothy in the magical Land of Oz, after she and her pet dog Toto are swept away from their Kansas home by a cyclone. The novel is one of the best - known stories in American literature and has been widely translated. The Library of Congress has declared it "America 's greatest and best - loved homegrown fairytale ''. Its groundbreaking success and the success of the Broadway musical adapted from the novel led Baum to write thirteen additional Oz books that serve as official sequels to the first story.
Baum dedicated the book "to my good friend & comrade, My Wife '', Maud Gage Baum. In January 1901, George M. Hill Company completed printing the first edition, a total of 10,000 copies, which quickly sold out. The Wonderful Wizard of Oz sold three million copies by the time it entered the public domain in 1956.
The book was published by George M. Hill Company. Its first edition had a printing of 10,000 copies and was sold in advance of the publication date of September 1, 1900. On May 17, 1900, the first copy of the book came off the press; Baum assembled it by hand and presented it to his sister Mary Louise Baum Brewster. The public saw the book for the first time at a book fair at the Palmer House in Chicago, July 5 -- 20. The book 's copyright was registered on August 1; full distribution followed in September. By October 1900, the first edition had already sold out and the second edition of 15,000 copies was nearly depleted.
In a letter to his brother Harry, Baum wrote that the book 's publisher George M. Hill predicted a sale of about 250,000 copies. In spite of this favorable conjecture, Hill did not initially predict that the book would be phenomenally successful. He agreed to publish the book only when the manager of the Chicago Grand Opera House Fred R. Hamlin committed to making The Wonderful Wizard of Oz into a musical stage play to publicize the novel. The play The Wizard of Oz debuted on June 16, 1902. It was revised to suit adult preferences and was crafted as a "musical extravaganza '', with the costumes modeled after Denslow 's drawings. Hill 's publishing company became bankrupt in 1901, so Baum and Denslow agreed to have the Indianapolis - based Bobbs - Merrill Company resume publishing the novel.
Baum 's son Harry Neal told the Chicago Tribune in 1944 that L. Frank told his children "whimsical stories before they became material for his books ''. Harry called his father the "swellest man I knew '', a man who was able to give a decent reason as to why black birds cooked in a pie could afterwards get out and sing.
By 1938, more than one million copies of the book had been printed. Less than two decades later in 1956, the sales of his novel had grown to three million copies in print.
Dorothy is a young girl who lives with her Aunt Em and Uncle Henry and her little dog Toto on a farm in the Kansas prairies. One day, Dorothy and Toto are caught up in a cyclone that deposits her farmhouse into Munchkin Country in the magical Land of Oz. The falling house has killed the Wicked Witch of the East, the evil ruler of the Munchkins. The Good Witch of the North arrives with three other grateful Munchkins and gives Dorothy the magical Silver Shoes that once belonged to the Wicked witch. The Good Witch tells Dorothy that the only way she can return home is to go to the Emerald City and ask the great and powerful Wizard of Oz to help her. As Dorothy embarks on her journey, the Good Witch of the North kisses her on the forehead, giving her magical protection from harm.
On her way down the yellow brick road, Dorothy attends a banquet held by a Munchkin man named Boq. The next day, Dorothy frees the Scarecrow from the pole on which he is hanging, applies oil from a can to the rusted connections of the Tin Woodman, and meets the Cowardly Lion. The Scarecrow wants a brain, the Tin Woodman wants a heart, and the Cowardly Lion wants courage, so Dorothy encourages the three of them to journey with her and Toto to the Emerald City to ask for help from the Wizard. After several adventures, the travelers enter the gates of the Emerald City and meet the Guardian of the Gates, who asks them to wear green tinted spectacles to keep their eyes from being blinded by the city 's brilliance. Each one is called to see the Wizard. The Wizard appears to Dorothy as a giant head on a marble throne, the Scarecrow as a lovely lady in silk gauze, the Tin Woodman as a terrible beast, and the Cowardly Lion as a ball of fire. The Wizard agrees to help them all if they kill the Wicked Witch of the West, who rules over Oz 's Winkie Country. The Guardian warns them that no one has ever managed to defeat the witch.
The Wicked Witch of the West sees the travelers approaching with her one telescopic eye. She sends a pack of wolves to tear them to pieces, but the Tin Woodman kills them with his axe. She sends wild crows to peck their eyes out, but the Scarecrow kills them by breaking their necks. She summons a swarm of black bees to sting them, but they are killed trying to sting the Tin Woodman while the Scarecrow 's straw hides the other three. She sends her Winkie soldiers to attack them, but the Cowardly Lion stands firm to repel them. Finally, she uses the power of the Golden Cap to send the winged monkeys to capture Dorothy, Toto, and the Cowardly Lion, unstuff the Scarecrow, and dent the Tin Woodman. Dorothy is forced to become the Wicked Witch 's personal slave, while the witch schemes to steal Dorothy 's Silver Shoes.
The Wicked Witch successfully tricks Dorothy out of one of her Silver Shoes. Angered, Dorothy throws a bucket of water at her and is shocked to see the witch melt away. The Winkies rejoice at being freed of the witch 's tyranny and help restuff the Scarecrow and mend the Tin Woodman. They ask the Tin Woodman to become their ruler, which he agrees to do after helping Dorothy return to Kansas. Dorothy finds the Golden Cap and summons the Winged Monkeys to carry her and her companions back to the Emerald City. The King of the Winged Monkeys tells how he and the other monkeys are bound by an enchantment to the cap by the sorceress Gayelette from the North, and that Dorothy may use the cap to summon the Winged Monkeys two more times.
When Dorothy and her friends meet the Wizard of Oz again, Toto tips over a screen in a corner of the throne room that reveals the Wizard. He sadly explains he is a humbug -- an ordinary old man who, by a hot air balloon, came to Oz long ago from Omaha. The Wizard provides the Scarecrow with a head full of bran, pins, and needles ("a lot of bran - new brains ''), the Tin Woodman with a silk heart stuffed with sawdust, and the Cowardly Lion a potion of "courage ''. Their faith in the Wizard 's power gives these items a focus for their desires. The Wizard decides to take Dorothy and Toto home and leave the Emerald City. At the send - off, he appoints the Scarecrow to rule in his stead, which he agrees to do after Dorothy returns to Kansas. Toto chases a kitten in the crowd and Dorothy goes after him, but the tethers of the balloon break and the Wizard floats away.
Dorothy summons the Winged Monkeys to carry her and Toto home, but they explain they can not cross the desert surrounding Oz. The Soldier with the Green Whiskers informs Dorothy that Glinda the Good Witch of the South may be able to help her return home, so the friends begin their journey to see Glinda, who lives in Oz 's Quadling Country. On the way, the Cowardly Lion kills a giant spider who is terrorizing the animals in a forest. The animals ask the Cowardly Lion to become their king, which he agrees to do after helping Dorothy return to Kansas. Dorothy summons the Winged Monkeys a third time to fly them over a mountain to Glinda 's palace. Glinda greets the travelers and reveals that the Silver Shoes Dorothy wears can take her anywhere she wishes to go. Dorothy embraces her friends, all of whom will be returned to their new kingdoms through Glinda 's three uses of the Golden Cap: the Scarecrow to the Emerald City, the Tin Woodman to the Winkie Country, and the Lion to the forest; after which the cap shall be given to the King of the Winged Monkeys, freeing them. Dorothy takes Toto in her arms, knocks her heels together three times, and wishes to return home. Instantly, she begins whirling through the air and rolling through the grass of the Kansas prairie, up to her Kansas farmhouse. She is now in her stocking feet; her shoes were lost forever in the desert. Dorothy runs to her Aunt Em, saying "I 'm so glad to be at home again! ''
The book was illustrated by Baum 's friend and collaborator W.W. Denslow, who also co-held the copyright. The design was lavish for the time, with illustrations on many pages, backgrounds in different colors, and several color plate illustrations. In September 1900, The Grand Rapids Herald wrote that Denslow 's illustrations are "quite as much of the story as in the writing ''. The editorial opined that had it not been for Denslow 's pictures, the readers would be unable to picture precisely the figures of Dorothy, Toto, and the other characters.
The distinctive look led to imitators at the time, most notably Eva Katherine Gibson 's Zauberlinda, the Wise Witch, which mimicked both the typography and the illustration design of Oz. The typeface was the newly designed Monotype Old Style. Denslow 's illustrations were so well known that merchants of many products obtained permission to use them to promote their wares. The forms of the Scarecrow, the Tin Woodman, the Cowardly Lion, the Wizard, and Dorothy were made into rubber and metal sculptures. Costume jewelry, mechanical toys, and soap were also designed using their figures.
A new edition of the book appeared in 1944, with illustrations by Evelyn Copelman. Although it was claimed that the new illustrations were based on Denslow 's originals, they more closely resemble the characters as seen in the famous 1939 film version of Baum 's book.
Baum acknowledged the influence of the Brothers Grimm and Hans Christian Andersen, which he was deliberately revising in his "American fairy tales '' to include the wonder without the horrors.
Local legend has it that Oz, also known as The Emerald City, was inspired by a prominent castle - like building in the community of Castle Park near Holland, Michigan, where Baum lived during the summer. The yellow brick road was derived from a road at that time paved by yellow bricks. These bricks were located in Peekskill, New York, where Baum attended the Peekskill Military Academy. Baum scholars often refer to the 1893 Chicago World 's Fair (the "White City '') as an inspiration for the Emerald City. Other legends suggest that the inspiration came from the Hotel Del Coronado near San Diego, California. Baum was a frequent guest at the hotel and had written several of the Oz books there. In a 1903 interview with Publishers Weekly, Baum said that the name "OZ '' came from his file cabinet labeled "O -- Z ''.
Some critics have suggested that Baum may have been inspired by Australia, a relatively new country at the time of the book 's original publication. Australia is often colloquially spelled or referred to as "Oz ''. Furthermore, in Ozma of Oz (1907), Dorothy gets back to Oz as the result of a storm at sea while she and Uncle Henry are traveling by ship to Australia. Like Australia, Oz is an island continent somewhere to the west of California with inhabited regions bordering on a great desert. One might imagine that Baum intended Oz to be Australia, or perhaps a magical land in the center of the great Australian desert.
Another influence lay in Lewis Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland. A September 1900 review in the Grand Rapids Herald called The Wonderful Wizard of Oz a "veritable Alice in Wonderland brought up to the present day standard of juvenile literature ''. Baum found Carroll 's plots incoherent, but he identified the books ' source of popularity as Alice herself, a child with whom the child readers could identify; this influenced his choice of a protagonist. Baum was also influenced by Carroll 's belief that children 's books should have many pictures and be pleasurable to read. Carroll rejected the Victorian - era ideology that children 's books should be saturated with morals, instead believing that children should be allowed to be children. Building on Carroll 's style of numerous images accompanying the text, Baum combined the conventional features of a fairy tale (witches and wizards) with the well - known things in his readers ' lives (scarecrows and cornfields).
The Wonderful Wizard of Oz is considered the first American fairy tale because of its references to clear American locations such as Kansas and Omaha. Baum agreed with authors such as Carroll that fantasy literature was important for children, along with numerous illustrations, but he also wanted to create a story that had recognizable American elements in it, such as farming and industrialization.
Many of the characters, props, and ideas in the novel were drawn from Baum 's experiences. As a child, Baum frequently had nightmares of a scarecrow pursuing him across a field. Moments before the scarecrow 's "ragged hay fingers '' nearly gripped his neck, it would fall apart before his eyes. Decades later, as an adult, Baum integrated his tormentor into the novel as the Scarecrow. According to his son Harry, the Tin Woodman was born from Baum 's attraction to window displays. He wished to make something captivating for the window displays, so he used an eclectic assortment of scraps to craft a striking figure. From a washboiler he made a body, from bolted stovepipes he made arms and legs, and from the bottom of a saucepan he made a face. Baum then placed a funnel hat on the figure, which ultimately became the Tin Woodman. John D. Rockefeller was the nemesis of Baum 's father, an oil baron who declined to purchase Standard Oil shares in exchange for selling his own oil refinery. Baum scholar Evan I. Schwartz posited that Rockefeller inspired one of the Wizard 's numerous faces. In one scene in the novel, the Wizard is seen as a "tyrannical, hairless head ''. When Rockefeller was 54 years old, the medical condition alopecia caused him to lose every strand of hair on his head, making people fearful of speaking to him.
In the early 1880s, Baum 's play Matches was being performed when a "flicker from a kerosene lantern sparked the rafters '', causing the Baum opera house to be consumed by flames. Scholar Evan I. Schwartz suggested that this might have inspired the Scarecrow 's severest terror: "There is only one thing in the world I am afraid of. A lighted match. ''
In 1890, Baum lived in Aberdeen, which was experiencing a drought, and he wrote a witty story in his "Our Landlady '' column in Aberdeen 's The Saturday Pioneer about a farmer who gave green goggles to his horses, causing them to believe that the wood chips that they were eating were pieces of grass. Similarly, the Wizard made the people in the Emerald City wear green goggles so that they would believe that their city was built from emeralds.
During Baum 's short stay in Aberdeen, the dissemination of myths about the plentiful West continued. However, the West, instead of being a wonderland, turned into a wasteland because of a drought and a depression. In 1891, Baum moved his family from South Dakota to Chicago. At that time, Chicago was getting ready for the World 's Columbian Exposition in 1893. Scholar Laura Barrett stated that Chicago was "considerably more akin to Oz than to Kansas ''. After discovering that the myths about the West 's incalculable riches were baseless, Baum created "an extension of the American frontier in Oz ''. In many respects, Baum 's creation is similar to the actual frontier save for the fact that the West was still undeveloped at the time. The Munchkins Dorothy encounters at the beginning of the novel represent farmers, as do the Winkies she later meets.
Baum 's wife frequently visited her niece, Dorothy Louise Gage. The infant became gravely sick and died on November 11, 1898, from "congestion of the brain '' at exactly five months. When the baby, whom Maud adored as the daughter she never had, died, she was devastated and needed to consume medicine. To assuage her distress, Frank made his protagonist of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz a female named Dorothy. Uncle Henry was modeled after Henry Gage, his wife Maud 's father. Bossed around by his wife Matilda, Henry rarely dissented with her. He flourished in business, though, and his neighbors looked up to him. Likewise, Uncle Henry was a "passive but hard - working man '' who "looked stern and solemn, and rarely spoke ''. The witches in the novel were influenced by witch - hunting research gathered by Baum 's mother - in - law, Matilda. The stories of barbarous acts against accused witches scared Baum. Two key events in the novel involve wicked witches who both meet their death through metaphorical means.
Baum held different jobs, moved a lot, and was exposed to many people, so the inspiration for the story could have been taken from many different aspects of his life. In the introduction to the story, Baum writes that "it aspires to being a modernized fairy tale, in which the wonderment and joy are retained and the heart - aches and nightmares are left out. '' This is one of the explanations that he gives for the inspiration for The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Baum, a former salesman of china, wrote in chapter 20 about china that had sprung to life.
The original illustrator of the novel, W.W. Denslow, could also have influenced the story and the way it has been interpreted. Baum and Denslow had a close working relationship and worked together to create the presentation of the story through the images and the text. Color is an important element of the story and is present throughout the images, with each chapter having a different color representation. Denslow also added characteristics to his drawings that Baum never described. For example, Denslow drew a house and the gates of the Emerald City with faces on them. In the later Oz books, John R. Neill, who illustrated all of the sequels, continued to include these faces on gates.
Baum did not offer any conclusive proof that he intended his novel to be a political allegory. Historian Ranjit S. Dighe wrote that for 60 years after the book 's publication, "virtually nobody '' had such an interpretation until Henry Littlefield, a high - school teacher. In his 1964 American Quarterly article, "The Wizard of Oz: Parable on Populism '', Littlefield posited that the book contained an allegory of the late 19th - century bimetallism debate regarding monetary policy.
Not only did Baum draw inspiration from the American land around him, but he also created Oz to display an American utopia where the issues of the day were solved. There is little distinction between utopia and fairy - tale land. Baum believed that the imagination was the best tool for creating a striving society. In a later book in the Oz series, Baum writes: "imaginations and dreams are likely to lead to the betterment of the world. The imaginative child will become the imaginative man or woman most apt to create, to invent and, therefore, to foster civilization. '' In this way, Baum wrote The Wonderful Wizard of Oz as a modern fairy tale depicting Oz as an American utopia that displays numerous allusions and solutions to issues in the late 19th and early 20th century.
The realm of Oz very closely resembles America. It contains four countries, the Land of the North, East, West, and South, and the national capital, the Emerald City. America and its inhabitants are often divided into similar categories such as Midwestern, Southern, etc. These locations are also separated by an American color scheme that was relevant to America during the 19th century. The color blue represents the industrial East known for the blue - collar jobs. The South is red for the red earth it contains or the "redneck '' inhabitants. Yellow describes the West, denoting the California gold rush. Finally, the Emerald City as Washington D.C., denoting greenbacks and money of the country.
The villains of the story are the Wicked Witch of the West and the Wicked Witch of the East. The wicked witches use their power to control and enslave their subjects. There was an equal balance between good and evil, and until this balance was altered, there could be no change or development in Oz. This standoff can be seen as an allusion between the different political parties in America. The Wicked Witch of the West represents the American West, including the wealthy railroad, oil barons, and nature. The American West 's greatest weapon in the 19th century, though, was nature, most malignantly the drought. The effects lasted longer than any fire or twister, and a long enough drought could ruin a whole year 's worth of crops. Thus, water as the weapon to kill the Witch of the West is quite poetic. The brown mass the witch 's remains turn into resembles mud after a heavy storm. Dorothy even cleans the melted witch off the floor and her shoes as if she had walked through a rainy puddle.
Baum 's Wicked Witch of the East has been suggested to represent Eastern financial and industrial interests, such as Wall Street, which oppresses the agricultural citizens. The Witch of the East enslaved her subjects much as industrialism was thought to enslave the working class in 19th - century Eastern America. Once Dorothy killed the Wicked Witch of the East the balance of power could be shifted. Both these groups opposed Populist efforts to move the U.S. to a bimetallic monetary standard since this would have devalued the dollar and made investments less valuable. Workers and poor farmers supported the move away from the gold standard, as this would have lessened their crushing debt burdens. The Populist party sought to build a coalition of Southern and Midwestern tenant farmers and Northern industrial workers. These groups are represented in the book by the Good Witches of the North and South.
At the beginning of the novel, Dorothy is swept from her farm to Oz by a cyclone, which was frequently compared to the Free Silver movement in Baum 's time. The yellow brick road represents the gold standard, and the Silver Shoes, which enable Dorothy to travel more comfortably, symbolizes the Populist Party 's desire to construct a bimetallic standard of both gold and silver in place of the gold standard. "Oz '' is the abbreviated form of ounce, a standard measure of gold. When Dorothy and the Scarecrow walk through the forest, the road begins to be rough and patchy, causing the Scarecrow to trip and fall numerous times. The Scarecrow 's falls on the yellow brick road resemble the damage farmers faced owing to deflation caused by the scarcity of gold. Dorothy, however, simply "walks around '' the holes in the road, showing that the bimetallic standard works. Even when gold was scarce, the other metal in the bimetal system would be relatively cheap, therefore one bypasses deflation. Throughout the book, most of the characters do not know the magic behind the silver shoes. It is not until Dorothy meets Glinda, the good Witch of the South, that she finds out that the silver shoes have had the power to transfer her back to Kansas all along. Baum is possibly alluding to the fact that the bimetallic standard has been a working solution to the economic crisis all along, though no one knows how to do it. Once Dorothy clicks her heels three times, she returns to Kansas, where she realizes that "The Silver Shoes had fallen off in her flight through the air, and were lost forever in the desert. '' The silver shoes were lost, much like the fight for the bimetallic standard, which began to fade away in 1900.
The Wizard is the national leader of Oz, thus it is fitting for him to symbolize the President (s) of the United States during the 19th century. Politicians have been known to have many faces; it is a must if they want to be able to be everything for everyone. The Great and Terrible Wizard of Oz agrees to meet with each traveler separately, allowing him to alter his appearance to best fit each character. When the gang returns having completed the Wizard 's task, they discover that the Wizard is a fake and is actually just "a common man '' who has made everyone believe he was powerful. The Scarecrow adds that he is a humbug, in which the Wizard gladly says that is he is exactly that. The Wizard made promises he could not keep, as did many 19th - century politicians. The Wizard later states: "How can I help being a humbug... when all these people make me do things that everyone knows ca n't be done, '' showing that he was able to deceive others because others were willing to be deceived.
While journeying to the Emerald City, Dorothy encounters a scarecrow, who represents a farmer. The Scarecrow believes he is a fool, since his head is full of straw and not brains. Four years before the book 's release, William Allen White, a journalist from Chicago, published an article titled "What 's the Matter With Kansas? '' In the article White questions why Kansas is unsatisfied and sarcastically answers saying America needs "fewer white shirts and brains '', implying Western farmers were ignorant, lazy and bad businessmen. The Scarecrow shares this opinion and doubts himself, believing he is inferior without a brain. In the same year White published his article, William Jennings Bryan delivered his famous "Cross of Gold speech '' at the 1896 Democratic Convention. Bryan fought for the farmers and argued against such accusations made by White, exclaiming: "The farmer who goes forth in the morning and toils all day, begins in the spring and toils all summer, and by the application of brain and muscle to the natural resources of this country creates wealth, is as much a businessman as the man who goes upon the Board of Trade and bets upon the price of grain. '' Baum shares Bryan 's view on American farmers by showing that the Scarecrow is sharp and capable by his actions throughout the book. The book ends with "farm interests achieving national importance '' and farmers ' true potential in politics being revealed once the illusion of ignorance has been removed.
The next companion Dorothy meets on the yellow brick road is the Tin Woodman who has been cursed by the now deceased Wicked Witch of the East. He was once a hard worker yearning to earn money to start a family with a Munchkin girl. The witch enchanted his axe so that the Woodman chopped off each of his limbs and eventually his body. Each time a tinner healed the Woodman by replacing his body with tin, however once the Tin Woodman 's heart was removed he could no longer love. The Tin Woodman symbolizes the Eastern working man competing in an industrialized society. The 19th - century man had to keep up with the machine in order to be useful and relevant. In this way the Witch of the East 's curse "dehumanized a simple laborer so that the faster and better he worked the more quickly he became a kind of machine. '' The Tin Woodman was caught in the rain and rusted in the same position for one year before Dorothy oils his joints to set him free. The Tin Woodman 's year of waiting is parallel to the unemployment of Eastern workers during the severe depression of 1893 - 1897. His calls of help that were never heard relate to President Grover Cleveland 's "hard - hearted refusal '' to take action during this time to reinstate the economy. While the Tin Woodman stood still for a year, he finally slowed down enough to ponder life. During this time, he discovers that "the greatest loss (he) had known was the loss of (his) heart '' for without it he can not love. Baum portrays the Tin Woodman as an Eastern worker who lost sight of family values for a moment. Part of the Progressive movement in the 19th century was to reestablish the family as the center of American life. The curse of the Tin Woodman by the Wicked Witch of the East is consistent with the depiction of the witch representing Wall Street and other Eastern big businesses during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
The final addition to the traveling party is the Cowardly Lion. This character is hypothesized to be the famous Populist politician William Jennings Bryan. The muscular, six - foot - tall (183 cm) political figure was known as a compassionate but powerful speaker, which could be compared to a lion 's roar. Throughout the book, Baum is mostly sympathetic towards populist characters such as the Scarecrow; thus it seems odd that Baum would refer to the character portraying Bryan as cowardly. However, the late 19th century began an age of American expansionism in which the United States struggled to gain control of countries like Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines from Spain. Bryan 's non-violent and anti-imperialist stance on the popular Spanish -- American War of 1898 was often referred to as unpatriotic and cowardly. Baum seems to take this criticism and turn it into a complaint towards Bryan, showing that although the Lion is the King of the Beasts it shows more bravery to stand by than to run in towards unnecessary obstacles, no matter how popular. The Cowardly Lion 's first encounter with the Tin Woodman shows support for both of their characters being based on Bryan and Eastern industrial workers, respectively. When they meet, the Cowardly Lion strikes the Tin Woodman with his sharp claws, but to his surprise "he could make no impression on the tin, although the Woodman fell over in the road and lay still. '' This refers to Bryan 's inability to get votes in the 1896 presidential election from Eastern workers owing to pressure from their employers to vote for McKinley. Bryan himself said, "During the campaign I ran across various evidences of coercion, direct and indirect. '' Other historical sources share this opinion noting, "for some reason labor remained singularly unimpressed. '' Thus, the Cowardly Lion 's claws did not pierce the Tin Woodman body, just as Bryan 's roar did not leave an impression with Eastern industrial workers.
Baum 's fairy tale contains many other allusions to American life in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. For instance, Dorothy 's loyal companion, Toto, could be a play on "teetotalers '' which is a person who never drinks alcohol. The prohibitionists deemed alcohol consumption should be unlawful and they were longtime political allies of Populists during the late 19th century. Toto trots "soberly '' behind Dorothy on their adventure. The Winged Monkeys have been thought to resemble the Plains Indians who were "once free people '' but were now enslaved by the Wicked Witch of the West. Their actions can be good or bad depending on how they are controlled; however, they "belong to this country alone '' and therefore can not leave, as can be said for American Indians. The Yellow Winkies that inhabit the Land of the West could represent Asian workers in California during the gold rush; their harsh work environment can be seen as enslavement. The lenses that the groups must wear before entering the City of Oz to dim the emeralds ' shine turn out to be fake, like the Wizard. The Emerald City is not a city made of emeralds but a plain, white city where the emerald color lenses cast a green hue on everything and everyone. This shows that anything can be made to look spectacular if you allow yourself to be tricked. Baum traveled all over the United States and would have been introduced to all these events in the 19th century, making it very likely that he drew inspiration from the land around him.
Baum 's modernized fairy tale, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, ends with both the Wicked Witch of the East and West defeated and Dorothy, Toto and the Wizard returning to the United States. The Scarecrow reigns over the Emerald City; thus farmers achieve national importance. The Tin Woodman brings industrialization to the Land of the West. The Cowardly Lion becomes the protector in the Grand Old Forest, as Bryan commanded a smaller number of politicians.
Littlefield 's thesis achieved some support, but has been strenuously attacked by others.
The Wonderful Wizard of Oz has become an established part of multiple cultures, spreading from its early young American readership to becoming known throughout the world. It has been translated or adapted into well over fifty languages, at times being modified in local variations. For instance, in some abridged Indian editions, the Tin Woodman was replaced with a horse. In Russia, a translation by Alexander Melentyevich Volkov produced six books, The Wizard of the Emerald City series, which became progressively distanced from the Baum version, as Ellie and her dog Totoshka travel throughout the Magic Land. The 1939 film adaptation has become a classic of popular culture, shown annually on American television from 1959 to 1991 and then several times a year every year beginning in 1999. More recently, the story has become an American stage production with an all - black cast, set in the context of modern African - American culture.
The Wonderful Wizard of Oz received positive critical reviews upon release. In a September 1900 review, The New York Times praised the novel, writing that it would appeal to child readers and to younger children who could not read yet. The review also praised the illustrations for being a pleasant complement to the text.
During the first 50 years after The Wonderful Wizard of Oz 's publication in 1900, it received little critical analysis from scholars of children 's literature. According to Ruth Berman of Science Fiction Studies, the lists of suggested reading published for juvenile readers never contained Baum 's work. The lack of interest stemmed from the scholars ' misgivings about fantasy, as well as to their belief that lengthy series had little literary merit.
It has frequently come under fire over the years. In 1957, the director of Detroit 's libraries banned The Wonderful Wizard of Oz for having "no value '' for children of his day, for supporting "negativism '', and for bringing children 's minds to a "cowardly level ''. Professor Russel B. Nye of Michigan State University countered that "if the message of the Oz books -- love, kindness, and unselfishness make the world a better place -- seems of no value today '', then maybe the time is ripe for "reassess (ing) a good many other things besides the Detroit library 's approved list of children 's books ''.
In 1986, seven Fundamentalist Christian families in Tennessee opposed the novel 's inclusion in the public school syllabus and filed a lawsuit. They based their opposition to the novel on its depicting benevolent witches and promoting the belief that integral human attributes were "individually developed rather than God given ''. One parent said, "I do not want my children seduced into godless supernaturalism ''. Other reasons included the novel 's teaching that females are equal to males and that animals are personified and can speak. The judge ruled that when the novel was being discussed in class, the parents were allowed to have their children leave the classroom.
Leonard Everett Fisher of The Horn Book Magazine wrote in 2000 that Oz has "a timeless message from a less complex era, and it continues to resonate ''. The challenge of valuing oneself during impending adversity has not, Fisher noted, lessened during the prior 100 years.
In a 2002 review, Bill Delaney of Salem Press praised Baum for giving children the opportunity to discover magic in the mundane things in their everyday lives. He further commended Baum for teaching "millions of children to love reading during their crucial formative years ''.
The Library of Congress has declared The Wonderful Wizard of Oz to be "America 's greatest and best - loved homegrown fairytale '', also naming it the first American fantasy for children and one of the most - read children 's books.
After George M. Hill 's bankruptcy in 1902, copyright in the book passed to the Bobbs - Merrill Company. The editions they published lacked most of the in - text color and color plates of the original. It was not until the book entered the public domain in 1956 that new editions, either with the original color plates, or new illustrations, proliferated. Notable among them are the 1986 Pennyroyal edition illustrated by Barry Moser, which was reprinted by the University of California Press, and the 2000 Annotated Wizard of Oz edited by Michael Patrick Hearn, which was published by W.W. Norton and included all the original color illustrations, as well as supplemental artwork by Denslow. Other centennial editions included University Press of Kansas 's Kansas Centennial Edition, illustrated by Michael McCurdy with black - and - white illustrations, and Robert Sabuda 's pop - up book.
Baum wrote The Wonderful Wizard of Oz without any thought of a sequel. After reading the novel, thousands of children wrote letters to him, requesting that he craft another story about Oz. In 1904, he wrote and published the first sequel, The Marvelous Land of Oz, explaining that he grudgingly wrote the sequel to address the popular demand. Baum also wrote sequels in 1907, 1908, and 1909. In his 1911 The Emerald City of Oz, he wrote that he could not continue writing sequels because Ozland had lost contact with the rest of the world. The children refused to accept this story, so Baum, in 1913 and every year thereafter until his death in May 1919, wrote an Oz book, ultimately writing 13 sequels. The Chicago Tribune 's Russell MacFall wrote that Baum explained the purpose of his novels in a note he penned to his sister, Mary Louise Brewster, in a copy of Mother Goose in Prose (1897), his first book. He wrote, "To please a child is a sweet and a lovely thing that warms one 's heart and brings its own reward. '' After Baum 's death in 1919, Baum 's publishers delegated the creation of more sequels to Ruth Plumly Thompson who wrote 21. An original Oz book was published every Christmas between 1913 and 1942. By 1956, five million copies of the Oz books had been published in the English language, while hundreds of thousands had been published in eight foreign languages.
The Wonderful Wizard of Oz has been adapted to other media numerous times, most famously in The Wizard of Oz, the 1939 film starring Judy Garland, Ray Bolger, Jack Haley, and Bert Lahr. Until this version, the book had inspired a number of now less well known stage and screen adaptations, including a profitable 1902 Broadway musical and three silent films. The 1939 film was considered innovative because of its songs, special effects, and revolutionary use of the new Technicolor.
The story has been translated into other languages (at least once without permission) and adapted into comics several times. Following the lapse of the original copyright, the characters have been adapted and reused in spin - offs, unofficial sequels, and reinterpretations, some of which have been controversial in their treatment of Baum 's characters.
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section 67 of it act 2000 deals with | Information Technology Act, 2000 - Wikipedia
The Information Technology Act, 2000 (also known as ITA - 2000, or the IT Act) is an Act of the Indian Parliament (No 21 of 2000) notified on 17 October 2000. It is the primary law in India dealing with cybercrime and electronic commerce. It is based on the United Nations Model Law on Electronic Commerce 1996 (UNCITRAL Model) recommended by the General Assembly of United Nations by a resolution dated 30 January 1997.
The bill was passed in the budget session of 2000 and signed by President K.R. Narayanan on 9 May 2000. The bill was finalised by group of officials headed by then Minister of Information Technology Pramod Mahajan.
The original Act contained 94 sections, divided in 13 chapters and 4 schedules. The laws apply to the whole of India. Persons of other nationalities can also be indicted under the law, if the crime involves a computer or network located in India.
The Act provides legal framework for electronic governance by giving recognition to electronic records and digital signatures. The formations of Controller of Certifying Authorities was directed by the Act, to regulate issuing of digital signatures. It also defines cyber crimes and prescribed penalties for them. It also established a Cyber Appellate Tribunal to resolve disputes rising from this new law. The Act also amended various sections of Indian Penal Code, 1860, Indian Evidence Act, 1872, Banker 's Book Evidence Act, 1891, and Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 to make them compliant with new technologies.
A major amendment was made in 2008. It introduced the Section 66A which penalized sending of "offensive messages ''. It also introduced the Section 69, which gave authorities the power of "interception or monitoring or decryption of any information through any computer resource ''. It also introduced for child porn, cyber terrorism and voyeurism. It was passed on 22 December 2008 without any debate in Lok Sabha. The next day it was passed by the Rajya Sabha. It was signed by the then President (Pratibha Patil) on 5 February 2009.
List of offences and the corresponding penalties:
The appropriate Government may, by order in writing, authorise the persons who are authorised to access protected systems. If a person who secures access or attempts to secure access to a protected system, then he is committing an offence.
From its establishment as an amendment to the original act in 2008, Section 66A attracted controversy over its unconstitutional nature:
In December 2012, P Rajeev, a Rajya Sabha member from Kerala, tried to pass a resolution seeking to amend the Section 66A. He was supported by D. Bandyopadhyay, Gyan Prakash Pilania, Basavaraj Patil Sedam, Narendra Kumar Kashyap, Rama Chandra Khuntia and Baishnab Charan Parida. P Rajeev pointed that cartoons and editorials allowed in traditional media, were being censored in the new media. He also said that law was barely debated before being passed in December 2008.
Rajeev Chandrasekhar suggested the 66A should only apply to person to person communication pointing to a similar section under the Indian Post Office Act, 1898. Shantaram Naik opposed any changes, saying that the misuse of law was sufficient to warrant changes. Then Minister for Communications and Information Technology Kapil Sibal defended the existing law, saying that similar laws existed in US and UK. He also said that a similar provision existed under Indian Post Office Act, 1898. However, P Rajeev said that the UK dealt only with communication from person to person.
In November 2012, IPS officer Amitabh Thakur and his wife social activist Nutan Thakur, filed a petition in the Lucknow bench of the Allahabad High Court claiming that the Section 66A violated the freedom of speech guaranteed in the Article 19 (1) (a) of the Constitution of India. They said that the section was vague and frequently misused.
Also in November 2012, a Delhi - based law student, Shreya Singhal, filed a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in the Supreme Court of India. She argued that the Section 66A was vaguely phrased, as result it violated Article 14, 19 (1) (a) and Article 21 of the Constitution. The PIL was accepted on 29 November 2012. A similar petition was also filed by the founder of MouthShut.com, Faisal Farooqui, and NGO Common Cause represented by Prashant Bhushan In August 2014, the Supreme Court asked the central government to respond to petitions filed by Mouthshut.com and later petition filed by the Internet and Mobile Association of India (IAMAI) which claimed that the IT Act gave the government power to arbitrarily remove user - generated content.
On 24 March 2015, the Supreme Court of India, gave the verdict that Section 66A is unconstitutional in entirety. The court said that Section 66A of IT Act 2000 is "arbitrarily, excessively and disproportionately invades the right of free speech '' provided under Article 19 (1) of the Constitution of India. But the Court turned down a plea to strike down sections 69A and 79 of the Act, which deal with the procedure and safeguards for blocking certain websites.
The data privacy rules introduced in the Act in 2011 have been described as too strict by some Indian and US firms. The rules require firms to obtain written permission from customers before collecting and using their personal data. This has affected US firms which outsource to Indian companies. However, some companies have welcomed the strict rules, saying it will remove fears of outsourcing to Indian companies.
The Section 69 allows intercepting any information and ask for information decryption. To refuse decryption is an offence. The Indian Telegraph Act, 1885 allows the government to tap phones. But, according to a 1996 Supreme Court verdict the government can tap phones only in case of a "public emergency ''. But, there is no such restriction on Section 69.
On 2 April 2015, the Chief Minister of Maharashtra, Devendra Fadnavis revealed to the state assembly that a new law was being framed to replace the repealed Section 66A. Fadnavis was replying to a query Shiv Sena leader Neelam Gorhe. Gorhe had said that repeal of the law would encourage online miscreants and asked whether the state government would frame a law to this regard. Fadnavis said that the previous law had resulted in no convictions, so the law would be framed such that it would be strong and result in convictions.
On 13 April 2015, it announced that the Ministry of Home Affairs would form a committee of officials from the Intelligence Bureau, Central Bureau of Investigation, National Investigation Agency, Delhi Police and ministry itself to produce a new legal framework. This step was reportedly taken after complaints from intelligence agencies that, they were no longer able to counter online posts that involved national security matter or incite people to commit an offence, such as online recruitment for ISIS. Former Minister of State with the Ministry of Information Technology, Milind Deora has supported a new "unambiguous section to replace 66A ''.
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high school musical 2 songs what time is it | High School Musical 2 - Wikipedia
High School Musical 2 is the second film in the High School Musical series. The World Premiere took place on August 14, 2007, at Disneyland, in Anaheim, California. The primary cast, including Zac Efron, Vanessa Hudgens, Ashley Tisdale, Lucas Grabeel, and Corbin Bleu attended the event. The film debuted on television on August 17, 2007, on Disney Channel in the U.S., and on Family in Canada.
In the second installment of the Disney franchise, high school student Troy Bolton stresses over getting a job, with the price of college expenses looming on his mind, as well as trying to make sure he and Gabriella Montez are able to stay together all summer. This situation attracts the attention of Sharpay Evans, who attempts to steal Troy for herself by hiring him at her family 's country club.
The premiere was seen by a total of over 17.2 million viewers in the United States which is almost 10 million more than its predecessor, making it the highest - rated Disney Channel Movie of all time as well as the highest - rated basic cable telecast at the time.
The school year ends with everyone at East High School looking forward to summer vacation ("What Time Is It ''). Troy Bolton is still dating Gabriella Montez, who decides to stay in Albuquerque with her mother. Troy eventually decides to look for a summer job to gain money for college.
Sharpay and Ryan Evans plan to spend part of the summer at their family 's country club, Lava Springs ("Fabulous ''), but Sharpay 's summer plans also include pursuing Troy, whom she has arranged to be hired at the club. However, Troy convinces the club 's manager, Mr. Fulton, into hiring Gabriella and their close group of friends as well; including Taylor and Chad. Sharpay is enraged upon learning that Gabriella is working as one of the lifeguards, but is unable to get her fired. So she orders Fulton to give them difficult tasks so they would be best to quit. Fulton attempts to intimidate the group, but Troy rebuilds their confidence and convinces them that they can persevere ("Work This Out '').
Troy continues to worry about funding for college. Sharpay senses his need and arranges for Troy to be promoted, hoping that this will convince him to sing with her at the talent show. Meanwhile, Kelsi writes a ballad for Troy and Gabriella. Troy agrees to sing with his friends in the show ("You Are The Music In Me ''), not knowing that Sharpay is vying for his attention. (In the extended version, Sharpay and Ryan trap Troy as he prepares for a date with Gabriella, and perform their potential show - stopper ("Humuhumunukunukuapua'a '').)
Ryan realizes he does not mean much to Sharpay anymore, as she is ready to blow her brother aside for the opportunity to perform with Troy. This leads to tension between the twin siblings and Ryan angrily informs Sharpay that he will no longer obey her orders. Taylor and Gabriella invite Ryan to the baseball game, where he persuades the Wildcats to take part in the talent show ("I Do n't Dance '').
Troy and Gabriella 's relationship is strained when Troy sees Ryan with Gabriella, sparking jealousy. Owing to a "promise '' from Troy, he and Sharpay practice their song for the Midsummer Night 's Talent Show ("You Are The Music In Me (Sharpay Version) '').
When Sharpay discovers that Ryan and the Wildcats are putting together their own performance in the show, she orders Mr. Fulton to ban all junior staff members from performing. Gabriella angrily confronts Sharpay about her interference and quits her job at Lava Springs. Troy overhears the exchange and tries to persuade Gabriella to change her mind. Gabriella expresses her loss of trust with Troy ("Gotta Go My Own Way '') and leaves Lava Springs, and gives him the necklace back. It also seems that they broke up.
Troy returns to work the next day to find that his friends refuse to talk to him. Kelsi silently shows Troy the notice from Mr. Fulton, causing Troy to question his own motivations ("Bet On It ''). He begins to reconcile with Chad and his other friends. Then Troy confronts Sharpay, informing her that he will not sing with her. The Wildcats and Chad forgive Troy for his absence and convince him to sing in the talent show, which he does only under the condition that they are all allowed to perform as well.
At Sharpay 's supposed instruction, Ryan gives Troy a new song to learn moments before the show. As Troy goes onstage, he asks Sharpay why she switched the song, and Sharpay is shocked to find that her brother tricked her. Troy sings the song ("Everyday '') alone until Gabriella surprisingly joins him onstage. In the end, Sharpay proudly presents her brother, Ryan, with the award for the talent show. After the talent show, all the Wildcats go to the golf course to enjoy the fireworks.
Everyone celebrates the end of the summer with a pool party ("All for One '') which features a cameo appearance by Miley Cyrus.
The premiere of High School Musical 2 aired at 8 PM Eastern Time on August 17, 2007, and included a telecast hosted by Kenny Ortega and the movie 's cast. On Saturday, August 18, Disney Channel aired "High School Musical 2: Wildcat Chat '', in which the stars of the movie answered questions posed by fans. On August 19, Disney aired a sing - along version of the movie. On May 23, DirecTV announced that they would be hosting an exclusive high - definition airing of the movie a few days after the August 17 premiere on its network - only channel, The 101.
Disney Channel aired a weekly program called Road to High School Musical 2, beginning on June 8, 2007, and leading up to the premiere of High School Musical 2 in August. The show offered viewers a behind - the - scenes look into the production of the movie. The world premiere of the opening number "What Time Is It '' was on Radio Disney May 25, 2007, and similarly "You Are The Music In Me '' premiered on July 13, 2007.
On December 11, 2007, the movie was released on DVD and Blu - ray titled High School Musical 2: Extended Edition. On September 15, 2008, a 2 - disc special edition of the movie was released titled High School Musical 2: Deluxe Dance Edition.
The first broadcast of the film on August 17, 2007 broke records, receiving 17.2 million viewers. This number made it, at the time, the most - watched basic - cable telecast in history (the previous record was held by an edition of ESPN 's Monday Night Football between the New York Giants and the Dallas Cowboys on October 23, 2006, which attracted 16 million viewers), the most - watched made - for - cable movie ever (the previous record was held by TNT 's January 21, 2001 airing of Crossfire Trail, which brought in 12.5 million viewers), and the largest audience of any program on broadcast or cable in the 2007 summer television season, along with Friday nights for the past five years. Ratings for the second showing of the movie fell to 8.4 million, and the third showing fell to 7.4 million, totaling the premiere weekend to 33.04 million viewers.
In Latin America, the premiere of High School Musical 2 was seen by 3.3 million viewers in the north region. The film was the most - watched in its schedule, among all cable channels, and produced the highest rating of the channel, surpassing all original films of Disney Channel. Among other records, the premiere in Argentina surpassed the debut of High School Musical the last year, in a 107 percent, while in Brazil the sequel reached 208 percent, and Mexico did so with 61 percent. In the United Kingdom, the movie became Disney Channel UK 's most viewed program ever, totaling 1.2 million viewers in its first showing.
The film received mixed to positive reviews from critics, gaining a score of 57 % on Rotten Tomatoes while gaining a score of 72 / 100 at Metacritic. USA Today 's Robert Bianco awarded the film three stars out of four, saying High School Musical 2 was "sweet, smart, bursting with talent and energy, and awash in innocence ''. While critics enjoyed the film, they noted that the timing of the movie 's premiere seemed odd, premiering just when school was about to start up again, while the movie 's plot involved the gang going on summer vacation. High School Musical 2 won the "So Hot Right Now '' award at the Nickelodeon Australian Kids ' Choice Awards 2007, in which High School Musical castmate Zac Efron hosted with The Veronicas.
Like the original High School Musical, the sequel has been adapted into two different theatrical productions: a one - act, 70 - minute version and a two - act full - length production. This stage production includes the song "Hummuhummunukunukuapua'a '' that was left out of the original movie but included in the DVD. Through Music Theater International, Disney Theatrical began licensing the theatrical rights in October 2008. MTI had originally recruited 7 schools to serve as tests for the new full - length adaptation, but due to complications with multiple drafts of both the script and the score, all but two schools were forced to drop out of the pilot program.
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who sings the song i must be doing something right | Must Be Doin ' Somethin ' Right - Wikipedia
"Must Be Doin ' Somethin ' Right '' is a song written by Marty Dodson and Patrick Jason Matthews, and recorded by American country music singer Billy Currington. It was released in May 2005 as the first single from Currington 's album Doin ' Somethin ' Right. The song reached the top of the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart.
The song is in the key of A major, with a main chord pattern of F ♯ m-D-A on the verses. In it, Currington sings that he "must be doin ' somethin ' right '' in the relationship with his lover.
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic wrote that the song "gets a nicely mellow, relaxed Californian vibe ''.
"Must Be Doin ' Somethin ' Right '' debuted at number 60 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks for the week of June 11, 2005, and peaked at No. 1 on December 31, 2005. The song has sold 1,282,000 copies in the US as of January 2016.
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when is the last time two sec teams played for the national championship | BCS National Championship game - wikipedia
The BCS National Championship Game, or BCS National Championship, was a postseason college football bowl game, used to determine a national champion of the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), first played in the 1998 college football season as one of four designated bowl games, and beginning in the 2006 season as a standalone event rotated among the host sites of the aforementioned bowls.
The game was organized by a group known as the Bowl Championship Series, consisting of the Rose Bowl, Sugar Bowl, Fiesta Bowl, and Orange Bowl, which sought to match the two highest - ranked teams in a championship game to determine the best team in the country at the end of the season. The participating teams were determined by averaging the results of the final weekly Coaches ' Poll, the Harris Poll of media, former players and coaches, and the average of six computer rankings. The Coaches ' Poll was contractually required to name the winner of the game as its No. 1 team on the final postseason ranking; hence, the AFCA National Championship Trophy was presented to the winning team during a post-game ceremony.
The methodologies of the BCS system and its selections proved to be controversial. Although in most years the winner of the BCS National Championship would also be designated as the national champion by other organizations and polls (such as the Associated Press poll), the 2003 season was a major exception, as the BCS rankings chose the AP 's No. 3 - ranked team, the University of Oklahoma, over the No. 1 - ranked team in that poll, the University of Southern California, to participate in the national title game (the Sugar Bowl) despite Oklahoma 's loss to Kansas State University in the 2003 Big 12 Championship Game. That was the only season during the BCS era when the national championship was split, with Louisiana State University winning the BCS national championship and the University of Southern California winning the AP national championship, plus the football writers ' national championship.
The BCS National Championship Game was played for the final time in 2014 after the same organizing group established a new system, the College Football Playoff, a four - team single elimination tournament, as the successor to the BCS.
The first BCS Championship Game was played at the conclusion of the 1998 college football season in accordance with an agreement by the Big Ten Conference, the Pac - 10 Conference, and the Rose Bowl Game to join the "Bowl Alliance '' system. The expanded format was called the Bowl Championship Series.
The Bowl Alliance and its predecessor, the Bowl Coalition, featured championship games in the 1992 -- 1997 seasons. However, these could not always ensure a matchup between the top two ranked teams because of the lack of participation by the Big Ten and Pac - 10.
The BCS National Championship Game was initially rotated among the four participating bowl games: the Rose Bowl, Orange Bowl, Fiesta Bowl, and Sugar Bowl. However, beginning with the 2006 season, the BCS National Championship Game was added as a separate contest, played after New Year 's Day. The game rotated its location among the Fiesta, Sugar, Orange, and Rose venues.
Note: Conference affiliations are contemporaneous with the game, which may differ from the current alignment.
* The American Athletic Conference was known as the Big East during the 1991 -- 2012 seasons. Because of a split between the non-FBS schools and FBS schools, the conference adopted its present name for the 2013 season.
* * Alabama 's defeated fellow SEC member LSU in the 2012 BCS Championship Game, resulting in both a win and loss for the conference.
† USC vacated its win in the 2005 Orange Bowl.
Critics of the BCS National Championship argued against the internal validity of a so - called national championship being awarded to the winner of a single postseason game. Critics lamented that the participants were selected based upon polls, computer rankings, popularity and human biases, and not by on - field competition, as in other major sports and all other levels of college football, which employed tournament - format championships. Often, the BCS system led to controversies in which multiple teams finished the season with identical records, and voters distinguished the worthiness of their participation in the BCS National Championship with no set of formal criteria or standards. The end of the 2010 season was one of the best examples of this. Without any objective criteria for evaluation of the teams, the BCS forced voters to impose their own standards and tiebreakers. Critics noted that the system inherently fostered selection bias, and therefore lacked both internal validity and external validity.
Controversies surrounding teams ' inclusion in the BCS National Championship Game were numerous. In 2001, Oregon, ranked second in the AP poll, was bypassed in favor of Nebraska despite Nebraska 's 62 - 36 blowout to Colorado in its final regular season game. In 2003, USC was not included in the championship game, but beat Michigan in the Rose Bowl and ended up No. 1 in the final AP poll. The following season, undefeated Auburn, Boise State, and Utah teams were left out of the national title game (the Orange Bowl). In 2008, the University of Utah was excluded from the BCS championship for a second time despite being the only undefeated FBS team and finished second in the final AP poll behind Florida. In 2009, five schools finished the regular season undefeated: Alabama, Texas, Cincinnati, TCU, and Boise State; however, the BCS formula selected traditional powers Alabama and Texas to participate in the BCS National Championship Game.
In 2010, three teams, Oregon, Auburn, and TCU, all finished the year with undefeated records. While TCU statistically led the other two teams in all three major phases of the game (1st in defense, 14th in offense and 13th in special teams) the teams from the two automatic qualifying conferences, Oregon (Pac - 12) and Auburn (SEC), were selected over the Horned Frogs for the 2011 national title game. Many voters cited TCU 's membership in the non-automatic qualifying Mountain West Conference, perceived as having weaker teams, as one significant reason for their exclusion, despite TCU 's undefeated regular - season records in both 2010 and the previous year. Adding to the controversy were comments made by the president of Ohio State University, Gordon Gee, who said that teams which played "the little sisters of the poor '' instead of the "murderer 's row '' of teams in the automatic qualifier conferences did not deserve any national title game consideration. Gee retracted his statement and apologized after TCU defeated Wisconsin in the 2011 Rose Bowl (the Badgers had convincingly defeated Ohio State during the regular season).
Many critics of the Bowl Championship Series favored a tournament with eight to sixteen teams, similar to those administered by the NCAA for its Football Championship Subdivision (FCS), Division II, and Division III football championships. Others favored adopting the incremental step of adding a single post-bowl championship game between the winners of two BCS games among the top four ranked teams in the BCS standings, a so - called "plus one '' option. On June 24, 2009, the BCS presidential oversight committee rejected the Mountain West Conference 's proposed eight - team playoff plan.
In 2009, the NCAA ruled that former USC running back Reggie Bush was retroactively ineligible for the 2004 BCS National Championship, the 2005 Orange Bowl vs. Oklahoma, for receiving various illegal benefits. In May 2011, the NCAA rejected all appeals of USC 's penalties, which included Bush 's ineligibility and a two - year bowl ban. On June 6, 2011, USC became the first school to lose a Bowl Championship Series national title due to NCAA sanctions when the BCS presidential oversight committee stripped the school of its 2004 title. As a result, there is no 2004 BCS champion, although USC retained its 2004 AP national title. Additionally, the BCS also nullified USC 's participation in the 2006 Rose Bowl. (See attributions 1 and 2.)
During 2012, the BCS actively considered changes to the format for the 2014 football season, to either to extend the season by one game by establishing a four - school semifinal round or by selecting the participants in the national championship game after the season 's bowl games were completed. On June 26, 2012, the BCS presidential oversight committee approved a four - school playoff format, in which the participants are determined by a selection committee. The semifinals are played as existing bowl games on or around New Year 's Eve and New Year 's Day. The championship game is played approximately a week later at a neutral site selected through a competitive bidding process. The new format, known as the College Football Playoff is to be in effect from the 2014 college football season through the 2025 season.
From 1999 through 2005, ABC broadcast eight BCS National Championship Games pursuant to broadcasting rights negotiated with the BCS and the Rose Bowl, whose rights were offered separately. Beginning with the 2006 season, FOX obtained the BCS package, consisting of the Orange Bowl, Fiesta Bowl, Sugar Bowl, and the BCS National Championship Games hosted by these bowls, with ABC retaining the rights to the Rose Bowl and BCS National Championship Games hosted by the Rose Bowl.
On November 18, 2008, the BCS announced that ESPN had won the television rights to the BCS National Championship Game, as well as the other four BCS bowls, for 2011 -- 2014.
As part of ESPN 's contract with the BCS, ESPN Deportes provided the first Spanish - language U.S. telecast of the BCS National Championship Game in 2012.
From 1999 to 2014, the BCS National Championship Game was broadcast on ESPN Radio.
During the BCS era, there was no NCAA Division I FBS playoff, and the BCS National Championship Game was just one of several national championship selection processes in existence.
The American Football Coaches Association (AFCA) participated in a weekly Coaches ' Poll published by USA Today; for its final poll of the season, the AFCA was contractually bound to select the BCS National Champion as its No. 1 team. Thus, the winner of the game was awarded the AFCA National Championship Trophy in a postgame ceremony.
The BCS National Champion was also automatically awarded the National Football Foundation 's MacArthur Trophy.
The Associated Press and the Football Writers Association of America were independent of the BCS system; their national championship trophies could have been awarded to a school other than the BCS National Championship Game winner.
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what do they use to film aerial america | Aerial America - wikipedia
Aerial America is a television series airing on the Smithsonian Channel. Each episode is an aerial video tour of a U.S. state or destination in the United States. The narrated show consists entirely of aerial scenes using the Cineflex V14HD gyro - stabilized camera system mounted under the "chin '' of a helicopter. It features flyovers of historical landmarks, natural areas such as national parks and well - known buildings and homes in urban areas. The series has aired an episode for each state as well as others that have showcased popular destinations such as Hollywood and small towns in the U.S.
In 2015 the program was nominated for a Webby Award in the "best television website '' category.
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what is a golden buzzer on america's got talent | America 's Got Talent - Wikipedia
America 's Got Talent (sometimes abbreviated as AGT) is an American reality television series on the NBC television network, and part of the global Got Talent franchise. It is a talent show that features singers, dancers, magicians, comedians, and other performers of all ages competing for the advertised top prize of one million dollars. The show debuted in June 2006 for the summer television season. From season three (2008) onwards, the prize includes the one million dollars, payable in a financial annuity over 40 years, and a chance to headline a show on the Las Vegas Strip. Among its significant features is that it gives an opportunity to talented amateurs or unknown performers, with the results decided by an audience vote. The format is a popular one and has often been reworked for television in the United States and the United Kingdom.
This incarnation was created by Simon Cowell, and was originally due to be a 2005 British series called Paul O'Grady 's Got Talent but was postponed due to O'Grady's acrimonious split with broadcaster ITV (later launching as Britain 's Got Talent in 2007). Therefore, the U.S. version became the first full series of the franchise.
The original judging panel consisted of David Hasselhoff, Brandy Norwood, and Piers Morgan. Sharon Osbourne replaced Norwood in season two (2007), and Howie Mandel replaced Hasselhoff in season five (2010). Howard Stern replaced Morgan in season seven (2012). Mel B replaced Osbourne in season eight (2013), while Heidi Klum joined as a fourth judge. Simon Cowell replaced Stern in season eleven (2016). Regis Philbin was the original host (season one), followed by Jerry Springer for two seasons (2007 -- 2008), followed by Nick Cannon for eight seasons (2009 -- 2016). Supermodel and host Tyra Banks replaced Cannon for the twelfth season (2017).
On August 2, 2016, NBC renewed the series for a twelfth season, which premiered on May 30, 2017. The season concluded on September 20, 2017. The series has been renewed through its thirteenth season.
Starting with the tenth season, each of the main judges invited a guest judge to join the judging panel for one night during the Judge Cuts stage of the competition. The guest judges had the ability to employ the golden buzzer to bypass the other judges and advance an act to the live shows. The first guest judge, Neil Patrick Harris, appeared at the invitation of Howard Stern in episode eight of season ten, which aired on July 14, 2015. Michael Bublé appeared at the invitation of Heidi Klum in episode nine of season ten, which aired on July 21, 2015. Marlon Wayans appeared at the invitation of Howie Mandel in episode ten of season ten, which aired on July 28, 2015. Piers Morgan appeared at the invitation of Mel B in episode eleven of season ten, which aired on August 4, 2015. Beginning with the eleventh season the guest judges were announced without any indication if they were invited by one of the regular judges. This continued into the twelfth season when the guest judges were announced by NBC through various outlets.
The general selection process of the show begins with separate producers ' auditions held in various cities across the United States, some of which host only the producers ' auditions, and some of which also host judges ' auditions held in theaters. This round is held several months before the judges ' audition. Acts that have made it through the producers ' audition then audition in front of the judges and a live audience.
Following the producers ' auditions, acts audition in front of (as of 2013) four celebrity judges. These auditions are held in theaters in various cities nationally and are later televised. Judges may individually register their disapproval of an act by pressing a red buzzer, which lights up their corresponding X above the stage. Any performer who receives X 's (3 in seasons 1 to 7, or 4 from season 8 onwards) from the judges must stop performing and is eliminated. Since season three (2008), large audiences have also been a factor in the judging process, as their reaction to an act 's performance may swing or influence a judge 's vote. If an act receives three or more "yes '' votes, they advance to the next round of competition. However, in the majority of seasons, several acts do not perform in the second round and are immediately sent home by the judges without a second performance.
Introduced in season nine, the "Golden Buzzer '' is located on the center of the judges ' desk and may be used once per season by each judge. In season 9, a judge could press the golden buzzer to save an act from elimination, regardless of the number of X 's earned from the other judges. Starting in season 10 and onward, any act that receives a golden buzzer advances directly to the live show; and in season 11, the hosts also were given the power to use the golden buzzer. The golden buzzer is also used in the Judge Cuts format.
From season two (2007) to season eight (2013), Las Vegas Week has been an intermediary televised taped round between the auditions and the live shows. This round takes place in a notable venue on the Las Vegas Strip. Names for this round in previous seasons have included "Las Vegas Callbacks '' and "Vegas Verdicts ''. The Las Vegas round generally consists of acts performing a second time for the judges (except for season four in 2009), who then pick select acts to move on to the live shows. An act eliminated in Las Vegas Week is not completely excluded from the live show competition, as several seasons have featured contestants being brought back from this round as "wild card '' acts.
Prior to the inclusion of this round, the judges would have a list containing a number of acts which advanced past the auditions during each live show. The judges would then pick ten acts from that group each week, leaving several acts without the chance to perform.
In season nine (2014), acts went to New York instead of Las Vegas to determine a place in the live shows.
From season five (2010) to season seven (2012), acts who did not attend live auditions could instead submit a taped audition online via YouTube. Acts from the online auditions were then selected to compete in front of the judges and a live audience during the "live shows '' part of the season, prior to the semi-finals. The most successful act of the YouTube auditions was Jackie Evancho, who went on to place second in season five and after the season ended, became the youngest solo artist ever to go platinum in the U.S.
Before the inclusion of this round, the show had a separate audition episode in seasons three and four (2008 -- 2009) for contestants who posted videos on MySpace.
During the live shows, a group of acts ranging from only a Top 20 (season two), to as many as 60, compete for viewers ' and judges ' votes. In the first season, the judges could not end an act 's performance, but could either "check '' or "X '' the performance during their critique. Since season two (2007), judges have been able to end an act 's performance early, and the "check '' was removed. Generally, acts each perform first in a live round consisting of a series of quarterfinals. In seasons with YouTube auditions, the round of live judging of YouTube finalists takes place then, as part of these quarterfinals. Then there may be additional shows for "Wild Card '' acts -- acts that one or more of the judges select to be given one more chance for audience vote despite previous elimination. From these shows, the existing group is narrowed through votes by the public and / or the judges (depending on the season). Acts then move on to a semifinal round, and even further rounds (such as a "Top 8 '' or a "Top 10 '', depending on the season) through a series of weekly shows, which trim the number of acts down each time based on a public vote. In the majority of seasons, judges have had no vote from the semifinals. All these rounds culminate in a live final, which has consisted of anywhere from four to ten acts throughout the seasons. The act with the most votes is declared the winner, given $1 million, and, since season three (2008), a chance to headline a show on the Las Vegas Strip.
During seasons one through six (2006 -- 11), the live shows were filmed at Stage 36 of CBS Television City in Los Angeles. In season seven (2012), the live shows were held at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark. From seasons eight through ten (2013 -- 15), live performances were held at Radio City Music Hall in New York. From season eleven (2016) onwards the live shows are being held at the Dolby Theatre.
For seasons five through eight (2010 -- 13), the show also made the winner the headline act of a national tour with runners up following the final show, stopping in 25 cities. For season nine, however (2014), there was no tour; two shows were held in Las Vegas for the winner and some of the runner - up acts. (See # America 's Got Talent Live, below.)
In May 2006, NBC announced the new show. The audition tour took place in June. Auditions were held in the following locations: Los Angeles, New York, and Chicago. Some early ads for the show implied that the winning act would also headline a show at a casino, possibly in Las Vegas; however, this was replaced with a million dollars due to concerns of minors playing in Las Vegas, should one become a champion. More than 12 million viewers watched the series premiere (which is more than American Idol got during its premiere in 2002). The two - hour broadcast was the night 's most - watched program on U.S. television and the highest - rated among viewers aged 18 to 49 (the prime - time audience that matters most to advertisers), Nielsen Media Research reported.
On the season finale, there was an unaired segment that was scheduled to appear after Aly & AJ. The segment featured Tom Green dressing in a parrot costume and squawking with a live parrot to communicate telepathically. Green then proceeded to fly up above the audience, shooting confetti streamers out of his costume onto the crowd below.
In season one, the show was hosted by Regis Philbin and judged by actor David Hasselhoff, singer Brandy Norwood, and journalist Piers Morgan.
The winner of the season was 11 - year - old singer Bianca Ryan, and the runners - up were clogging group All That and musical group The Millers.
After initially announcing in June 2006 that season two would premiere in January 2007 and would air at 8 pm on Sunday nights, with no separate results show, the network changed that, pushing the show back to the summer, where the first season had enjoyed great success. This move kept the show out of direct competition with American Idol, which had a similar premise and was more popular.
In AGT 's place, another reality - based talent show, Grease: You 're The One That I Want, began airing on Sunday nights in the same time slot on NBC beginning in January. In March, NBC announced that Philbin would not return as host of the show, and that Jerry Springer would succeed him as host, with Sharon Osbourne (formerly a judge on Cowell 's UK show The X Factor) succeeding Brandy Norwood as a judge.
The season finale was shown Tuesday, August 21, with the winner being Terry Fator, a singing impressionist ventriloquist. The runner - up was singer Cas Haley.
Season three premiered on June 17, 2008. Auditions took place in Charlotte, Nashville, Orlando, New York, Dallas, Los Angeles, Atlanta, and Chicago from January to April. A televised MySpace audition also took place.
Season three differed from the previous two in many ways. Auditions were held in well - known theaters across the nation, and a new title card was introduced, featuring the American flag as background. The X 's matched the ones on Britain 's Got Talent as did the judges ' table. Like the previous season, the Las Vegas callbacks continued, but there were forty acts selected to compete in the live rounds, instead of twenty. This season also contained several results episodes, but not on a regular basis. The show took a hiatus for two - and - a-half weeks for the 2008 Summer Olympics, but returned with the live rounds on August 26.
Neal E. Boyd, an opera singer, was named the winner on October 1. Eli Mattson, a singer and pianist, was runner - up.
Season four premiered on Tuesday, June 23, 2009. It was the first to be broadcast in high definition. Auditions for this season were held in more than nine major cities including New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Washington, D.C., Atlanta, Miami, Tacoma, Boston, and Houston. Los Angeles auditions kicked off the January 29 -- 31 tour at the Los Angeles Convention Center, followed by the February 7 -- 8 Atlanta auditions. New York and Miami auditions were held during March. Tacoma auditions were held April 25 and 26. In addition to live auditions and the ability to send in a home audition tape, season four offered the opportunity for acts to upload their video direct to NBC.com/agt with their registration. This year 's host was Nick Cannon. Jerry Springer said that he could not return as host due to other commitments.
The audition process in season four was the same as the previous season, but the ' Las Vegas Callbacks ' was renamed ' Vegas Verdicts '. This was the first season since season one where results episodes lasted one hour on a regular basis. The title card this year featured bands of the American flag and stars waving around the America 's Got Talent logo.
On September 16, country music singer Kevin Skinner was named the season 's winner. The grand prize was $1 million and a 10 - week headline show at the Planet Hollywood Resort and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip. The runner - up was Bárbara Padilla, an opera singer.
For season five, the network had considered moving the show to the fall, after rival series So You Think You Can Dance transferred from the summer to fall season in 2009. NBC ultimately decided to keep Talent a summer show.
Open auditions were held in the winter to early spring of 2010 in Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, New York, Orlando, and Portland (Oregon). Non-televised producers ' auditions were also held in Atlanta and Philadelphia. For the first time, online auditions were also held via YouTube.
David Hasselhoff left to host a new television show and was replaced by comedian and game show host Howie Mandel. This made Piers Morgan the only original judge left in the show. The show premiered Tuesday, June 1, 2010, at 8 pm ET. Afterward, Talent resumed the same time slot as the previous season.
On September 15, singer Michael Grimm was named the winner. He won a $1 million prize and a chance to perform at the Caesars Palace Casino and Resort on the Las Vegas Strip, as well as headline the 25 - city America 's Got Talent Live Tour along with runner - up Jackie Evancho, Fighting Gravity, Prince Poppycock, and the other top ten finalists.
Season six premiered on Tuesday, May 31, 2011, with a two - hour special. Piers Morgan and Sharon Osbourne continued as judges after taking jobs on Piers Morgan Tonight and The Talk, respectively. On The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on July 27, 2010, Morgan officially stated that he had signed a three - year contract to stay on Talent.
The show held televised auditions in Los Angeles, New York, Minneapolis, Atlanta, Seattle, and Houston. Non-televised producers ' auditions were also held in Denver and Chicago. Previews of auditions were shown during NBC 's The Voice premiere on April 26. Online auditions via YouTube were also held for the second time in the show 's run, beginning on May 4. Finalists for this audition circuit competed live on August 9.
On Wednesday, September 14, Landau Eugene Murphy, Jr., a Frank Sinatra - style singer, was named the winner. Dance group Silhouettes was runner - up.
Season seven premiered on May 14, 2012. The first round of auditions, which are judged by producers, were held in New York, Washington, D.C., Tampa, Charlotte, Austin, Anaheim, St. Louis, and San Francisco from October 2011 to February 2012. The show began its live theater performances at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark on February 27.
Piers Morgan did not return as a judge for season seven, due to his work hosting CNN 's Piers Morgan Tonight, and he was replaced by Howard Stern. Since Stern hosts his SiriusXM radio show in New York City, the live rounds of the show were moved to nearby Newark, New Jersey. In December 2011, Simon Cowell, the show 's executive producer, announced that the show would be receiving a "top - to - bottom makeover '', confirming that there would be new graphics, lighting, theme music, show intro, logo, and a larger live audience at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark. On July 2, at the first live performance show of the season, their new location and stage were unveiled in a two - and - a-half - hour live special. A new set was also unveiled with a revised judges ' desk and a refreshed design of the "X ''.
On August 6, Sharon Osbourne announced that she would leave America 's Got Talent after the current season, in response to allegations that her son Jack Osbourne was discriminated against by the producers of the upcoming NBC program Stars Earn Stripes.
On September 13, Olate Dogs were announced the winner of the season, becoming the show 's first completely non-singing act to win the competition and also the first non-solo act to win. Comedian Tom Cotter finished as the runner - up.
Season eight of AGT premiered on Tuesday, June 4, 2013. The new season was announced in a promotional video shown during a commercial break for season seven 's second live show. Sharon Osbourne initially stated that she would not return for the season, but later said that she was staying with the show "for now. '' Osbourne confirmed that she would be leaving the show after a feud with NBC on August 6, 2012.
On February 20, 2013, it was announced that one of the Spice Girls members, Mel B (Melanie Brown), would replace Sharon Osbourne as the third judge. Entertainment Weekly also reported at the same time that NBC was looking at a possible fourth judge to be added. On March 3, it was announced that supermodel Heidi Klum would be joining the show as the new fourth judge.
An Audition Cities poll for the season was announced on July 11, 2012. The first batch of Audition Cities were announced as Los Angeles, Seattle, Portland (Oregon), New Orleans, Birmingham, Memphis, Nashville, Savannah, Raleigh, Norfolk, San Antonio, New York, Columbus (Ohio), and Chicago. This season, the auditions traveled to more cities than ever before. America 's Got Talent moved its live shows to Radio City Music Hall in New York for season eight. Auditions in front of the judges and an audience began taping on March 4. The show traveled to New Orleans, New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Antonio.
On September 18, 2013, martial arts dancer / mime Kenichi Ebina was announced the winner of the season, the first dance act to win the competition. Stand - up comedian Taylor Williamson was the runner - up.
Season nine premiered on Tuesday, May 27, 2014, at 8 pm ET. The producers ' auditions began on October 26, 2013, in Miami. Other audition sites included Atlanta, Baltimore, Denver, Houston, Indianapolis, Los Angeles, and New York. Contestants could also submit a video of their audition online. Auditions in front of the judges were held February 20 -- 22 at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark, which also hosted the live shows during season seven. Judges ' auditions were held in New York City at Madison Square Garden from April 3 to 6 and in Los Angeles at the Dolby Theatre from April 21 to 26.
The live shows return to Radio City Music Hall on July 29. There was also a new twist in the show, where "Judgment Week '' was held in New York City instead of Las Vegas. Judgment Week was originally intended to be held in front of a live studio audience, but after three acts performed, the producers scrapped the live audience concept. This season also came with the addition of a "Golden Buzzer, '' which was unveiled on that same year 's Britain 's Got Talent. Each judge can press the buzzer only once each season that can save an act, typically used when there is a tie.
For this season, contestants were invited to submit a video of their performance to The Today Show website throughout June, and the top three entrants performed their acts on The Today Show on July 23, 2014. The performer with the most votes, Cornell Bhangra, filled the 48th spot in the quarterfinals.
On September 17, magician Mat Franco was announced the winner of the season, the first magic act to win the competition. Singer Emily West was the runner - up.
Season ten premiered on May 26, 2015. Producer auditions began on November 2, 2014, in Tampa. Other audition sites included Nashville, Richmond (Virginia), New York, Chicago, St. Louis, San Antonio, Albuquerque, San Francisco, Seattle, Boise, Las Vegas, and Los Angeles. Online submissions were also accepted.
Howard Stern rumored on his radio show on October 1, 2014, that he might not return, but announced on December 8 that he would return for the upcoming season. Nick Cannon returned for his seventh season as host. On February 9, 2015, Howie Mandel said he would return for season ten and Mel B announced the next day that she would be returning as well. It was revealed on February 11 that Heidi Klum would also be returning.
It was announced on December 4, 2014, that Cris Judd would be named as a dance scout. He previously worked on the show as a choreographer behind the scenes, and on the New Zealand version of Got Talent as a judge.
Auditions in front of the judges began on March 2, 2015, at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center. They continued at the Manhattan Center in New York City and the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles. A special "extreme '' audition session was held outside at the Fairplex in Pomona, California, where danger acts performed outside for the judges, who were seated at an outdoor stage.
During NBC 's summer press tour, it was announced that America 's Got Talent would be making their "Golden Buzzer '' more like Britain 's Got Talent where the contestant that gets the buzzer will be sent directly to the live shows. An official trailer for the season was released, which showed that Dunkin Donuts was the show 's official sponsor for the season, with their cups prominently placed on the judges ' desk. Dunkin replaced Snapple, which sponsored the show since season seven.
On June 24, Howard Stern announced on The Howard Stern Show that season ten would be his last season as judge. Stern said, "In all seriousness, I 've told you, I 'm just too f * cking busy... something 's got to give... NBC 's already asked me what my intentions are for next year, whether or not I 'd come back, I kind of have told them I think this is my last season. Not I think, this is my last season ''.
On September 16, Paul Zerdin was announced the winner of the season, making him the second ventriloquist to win. Comedian Drew Lynch was runner - up, and magician mentalist Oz Pearlman was in Third Place.
America 's Got Talent was renewed for an eleventh season on September 1, 2015. The season will have preliminary open call auditions in Detroit, New York, Phoenix, Salt Lake City, Las Vegas, San Jose, San Diego, Kansas City, Los Angeles, Atlanta, Orlando, and Dallas. As in years past, hopeful contestants may also submit auditions online.
On October 22, 2015, it was announced that creator Simon Cowell would replace Howard Stern as a judge for season 11. Mel B, Heidi Klum and Howie Mandel all returned as judges, with Nick Cannon returning as host. The live shows moved from New York back to Los Angeles, due to Stern 's departure, at the Dolby Theatre.
Auditions in front of the judges began on March 3, 2016 at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Pasadena, California. The season premiered on May 31, 2016.
On September 14, 12 - year - old singer - songwriter and ukulele player, Grace VanderWaal, was announced as the second female and second child to win America 's Got Talent (Bianca Ryan, age 11, was first). Magician mentalists The Clairvoyants were runners - up, and magician Jon Dorenbos was placed third.
On August 2, 2016, it was announced that host Nick Cannon and all four judges would be returning for season 12. Later that year, on October 4, Simon Cowell signed a contract to remain as a judge through to 2019 (Season 14).
On February 13, 2017, Cannon announced he would not return as host for the twelfth season, citing creative differences between him and executives at NBC. The resignation came in the wake of news that the network considered firing Cannon after he made disparaging remarks about NBC in his Showtime comedy special, Stand Up, Do n't Shoot. NBC selected Tyra Banks as the new host for season 12, which premiered on Tuesday, May 30, 2017.
On September 20, Darci Lynne Farmer won the twelfth season, becoming the third ventriloquist, third child act and the third female act to win the competition (second year in a row after VanderWaal 's win in 2016). Child singer Angelica Hale was announced as the runner - up, and Ukrainian dance act Light Balance finished in third place. Deaf musician Mandy Harvey and dog act Sara & Hero rounded out the top five.
America 's Got Talent Live is a show on the Las Vegas Strip that features the winner of each season of America 's Got Talent as the main performance.
In 2009, America 's Got Talent Live appeared on the Las Vegas Strip appearing Wednesday through Sunday at the Planet Hollywood Resort and Casino in Las Vegas, in a limited ten - week run from October through January featuring winner Kevin Skinner, runner - up Barbara Padilla and fourth - place finisher The Texas Tenors. It featured the final ten acts which made it to the season four (2009) finale. Jerry Springer emceed, commuting weekly between Stamford, Connecticut, tapings of his self - named show and Las Vegas.
In 2010, on the first live show of season five, the winner headlined America 's Got Talent Live from Caesars Palace Casino and Resort on the Las Vegas Strip, which was part of a 25 - city tour that featured the season 's finalists. Jerry Springer returned as both host of the tour and the headliner of the show.
In 2012, the tour returned, featuring winners Olate Dogs, Spencer Horsman, Joe Castillo, Lightwire Theater, David Garibaldi and his CMYK 's, Jarrett and Raja, Tom Cotter, and other fan favorites.
In 2013, after the success of the 2012 tour, another tour was scheduled, featuring season eight 's winner, Kenichi Ebina, and finalists Collins Key, Jimmy Rose, Taylor Williamson, Cami Bradley, The KriStef Brothers, and Tone the Chiefrocca. Tone hosted the tour.
In 2014, America 's Got Talent Live announced that performances in Las Vegas on September 26 and 27 would feature Taylor Williamson, the season eight (2013) runner - up, and the top finalists for season nine: Mat Franco, Emily West, Quintavious Johnson, AcroArmy, Emil and Dariel, Miguel Dakota, and Sons of Serendip.
In 2015, no tour was held. Instead, three shows were given at the Planet Hollywood Resort in Las Vegas featuring winner Paul Zerdin, runner - up Drew Lynch, and fan favorite Piff the Magic Dragon.
In 2016, four shows were given at the Planet Hollywood Resort in Las Vegas. They featured the top two finalists for season 11, Grace VanderWaal and The Clairvoyants, as well as finalist Tape Face.
In 2017, four shows were given at the Planet Hollywood Resort in Las Vegas. They featured winner Darci Lynne, runner - up Angelica Hale, third - placed Light Balance, and finalist Preacher Lawson.
NBC broadcast the two - hour America 's Got Talent Holiday Spectacular on December 19, 2016, hosted by Cannon with performances by Grace VanderWaal, Jackie Evancho, Andra Day, Penn & Teller, Pentatonix, Terry Fator, Mat Franco, Piff the Magic Dragon, Olate Dogs, Professor Splash, Jon Dorenbos and others, and featuring the Season 11 judges, including Klum, who sang a duet with Season 11 finalist Sal Valentinetti. The special drew 9.5 million viewers.
Since the show began, its ratings have been very high, ranging from 9 million viewers to as many as 16 million viewers, generally averaging around 11 million viewers. The show has also ranked high in the 18 -- 49 demographic, usually rating anywhere from as low as 1.6 to as high as 4.6 throughout its run. Audition shows and performance shows rate higher on average than results shows.
Although the show 's ratings have been high, the network usually keeps the show 's run limited to before the official start of the next television season in the third week of September with some reductions or expansions depending on Olympic years, where finale ratings are usually lower due to returning programming on other networks.
The highest rated season in overall viewers to date is season four (2009). The most - watched episode has been the finale of season five (2010), with 16.41 million viewers. The series premiere and an episode featuring the first part of Las Vegas Week in season six (2011) have each tied for highest rating among adults 18 -- 49, both having a 4.6 rating.
Sales numbers and rankings are U.S. sales only.
Many acts which have competed on America 's Got Talent, but were ultimately eliminated before the final round, have either previously competed on or went on to compete in a number of other reality shows, most notably American Idol and America 's Best Dance Crew.
The following America 's Got Talent (AGT) contestants also appeared on American Idol (AI):
The following America 's Got Talent (AGT) contestants also appeared on America 's Best Dance Crew (ABDC):
The following America 's Got Talent (AGT) contestants also appeared on these other shows:
In Indonesia, the eleventh season has currently been broadcast by NET. since October 22, 2016 every Saturday and Sunday at 10 pm WIB. But, since Monday, October 31, in addition to the weekend slot, the show has also been broadcast every Monday to Friday at 5 pm WIB as the replacement of the currently concluded TV drama, the second season of Kesempurnaan Cinta, which was concluded on Friday, October 28, 2016.
In the United Kingdom, TruTV, along with simulcasts on the Made Television network, show America 's Got Talent, with TruTV showing it from the tenth season.
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a significant supporter of the nullification doctrine was | Nullification crisis - wikipedia
The Nullification Crisis was a United States sectional political crisis in 1832 - 33, during the presidency of Andrew Jackson, which involved a confrontation between South Carolina and the federal government. It ensued after South Carolina declared that the federal Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 were unconstitutional and therefore null and void within the sovereign boundaries of the state.
The U.S. suffered an economic downturn throughout the 1820s, and South Carolina was particularly affected. Many South Carolina politicians blamed the change in fortunes on the national tariff policy that developed after the War of 1812 to promote American manufacturing over its European production competition. The controversial and highly protective Tariff of 1828 (known to its detractors as the "Tariff of Abominations '') was enacted into law during the presidency of John Quincy Adams. The tariff was opposed in the South and parts of New England. By 1828, South Carolina state politics increasingly organized around the tariff issue. Its opponents expected that the election of Jackson as President would result in the tariff being significantly reduced. When the Jackson administration failed to take any actions to address their concerns, the most radical faction in the state began to advocate that the state itself declare the tariff null and void within South Carolina. In Washington, an open split on the issue occurred between Jackson and Vice President John C. Calhoun, a native South Carolinian and the most effective proponent of the constitutional theory of state nullification.
On July 14, 1832, before Calhoun had resigned the Vice Presidency in order to run for the Senate where he could more effectively defend nullification, Jackson signed into law the Tariff of 1832. This compromise tariff received the support of most northerners and half of the southerners in Congress. The reductions were too little for South Carolina, and on November 24, 1832, a state convention adopted the Ordinance of Nullification, which declared that the Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 were unconstitutional and unenforceable in South Carolina after February 1, 1833. Military preparations to resist anticipated federal enforcement were initiated by the state. On March 1, 1833, Congress passed both the Force Bill -- authorizing the President to use military forces against South Carolina -- and a new negotiated tariff, the Compromise Tariff of 1833, which was satisfactory to South Carolina. The South Carolina convention reconvened and repealed its Nullification Ordinance on March 15, 1833, but three days later nullified the Force Bill as a symbolic gesture to maintain its principles.
The crisis was over, and both sides could find reasons to claim victory. The tariff rates were reduced and stayed low to the satisfaction of the South, but the states ' rights doctrine of nullification remained controversial. By the 1850s the issues of the expansion of slavery into the western territories and the threat of the Slave Power became the central issues in the nation.
Since the Nullification Crisis, the doctrine of states ' rights has been asserted again by opponents of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, proponents of California 's Specific Contract Act of 1863 (which nullified the Legal Tender Act of 1862), opponents of Federal acts prohibiting the sale and possession of marijuana in the first decade of the 21st century, and opponents of implementation of laws and regulations pertaining to firearms from the late 1900s up to 2013.
The historian Richard E. Ellis wrote:
The extent of this change and the problem of the actual distribution of powers between state and the federal governments would be a matter of political and ideological discussion up to the Civil War and beyond. In the early 1790s the debate centered on Alexander Hamilton 's nationalistic financial program versus Jefferson 's democratic and agrarian program, a conflict that led to the formation of two opposing national political parties. Later in the decade the Alien and Sedition Acts led to the states ' rights position being articulated in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. The Kentucky Resolutions, written by Thomas Jefferson, contained the following, which has often been cited as a justification for both nullification and secession:
The Virginia Resolutions, written by James Madison, hold a similar argument:
Historians differ over the extent to which either resolution advocated the doctrine of nullification. Historian Lance Banning wrote, "The legislators of Kentucky (or more likely, John Breckinridge, the Kentucky legislator who sponsored the resolution) deleted Jefferson 's suggestion that the rightful remedy for federal usurpations was a "nullification '' of such acts by each state acting on its own to prevent their operation within its respective borders. Rather than suggesting individual, although concerted, measures of this sort, Kentucky was content to ask its sisters to unite in declarations that the acts were "void and of no force '', and in "requesting their appeal '' at the succeeding session of the Congress. '' The key sentence, and the word "nullification '' was used in supplementary Resolutions passed by Kentucky in 1799.
Madison 's judgment is clearer. He was chairman of a committee of the Virginia Legislature which issued a book - length Report on the Resolutions of 1798, published in 1800 after they had been decried by several states. This asserted that the state did not claim legal force. "The declarations in such cases are expressions of opinion, unaccompanied by other effect than what they may produce upon opinion, by exciting reflection. The opinions of the judiciary, on the other hand, are carried into immediate effect by force. '' If the states collectively agreed in their declarations, there were several methods by which it might prevail, from persuading Congress to repeal the unconstitutional law, to calling a constitutional convention, as two - thirds of the states may. When, at the time of the Nullification Crisis, he was presented with the Kentucky resolutions of 1799, he argued that the resolutions themselves were not Jefferson 's words, and that Jefferson meant this not as a constitutional but as a revolutionary right.
Madison biographer Ralph Ketcham wrote:
Historian Sean Wilentz explains the widespread opposition to these resolutions:
The election of 1800 was a turning point in national politics as the Federalists were replaced by the Democratic - Republican Party led by Jefferson. But, the four presidential terms spanning the period from 1800 to 1817 "did little to advance the cause of states ' rights and much to weaken it. '' Over Jefferson 's opposition, the power of the federal judiciary, led by Federalist Chief Justice John Marshall, increased. Jefferson expanded federal powers with the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory and his use of a national embargo designed to prevent involvement in a European war. Madison in 1809 used national troops to enforce a Supreme Court decision in Pennsylvania, appointed an "extreme nationalist '' in Joseph Story to the Supreme Court, signed the bill creating the Second Bank of the United States, and called for a constitutional amendment to promote internal improvements.
Opposition to the War of 1812 was centered in New England. Delegates to a convention in Hartford, Connecticut met in December 1814 to consider a New England response to Madison 's war policy. The debate allowed many radicals to argue the cause of states ' rights and state sovereignty. In the end, moderate voices dominated and the final product was not secession or nullification, but a series of proposed constitutional amendments. Identifying the South 's domination of the government as the cause of much of their problems, the proposed amendments included "the repeal of the three - fifths clause, a requirement that two - thirds of both houses of Congress agree before any new state could be admitted to the Union, limits on the length of embargoes, and the outlawing of the election of a president from the same state to successive terms, clearly aimed at the Virginians. '' The war was over before the proposals were submitted to President Madison.
After the conclusion of the War of 1812 Sean Wilentz notes:
This spirit of nationalism was linked to the tremendous growth and economic prosperity of this post war era. However in 1819 the nation suffered its first financial panic and the 1820s turned out to be a decade of political turmoil that again led to fierce debates over competing views of the exact nature of American federalism. The "extreme democratic and agrarian rhetoric '' that had been so effective in 1798 led to renewed attacks on the "numerous market - oriented enterprises, particularly banks, corporations, creditors, and absentee landholders ''.
The Tariff of 1816 had some protective features, and it received support throughout the nation, including that of John C. Calhoun and fellow South Carolinian William Lowndes. The first explicitly protective tariff linked to a specific program of internal improvements was the Tariff of 1824. Sponsored by Henry Clay, this tariff provided a general level of protection at 35 % ad valorem (compared to 25 % with the 1816 act) and hiked duties on iron, woolens, cotton, hemp, and wool and cotton bagging. The bill barely passed the federal House of Representatives by a vote of 107 to 102. The Middle states and Northwest supported the bill, the South and Southwest opposed it, and New England split its vote with a majority opposing it. In the Senate the bill, with the support of Tennessee Senator Andrew Jackson, passed by four votes, and President James Monroe, the Virginia heir to the Jefferson - Madison control of the White House, signed the bill on March 25, 1824. Daniel Webster of Massachusetts led the New England opposition to this tariff.
Protest against the prospect and the constitutionality of higher tariffs began in 1826 and 1827 with William Branch Giles, who had the Virginia legislature pass resolutions denying the power of Congress to pass protective tariffs, citing the Virginia Resolutions of 1798 and James Madison 's 1800 defense of them. Madison denied both the appeal to nullification and the unconstitutionality; he had always held that the power to regulate commerce included protection. Jefferson had, at the end of his life, written against protective tariffs.
The Tariff of 1828 was largely the work of Martin Van Buren (although Silas Wright Jr. of New York prepared the main provisions) and was partly a political ploy to elect Andrew Jackson president. Van Buren calculated that the South would vote for Jackson regardless of the issues so he ignored their interests in drafting the bill. New England, he thought, was just as likely to support the incumbent John Quincy Adams, so the bill levied heavy taxes on raw materials consumed by New England such as hemp, flax, molasses, iron and sail duck. With an additional tariff on iron to satisfy Pennsylvania interests, Van Buren expected the tariff to help deliver Pennsylvania, New York, Missouri, Ohio, and Kentucky to Jackson. Over opposition from the South and some from New England, the tariff was passed with the full support of many Jackson supporters in Congress and signed by President Adams in early 1828.
As expected, Jackson and his running mate John Calhoun carried the entire South with overwhelming numbers in all the states but Louisiana where Adams drew 47 % of the vote in a losing effort. However many Southerners became dissatisfied as Jackson, in his first two annual messages to Congress, failed to launch a strong attack on the tariff. Historian William J. Cooper Jr. writes:
South Carolina had been adversely affected by the national economic decline of the 1820s. During this decade, the population decreased by 56,000 whites and 30,000 slaves, out of a total free and slave population of 580,000. The whites left for better places; they took slaves with them or sold them to traders moving slaves to the Deep South for sale.
Historian Richard E. Ellis describes the situation:
State leaders, led by states ' rights advocates like William Smith and Thomas Cooper, blamed most of the state 's economic problems on the Tariff of 1816 and national internal improvement projects. Soil erosion and competition from the New Southwest were also very significant reasons for the state 's declining fortunes. George McDuffie was a particularly effective speaker for the anti-tariff forces, and he popularized the Forty Bale theory. McDuffie argued that the 40 % tariff on cotton finished goods meant that "the manufacturer actually invades your barns, and plunders you of 40 out of every 100 bales that you produce. '' Mathematically incorrect, this argument still struck a nerve with his constituency. Nationalists such as Calhoun were forced by the increasing power of such leaders to retreat from their previous positions and adopt, in the words of Ellis, "an even more extreme version of the states ' rights doctrine '' in order to maintain political significance within South Carolina.
South Carolina 's first effort at nullification occurred in 1822. Its planters believed that free black sailors had assisted Denmark Vesey in his planned slave rebellion. South Carolina passed a Negro Seamen Act, which required that all black foreign seamen be imprisoned while their ships were docked in Charleston. The UK strongly objected, especially as it was recruiting more Africans as sailors. What was worse, if the captains did not pay the fees to cover the cost of jailing, South Carolina would sell the sailors into slavery. Other southern states also passed laws against free black sailors.
Supreme Court Justice William Johnson, in his capacity as a circuit judge, declared the South Carolina law as unconstitutional since it violated the United States ' treaties with the UK. The South Carolina Senate announced that the judge 's ruling was invalid and that the Act would be enforced. The federal government did not attempt to carry out Johnson 's decision.
Historian Avery Craven argues that, for the most part, the debate from 1828 - 1832 was a local South Carolina affair. The state 's leaders were not united and the sides were roughly equal. The western part of the state and a faction in Charleston, led by Joel Poinsett, would remain loyal to the Union. Only in small part was the conflict between "a National North against a States ' - right South ''.
After the final vote on the Tariff of 1828, the South Carolina congressional delegation held two caucuses, the second at the home of Senator Robert Y. Hayne. They were rebuffed in their efforts to coordinate a united Southern response and focused on how their state representatives would react. While many agreed with George McDuffie that tariff policy could lead to secession at some future date, they all agreed that as much as possible, the issue should be kept out of the upcoming presidential election. Calhoun, while not at this meeting, served as a moderating influence. He felt that the first step in reducing the tariff was to defeat Adams and his supporters in the upcoming election. William C. Preston, on behalf of the South Carolina legislature, asked Calhoun to prepare a report on the tariff situation. Calhoun readily accepted this challenge and in a few weeks time had a 35,000 - word draft of what would become his "Exposition and Protest ''.
Calhoun 's "Exposition '' was completed late in 1828. He argued that the tariff of 1828 was unconstitutional because it favored manufacturing over commerce and agriculture. He thought that the tariff power could only be used to generate revenue, not to provide protection from foreign competition for American industries. He believed that the people of a state or several states, acting in a democratically elected convention, had the retained power to veto any act of the federal government which violated the Constitution. This veto, the core of the doctrine of nullification, was explained by Calhoun in the Exposition:
The report also detailed the specific southern grievances over the tariff that led to the current dissatisfaction. Fearful that "hotheads '' such as McDuffie might force the legislature into taking some drastic action against the federal government, historian John Niven describes Calhoun 's political purpose in the document:
The report was submitted to the state legislature which had 5,000 copies printed and distributed. Calhoun, who still had designs on succeeding Jackson as president, was not identified as the author but word on this soon leaked out. The legislature took no action on the report at that time.
In the summer of 1828 Robert Barnwell Rhett, soon to be considered the most radical of the South Carolinians, entered the fray over the tariff. As a state representative, Rhett called for the governor to convene a special session of the legislature. An outstanding orator, Rhett appealed to his constituents to resist the majority in Congress. Rhett addressed the danger of doing nothing:
Rhett 's rhetoric about revolution and war was too radical in the summer of 1828 but, with the election of Jackson assured, James Hamilton Jr. on October 28 in the Colleton County Courthouse in Walterborough "launched the formal nullification campaign. '' Renouncing his former nationalism, Hamilton warned the people that, "Your task - master must soon become a tyrant, from the very abuses and corruption of the system, without the bowels of compassion, or a jot of human sympathy. '' He called for implementation of Mr. Jefferson 's "rightful remedy '' of nullification. Hamilton sent a copy of the speech directly to President - elect Jackson. But, despite a statewide campaign by Hamilton and McDuffie, a proposal to call a nullification convention in 1829 was defeated by the South Carolina legislature meeting at the end of 1828. State leaders such as Calhoun, Hayne, Smith, and William Drayton were all able to remain publicly non-committal or opposed to nullification for the next couple of years.
The division in the state between radicals and conservatives continued throughout 1829 and 1830. After the failure of a state project to arrange financing of a railroad within the state to promote internal trade, the state petitioned Congress to invest $250,000 in the company trying to build the railroad. After Congress tabled the measure, the debate in South Carolina resumed between those who wanted state investment and those who wanted to work to get Congress ' support. The debate demonstrated that a significant minority of the state did have an interest in Clay 's American System. The effect of the Webster -- Hayne debate was to energize the radicals, and some moderates started to move in their direction.
The state election campaign of 1830 focused on the tariff issue and the need for a state convention. On the defensive, radicals underplayed the intent of the convention as pro-nullification. When voters were presented with races where an unpledged convention was the issue, the radicals generally won. When conservatives effectively characterized the race as being about nullification, the radicals lost. The October election was narrowly carried by the radicals, although the blurring of the issues left them without any specific mandate. In South Carolina, the governor was selected by the legislature, which selected James Hamilton, the leader of the radical movement, as governor and fellow radical Henry L. Pinckney as speaker of the South Carolina House. For the open Senate seat, the legislature chose the more radical Stephen Miller over William Smith.
With radicals in leading positions, in 1831, they began to capture momentum. State politics became sharply divided along Nullifier and Unionist lines. Still, the margin in the legislature fell short of the two - thirds majority needed for a convention. Many of the radicals felt that convincing Calhoun of the futility of his plans for the presidency would lead him into their ranks. Calhoun meanwhile had concluded that Martin Van Buren was clearly establishing himself as Jackson 's heir apparent. At Hamilton 's prompting, George McDuffie made a three - hour speech in Charleston demanding nullification of the tariff at any cost. In the state, the success of McDuffie 's speech seemed to open up the possibilities of both military confrontation with the federal government and civil war within the state. With silence no longer an acceptable alternative, Calhoun looked for the opportunity to take control of the anti-tariff faction in the state; by June he was preparing what would be known as his Fort Hill Address.
Published on July 26, 1831, the address repeated and expanded the positions Calhoun had made in the "Exposition ''. While the logic of much of the speech was consistent with the states ' rights position of most Jacksonians, and even Daniel Webster remarked that it "was the ablest and most plausible, and therefore the most dangerous vindication of that particular form of Revolution '', the speech still placed Calhoun clearly in the nullifier camp. Within South Carolina, his gestures at moderation in the speech were drowned out as planters received word of the Nat Turner insurrection in Virginia. Calhoun was not alone in finding a connection between the abolition movement and the sectional aspects of the tariff issue. It confirmed for Calhoun what he had written in a September 11, 1830 letter:
I consider the tariff act as the occasion, rather than the real cause of the present unhappy state of things. The truth can no longer be disguised, that the peculiar domestick (sic) institution of the Southern States and the consequent direction which that and her soil have given to her industry, has placed them in regard to taxation and appropriations in opposite relation to the majority of the Union, against the danger of which, if there be no protective power in the reserved rights of the states they must in the end be forced to rebel, or, submit to have their paramount interests sacrificed, their domestic institutions subordinated by Colonization and other schemes, and themselves and children reduced to wretchedness.
From this point, the nullifiers accelerated their organization and rhetoric. In July 1831 the States Rights and Free Trade Association was formed in Charleston and expanded throughout the state. Unlike state political organizations in the past, which were led by the South Carolina planter aristocracy, this group appealed to all segments of the population, including non-slaveholder farmers, small slaveholders, and the Charleston non-agricultural class. Governor Hamilton was instrumental in seeing that the association, which was both a political and a social organization, expanded throughout the state. In the winter of 1831 and spring of 1832, the governor held conventions and rallies throughout the state to mobilize the nullification movement. The conservatives were unable to match the radicals in either organization or leadership.
The state elections of 1832 were "charged with tension and bespattered with violence, '' and "polite debates often degenerated into frontier brawls. '' Unlike the previous year 's election, the choice was clear between nullifiers and unionists. The nullifiers won and on October 20, 1832, Governor Hamilton called the legislature into a special session to consider a convention. The legislative vote was 96 - 25 in the House and 31 - 13 in the Senate
In November 1832 the Nullification Convention met. The convention declared that the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 were unconstitutional and unenforceable within the state of South Carolina after February 1, 1833. They said that attempts to use force to collect the taxes would lead to the state 's secession. Robert Hayne, who followed Hamilton as governor in 1833, established a 2,000 - man group of mounted minutemen and 25,000 infantry who would march to Charleston in the event of a military conflict. These troops were to be armed with $100,000 in arms purchased in the North.
The enabling legislation passed by the legislature was carefully constructed to avoid clashes if at all possible and to create an aura of legality in the process. To avoid conflicts with Unionists, it allowed importers to pay the tariff if they so desired. Other merchants could pay the tariff by obtaining a paper tariff bond from the customs officer. They would then refuse to pay the bond when due, and if the customs official seized the goods, the merchant would file for a writ of replevin to recover the goods in state court. Customs officials who refused to return the goods (by placing them under the protection of federal troops) would be civilly liable for twice the value of the goods. To insure that state officials and judges supported the law, a "test oath '' would be required for all new state officials, binding them to support the ordinance of nullification.
Governor Hayne in his inaugural address announced South Carolina 's position:
When President Jackson took office in March 1829 he was well aware of the turmoil created by the "Tariff of Abominations ''. While he may have abandoned some of his earlier beliefs that had allowed him to vote for the Tariff of 1824, he still felt protectionism was justified for products essential to military preparedness and did not believe that the current tariff should be reduced until the national debt was fully paid off. He addressed the issue in his inaugural address and his first three messages to Congress, but offered no specific relief. In December 1831, with the proponents of nullification in South Carolina gaining momentum, Jackson was recommending "the exercise of that spirit of concession and conciliation which has distinguished the friends of our Union in all great emergencies. '' However on the constitutional issue of nullification, despite his strong beliefs in states ' rights, Jackson did not waver.
Calhoun 's "Exposition and Protest '' did start a national debate over the doctrine of nullification. The leading proponents of the nationalistic view included Daniel Webster, Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story, Judge William Alexander Duer, John Quincy Adams, Nathaniel Chipman, and Nathan Dane. These people rejected the compact theory advanced by Calhoun, claiming that the Constitution was the product of the people, not the states. According to the nationalist position, the Supreme Court had the final say on the constitutionality of legislation, the national union was perpetual and had supreme authority over individual states. The nullifiers, on the other hand, asserted that the central government was not to be the ultimate arbiter of its own power, and that the states, as the contracting entities, could judge for themselves what was or was not constitutional. While Calhoun 's "Exposition '' claimed that nullification was based on the reasoning behind the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, an aging James Madison in an August 28, 1830 letter to Edward Everett, intended for publication, disagreed. Madison wrote, denying that any individual state could alter the compact:
Part of the South 's strategy to force repeal of the tariff was to arrange an alliance with the West. Under the plan, the South would support the West 's demand for free lands in the public domain if the West would support repeal of the tariff. With this purpose Robert Hayne took the floor on the Senate in early 1830, thus beginning "the most celebrated debate, in the Senate 's history. '' Daniel Webster 's response shifted the debate, subsequently styled the Webster - Hayne debates, from the specific issue of western lands to a general debate on the very nature of the United States. Webster 's position differed from Madison 's: Webster asserted that the people of the United States acted as one aggregate body, Madison held that the people of the several states had acted collectively. John Rowan spoke against Webster on that issue, and Madison wrote, congratulating Webster, but explaining his own position. The debate presented the fullest articulation of the differences over nullification, and 40,000 copies of Webster 's response, which concluded with "liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable '', were distributed nationwide.
Many people expected the states ' rights Jackson to side with Hayne. However once the debate shifted to secession and nullification, Jackson sided with Webster. On April 13, 1830 at the traditional Democratic Party celebration honoring Thomas Jefferson 's birthday, Jackson chose to make his position clear. In a battle of toasts, Hayne proposed, "The Union of the States, and the Sovereignty of the States. '' Jackson 's response, when his turn came, was, "Our Federal Union: It must be preserved. '' To those attending, the effect was dramatic. Calhoun would respond with his own toast, in a play on Webster 's closing remarks in the earlier debate, "The Union. Next to our liberty, the most dear. '' Finally Martin Van Buren would offer, "Mutual forbearance and reciprocal concession. Through their agency the Union was established. The patriotic spirit from which they emanated will forever sustain it. ''
Van Buren wrote in his autobiography of Jackson 's toast, "The veil was rent -- the incantations of the night were exposed to the light of day. '' Senator Thomas Hart Benton, in his memoirs, stated that the toast "electrified the country. '' Jackson would have the final words a few days later when a visitor from South Carolina asked if Jackson had any message he wanted relayed to his friends back in the state. Jackson 's reply was:
Other issues than the tariff were still being decided. In May 1830 Jackson vetoed the Maysville Road Bill an important internal improvements program (especially to Kentucky and Henry Clay), and then followed this with additional vetoes of other such projects shortly before Congress adjourned at the end of May. Clay would use these vetoes to launch his presidential campaign. In 1831 the re-chartering of the Bank of the United States, with Clay and Jackson on opposite sides, reopened a long simmering problem. This issue was featured at the December 1831 National Republican convention in Baltimore which nominated Henry Clay for president, and the proposal to re-charter was formally introduced into Congress on January 6, 1832. The Calhoun - Jackson split entered the center stage when Calhoun, as vice-president presiding over the Senate, cast the tie - breaking vote to deny Martin Van Buren the post of minister to England. Van Buren was subsequently selected as Jackson 's running mate at the 1832 Democratic National Convention held in May.
In February 1832 Henry Clay, back in the Senate after a two decades absence, made a three - day - long speech calling for a new tariff schedule and an expansion of his American System. In an effort to reach out to John Calhoun and other southerners, Clay 's proposal provided for a ten million dollar revenue reduction based on the amount of budget surplus he anticipated for the coming year. Significant protection was still part of the plan as the reduction primarily came on those imports not in competition with domestic producers. Jackson proposed an alternative that reduced overall tariffs to 28 %. John Quincy Adams, now in the House of Representatives, used his Committee of Manufacturers to produce a compromise bill that, in its final form, reduced revenues by five million dollars, lowered duties on non-competitive products, and retained high tariffs on woolens, iron, and cotton products. In the course of the political maneuvering, George McDuffie 's Ways and Means Committee, the normal originator of such bills, prepared a bill with drastic reduction across the board. McDuffie 's bill went nowhere. Jackson signed the Tariff of 1832 on July 14, 1832, a few days after he vetoed the Bank of the United States re-charter bill. Congress adjourned after it failed to override Jackson 's veto.
With Congress in adjournment, Jackson anxiously watched events in South Carolina. The nullifiers found no significant compromise in the Tariff of 1832 and acted accordingly (see the above section). Jackson heard rumors of efforts to subvert members of the army and navy in Charleston and he ordered the secretaries of the army and navy to begin rotating troops and officers based on their loyalty. He ordered General Winfield Scott to prepare for military operations and ordered a naval squadron in Norfolk to prepare to go to Charleston. Jackson kept lines of communication open with unionists like Joel Poinsett, William Drayton, and James L. Petigru and sent George Breathitt, brother of the Kentucky governor, to independently obtain political and military intelligence. After their defeat at the polls in October, Petigru advised Jackson that he should "Be prepared to hear very shortly of a State Convention and an act of Nullification. ''
On October 19, 1832 Jackson wrote to his Secretary of War:
By mid-November Jackson 's reelection was assured. On December 3, 1832 Jackson sent his fourth annual message to Congress. The message "was stridently states ' rights and agrarian in its tone and thrust '' and he disavowed protection as anything other than a temporary expedient. His intent regarding nullification, as communicated to Van Buren, was "to pass it barely in review, as a mere buble (sic), view the existing laws as competent to check and put it down. '' He hoped to create a "moral force '' that would transcend political parties and sections. The paragraph in the message that addressed nullification was:
On December 10 Jackson issued the Proclamation to the People of South Carolina, in which he characterized the positions of the nullifiers as "impractical absurdity '' and "a metaphysical subtlety, in pursuit of an impractical theory. '' He provided this concise statement of his belief:
The language used by Jackson, combined with the reports coming out of South Carolina, raised the spectre of military confrontation for many on both sides of the issue. A group of Democrats, led by Van Buren and Thomas Hart Benton among others, saw the only solution to the crisis in a substantial reduction of the tariff.
In apparent contradiction of his previous claim that the tariff could be enforced with existing laws, on January 16 Jackson sent his Force Bill Message to Congress. Custom houses in Beaufort and Georgetown would be closed and replaced by ships located at each port. In Charleston the custom house would be moved to either Castle Pinckney or Fort Moultrie in Charleston harbor. Direct payment rather than bonds would be required, and federal jails would be established for violators that the state refused to arrest and all cases arising under the state 's nullification act could be removed to the United States Circuit Court. In the most controversial part, the militia acts of 1795 and 1807 would be revised to permit the enforcement of the custom laws by both the militia and the regular United States military. Attempts were made in South Carolina to shift the debate away from nullification by focusing instead on the proposed enforcement.
The Force bill went to the Senate Judiciary Committee chaired by Pennsylvania protectionist William Wilkins and supported by members Daniel Webster and Theodore Frelinghuysen of New Jersey; it gave Jackson everything he asked. On January 28 the Senate defeated a motion by a vote of 30 to 15 to postpone debate on the bill. All but two of the votes to delay were from the lower South and only three from this section voted against the motion. This did not signal any increased support for nullification but did signify doubts about enforcement. In order to draw more votes, proposals were made to limit the duration of the coercive powers and restrict the use of force to suppressing, rather than preventing, civil disorder. In the House the Judiciary Committee, in a 4 - 3 vote, rejected Jackson 's request to use force. By the time Calhoun made a major speech on February 15 strongly opposing it, the Force Bill was temporarily stalled.
On the tariff issue, the drafting of a compromise tariff was assigned in December to the House Ways and Means Committee, now headed by Gulian C. Verplanck. Debate on the committee 's product on the House floor began in January 1833. The Verplanck tariff proposed reductions back to the 1816 levels over the course of the next two years while maintaining the basic principle of protectionism. The anti-Jackson protectionists saw this as an economic disaster that did not allow the Tariff of 1832 to even be tested and "an undignified truckling to the menaces and blustering of South Carolina. '' Northern Democrats did not oppose it in principle but still demanded protection for the varying interests of their own constituents. Those sympathetic to the nullifiers wanted a specific abandonment of the principle of protectionism and were willing to offer a longer transition period as a bargaining point. It was clear that the Verplanck tariff was not going to be implemented.
In South Carolina, efforts were being made to avoid an unnecessary confrontation. Governor Hayne ordered the 25,000 troops he had created to train at home rather than gathering in Charleston. At a mass meeting in Charleston on January 21, it was decided to postpone the February 1 deadline for implementing nullification while Congress worked on a compromise tariff. At the same time a commissioner from Virginia, Benjamin Watkins Leigh, arrived in Charleston bearing resolutions that criticized both Jackson and the nullifiers and offering his state as a mediator.
Henry Clay had not taken his defeat in the presidential election well and was unsure on what position he could take in the tariff negotiations. His long term concern was that Jackson eventually was determined to kill protectionism along with the American Plan. In February, after consulting with manufacturers and sugar interests in Louisiana who favored protection for the sugar industry, Clay started to work on a specific compromise plan. As a starting point, he accepted the nullifiers ' offer of a transition period but extended it from seven and a half years to nine years with a final target of a 20 % ad valorem rate. After first securing the support of his protectionist base, Clay, through an intermediary, broached the subject with Calhoun. Calhoun was receptive and after a private meeting with Clay at Clay 's boardinghouse, negotiations preceded.
Clay introduced the negotiated tariff bill on February 12, and it was immediately referred to a select committee consisting of Clay as chairman, Felix Grundy of Tennessee, George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania, William Cabell Rives of Virginia, Webster, John M. Clayton of Delaware, and Calhoun. On February 21 the committee reported a bill to the floor of the Senate which was largely the original bill proposed by Clay. The Tariff of 1832 would continue except that reduction of all rates above 20 % would be reduced by one tenth every two years with the final reductions back to 20 % coming in 1842. Protectionism as a principle was not abandoned and provisions were made for raising the tariff if national interests demanded it.
Although not specifically linked by any negotiated agreement, it became clear that the Force Bill and Compromise Tariff of 1833 were inexorably linked. In his February 25 speech ending the debate on the tariff, Clay captured the spirit of the voices for compromise by condemning Jackson 's Proclamation to South Carolina as inflammatory, admitting the same problem with the Force Bill but indicating its necessity, and praising the Compromise Tariff as the final measure to restore balance, promote the rule of law, and avoid the "sacked cities, '' "desolated fields, '' and "smoking ruins '' that he said would be the product of the failure to reach a final accord. The House passed the Compromise Tariff by 119 - 85 and the Force Bill by 149 - 48. In the Senate the tariff passed 29 - 16 and the Force bill by 32 - 1 with many opponents of it walking out rather than voting for it.
Calhoun rushed to Charleston with the news of the final compromises. The Nullification Convention met again on March 11. It repealed the November Nullification Ordinance and also, "in a purely symbolic gesture '', nullified the Force Bill. While the nullifiers claimed victory on the tariff issue, even though they had made concessions, the verdict was very different on nullification. The majority had, in the end, ruled and this boded ill for the South and their minorities hold on slavery. Rhett summed this up at the convention on March 13. Warning that, "A people, owning slaves, are mad, or worse than mad, who do not hold their destinies in their own hands, '' he continued:
People reflected on the meaning of the nullification crisis and its outcome for the country. On May 1, 1833 Jackson wrote, "the tariff was only a pretext, and disunion and southern confederacy the real object. The next pretext will be the negro, or slavery question. ''
The final resolution of the crisis and Jackson 's leadership had appeal throughout the North and South. Robert Remini, the historian and Jackson biographer, described the opposition that nullification drew from traditionally states ' rights Southern states:
The Alabama legislature, for example, pronounced the doctrine "unsound in theory and dangerous in practice. '' Georgia said it was "mischievous, '' "rash and revolutionary. '' Mississippi lawmakers chided the South Carolinians for acting with "reckless precipitancy. ''
Forest McDonald, describing the split over nullification among proponents of states rights, wrote, "The doctrine of states ' rights, as embraced by most Americans, was not concerned exclusively, or even primarily with state resistance to federal authority. '' But, by the end of the nullification crisis, many southerners started to question whether the Jacksonian Democrats still represented Southern interests. The historian William J. Cooper notes that, "Numerous southerners had begun to perceive it (the Jacksonian Democratic Party) as a spear aimed at the South rather than a shield defending the South. ''
In the political vacuum created by this alienation, the southern wing of the Whig Party was formed. The party was a coalition of interests united by the common thread of opposition to Andrew Jackson and, more specifically, his "definition of federal and executive power. '' The party included former National Republicans with an "urban, commercial, and nationalist outlook '' as well as former nullifiers. Emphasizing that "they were more southern than the Democrats, '' the party grew within the South by going "after the abolition issue with unabashed vigor and glee. '' With both parties arguing who could best defend southern institutions, the nuances of the differences between free soil and abolitionism, which became an issue in the late 1840s with the Mexican War and territorial expansion, never became part of the political dialogue. This failure increased the volatility of the slavery issues.
Richard Ellis argues that the end of the crisis signified the beginning of a new era. Within the states ' rights movement, the traditional desire for simply "a weak, inactive, and frugal government '' was challenged. Ellis states that "in the years leading up to the Civil War the nullifiers and their pro-slavery allies used the doctrine of states ' rights and state sovereignty in such a way as to try to expand the powers of the federal government so that it could more effectively protect the peculiar institution. '' By the 1850s, states ' rights had become a call for state equality under the Constitution.
Madison reacted to this incipient tendency by writing two paragraphs of "Advice to My Country, '' found among his papers. It said that the Union "should be cherished and perpetuated. Let the open enemy to it be regarded as a Pandora with her box opened; and the disguised one, as the Serpent creeping with his deadly wiles into paradise. '' Richard Rush published this "Advice '' in 1850, by which time Southern spirit was so high that it was denounced as a forgery.
The first test for the South over the slavery issue began during the final congressional session of 1835. In what became known as the Gag Rule Debates, abolitionists flooded the Congress with anti-slavery petitions to end slavery and the slave trade in Washington, D.C. The debate was reopened each session as Southerners, led by South Carolinians Henry Pinckney and John Hammond, prevented the petitions from even being officially received by Congress. Led by John Quincy Adams, the slavery debate remained on the national stage until late 1844 when Congress lifted all restrictions on processing the petitions.
Describing the legacy of the crisis, Sean Wilentz writes:
For South Carolina, the legacy of the crisis involved both the divisions within the state during the crisis and the apparent isolation of the state as the crisis was resolved. By 1860, when South Carolina became the first state to secede, the state was more internally united than any other southern state. Historian Charles Edward Cauthen writes:
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average height of a female in the us 2017 | List of average Human height worldwide - wikipedia
Below are average adult human heights by country or geographical region. The original studies and sources should be consulted for details on methodology and the exact populations measured, surveyed, or considered.
As with any statistical data, the accuracy of such data may be questionable for various reasons:
Note: Letters in grey indicate non-measured height.
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when is episode 33 of boruto coming out | Boruto: Naruto Next Generations - wikipedia
Boruto: Naruto Next Generations (Japanese: BORUTO - ボルト - NARUTO NEXT GENERATIONS) is a Japanese manga series written by Ukyō Kodachi and illustrated by Mikio Ikemoto. Serialized in Shueisha 's shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump, Boruto is a spin - off of and sequel to Masashi Kishimoto 's Naruto, and follows the exploits of Naruto Uzumaki 's son Boruto and his ninja team. An anime television series adaptation directed by Noriyuki Abe started airing on TV Tokyo on April 5, 2017. Unlike the manga that started as a retelling of the film Boruto: Naruto the Movie, the Boruto anime acts like a prequel, before Boruto and his friends became ninjas in the later arc.
Critical reception to the series has been largely positive with most critics liking the traits of the main characters, most notably Boruto, who, while resembling his father Naruto, still plays pranks and bonds with his peers. Pierrot 's anime prequel also earned praise for its use of both new and returning characters. Shueisha shipped a million units of the manga series as of January 2017.
Years later after the Fourth Great Ninja War, Naruto Uzumaki has achieved his dream of becoming the Seventh Hokage and married Hinata Hyuga, and now oversees a new generation in the Ninja World. They have two children: Boruto and Himawari. Boruto has become part of a ninja team led by Naruto 's protege Konohamaru Sarutobi, along with Sasuke Uchiha and Sakura Haruno 's daughter Sarada and Orochimaru 's artificial son Mitsuki. Boruto meets Sasuke when he returns to the village to warn Naruto of an impending threat. Boruto manages to convince Sasuke to teach him for the upcoming Chunin Exam. During the exam, Momoshiki and Kinshiki Ōtsutsuki, the threat whom Sasuke spoke of, appear and abduct Naruto, so they can use Kurama, a creature sealed inside his body, to revitalize the dying Shinju from the dimension which they came from.
Boruto joins Sasuke and the Five Kages. When they travel to the other dimension in order to save Naruto, Momoshiki turns Kinshiki into a chakra fruit and he ingests it in order to become stronger than Naruto and the others. Aided by Naruto and Sasuke, Boruto is able to defeat Momoshiki. Though dying, noting his killer 's untapped potential, Momoshiki lives long enough to have a private discussion with Boruto and warns him that he soon will face much tribulation later on in his life. As Sasuke interrogates a criminal who knows of Boruto 's mark, he reveals to Naruto and his underlings that there is a group called "Kara '' (殻, lit. The Husk) searching for people with marks.
When the Naruto manga ended in 2014, the company Shueisha asked Masashi Kishimoto to start a sequel. However, Kishimoto rejected the idea and proposed artist Mikio Ikemoto, who had been working as an assistant for Kishimoto ever since Naruto 's early chapters, to draw it based on the experience Ikemoto had. A countdown website was used under the name of "Next Generation '' in order to promote the new manga. After Naruto ended in December 2015, the Boruto: Naruto Next Generations 's serialization was announced. Kishimoto said that he wanted Boruto to surpass his own work. The writer Ukyō Kodachi had been a writer for Gaara 's light novel, Gaara Hiden, and assisted Kishimoto in writing the script of the movie Boruto: Naruto the Movie. Besides writing for the series, Kodachi also supervises the story of the anime. However, for episodes 8 and 9, Kishimoto also acted as the supervisor of the anime.
Despite having a lighter tone than Naruto, the series begins by hinting at a dark future. While Kishimoto is not writing the series, he created multiple characters for the staff to use. While not specifying if Naruto or another important character will die, Kishimoto has commented that he finds this situation interesting, clarifying that it would give the authors more freedom as the series develops.
Written by Ukyō Kodachi and illustrated by Mikio Ikemoto, Boruto: Naruto Next Generations launched in the twenty - third issue of Shueisha 's manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump on May 9, 2016. Original series creator Masashi Kishimoto currently supervises the series illustrated by his former chief assistant and written by his co-writer of the Boruto: Naruto the Movie screenplay. A spin - off manga titled Boruto: Saikyo Dash Generations (BORUTO - ボルト - SAIKYO DASH GENERATIONS) was written by Kenji Taira and has been serialized in Saikyō Jump since the May 2017 issue.
These chapters have yet to be published in a tankōbon volume. They were originally serialized in Japanese in issues of Weekly Shōnen Jump.
At the Naruto and Boruto stage event at Jump Festa on December 17, 2016, it was announced that the manga series would be receiving an anime project, which was later confirmed to be an anime television series adaptation that would feature an original story. The anime series, supervised by series creator Ukyō Kodachi, would be co-directed by Noriyuki Abe and Hiroyuki Yamashita, with series composition by Makoto Uezu, animation produced by Pierrot, character designs by Tetsuya Nishio and Hirofumi Suzuki, and music co-composed by Yasuharu Takanashi and YAIBA. The series premiered on TV Tokyo on April 5, 2017. Viz Media has licensed the series in North America. From episodes 1 to 26, the first opening theme is "Baton Road '' by KANA - BOON. From episodes 27 onwards, the second opening theme is "OVER '' by Little Glee Monster. From episodes 1 to 13, the first ending theme is "Dreamy Journey '' by The Peggies. From episodes 14 to 26, the second ending theme is "Sayonara Moon Town '' by Scenario Art. From episodes 27 onwards, the third ending theme is "I Continue Walking '' by Melofloat.
A novel entitled The New Konoha Ninja Flying In the Blue Sky! (青天 を 翔る 新た な 木の葉 たち! Se, iten o Kakeru Aratana Konoha - tachi!) was released on May 2, 2017. A second one was released on July 4, 2017 under the title A Call From the Shadows! (影 から の 呼び声!, Kage Kara no Yobigoe!). The third novel Those Who Illuminate the Night of Shinobi! (忍 の 夜 を 照らす 者!, Shinobi no Yoru O Terasu Mono!), was released on September 4, 2017.
The manga has been generally well - received in Japan, with the compilations appearing as top sellers multiple times. It also has one million copies in print as of January 2017. The manga 's first volume has also sold well in North America.
Rebecca Silverman from Anime News Network admitted Boruto appealed to her despite having never gotten into the Naruto manga. She praised how the writers managed to deal with the protagonist 's angst without coming across as "teen whining '' as well as how Sasuke Uchiha decides to train him. Amy McNulty found it appealing to fans of the original Naruto series, stating that while Mitsuki does not have a large role in the story, the side story helps to expand his origins. Nik Freeman, another writer from the same site, criticized Boruto 's lack of development when comparing him with his first introduction in the Naruto 's finale, and that there were multiple differences as to why both the young Naruto and Boruto vandalized their city. Nevertheless, Freeman also liked Mitsuki 's backstory as he did not feel it rehashed stories from the past. Reviewing, the first chapter online, Chris Beveridge from the Fandom Post was more negative, complaining more about the large focus between Naruto and Boruto 's poor relationship, the rehash elements of Boruto: Naruto the Movie and criticized the adaptation of Kishimoto 's artwork. Nevertheless, she praised the relationship between Naruto and Sasuke as well as the foreshadowing of an older Boruto fight. Melina Dargis from the same site reviewed the first volume, commenting that she was looking forward to the development of the characters despite having already watched the Boruto movie and was also pleased by seeing Mitsuki 's role in his own side story. Leroy Douresseaux from Comic Book Bin recommended it to Naruto fans, explaining how the new authors managed to use the first volume to establish the protagonists ' personalities. Melina Dargis from the Fandom Post was impressed by the apparent message of the series as she found it was trying to connect to modern audiences with its themes such as parental issues, and the use of technology in contrast to Naruto. Leroy Douresseaux liked how Boruto 's character has already started development by the second volume of the series.
The anime was popular with Japanese readers of Charapedia who voted it the ninth best anime show of Spring 2017. IGN writer Sam Stewart enjoyed the focus of the new generation of ninjas and their differences from the previous generation, praising the return of other characters like Toneri as well as famous "Eye Techniques ''. Crunchyroll 's Naruto expert and Brand Manager, Victoria Holden, joined once to discuss whether Next Generations could live up to the success of the old series while still reviewing previous episodes of the series. Stewart enjoyed the characterization of both Shikadai Nara and Metal Lee, seeing their relationship and accidental fight as interesting to watch, and that Next Generations managed to improve itself with each episode. Beveridge enjoyed the series ' first episode, remarking he felt Boruto 's characterization was superior to the one from the manga. In a more comical article, Geek.com writer Tim Tomas compared Boruto with the series The Legend of Korra as, while sharing themes with its prequels, they were still different. Sarah Nelkin considered Boruto as a more lighthearted version of Naruto series, but Amy McNulty from ANN acclaimed its 13th episode for the focus on a subplot that had been developing ever since its first episode and how the revelation of it made the series darker. Stewart agreed with McNulty, commenting on how the developers reached the climax of the anime 's first story arc, as well as the characterization of the revealed villain, which impressed the reviewer. Allega Frank from Polygon noted that during the start of both the manga and anime, multiple fans were worried in regards to a flash forward; in this sequence, an older Boruto is facing an enemy named Kawaki who implies Naruto might be dead, so his fate left them worried.
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who plays at wells fargo arena des moines | Wells Fargo Arena (Des Moines, Iowa) - wikipedia
Wells Fargo Arena is a 16,980 - seat multi-purpose arena in Des Moines, Iowa, United States. Part of the Iowa Events Center, the arena opened on July 12, 2005, at a cost of $117 million. Named for title sponsor Wells Fargo, the arena replaced the aging Veterans Memorial Auditorium as the Des Moines area 's primary venue for sporting events and concerts. The first event held at the arena was Tony Hawk 's Boom - Boom Huck Jam, on July 14, while its first concert, Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, with The Black Crowes, was held on July 18.
Wells Fargo Arena seats 15,181 for hockey and football games, 16,110 for basketball games, and as many as 16,980 for concerts. It also features The Fort Restaurant, which provides views of the Des Moines River and the Iowa State Capitol. The restaurant opened on October 6, 2005, coinciding with the Iowa Stars ' inaugural home game.
The Arena is also connected to the rest of the Iowa Events Center as well as Downtown Des Moines through the city 's extensive Skywalk system, providing easy access.
Wells Fargo Arena is home to the Iowa Wolves (formerly named the Iowa Energy) of the NBA G League, the Iowa Barnstormers of the Indoor Football League and the Iowa Wild of the American Hockey League. From 2005 until 2009, Wells Fargo Arena served as the home of the American Hockey League 's Iowa Chops. The arena is notable for hosting the inaugural game of the reincarnation of the Arena Football League on April 2, 2010, between the Barnstormers and Chicago Rush, televised nationally by NFL Network.
It was the host for the first and second Round games for the 2008 NCAA Women 's Division I Basketball Tournament and served as a regional site 2012 tournament. In 2013, it hosted the NCAA Wrestling Team Championship.
It has hosted the state high school wrestling and basketball tournaments since 2006 and the Big Four Classic, a doubleheader featuring the state 's four men 's Division I teams, since 2012.
The arena hosted the 2011 NBA D - League Finals, which saw the Iowa Energy win their first title on their home court and set the D - League attendance record with 14,036 fans in the arena for Game 2.
In 2016, the arena hosted first and second round games for the South and East regionals of the Men 's NCAA Basketball Tournament and the games featured the likes of perennial college basketball powerhouse schools Kansas, Kentucky, Indiana and Connecticut. The NCAA Men 's basketball tournament will return to Wells Fargo Arena in 2019, hosting the tournament 's first and second round from March 21 - 23.
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how much land does a nuclear bomb cover | Effects of nuclear explosions - wikipedia
The energy released from a nuclear weapon detonated in the troposphere can be divided into four basic categories:
Depending on the design of the weapon and the environment in which it is detonated the energy distributed to these categories can be increased or decreased. The blast effect is created by the coupling of immense amounts of energy, spanning the electromagnetic spectrum, with the surroundings. Locations such as submarine, ground burst, air burst, or exo - atmospheric determine how much energy is produced as blast and how much as radiation. In general, denser media around the bomb, like water, absorb more energy, and create more powerful shockwaves while at the same time limiting the area of its effect.
When an air burst occurs, lethal blast and thermal effects proportionally scale much more rapidly than lethal radiation effects, as higher and higher yield nuclear weapons are used.
The physical - damage mechanisms of a nuclear weapon (blast and thermal radiation) are identical to those of conventional explosives, but the energy produced by a nuclear explosive is millions of times more powerful per gram and the temperatures reached are briefly in the tens of millions of degrees.
Energy from a nuclear explosive is initially released in several forms of penetrating radiation. When there is a surrounding material such as air, rock, or water, this radiation interacts with and rapidly heats it to an equilibrium temperature (i.e. so that the matter is at the same temperature as the atomic bomb 's matter). This causes vaporization of surrounding material resulting in its rapid expansion. Kinetic energy created by this expansion contributes to the formation of a shockwave. When a nuclear detonation occurs in air near sea level, much of the released energy interacts with the atmosphere and creates a shockwave which expands spherically from the center. Intense thermal radiation at the hypocenter forms a nuclear fireball and if the burst is low enough, it is often associated with a mushroom cloud. In a burst at high altitude, where the air density is low, more energy is released as ionizing gamma radiation and x-rays than an atmosphere - displacing shockwave.
In 1942 there was some initial speculation among the scientists developing the first nuclear weapons that there might be a possibility of igniting the Earth 's atmosphere with a large enough nuclear explosion. This would concern a nuclear reaction of two nitrogen atoms forming a carbon and an oxygen atom, with release of energy. This energy would heat up the remaining nitrogen enough to keep the reaction going until all nitrogen atoms were consumed. Hans Bethe was assigned the task of studying whether there was a possibility in the very early days, and concluded there was no possibility due to inverse Compton effect cooling of the fireball. Richard Hamming, a mathematician, was asked to make a similar calculation just before Trinity, with the same result. Nevertheless, the notion has persisted as a rumor for many years, and was the source of black humor at the Trinity test.
The high temperatures and radiation cause gas to move outward radially in a thin, dense shell called "the hydrodynamic front ''. The front acts like a piston that pushes against and compresses the surrounding medium to make a spherically expanding shock wave. At first, this shock wave is inside the surface of the developing fireball, which is created in a volume of air heated by the explosion 's "soft '' X-rays. Within a fraction of a second the dense shock front obscures the fireball, and continues to move past it, now expanding outwards, free from the fireball, causing the characteristic double pulse of light seen from a nuclear detonation, with the dip causing the double pulse due to the shock wave -- fireball interaction. It is this unique feature of nuclear explosions that is exploited when verifying that an atmospheric nuclear explosion has occurred and not simply a large conventional explosion, with radiometer instruments known as Bhangmeters capable of determining the nature of explosions.
For air bursts at or near sea - level, 50 -- 60 % of the explosion 's energy goes into the blast wave, depending on the size and the yield of the bomb. As a general rule, the blast fraction is higher for low yield weapons. Furthermore, it decreases at high altitudes because there is less air mass to absorb radiation energy and convert it into blast. This effect is most important for altitudes above 30 km, corresponding to less than 1 percent of sea - level air density.
The effects of a moderate rain storm during an Operation Castle nuclear explosion was found to dampen, or reduce, peak pressure levels by approximately 15 % at all ranges.
Much of the destruction caused by a nuclear explosion is due to blast effects. Most buildings, except reinforced or blast - resistant structures, will suffer moderate damage when subjected to overpressures of only 35.5 kilopascals (kPa) (5.15 pounds - force per square inch or 0.35 atm). Data obtained from the Japanese surveys found that 8 psi (55 kPa) was sufficient to destroy all wooden and brick residential structures. This can reasonably be defined as the pressure capable of producing severe damage.
The blast wind at sea level may exceed one thousand km / h, or ~ 300 m / s, approaching the speed of sound in air. The range for blast effects increases with the explosive yield of the weapon and also depends on the burst altitude. Contrary to what one might expect from geometry, the blast range is not maximal for surface or low altitude blasts but increases with altitude up to an "optimum burst altitude '' and then decreases rapidly for higher altitudes. This is due to the nonlinear behaviour of shock waves. When the blast wave from an air burst reaches the ground it is reflected. Below a certain reflection angle the reflected wave and the direct wave merge and form a reinforced horizontal wave, this is known as the ' Mach stem ' (named after Ernst Mach) and is a form of constructive interference. This constructive interference is the phenomenon responsible for the bumps or ' knees ' in the above overpressure range graph.
For each goal overpressure there is a certain optimum burst height at which the blast range is maximized over ground targets. In a typical air burst, where the blast range is maximized to produce the greatest range of severe damage, i.e. the greatest range that ~ 10 psi (69 kPa) of pressure is extended over, is a GR / ground range of 0.4 km for 1 kiloton (kt) of TNT yield; 1.9 km for 100 kt; and 8.6 km for 10 megatons (Mt) of TNT. The optimum height of burst to maximize this desired severe ground range destruction for a 1 kt bomb is 0.22 km; for 100 kt, 1 km; and for 10 Mt, 4.7 km.
Two distinct, simultaneous phenomena are associated with the blast wave in air:
Most of the material damage caused by a nuclear air burst is caused by a combination of the high static overpressures and the blast winds. The long compression of the blast wave weakens structures, which are then torn apart by the blast winds. The compression, vacuum and drag phases together may last several seconds or longer, and exert forces many times greater than the strongest hurricane.
Acting on the human body, the shock waves cause pressure waves through the tissues. These waves mostly damage junctions between tissues of different densities (bone and muscle) or the interface between tissue and air. Lungs and the abdominal cavity, which contain air, are particularly injured. The damage causes severe hemorrhaging or air embolisms, either of which can be rapidly fatal. The overpressure estimated to damage lungs is about 70 kPa. Some eardrums would probably rupture around 22 kPa (0.2 atm) and half would rupture between 90 and 130 kPa (0.9 to 1.2 atm).
Blast winds: The drag energies of the blast winds are proportional to the cubes of their velocities multiplied by the durations. These winds may reach several hundred kilometers per hour.
Nuclear weapons emit large amounts of thermal radiation as visible, infrared, and ultraviolet light, to which the atmosphere is largely transparent. This is known as "Flash ''. The chief hazards are burns and eye injuries. On clear days, these injuries can occur well beyond blast ranges, depending on weapon yield. Fires may also be started by the initial thermal radiation, but the following high winds due to the blast wave may put out almost all such fires, unless the yield is very high, where the range of thermal effects vastly out ranges blast effects, as observed from explosions in the multi-megaton range. This is because the intensity of the blast effects drops off with the third power of distance from the explosion, while the intensity of radiation effects drops off with the second power of distance. This results in the range of thermal effects increasing markedly more than blast range as higher and higher device yields are detonated. Thermal radiation accounts for between 35 -- 45 % of the energy released in the explosion, depending on the yield of the device. In urban areas, the extinguishing of fires ignited by thermal radiation may matter little, as in a surprise attack fires may also be started by blast - effect - induced electrical shorts, gas pilot lights, overturned stoves, and other ignition sources, as was the case in the breakfast - time bombing of Hiroshima. Whether or not these secondary fires will in turn themselves be snuffed out as modern noncombustible brick and concrete buildings collapse in on themselves from the same blast wave is uncertain, not least of which, because of the masking effect of modern city landscapes on thermal and blast transmission are continually examined. When combustible frame buildings were blown down in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, they did not burn as rapidly as they would have done had they remained standing. The noncombustible debris produced by the blast frequently covered and prevented the burning of combustible material. Fire experts suggest that unlike Hiroshima, due to the nature of modern U.S. city design and construction, a firestorm in modern times is unlikely after a nuclear detonation. This does not exclude fires from being started, but means that these fires will not form into a firestorm, due largely to the differences between modern building materials and that used in World War II era Hiroshima.
There are two types of eye injuries from the thermal radiation of a weapon:
Flash blindness is caused by the initial brilliant flash of light produced by the nuclear detonation. More light energy is received on the retina than can be tolerated, but less than is required for irreversible injury. The retina is particularly susceptible to visible and short wavelength infrared light, since this part of the electromagnetic spectrum is focused by the lens on the retina. The result is bleaching of the visual pigments and temporary blindness for up to 40 minutes.
A retinal burn resulting in permanent damage from scarring is also caused by the concentration of direct thermal energy on the retina by the lens. It will occur only when the fireball is actually in the individual 's field of vision and would be a relatively uncommon injury. Retinal burns may be sustained at considerable distances from the explosion. The height of burst, and apparent size of the fireball, a function of yield and range will determine the degree and extent of retinal scarring. A scar in the central visual field would be more debilitating. Generally, a limited visual field defect, which will be barely noticeable, is all that is likely to occur.
When thermal radiation strikes an object, part will be reflected, part transmitted, and the rest absorbed. The fraction that is absorbed depends on the nature and color of the material. A thin material may transmit a lot. A light colored object may reflect much of the incident radiation and thus escape damage, like anti-flash white paint. The absorbed thermal radiation raises the temperature of the surface and results in scorching, charring, and burning of wood, paper, fabrics, etc. If the material is a poor thermal conductor, the heat is confined to the surface of the material.
Actual ignition of materials depends on how long the thermal pulse lasts and the thickness and moisture content of the target. Near ground zero where the energy flux exceeds 125 J / cm, what can burn, will. Farther away, only the most easily ignited materials will flame. Incendiary effects are compounded by secondary fires started by the blast wave effects such as from upset stoves and furnaces.
In Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, a tremendous firestorm developed within 20 minutes after detonation and destroyed many more buildings and homes, built out of predominantly ' flimsy ' wooden materials. A firestorm has gale - force winds blowing in towards the center of the fire from all points of the compass. It is not peculiar to nuclear explosions, having been observed frequently in large forest fires and following incendiary raids during World War II. Despite fires destroying a large area of the city of Nagasaki, no true firestorm occurred in the city, even though a higher yielding weapon was used. Many factors explain this seeming contradiction, including a different time of bombing than Hiroshima, terrain, and crucially, a lower fuel loading / fuel density in the city than that of Hiroshima.
Nagasaki probably did not furnish sufficient fuel for the development of a fire storm as compared to the many buildings on the flat terrain at Hiroshima.
As thermal radiation travels, more or less, in a straight line from the fireball (unless scattered) any opaque object will produce a protective shadow that provides protection from the flash burn. Depending on the properties of the underlying surface material, the exposed area outside the protective shadow will be either burnt to a darker color, such as charring wood, or a brighter color, such as asphalt. If such a weather phenomenon as fog or haze is present at the point of the nuclear explosion, it scatters the flash, with radiant energy then reaching burn sensitive substances from all directions. Under these conditions, opaque objects are therefore less effective than they would otherwise be without scattering, as they demonstrate maximum shadowing effect in an environment of perfect visibility and therefore zero scattering. Similar to a foggy or overcast day, although there are few, if any, shadows produced by the sun on such a day, the solar energy that reaches the ground from the sun 's infrared rays is nevertheless considerably diminished, due to it being absorbed by the water of the clouds and the energy also being scattered back into space. Analogously, so too is the intensity at range of burning flash energy attenuated, in units of J / cm, along the slant / horizontal range of a nuclear explosion, during fog or haze conditions. So despite any object that casts a shadow being rendered ineffective as a shield from the flash by fog or haze, due to scattering, the fog fills the same protective role, but generally only at the ranges that survival in the open is just a matter of being protected from the explosion 's flash energy.
The thermal pulse also is responsible for warming the atmospheric nitrogen close to the bomb, and causing the creation of atmospheric NOx smog components. This, as part of the mushroom cloud, is shot into the stratosphere where it is responsible for dissociating ozone there, in exactly the same way as combustion NOx compounds do. The amount created depends on the yield of the explosion and the blast 's environment. Studies done on the total effect of nuclear blasts on the ozone layer have been at least tentatively exonerating after initial discouraging findings.
Gamma rays from a nuclear explosion produce high energy electrons through Compton scattering. For high altitude nuclear explosions, these electrons are captured in the Earth 's magnetic field at altitudes between twenty and forty kilometers where they interact with the Earth 's magnetic field to produce a coherent nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP) which lasts about one millisecond. Secondary effects may last for more than a second.
The pulse is powerful enough to cause moderately long metal objects (such as cables) to act as antennas and generate high voltages due to interactions with the electromagnetic pulse. These voltages can destroy unshielded electronics. There are no known biological effects of EMP. The ionized air also disrupts radio traffic that would normally bounce off the ionosphere.
Electronics can be shielded by wrapping them completely in conductive material such as metal foil; the effectiveness of the shielding may be less than perfect. Proper shielding is a complex subject due to the large number of variables involved. Semiconductors, especially integrated circuits, are extremely susceptible to the effects of EMP due to the close proximity of the PN junctions, but this is not the case with thermionic tubes (or valves) which are relatively immune to EMP. A Faraday cage does not offer protection from the effects of EMP unless the mesh is designed to have holes no bigger than the smallest wavelength emitted from a nuclear explosion.
Large nuclear weapons detonated at high - altitudes also cause geomagnetically induced current in very long electrical conductors. The mechanism by which these geomagnetically induced currents are generated is entirely different from the gamma ray induced pulse produced by Compton electrons.
The heat of the explosion causes air in the vicinity to become ionized, creating the fireball. The free electrons in the fireball affect radio waves, especially at lower frequencies. This causes a large area of the sky to become opaque to radar, especially those operating in the VHF and UHF frequencies, which is common for long - range early warning radars. The effect is less for higher frequencies in the microwave region, as well as lasting a shorter time -- the effect falls off both in strength and the affected frequencies as the fireball cools and the electrons begin to re-form onto free nuclei.
A second blackout effect is caused by the emission of beta particles from the fission products. These can travel long distances, following the Earth 's magnetic field lines. When they reach the upper atmosphere they cause ionization similar to the fireball, but over a wider area. Calculations demonstrate that one megaton of fission, typical of a two megaton H - bomb, will create enough beta radiation to black out an area 400 kilometres (250 mi) across for five minutes. Careful selection of the burst altitudes and locations can produce an extremely effective radar - blanking effect.
The physical effects giving rise to blackout are those that also cause EMP, which itself can cause power blackouts. The two effects are otherwise unrelated, and the similar naming can be confusing.
About 5 % of the energy released in a nuclear air burst is in the form of ionizing radiation: neutrons, gamma rays, alpha particles and electrons moving at speeds up to the speed of light. Gamma rays are high energy electromagnetic radiation; the others are particles that move slower than light. The neutrons result almost exclusively from the fission and fusion reactions, while the initial gamma radiation includes that arising from these reactions as well as that resulting from the decay of short - lived fission products.
The intensity of initial nuclear radiation decreases rapidly with distance from the point of burst because the radiation spreads over a larger area as it travels away from the explosion (the inverse - square law). It is also reduced by atmospheric absorption and scattering.
The character of the radiation received at a given location also varies with distance from the explosion. Near the point of the explosion, the neutron intensity is greater than the gamma intensity, but with increasing distance the neutron - gamma ratio decreases. Ultimately, the neutron component of initial radiation becomes negligible in comparison with the gamma component. The range for significant levels of initial radiation does not increase markedly with weapon yield and, as a result, the initial radiation becomes less of a hazard with increasing yield. With larger weapons, above 50 kt (200 TJ), blast and thermal effects are so much greater in importance that prompt radiation effects can be ignored.
The neutron radiation serves to transmute the surrounding matter, often rendering it radioactive. When added to the dust of radioactive material released by the bomb itself, a large amount of radioactive material is released into the environment. This form of radioactive contamination is known as nuclear fallout and poses the primary risk of exposure to ionizing radiation for a large nuclear weapon.
Details of nuclear weapon design also affect neutron emission: the gun - type assembly Hiroshima bomb leaked far more neutrons than the implosion type 21 kt Nagasaki bomb because the light hydrogen nuclei (protons) predominating in the exploded TNT molecules (surrounding the core of the Nagasaki bomb) slowed down neutrons very efficiently while the heavier iron atoms in the steel nose forging of the Hiroshima bomb scattered neutrons without absorbing much neutron energy.
It was found in early experimentation that normally most of the neutrons released in the cascading chain reaction of the fission bomb are absorbed by the bomb case. Building a bomb case of materials which transmitted rather than absorbed the neutrons could make the bomb more intensely lethal to humans from prompt neutron radiation. This is one of the features used in the development of the neutron bomb.
The pressure wave from an underground explosion will propagate through the ground and cause a minor earthquake. Theory suggests that a nuclear explosion could trigger fault rupture and cause a major quake at distances within a few tens of kilometers from the shot point.
The following table summarizes the most important effects of single nuclear explosions under ideal, clear skies, weather conditions. Tables like these are calculated from nuclear weapons effects scaling laws. Advanced computer modelling of real world conditions and how they impact on the damage to modern urban areas has found that most scaling laws are too simplistic and tend to overestimate nuclear explosion effects. As it is only simplistic and unclassified scaling laws that are commonly encountered, that do not take important things like varying land topography into account to ease calculation time and equation length. The scaling laws that were used to produce the table below, assume among other things, a perfectly level target area, no attenuating effects from urban terrain masking, e.g. skyscraper shadowing, and no enhancement effects from reflections and tunneling by city streets. As a point of comparison in the chart below, the most likely nuclear weapons to be used against countervalue city targets in a global nuclear war are in the sub-megaton range. Weapons of yields from 100 to 475 kilotons have become the most numerous in the US and Russian nuclear arsenals; for example the warheads equipping the Russian Bulava submarine launched ballistic missile (SLBM) have a yield of 150 kilotons. US examples are the W76 and W88 warheads, with the lower yield W76 being over twice as numerous as the W88 in the US nuclear arsenal.
For the direct radiation effects the slant range instead of the ground range is shown here, because some effects are not given even at ground zero for some burst heights. If the effect occurs at ground zero the ground range can be derived from slant range and burst altitude (Pythagorean theorem).
"Acute radiation syndrome '' corresponds here to a total dose of one gray, "lethal '' to ten grays. This is only a rough estimate since biological conditions are neglected here.
Further complicating matters, under global nuclear war scenarios, with conditions similar to that during the Cold War, major strategically important cities, like Moscow, and Washington are likely to be hit not once, but numerous times from sub megaton multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicles, in a cluster bomb or "cookie cutter '' configuration. It has been reported that during the height of the Cold War in the 1970s Moscow was targeted by up to 60 warheads. The reasons that the cluster bomb concept is preferable in the targeting of cities is twofold, the first is down to the fact that large singular warheads are much easier to neutralize as both tracking and successful interception by anti-ballistic missile systems than it is when several smaller incoming warheads are approaching. This strength in numbers advantage to lower yield warheads is further compounded by such warheads tending to move at higher incoming speeds, due to their smaller, more slender physics package size, assuming both nuclear weapon designs are the same (a design exception being the advanced W88). The second reason for this cluster bomb, or ' layering ' (using repeated hits by accurate low yield weapons), is that this tactic along with limiting the risk of failure, also reduces individual bomb yields, and therefore reduces the possibility of any serious collateral damage to non-targeted nearby civilian areas, including that of neighboring countries. This concept was pioneered by Philip J. Dolan and others.
Gamma rays from the nuclear processes preceding the true explosion may be partially responsible for the following fireball, as they may superheat nearby air and / or other material. The vast majority of the energy that goes on to form the fireball is in the soft X-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum, with these X-rays being produced by the inelastic collisions of the high speed fission and fusion products. It is these reaction products and not the gamma rays which contain most of the energy of the nuclear reactions in the form of kinetic energy. This kinetic energy of the fission and fusion fragments is converted into internal and then radiation energy by approximately following the process of blackbody radiation emitting in the soft X-ray region. As a result of numerous inelastic collisions, part of the kinetic energy of the fission fragments is converted into internal and radiation energy. Some of the electrons are removed entirely from the atoms, thus causing ionization, others are raised to higher energy (or excited) states while still remaining attached to the nuclei. Within an extremely short time, perhaps a hundredth of a microsecond or so, the weapon residues consist essentially of completely and partially stripped (ionized) atoms, many of the latter being in excited states, together with the corresponding free electrons. The system then immediately emits electromagnetic (thermal) radiation, the nature of which is determined by the temperature. Since this is of the order of 10 degrees, most of the energy emitted within a microsecond or so is in the soft X-ray region. To understand this one must remember that temperature depends on the average internal energy / heat of the particles in a certain volume, and internal energy or heat is due to kinetic energy.
For an explosion in the atmosphere, the fireball quickly expands to maximum size, and then begins to cool as it rises like a balloon through buoyancy in the surrounding air. As it does so it takes on the flow pattern of a vortex ring with incandescent material in the vortex core as seen in certain photographs. This effect is known as a mushroom cloud.
Sand will fuse into glass if it is close enough to the nuclear fireball to be drawn into it, and is thus heated to the necessary temperatures to do so; this is known as trinitite.
At the explosion of nuclear bombs lightning discharges sometimes occur.
Smoke trails are often seen in photographs of nuclear explosions. These are not from the explosion; they are left by sounding rockets launched just prior to detonation. These trails allow observation of the blast 's normally invisible shock wave in the moments following the explosion.
The heat and airborne debris created by a nuclear explosion can cause rain; debris is thought to do this by acting as cloud condensation nuclei. During the city firestorm which followed the Hiroshima explosion, drops of water were recorded to have been about the size of marbles. This was termed black rain, and has served as the source of a book and film by the same name. Black rain is not unusual following large fires, and is commonly produced by pyrocumulus clouds during large forest fires. The rain directly over Hiroshima on that day is said to have begun around 9 a.m. with it covering a wide area from the hypocenter to the north - west, raining heavily for one hour or more in some areas. The rain directly over the city may have carried neutron activated building material combustion products, but it did not carry any appreciable nuclear weapon debris or fallout, although this is generally to the contrary to what other less technical sources state. The "oily '' black soot particles, are a characteristic of incomplete combustion in the city firestorm.
The element einsteinium was discovered when analyzing nuclear fallout.
A side - effect of the Pascal - B nuclear test during Operation Plumbbob may have resulted in the first man - made object launched into space. The so - called "thunder well '' effect from the underground explosion may have launched a metal cover plate into space at six times Earth 's escape velocity, although the evidence remains subject to debate.
This is highly dependent on factors such as if one is indoors or out, the size of the explosion, the proximity to the explosion, and to a lesser degree the direction of the wind carrying fallout. Death is highly likely and radiation poisoning is almost certain if one is caught in the open with no terrain or building masking effects within a radius of 0 -- 3 km from a 1 megaton airburst, and the 50 % chance of death from the blast extends out to ~ 8 km from the same 1 megaton atmospheric explosion.
To highlight the variability in the real world, and the effect that being indoors can make, despite the lethal radiation and blast zone extending well past her position at Hiroshima, Akiko Takakura survived the effects of a 16 kt atomic bomb at a distance of 300 meters from the hypocenter, with only minor injuries, due mainly to her position in the lobby of the Bank of Japan, a reinforced concrete building, at the time. In contrast, the unknown person sitting outside, fully exposed, on the steps of the Sumitomo Bank, next door to the Bank of Japan, received lethal third degree burns and was then likely killed by the blast, in that order, within two seconds.
With medical attention, radiation exposure is survivable to a 200 rems acute dose exposure. If a group of people is exposed to a 50 to 59 rems acute (within 24 hours) radiation dose, none will get radiation sickness. If the group is exposed to 60 to 180 rems, 50 % will become sick with radiation poisoning. If medically treated, all of the 60 -- 180 rems group will survive. If the group is exposed to 200 to 450 rems, most if not all of the group will become sick. 50 % of the 200 -- 450 rems group will die within two to four weeks, even with medical attention. If the group is exposed to 460 to 600 rems, 100 % of the group will get radiation poisoning. 50 % of the 460 -- 600 rems group will die within one to three weeks. If the group is exposed to 600 to 1000 rems, 50 % will die in one to three weeks. If the group is exposed to 1,000 to 5,000 rems, 100 % of the group will die within 2 weeks. At 5,000 rems, 100 % of the group will die within 2 days.
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what was the score of the rose bowl last year | 2016 Rose Bowl - wikipedia
The 2016 Rose Bowl was a college football bowl game that was played on January 1, 2016 at the Rose Bowl stadium in Pasadena, California. This 102nd Rose Bowl Game matched the Big Ten Conference West Division champion Iowa Hawkeyes against the Pac - 12 Conference champion Stanford Cardinal. It was one of the 2015 -- 16 bowl games that concluded the 2015 FBS football season. Sponsored by the Northwestern Mutual financial services organization, the game is officially known as the Rose Bowl Game presented by Northwestern Mutual. Stanford defeated Iowa 45 -- 16 to win the championship and the Lathrop K. Leishman trophy.
The contest was televised on ESPN with a radio broadcast on ESPN Radio and XM Satellite Radio, which began at 1: 30 PM (PST) with kickoff at 2: 10 PM (PST). The Pasadena Tournament of Roses Association was the organizer of the game.
The Rose Bowl Game was a contractual sell - out, with 64,500 tickets allocated to the participating teams and conferences. The remaining tickets are distributed to the Tournament of Roses members, sponsors, City of Pasadena residents, and the general public. Ticket prices were $150 and $185.
The game was presided over by the 2016 Rose Queen, the Royal Court, Tournament of Roses President Mike Matthiessen, and Ken Burns, the Grand Marshal. The theme of the parade and game was "Find Your Adventure ''.
After the teams ' arrival in Southern California, the teams participated in the traditional Lawry 's Beef Bowl in Beverly Hills and the Disney Media Day at the Disneyland Resort in nearby Anaheim. The Rose Bowl Hall of Fame ceremony luncheon was held prior to the game at the Pasadena Convention Center, where outstanding former players and participants were inducted into the hall. They were Mark Brunell, Washington; Jim Muldoon, Pac - 10 Conference; Fritz Pollard, Brown; and Tyrone Wheatley, Michigan.
The bands and cheerleaders from both schools participated in the pre-game Rose Parade on Colorado Boulevard in Pasadena, California along with the floats.
The teams playing in the Rose Bowl game were the highest ranking teams from the Pac - 12 Conference and Big Ten Conference that were not selected to play in a College Football Playoff semifinal game. The teams were officially selected by the football committee of the Pasadena Tournament of Roses Association on Selection Sunday on December 6, 2015, based on the final rankings by the CFP committee. The Stanford Cardinal and the Iowa Hawkeyes met for the first time in this game.
The Iowa Hawkeyes, as the Big Ten West Division Champions, were back in the Rose Bowl after 25 years, last appearing in the 1991 Rose Bowl. Their last win in Pasadena was against the California Bears, 38 -- 12 in the 1959 Rose Bowl. Prior to the 2016 Rose Bowl, they were 2 -- 3 in Rose Bowl games. In the 2015 season, the team was nearly undefeated before the Rose Bowl, losing only the Big Ten Championship Game to Michigan State 13 -- 16. Iowa wore its black jerseys and used the west bench on game day.
The Stanford Cardinal, 11 - 2 (8 - 1 in conference), were playing their fifteenth Rose Bowl game (and their third Rose Bowl Game in four years) by winning the Pac - 12 Championship Game over USC 41 -- 22. Prior to the 2016 Rose Bowl, they were 6 -- 7 -- 1 in Rose Bowl games, last winning over Wisconsin 20 -- 14 in 2013. They lost the 2014 Rose Bowl to Michigan State 20 -- 24. Stanford wore its white jerseys and used the east bench on game day.
Sports analysts had anticipated the contest to be exciting, due mainly to the matchup between Iowa 's strong run defense and Stanford running back Christian McCaffrey, the Heisman Trophy runner - up. McCaffrey led the FBS in the 2015 season with 3,864 all - purpose yards, which came from punt / kick returns, runs from scrimmage, and passes out of the backfield. In contrast, Iowa 's run defense finished the season ranked 14th, allowing only 121 yards per game and having defeated historically rushing teams like Wisconsin, Indiana, and Nebraska.
McCaffrey caught a short pass and turned it into a 75 - yard touchdown on the first play from scrimmage. The Hawkeyes were unable to stop him, as he averaged 9.6 YPC (172 yards on 18 carries), returned a punt for a touchdown, and converted many third downs. Though he did not rush for any touchdowns from scrimmage, he proved to be the primary playmaker for Stanford, catching a third of Kevin Hogan 's twelve passes. McCaffrey was such an offensive threat that Hogan was able to make large gains with the read option, including a wide - open first - quarter option TD run.
Iowa was unable to get their run game going, rushing as a team for 1.3 YPC (48 yards on 38 carries). The longest Iowa runs came from LeShun Daniels, Jr. and Akrum Wadley (14 and 12 yards, respectively), as well as a 14 - yard scramble by Quarterback C.J. Beathard. Iowa 's inability to establish a run game closed up Iowa 's potential for play - action passing, which has been Beathard 's bread and butter all season. Jordan Canzeri, Iowa 's power halfback, was unable to churn significant yardage, and 3rd - team halfback Akrum Wadley (who had a 200 - yard game at Northwestern, when Daniels and Canzeri were both injured) split ballcarrying duties with Daniels in the second half. Iowa 's halfbacks, their biggest threat all season, were overall unable to garner any significant yardage on the ground; Derek Mitchell, Jr., Iowa 's 4th - team halfback, saw significant action lining up in the backfield and caught 4 passes for 41 yards, and Wadley also contributed to the pass game by catching 3 for 60.
Stanford shut Iowa out in the first half 35 - 0, with Stanford 's 35 points the most scored in the first half of a Rose Bowl in its entire 102 - year history. Stanford 's 21 - 0 first - quarter lead was also the most first - quarter points scored by one team in Rose Bowl history. McCaffrey gained a total of 368 all - purpose yards, setting another Rose Bowl record.
By the second half, Stanford 's explosiveness slowed down, scoring just 10 second - half points versus their 35 first - half points. Iowa did not score until the 3rd quarter when placekicker Marshall Koehn kicked a field goal after converting on 4th down earlier in the drive; Beathard threw 2 touchdowns in the 4th quarter, with Koehn missing one of the two PATs.
Iowa had a slight advantage in time of possession, possessing the ball for almost 33 minutes, though they were simply unable to make meaning out of their possessions. Iowa also outgained Stanford through the air by a slim margin, with 239 yards to Stanford 's 223.
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which class of bones are part of the appendicular skeletal division | Appendicular skeleton - wikipedia
The appendicular skeleton is the portion of the skeleton of vertebrates consisting of the bones that support the appendages. Appendages appeared as fins in early fish, and subsequently evolved into the limbs of tetrapods. The appendicular skeleton includes the skeletal elements within the limbs, as well as supporting pectoral and pelvic girdles in the case of tetrapods (these are lacking in fish). The word appendicular is the adjective of the noun appendage, which itself means a part that is joined to something larger.
Of the 206 bones in the human skeleton, the appendicular skeleton comprises 126. Functionally it is involved in locomotion (lower limbs) of the axial skeleton and manipulation of objects in the environment (upper limbs).
The appendicular skeleton forms during development from cartilage, by the process of endochondral ossification.
The appendicular skeleton is divided into six major regions:
It is important to realize that through anatomical variation it is common for the skeleton to have many accessory bones (sutural bones in the skull, cervical ribs, lumbar ribs and even extra lumbar vertebrae).
The appendicular skeleton of 126 bones and the axial skeleton of 80 bones together form the complete skeleton of 206 bones in the human body. Unlike the axial skeleton, the appendicular skeleton is unfused. This allows for a much greater range of motion.
Appendicular skeleton (shown in red).
Illustration depicting anterior and posterior view of appendicular skeleton
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who played dueling banjos in the movie deliverance | Billy Redden - wikipedia
Billy Redden (born 1956) is an American actor, best known for his role as a backwoods, mountain boy in the 1972 film Deliverance. He played Lonnie, a banjo - playing teenager of the country in north Georgia, who played the noted "Dueling Banjos '' with Drew Ballinger (Ronny Cox). The film was critically acclaimed and received nominations for awards in several categories.
Redden was born in Rabun County, Georgia.
At the age of 16, he was selected for a role in Deliverance from his school in Georgia by the director John Boorman to portray a banjo - playing "local '' during the film 's famous "dueling banjos '' scene. Boorman felt that Redden 's skinny frame and large head, and almond shaped eyes made him the natural choice to play the part of an "inbred from the back woods. '' Because Redden could not play a banjo, he wore a special shirt which allowed a real banjo player to hide behind him for the scene, which was shot with carefully chosen camera angles that would conceal the player, whose arms were slipped around Redden 's waist to play the tune.
After Deliverance, Redden was cast in Lamberto Bava 's 1984 film Blastfighter. The film was recorded in and around Clayton and many people recall it as a mixture of Deliverance and First Blood.
Redden next appeared in Tim Burton 's 2003 film Big Fish. Burton was intent on getting Redden, as he wanted him to play the role of a banjo - playing "welcomer '' in the utopian town of Spectre. Burton located Redden in Clayton, Georgia, where he was part - owner of the Cookie Jar Café, and also worked as a cook and dishwasher.
In 2004, Redden made a guest appearance on Blue Collar TV, playing a car repairman named Ray in a "Redneck Dictionary '' skit. He represented the word "raisin bread '' (as in "Ray 's inbred ''). He played a banjo in the skit.
In 2009, Redden played again his usual role (The banjo man) in Ace Cruz 's film Outrage: Born in Terror.
In 2012, 40 years after the release of Deliverance, Redden was interviewed in association with a documentary, The Deliverance of Rabun County (2012). It explored the feelings of people in Rabun County four decades later about the 1972 film. Redden said that though Deliverance was the best thing that happened to him, he never saw much money from the movie:
I 'd like to have all the money I thought I 'd make from this movie. I would n't be working at Walmart right now. And I 'm struggling really hard to make ends meet.
Noting some locals objected to the stereotypes in the movie, Redden said that the people in Rabun County were good people:
We 're not a bad people up here, we 're a loving people. Rabun County is a pretty good town. It 's peaceful, not a lot of crime going on, just a real peaceful town. Everybody pretty much gets along with everybody.
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when was the last time usa womans hockey won gold | United States women 's national ice hockey team - wikipedia
The United States women 's national ice hockey team is controlled by USA Hockey. The U.S. has been one of the most successful women 's ice hockey teams in international play, having won gold or silver in every major tournament with the exception of the 2006 Winter Olympics, where they captured bronze. As of 2018, the U.S. has 75,832 female players.
In 1998, the women 's Olympic hockey team was named the USOC Team of the Year. In April 2015, the women 's national ice hockey team was named the USOC Team of the Month.
The following is the United States roster for the women 's ice hockey tournament at the 2018 Winter Olympics.
Head coach: Robb Stauber Associate coaches: Brett Strot, Paul Mara
For the 2010 Olympics, the team 's training and development program was located in Blaine, Minnesota, at the Schwan Super Rink, the largest ice facility in the world. For the 2014 Olympics, the team 's training was located in the Greater Boston region at the Edge Sports Center in Bedford, Massachusetts, while off - ice fitness facility was located at the Mike Boyle Strength & Conditioning Center in Woburn, Massachusetts.
On 15 March 2017, players for the U.S. women 's ice hockey team announced that they would boycott the 2017 World Championship over inequitable support and conditions for women 's ice hockey unless concessions were made by USA Hockey. Members of the team including captain Meghan Duggan made public statements regarding poor pay and conditions for female hockey players. The players were publicly supported by the players ' associations for the NBA, WNBA, MLB and the NHLPA. On 28 March 2017, the players agreed to play in the World Championship after an agreement was struck with USA Hockey to increase player pay and support for women 's development.
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where did the oregon trail start in missouri | Route of the Oregon trail - wikipedia
The historic 2,170 - mile (3,490 km) Oregon Trail connected various towns along the Missouri River to Oregon 's Willamette Valley. It was used during the 19th century by Great Plains pioneers who were seeking fertile land in the West and North.
As the trail developed it became marked by numerous cutoffs and shortcuts from Missouri to Oregon. The basic route follows river valleys as grass and water were absolutely necessary.
While the first few parties organized and departed from Elm Grove, the Oregon Trail 's primary starting point was Independence, Missouri, or Kansas City (Missouri), on the Missouri River. Later, several feeder trails led across Kansas, and some towns became starting points, including Weston, Missouri, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, Atchison, Kansas, St. Joseph, Missouri, and Omaha, Nebraska.
The Oregon Trail 's nominal termination point was Oregon City, at the time the proposed capital of the Oregon Territory. However, many settlers branched off or stopped short of this goal and settled at convenient or promising locations along the trail. Commerce with pioneers going further west helped establish these early settlements and launched local economies critical to their prosperity.
At dangerous or difficult river crossings, ferries or toll bridges were set up and bad places on the trail were either repaired or bypassed. Several toll roads were constructed. Gradually the trail became easier with the average trip (as recorded in numerous diaries) dropping from about 160 days in 1849 to 140 days 10 years later.
Numerous other trails followed the Oregon Trail for much of its length, including the Mormon Trail from Illinois to Utah; the California Trail to the gold fields of California; and the Bozeman Trail to Montana. Because it was more a network of trails than a single trail there were numerous variations, with other trails eventually established on both sides of the Platte, North Platte, Snake, and Columbia rivers. With literally thousands of people and thousands of livestock traveling in a fairly small time slot the travelers had to spread out to find clean water, wood, good campsites, and grass. The dust kicked up by the many travelers was a constant complaint, and where the terrain would allow it there may be between 20 and 50 wagons traveling abreast.
Remnants of the trail in Kansas, Nebraska, Wyoming, Idaho, and Oregon have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and the entire trail is a designated National Historic Trail (listed as the Oregon National Historic Trail).
Initially, the main "jumping off point '' was the common head of the Santa Fe Trail and Oregon Trail -- Independence, Missouri / Kansas City, Kansas. Travelers starting in Independence had to ferry across the Missouri River. After following the Santa Fe trail to near present - day Topeka, Kansas, they ferried across the Kansas River to start the trek across Kansas and points west. Another busy "jumping off point '' was St. Joseph, Missouri -- established in 1843. In its early days, St. Joseph was a bustling outpost and rough frontier town, serving as one of the last supply points before heading over the Missouri River to the frontier. St. Joseph had good steamboat connections to St. Louis, Missouri, and other ports on the combined Ohio, Missouri and Mississippi River systems. During the busy season there were several ferry boats and steamboats available to transport travelers to the Kansas shore where they started their travels westward. Before the Union Pacific Railroad was started in 1865, St. Joseph was the westernmost point in the United States accessible by rail. Other towns used as supply points in Missouri included Old Franklin, Arrow Rock, and Fort Osage.
In 1803 President Thomas Jefferson purchased from France the Louisiana Purchase for fifteen million dollars (equivalent to about $230 million today) which included all the land drained by the Missouri River and roughly doubled the size of U.S. territory. The future states of Iowa and Missouri, located west of the Mississippi River and east of the Missouri River, were part of this purchase. The Lewis and Clark Expedition stopped several times in the future state of Iowa on their 1805 - 1806 expedition to the west coast. A disputed 1804 treaty between Quashquame and William Henry Harrison (future ninth President of the U.S.) that surrendered much of the future state of Illinois to the U.S. enraged many Sauk (Sac) Indians and led to the 1832 Black Hawk War. As punishment for the uprising, and as part of a larger settlement strategy, treaties were subsequently designed to remove all Indians from Iowa Territory. Some settlers started drifting into Iowa in 1833. President Martin Van Buren on July 4, 1838, signed laws establishing the Territory of Iowa. Iowa was located opposite the junction of the Platte and Missouri rivers and was used by some of the Fur trapper rendezvous traders as a starting point for their supply expeditions. In 1846 the Mormons, expelled from Nauvoo, Illinois, traversed Iowa (on part of the Mormon Trail) and settled temporarily in significant numbers on the Missouri River in Iowa and the future state of Nebraska at their Winter Quarters near the future city of Omaha, Nebraska. (See: Missouri River settlements (1846 -- 1854)) The Mormons established about 50 temporary towns, including the town of Kanesville (renamed Council Bluffs, Iowa in 1852) on the east bank of the Missouri River opposite the mouth of the Platte. For those travelers to Oregon, California, and Utah who were bringing their teams to the Platte River junction, Kanesville and other towns become major "jumping off places '' and supply points. In 1847 the Mormons established three ferries across the Missouri River, and others established even more ferries for the spring start on the trail. In the 1850 census there were about 8,000 mostly Mormons tabulated in the large Pottawattamie County, Iowa District 21. (The original Pottawattamie County was subsequently made into five counties and parts of several more.) By 1854 most of the Mormon towns, farms and villages were largely taken over by non-Mormons as they abandoned them or sold them for not much and continued their migration to Utah. After 1846 the towns of Council Bluffs, Iowa, Omaha, Nebraska (est. 1852) and other Missouri River towns became major supply points and "jumping off places '' for travelers on the Mormon, California, Oregon and other trails west.
Starting initially in Independence or Kansas City in Missouri, the initial trail followed the Santa Fe Trail into Kansas south of the Wakarusa River. After crossing Mount Oread at Lawrence, the trail crossed the Kansas River by ferry or boats near Topeka, and crossed the Wakarusa and Vermillion rivers by ferries. After the Vermillion River the trail angles northwest to Nebraska paralleling the Little Blue River until reaching the south side of the Platte River. Travel by wagon over the gently rolling Kansas countryside was usually unimpeded except where streams had cut steep banks. There a passage could be made with a lot of shovel work to cut down the banks or the travelers could find an already established crossing.
Those emigrants on the eastern side of the Missouri River in Missouri or Iowa used ferries and steamboats (fitted out for ferry duty) to cross into towns in Nebraska. Several towns in Nebraska were used as "jumping off places '' with Omaha eventually becoming a favorite after about 1855. Fort Kearny (est. 1848) is about 200 miles (320 km) from the Missouri River, and the trail and its many offshoots nearly all converged close to Fort Kearny as they followed the Platte River west. The army - maintained fort was the first chance on the trail to buy emergency supplies, do repairs, get medical aid, or mail a letter. Those on the north side of the Platte could usually wade the shallow river if they needed to visit the fort.
The Platte River and the North Platte River in the future states of Nebraska and Wyoming typically had many channels and islands and were too shallow, crooked, muddy and unpredictable for travel even by canoe. The Platte as it pursued its braided paths to the Missouri River was "too thin to plow and too thick to drink ''. While unusable for transport, the Platte River and North Platte River valleys provided an easily passable wagon corridor going almost due west with access to water, grass, buffalo, and buffalo chips for fuel. The trails gradually got rougher as it progressed up the North Platte. There were trails on both sides of the muddy rivers. The Platte was about 1 mile (1.6 km) wide and 2 to 60 inches (5.1 to 152.4 cm) deep. The water was silty and bad tasting but it could be used if no other water was available. Letting it sit in a bucket for an hour or so or stirring in a 1 / 4 cup of cornmeal allowed most of the silt to settle out. Those traveling south of the Platte crossed the South Platte River with its muddy and treacherous crossings using one of about three ferries (in dry years it could sometimes be forded without a ferry) before continuing up the North Platte River valley to Fort Laramie in present - day Wyoming. After crossing over the South Platte the travelers encountered Ash Hollow with its steep descent down Windlass Hill.
In the spring in Nebraska and Wyoming the travelers often encountered fierce wind, rain and lightning storms. Until about 1870 travelers encountered hundreds of thousands of bison migrating through Nebraska on both sides of the Platte River, and most travelers killed several for fresh meat and to build up their supplies of dried jerky for the rest of the journey. The prairie grass in many places was several feet high with only the hat of a traveler on horseback showing as they passed through the prairie grass. In many years the Indians fired much of the dry grass on the prairie every fall so the only trees or bushes available for firewood were on islands in the Platte river. Travelers gathered and ignited dried buffalo chips to cook their meals. These burned fast in a breeze, and it could take two or more bushels of chips to get one meal prepared. Those traveling south of the Platte crossed the South Platte fork at one of about three ferries (in dry years it could be forded without a ferry) before continuing up the North Platte River valley into present - day Wyoming heading to Fort Laramie. Before 1852 those on the north side of the Platte crossed the North Platte to the south side at Fort Laramie. After 1852 they used Child 's Cutoff to stay on the north side to about the present day town of Casper, Wyoming, where they crossed over to the south side.
Notable landmarks in Nebraska include Courthouse and Jail Rocks, Chimney Rock, Scotts Bluff, and Ash Hollow State Historical Park.
Today much of the Oregon Trail follows roughly along Interstate 80 from Wyoming to Grand Island, Nebraska. From there U.S. Highway 30 which follows the Platte River is a better approximate path for those traveling the north side of the Platte. The National Park Service (NPS) gives traveling advice for those who want to follow other branches of the trail.
Because of the Platte 's brackish water, the preferred camping spots were along one of the many fresh water streams draining into the Platte or the occasional fresh water spring found along the way. These preferred camping spots became sources of cholera in the epidemic years (1849 -- 1855) as many thousands of people used the same camping spots with essentially no sewage facilities or adequate sewage treatment. There are many cases cited where a person would be alive and apparently healthy in the morning and dead by nightfall.
Fort Laramie marked the end of most cholera outbreaks. Spread by cholera bacteria in fecal contaminated water, cholera caused massive diarrhea, leading to dehydration and death. In those days its cause and treatment were unknown, and it was often fatal -- up to 30 % of infected people died. It is believed that the swifter flowing rivers in Wyoming helped prevent the germs from spreading.
The cause of cholera, ingesting the Vibrio cholerae bacterium from contaminated water, and the best treatment for cholera infections were unknown in this era. Literally hundreds of travelers on the combined California, Oregon, and Mormon Trails succumbed to cholera in the 1849 - 1855 time period. Most were buried in unmarked graves in Kansas, Nebraska, and Wyoming.
A branch of the Oregon Trail crossed the very northeast corner of Colorado if they followed the South Platte River to one of its last crossings. This branch of the trail passed through present - day Julesburg, Colorado before entering Wyoming. Later settlers to much of what became the state of Colorado followed the Platte and South Platte rivers into their settlements there.
After crossing the South Platte River the Oregon Trail follows the North Platte River out of Nebraska into Wyoming. Fort Laramie, at the junction of the Laramie River and the North Platte River, was a major stopping point. Fort Laramie was a former fur trading outpost originally named Fort John that was purchased in 1848 by the U.S. Army to protect travelers on the trails. It was the last army outposts till travelers reached the coast.
After crossing the South Platte the trail continues up the North Platte River, crossing many small swift flowing creeks. As the North Platte veers to the south the trail crosses the North Platte to the Sweetwater River valley which heads almost due west. Independence Rock is located on the Sweetwater River. The Sweetwater would have to be crossed up to nine times before the trail crosses over the Continental Divide at South Pass, Wyoming. From South Pass the trail continues southwest crossing Big Sandy Creek (about 10 feet (3.0 m) wide and 1 foot (0.30 m) deep) before hitting the Green River. Three to five ferries were in use on the Green during peak travel periods. The swift and treacherous Green River, which eventually empties into the Colorado River, was usually at high water in July and August, and it was a dangerous crossing. After crossing the Green the main trail continues on in an approximate southwest direction until it encounters the Blacks Fork of the Green River and Fort Bridger, Wyoming. From Fort Bridger the Mormon Trail continued southwest following the upgraded Hastings Cutoff through the Wasatch Mountains. From Fort Bridger, the main trail, comprising several variants, veered northwest over the Bear River Divide and descended to the Bear River Valley. The trail turned north following the Bear River past the terminus of the Sublette - Greenwood Cutoff at Smiths Fork and on to the Thomas Fork Valley at the present Wyoming - Idaho border.
Over time, two major heavily used cutoffs were established in Wyoming. The Sublette - Greenwood Cutoff was established in 1844 and cut about 70 miles (110 km) off the main route. It leaves the main trail about 10 miles (16 km) west of South Pass and heads almost due west crossing Big Sandy Creek and then about 45 miles (72 km) of waterless, very dusty desert before reaching the Green River near the present town of La Barge. Ferries here transferred them across the Green River. From there the Sublette - Greenwood Cutoff trail had to cross a mountain range to connect with the main trail near Cokeville, Wyoming in the Bear River valley.
The Lander Road, formally the Fort Kearney, South Pass, and Honey Lake Wagon Road, was established and built by U.S. government contractors in 1858 - 59. It was about 80 miles (130 km) shorter than the main trail through Fort Bridger with good grass, water, firewood and fishing but it was a much steeper and rougher route, crossing three mountain ranges. In 1859, 13,000 of the 19,000 emigrants traveling to California and Oregon utilized the Lander Road. The traffic in later years is undocumented.
The Lander Road departs the main trail at Burnt Ranch near South Pass, crosses the Continental Divide north of South Pass and reaches the Green River near the present town of Big Piney, Wyoming. From there the trail followed Big Piney Creek west before passing over the 8,800 feet (2,700 m) Thompson Pass in the Wyoming Range. It then crosses over the Smith Fork of the Bear River before ascending and crossing another 8,200 feet (2,500 m) pass on the Salt River Range of mountains and then descending into Star Valley Wyoming. It exited the mountains near the present Smith Fork road about 6 miles (9.7 km) south of the town of Smoot, Wyoming. The road continued almost due north along the present day Wyoming - Idaho western border through Star Valley. To avoid crossing the Salt River (which drains into the Snake River) which runs down Star Valley the Lander Road crossed the river when it was small and stayed west of the Salt River. After traveling down the Salt River valley (Star Valley) about 20 miles (32 km) north the road turned almost due west near the present town of Auburn, Wyoming, and entered into the present state of Idaho along Stump Creek. In Idaho it followed the Stump Creek valley northwest till it crossed the Caribou Mountains and proceeded past the south end of Grays Lake. The trail then proceeded almost due west to meet the main trail at Fort Hall; alternately, a branch trail headed almost due south to meet the main trail near the present town of Soda Springs, Idaho.
Numerous landmarks are located along the trail in Wyoming including Independence Rock, Ayres Natural Bridge and Register Cliff.
In 1847, Brigham Young and the Mormon pioneers departed from the Oregon Trail at Fort Bridger in Wyoming and followed (and much improved) the rough trail originally recommended by Lansford Hastings to the Donner Party in 1846 through the Wasatch Mountains into Utah. After getting into Utah they immediately started setting up irrigated farms and cities -- including Salt Lake City, Utah. In 1848, the Salt Lake Cutoff was established by Sam Hensley, and returning members of the Mormon Battalion providing a path north of the Great Salt Lake from Salt Lake City back to the California and Oregon Trails. This cutoff rejoined the Oregon and California Trails near the City of Rocks near the Utah - Idaho border and could be used by both California and Oregon bound travelers. Located about half way on both the California and Oregon Trails many thousands of later travelers used Salt Lake City and other Utah cities as an intermediate stop for selling or trading excess goods or tired livestock for fresh livestock, repairs, supplies or fresh vegetables. The Mormons looked on these travelers as a welcome bonanza as setting up new communities from scratch required nearly everything the travelers could afford to part with. The overall distance to California or Oregon was very close to the same whether one "detoured '' to Salt Lake City or not. For their own use and to encourage California and Oregon bound travelers the Mormons improved the Mormon Trail from Fort Bridger and the Salt Lake Cutoff trail. To raise much needed money and facilitate travel on the Salt Lake Cutoff they set up several ferries across the Weber, Bear and Malad rivers which were used mostly by Oregon or California bound travelers.
The main Oregon and California Trail went almost due north from Fort Bridger to the Little Muddy Creek where it passed over the Bear River Mountains to the Bear River valley which it followed northwest into the Thomas Fork area, where the trail crossed over the present day Wyoming line into Idaho. In the Eastern Sheep Creek Hills in the Thomas Fork valley the emigrants encountered Big Hill. Big Hill was a detour caused by an impassable (then) cut the Bear River made through the mountains and had a tough ascent often requiring doubling up of teams and a very steep and dangerous descent. (Much later, U.S. Highway 30, using modern explosives and equipment, was built through this cut). In 1852 Eliza Ann McAuley found and with help developed the McAuley Cutoff which bypassed much of the difficult climb and descent of Big Hill. About 5 miles (8.0 km) on they passed present day Montpelier, Idaho which is now the site of The National Oregon - California Trail Center. The trail follows the Bear River northwest to present day Soda Springs, Idaho. The soda springs here were a favorite attraction of the pioneers who marveled at the hot carbonated water and chugging "steamboat '' springs. Many stopped and did their laundry in the hot water as there was usually plenty of good grass and fresh water available. Just west of Soda Springs the Bear River turns southwest as it heads for The Great Salt Lake and the main trail turns northwest to follow the Portneuf River valley to Fort Hall Idaho. Fort Hall was an old fur trading post located on the Snake River. It was established in 1832 by Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth and company and later sold in 1837 to the British Hudson 's Bay Company. At Fort Hall nearly all travelers were given some aid and supplies if they were available and needed. Mosquitoes were constant pests and travelers often mention that their animals were covered with blood from the bites. The route from Fort Bridger to Fort Hall is about 210 miles (340 km), taking nine to twelve days.
At Soda Springs was one branch of Lander Road (established and built with government contractors in 1858) which had gone west from near South Pass, over the Salt River Mountains and down Star Valley before turning west near present - day Auburn, Wyoming and entering Idaho. From there it proceeded northwest into Idaho up Stump Creek canyon for about ten miles (16 km). One branch turned almost 90 degrees and proceeded southwest to Soda Springs. Another branch headed almost due west past Gray 's Lake to rejoin the main trail about 10 miles (16 km) west of Fort Hall.
On the main trail about 5 miles (8.0 km) west of Soda Springs Hudspeth 's Cutoff (established 1849 and used mostly by California trail users) took off from the main trail heading almost due west, bypassing Fort Hall. It rejoined the California Trail at Cassia Creek near the City of Rocks. Hudspeth 's Cutoff had five mountain ranges to cross and took about the same amount of time as the main route to Fort Hall but many took it thinking it was shorter. Its main advantage was that it helped spread out the traffic during peak periods, making more grass available.
West of Fort Hall the main trail traveled about 40 miles (64 km) on the south side of the Snake River southwest past American Falls, Massacre Rocks, Register Rock and Coldwater Hill near present - day Pocatello, Idaho. Near the junction of the Raft River and the Snake River, the California Trail diverged from the Oregon Trail at another Parting of the Ways junction. Travellers left the Snake River and followed Raft River about 65 miles (105 km) southwest past present day Almo, Idaho. This trail then passed through the City of Rocks and over Granite Pass where it went southwest along Goose Creek, Little Goose Creek, and Rock Spring Creek. It went about 95 miles (153 km) through Thousand Springs Valley, West Brush Creek, and Willow Creek, before arriving at the Humboldt River in northeastern Nevada near present - day Wells. The California Trail proceeded west down the Humboldt before reaching and crossing the Sierra Nevadas.
There are only a few places where the Snake River has not buried itself deep in a canyon. There are few spots where the river slowed down enough to make a crossing possible. Two of these fords were near Fort Hall, where travelers on the Oregon Trail North Side Alternate (established about 1852) and Goodale 's Cutoff (established 1862) crossed the Snake to travel on the north side. Nathaniel Wyeth, the original founder of Fort Hall in 1834, writes in his diary that they found a ford across the Snake River 4 miles (6.4 km) southwest of where he founded Fort Hall. Another possible crossing was a few miles upstream of Salmon Falls where some intrepid travelers floated their wagons and swam their stock across to join the north side trail. Some lost their wagons and teams over the falls. The trails on the north side joined the trail from Three Island Crossing about 17 miles (27 km) west of Glenns Ferry on the north side of the Snake River. (For map of North Side Alternate see:)
Goodale 's Cutoff, established in 1862 on the north side of the Snake River, formed a spur of the Oregon Trail. This cutoff had been used as a pack trail by Indians and fur traders, and emigrant wagons traversed parts of the eastern section as early as 1852. After crossing the Snake River the 230 miles (370 km) cutoff headed north from Fort Hall toward Big Southern Butte following the Lost River part of the way. It passed near the present - day town of Arco, Idaho and wound through the northern part of Craters of the Moon National Monument. From there it went southwest to Camas Prairie and ended at Old Fort Boise on the Boise River. This journey typically took two to three weeks and was noted for its very rough, lava restricted roads and extremely dry climate, which tended to dry the wooden wheels on the wagons, which caused the iron rims to fall off the wheels. Loss of wheels caused many wagons to be abandoned along the route. It rejoined the main trail east of Boise. Goodale 's Cutoff is visible at many points along U.S. Highway 20, U.S. Highway 26 and U.S. Highway 93 between Craters of the Moon National Monument and Carey, Idaho.
From the present site of Pocatello the trail proceeded almost due west on the south side of the Snake River for about 180 miles (290 km). On this route they passed Cauldron Linn rapids, Shoshone Falls, two falls near the present city of Twin Falls, Idaho, and Upper Salmon Falls on the Snake River. At Salmon Falls there were often a hundred or more Indians fishing who would trade for their salmon -- a welcome treat. The trail continued west to Three Island Crossing (near present - day Glenns Ferry, Idaho). Here most emigrants used the divisions of the river caused by three islands to cross the difficult and swift Snake River by ferry or by driving or sometimes floating their wagons and swimming their teams across. The crossings were doubly treacherous because there were often hidden holes in the river bottom which could overturn the wagon or ensnarl the team, sometimes with fatal consequences. Before ferries were established there were several drownings here nearly every year.
The north side of the Snake had better water and grass than the south. The trail from Three Island Crossing to Old Fort Boise was about 130 miles long. The usually lush Boise River valley was a welcome relief. The next crossing of the Snake River was near Old Fort Boise. This last crossing of the Snake could be done on bull boats while swimming the stock across. Others would chain a large string of wagons and teams together. The theory was that the front teams, usually oxen, would get out of water first and with good footing help pull the whole string of wagons and teams across. How well this worked in practice is not stated. Often young Indian boys were hired to drive and ride the stock across the river -- they knew how to swim, unlike many pioneers. Today 's Idaho Interstate 84 roughly follows the Oregon Trail till it leaves the Snake River near Burley, Idaho. From there Interstate 86 to Pocatello roughly approximates the trail. Highway 30 roughly follows the path of the Oregon Trail from there to Montpelier, Idaho.
Starting in about 1848 the South Alternate of Oregon Trail (also called the Snake River Cutoff) was developed as a spur off the main trail. It bypassed the Three Island Crossing and continued traveling down the south side of the Snake River. It rejoined the trail near present - day Ontario, Oregon. It hugged the southern edge of the Snake River canyon and was a much rougher trail with poorer water and grass, requiring occasional steep descents and ascents with the animals down into the Snake River canyon to get water. Travellers on this route avoided two dangerous crossings of the Snake River. Today 's Idaho State Route 78 roughly follows the path of the South Alternate route of the Oregon Trail.
In 1869 the Central Pacific established Kelton, Utah as a railhead and the terminus of the western mail was moved from Salt Lake City. The Kelton Road became important as a communication and transportation road to the Boise Basin.
Once across the Snake River ford near Old Fort Boise the weary travelers traveled across what would become the state of Oregon. The trail then went to the Malheur River and then past Farewell Bend on the Snake River, up the Burnt River canyon and northwest to the La Grande valley before coming to the Blue Mountains. In 1843 settlers cut a wagon road over these mountains making them passable for the first time to wagons. The trail went to the Whitman Mission near Fort Nez Perce in Washington until 1847 when the Whitmans were killed by Native Americans. At Fort Nez Perce some built rafts or hired boats and started down the Columbia; others continued west in their wagons until they reached The Dalles. After 1847 the trail bypassed the closed mission and headed almost due west to present day Pendleton, Oregon, crossing the Umatilla River, John Day River, and Deschutes River before arriving at The Dalles. Interstate 84 in Oregon roughly follows the original Oregon Trail from Idaho to The Dalles.
Arriving at the Columbia at The Dalles and stopped by the Cascade Mountains and Mount Hood, some gave up their wagons or disassembled them and put them on boats or rafts for a trip down the Columbia River. Once they transited the Cascade 's Columbia River Gorge with its multiple rapids and treacherous winds they would have to make the 1.6 miles (2.6 km) portage around the Cascade Rapids before coming out near the Willamette River where Oregon City, Oregon was located. The pioneer 's livestock could be driven around Mount Hood on the narrow, crooked and rough Lolo Pass.
Several Oregon Trail branches and route variations led to the Willamette Valley. The most popular was the Barlow Road, which was carved though the forest around Mount Hood from The Dalles in 1846 as a toll road at $5.00 per wagon and 10 cents per head of livestock. It was rough and steep with poor grass but still cheaper and safer than floating goods, wagons and family down the dangerous Columbia River.
In Central Oregon there was the Santiam Wagon Road (established 1861), which roughly parallels Oregon Highway 20 to the Willamette Valley. The Applegate Trail (established 1846) cutting off the California Trail from the Humboldt River in Nevada crossed part of California before cutting north to the south end of the Willamette Valley. Originally U.S. Route 99 (later renamed to Oregon Route 99) and Interstate 5 through Oregon roughly follow the original Applegate Trail.
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what is the first marvel movie to watch | List of Marvel Cinematic Universe films - wikipedia
The Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) films are an American series of superhero films, based on characters that appear in publications by Marvel Comics. The films have been in production since 2007, and in that time Marvel Studios has produced 20 films, with 12 more in various stages of production. It is the highest - grossing film franchise of all time, having grossed over $17.1 billion at the global box office.
Kevin Feige has produced every film in the series. Avi Arad served as a producer on the first two releases, Gale Anne Hurd also produced The Incredible Hulk, Amy Pascal produced the Spider - Man films, and Stephen Broussard produced Ant - Man and the Wasp. The films are written and directed by a variety of individuals and feature large, often ensemble, casts. Many of the actors, including Robert Downey Jr., Chris Evans, Chris Hemsworth, Samuel L. Jackson, and Scarlett Johansson signed contracts to star in numerous films.
The first film in the series was Iron Man (2008), which was distributed by Paramount Pictures. Paramount also distributed Iron Man 2 (2010), Thor (2011) and Captain America: The First Avenger (2011), while Universal Pictures distributed The Incredible Hulk (2008). Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures began distributing the films with the 2012 crossover film The Avengers, which concluded Phase One of the franchise. Phase Two includes Iron Man 3 (2013), Thor: The Dark World (2013), Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), Guardians of the Galaxy (2014), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), and Ant - Man (2015).
Captain America: Civil War (2016) is the first film in the franchise 's Phase Three, and is followed by Doctor Strange (2016), Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 (2017), Spider - Man: Homecoming (2017), Thor: Ragnarok (2017), Black Panther (2018), Avengers: Infinity War (2018), and Ant - Man and the Wasp (2018), with Captain Marvel (2019) and an untitled Avengers film (2019) still scheduled for the phase. Sony Pictures distributes the Spider - Man films, which they continue to own, finance, and have final creative control over.
Spider - Man: Far From Home has been scheduled for 2019, alongside Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3 in 2020, with an additional two untitled films also scheduled for 2020, three untitled films scheduled for 2021, and three untitled films scheduled for 2022. Feige has indicated that Marvel may abandon the phase grouping after the conclusion of Phase Three.
Billionaire industrialist Tony Stark builds himself a suit of armor after he is taken captive by a terrorist organization. Free from his captors, he decides to upgrade and don his armor in order to hunt down weapons that were sold under the table.
In April 2006, Marvel hired Jon Favreau to direct Iron Man, with the writing teams of Art Marcum and Matt Holloway and Mark Fergus and Hawk Ostby writing competing scripts. Favreau consolidated both into one script, which was then polished by John August. Robert Downey, Jr. was cast in the title role in September 2006, after growing out a goatee and working out to convince the filmmakers he was right for the part. Principal photography began on March 12, 2007, with the first few weeks spent on Stark 's captivity in Afghanistan, which was filmed in Inyo County, California. Production also occurred on the former Hughes Company soundstages in Playa Vista, Los Angeles, California, with additional filming at Edwards Air Force Base and Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, Nevada. Iron Man premiered at the Greater Union theater in George Street, Sydney, on April 14, 2008, and was released internationally on April 30, and in North America on May 2.
The film ends with a post-credits scene featuring Samuel L. Jackson as Nick Fury, who approaches Stark regarding the "Avenger Initiative ''. Favreau said that he included the scene as "a little tip of the hat for the fans... a way to sort of tee up The Avengers. '' Jackson was only on set for a day, with a skeletal crew to avoid the news of his cameo leaking. Captain America 's shield is also visible in the background of a scene; it was added by an ILM artist as a joke, and Favreau decided to leave it in the film.
After being exposed to gamma radiation that causes him to transform into the monstrous Hulk, scientist Bruce Banner goes on the run and isolates himself from his love, Betty Ross. Hunted by the military, Banner seeks to cure himself and prevent his condition from being weaponized.
In January 2006, Marvel reclaimed the film rights for the Hulk character from Universal Pictures after Universal failed to meet a deadline to develop a sequel to director Ang Lee 's 2003 film Hulk. Universal retained distribution rights for future Hulk films. Instead of moving forward with a sequel, Marvel hired Louis Leterrier to direct The Incredible Hulk, a reboot. Leterrier initially turned down the job out of respect for Lee, but later reconsidered and signed on. The script was written by Zak Penn, who drafted a treatment for the 2003 film. In April 2006, Edward Norton entered negotiations to portray Bruce Banner and rewrite Penn 's script, although Penn received sole credit for the screenplay. Production began on July 9, 2007 and filming primarily took place in Toronto, with additional filming in New York City and Rio de Janeiro. The film premiered at the Gibson Amphitheatre on June 8, 2008, and was released on June 13.
The film takes place simultaneously with the events of Iron Man 2 and Thor, the former of which is set six months after the events of Iron Man. Downey briefly reprised his role from Iron Man as Tony Stark in a cameo appearance at the end of the film. Downey said that the filmmakers "were just cross-pollinating our superheroes. It happens to be a scene where I basically approach (actor William Hurt 's character General Ross), and we may be considering going into some sort of limited partnership together. The great thing is he -- and I do n't want to give too much away -- but he 's in disrepair at the time I find him. It was really fun seeing him play this really powerful character who 's half in the bag. '' In addition, Captain America is briefly seen frozen in ice in an alternate opening of the film, included in the DVD release.
After Tony Stark reveals himself to be Iron Man, the U.S. government demands he hand over his technology. Meanwhile, a rival industrialist and a Russian scientist conspire to use his own technology against him.
Immediately following the successful release of Iron Man in May 2008, Marvel Studios announced it was developing a sequel, Iron Man 2. Favreau returned as director and Justin Theroux was hired to write the screenplay, which would be based on an original story by Favreau and Downey. In October 2008, Downey signed a new four - picture deal, that retroactively included the first film, to reprise his role and Don Cheadle was hired to replace Terrence Howard as James Rhodes. Jackson signed on to reprise his role as Nick Fury from the Iron Man post-credits sequence in up to nine films, and Scarlett Johansson was cast as the Black Widow, as part of a multi-film commitment. Principal photography began April 6, 2009, at the Pasadena Masonic Temple in Pasadena, California. The majority of filming took place at Raleigh Studios in Manhattan Beach, California. Other locations included Edwards Air Force Base, Monaco, and the Sepulveda Dam. Iron Man 2 premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California on April 26, 2010, and was released internationally between April 28 and May 7 before releasing in North America on May 7.
The film is set six months after the events of Iron Man, and takes place simultaneously with the events of The Incredible Hulk and Thor. The filmmakers continued to refer to other Marvel films by again including Captain America 's shield. Favreau explained, "We introduced Captain America 's shield briefly in one shot in the last film. So now it really was in his room, so we had to figure out how to deal with the reality that the shield was in his workshop. '' A scene toward the end of Iron Man 2 in a S.H.I.E.L.D. safe house contains several Easter eggs, ranging from footage from The Incredible Hulk displayed on a monitor to pointers on a map indicating several locales related to other Marvel films, including one pointing toward a region of Africa in reference to the Black Panther. A young Peter Parker appears as the child wearing an Iron Man mask whom Stark saves from a drone; the appearance was confirmed in June 2017 by Spider - Man actor Tom Holland, Kevin Feige and Spider - Man: Homecoming director Jon Watts. The film 's post-credits scene showed the discovery of Thor 's hammer in a crater.
Thor, crown prince of Asgard, is banished to Earth and stripped of his powers after he reignites a dormant war. As his brother, Loki, plots to take the throne for himself, Thor must prove himself worthy and reclaim his hammer Mjölnir.
Mark Protosevich was hired to develop a script for Thor in April 2006, after the rights were acquired from Sony Pictures. In August 2007 Marvel hired Matthew Vaughn to direct the film, however he exited the project in May 2008. In September 2008, Kenneth Branagh entered into negotiations to replace Vaughn. In May 2009, Chris Hemsworth was in negotiations to portray the titular character, and Tom Hiddleston was set to play his brother, Loki. Both actors were contracted to star in several films. Marvel hired the writing team of Ashley Edward Miller and Zack Stentz to write a new script for the film, which was then rewritten by Don Payne. Production began on January 11, 2010 in Los Angeles, California, before moving to Galisteo, New Mexico in March. Thor had its world premiere on April 17, 2011 at the Event Cinemas theatre in George Street, Sydney and a U.S. premiere on May 2 at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California. The film was released internationally from April 21 to 30, and on May 6 in North America.
The film takes place simultaneously with the events of The Incredible Hulk and Iron Man 2, the latter of which is set six months after the events of Iron Man. Clark Gregg, who appeared in Iron Man and Iron Man 2 as S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Phil Coulson, reprised the role in Thor. About his role in Thor he stated, "Agent Coulson was one of the guys who was n't really in the comic books, and he (had) a very kind of small role in Iron Man. And I was just very lucky that they chose to expand that character and (chose) to put him more into the universe of it. '' After signing on to appear as Clint Barton / Hawkeye in The Avengers, Jeremy Renner made a cameo appearance as the character during a scene in Thor. Branagh said that they "were always going to have a guy in a basket above the action where Thor breaks in the S.H.I.E.L.D. camp '', and that he was thrilled when the producers told him they wanted to use Renner 's Hawkeye for that role. The film ends with a post-credits scene featuring Loki, watching as Erik Selvig and Nick Fury discuss the Tesseract. The scene was directed by Joss Whedon, who directed The Avengers. Stellan Skarsgård, who played Selvig, said the scene was not included when he first read the screenplay for Thor, and that he was sent pages for the scene after agreeing to appear in The Avengers.
In 1942, Steve Rogers is deemed physically unfit to enlist in the U.S. Army and fight the Nazis in World War II. Recruited for a secret military operation, he is physically transformed into a super-soldier dubbed Captain America and must battle the Red Skull, head of a Nazi science division known as Hydra.
In April 2006, Marvel hired David Self to write the script for a Captain America film. Joe Johnston signed on to direct in November 2008, and Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely were hired to rewrite the script. In March 2010, Chris Evans was cast as Captain America and Hugo Weaving was cast as the Red Skull. Production began on June 28, 2010 in the United Kingdom, with locations in London, Caerwent, Manchester and Liverpool. The film premiered on July 19, 2011, at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California, and was released in North America on July 22, and in international markets starting July 27.
The Tesseract from the Thor post-credits scene appears as a MacGuffin in Captain America: The First Avenger. In the film, Dominic Cooper portrays a young Howard Stark, the father of Tony Stark, who hosts an early version of the Stark Expo, the fair Tony hosts in Iron Man 2. The final scene of the film includes a brief appearance by Jackson 's Nick Fury followed by a teaser trailer for Marvel 's The Avengers after the credits.
Nick Fury, the director of S.H.I.E.L.D., gathers the superheroes Iron Man, Thor, Captain America, the Hulk, Black Widow and Hawkeye to fight Thor 's brother Loki, who plots to subjugate the Earth.
Zak Penn, who wrote The Incredible Hulk, was hired to write a script for The Avengers in June 2007. In April 2010, Joss Whedon closed a deal to direct the film, and to rework Penn 's script. Marvel announced that Edward Norton would not be reprising the role of Bruce Banner / Hulk, and in July 2010, Mark Ruffalo was cast in his place. Downey, Evans, Hemsworth, Johansson, Renner, Hiddleston and Jackson reprised their respective roles from previous films. Principal photography began in April 2011 in Albuquerque, New Mexico, before moving to Cleveland, Ohio in August, and New York City in September. The premiere was held on April 11, 2012 at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California, and the film was released in North America on May 4.
Gwyneth Paltrow, who portrayed Pepper Potts in Iron Man and Iron Man 2, was included in the film at Downey 's insistence. Prior to this, Whedon had not intended the film to include supporting characters from the heroes ' individual films, commenting, "You need to separate the characters from their support systems in order to create the isolation you need for a team. '' Avi Arad said that Sony Pictures and Disney discussed incorporating the OsCorp Tower from The Amazing Spider - Man into the climax of The Avengers, but Feige said that "the deal was never close to happening. '' The supervillain Thanos appears in a mid-credits scene, portrayed by Damion Poitier.
Tony Stark faces a powerful enemy, the Mandarin, who attacks and destroys his mansion. Left to his own devices and battling posttraumatic stress disorder, Stark struggles to get to the bottom of a series of mysterious explosions.
In late 2010, Marvel and Disney announced that they were developing a third Iron Man film. In February 2011, Marvel hired Shane Black to direct Iron Man 3. Black co-wrote the film 's script with Drew Pearce. Downey, Paltrow, and Cheadle reprised their roles from Iron Man 2, while Guy Pearce and Ben Kingsley joined the cast as Aldrich Killian and Trevor Slattery, respectively. Filming began in May 2012, in North Carolina. Additional filming took place in southern Florida, China, and Los Angeles. Iron Man 3 premiered at Le Grand Rex in Paris, France on April 14, 2013 and at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California on April 24. The film was released internationally on April 25, and in the United States on May 3.
The film is set in December 2013, after the events of The Avengers. In the film Tony Stark experiences PTSD - like symptoms following the Battle of New York in The Avengers. Black explained, "that 's an anxiety response to feeling inferior to The Avengers, but also to being humbled by sights he can not possibly begin to understand or reconcile with the realities he 's used to... There 's a line in the movie about ' ever since that big guy with the hammer fell out of the sky, the rules have changed '. That 's what we 're dealing with here. '' Bruce Banner appears in a post-credits scene, with Ruffalo reprising the role. About the scene, Ruffalo said "They were about to wrap the movie and I saw Robert (Downey, Jr.) at the Academy Awards... and he said, ' What do you think about coming and doing a day? ' I said, ' Are you kidding me? Bang, let 's do it! ' We sort of spitballed that scene, then I came in and we shot for a couple of hours and laughed. ''
Thor reunites with astrophysicist Jane Foster as a series of portals, linking worlds at random, begin to appear. He discovers that Malekith and his army of Dark Elves have returned after thousands of years, and they seek a powerful weapon known as the Aether. Thor must join forces with his now - imprisoned brother Loki to stop them.
A sequel to Thor was first announced in June 2011, with Hemsworth reprising his role as Thor. Hiddleston confirmed he would return as Loki in September, and Alan Taylor signed on to direct the film in December. The film 's title was announced as Thor: The Dark World in July 2012 at the San Diego Comic - Con International, and Christopher Eccleston was cast as Malekith a month later. Production started in September 2012 in Bourne Wood, Surrey, with additional filming taking place in Iceland and London. The film premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on October 22, 2013. It was internationally released on October 30, 2013 and on November 8, 2013 in North America.
The film is set one year after the events of The Avengers. Evans briefly makes a cameo appearance in the film as Captain America when Loki shapeshifts into him while mocking Thor. Hiddleston wore the Captain America costume while standing in for Evans, before Evans came to shoot the scene. Hiddleston said, "I did an impression of Loki in the Captain America costume, and then they showed Chris (Evans) my performance on tape. It 's him doing an impression of me doing an impression of him. And it 's brilliant. '' James Gunn, the director of Guardians of the Galaxy, directed the mid-credits scene that featured the Collector, played by Benicio del Toro. Asked about shooting the scene, Gunn said, "I got the script that morning, and I did it in two hours at the end of a day of second unit shooting (for Guardians of the Galaxy). ''
Steve Rogers, now working with S.H.I.E.L.D., teams up with Natasha Romanoff / Black Widow and Sam Wilson / Falcon to expose a deep conspiracy which involves a mysterious assassin known only as the Winter Soldier.
A sequel to 2011 's Captain America: The First Avenger was announced in April 2012. Anthony and Joe Russo were hired to direct in June, and in July it was officially titled Captain America: The Winter Soldier. Evans and Jackson were set to reprise their respective roles as Captain America and Nick Fury, and Johansson would again play the Black Widow. Sebastian Stan, who portrayed Bucky Barnes in Captain America: The First Avenger, returned as the Winter Soldier. Production started in April 2013 in Manhattan Beach, California, and filming also took place in Washington, D.C. and Cleveland, Ohio. The film premiered in Los Angeles on March 13, 2014. Captain America: The Winter Soldier was released internationally on March 26 and in North America on April 4.
The film is set two years after the events of The Avengers. Stephen Strange, the alter - ego of the Marvel superhero Doctor Strange, is mentioned by name in the film by the character Jasper Sitwell. A remodeled Stark Tower from The Avengers, now known as Avengers Tower, also makes an appearance in the film. Whedon directed a post-credits scene featuring Baron Wolfgang von Strucker (Thomas Kretschmann), List (Henry Goodman), Quicksilver (Aaron Taylor - Johnson), and the Scarlet Witch (Elizabeth Olsen), who appear in Avengers: Age of Ultron. The revelation in the film that S.H.I.E.L.D. had been infiltrated by Hydra informed the final six episodes of the first season of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., a television series set in the MCU.
Peter Quill / Star - Lord and a group of misfits, including Gamora, Rocket, Drax the Destroyer and Groot, fight to keep a powerful orb from the clutches of the villainous Ronan.
Nicole Perlman began writing a screenplay in 2009. Marvel Studios announced it was developing a Guardians of the Galaxy film in July 2012. The film is directed by James Gunn, based on his and Perlman 's screenplay. In February 2013, Chris Pratt was cast in the lead role, as Peter Quill / Star - Lord. The film was shot at Shepperton Studios and in London from July to October 2013, and post-production work was completed on July 7, 2014. The film premiered on July 21, 2014 in Hollywood. Guardians of the Galaxy was released in the United Kingdom on July 31, 2014, and in North America on August 1.
The film is set in 2014. Josh Brolin provides the voice and performance capture for Thanos, the supervillain who appeared in The Avengers mid-credits scene. Gunn noted that the film would be connected to Avengers: Infinity War. Several other objects of significance appear in the Collector 's museum, including a Chitauri from The Avengers and a Dark Elf from Thor: The Dark World, among other characters. About their appearances Gunn said, "There 's a lot of stuff in the Collector 's Museum. And for me, it was mostly just really fun. As a Marvel fan, giving the actual fans something that they can freeze frame on their Blu - Ray at home and just kind of pick out everything that 's in there. So there are, I mean, seriously all those boxes have something interesting in them, so it 's pretty fun. '' Ronan 's race, the Kree, were first introduced in the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episode "T.A.H.I.T.I. ''.
Captain America, Iron Man, Thor, the Hulk, Black Widow, and Hawkeye must work together as the Avengers to defeat Ultron, a technological enemy bent on human extinction, while encountering the powerful twins Pietro and Wanda Maximoff, as well as the new entity Vision.
A sequel to The Avengers was announced by Disney in May 2012, shortly after the first film 's release. In August 2012, Joss Whedon was signed to return as writer and director. In June 2013, Downey signed a deal to reprise the role of Iron Man for the second and third Avengers films. On July 20, 2013, at San Diego Comic - Con International, Whedon announced that the subtitle of the film would be Age of Ultron. In August 2013, James Spader was announced to portray Ultron. Second unit filming began on February 11, 2014 in Johannesburg, South Africa. Principal photography began in March 2014 at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, England, with additional footage filmed at Fort Bard and various other locations in the Aosta Valley region of Italy, and Seoul, South Korea. Filming was completed on August 6, 2014. Avengers: Age of Ultron had its world premiere in Los Angeles on April 13, 2015, and was released internationally beginning April 22, and on May 1 in North America.
The film confirms that the gem in Loki 's scepter is an Infinity Stone, specifically the Mind Stone, and Brolin reappears as Thanos in the mid-credit scene wielding an Infinity Gauntlet. It also features references to Vibranium and Wakanda, both connections to Black Panther, introducing both to the universe ahead of Black Panther 's solo film. Additionally, Andy Serkis portrays Ulysses Klaue in the film, traditionally a Black Panther antagonist.
Thief Scott Lang must aid his mentor Dr. Hank Pym in safeguarding the mystery of the Ant - Man technology, which allows its user to decrease in size but increase in strength, from various menaces and plot a heist to defend the Earth.
Ant - Man is directed by Peyton Reed with a screenplay written by Edgar Wright & Joe Cornish and Adam McKay & Paul Rudd, from a story by Wright & Cornish, that includes both Scott Lang and Hank Pym. Edgar Wright was initially slated to direct and write the film, but left the project in May 2014 due to creative differences. In January 2013, Feige stated that Ant - Man would be the first film in Phase Three of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. However, in October 2014, it was revealed that the film would be the last film of Phase Two. Pre-production started in October 2013, and principal photography took place from August to December 2014, in San Francisco, Fayette County, Georgia at Pinewood Atlanta, and Downtown Atlanta. In December 2013, Rudd was cast as Ant - Man, followed in January 2014 with the casting of Michael Douglas as Pym and the confirmation of Rudd as Lang. Ant - Man had its world premiere in Los Angeles on June 29, 2015, and was released in France on July 14, and in North America on July 17.
The film is set several months after the events of Avengers: Age of Ultron. Scott Lang attempts to infiltrate the new Avengers headquarters in Upstate New York featured in Age of Ultron, and confronts Sam Wilson / Falcon, played by Anthony Mackie. McKay and Rudd decided to add Falcon to Ant - Man after watching Captain America: The Winter Soldier. The Russo brothers filmed the post-credit scene, which was footage from Captain America: Civil War, and features Mackie as Falcon, Chris Evans as Steve Rogers / Captain America, and Sebastian Stan as Bucky Barnes / Winter Soldier.
The Avengers become fractured into two opposing teams, one led by Captain America and another by Iron Man, after extensive collateral damage prompts politicians to pass an act regulating superhuman activity with government oversight and accountability for the Avengers while also facing against a new enemy, Helmut Zemo, who seeks revenge upon the Avengers.
By January 2014, Anthony and Joe Russo had signed on to return to direct a third Captain America installment, which they confirmed in March 2014, with Chris Evans returning as Captain America, Feige returning to produce, and Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely writing the screenplay. In October 2014, the title was officially announced as Captain America: Civil War along with the reveal that Downey would appear in the film as Tony Stark / Iron Man. The film is an adaptation from the "Civil War '' storyline in the comics. It is also the first film of Phase Three. Filming began in April 2015 at Pinewood Atlanta, and concluded in August 2015. Captain America: Civil War had its premiere in Hollywood on April 12, 2016, was released internationally beginning April 27, and was released on May 6 in North America.
The film is set one year after the events of Avengers: Age of Ultron. Captain America: Civil War introduces Tom Holland as Peter Parker / Spider - Man and Chadwick Boseman as T'Challa / Black Panther to the MCU, who appear in solo films in 2017 and 2018, respectively. William Hurt reprises his role as Thunderbolt Ross from The Incredible Hulk, and is now the US Secretary of State. For the mid-credits scene, in which Black Panther offers Captain America and Bucky Barnes asylum in Wakanda, Joe and Anthony Russo received input from Black Panther director Ryan Coogler on the look and design of Wakanda.
After Stephen Strange, the world 's top neurosurgeon, is involved in a car accident that ruins his career, he sets out on a journey of healing, where he encounters the Ancient One, who teaches Strange the use of Mystic Arts and to defend the Earth from mystical threats.
In June 2010, Thomas Dean Donnelly and Joshua Oppenheimer were hired to write the screenplay for a film starring the character Doctor Strange. In January 2013, Kevin Feige confirmed that Doctor Strange would be a part of their Phase Three slate of films. In June 2014, Scott Derrickson was hired to direct. In December 2014, Benedict Cumberbatch was cast in the eponymous role, and Jon Spaihts was confirmed to rewrite the script. In December 2015, C. Robert Cargill revealed he was a co-writer on the film, and the following April, revealed that Derrickson also wrote the script. Pre-production began in June 2014, with filming beginning in November 2015 in Nepal, before moving to Longcross Studios in the UK later in the month. Filming concluded in New York City in April 2016. Doctor Strange had its premiere in Hong Kong on October 13, 2016, and was released in the United Kingdom on October 25, 2016, and on November 4 in the United States.
Derrickson stated that the events of the film take "roughly '' a year, ending "up to date with the rest of the MCU ''. Doctor Strange introduces the Eye of Agamotto, a mystical relic that can manipulate time and is revealed to be an Infinity Stone at the end of the film, specifically the Time Stone. The film 's mid-credits scene features a cameo appearance by Hemsworth as Thor, meeting with Strange, which was footage from Thor: Ragnarok. The scene was directed by Ragnarok director Taika Waititi.
The Guardians of the Galaxy travel throughout the cosmos and struggle to keep their newfound family together while helping Peter Quill learn more about his true parentage and facing against new enemies.
In July 2014, Guardians of the Galaxy co-writer Nicole Perlman confirmed that Gunn would return to write and direct the sequel. Chris Pratt returns for the sequel as Peter Quill / Star - Lord, along with the other Guardians from the first film as well as additional cast members. They are joined by Pom Klementieff as Mantis, and Kurt Russell as Ego. In June 2015, the film 's title was revealed as Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. Filming began in February 2016 at Pinewood Atlanta, and concluded in June 2016. Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 premiered in Tokyo on April 10, 2017, and was released on May 5, 2017.
The film is set two - to - three months after the events of Guardians of the Galaxy, in 2014. One of the film 's post-credit sequences hints at the introduction of Adam Warlock, after Gunn originally intended for Warlock to make a full appearance in Vol. 2. He noted that Warlock could appear in future Guardians films, and is considered "a pretty important part '' of the cosmic side of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The Grandmaster, played by Jeff Goldblum, is seen dancing in the end credits, before his appearance in Thor: Ragnarok.
Peter Parker tries to balance being the hero Spider - Man with his high school life under guidance of Tony Stark as he deals with the threat of the Vulture.
On February 9, 2015, Sony Pictures and Marvel announced that Sony would be releasing a Spider - Man film co-produced by Marvel Studios president Feige and Amy Pascal, with Sony Pictures continuing to own, finance, distribute, and have final creative control of the Spider - Man films. In April 2015, Feige confirmed the character would be Peter Parker and added that Marvel had been working to add Spider - Man to the MCU since at least October 2014, when they announced their full slate of Phase Three films, saying, "Marvel does n't announce anything officially until it 's set in stone. So we went forward with that Plan A in October, with the Plan B being, if (the deal) were to happen with Sony, how it would all shift. We 've been thinking about (the Spider - Man film) as long as we 've been thinking about Phase Three. '' In June 2015, Tom Holland was cast in the role of Spider - Man and Jon Watts was hired to direct the film, and the next month, John Francis Daley & Jonathan Goldstein were hired to write the screenplay. Additional screenwriters include Watts & Christopher Ford and Chris McKenna & Erik Sommers. In April 2016, the title was revealed to be Spider - Man: Homecoming. Production began in June 2016 at Pinewood Atlanta, and concluded in October 2016. Spider - Man: Homecoming premiered on June 28, 2017 in Hollywood, and was released in the United Kingdom on July 5, and the United States on July 7, 2017.
The film is set several months after the events of Captain America: Civil War, which is eight years after the events of The Avengers. In April 2016, Feige confirmed that characters from previous MCU films would appear in the film, with Robert Downey Jr. confirmed to reprise his role as Tony Stark / Iron Man shortly thereafter. Favreau, Paltrow, and Evans also reprise their roles as Happy Hogan, Pepper Potts, and Steve Rogers / Captain America, respectively. The clean - up crew Damage Control appear in the film (after previously being referenced in Iron Man and Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.) ahead of an intended television series about them. Various weaponry and artifacts from previous films are referenced throughout the film that Toomes and his crew repurpose for their weapons. In Parker 's high school, one of his classes has a lesson about the Sokovia Accords, and portraits of Bruce Banner, Howard Stark and Abraham Erskine are seen within the school.
Thor, trapped on another world without Mjölnir, must survive a gladiatorial duel against the Hulk and return to Asgard in time to stop the villainous Hela and the impending Ragnarök.
In January 2014, Marvel announced that a third Thor film was in development, with Craig Kyle and Christopher Yost writing the screenplay, and was officially announced as Thor: Ragnarok in October 2014. By October 2015, Taika Waititi entered in negotiations to direct Thor: Ragnarok. In December 2015, Stephany Folsom was hired to rewrite the script. A year later, in January 2017, it was revealed that Eric Pearson wrote the screenplay, with Kyle, Yost and Folsom receiving story credit. Pearson, Kyle and Yost would ultimately receive screenwriting credit for the film. Hemsworth, Hiddleston, Idris Elba and Anthony Hopkins reprise their roles as Thor, Loki, Heimdall and Odin, respectively, and are joined by Cate Blanchett as Hela. Production began in July 2016 in Australia at Village Roadshow Studios, and wrapped in late October 2016. Thor: Ragnarok premiered in Los Angeles on October 10, 2017, began its international release on October 24, 2017 in the United Kingdom, and was released on November 3, 2017 in the United States.
The film is set four years after the events of Thor: The Dark World, two years after the events of Avengers: Age of Ultron, and around the same time period as Captain America: Civil War and Spider - Man: Homecoming. Producer Brad Winderbaum noted that "Things happen on top of each other now in Phase Three. They 're not as interlocked as they were in Phase One. '' Mark Ruffalo and Benedict Cumberbatch appear in the film as Bruce Banner / Hulk and Doctor Stephen Strange, respectively. The film reveals that the Infinity Gauntlet first seen in Odin 's vault in Thor was a fake, while also introducing Thanos ' ship Sanctuary II in a post-credits scene.
T'Challa returns home as sovereign of the nation of Wakanda only to find his dual role of king and protector challenged by a long - time adversary in a conflict that has global consequences.
Documentary filmmaker Mark Bailey was hired to write a script for Black Panther in January 2011. In October 2014, the film was announced and Chadwick Boseman was revealed to be portraying T'Challa / Black Panther. In January 2016, Ryan Coogler was announced as director, and the following month, Joe Robert Cole was confirmed as the film 's screenwriter. In April 2016, Feige confirmed that Coogler was a co-screenwriter. Filming began in January 2017 at EUE / Screen Gems Studios in Atlanta, and concluded in April 2017. Black Panther premiered in Los Angeles on January 29, 2018, and began its international release on February 13, 2018, and was released on February 16, 2018 in the United States. The film also had a "cross-nation release '' in Africa, a first for a Disney film.
The film is set one week after the events of Captain America: Civil War. Florence Kasumba, Serkis, Martin Freeman, and John Kani reprise their roles as Ayo, Ulysses Klaue, Everett K. Ross and T'Chaka respectively from previous MCU films. The film 's post-credits scene features a cameo appearance by Sebastian Stan, reprising his role as Bucky Barnes.
The Avengers join forces with the Guardians of the Galaxy to try to stop Thanos from collecting all of the Infinity Stones.
The film was announced in October 2014 as Avengers: Infinity War -- Part 1. In April 2015, Marvel announced that Anthony and Joe Russo would direct the film and in May, that Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely would write the screenplay. In July 2016, Marvel revealed the title would be shortened to simply Avengers: Infinity War. Brolin reprises his role as Thanos, and is part of an ensemble cast featuring many actors who have appeared in other MCU films. Filming for Infinity War began in January 2017 in Atlanta, and lasted until July 2017. Additional filming also took place in Scotland. Avengers: Infinity War premiered in Los Angeles on April 23, 2018. It was released worldwide on April 27, 2018, with a few debuts beginning as early as April 25 in a handful of countries.
The film is set two years after the events of Captain America: Civil War. Marvel had been planting the seeds for Infinity War since their early films, by introducing the Infinity Stones as MacGuffins: the Tesseract / Space Stone in Captain America: The First Avenger, Loki 's Scepter / Mind Stone in The Avengers, the Aether / Reality Stone in Thor: The Dark World, the Orb / Power Stone in Guardians of the Galaxy, and the Eye of Agamotto / Time Stone in Doctor Strange. Additionally, Thanos is shown holding an empty Infinity Gauntlet in Avengers: Age of Ultron. The Red Skull from Captain America: The First Avenger appears in the film, played by Ross Marquand instead of Hugo Weaving, and is the keeper of the final Infinity Stone, the Soul Stone. The post-credits scene features Nick Fury transmitting a distress signal on a device, which has the insignia of Captain Marvel.
Scott Lang tries to balance his home life with his responsibilities as Ant - Man, when Hope van Dyne and Hank Pym present him with a new mission, requiring him to team up with Van Dyne as the Wasp.
Ant - Man and the Wasp was announced in October 2015. Peyton Reed confirmed that he would return to direct in November 2015, and that Paul Rudd and Evangeline Lilly would reprise their roles as Scott Lang / Ant - Man and Hope van Dyne / Wasp, respectively. In December 2015, Andrew Barrer, Gabriel Ferrari, and Rudd were confirmed to write the screenplay, with Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers revealed to have also contributed to the script in August 2017. In February 2017, Michael Douglas confirmed he would reprise his role as Hank Pym in the film. Michelle Pfeiffer was revealed as having been cast as Janet van Dyne in July 2017. Filming began in August 2017 in Atlanta with additional filming in San Francisco, and ended in November 2017. Stephen Broussard also served as a producer on the film. Ant - Man and the Wasp had its premiere in Hollywood on June 25, 2018, and was released in the United States on July 6, 2018.
The film is set two years after the events of Captain America: Civil War and before the events of Avengers: Infinity War. In the mid-credits scene, Hank Pym, Hope van Dyne and Janet van Dyne are disintegrated as a result of the events of Avengers: Infinity War.
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In June 2012, Marvel announced a 10 - disc box set titled "Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase One -- Avengers Assembled '', for release on September 25, 2012. The box set includes all six of the Phase One films -- Iron Man, The Incredible Hulk, Iron Man 2, Thor, Captain America: The First Avenger, and Marvel 's The Avengers -- on Blu - ray and Blu - ray 3D, in a replica of Nick Fury 's briefcase from The Avengers. In August 2012, luggage company Rimowa GmbH, who developed the briefcase for The Avengers, filed suit against Marvel Studios and Buena Vista Home Entertainment in U.S. federal court, complaining that "Marvel did not obtain any license or authorization from Rimowa to make replica copies of the cases for any purpose. '' The set was delayed to early 2013 for the packaging to be redesigned. The box set, with a redesigned case, was released on April 2, 2013. In addition, the box set included a featurette on the then - upcoming Phase Two films, showing footage and concept art, as well as previously unreleased deleted scenes from all of the Phase One films.
In July 2015, Marvel announced a 13 - disc box set titled "Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Two Collection '', for release on December 8, 2015, exclusive to Amazon.com. The box set includes all six of the Phase Two films -- Iron Man 3, Thor: The Dark World, Captain America: The Winter Soldier, Guardians of the Galaxy, Avengers: Age of Ultron, and Ant - Man -- on Blu - ray, Blu - ray 3D and a digital copy, in a replica of the Orb from Guardians of the Galaxy, plus a bonus disc and exclusive memorabilia. Material on the bonus disc includes all of the Marvel One - Shots with commentary, deleted scenes and pre-production creative features for each of the films, featurettes on the making of the post-credit scenes for the films, and first looks at Captain America: Civil War, Doctor Strange, and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2.
Carol Danvers becomes Captain Marvel, one of the galaxy 's strongest heroes, after the Earth is caught in the center of an intergalactic conflict between two alien worlds.
In May 2013, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Marvel had a working script for Ms. Marvel. In October 2014, Marvel announced the film would be titled Captain Marvel and feature Carol Danvers. In April 2015, Nicole Perlman and Meg LeFauve were announced as screenwriters. At the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con, Brie Larson was confirmed to play the role of Carol Danvers. In April 2017, Anna Boden and Ryan Fleck were hired to direct. That August, Geneva Robertson - Dworet was revealed to be taking over as the film 's screenwriter, replacing Perlman and LeFauve. Liz Flahive, Carly Mensch, Boden and Ryan Fleck are also credited as screenwriters on the film. Location filming occurred in January 2018, while principal photography began in March in Los Angeles and concluded in July. The film is scheduled to be released on March 8, 2019.
The film is set in the 1990s. Jackson, Djimon Hounsou, Lee Pace, and Clark Gregg reprise their roles as Nick Fury, Korath, Ronan the Accuser, and Phil Coulson, respectively, while the Skrull species are introduced to the MCU.
The film was announced in October 2014 as Avengers: Infinity War -- Part 2. In April 2015, it was revealed that Anthony and Joe Russo would direct the film and in May, that Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely would write the screenplay. In July 2016, Marvel revealed the title would be changed, being known simply at that time as the Untitled Avengers film. Brolin reprises his role as Thanos, and is part of an ensemble cast featuring many actors who have appeared in other MCU films. Filming began in August 2017 in Atlanta, and ended in January 2018. The film is scheduled to be released on May 3, 2019.
In December 2016, Sony Pictures scheduled a sequel to Spider - Man: Homecoming for release on July 5, 2019. A year later, Watts was confirmed to be returning to direct the film. Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers, two of the writers of the first film, return to write the script. Holland revealed the film 's title as Spider - Man: Far From Home in late June 2018. Filming began in July 2018, in England, with filming occurring in Hertfordshire and London, and will last until December 2018.
The film is set after the untitled Avengers film.
In April 2016, Kevin Feige stated that "Guardians 3 is (one film that 's) up there '' being considered for release beyond 2019. In March 2017, Gunn stated that a third Guardians film would happen "for sure '', and the following month confirmed he would return to write and direct Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3. Filming is set to begin in January 2019. The film is scheduled to be released in 2020.
The film is set after the untitled Avengers film.
Disney has scheduled multiple release dates for untitled Marvel Studios films. These include: May 1, July 31, and November 6, 2020; February 12, May 7, and November 5, 2021; and February 18, May 6, and July 29, 2022. In October 2016, Feige said it was a combination of knowing what films would occupy the 2020 dates and allowing some flexibility, saying, "We know what (films) we 'd like them to be for 2020. Over the years, where we 're aiming we 've been lucky enough that it 's usually been the same thing but we always leave ourselves the opportunity to bob and weave and adapt if we have to. But we know where we 're headed for 2020 and we have ideas and we 're beginning to solidify the years beyond that. '' Feige and Marvel have additional storylines planned through 2028, resulting in 20 films "on the docket that are completely different from anything that 's come before -- intentionally. ''
In October 2014, in terms of Phase Four films, Feige said, for the time being, "We 're not going to talk specifically about the story of any of those films, the plot of any of those films, what happens to any of the characters in any of those films. In fact, even to talk about any of those characters -- who will be involved in those movies -- will be a bit of a spoiler as to what may or may not happen to them in earlier movies. '' In April 2016, Feige added, "We 're only working on what 's been announced through the end of 2019. And it is still a big chess board for 2020 and beyond. '' A year later, Feige noted, "We have an idea (of what the MCU looks like post-Infinity War), and it 's gon na be very, very different '', but cautioned that Marvel would not be "actively discussing anything past untitled Avengers '' besides dating the sequel to Spider - Man: Homecoming and that James Gunn would be working on Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3. He also was not sure if Marvel would continue to group the films in phases once Phase Three concluded, that "it might be a new thing ''. Feige noted Marvel hoped to reveal additional films after the release of the untitled Avengers film. A second sequel to Homecoming is also planned.
In February 2014, Feige stated that after exploring Black Widow 's past in Age of Ultron, he would like to see it explored further in a solo film. Marvel has done some development work for the potential film, including a "pretty in depth '' treatment by Nicole Perlman, and by May 2016, Feige stated that Marvel was "creatively and emotionally '' committed to creating the solo film. By January 2018, Jac Schaeffer was hired to write the script for the potential film. That July, Cate Shortland was hired to direct, with Johansson reprising her role as Natasha Romanoff / Black Widow.
By April 2018, Marvel had met with multiple screenwriters, to craft a film based on the Eternals, with a focus on the character Sersi. Feige stated that a film based on the group was "one of many many many things that we are actively beginning to have creative discussions about to see if we believe in them enough to put them on a slate. '' A month later, Matthew and Ryan Firpo were hired to write the script for the project.
In May 2013, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Marvel had a working script for Blade. In July 2015, Wesley Snipes, who played Blade in three films before the character 's rights reverted to Marvel, stated that he had discussions with Marvel to reprise the role.
A film based on the Runaways went through a number of iterations. Brian K. Vaughan was originally hired to write a screenplay based on the property in May 2008. In April 2010, Marvel hired Peter Sollett to direct the film, and Drew Pearce was hired to write a script in May. The following October, development on the film was put on hold, with Pearce revealing in September 2013 that the Runaways film had been shelved in favor of The Avengers, with the earliest it could release being Phase Three. In October 2014, after announcing all of Marvel 's Phase Three films without Runaways, Feige stated the project was "still an awesome script that exists in our script vault '', adding, "We 'd love to do something with Runaways some day. In our television and future film discussions, it 's always one that we talk about, because we have a solid draft there. But again, we ca n't make them all. '' In August 2016, Marvel Television announced Marvel 's Runaways from the streaming service Hulu, with the series receiving a full season order in May 2017. It premiered in November 2017.
In April 2013, Feige mentioned the Inhumans as a property out of which he was "confident '' a film would be made. Inhumans as a concept would first be introduced to the MCU in 2014 through the second season of the television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. By August 2014, the studio was ready to move forward in development with the film, with a screenplay written by Joe Robert Cole. In October 2014, the film was announced for Phase Three and scheduled for release July 2019. By October 2015, Cole was no longer involved with the film and any potential drafts that he may have written would not be used. In April 2016, Inhumans was removed from the release schedule, and would no longer be a part of Phase Three. In July 2016, Feige said Inhumans would "certainly '' be a part of the discussion regarding the film ideas for 2020 and 2021, adding the following November that he was still optimistic the film could be released in Phase Four. In November 2016, Marvel Television announced the series Marvel 's Inhumans, which premiered on ABC in September 2017, after the first two episodes were screened in IMAX. The series was not intended to be a reworking of the film. ABC canceled Inhumans after one season in May 2018.
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who was steve mcdonald married to in coronation street | Steve McDonald (Coronation Street) - wikipedia
Steven James "Steve '' McDonald is a fictional character from the British ITV soap opera, Coronation Street, played by Simon Gregson. The character first appeared on - screen during the episode airing on 6 December 1989. He arrived as part of the McDonald family introduced by producer Mervyn Watson along with his twin brother Andy (Nicholas Cochrane) and parents Liz (Beverley Callard) and Jim McDonald (Charles Lawson). For the first year on the Street, the character was credited by the actor 's real surname Gregory, before changing to Gregson from early 1991 onwards.
Steve 's storylines include his many marriages to Vicky Arden (Chloe Newsome), Karen Phillips (Suranne Jones) twice, Becky Granger (Katherine Kelly), Tracy Barlow (Kate Ford) and Michelle Connor (Kym Marsh), as well as Tracy giving birth to his daughter Amy (Elle Mulvaney) and also depression. In September 2015 Gregson announced a break due to personal reasons, and Steve was off - screen from November 2015 to 22 April 2016.
Steve arrived in Coronation Street at the age of 15 in December 1989, with twin brother Andy (Nicholas Cochrane) and parents Jim (Charles Lawson) and Liz (Beverley Callard). From the start, the lads were high - energy tearaways initially causing aggravation for Alf Roberts (Bryan Mosley). Steve and Andy got up to a lot of mischief, including a joyride in an industrial earth mover, breaking Alf 's shop window. The lads were brought up mainly by their mother because their father Jim was in the army and away more than he was home. When he was home, the hot tempered Jim, whose tirades were often fuelled by whiskey and beer, had the boys fearing and resenting him. Steve grew up with little respect for his father but a great deal for his mother. It did n't stop him from getting into scrapes, no matter how much it worried his mother. Schoolboy pranks turned into illegal activities when Steve was sure he could pull off a scam or two only to find out that the long arm of the law was only a few steps away. Steve was caught selling stolen car radios, and falling into a bad lot which got his brother, Andy, beaten up. Steve ran away with a teenage love to the Lake District and had to be retrieved and defended against Jim by his mother. The McDonalds did n't have a lot of money and this seemed to fuel Steve 's ambitions, always looking for a way to make money. Steve started working with Jim in a building business but Jim was drinking a lot and during an argument and scuffle on scaffolding, Jim fell into a skip and was paralysed for a time. After Jim 's recovery, things started to improve between father and son. They seemed to come to an acceptance of each other. In 2000 he had dealings with a local gangster, Jez Quigley. After learning that Quigley killed Tony Horrocks, Steve decides to testify against him in court. After Quigley is found not guilty, he soon plans revenge. He has Steve lured into a car park where he is savagely beaten by several of Quigley 's henchmen. After been found by Jim and taken to hospital, Jim takes revenge by beating Quigley. Quigley later dies from his injuries after making another attempt on killing Steve. Jim is sentenced to eight year for manslaughter. Simon Belcher, his half brother who was in the same jail as him at same time was caught red handed with a guard and another inmate and all hell broke lose
Steve was married to Karen Phillips (Suranne Jones) twice. During his separation from Karen in 2003, he had a one - night stand with Tracy Barlow (Kate Ford), consequently making her pregnant. Tracy gave birth to their daughter Amy (Holly Bowyer and Rebecca Pike), though she initially was named Patience by Roy Cropper (David Neilson) when he was deceived into believing Amy was his daughter. Tracy later decided she wanted to bring up her daughter herself, and revealed that Steve was the baby 's father on Steve and Karen 's second wedding day. Karen was horrified but later forgave him. Tracy was persistent in causing disruption for Steve and Karen which continued throughout 2004, until Steve ended his relationship with Karen on Christmas Day, admitting it was getting too much for him. In March 2005, he dated single mother Louise Hazel briefly but the dalliance soon fizzled out partly due to Tracy 's presence. For a brief period shortly after, he dated Tracy, intending to get parental responsibility for Amy, rather than having feelings for Tracy. Tracy became aware of Steve 's scheme and attempted to prevent Steve having access to Amy. The case went to court where Steve was granted legal rights to see his daughter.
Steve starts dating StreetCars employee Ronnie Clayton (Emma Stansfield), a local gangster 's estranged wife. Ronnie tries to frame him when she accidentally ran down a pensioner in her taxi, but she was eventually caught. Steve 's alibi for the crime was that he spent the night with his new business partner Lloyd 's girlfriend Kelly Crabtree (Tupele Dorgu). This led to the temporary closure of Street Cars when Lloyd refused to work with Steve. Lloyd eventually forgave Steve for his deception and they reopened the business. Later that year, Steve bought The Rovers Return pub from Fred Elliott (John Savident) and installed Liz as landlady and stepfather Vernon Tomlin (Ian Reddington) as cellarman. Steve takes Amy (now played by Amber Chadwick) after Tracy is sentenced to 15 years in prison for the murder of her boyfriend Charlie Stubbs (Bill Ward).
After proposing to Becky Granger (Katherine Kelly), he organises a quick wedding for them. Many people disapprove of them marrying because Becky had been engaged to Jason Grimshaw (Ryan Thomas), just before she accepted Steve 's proposal. Steve bans Liz and Lloyd Mullaney (Craig Charles) from the wedding after they bet on whether the ceremony would go ahead. In the end, Becky turns up late for the ceremony drunk, rendering her unable to carry out the nuptials. Steve then brings her home in disgrace. The following day, Becky wakes up and, believing that she has been married, hunts for her ring; however, Michelle reveals all in the pub. She later leaves Steve after admitting that it would never work. They later reconcile, and begin plans for another wedding.
Steve and Becky have their second wedding. The ceremony goes off without a hitch, however, their happiness is short lived when The Rovers is searched for drugs, which are found in Becky 's bag, having been planted by Becky 's ex Slug (Marshall Lancaster). She is arrested and taken to the police cells, however, the charges are later dropped. Steve reveals that he wants another child with Becky, however, she does n't want any children of her own. This leads to various arguments between the pair. Becky later falls pregnant, leaving the couple without much choice in the matter. She later suffers a miscarriage. After a second miscarriage, Steve and Becky discover that Becky can not have children and later decide to adopt. Becky and Steve 's ex-girlfriend, Tracy, fight at Blanche Hunt 's (Maggie Jones) funeral because Becky has become very close to Amy (now played by Elle Mulvaney).
At an adoption panel meeting, Steve and Becky are told that they have been unsuccessful in their bid to adopt, following a bad reference from Becky 's half - sister, Kylie Turner (Paula Lane). Steve is not impressed when Becky moves Kylie into the pub to live with them as she is homeless. On Christmas Eve, Steve and Becky were not happy when Tracy returned. When she entered The Rovers, she managed to insult people and Steve had to reprimand Gail McIntyre (Helen Worth) for starting a fight with Tracy where Steve had to restrain Gail. On Christmas Day, Steve very nearly had to remind Gail although it was okay as Tracy and Gail called a truce. Amy revealed to Tracy that Steve and Becky had bought Max (Harry McDermott), Kylie 's son. This gave Tracy cause to literally pick Amy up and take her back to No. 1 where she said that she was going to ring social services for buying Max. Steve hires a new manager for the pub, Stella Price (Michelle Collins) who moves in there with her daughter Eva (Catherine Tyldesley) and her boyfriend Karl Munro (John Michie). Becky discovers this and is annoyed and goes round the pub to take charge and plays loud music and a fight breaks out resulting in the pub window being smashed. Steve returns and is furious to discover what Becky has done and tells his she does not own the pub any more.
Steve and Becky split up and he begins a relationship with Tracy, after she announces that she is pregnant with his child, who later turn out to be twins. After Lloyd leaves the area, Steve and Becky go into business and decide to extend the business when they meet hotel manager Danny Stratton (Jeremy Sheffield). Tracy assumes that they were having an affair and while searching the hotel for them, she collapses at the hotel and miscarries the babies. However, Steve is told that Becky pushed her down the stairs and caused the miscarriage. Steve is very bitter towards Becky and repeatedly accuses her of killing his unborn children, which she strongly denies. He proposes to Tracy on Christmas Day and he buys No. 13 from Lloyd and they move in and he and Becky get divorced. Steve and Tracy marry but, at the wedding reception in The Rovers, Becky gives Steve a copy of Tracy 's medical records, proving that she lied about Becky causing her miscarriage. Steve is disgusted with Tracy and tries to stop Becky leaving with Danny for Barbados but fails and he watches as they board the plane. Steve angrily tells Tracy he wants their marriage annulled and that he loves Becky, not her. Steve 's attempts to get the annulment fail as he needs her co-operation and can not file for divorce for a year. Worse still, he finds himself unable to kick her out of No. 13 as the deeds are in joint names. Unwilling to move out of his own house, Steve remains and tries to persuade Tracy to move out but she wo n't either so Steve has the house converted into two flats but Tracy threatens to call the council as he did n't apply for planning permission so that is reversed. However, Steve then allows Beth Tinker (Lisa George) and her son, Craig (Colson Smith), to move in with Tracy and Amy. He thought this would make Tracy move out but she ends up becoming friends with Beth so he sells the house to Kevin Webster (Michael Le Vell) who is looking for somewhere for him and his son after splitting from his wife a few months before. When Steve mentions he needs the house cleaned, Kevin 's daughter Sophie (Brooke Vincent) offers and Steve accepts her offer. While Sophie is cleaning, her old friend Ryan Connor (Sol Heras) helps her and while having a cigarette, Steve 's curtains are set on fire. Steve and Ryan 's mother, Michelle, catch them trying to put out the fire. Afterwards, Kevin tells Steve he is n't interested in buying the house as Steve refused to pay for them.
Steve begins to develop feelings for ex-girlfriend, Michelle Connor (Kym Marsh), and does n't believe Tracy when she complains that she 's ill until she is hospitalised, after collapsing from kidney failure. She tells Steve she still loves him and begs him to stay by her bedside until she wakes up from her sleep. Steve reluctantly does but after helping Michelle deal with Ryan, they share a kiss, unaware that Amy has seen them. Michelle urges Steve to tell Tracy the truth, but he only tells her that he wants to live life on his own. Deirdre came out and furiously told Tracy everything: the kiss and making Amy promise not to say anything, and Tracy is heartbroken. The next day, Steve explained everything to Tracy, saying that nothing has changed between them and he loves Michelle. Tracy tells Steve he 's being a fool, but all she got back was an apology for not being honest with her earlier. Steve and Michelle move into 4b Victoria Court.In September 2013, Stella puts The Rovers up for sale, and Steve decides to put an offer down to cheer up Michelle, who is down in the dumps at the moment. Although she is angry that he kept it a secret, she eventually comes round to the idea of being the landlady, and is given a 50 % share of the place. When Liz returns, she is given the role of assistant manager and is seen behind the bar more often than Steve and Michelle. The reason for this is that Steve still has his taxi - firm business, StreetCars and is struggling to cope with running two businesses. Michelle advise Steve to sell his share of the taxi - firm to his friend and current business partner, Lloyd, which he agrees to.
In December 2013, when Michelle 's friend, Carla Connor (Alison King), marries Steve 's friend, Peter Barlow (Chris Gascoyne), Steve and Michelle help plan the wedding, which prompts them to begin a party planning business together. However, a few months later, Steve is shocked to discover that Peter is having an affair with Tina McIntyre (Michelle Keegan). When the truth is revealed, Carla says that she is going to kill Tina and is prime suspect in her murder investigation when she is found lying dead on the pavement. When Michelle discovers that Steve knew about Tina and Peter 's affair, she dumps him, packs her bags and moves in with Carla. However, they get back together within a week and begin to save up for a holiday home in Spain.
In January 2015, Steve is diagnosed with clinical depression and not wanting Michelle to have to cope with him, he decides to end their relationship without giving her any explanation. This leads Michelle to believe that he does not love her anymore. Whilst driving the Underworld staff to an awards ' ceremony for Carla to accept an award, Steve is chased by some boy racers who eventually cut him up and cause him to swerve. Steve crashes the minibus, leaving the staff trapped in the wreckage. Steve is the first person to awaken from unconsciousness, and wanders off to leave the others to deal with the traumatic situation. Whilst at the hospital, Steve tells Michelle that he has depression and that this is the reason why he ended their relationship. Michelle promises to help him recover.
In March 2015, Michelle discovers that Steve owes £ 10,000 in tax which Steve had been ignoring for the past few months. Liz 's boyfriend, Tony Stewart (Terence Maynard) offers to lend him the money to clear his debt, but after starting an affair with Tracy, the couple plan to take the Rovers from the McDonald 's so Tony lies to Steve and tells him that he needs his money back to pay off some loan sharks. Subsequently, Steve proposes to Michelle in the back room of The Rovers. However, Steve is convinced that Michelle does n't really want to marry him, and only said yes out of pity, so he calls off the engagement. Later, Steve finds a candlelight dinner prepared in the back of The Rovers, and he assumes that Tony has prepared the meal for Liz, and calls Tony out in front of a busy pub at the Butler Auction. Michelle then confesses that it was actually her who had prepared it for both of them, and calls Steve up onto the stage to explain that she had said yes to him because she loves him. Michelle then proposes to Steve, getting the engagement back on track.
In May 2015, after some persuasion from Liz, a reluctant Steve agrees to sell his share of the Rovers to a company called "Travis Limited '', who, unbeknownst to everyone, is actually Tony. Tony then persuades Liz into selling her share of the pub to Travis Ltd, in order to start a new life in Spain. However, Michelle 's best friend Carla steps in and offers to buy Liz 's share of the pub, which not only settles Michelle 's worries about being kicked out of their home, but Liz accepts asking Tony why it would be better to sell to a stranger rather to someone that they know and trust. Carla then promises to keep Steve and Michelle as the pub managers. On 26 May 2015, after a total of seven years of an on - and - off relationship, Steve and Michelle finally marry.
Steve leaves to stay with Andy for a while in Spain, he later returns for Michelle 's birthday. Steve is furious with Michelle when he learns that she kissed an ex-boyfriend, Will Chatterton (Leon Ockenden). Michelle plans to leave for a job on a cruise ship when her attempts to get Steve to forgive her fail. Steve and Michelle later reconcile. Steve sleeps with Leanne Battersby (Jane Danson) and she becomes pregnant. Steve told Liz that he got Leanne pregnant and explain it was one night stand that he thought Michelle had gone to cruise ship. Leanne informs Steve of her intention to keep the unborn child. Steve decides to keep his involvement a secret and having nothing to do with the unborn child. Michelle then expresses an interest of having children of their own. Steve agrees to have a baby after speaking to Dev Alahan (Jimmi Harkishin). Michelle then also falls pregnant, but unfortunately delivers their baby boy, Ruairi, at 23 weeks. The baby does n't survive, leaving both Michelle and Steve devastated. Michelle then finds out that Leanne 's baby, Oliver, is Steve 's baby, after their one night stand, Michelle then leaves Steve for good, unable to forgive him. In Spring 2017, Steve found out that Michelle had an affair with Tracy 's ex-husband, Robert Preston to his dismay. Michelle then begins a relationship with Robert and divorces Steve. He then tries to make a go of things with Leanne, so they can be a family, due to them having Oliver. Steve proposes and Leanne accepts. They both later realise their relationship wo n't work as they do n't love one another, but agree to be friends. Steve then starts dating Tracy again, despite the disapproval of Liz, and Amy.
Simon Gregson began his time in Coronation Street at the age of fifteen in 1989, when he and Nicholas Cochrane were selected to play the teenage twin sons of a new family in The Street. Whilst filming with the soap opera he filmed a guest appearance for the comedy series Red Dwarf, alongside fellow actor Craig Charles (who plays the lead character in the comedy). Craig Charles has played Lloyd Mullaney in Coronation Street since 2005. In September 2015, it was announced that Gregson had taken an extended break from the show for "personal reasons '' and that Steve would be off - screen for several months. He would also not appear in the upcoming live episode, but would feature in the episodes either sides of it. Steve departed in November 2015, but returned in April 2016.
Steve began a relationship with Karen Phillips played by Suranne Jones. Rick Fulton of the Daily Record noted that Karen vows to be more "wily '' with her romantic interests after seeing her friend Bobbi "wrapping boyfriend Vikram around her little finger ''. Her friend and colleague Janice makes a series of bets with Karen regarding how new boyfriend Steve treats her: this culminates in Janice betting Karen that she can get Steve to propose to her. Of the storyline, Suranne Jones stated that: "Karen ca n't believe she 's on the verge of getting married for a bet ''. She characterises Karen as "not the type of girl to back out of a tricky situation '' and states that she and Steve find themselves "in a game of bluff '' with each "waiting for the other to pull out. '' Simon Gregson, felt the marriage was "quite fitting '' and that his character "thinks it 's a bit of a laugh ''. The wedding scenes were filmed on 6 May 2001 and screened on 30 May 2001. Billy Sloan of the Sunday Mail stated that the scenes were "guaranteed to provide a bit of light relief '' after serious storylines such as the rape of Toyah Battersby and Alma Halliwell 's cancer diagnosis. Suranne Jones felt that Steve was "definitely the man for Karen '' as the two characters had "similar personalities ''. She stated that Karen had dumped her previous boyfriend, Vikram, because he "was n't racy enough and does n't have the edge Steve has ''.
In September 2001 Suranne Jones stated that she "(feels) sorry for Steve sometimes '' in regard to Karen 's negative characteristics. She indicated that she 'd "love to see Steve and Karen having the same impact on viewers as Dirty Den and Angie did ''. In November 2001 the two characters fall out because Karen insults Steve 's mother Liz, though they later end up back together. Discussing the success of the pairing, Simon Gregson compared Steve and Karen to "a mini Jack and Vera '' with "the shouting and the arguments '' and "the feistiness of the characters ''. He added that Steve and Karen "ca n't live with each other and ca n't live without each other ''. Gregson also remarked that the relationship was "going back to what Coronation Street set out to be '' which he felt to be "hen - pecked husbands and very strong women ''.
Steve embarked on an affair with fellow resident Becky Granger portrayed by (Katherine Kelly). Kelly revealed that she felt Steve was the best man for Becky over her previous lover Jason, stating: "Both boys bring out different things in Becky. With Jason, they liked going clubbing, and it was no strings attached, I think Becky needs more than that, even though she would n't admit it. I think, long - term, Steve 's better for her. '' When Gregson was interviewed by entertainment website Digital Spy, he was asked if he thought that Steve has had a positive impact on Becky 's life. In reply he stated: "I think he 's turned it around. She was all over the place getting into trouble all the time but he 's made her grow up. And having a little girl there in Amy, that 's made her grow a bit, too. She 's got responsibilities now. She 's besotted with him. She 's still a total pisshead, though! '' Steve and Becky attempted to marry twice in 2009, their first wedding was given a promotional push from ITV who aired adverts for the first wedding episodes. Their relationship was featured in a series of romantic plots which ITV dubbed the "Summer of Love '' season of the soap, with advertisements airing.
In 2014, Producer Stuart Blackburn revealed that Steve 's depression storyline was going to be a big storyline, stating: "It 's going to run through the autumn and build up from there. On Christmas Day and beyond, we 'll see a real challenge to Steve and Michelle 's relationship. I absolutely know that Simon Gregson and Kym Marsh are very good actors. I hope that the great comedy that Steve brings will absolutely be on screen for the next decade and onwards, but I also wanted to explore a story where Steve looked in the mirror on his 40th birthday and started to wonder whether he was really good enough for Michelle. He also blamed himself for Lloyd 's heart attack and he feels guilty for his role in what happened to Tina. Steve is taking a long, hard look at himself and he 's not liking what he sees. It 's going to run from there, and there will still be comedy in the lead - up as Steve tries to hide away from the demons in his head. Fundamentally what I wanted to do is tell what will hopefully be a really positive, uplifting love story between Michelle and Steve. ''
In January 2015, it was revealed that Steve would reunite Michelle Connor (Kym Marsh) in the aftermath of the upcoming mini bus crash storyline. It was also confirmed that Steve and Michelle would be the next Weatherfield couple to tie the knot. Speaking of this Marsh said; "I 'm delighted, absolutely delighted. It 'll be weird after being Michelle Connor for nearly nine years, but it totally makes sense for us as characters. Simon and I love working together, and nobody likes to see us broken up. '' It was also revealed that Michelle would get "feisty '' again when her Steve is blamed for the mini-bus crash.
Kym Marsh also revealed that Michelle and Steve 's mum Liz would clash over the best course of action for Steve. With Michelle now focused solely on helping Steve to get better with his depression following their reconciliation, she faces opposition from his mum Liz as it becomes apparent that they have very different approaches. While Liz adopts a "tough love '' approach with her son, Michelle thinks they should tread more carefully around him, worried about his vulnerable state. Marsh said: "They both obviously want to help Steve but because both of them are so worried about him and love him so much - they both want to help him in their own way. Understandably they clash as they 're both so concerned about him. They both have different approaches - Liz is more of the tough love approach and tries to get Steve up and doing things, whereas Michelle is much more trying the softly - softly approach. '' Marsh added: "Liz does n't think it 's the best way because Michelle is so protective of Steve and does n't want to hurt or upset him. After everything that 's happened with the crash, Michelle thinks they should go easy on him. '' Despite the disagreement, Marsh believed that the pair would be able to put their differences aside eventually in order to work together to help Steve.
In June 2016, it was announced Leanne would fall pregnant following a one - night stand. The father was revealed as Steve. Gregson said that his character may have gone "a step too far '' and that "he has to keep Michelle ''. Marsh added that her character would "make Steve 's life hell '' if she found out. Danson said Leanne and Michelle will also be "forced '' to be friends after Michelle finds out she is pregnant with Steve 's child, and that "it 's just really awkward ''. Danson also stated that Leanne wants to forget the McDonalds and raise the child with Nick. Liz also finds out, and Gail is "thrilled when she finds out '' and that the situation, "It 's like a little pressure cooker, it 's all waiting to blow ''. Danson also says the storyline "provokes a lot of stories for a lot of other characters and it 's how they will deal with the repercussions ''. Steve being the father will have implications on Leanne and Nick 's relationship and a spark a rivalry between Steve and Nick. Producer Kate Oates said "Nick is persistent and Nick adores her '' and the storyline will see if they can overcome Leanne being pregnant with another man 's child.
A four - part spin - off series entitled Street Car Stories was released in February 2014 and featured comic scenes between Steve and Lloyd Mullaney (Craig Charles) in the Street Cars cab office.
Steve McDonald has proven to be one of the most popular characters on the Street in recent years due to high - profile storylines, such as his dodgy dealings with Jez Quigley and his explosive relationships with Karen McDonald and Tracy Barlow. At the 2004 Inside Soap Awards, the Tracy / Steve baby secret won the ' Best Storyline ' gong. The presence of the McDonald family on Coronation Street and Steve in particular have been singled out for praise. In a 2008 interview with The Sun, Simon Gregson expressed his delight with the character 's "bad - boy '' image, saying that the producers were of the same opinion. Critic Tony Stewart praised the episodes in which Steve discovered that Lloyd and Liz were having a fling, calling it "pure comedy gold, full of wicked laugh - out - loud one - liners... '' Ian Wylie has been very impressed with Simon Gregson 's performance as Steve saying, "his on screen performance remains as fresh as the day he started ''.
Over the years, storylines involving Steve McDonald have received some negative backlash. In 2002, the Broadcasting Standards Commission criticised Coronation Street for being "unacceptably menacing '' in regard to the hospital scene where Steve was threatened by Jez Quigley, broadcast two years previously. A spokeswoman for the soap defended the controversial storyline saying; "We are a realistic drama and we did flag up the fact there was going to be violence in the Steve McDonald episode. We are mindful that Coronation Street has a large family audience and endeavour to appeal to young and old at all times. '' In 2008, a leading policeman blamed Coronation Street for glamorising drink driving. He pointed out that Street 's cab driver McDonald was regularly seen drinking in the Rovers Return -- setting a bad example to drivers.
In February 2009, Steve McDonald was voted the nation 's favourite soap character in a poll conducted by The People newspaper. Talking about the victory Gregson stated; "Oh my God, I am chuffed. I 'm delighted people enjoy watching Steve and the scrapes he gets into. And I 'm pleased people like to watch him as much as I love playing him. ''
Gregson was nominated in the category of "Best Actor '' at The British Soap Awards 2011. He won the "Funniest Male '' award at the 2013 Inside Soap Awards. He also won "Best Comedy Performance '' at The British Soap Awards 2014. In August 2017, Gregson was longlisted for Best Actor and Funniest Male at the Inside Soap Awards, while the death of Steve and Michelle 's son was longlisted for Best Show - Stopper and Steve revealing himself as Oliver 's father was longlisted for Best Shock Twist. While Steve revealing himself as Oliver 's father did not make the shortlist, Gregson 's three other nominations did. Gregson did not win any awards at the ceremony.
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why was australia chosen to be established as a british penal colony | Convicts in Australia - Wikipedia
Between 1788 and 1868, about 162,000 convicts were transported by the British government to various penal colonies in Australia.
The British government began transporting convicts overseas to American colonies in the early 18th century. When transportation ended with the start of the American Revolution, an alternative site was needed to relieve further overcrowding of British prisons and hulks. Earlier in 1770, James Cook charted and claimed possession of the east coast of Australia for Britain. Seeking to pre-empt the French colonial empire from expanding into the region, Britain chose Australia as the site of a penal colony, and in 1787, the First Fleet of eleven convict ships set sail for Botany Bay, arriving on 20 January 1788 to found Sydney, New South Wales, the first European settlement on the continent. Other penal colonies were later established in Van Diemen 's Land (Tasmania) in 1803 and Queensland in 1824, while Western Australia, founded in 1829 as a free colony, received convicts from 1850. Victoria and South Australia remained free colonies. Penal transportation to Australia peaked in the 1830s and dropped off significantly the following decade. The last convict ship arrived in Western Australia on 10 January 1868.
Many convicts were transported for petty crimes, although also serious crimes, such as rape and murder, even if punishable by death, were transportable offences (a total of 148 convicted murderers and 119 convicted rapists were transported to Australia between 1833 and 1867). Once emancipated, most ex-convicts stayed in Australia and joined the free settlers, with some rising to prominent positions in Australian society. However, convictism carried a social stigma, and for some later Australians, convict origins would be a source of shame. Attitudes became more accepting in the 20th century and it is now considered by many Australians to be a cause for celebration to have a convict in one 's lineage. Around 20 % of modern Australians are descended from transported convicts. The convict era has inspired famous novels, films, and other cultural works, and the extent to which it has shaped Australia 's national character has been studied by many writers and historians.
According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore, the population of England and Wales, which had remained steady at 6 million from 1700 to 1740, began rising considerably after 1740. By the time of the American Revolution, London was overcrowded, filled with the unemployed, and flooded with cheap gin. Poverty, social injustice, child labor, harsh and dirty living conditions and long working hours were prevalent in 19th - century Britain. Dickens ' novels perhaps best illustrate this; even some government officials were horrified by what they saw. Only in 1833 and 1844 were the first general laws against child labour (the Factory Acts) passed in the United Kingdom. Crime had become a major problem and in 1784 a French observer noted that "from sunset to dawn the environs of London became the patrimony of brigands for twenty miles around. ''
Each parish had a watchman, but British cities did not have police forces in the modern sense. Jeremy Bentham avidly promoted the idea of a circular prison, but the penitentiary was seen by many government officials as a peculiar American concept. Virtually all malefactors were caught by informers or denounced to the local court by their victims. Pursuant to the so - called "Bloody Code '', by the 1770s there were 222 crimes in Britain which carried the death penalty, almost all of which were crimes against property. These included such offences as the stealing of goods worth over 5 shillings, the cutting down of a tree, the theft of an animal, even the theft of a rabbit from a warren.
The Industrial Revolution led to an increase in petty crime due to the economic displacement of much of the population, building pressure on the government to find an alternative to confinement in overcrowded gaols. The situation was so dire that hulks left over from the Seven Years ' War were used as makeshift floating prisons. Eight of every 10 prisoners were in jail for theft. The Bloody Code was gradually rescinded in the 1800s because judges and juries considered its punishments too harsh. Since lawmakers still wanted punishments to deter potential criminals, they increasingly applied transportation as a more humane alternative to execution. Transportation had been employed as a punishment for both major and petty crimes since the seventeenth century. Around 60,000 convicts were transported to the British colonies in North America in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Transportation to the Americas ceased following Britain 's defeat in the American Revolutionary War. The number of convicts transported to North America is not verified although it has been estimated to be 50,000 by John Dunmore Lang and 120,000 by Thomas Keneally. The British American colony of Maryland received a larger felon quota than any other province.
Alternatives to the American colonies were investigated and the newly discovered and mapped East Coast of New Holland was proposed. The details provided by James Cook during his expedition to the South Pacific in 1770 made it the most suitable.
On 18 August 1786 the decision was made to send a colonisation party of convicts, military, and civilian personnel to Botany Bay under the command of Admiral Arthur Phillip who was to be the Governor of the new colony. There were 775 convicts on board six transport ships. They were accompanied by officials, members of the crew, marines, the families thereof and their own children who together totaled 645. In all, eleven ships were sent in what became known as the First Fleet. Other than the convict transports, there were two naval escorts and three storeships. The fleet assembled in Portsmouth and set sail on 13 May 1787.
The fleet arrived at Botany Bay on 20 January 1788. It soon became clear that it would not be suitable for the establishment of a colony due to "the openness of this bay, and the dampness of the soil, by which the people would probably be rendered unhealthy '' and Philip decided to examine Port Jackson, a bay mentioned by Captain Cook, about three leagues to the north. On 22 January a small expedition led by Phillips sailed to Port Jackson, arriving in the early afternoon:
Here all regret arising from the former disappointments was at once obliterated; and Governor Phillip had the satisfaction to find one of the finest harbours in the world, in which a thousand sail of the line might ride in perfect security. The different coves of this harbour were examined with all possible expedition, and the preference was given to one which had the finest spring of water, and in which ships can anchor so close to the shore, that at a very small expence quays may be constructed at which the largest vessels may unload. This cove is about half a mile in length, and a quarter of a mile across at the entrance. In honour of Lord Sydney, the Governor distinguished it by the name of Sydney Cove.
There they established the first permanent European colony on the Australian continent, New South Wales, on 26 January. The area has since developed into the city of Sydney. This date is still celebrated as Australia Day.
There was initially a high mortality rate amongst the members of the first fleet due mainly to shortages of food. The ships carried only enough food to provide for the settlers until they could establish agriculture in the region. Unfortunately, there were an insufficient number of skilled farmers and domesticated livestock to do this, and the colony waited for the arrival of the Second Fleet. The "Memorandoms '' by James Martin (convict) provide a contemporary account of the events as seen by a convict on the first fleet. The second fleet was an unprecedented disaster that provided little in the way of help and upon its delivery in June 1790 of still more sick and dying convicts, which actually worsened the situation in Port Jackson.
Lieutenant - General Sir Richard Bourke was the ninth Governor of the Colony of New South Wales between 1831 and 1837. Appalled by the excessive punishments doled out to convicts, Bourke passed ' The Magistrates Act ', which limited the sentence a magistrate could pass to fifty lashes (previously there was no such limit). Bourke 's administration was controversial, and furious magistrates and employers petitioned the crown against this interference with their legal rights, fearing that a reduction in punishments would cease to provide enough deterrence to the convicts.
Bourke, however, was not dissuaded from his reforms and continued to create controversy within the colony by combating the inhumane treatment handed out to convicts, including limiting the number of convicts each employer was allowed to seventy, as well as granting rights to freed convicts, such as allowing the acquisition of property and service on juries. It has been argued that the suspension of convict transportation to New South Wales in 1840 can be attributed to the actions of Bourke and other men like Australian - born lawyer William Charles Wentworth. It took another 10 years, but transportation to the colony of New South Wales was finally officially abolished on 1 October 1850.
If a convict was well behaved, the convict could be given a ticket of leave, granting some freedom. At the end of the convict 's sentence, seven years in most cases, the convict was issued with a Certificate of Freedom. He was then free to become a settler or to return to England. Convicts who misbehaved, however, were often sent to a place of secondary punishment like Port Arthur, Tasmania or Norfolk Island, where they would suffer additional punishment and solitary confinement.
Within a month of the arrival of the First Fleet at Sydney Cove, a group of convicts and free settlers were sent to take control of Norfolk Island, a small island 1,412 kilometres (877 mi) east of the coast of New South Wales. More convicts were sent, and many of them proved to be unruly; early 1789 saw a failed attempt to overthrow Lieutenant Philip Gidley King, the island 's commandant. This was followed by the wreck of HMS Sirius on one of the island 's reefs while attempting to land stores.
In 1803, a British expedition was sent from Sydney to Tasmania (then known as Van Diemen 's Land) to establish a new penal colony there. The small party, led by Lt. John Bowen, established a settlement at Risdon Cove, on the eastern side of the Derwent River. Originally sent to Port Philip, but abandoned within weeks, another expedition led by Lieutenant - Colonel David Collins arrived soon after. Collins considered the Risdon Cove site inadequate, and in 1804 he established an alternative settlement on the western side of the river at Sullivan 's Cove, Tasmania. This later became known as Hobart, and the original settlement at Risdon Cove was deserted. Collins became the first Lieutenant - Governor of Van Diemen 's Land.
When the convict station on Norfolk Island was abandoned in 1807 - 1808, the remaining convicts and free settlers were transported to Hobart and allocated land for re-settlement. However, as the existing small population was already experiencing difficulties producing enough food, the sudden doubling of the population was almost catastrophic.
Starting in 1816, more free settlers began arriving from Great Britain. On 3 December 1825 Tasmania was declared a colony separate from New South Wales, with a separate administration.
The Macquarie Harbour penal colony on the West Coast of Tasmania was established in 1820 to exploit the valuable timber Huon Pine growing there for furniture making and shipbuilding. Macquarie Harbour had the added advantage of being almost impossible to escape from, most attempts ending with the convicts either drowning, dying of starvation in the bush, or (on at least two occasions) turning cannibal. Convicts sent to this settlement had usually re-offended during their sentence of transportation, and were treated very harshly, labouring in cold and wet weather, and subjected to severe corporal punishment for minor infractions.
In 1830, the Port Arthur penal settlement was established to replace Macquarie Harbour, as it was easier to maintain regular communications by sea. Although known in popular history as a particularly harsh prison, in reality its management was far more humane than Macquarie Harbour or the outlying stations of New South Wales. Experimentation with the so - called model prison system took place in Port Arthur. Solitary confinement was the preferred method of punishment.
Many changes were made to the manner in which convicts were handled in the general population, largely responsive to British public opinion on the harshness of their treatment. Until the late 1830s most convicts were either retained by Government for public works or assigned to private individuals as a form of indentured labour. From the early 1840s the Probation System was employed, where convicts spent an initial period, usually two years, in public works gangs on stations outside of the main settlements, then were freed to work for wages within a set district.
Transportation to Tasmania ended in 1853 (see section below on Cessation of Transportation).
In 1803 two ships arrived in Port Phillip, which Lt. John Murray in the Lady Nelson had discovered and named the previous year. The Calcutta under the command of Lieutenant - Colonel Collins transported 300 convicts, accompanied by the supply ship Ocean. Collins had previously been Judge Advocate with the First Fleet in 1788. He chose Sullivan Bay near the present - day Sorrento, Victoria for the first settlement - some 90 km south of present - day Melbourne. About two months later the settlement was abandoned due to poor soil and water shortages and Collins moved the convicts to Hobart. Several convicts had escaped into the bush and were left behind to unknown fates with the local aboriginal people. One such convict, the subsequently celebrated William Buckley, lived in the western side of Port Phillip for the next 32 years before approaching the new settlers and assisting as an interpreter for the indigenous peoples.
A second settlement was established at Westernport Bay, on the site of present - day Corinella, in November 1826. It comprised an initial 20 soldiers and 22 convicts, with another 12 convicts arriving subsequently. This settlement was abandoned in February 1828, and all convicts returned to Sydney.
The Port Phillip District was officially sanctioned in 1837 following the landing of the Henty brothers in Portland Bay in 1834, and John Batman settled on the site of Melbourne.
Between 1844 and 1849 about 1,750 convicts arrived there from England. They were referred to either as "Exiles '' or the "Pentonvillians '' because most of them came from Pentonville Probationary Prison. Unlike earlier convicts who were required to work for the government or on hire from penal depots, the Exiles were free to work for pay, but could not leave the district to which they were assigned. The Port Phillip District was still part of New South Wales at this stage. Victoria separated from New South Wales and became an independent colony in 1851.
In 1823 John Oxley sailed north from Sydney to inspect Port Curtis and Moreton Bay as possible sites for a penal colony. At Moreton Bay he found the Brisbane River, which Cook had guessed would exist, and explored the lower part of it. In September 1824, he returned with soldiers and established a temporary settlement at Redcliffe. On 2 December 1824, the settlement was transferred to where the Central Business District (CBD) of Brisbane now stands. The settlement was at first called Edenglassie. In 1839 transportation of convicts to Moreton Bay ceased and the Brisbane penal settlement was closed. In 1842 free settlement was permitted and people began to colonize the area voluntarily. On 6 June 1859 Queensland became a colony separate from New South Wales.
Although a convict - supported settlement was established in Western Australia from 1826 to 1831, direct transportation of convicts did not begin until 1850. It continued until 1868. During that period, 9,668 convicts were transported on 43 convict ships. The first convicts to arrive were transported to New South Wales, and sent by that colony to King George Sound (Albany) in 1826 to help establish a settlement there. At that time the western third of Australia was unclaimed land known as New Holland. Fears that France would lay claim to the land prompted the Governor of New South Wales, Ralph Darling, to send Major Edmund Lockyer, with troops and 23 convicts, to establish a settlement at King George Sound. Lockyer 's party arrived on Christmas Day, 1826. A convict presence was maintained at the settlement for over four years. On 7 March 1831 control of the settlement was transferred to the Swan River Colony, and the troops and convicts were withdrawn.
In April 1848, Charles Fitzgerald, Governor of Western Australia, petitioned Britain to send convicts to his state because of labor shortages. Britain rejected sending fixed term convicts, but offered to send first offenders in the final years of their terms.
Most convicts in Western Australia spent very little time in prison. Those who were stationed at Fremantle were housed in the Convict Establishment, the colony 's convict prison, and misbehaviour was punished by stints there. The majority, however, were stationed in other parts of the colony. Although there was no convict assignment in Western Australia, there was a great demand for public infrastructure throughout the colony, so that many convicts were stationed in remote areas. Initially, most offenders were set to work creating infrastructure for the convict system, including the construction of the Convict Establishment itself.
In 1852 a Convict Depot was built at Albany, but closed 3 years later. When shipping increased the Depot was re-opened. Most of the convicts had their Ticket - of - Leave and were hired to work by the free settlers. Convicts also manned the pilot boat, rebuilt York Street and Stirling Terrace; and the track from Albany to Perth was made into a good road. An Albany newspaper noted their commendable behaviour and wrote, "There were instances in which our free settlers might take an example ''.
Western Australia 's convict era came to an end with the cessation of penal transportation by Britain. In May 1865, the colony was advised of the change in British policy, and told that Britain would send one convict ship in each of the years 1865, 1866 and 1867, after which transportation would cease. In accordance with this, the last convict ship to Western Australia, the Hougoumont, left Britain in 1867 and arrived in Western Australia on 10 January 1868.
Approximately 20 % of the transportees were women. For protection, most quickly attached themselves to male officers or convicts. Although they were routinely referred to as courtesans, relatively few had been prostitutes in England as prostitution, like murder, was not a transportable offence.
Political prisoners made up a small proportion of convicts. They arrived in waves corresponding to political unrest in Britain and Ireland. They included the First Scottish Martyrs in 1794; British Naval Mutineers (from the Nore Mutiny) in 1797 and 1801; Irish rebels in 1798, 1803, 1848 and 1868; Scots Rebels (1820); Yorkshire Rebels (1820 and 1822); leaders of the Merthyr Tydfil rising of 1831; the Tolpuddle Martyrs (1834); Swing Rioters and Luddites (1828 -- 1833); American and French - Canadian prisoners from the Upper Canada rebellion and Lower Canada Rebellion (1839), and Chartists (1842).
With increasing numbers of free settlers entering New South Wales and Van Diemen 's Land (Tasmania) by the mid-1830s, opposition to the transportation of felons into the colonies grew. The most influential spokesmen were newspaper proprietors who were also members of the Independent Congregation Church such as John Fairfax in Sydney and the Reverend John West in Launceston, who argued against convicts both as competition to honest free labourers and as the source of crime and vice within the colony. Bishop Bernard Ullathorne, a Catholic prelate who had been in Australia since 1832 returned for a visit to England in 1835. While there he was called upon by the government to give evidence before a Parliamentary Commission on the evils of transportation, and at their request wrote and submitted a tract on the subject. His views in conjunction with others in the end prevailed. The anti-transportation movement was seldom concerned with the inhumanity of the system, but rather the hated stain it was believed to inflict on the free (non-emancipist) middle classes.
Transportation to New South Wales ended in 1840, by which time some 150,000 convicts had been sent to the colonies. The sending of convicts to Brisbane in its Moreton Bay district had ceased the previous year, and administration of Norfolk Island was later transferred to Van Diemen 's Land.
The continuation of transportation to Van Diemen 's Land saw the rise of a well - coordinated anti-transportation movement, especially following a severe economic depression in the early 1840s. Transportation was temporarily suspended in 1846 but soon revived with overcrowding of British gaols and clamour for the availability of transportation as a deterrent. By the late 1840s most convicts being sent to Van Diemen 's Land (plus those to Victoria) were designated as "exiles '' and were free to work for pay while under sentence. In 1850 the Australasian Anti-Transportation League was formed to lobby for the permanent cessation of transportation, its aims being furthered by the commencement of the Australian gold rushes the following year. The last convict ship to be sent from England, the St. Vincent, arrived in 1853, and on 10 August Jubilee festivals in Hobart and Launceston celebrated 50 years of European settlement with the official end of transportation.
Transportation continued in small numbers to Western Australia. The last convict ship, the Hougoumont, left Britain in 1867 and arrived in Western Australia on 10 January 1868. In all, about 164,000 convicts were transported to the Australian colonies between 1788 and 1868 on board 806 ships. Convicts were made up of English and Welsh (70 %), Irish (24 %), Scottish (5 %) and the remaining 1 % from the British outposts in India and Canada, Maoris from New Zealand, Chinese from Hong Kong and slaves from the Caribbean.
Only South Australia and the Northern Territory had never accepted convicts directly from England but they still accepted ex-convicts from the other states. Many convicts were allowed to travel as far as New Zealand to make a new life after being given limited freedom, even if they were not allowed to return home to England. At this time the Australian population was approximately 1 million and the colonies could now sustain themselves without the need for convict labour.
In 2010, UNESCO inscribed 11 Australian Convict Sites on its World Heritage List. The listing recognises the sites as "the best surviving examples of large - scale convict transportation and the colonial expansion of European powers through the presence and labour of convicts. ''
Convict George Barrington is (perhaps apocryphally) recorded as having written the prologue for the first theatrical play performed by convicts in Australia, one year after the First Fleet 's arrival. It is known as "Our Country 's Good '', based on the now - famous closing stanza:
The poems of Frank the Poet are among the few surviving literary works done by a convict while still incarcerated. His best - known work is "A Convict 's Tour of Hell ''. A version of the convict ballad "Moreton Bay '', detailing the brutal punishments meted out by commandment Patrick Logan and his death at the hands of Aborigines, is also attributed to Frank. Other convict ballads include "Jim Jones at Botany Bay ''. The ballad "Botany Bay '', which describes the sadness felt by convicts forced to leave their loved ones in England, was written at least 40 years after the end of transportation.
Perhaps the most famous convict in all of fiction is Abel Magwitch, a main character of Charles Dickens ' 1861 novel Great Expectations. The most famous convict novel is Marcus Clarke 's For the Term of His Natural Life (1874), followed by John Boyle O'Reilly 's Moondyne (1879). The Broad Arrow by Caroline Woolmer Leakey was one of the first novels to depict the convict experience, and one of the only to feature a female convict as its protagonist (Marcus Clarke drew on Leakey 's book in writing For the Term of His Natural Life). Thomas Keneally explores the convict era in his novels Bring Larks and Heroes (1967) and The Playmaker (1987). Convicts feature heavily in Patrick White 's take on the Eliza Fraser story, the 1976 novel A Fringe of Leaves. Convictism is canvassed in Bryce Courtenay 's "Australian trilogy '': The Potato Factory (1995), Tommo & Hawk (1997) and Solomon 's Song (1999). The title character of Peter Carey 's 1997 novel Jack Maggs is a reworking of Dickens ' Magwitch character. Many modern works of Tasmanian Gothic focus on the state 's convict past, including Gould 's Book of Fish (2001) by Richard Flanagan, a fictionalised account of convict artist William Buelow Gould 's imprisonment at Macquarie Harbour. Kate Grenville based the novel The Secret River (2005) on the life of her convict ancestor Solomon Wiseman.
Along with bushrangers and other stock characters of colonial life, convicts were a popular subject during Australia 's silent film era. The first convict film was a 1908 adaptiation of Marcus Clarke 's For the Term of His Natural Life, shot on location at Port Arthur with an unheard - of budget of £ 7000. This was followed by two more films inspired by Clarke 's novel: The Life of Rufus Dawes (1911), which draws on Alfred Dampier 's stage production of His Natural Life, and the landmark For the Term of His Natural Life (1927), one of the most expensive silent films ever made. W.J. Lincoln directed many convict melodramas including It Is Never Too Late to Mend (1911), an adaptation of Charles Reade 's 1856 novel about cruelties of the convict system; Moodyne (1913), based on John Boyle O'Reilly's novel; and Transported (1913). Other early titles include Sentenced for Life, The Mark of the Lash, One Hundred Years Ago, The Lady Outlaw and The Assigned Servant, all released in 1911. Few convict films were made after 1930; even the Australian New Wave of the 1970s, with its emphasis on Australia 's colonial past, largely avoided the convict era in favour of nostalgic period pieces set in the bush around the time of Federation. One exception is Journey Among Women (1977), a feminist imagining of what life was like for convict women. Alexander Pearce, the infamous Tasmanian convict and cannibal, is the inspiration for The Last Confession of Alexander Pearce (2008), Dying Breed (2008) and Van Diemen 's Land (2009).
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where did the band 10cc get their name from | List of band name etymologies - wikipedia
This is a list of band names, with their name origins explained and referenced with reliable sources.
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who plays clay in im dying up here | I 'm Dying up Here - wikipedia
I 'm Dying Up Here is an American comedy - drama television series created by David Flebotte. The pilot was written by Flebotte and directed by Jonathan Levine. It premiered on Showtime on June 4, 2017. The series is executive produced by Flebotte, Jim Carrey, Michael Aguilar, and Christina Wayne. It was announced on January 12, 2016, that Showtime had ordered the pilot to series based on the bestselling book by William Knoedelseder. On September 8, 2017, Showtime renewed the series for a 10 - episode second season. The second season premiered on May 6, 2018.
The series explores the Los Angeles stand - up scene of the early 1970s as a group of young comedians attempt to become successful at Goldie 's comedy club and potentially gain a shot on Johnny Carson 's ' Tonight Show '. Club owner Goldie mentors the young comics with a combination of toughness and encouragement in order to further their chances at success. The show focuses on the daily struggles and successes of both Goldie and the comics.
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what does the g in freemasonry stand for | Square and compasses - wikipedia
The Square and Compasses (or, more correctly, a square and a set of compasses joined together) is the single most identifiable symbol of Freemasonry. Both the square and compasses are architect 's tools and are used in Masonic ritual as emblems to teach symbolic lessons.
Some Lodges and rituals explain these symbols as lessons in conduct: for example, Duncan 's Masonic Monitor of 1866 explains them as: "The square, to square our actions; The compasses, to circumscribe and keep us within bounds with all mankind ''. However, as Freemasonry is non-dogmatic, there is no general interpretation for these symbols (or any Masonic symbol) that is used by Freemasonry as a whole.
In many English speaking countries, the Square and Compasses are depicted with the letter "G '' in the center. The letter has multiple meanings, representing different words depending on the context in which it is discussed. The most common is that the "G '' stands for Geometry, and is to remind Masons that Geometry and Freemasonry are synonymous terms described as being the "noblest of sciences '', and "the basis upon which the superstructure of Freemasonry, and everything in existence in the entire universe is erected. In this context it can also stand for Great Architect of the Universe (a non-denominational reference to God). ''
The square and compasses has used as a symbol by several organisations, sometimes with additional symbols:
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when was the first joint sitting of lok sabha and rajya sabha held | Joint session of Indian Parliament - wikipedia
The Parliament of India is bicameral. Concurrence of both houses are required to pass any bill. However, the authors of the Constitution of India visualised situations of deadlock between the upper house i.e. Rajya Sabha and the lower house i.e. Lok Sabha. Therefore, the Constitution of India provides for Joint sittings of both the Houses to break this deadlock. The joint sitting of the Parliament is called by the President and is presided over by the Speaker or, in his absence, by the Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha or in his absence, the Deputy - Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. If any of the above officers are not present then any other member of the Parliament can preside by consensus of both the House.
As per Article 108 of Constitution, a Joint session of Parliament can be summoned in the following situations.
If after a Bill has been passed by one House and transmitted to the other House --
(a) the Bill is rejected by the other House; or (b) the Houses have finally disagreed as to the amendments to be made in the Bill; or (c) more than six months elapse from the date of the reception of the Bill by the other House without the Bill being passed by it, the President may, unless the Bill has elapsed by reason of a dissolution of the House of the People, notify to the Houses by message if they are sitting or by public notification if they are not sitting, his intention to summon them to meet in a joint sitting for the purpose of deliberating and voting on the Bill
However, in calculating period of six months, those days are not considered when house is prorogued or adjourned for more than 4 consecutive days.
If the above conditions are satisfied, the President of India may summon joint sitting of both the houses of parliament.
Not all bills can be refereed to a joint sitting of Parliament. There are two exception.
1. Money Bill
Under the Constitution of India, money bills require approval of the Lok Sabha only. Rajya Sabha can make recommendations to Lok Sabha, which it is not required to accept. Even if Rajya Sabha does n't pass a money bill within 14 days, it is deemed to have been passed by both the Houses of Parliament after expiry of the above period. Therefore, a requirement to summon a joint session can never arise in the case of money bill.
2. Constitution Amendment Bill
Article 368 of Indian constitution require that constitution of India can be amended by both houses of parliament by 2 / 3 majority. In case of disagreement between both houses, there is no provision to summon joint session of parliament.
Joint session of Indian parliament has been called for only three bills i.e. dowry prohibition act, 1960, banking service commission act, 1977 and POTA, 2002. As per a senior member of NDA government they are considering for a joint session on Triple Talaq Bill (2018).
BILLS PASSED IN JOINT SESSION: 1. Dowry Prohibition Bill, 1960 2. Banking Service Commission (Repeal) Bill, 1978 3. Prevention of Terrorism Bill, 2002
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which of the following would need to occur first for life to have evolved on early earth | Evolutionary history of life - wikipedia
The evolutionary history of life on Earth traces the processes by which both living organisms and fossil organisms evolved since life emerged on the planet, until the present. Earth formed about 4.5 billion years (Ga) ago and evidence suggests life emerged prior to 3.7 Ga. Although there is some evidence to suggest that life appeared as early as 4.1 to 4.28 Ga this evidence remains controversial due to the non-biological mechanisms that may have formed these potential signatures of past life. The similarities among all present - day organisms indicate the presence of a common ancestor from which all known species have diverged through the process of evolution. More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one - thousandth of one percent described.
The earliest evidences of life on Earth are biogenic carbon signatures and stromatolite fossils discovered in 3.7 billion - year - old metasedimentary rocks discovered in western Greenland. In 2015, "remains of biotic life '' were potentially found in 4.1 billion - year - old rocks in Western Australia. In March 2017, researchers reported evidence of possibly the oldest forms of life on Earth. Putative fossilized microorganisms were discovered in hydrothermal vent precipitates in the Nuvvuagittuq Belt of Quebec, Canada, that may have lived as early as 4.280 billion years ago, not long after the oceans formed 4.4 billion years ago, and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 billion years ago. According to biologist Stephen Blair Hedges, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth... then it could be common in the universe. ''
Microbial mats of coexisting bacteria and archaea were the dominant form of life in the early Archean and many of the major steps in early evolution are thought to have taken place within them. The evolution of photosynthesis, around 3.5 Ga, eventually led to a buildup of its waste product, oxygen, in the atmosphere, leading to the great oxygenation event, beginning around 2.4 Ga. The earliest evidence of eukaryotes (complex cells with organelles) dates from 1.85 Ga, and while they may have been present earlier, their diversification accelerated when they started using oxygen in their metabolism. Later, around 1.7 Ga, multicellular organisms began to appear, with differentiated cells performing specialised functions. Sexual reproduction, which involves the fusion of male and female reproductive cells (gametes) to create a zygote in a process called fertilization is, in contrast to asexual reproduction, the primary method of reproduction for the vast majority of macroscopic organisms, including almost all eukaryotes (which includes animals and plants). However the origin and evolution of sexual reproduction remain a puzzle for biologists though it did evolve from a common ancestor that was a single celled eukaryotic species. Bilateria, animals with a front and a back, appeared by 555 Ma (million years ago).
The earliest complex land plants date back to around 850 Ma, from carbon isotopes in Precambrian rocks, while algae - like multicellular land plants are dated back even to about 1 billion years ago, although evidence suggests that microorganisms formed the earliest terrestrial ecosystems, at least 2.7 Ga. Microorganisms are thought to have paved the way for the inception of land plants in the Ordovician. Land plants were so successful that they are thought to have contributed to the Late Devonian extinction event. (The long causal chain implied seems to involve the success of early tree archaeopteris (1) drew down CO levels, leading to global cooling and lowered sea levels, (2) roots of archeopteris fostered soil development which increased rock weathering, and the subsequent nutrient run - off may have triggered algal blooms resulting in anoxic events which caused marine - life die - offs. Marine species were the primary victims of the Late Devonian extinction.)
Ediacara biota appear during the Ediacaran period, while vertebrates, along with most other modern phyla originated about 525 Ma during the Cambrian explosion. During the Permian period, synapsids, including the ancestors of mammals, dominated the land, but most of this group became extinct in the Permian -- Triassic extinction event 252 Ma. During the recovery from this catastrophe, archosaurs became the most abundant land vertebrates; one archosaur group, the dinosaurs, dominated the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. After the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event 66 Ma killed off the non-avian dinosaurs, mammals increased rapidly in size and diversity. Such mass extinctions may have accelerated evolution by providing opportunities for new groups of organisms to diversify.
The oldest meteorite fragments found on Earth are about 4.54 billion years old; this, coupled primarily with the dating of ancient lead deposits, has put the estimated age of Earth at around that time. The Moon has the same composition as Earth 's crust but does not contain an iron - rich core like the Earth 's. Many scientists think that about 40 million years after the formation of Earth, it collided with a body the size of Mars, throwing into orbit crust material that formed the Moon. Another hypothesis is that the Earth and Moon started to coalesce at the same time but the Earth, having much stronger gravity than the early Moon, attracted almost all the iron particles in the area.
Until 2001, the oldest rocks found on Earth were about 3.8 billion years old, leading scientists to estimate that the Earth 's surface had been molten until then. Accordingly, they named this part of Earth 's history the Hadean. However, analysis of zircons formed 4.4 Ga indicates that Earth 's crust solidified about 100 million years after the planet 's formation and that the planet quickly acquired oceans and an atmosphere, which may have been capable of supporting life.
Evidence from the Moon indicates that from 4 to 3.8 Ga it suffered a Late Heavy Bombardment by debris that was left over from the formation of the Solar System, and the Earth should have experienced an even heavier bombardment due to its stronger gravity. While there is no direct evidence of conditions on Earth 4 to 3.8 Ga, there is no reason to think that the Earth was not also affected by this late heavy bombardment. This event may well have stripped away any previous atmosphere and oceans; in this case gases and water from comet impacts may have contributed to their replacement, although outgassing from volcanoes on Earth would have supplied at least half. However, if subsurface microbial life had evolved by this point, it would have survived the bombardment.
The earliest identified organisms were minute and relatively featureless, and their fossils look like small rods, which are very difficult to tell apart from structures that arise through abiotic physical processes. The oldest undisputed evidence of life on Earth, interpreted as fossilized bacteria, dates to 3 Ga. Other finds in rocks dated to about 3.5 Ga have been interpreted as bacteria, with geochemical evidence also seeming to show the presence of life 3.8 Ga. However, these analyses were closely scrutinized, and non-biological processes were found which could produce all of the "signatures of life '' that had been reported. While this does not prove that the structures found had a non-biological origin, they can not be taken as clear evidence for the presence of life. Geochemical signatures from rocks deposited 3.4 Ga have been interpreted as evidence for life, although these statements have not been thoroughly examined by critics.
Evidence for fossilized microorganisms considered to be 3,770 million to 4,280 million years was found in the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt in Quebec, Canada, although the evidence is disputed as inconclusive.
Biologists reason that all living organisms on Earth must share a single last universal ancestor, because it would be virtually impossible that two or more separate lineages could have independently developed the many complex biochemical mechanisms common to all living organisms.
Life on Earth is based on carbon and water. Carbon provides stable frameworks for complex chemicals and can be easily extracted from the environment, especially from carbon dioxide. There is no other chemical element whose properties are similar enough to carbon 's to be called an analogue; silicon, the element directly below carbon on the periodic table, does not form very many complex stable molecules, and because most of its compounds are water - insoluble, it would be more difficult for organisms to extract. The elements boron and phosphorus have more complex chemistries, but suffer from other limitations relative to carbon. Water is an excellent solvent and has two other useful properties: the fact that ice floats enables aquatic organisms to survive beneath it in winter; and its molecules have electrically negative and positive ends, which enables it to form a wider range of compounds than other solvents can. Other good solvents, such as ammonia, are liquid only at such low temperatures that chemical reactions may be too slow to sustain life, and lack water 's other advantages. Organisms based on alternative biochemistry may, however, be possible on other planets.
Research on how life might have emerged from non-living chemicals focuses on three possible starting points: self - replication, an organism 's ability to produce offspring that are very similar to itself; metabolism, its ability to feed and repair itself; and external cell membranes, which allow food to enter and waste products to leave, but exclude unwanted substances. Research on abiogenesis still has a long way to go, since theoretical and empirical approaches are only beginning to make contact with each other.
Even the simplest members of the three modern domains of life use DNA to record their "recipes '' and a complex array of RNA and protein molecules to "read '' these instructions and use them for growth, maintenance and self - replication. The discovery that some RNA molecules can catalyze both their own replication and the construction of proteins led to the hypothesis of earlier life - forms based entirely on RNA. These ribozymes could have formed an RNA world in which there were individuals but no species, as mutations and horizontal gene transfers would have meant that the offspring in each generation were quite likely to have different genomes from those that their parents started with. RNA would later have been replaced by DNA, which is more stable and therefore can build longer genomes, expanding the range of capabilities a single organism can have. Ribozymes remain as the main components of ribosomes, modern cells ' "protein factories. '' Evidence suggests the first RNA molecules formed on Earth prior to 4.17 Ga.
Although short self - replicating RNA molecules have been artificially produced in laboratories, doubts have been raised about where natural non-biological synthesis of RNA is possible. The earliest "ribozymes '' may have been formed of simpler nucleic acids such as PNA, TNA or GNA, which would have been replaced later by RNA.
In 2003, it was proposed that porous metal sulfide precipitates would assist RNA synthesis at about 100 ° C (212 ° F) and ocean - bottom pressures near hydrothermal vents. Under this hypothesis, lipid membranes would be the last major cell components to appear and, until then, the protocells would be confined to the pores.
A series of experiments starting in 1997 showed that early stages in the formation of proteins from inorganic materials including carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulfide could be achieved by using iron sulfide and nickel sulfide as catalysts. Most of the steps required temperatures of about 100 ° C (212 ° F) and moderate pressures, although one stage required 250 ° C (482 ° F) and a pressure equivalent to that found under 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) of rock. Hence it was suggested that self - sustaining synthesis of proteins could have occurred near hydrothermal vents.
It has been suggested that double - walled "bubbles '' of lipids like those that form the external membranes of cells may have been an essential first step. Experiments that simulated the conditions of the early Earth have reported the formation of lipids, and these can spontaneously form liposomes, double - walled "bubbles, '' and then reproduce themselves. Although they are not intrinsically information - carriers as nucleic acids are, they would be subject to natural selection for longevity and reproduction. Nucleic acids such as RNA might then have formed more easily within the liposomes than they would have outside.
RNA is complex and there are doubts about whether it can be produced non-biologically in the wild. Some clays, notably montmorillonite, have properties that make them plausible accelerators for the emergence of an RNA world: they grow by self - replication of their crystalline pattern; they are subject to an analog of natural selection, as the clay "species '' that grows fastest in a particular environment rapidly becomes dominant; and they can catalyze the formation of RNA molecules. Although this idea has not become the scientific consensus, it still has active supporters.
Research in 2003 reported that montmorillonite could also accelerate the conversion of fatty acids into "bubbles, '' and that the "bubbles '' could encapsulate RNA attached to the clay. These "bubbles '' can then grow by absorbing additional lipids and then divide. The formation of the earliest cells may have been aided by similar processes.
A similar hypothesis presents self - replicating iron - rich clays as the progenitors of nucleotides, lipids and amino acids.
The Panspermia hypothesis does not explain how life arose in the first place, but simply examines the possibility of it coming from somewhere other than the Earth. The idea that life on Earth was "seeded '' from elsewhere in the Universe dates back at least to the Greek philosopher Anaximander in the sixth century BCE. In the twentieth century it was proposed by the physical chemist Svante Arrhenius, by the astronomers Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe, and by molecular biologist Francis Crick and chemist Leslie Orgel.
There are three main versions of the "seeded from elsewhere '' hypothesis: from elsewhere in our Solar System via fragments knocked into space by a large meteor impact, in which case the most credible sources are Mars and Venus; by alien visitors, possibly as a result of accidental contamination by microorganisms that they brought with them; and from outside the Solar System but by natural means.
Experiments in low Earth orbit, such as EXOSTACK, demonstrated that some microorganism spores can survive the shock of being catapulted into space and some can survive exposure to outer space radiation for at least 5.7 years. Scientists are divided over the likelihood of life arising independently on Mars, or on other planets in our galaxy.
Microbial mats are multi-layered, multi-species colonies of bacteria and other organisms that are generally only a few millimeters thick, but still contain a wide range of chemical environments, each of which favors a different set of microorganisms. To some extent each mat forms its own food chain, as the by - products of each group of microorganisms generally serve as "food '' for adjacent groups.
Stromatolites are stubby pillars built as microorganisms in mats slowly migrate upwards to avoid being smothered by sediment deposited on them by water. There has been vigorous debate about the validity of alleged fossils from before 3 Ga, with critics arguing that so - called stromatolites could have been formed by non-biological processes. In 2006, another find of stromatolites was reported from the same part of Australia as previous ones, in rocks dated to 3.5 Ga.
In modern underwater mats the top layer often consists of photosynthesizing cyanobacteria which create an oxygen - rich environment, while the bottom layer is oxygen - free and often dominated by hydrogen sulfide emitted by the organisms living there. It is estimated that the appearance of oxygenic photosynthesis by bacteria in mats increased biological productivity by a factor of between 100 and 1,000. The reducing agent used by oxygenic photosynthesis is water, which is much more plentiful than the geologically produced reducing agents required by the earlier non-oxygenic photosynthesis. From this point onwards life itself produced significantly more of the resources it needed than did geochemical processes. Oxygen is toxic to organisms that are not adapted to it, but greatly increases the metabolic efficiency of oxygen - adapted organisms. Oxygen became a significant component of Earth 's atmosphere about 2.4 Ga. Although eukaryotes may have been present much earlier, the oxygenation of the atmosphere was a prerequisite for the evolution of the most complex eukaryotic cells, from which all multicellular organisms are built. The boundary between oxygen - rich and oxygen - free layers in microbial mats would have moved upwards when photosynthesis shut down overnight, and then downwards as it resumed on the next day. This would have created selection pressure for organisms in this intermediate zone to acquire the ability to tolerate and then to use oxygen, possibly via endosymbiosis, where one organism lives inside another and both of them benefit from their association.
Cyanobacteria have the most complete biochemical "toolkits '' of all the mat - forming organisms. Hence they are the most self - sufficient of the mat organisms and were well - adapted to strike out on their own both as floating mats and as the first of the phytoplankton, providing the basis of most marine food chains.
Archaeplastida (Land plants, green algae, red algae, and glaucophytes)
Hacrobia
SAR (Stramenopiles, Alveolata, and Rhizaria)
Excavata
Amoebozoa
Sulcozoa
Metazoa (Animals)
Choanozoa
Fungi
Eukaryotes may have been present long before the oxygenation of the atmosphere, but most modern eukaryotes require oxygen, which their mitochondria use to fuel the production of ATP, the internal energy supply of all known cells. In the 1970s it was proposed and, after much debate, widely accepted that eukaryotes emerged as a result of a sequence of endosymbiosis between "prokaryotes. '' For example: a predatory microorganism invaded a large prokaryote, probably an archaean, but the attack was neutralized, and the attacker took up residence and evolved into the first of the mitochondria; one of these chimeras later tried to swallow a photosynthesizing cyanobacterium, but the victim survived inside the attacker and the new combination became the ancestor of plants; and so on. After each endosymbiosis began, the partners would have eliminated unproductive duplication of genetic functions by re-arranging their genomes, a process which sometimes involved transfer of genes between them. Another hypothesis proposes that mitochondria were originally sulfur - or hydrogen - metabolising endosymbionts, and became oxygen - consumers later. On the other hand, mitochondria might have been part of eukaryotes ' original equipment.
There is a debate about when eukaryotes first appeared: the presence of steranes in Australian shales may indicate that eukaryotes were present 2.7 Ga; however, an analysis in 2008 concluded that these chemicals infiltrated the rocks less than 2.2 Ga and prove nothing about the origins of eukaryotes. Fossils of the algae Grypania have been reported in 1.85 billion - year - old rocks (originally dated to 2.1 Ga but later revised), and indicates that eukaryotes with organelles had already evolved. A diverse collection of fossil algae were found in rocks dated between 1.5 and 1.4 Ga. The earliest known fossils of fungi date from 1.43 Ga.
Plastids, the superclass of organelles of which chloroplasts are the best - known exemplar, are thought to have originated from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. The symbiosis evolved around 1.5 Ga and enabled eukaryotes to carry out oxygenic photosynthesis. Three evolutionary lineages have since emerged in which the plastids are named differently: chloroplasts in green algae and plants, rhodoplasts in red algae and cyanelles in the glaucophytes.
The defining characteristics of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes are meiosis and fertilization. There is much genetic recombination in this kind of reproduction, in which offspring receive 50 % of their genes from each parent, in contrast with asexual reproduction, in which there is no recombination. Bacteria also exchange DNA by bacterial conjugation, the benefits of which include resistance to antibiotics and other toxins, and the ability to utilize new metabolites. However, conjugation is not a means of reproduction, and is not limited to members of the same species -- there are cases where bacteria transfer DNA to plants and animals.
On the other hand, bacterial transformation is clearly an adaptation for transfer of DNA between bacteria of the same species. Bacterial transformation is a complex process involving the products of numerous bacterial genes and can be regarded as a bacterial form of sex. This process occurs naturally in at least 67 prokaryotic species (in seven different phyla). Sexual reproduction in eukaryotes may have evolved from bacterial transformation. (Also see Evolution of sexual reproduction # Origin of sexual reproduction.)
The disadvantages of sexual reproduction are well - known: the genetic reshuffle of recombination may break up favorable combinations of genes; and since males do not directly increase the number of offspring in the next generation, an asexual population can out - breed and displace in as little as 50 generations a sexual population that is equal in every other respect. Nevertheless, the great majority of animals, plants, fungi and protists reproduce sexually. There is strong evidence that sexual reproduction arose early in the history of eukaryotes and that the genes controlling it have changed very little since then. How sexual reproduction evolved and survived is an unsolved puzzle.
The Red Queen hypothesis suggests that sexual reproduction provides protection against parasites, because it is easier for parasites to evolve means of overcoming the defenses of genetically identical clones than those of sexual species that present moving targets, and there is some experimental evidence for this. However, there is still doubt about whether it would explain the survival of sexual species if multiple similar clone species were present, as one of the clones may survive the attacks of parasites for long enough to out - breed the sexual species. Furthermore, contrary to the expectations of the Red Queen hypothesis, Kathryn A. Hanley et al. found that the prevalence, abundance and mean intensity of mites was significantly higher in sexual geckos than in asexuals sharing the same habitat. In addition, biologist Matthew Parker, after reviewing numerous genetic studies on plant disease resistance, failed to find a single example consistent with the concept that pathogens are the primary selective agent responsible for sexual reproduction in the host.
Alexey Kondrashov 's deterministic mutation hypothesis (DMH) assumes that each organism has more than one harmful mutation and the combined effects of these mutations are more harmful than the sum of the harm done by each individual mutation. If so, sexual recombination of genes will reduce the harm that bad mutations do to offspring and at the same time eliminate some bad mutations from the gene pool by isolating them in individuals that perish quickly because they have an above - average number of bad mutations. However, the evidence suggests that the DMH 's assumptions are shaky, because many species have on average less than one harmful mutation per individual and no species that has been investigated shows evidence of synergy between harmful mutations. (Further criticisms of this hypothesis are discussed in the article Evolution of sexual reproduction # Removal of deleterious genes)
The random nature of recombination causes the relative abundance of alternative traits to vary from one generation to another. This genetic drift is insufficient on its own to make sexual reproduction advantageous, but a combination of genetic drift and natural selection may be sufficient. When chance produces combinations of good traits, natural selection gives a large advantage to lineages in which these traits become genetically linked. On the other hand, the benefits of good traits are neutralized if they appear along with bad traits. Sexual recombination gives good traits the opportunities to become linked with other good traits, and mathematical models suggest this may be more than enough to offset the disadvantages of sexual reproduction. Other combinations of hypotheses that are inadequate on their own are also being examined.
The adaptive function of sex today remains a major unresolved issue in biology. The competing models to explain the adaptive function of sex were reviewed by John A. Birdsell and Christopher Wills. The hypotheses discussed above all depend on possible beneficial effects of random genetic variation produced by genetic recombination. An alternative view is that sex arose, and is maintained, as a process for repairing DNA damage, and that the genetic variation produced is an occasionally beneficial byproduct.
The simplest definitions of "multicellular, '' for example "having multiple cells, '' could include colonial cyanobacteria like Nostoc. Even a technical definition such as "having the same genome but different types of cell '' would still include some genera of the green algae Volvox, which have cells that specialize in reproduction. Multicellularity evolved independently in organisms as diverse as sponges and other animals, fungi, plants, brown algae, cyanobacteria, slime molds and myxobacteria. For the sake of brevity, this article focuses on the organisms that show the greatest specialization of cells and variety of cell types, although this approach to the evolution of biological complexity could be regarded as "rather anthropocentric. ''
The initial advantages of multicellularity may have included: more efficient sharing of nutrients that are digested outside the cell, increased resistance to predators, many of which attacked by engulfing; the ability to resist currents by attaching to a firm surface; the ability to reach upwards to filter - feed or to obtain sunlight for photosynthesis; the ability to create an internal environment that gives protection against the external one; and even the opportunity for a group of cells to behave "intelligently '' by sharing information. These features would also have provided opportunities for other organisms to diversify, by creating more varied environments than flat microbial mats could.
Multicellularity with differentiated cells is beneficial to the organism as a whole but disadvantageous from the point of view of individual cells, most of which lose the opportunity to reproduce themselves. In an asexual multicellular organism, rogue cells which retain the ability to reproduce may take over and reduce the organism to a mass of undifferentiated cells. Sexual reproduction eliminates such rogue cells from the next generation and therefore appears to be a prerequisite for complex multicellularity.
The available evidence indicates that eukaryotes evolved much earlier but remained inconspicuous until a rapid diversification around 1 Ga. The only respect in which eukaryotes clearly surpass bacteria and archaea is their capacity for variety of forms, and sexual reproduction enabled eukaryotes to exploit that advantage by producing organisms with multiple cells that differed in form and function.
By comparing the composition of transcription factor families and regulatory network motifs between unicellular organisms and multicellular organisms, scientists found there are many novel transcription factor families and three novel types of regulatory network motifs in multicellular organisms, and novel family transcription factors are preferentially wired into these novel network motifs which are essential for multicullular development. These results propose a plausible mechanism for the contribution of novel - family transcription factors and novel network motifs to the origin of multicellular organisms at transcriptional regulatory level.
The Francevillian biota fossils, dated to 2.1 Ga, are the earliest known fossil organisms that are clearly multicellular. They may have had differentiated cells. Another early multicellular fossil, Qingshania, dated to 1.7 Ga, appears to consist of virtually identical cells. The red algae called Bangiomorpha, dated at 1.2 Ga, is the earliest known organism that certainly has differentiated, specialized cells, and is also the oldest known sexually reproducing organism. The 1.43 billion - year - old fossils interpreted as fungi appear to have been multicellular with differentiated cells. The "string of beads '' organism Horodyskia, found in rocks dated from 1.5 Ga to 900 Ma, may have been an early metazoan; however, it has also been interpreted as a colonial foraminiferan.
Deuterostomes (chordates, hemichordates, echinoderms)
Ecdysozoa (arthropods, nematodes, tardigrades, etc.)
Lophotrochozoa (molluscs, annelids, brachiopods, etc.)
Acoelomorpha
Cnidaria (jellyfish, sea anemones, corals)
Ctenophora (comb jellies)
Placozoa
Porifera (sponges): Calcarea
Porifera: Hexactinellida & Demospongiae
Choanoflagellata
Mesomycetozoea
Animals are multicellular eukaryotes, and are distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. All animals are motile, if only at certain life stages. All animals except sponges have bodies differentiated into separate tissues, including muscles, which move parts of the animal by contracting, and nerve tissue, which transmits and processes signals.
The earliest widely accepted animal fossils are the rather modern - looking cnidarians (the group that includes jellyfish, sea anemones and Hydra), possibly from around 580 Ma, although fossils from the Doushantuo Formation can only be dated approximately. Their presence implies that the cnidarian and bilaterian lineages had already diverged.
The Ediacara biota, which flourished for the last 40 million years before the start of the Cambrian, were the first animals more than a very few centimetres long. Many were flat and had a "quilted '' appearance, and seemed so strange that there was a proposal to classify them as a separate kingdom, Vendozoa. Others, however, have been interpreted as early molluscs (Kimberella), echinoderms (Arkarua), and arthropods (Spriggina, Parvancorina). There is still debate about the classification of these specimens, mainly because the diagnostic features which allow taxonomists to classify more recent organisms, such as similarities to living organisms, are generally absent in the Ediacarans. However, there seems little doubt that Kimberella was at least a triploblastic bilaterian animal, in other words, an animal significantly more complex than the cnidarians.
The small shelly fauna are a very mixed collection of fossils found between the Late Ediacaran and Middle Cambrian periods. The earliest, Cloudina, shows signs of successful defense against predation and may indicate the start of an evolutionary arms race. Some tiny Early Cambrian shells almost certainly belonged to molluscs, while the owners of some "armor plates, '' Halkieria and Microdictyon, were eventually identified when more complete specimens were found in Cambrian lagerstätten that preserved soft - bodied animals.
In the 1970s there was already a debate about whether the emergence of the modern phyla was "explosive '' or gradual but hidden by the shortage of Precambrian animal fossils. A re-analysis of fossils from the Burgess Shale lagerstätte increased interest in the issue when it revealed animals, such as Opabinia, which did not fit into any known phylum. At the time these were interpreted as evidence that the modern phyla had evolved very rapidly in the Cambrian explosion and that the Burgess Shale 's "weird wonders '' showed that the Early Cambrian was a uniquely experimental period of animal evolution. Later discoveries of similar animals and the development of new theoretical approaches led to the conclusion that many of the "weird wonders '' were evolutionary "aunts '' or "cousins '' of modern groups -- for example that Opabinia was a member of the lobopods, a group which includes the ancestors of the arthropods, and that it may have been closely related to the modern tardigrades. Nevertheless, there is still much debate about whether the Cambrian explosion was really explosive and, if so, how and why it happened and why it appears unique in the history of animals.
Most of the animals at the heart of the Cambrian explosion debate are protostomes, one of the two main groups of complex animals. The other major group, the deuterostomes, contains invertebrates such as starfish and sea urchins (echinoderms), as well as chordates (see below). Many echinoderms have hard calcite "shells, '' which are fairly common from the Early Cambrian small shelly fauna onwards. Other deuterostome groups are soft - bodied, and most of the significant Cambrian deuterostome fossils come from the Chengjiang fauna, a lagerstätte in China. The chordates are another major deuterostome group: animals with a distinct dorsal nerve cord. Chordates include soft - bodied invertebrates such as tunicates as well as vertebrates -- animals with a backbone. While tunicate fossils predate the Cambrian explosion, the Chengjiang fossils Haikouichthys and Myllokunmingia appear to be true vertebrates, and Haikouichthys had distinct vertebrae, which may have been slightly mineralized. Vertebrates with jaws, such as the acanthodians, first appeared in the Late Ordovician.
Adaptation to life on land is a major challenge: all land organisms need to avoid drying - out and all those above microscopic size must create special structures to withstand gravity; respiration and gas exchange systems have to change; reproductive systems can not depend on water to carry eggs and sperm towards each other. Although the earliest good evidence of land plants and animals dates back to the Ordovician period (488 to 444 Ma), and a number of microorganism lineages made it onto land much earlier, modern land ecosystems only appeared in the Late Devonian, about 385 to 359 Ma. In May 2017, evidence of the earliest known life on land may have been found in 3.48 - billion - year - old geyserite and other related mineral deposits (often found around hot springs and geysers) uncovered in the Pilbara Craton of Western Australia.
Oxygen is a potent oxidant whose accumulation in terrestrial atmosphere resulted from the development of photosynthesis over 3 Ga, in cyanobacteria (blue - green algae), which were the most primitive oxygenic photosynthetic organisms. Brown algae accumulate inorganic mineral antioxidants such as rubidium, vanadium, zinc, iron, copper, molybdenum, selenium and iodine which is concentrated more than 30,000 times the concentration of this element in seawater. Protective endogenous antioxidant enzymes and exogenous dietary antioxidants helped to prevent oxidative damage. Most marine mineral antioxidants act in the cells as essential trace elements in redox and antioxidant metalloenzymes.
When plants and animals began to enter rivers and land about 500 Ma, environmental deficiency of these marine mineral antioxidants was a challenge to the evolution of terrestrial life. Terrestrial plants slowly optimized the production of "new '' endogenous antioxidants such as ascorbic acid, polyphenols, flavonoids, tocopherols, etc. A few of these appeared more recently, in last 200 -- 50 Ma, in fruits and flowers of angiosperm plants.
In fact, angiosperms (the dominant type of plant today) and most of their antioxidant pigments evolved during the Late Jurassic period. Plants employ antioxidants to defend their structures against reactive oxygen species produced during photosynthesis. Animals are exposed to the same oxidants, and they have evolved endogenous enzymatic antioxidant systems. Iodine is the most primitive and abundant electron - rich essential element in the diet of marine and terrestrial organisms, and as iodide acts as an electron donor and has this ancestral antioxidant function in all iodide - concentrating cells from primitive marine algae to more recent terrestrial vertebrates.
Before the colonization of land, soil, a combination of mineral particles and decomposed organic matter, did not exist. Land surfaces would have been either bare rock or unstable sand produced by weathering. Water and any nutrients in it would have drained away very quickly.
Films of cyanobacteria, which are not plants but use the same photosynthesis mechanisms, have been found in modern deserts, and only in areas that are unsuitable for vascular plants. This suggests that microbial mats may have been the first organisms to colonize dry land, possibly in the Precambrian. Mat - forming cyanobacteria could have gradually evolved resistance to desiccation as they spread from the seas to intertidal zones and then to land. Lichens, which are symbiotic combinations of a fungus (almost always an ascomycete) and one or more photosynthesizers (green algae or cyanobacteria), are also important colonizers of lifeless environments, and their ability to break down rocks contributes to soil formation in situations where plants can not survive. The earliest known ascomycete fossils date from 423 to 419 Ma in the Silurian.
Soil formation would have been very slow until the appearance of burrowing animals, which mix the mineral and organic components of soil and whose feces are a major source of the organic components. Burrows have been found in Ordovician sediments, and are attributed to annelids ("worms '') or arthropods.
In aquatic algae, almost all cells are capable of photosynthesis and are nearly independent. Life on land required plants to become internally more complex and specialized: photosynthesis was most efficient at the top; roots were required in order to extract water from the ground; the parts in between became supports and transport systems for water and nutrients.
Spores of land plants, possibly rather like liverworts, have been found in Middle Ordovician rocks dated to about 476 Ma. In Middle Silurian rocks 430 Ma, there are fossils of actual plants including clubmosses such as Baragwanathia; most were under 10 centimetres (3.9 in) high, and some appear closely related to vascular plants, the group that includes trees.
By the Late Devonian 370 Ma, trees such as Archaeopteris were so abundant that they changed river systems from mostly braided to mostly meandering, because their roots bound the soil firmly. In fact, they caused the "Late Devonian wood crisis '' because:
Animals had to change their feeding and excretory systems, and most land animals developed internal fertilization of their eggs. The difference in refractive index between water and air required changes in their eyes. On the other hand, in some ways movement and breathing became easier, and the better transmission of high - frequency sounds in air encouraged the development of hearing.
The oldest known air - breathing animal is Pneumodesmus, an archipolypodan millipede from the Middle Silurian, about 428 Ma. Its air - breathing, terrestrial nature is evidenced by the presence of spiracles, the openings to tracheal systems. However, some earlier trace fossils from the Cambrian - Ordovician boundary about 490 Ma are interpreted as the tracks of large amphibious arthropods on coastal sand dunes, and may have been made by euthycarcinoids, which are thought to be evolutionary "aunts '' of myriapods. Other trace fossils from the Late Ordovician a little over 445 Ma probably represent land invertebrates, and there is clear evidence of numerous arthropods on coasts and alluvial plains shortly before the Silurian - Devonian boundary, about 415 Ma, including signs that some arthropods ate plants. Arthropods were well pre-adapted to colonise land, because their existing jointed exoskeletons provided protection against desiccation, support against gravity and a means of locomotion that was not dependent on water.
The fossil record of other major invertebrate groups on land is poor: none at all for non-parasitic flatworms, nematodes or nemerteans; some parasitic nematodes have been fossilized in amber; annelid worm fossils are known from the Carboniferous, but they may still have been aquatic animals; the earliest fossils of gastropods on land date from the Late Carboniferous, and this group may have had to wait until leaf litter became abundant enough to provide the moist conditions they need.
The earliest confirmed fossils of flying insects date from the Late Carboniferous, but it is thought that insects developed the ability to fly in the Early Carboniferous or even Late Devonian. This gave them a wider range of ecological niches for feeding and breeding, and a means of escape from predators and from unfavorable changes in the environment. About 99 % of modern insect species fly or are descendants of flying species.
Osteolepiformes
Panderichthyidae
Obruchevichthidae
Acanthostega
Ichthyostega
Tulerpeton
Early labyrinthodonts
Anthracosauria
Amniotes
Tetrapods, vertebrates with four limbs, evolved from other rhipidistian fish over a relatively short timespan during the Late Devonian (370 to 360 Ma). The early groups are grouped together as Labyrinthodontia. They retained aquatic, fry - like tadpoles, a system still seen in modern amphibians.
Iodine and T4 / T3 stimulate the amphibian metamorphosis and the evolution of nervous systems transforming the aquatic, vegetarian tadpole into a "more evoluted '' terrestrial, carnivorous frog with better neurological, visuospatial, olfactory and cognitive abilities for hunting. The new hormonal action of T3 was made possible by the formation of T3 - receptors in the cells of vertebrates. Firstly, about 600 - 500 million years ago, in primitive Chordata appeared the alpha T3 - receptors with a metamorphosing action and then, about 250 - 150 million years ago, in the Birds and Mammalia appeared the beta T3 - receptors with metabolic and thermogenetic actions.
From the 1950s to the early 1980s it was thought that tetrapods evolved from fish that had already acquired the ability to crawl on land, possibly in order to go from a pool that was drying out to one that was deeper. However, in 1987, nearly complete fossils of Acanthostega from about 363 Ma showed that this Late Devonian transitional animal had legs and both lungs and gills, but could never have survived on land: its limbs and its wrist and ankle joints were too weak to bear its weight; its ribs were too short to prevent its lungs from being squeezed flat by its weight; its fish - like tail fin would have been damaged by dragging on the ground. The current hypothesis is that Acanthostega, which was about 1 metre (3.3 ft) long, was a wholly aquatic predator that hunted in shallow water. Its skeleton differed from that of most fish, in ways that enabled it to raise its head to breathe air while its body remained submerged, including: its jaws show modifications that would have enabled it to gulp air; the bones at the back of its skull are locked together, providing strong attachment points for muscles that raised its head; the head is not joined to the shoulder girdle and it has a distinct neck.
The Devonian proliferation of land plants may help to explain why air breathing would have been an advantage: leaves falling into streams and rivers would have encouraged the growth of aquatic vegetation; this would have attracted grazing invertebrates and small fish that preyed on them; they would have been attractive prey but the environment was unsuitable for the big marine predatory fish; air - breathing would have been necessary because these waters would have been short of oxygen, since warm water holds less dissolved oxygen than cooler marine water and since the decomposition of vegetation would have used some of the oxygen.
Later discoveries revealed earlier transitional forms between Acanthostega and completely fish - like animals. Unfortunately, there is then a gap (Romer 's gap) of about 30 Ma between the fossils of ancestral tetrapods and Middle Carboniferous fossils of vertebrates that look well - adapted for life on land. Some of these look like early relatives of modern amphibians, most of which need to keep their skins moist and to lay their eggs in water, while others are accepted as early relatives of the amniotes, whose waterproof skin and egg membranes enable them to live and breed far from water.
Early synapsids (extinct)
Extinct pelycosaurs
Extinct therapsids
Extinct mammaliaforms
Mammals
Anapsids; whether turtles belong here is debated
Captorhinidae and Protorothyrididae (extinct)
Araeoscelidia (extinct)
Squamata (lizards and snakes)
Extinct archosaurs
Crocodilians
Pterosaurs (extinct)
Extinct theropods
Birds
Sauropods (extinct)
Ornithischians (extinct)
Amniotes, whose eggs can survive in dry environments, probably evolved in the Late Carboniferous period (330 to 298.9 Ma). The earliest fossils of the two surviving amniote groups, synapsids and sauropsids, date from around 313 Ma. The synapsid pelycosaurs and their descendants the therapsids are the most common land vertebrates in the best - known Permian (298.9 to 251.902 Ma) fossil beds. However, at the time these were all in temperate zones at middle latitudes, and there is evidence that hotter, drier environments nearer the Equator were dominated by sauropsids and amphibians.
The Permian -- Triassic extinction event wiped out almost all land vertebrates, as well as the great majority of other life. During the slow recovery from this catastrophe, estimated to have taken 30 million years, a previously obscure sauropsid group became the most abundant and diverse terrestrial vertebrates: a few fossils of archosauriformes ("ruling lizard forms '') have been found in Late Permian rocks, but, by the Middle Triassic, archosaurs were the dominant land vertebrates. Dinosaurs distinguished themselves from other archosaurs in the Late Triassic, and became the dominant land vertebrates of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods (201.3 to 66 Ma).
During the Late Jurassic, birds evolved from small, predatory theropod dinosaurs. The first birds inherited teeth and long, bony tails from their dinosaur ancestors, but some had developed horny, toothless beaks by the very Late Jurassic and short pygostyle tails by the Early Cretaceous.
While the archosaurs and dinosaurs were becoming more dominant in the Triassic, the mammaliaform successors of the therapsids evolved into small, mainly nocturnal insectivores. This ecological role may have promoted the evolution of mammals, for example nocturnal life may have accelerated the development of endothermy ("warm - bloodedness '') and hair or fur. By 195 Ma in the Early Jurassic there were animals that were very like today 's mammals in a number of respects. Unfortunately, there is a gap in the fossil record throughout the Middle Jurassic. However, fossil teeth discovered in Madagascar indicate that the split between the lineage leading to monotremes and the one leading to other living mammals had occurred by 167 Ma. After dominating land vertebrate niches for about 150 Ma, the non-avian dinosaurs perished in the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event (66 Ma) along with many other groups of organisms. Mammals throughout the time of the dinosaurs had been restricted to a narrow range of taxa, sizes and shapes, but increased rapidly in size and diversity after the extinction, with bats taking to the air within 13 million years, and cetaceans to the sea within 15 million years.
Gnetales (gymnosperm)
Welwitschia (gymnosperm)
Ephedra (gymnosperm)
Bennettitales
Angiosperms (flowering plants)
Angiosperms (flowering plants)
Cycads (gymnosperm)
Bennettitales
Ginkgo
Gnetales (gymnosperm)
Conifers (gymnosperm)
The first flowering plants appeared around 130 Ma. The 250,000 to 400,000 species of flowering plants outnumber all other ground plants combined, and are the dominant vegetation in most terrestrial ecosystems. There is fossil evidence that flowering plants diversified rapidly in the Early Cretaceous, from 130 to 90 Ma, and that their rise was associated with that of pollinating insects. Among modern flowering plants Magnolia are thought to be close to the common ancestor of the group. However, paleontologists have not succeeded in identifying the earliest stages in the evolution of flowering plants.
The social insects are remarkable because the great majority of individuals in each colony are sterile. This appears contrary to basic concepts of evolution such as natural selection and the selfish gene. In fact, there are very few eusocial insect species: only 15 out of approximately 2,600 living families of insects contain eusocial species, and it seems that eusociality has evolved independently only 12 times among arthropods, although some eusocial lineages have diversified into several families. Nevertheless, social insects have been spectacularly successful; for example although ants and termites account for only about 2 % of known insect species, they form over 50 % of the total mass of insects. Their ability to control a territory appears to be the foundation of their success.
The sacrifice of breeding opportunities by most individuals has long been explained as a consequence of these species ' unusual haplodiploid method of sex determination, which has the paradoxical consequence that two sterile worker daughters of the same queen share more genes with each other than they would with their offspring if they could breed. However, E.O. Wilson and Bert Hölldobler argue that this explanation is faulty: for example, it is based on kin selection, but there is no evidence of nepotism in colonies that have multiple queens. Instead, they write, eusociality evolves only in species that are under strong pressure from predators and competitors, but in environments where it is possible to build "fortresses ''; after colonies have established this security, they gain other advantages through co-operative foraging. In support of this explanation they cite the appearance of eusociality in bathyergid mole rats, which are not haplodiploid.
The earliest fossils of insects have been found in Early Devonian rocks from about 400 Ma, which preserve only a few varieties of flightless insect. The Mazon Creek lagerstätten from the Late Carboniferous, about 300 Ma, include about 200 species, some gigantic by modern standards, and indicate that insects had occupied their main modern ecological niches as herbivores, detritivores and insectivores. Social termites and ants first appear in the Early Cretaceous, and advanced social bees have been found in Late Cretaceous rocks but did not become abundant until the Middle Cenozoic.
The idea that, along with other life forms, modern - day humans evolved from an ancient, common ancestor was proposed by Robert Chambers in 1844 and taken up by Charles Darwin in 1871. Modern humans evolved from a lineage of upright - walking apes that has been traced back over 6 Ma to Sahelanthropus. The first known stone tools were made about 2.5 Ma, apparently by Australopithecus garhi, and were found near animal bones that bear scratches made by these tools. The earliest hominines had chimpanzee - sized brains, but there has been a fourfold increase in the last 3 Ma; a statistical analysis suggests that hominine brain sizes depend almost completely on the date of the fossils, while the species to which they are assigned has only slight influence. There is a long - running debate about whether modern humans evolved all over the world simultaneously from existing advanced hominines or are descendants of a single small population in Africa, which then migrated all over the world less than 200,000 years ago and replaced previous hominine species. There is also debate about whether anatomically modern humans had an intellectual, cultural and technological "Great Leap Forward '' under 100,000 years ago and, if so, whether this was due to neurological changes that are not visible in fossils.
Life on Earth has suffered occasional mass extinctions at least since 542 Ma. Although they were disasters at the time, mass extinctions have sometimes accelerated the evolution of life on Earth. When dominance of particular ecological niches passes from one group of organisms to another, it is rarely because the new dominant group is "superior '' to the old and usually because an extinction event eliminates the old dominant group and makes way for the new one.
The fossil record appears to show that the gaps between mass extinctions are becoming longer and the average and background rates of extinction are decreasing. Both of these phenomena could be explained in one or more ways:
Biodiversity in the fossil record, which is "... the number of distinct genera alive at any given time; that is, those whose first occurrence predates and whose last occurrence postdates that time '' shows a different trend: a fairly swift rise from 542 to 400 Ma; a slight decline from 400 to 200 Ma, in which the devastating Permian -- Triassic extinction event is an important factor; and a swift rise from 200 Ma to the present.
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what do you get for a nobel peace prize | Nobel Prize - Wikipedia
The Nobel Prize (/ ˈnoʊbɛl /, Swedish pronunciation: (nʊˈbɛl); Swedish definite form, singular: Nobelpriset; Norwegian: Nobelprisen) is a set of five annual international awards bestowed in several categories by Swedish and Norwegian institutions in recognition of academic, cultural, or scientific advances.
The will of the Swedish scientist Alfred Nobel established the prizes in 1895. The prizes in Chemistry, Literature, Peace, Physics and Physiology or Medicine were first awarded in 1901. In 1968, Sveriges Riksbank (Sweden 's central bank) established the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, which has been commonly known as the Nobel Prize in Economics. The Nobel Prize is widely regarded as the most prestigious award available in the fields of literature, medicine, physics, chemistry, economics and activism for peace.
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the Nobel Prize in Physics, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, and the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel; the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet awards the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine; the Swedish Academy grants the Nobel Prize in Literature; and the Nobel Peace Prize is awarded not by a Swedish organization but by the Norwegian Nobel Committee.
Between 1901 and 2017, the Nobel Prizes including the Economic Prizes were awarded 585 times to 923 people and organizations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 24 organizations, and 892 individuals. The prize ceremonies take place annually in Stockholm, Sweden (with the exception of the peace prize, which is held in Oslo, Norway). Each recipient, or laureate, receives a gold medal, a diploma, and a sum of money that has been decided by the Nobel Foundation. (As of 2017, each prize is worth SEK 9,000,000 or about US $1,110,000, € 944,000, £ 836,000 or INR 72,693,900) Medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold, and later in 18 carat green gold plated with a 24 carat gold coating.
The prize is not awarded posthumously; however, if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, the prize may still be presented. Though the average number of laureates per prize increased substantially during the 20th century, a prize may not be shared among more than three people, although the Nobel Peace Prize can be awarded to organizations of more than three people.
Alfred Nobel (listen (help info)) was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden, into a family of engineers. He was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill, which he made into a major armaments manufacturer. Nobel also invented ballistite. This invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite. Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous.
In 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper. As it was Alfred 's brother Ludvig who had died, the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered. This inspired him to change his will. On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, from a cerebral haemorrhage. He was 63 years old.
Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish -- Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. To widespread astonishment, Nobel 's last will specified that his fortune be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the "greatest benefit on mankind '' in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, and peace. Nobel bequeathed 94 % of his total assets, 31 million SEK (c. US $186 million, € 150 million in 2008), to establish the five Nobel Prizes. Because of skepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting in Norway. The executors of Nobel 's will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobel 's fortune and organised the award of prizes.
Nobel 's instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize - awarding organizations were designated or established. These were Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded; and, in 1900, the Nobel Foundation 's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II. In 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved.
In the 19th century the Nobel family who were known for their innovations to the oil industry in Azerbaijan was the leading representative of foreign capital in Baku. Robert Nobel was the first foreign investor in oil sector in Baku. In 1875 R. Nobel bought a small refinery to Baku, thus the foundation of "The Nobel Brothers Company '' that was nationalized by the Baku Council of People 's Commissars the Company in 1918 was laid.
In 1920 the Company was nationalized by the government of Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic. Even the Nobel Brothers Petroleum Company ` s symbol was created by taking inspiration from the Fire Temple (Ateshgah) in Surakhani and their oil tankers were given some religious and philosophical names such as Zoroaster, Muhammad, Buddha, Brahma, Socrates, Spinoza and Darwin.
According to the Alfred Nobel 's will and testament read in Stockholm on 30th December 1896, a foundation established by Alfred Nobel would reward those who serve humanity.
The Nobel Prize was funded by Alfred Nobel 's personal fortune. According to the official sources, Alfred Nobel bequeathed from the shares 94 % of his fortune to the Nobel Foundation that now forms the economic base of the Nobel Prize.
The Nobel Foundation was founded as a private organization on 29 June 1900. Its function is to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. In accordance with Nobel 's will, the primary task of the Foundation is to manage the fortune Nobel left. Robert and Ludvig Nobel were involved in the oil business in Azerbaijan, and according to Swedish historian E. Bargengren, who accessed the Nobel family archives, it was this "decision to allow withdrawal of Alfred 's money from Baku that became the decisive factor that enabled the Nobel Prizes to be established ''. Another important task of the Nobel Foundation is to market the prizes internationally and to oversee informal administration related to the prizes. The Foundation is not involved in the process of selecting the Nobel laureates. In many ways, the Nobel Foundation is similar to an investment company, in that it invests Nobel 's money to create a solid funding base for the prizes and the administrative activities. The Nobel Foundation is exempt from all taxes in Sweden (since 1946) and from investment taxes in the United States (since 1953). Since the 1980s, the Foundation 's investments have become more profitable and as of 31 December 2007, the assets controlled by the Nobel Foundation amounted to 3.628 billion Swedish kronor (c. US $560 million).
According to the statutes, the Foundation consists of a board of five Swedish or Norwegian citizens, with its seat in Stockholm. The Chairman of the Board is appointed by the Swedish King in Council, with the other four members appointed by the trustees of the prize - awarding institutions. An Executive Director is chosen from among the board members, a Deputy Director is appointed by the King in Council, and two deputies are appointed by the trustees. However, since 1995, all the members of the board have been chosen by the trustees, and the Executive Director and the Deputy Director appointed by the board itself. As well as the board, the Nobel Foundation is made up of the prize - awarding institutions (the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institute, the Swedish Academy, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee), the trustees of these institutions, and auditors.
Once the Nobel Foundation and its guidelines were in place, the Nobel Committees began collecting nominations for the inaugural prizes. Subsequently, they sent a list of preliminary candidates to the prize - awarding institutions.
The Nobel Committee 's Physics Prize shortlist cited Wilhelm Röntgen 's discovery of X-rays and Philipp Lenard 's work on cathode rays. The Academy of Sciences selected Röntgen for the prize. In the last decades of the 19th century, many chemists had made significant contributions. Thus, with the Chemistry Prize, the Academy "was chiefly faced with merely deciding the order in which these scientists should be awarded the prize. '' The Academy received 20 nominations, eleven of them for Jacobus van ' t Hoff. Van ' t Hoff was awarded the prize for his contributions in chemical thermodynamics.
The Swedish Academy chose the poet Sully Prudhomme for the first Nobel Prize in Literature. A group including 42 Swedish writers, artists, and literary critics protested against this decision, having expected Leo Tolstoy to be awarded. Some, including Burton Feldman, have criticised this prize because they consider Prudhomme a mediocre poet. Feldman 's explanation is that most of the Academy members preferred Victorian literature and thus selected a Victorian poet. The first Physiology or Medicine Prize went to the German physiologist and microbiologist Emil von Behring. During the 1890s, von Behring developed an antitoxin to treat diphtheria, which until then was causing thousands of deaths each year.
The first Nobel Peace Prize went to the Swiss Jean Henri Dunant for his role in founding the International Red Cross Movement and initiating the Geneva Convention, and jointly given to French pacifist Frédéric Passy, founder of the Peace League and active with Dunant in the Alliance for Order and Civilization.
In 1938 and 1939, Adolf Hitler 's Third Reich forbade three laureates from Germany (Richard Kuhn, Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk) from accepting their prizes. Each man was later able to receive the diploma and medal. Even though Sweden was officially neutral during the Second World War, the prizes were awarded irregularly. In 1939, the Peace Prize was not awarded. No prize was awarded in any category from 1940 -- 42, due to the occupation of Norway by Germany. In the subsequent year, all prizes were awarded except those for literature and peace.
During the occupation of Norway, three members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee fled into exile. The remaining members escaped persecution from the Germans when the Nobel Foundation stated that the Committee building in Oslo was Swedish property. Thus it was a safe haven from the German military, which was not at war with Sweden. These members kept the work of the Committee going, but did not award any prizes. In 1944, the Nobel Foundation, together with the three members in exile, made sure that nominations were submitted for the Peace Prize and that the prize could be awarded once again.
In 1968, Sveriges Riksbank (Swedish National Bank) celebrated its 300th anniversary by donating a large sum of money to the Nobel Foundation to be used to set up a prize in honor of Nobel. The following year, the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was awarded for the first time. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences became responsible for selecting laureates. The first laureates for the Economics Prize were Jan Tinbergen and Ragnar Frisch "for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes. '' The Board of the Nobel Foundation decided that after this addition, it would allow no further new prizes.
The award process is similar for all of the Nobel Prizes; the main difference is in who can make nominations for each of them.
Nomination forms are sent by the Nobel Committee to about 3,000 individuals, usually in September the year before the prizes are awarded. These individuals are generally prominent academics working in a relevant area. Regarding the Peace Prize, inquiries are also sent to governments, former Peace Prize laureates, and current or former members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. The deadline for the return of the nomination forms is 31 January of the year of the award. The Nobel Committee nominates about 300 potential laureates from these forms and additional names. The nominees are not publicly named, nor are they told that they are being considered for the prize. All nomination records for a prize are sealed for 50 years from the awarding of the prize.
The Nobel Committee then prepares a report reflecting the advice of experts in the relevant fields. This, along with the list of preliminary candidates, is submitted to the prize - awarding institutions. The institutions meet to choose the laureate or laureates in each field by a majority vote. Their decision, which can not be appealed, is announced immediately after the vote. A maximum of three laureates and two different works may be selected per award. Except for the Peace Prize, which can be awarded to institutions, the awards can only be given to individuals.
Although posthumous nominations are not presently permitted, individuals who died in the months between their nomination and the decision of the prize committee were originally eligible to receive the prize. This has occurred twice: the 1931 Literature Prize awarded to Erik Axel Karlfeldt, and the 1961 Peace Prize awarded to UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld. Since 1974, laureates must be thought alive at the time of the October announcement. There has been one laureate, William Vickrey, who in 1996 died after the prize (in Economics) was announced but before it could be presented. On 3 October 2011, the laureates for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine were announced; however, the committee was not aware that one of the laureates, Ralph M. Steinman, had died three days earlier. The committee was debating about Steinman 's prize, since the rule is that the prize is not awarded posthumously. The committee later decided that as the decision to award Steinman the prize "was made in good faith '', it would remain unchanged.
Nobel 's will provided for prizes to be awarded in recognition of discoveries made "during the preceding year ''. Early on, the awards usually recognised recent discoveries. However, some of those early discoveries were later discredited. For example, Johannes Fibiger was awarded the 1926 Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his purported discovery of a parasite that caused cancer. To avoid repeating this embarrassment, the awards increasingly recognised scientific discoveries that had withstood the test of time. According to Ralf Pettersson, former chairman of the Nobel Prize Committee for Physiology or Medicine, "the criterion ' the previous year ' is interpreted by the Nobel Assembly as the year when the full impact of the discovery has become evident. ''
The interval between the award and the accomplishment it recognises varies from discipline to discipline. The Literature Prize is typically awarded to recognise a cumulative lifetime body of work rather than a single achievement. The Peace Prize can also be awarded for a lifetime body of work. For example, 2008 laureate Martti Ahtisaari was awarded for his work to resolve international conflicts. However, they can also be awarded for specific recent events. For instance, Kofi Annan was awarded the 2001 Peace Prize just four years after becoming the Secretary - General of the United Nations. Similarly Yasser Arafat, Yitzhak Rabin, and Shimon Peres received the 1994 award, about a year after they successfully concluded the Oslo Accords.
Awards for physics, chemistry, and medicine are typically awarded once the achievement has been widely accepted. Sometimes, this takes decades -- for example, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar shared the 1983 Physics Prize for his 1930s work on stellar structure and evolution. Not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognised. Some discoveries can never be considered for a prize if their impact is realised after the discoverers have died.
Except for the Peace Prize, the Nobel Prizes are presented in Stockholm, Sweden, at the annual Prize Award Ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel 's death. The recipients ' lectures are normally held in the days prior to the award ceremony. The Peace Prize and its recipients ' lectures are presented at the annual Prize Award Ceremony in Oslo, Norway, usually on 10 December. The award ceremonies and the associated banquets are typically major international events. The Prizes awarded in Sweden 's ceremonies ' are held at the Stockholm Concert Hall, with the Nobel banquet following immediately at Stockholm City Hall. The Nobel Peace Prize ceremony has been held at the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905 -- 1946), at the auditorium of the University of Oslo (1947 -- 1989), and at Oslo City Hall (1990 -- present).
The highlight of the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm occurs when each Nobel laureate steps forward to receive the prize from the hands of the King of Sweden. In Oslo, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway. At first, King Oscar II did not approve of awarding grand prizes to foreigners. It is said that he changed his mind once his attention had been drawn to the publicity value of the prizes for Sweden.
After the award ceremony in Sweden, a banquet is held in the Blue Hall at the Stockholm City Hall, which is attended by the Swedish Royal Family and around 1,300 guests.
The Nobel Peace Prize banquet is held in Norway at the Oslo Grand Hotel after the award ceremony. Apart from the laureate, guests include the President of the Storting, the Prime Minister, and, since 2006, the King and Queen of Norway. In total, about 250 guests attend.
According to the statutes of the Nobel Foundation, each laureate is required to give a public lecture on a subject related to the topic of their prize. The Nobel lecture as a rhetorical genre took decades to reach its current format. These lectures normally occur during Nobel Week (the week leading up to the award ceremony and banquet, which begins with the laureates arriving in Stockholm and normally ends with the Nobel banquet), but this is not mandatory. The laureate is only obliged to give the lecture within six months of receiving the prize. Some have happened even later. For example, US President Theodore Roosevelt received the Peace Prize in 1906 but gave his lecture in 1910, after his term in office. The lectures are organized by the same association which selected the laureates.
It was announced on 30 May 2012 that the Nobel Foundation had awarded the contract for the production of the five (Swedish) Nobel Prize medals to Svenska Medalj AB. Formerly, the Nobel Prize medals were minted by Myntverket (the Swedish Mint) from 1902 to 2010. Myntverket, Sweden 's oldest company, ceased operations in 2011 after 1,017 years. In 2011, the Mint of Norway, located in Kongsberg, made the medals. The Nobel Prize medals are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse. The medals for physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature have identical obverses, showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death. Nobel 's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Peace Prize medal and the medal for the Economics Prize, but with a slightly different design. For instance, the laureate 's name is engraved on the rim of the Economics medal. The image on the reverse of a medal varies according to the institution awarding the prize. The reverse sides of the medals for chemistry and physics share the same design.
All medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold. Since then, they have been struck in 18 carat green gold plated with 24 carat gold. The weight of each medal varies with the value of gold, but averages about 175 grams (0.386 lb) for each medal. The diameter is 66 millimetres (2.6 in) and the thickness varies between 5.2 millimetres (0.20 in) and 2.4 millimetres (0.094 in). Because of the high value of their gold content and tendency to be on public display, Nobel medals are subject to medal theft. During World War II, the medals of German scientists Max von Laue and James Franck were sent to Copenhagen for safekeeping. When Germany invaded Denmark, Hungarian chemist (and Nobel laureate himself) George de Hevesy dissolved them in aqua regia (nitro - hydrochloric acid), to prevent confiscation by Nazi Germany and to prevent legal problems for the holders. After the war, the gold was recovered from solution, and the medals re-cast.
Nobel laureates receive a diploma directly from the hands of the King of Sweden, or in the case of the peace prize, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. Each diploma is uniquely designed by the prize - awarding institutions for the laureates that receive them. The diploma contains a picture and text in Swedish which states the name of the laureate and normally a citation of why they received the prize. None of the Nobel Peace Prize laureates has ever had a citation on their diplomas.
The laureates are given a sum of money when they receive their prizes, in the form of a document confirming the amount awarded. The amount of prize money depends upon how much money the Nobel Foundation can award each year. The purse has increased since the 1980s, when the prize money was 880 000 SEK (c. 2.6 million SEK, US $350 000 today) per prize. In 2009, the monetary award was 10 million SEK (US $1.4 million). In June 2012, it was lowered to 8 million SEK. If there are two laureates in a particular category, the award grant is divided equally between the recipients. If there are three, the awarding committee has the option of dividing the grant equally, or awarding one - half to one recipient and one - quarter to each of the others. It is common for recipients to donate prize money to benefit scientific, cultural, or humanitarian causes.
Among other criticisms, the Nobel Committees have been accused of having a political agenda, and of omitting more deserving candidates. They have also been accused of Eurocentrism, especially for the Literature Prize.
Among the most criticised Nobel Peace Prizes was the one awarded to Henry Kissinger and Lê Đức Thọ. This led to the resignation of two Norwegian Nobel Committee members. Kissinger and Thọ were awarded the prize for negotiating a ceasefire between North Vietnam and the United States in January 1973. However, when the award was announced, both sides were still engaging in hostilities. Critics sympathetic to the North announced that Kissinger was not a peace - maker but the opposite, responsible for widening the war. Those hostile to the North and what they considered its deceptive practices during negotiations were deprived of a chance to criticise Lê Đức Thọ, as he declined the award.
Yasser Arafat, Shimon Peres, and Yitzhak Rabin received the Peace Prize in 1994 for their efforts in making peace between Israel and Palestine. Immediately after the award was announced, one of the five Norwegian Nobel Committee members denounced Arafat as a terrorist and resigned. Additional misgivings about Arafat were widely expressed in various newspapers.
Another controversial Peace Prize was that awarded to Barack Obama in 2009. Nominations had closed only eleven days after Obama took office as President of the United States, but the actual evaluation occurred over the next eight months. Obama himself stated that he did not feel deserving of the award, or worthy of the company it would place him in. Past Peace Prize laureates were divided, some saying that Obama deserved the award, and others saying he had not secured the achievements to yet merit such an accolade. Obama 's award, along with the previous Peace Prizes for Jimmy Carter and Al Gore, also prompted accusations of a left - wing bias.
The award of the 2004 Literature Prize to Elfriede Jelinek drew a protest from a member of the Swedish Academy, Knut Ahnlund. Ahnlund resigned, alleging that the selection of Jelinek had caused "irreparable damage to all progressive forces, it has also confused the general view of literature as an art. '' He alleged that Jelinek 's works were "a mass of text shovelled together without artistic structure. '' The 2009 Literature Prize to Herta Müller also generated criticism. According to The Washington Post, many US literary critics and professors were ignorant of her work. This made those critics feel the prizes were too Eurocentric.
In 1949, the neurologist António Egas Moniz received the Physiology or Medicine Prize for his development of the prefrontal leucotomy. The previous year, Dr. Walter Freeman had developed a version of the procedure which was faster and easier to carry out. Due in part to the publicity surrounding the original procedure, Freeman 's procedure was prescribed without due consideration or regard for modern medical ethics. Endorsed by such influential publications as The New England Journal of Medicine, leucotomy or "lobotomy '' became so popular that about 5,000 lobotomies were performed in the United States in the three years immediately following Moniz 's receipt of the Prize.
The Norwegian Nobel Committee confirmed that Mahatma Gandhi was nominated for the Peace Prize in 1937 -- 39, 1947, and a few days before he was assassinated in January 1948. Later, members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee expressed regret that he was not given the prize. Geir Lundestad, Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee in 2006, said, "The greatest omission in our 106 year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize. Whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question ''. In 1948, the year of Gandhi 's death, the Nobel Committee declined to award a prize on the grounds that "there was no suitable living candidate '' that year. Later, when the 14th Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi. '' Other high - profile individuals with widely recognised contributions to peace have been missed out. Foreign Policy lists Eleanor Roosevelt, Václav Havel, Ken Saro - Wiwa, Sari Nusseibeh, and Corazon Aquino as people who "never won the prize, but should have. ''
In 1965, UN Secretary General U Thant was informed by the Norwegian Permanent Representative to the UN that he would be awarded that year 's prize and asked whether or not he would accept. He consulted staff and later replied that he would. At the same time, Chairman Gunnar Jahn of the Nobel Peace prize committee, lobbied heavily against giving U Thant the prize and the prize was at the last minute awarded to UNICEF. The rest of the committee all wanted the prize to go to U Thant, for his work in defusing the Cuban Missile Crisis, ending the war in the Congo, and his ongoing work to mediate an end to the Vietnam War. The disagreement lasted three years and in 1966 and 1967 no prize was given, with Gunnar Jahn effectively vetoing an award to U Thant.
The Literature Prize also has controversial omissions. Adam Kirsch has suggested that many notable writers have missed out on the award for political or extra-literary reasons. The heavy focus on European and Swedish authors has been a subject of criticism. The Eurocentric nature of the award was acknowledged by Peter Englund, the 2009 Permanent Secretary of the Swedish Academy, as a problem with the award and was attributed to the tendency for the academy to relate more to European authors. This tendency towards European authors still leaves some European writers on a list of notable writers that have been overlooked for the Literature Prize, including Europe 's Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov, J.R.R. Tolkien, Émile Zola, Marcel Proust, Vladimir Nabokov, James Joyce, August Strindberg, Simon Vestdijk, Karel Čapek, the New World 's Jorge Luis Borges, Ezra Pound, John Updike, Arthur Miller, Mark Twain, and Africa 's Chinua Achebe.
Candidates can receive multiple nominations the same year. Gaston Ramon received a total of 155 nominations in physiology or medicine from 1930 to 1953, the last year with public nomination data for that award as of 2016. He died in 1963 without being awarded. Pierre Paul Émile Roux received 115 nominations in physiology or medicine, and Arnold Sommerfeld received 84 in physics. These are the three most nominated scientists without awards in the data published as of 2016. Otto Stern received 79 nominations in physics 1925 -- 43 before being awarded in 1943.
The strict rule against awarding a prize to more than three people is also controversial. When a prize is awarded to recognise an achievement by a team of more than three collaborators, one or more will miss out. For example, in 2002, the prize was awarded to Koichi Tanaka and John Fenn for the development of mass spectrometry in protein chemistry, an award that did not recognise the achievements of Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas of the Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Frankfurt. According to one of the nominees for the prize in physics, the three person limit deprived him and two other members of his team of the honor in 2013: the team of Carl Hagen, Gerald Guralnik, and Tom Kibble published a paper in 1964 that gave answers to how the cosmos began, but did not share the 2013 Physics Prize awarded to Peter Higgs and François Englert, who had also published papers in 1964 concerning the subject. All five physicists arrived at the same conclusion, albeit from different angles. Hagen contends that an equitable solution is to either abandon the three limit restriction, or expand the time period of recognition for a given achievement to two years.
Similarly, the prohibition of posthumous awards fails to recognise achievements by an individual or collaborator who dies before the prize is awarded. The Economics Prize was not awarded to Fischer Black, who died in 1995, when his co-author Myron Scholes received the honor in 1997 for their landmark work on option pricing along with Robert C. Merton, another pioneer in the development of valuation of stock options. In the announcement of the award that year, the Nobel committee prominently mentioned Black 's key role.
Political subterfuge may also deny proper recognition. Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann, who co-discovered nuclear fission along with Otto Hahn, may have been denied a share of Hahn 's 1944 Nobel Chemistry Award due to having fled Germany when the Nazis came to power. The Meitner and Strassmann roles in the research was not fully recognised until years later, when they joined Hahn in receiving the 1966 Enrico Fermi Award.
Alfred Nobel left his fortune to finance annual prizes to be awarded "to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind. '' He stated that the Nobel Prizes in Physics should be given "to the person who shall have made the most important ' discovery ' or ' invention ' within the field of physics. '' Nobel did not emphasise discoveries, but they have historically been held in higher respect by the Nobel Prize Committee than inventions: 77 % of the Physics Prizes have been given to discoveries, compared with only 23 % to inventions. Christoph Bartneck and Matthias Rauterberg, in papers published in Nature and Technoetic Arts, have argued this emphasis on discoveries has moved the Nobel Prize away from its original intention of rewarding the greatest contribution to society.
In terms of the most prestigious awards in STEM fields, only a small proportion have been awarded to women. Out of 199 laureates in Physics, 169 in Chemistry and 207 in Medicine, there were only two female laureates in physics, four in chemistry and 11 in medicine between 1901 and 2014.
Four people have received two Nobel Prizes. Marie Curie received the Physics Prize in 1903 for her work on radioactivity and the Chemistry Prize in 1911 for the isolation of pure radium, making her the only person to be awarded a Nobel Prize in two different sciences. Linus Pauling was awarded the 1954 Chemistry Prize for his research into the chemical bond and its application to the structure of complex substances. Pauling was also awarded the Peace Prize in 1962 for his activism against nuclear weapons, making him the only laureate of two unshared prizes. John Bardeen received the Physics Prize twice: in 1956 for the invention of the transistor and in 1972 for the theory of superconductivity. Frederick Sanger received the prize twice in Chemistry: in 1958 for determining the structure of the insulin molecule and in 1980 for inventing a method of determining base sequences in DNA.
Two organizations have received the Peace Prize multiple times. The International Committee of the Red Cross received it three times: in 1917 and 1944 for its work during the world wars; and in 1963 during the year of its centenary. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has been awarded the Peace Prize twice for assisting refugees: in 1954 and 1981.
The Curie family has received the most prizes, with four prizes awarded to five individual laureates. Marie Curie received the prizes in Physics (in 1903) and Chemistry (in 1911). Her husband, Pierre Curie, shared the 1903 Physics prize with her. Their daughter, Irène Joliot - Curie, received the Chemistry Prize in 1935 together with her husband Frédéric Joliot - Curie. In addition, the husband of Marie Curie 's second daughter, Henry Labouisse, was the director of UNICEF when it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965.
Although no family matches the Curie family 's record, there have been several with two laureates. The husband - and - wife team of Gerty Cori and Carl Ferdinand Cori shared the 1947 Prize in Physiology or Medicine as did the husband - and - wife team of May - Britt Moser and Edvard Moser in 2014 (along with John O'Keefe). J.J. Thomson was awarded the Physics Prize in 1906 for showing that electrons are particles. His son, George Paget Thomson, received the same prize in 1937 for showing that they also have the properties of waves. William Henry Bragg and his son, William Lawrence Bragg, shared the Physics Prize in 1915 for inventing the X-ray spectrometer. Niels Bohr was awarded the Physics prize in 1922, as did his son, Aage Bohr, in 1975. Manne Siegbahn, who received the Physics Prize in 1924, was the father of Kai Siegbahn, who received the Physics Prize in 1981. Hans von Euler - Chelpin, who received the Chemistry Prize in 1929, was the father of Ulf von Euler, who was awarded the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1970. C.V. Raman was awarded the Physics Prize in 1930 and was the uncle of Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who was awarded the same prize in 1983. Arthur Kornberg received the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1959; Kornberg 's son, Roger later received the Chemistry Prize in 2006. Jan Tinbergen, who was awarded the first Economics Prize in 1969, was the brother of Nikolaas Tinbergen, who received the 1973 Physiology or Medicine Prize. Alva Myrdal, Peace Prize laureate in 1982, was the wife of Gunnar Myrdal who was awarded the Economics Prize in 1974. Economics laureates Paul Samuelson and Kenneth Arrow were brothers - in - law. Frits Zernike, who was awarded the 1953 Physics Prize, is the great - uncle of 1999 Physics laureate Gerard ' t Hooft.
Being a symbol of scientific or literary achievement that 's recognisable worldwide, the Nobel Prize is often depicted in fiction. This includes films like The Prize and Nobel Son about fictional Nobel laureates as well as fictionalised accounts of stories surrounding real prizes such as Nobel Chor, a film based on the unsolved theft of Rabindranath Tagore 's prize.
Two laureates have voluntarily declined the Nobel Prize. In 1964, Jean - Paul Sartre was awarded the Literature Prize but refused, stating, "A writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honourable form. '' Lê Đức Thọ, chosen for the 1973 Peace Prize for his role in the Paris Peace Accords, declined, stating that there was no actual peace in Vietnam.
During the Third Reich, Adolf Hitler hindered Richard Kuhn, Adolf Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk from accepting their prizes. All of them were awarded their diplomas and gold medals after World War II. In 1958, Boris Pasternak declined his prize for literature due to fear of what the Soviet Union government might do if he travelled to Stockholm to accept his prize. In return, the Swedish Academy refused his refusal, saying "this refusal, of course, in no way alters the validity of the award. '' The Academy announced with regret that the presentation of the Literature Prize could not take place that year, holding it until 1989 when Pasternak 's son accepted the prize on his behalf. Aung San Suu Kyi was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991, but her children accepted the prize because she had been placed under house arrest in Burma; Suu Kyi delivered her speech two decades later, in 2012. Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2010 while he and his wife were under house arrest in China as political prisoners, and he was unable to accept the prize in his lifetime.
The memorial symbol "Planet of Alfred Nobel '' was opened in Dnipropetrovsk University of Economics and Law in 2008. On the globe, there are 802 Nobel laureates ' reliefs made of a composite alloy obtained when disposing of military strategic missiles.
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when did the us dollar become reserve currency | Reserve currency - wikipedia
A reserve currency (or anchor currency) is a currency that is held in significant quantities by governments and institutions as part of their foreign exchange reserves. The reserve currency is commonly used in international transactions, international investments and all aspects of the global economy. It is often considered a hard currency or safe - haven currency. People who live in a country that issues a reserve currency can purchase imports and borrow across borders more cheaply than people in other nations because they do not need to exchange their currency to do so.
By the end of the 20th century, the United States dollar was considered the world 's most dominant reserve currency. The world 's need for dollars has allowed the United States government as well as Americans to borrow at lower costs, granting them an advantage in excess of $100 billion per year.
Reserve currencies come and go. International currencies in the past have included the Greek drachma, coined in the fifth century B.C., the Roman denari, the Byzantine solidus and Arab dinar of the middle - ages, the Venetian ducato and the Florentine florin of the Renaissance, the seventeenth century Dutch guilder and the French franc.
The Dutch guilder emerged as a de facto world currency in the 18th century due to unprecedented domination of trade by the Dutch East India Company. However, the development of the modern concept of a reserve currency took place in the mid nineteenth century, with the introduction of national central banks and treasuries and an increasingly integrated global economy. By the 1860s, most industrialised countries had followed the lead of the United Kingdom and put their currency on to the gold standard. At that point the UK was the primary exporter of manufactured goods and services and over 60 % of world trade was invoiced in pound sterling. British banks were also expanding overseas, London was the world centre for insurance and commodity markets and British capital was the leading source of foreign investment around the world; sterling soon became the standard currency used for international commercial transactions.
Attempts were made in the interwar period to restore the gold standard. The British Gold Standard Act reintroduced the gold bullion standard in 1925, followed by many other countries. This led to relative stability, followed by deflation, but because the onset of the Great Depression and other factors, global trade greatly declined and the gold standard fell. Speculative attacks on the pound forced Britain entirely off the gold standard in 1931.
After World War II, the international financial system was governed by a formal agreement, the Bretton Woods System. Under this system the United States dollar was placed deliberately as the anchor of the system, with the US government guaranteeing other central banks that they could sell their US dollar reserves at a fixed rate for gold.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the system suffered setbacks ostensibly due to problems pointed out by the Triffin dilemma -- the conflict of economic interests that arises between short - term domestic objectives and long - term international objectives when a national currency also serves as a world reserve currency.
Thus the following table is a limited view about the global currency reserves that only deals with allocated reserves:
The percental composition of currencies of official foreign exchange reserves from 1995 to 2013.
Economists debate whether a single reserve currency will always dominate the global economy. Many have recently argued that one currency will almost always dominate due to network externalities, especially in the field of invoicing trade and denominating foreign debt securities, meaning that there are strong incentives to conform to the choice that dominates the marketplace. The argument is that, in the absence of sufficiently large shocks, a currency that dominates the marketplace will not lose much ground to challengers.
However, some economists, such as Barry Eichengreen, argue that this is not as true when it comes to the denomination of official reserves because the network externalities are not strong. As long as the currency 's market is sufficiently liquid, the benefits of reserve diversification are strong, as it insures against large capital losses. The implication is that the world may well soon begin to move away from a financial system dominated uniquely by the US dollar. In the first half of the 20th century multiple currencies did share the status as primary reserve currencies. Although the British Sterling was the largest currency, both the French franc and the German mark shared large portions of the market until the First World War, after which the mark was replaced by the dollar. Since the Second World War, the dollar has dominated official reserves, but this is likely a reflection of the unusual domination of the American economy during this period, as well as official discouragement of reserve status from the potential rivals, Germany and Japan.
The top reserve currency is generally selected by the banking community for the strength and stability of the economy in which it is used. Thus, as a currency becomes less stable, or its economy becomes less dominant, bankers may over time abandon it for a currency issued by a larger or more stable economy. This can take a relatively long time, as recognition is important in determining a reserve currency. For example, it took many years after the United States overtook the United Kingdom as the world 's largest economy before the dollar overtook the pound sterling as the dominant global reserve currency. In 1944, when the US dollar was chosen as the world reference currency at Bretton Woods, it was only the second currency in global reserves.
The G8 also frequently issues public statements as to exchange rates. In the past due to the Plaza Accord, its predecessor bodies could directly manipulate rates to reverse large trade deficits.
The United States dollar is the most widely held currency in the Allocated Reserves today. Throughout the last decade, an average of two thirds of the total Allocated foreign exchange reserves of countries have been in US dollars. For this reason, the US dollar is said to have "reserve - currency status '', making it somewhat easier for the United States to run higher trade deficits with greatly postponed economic impact or even postponing a currency crisis. Central bank reserves held in dollar - denominated debt, however, are small compared to private holdings of such debt. In the event that non-United States holders of dollar - denominated assets decided to shift holdings to assets denominated in other currencies, there could be serious consequences for the US economy. Changes of this kind are rare, and typically change takes place gradually over time; the markets involved adjust accordingly.
However, the dollar remains the favorite reserve currency because it has stability along with assets such as United States Treasury security that have both scale and liquidity.
The US dollar 's dominant position in global reserves is challenged occasionally, because of the growing share of unallocated reserves, and because of the doubt regarding dollar stability in the long term. However, in the aftermath of the financial crisis, the dollar 's share in the world 's foreign - exchange trades rose slightly from 85 % in 2010 to 87 % in 2013.
The dollar 's role as the undisputed reserve currency of the world allows the United States to impose unilateral sanctions against actions performed between other countries, for example the American fine against BNP Paribas for violations of U.S. sanctions that were not laws of France or the other countries involved in the transactions. In 2014 Beijing and Moscow signed a 150 billion yuan central bank liquidity swap line agreement to get around American sanctions on their behaviors.
The euro is currently the second most commonly held reserve currency, comprising about a quarter of allocated holdings. After World War II and the rebuilding of the German economy, the German Deutsche Mark gained the status of the second most important reserve currency after the US dollar. When the euro was introduced on 1 January 1999, replacing the Mark, French franc and ten other European currencies, it inherited the status of a major reserve currency from the Mark. Since then, its contribution to official reserves has risen continually as banks seek to diversify their reserves, and trade in the eurozone continues to expand.
Former U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan said in September 2007 that the euro could replace the U.S. dollar as the world 's primary reserve currency. It was "absolutely conceivable that the euro will replace the US dollar as reserve currency, or will be traded as an equally important reserve currency. '' Econometric analysis by Jeffrey Frankel and Menzie Chinn in 2006 suggested that the euro could replace the U.S. dollar as the major reserve currency by 2020 if either the remaining EU members, including the UK and Denmark, adopted the euro by 2020, or the recent depreciation trend of the dollar persisted into the future. In recent years, the euro 's share of the worldwide currency reserve basket has continued to increase -- albeit at a slower rate than before the beginning of the worldwide credit crunch related recession and Eurozone crisis, which harmed the euro and slowed its adoption. Since 2009, the reserve currency use of the euro has continued to drop, down to 23.9 percent in 2013.
The Dutch guilder was the de facto reserve currency in Europe in 17th and 18th centuries.
The United Kingdom 's pound sterling was the primary reserve currency of much of the world in the 19th century and first half of the 20th century. The emergence of the USA as an economic superpower, and the establishment of the U.S. Federal Reserve System in 1913, and U.S. economic dominance from the second half of the 20th century onward, as well as economic weakness in the UK at various times during the second half of the 20th century, resulted in Sterling losing its status as the world 's most important reserve currency: in the 1950s 55 % of global reserves were still held in sterling; but the share was 10 % lower within 20 years.
Since 2006, with the exception of 2012, Sterling is the third most widely held reserve currency, having seen a resurgence in popularity in recent years, growing from about 2.5 % to around 4 % of all currency reserves. Analysts said this resurgence was caused by carry - trade investors considering the pound as a stable high - yield proxy to the euro, and by the position of London in world financial affairs.
Japan 's yen is part of the International Monetary Fund 's (IMF) special drawing rights (SDR) valuation. The SDR currency value is determined daily by the IMF, based on the exchange rates of the currencies making up the basket, as quoted at noon at the London market. The valuation basket is reviewed and adjusted every five years.
The SDR Values and yen conversion for government procurement are used by the Japan External Trade Organization for Japan 's official procurement in international trade.
The Swiss franc, despite gaining ground among the world 's foreign - currency reserves and being often used in denominating foreign loans, can not be considered as a world reserve currency, since the share of all foreign exchange reserves held in Swiss francs has historically been well below 0.5 %. The daily trading market turnover of the franc, however, ranked fifth, or about 3.4 %, among all currencies in a 2007 survey by the Bank for International Settlements.
A number of central banks (and commercial banks) keep Canadian dollars as a reserve currency. In the economy of the Americas, the Canadian dollar plays a similar role to that played by the Australian dollar (AUD) in the Asia - Pacific region. The Canadian dollar (as a regional reserve currency for banking) has been an important part of the British, French and Dutch Caribbean states ' economies and finance systems since the 1950s. The Canadian dollar is also held by many central banks in Central America and South America. It is held in Latin America because of remittances and international trade in the region.
Because Canada 's primary foreign - trade relationship is with the United States, Canadian consumers, economists, and many businesses primarily define and value the Canadian dollar in terms of the United States dollar. Thus, by observing how the Canadian dollar floats in terms of the US dollar, foreign - exchange economists can indirectly observe internal behaviours and patterns in the US economy that could not be seen by direct observation. Also, because it is considered a petrodollar, the Canadian dollar has only fully evolved into a global reserve currency since the 1970s, when it was floated against all other world currencies.
The Canadian dollar, since 2013, is ranked 5th among foreign currency reserves in the world.
Chinese yuan officially became a world reserve currency on November 30, 2015. It represents 10.92 % of the IMF 's Special Drawing Rights currency basket. This makes Chinese yuan the third reserve currency after the US dollar and Euro.
A report released by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development in 2010, called for abandoning the U.S. dollar as the single major reserve currency. The report states that the new reserve system should not be based on a single currency or even multiple national currencies but instead permit the emission of international liquidity to create a more stable global financial system.
Countries such as Russia and the People 's Republic of China, central banks, and economic analysts and groups, such as the Gulf Cooperation Council, have expressed a desire to see an independent new currency replace the dollar as the reserve currency.
On 10 July 2009, Russian President Medvedev proposed a new ' world currency ' at the G8 meeting in London as an alternative reserve currency to replace the dollar.
China, Russia, India, Turkey, Brazil, Venezuela and other oil - producing countries have recently agreed "to transact all of their mutual trade and investment in their own currencies '' effectively minimizing the need, at least in the short term, for a global reserve currency. Nevertheless, at the beginning of the 21st century, gold and crude oil were still priced in dollars, which helps export inflation and has brought complaints about OPEC 's policies of managing oil quotas to maintain dollar price stability.
Some have proposed the use of the International Monetary Fund 's (IMF) special drawing rights (SDRs) as a reserve.
China has proposed using SDRs, calculated daily from a basket of U.S. dollar, euro, Japanese yen and British pounds, for international payments.
On 3 September 2009, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) issued a report calling for a new reserve currency based on the SDR, managed by a new global reserve bank. The IMF released a report in February 2011, stating that using SDRs "could help stabilize the global financial system. ''
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red sea is an example of eroded valley | Red Sea - wikipedia
The body of water between Arabia and Africa
The Red Sea (also the Erythraean Sea) is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. To the north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez (leading to the Suez Canal). The Red Sea is a Global 200 ecoregion. The sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley.
The Red Sea has a surface area of roughly 438,000 km (169,100 mi), is about 2250 km (1398 mi) long and, at its widest point, 355 km (220.6 mi) wide. It has a maximum depth of 3,040 m (9,970 ft) in the central Suakin Trough, and an average depth of 490 m (1,608 ft). However, there are also extensive shallow shelves, noted for their marine life and corals. The sea is the habitat of over 1,000 invertebrate species, and 200 soft and hard corals. It is the world 's northernmost tropical sea.
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Red Sea as follows:
Red Sea is a direct translation of the Greek Erythra Thalassa (Ερυθρὰ Θάλασσα), Latin Mare Rubrum (alternatively Sinus Arabicus, literally "Arabian Gulf ''), Arabic: البحر الأحمر , translit. Al - Baḥr Al - Aḥmar (alternatively بحر القلزم Baḥr Al - Qulzum, literally "the Sea of Clysma ''), Somali Badda Cas and Tigrinya Qeyyiḥ bāḥrī (ቀይሕ ባሕሪ). The name of the sea may signify the seasonal blooms of the red - coloured Trichodesmium erythraeum near the water 's surface. A theory favored by some modern scholars is that the name red is referring to the direction south, just as the Black Sea 's name may refer to north. The basis of this theory is that some Asiatic languages used color words to refer to the cardinal directions. Herodotus on one occasion uses Red Sea and Southern Sea interchangeably.
Historically, it was also known to western geographers as Mare Mecca (Sea of Mecca), and Sinus Arabicus (Gulf of Arabia). Some ancient geographers called the Red Sea the Arabian Gulf or Gulf of Arabia.
The association of the Red Sea with the biblical account of the Israelites crossing the Red Sea is ancient, and was made explicit in the Septuagint translation of the Book of Exodus from Hebrew to Koine Greek in approximately the third century B.C. In that version, the Yam Suph (Hebrew: ים סוף , lit. ' Sea of Reeds ') is translated as Erythra Thalassa (Red Sea). The Red Sea is one of four seas named in English after common color terms -- the others being the Black Sea, the White Sea and the Yellow Sea. The direct rendition of the Greek Erythra thalassa in Latin as Mare Erythraeum refers to the north - western part of the Indian Ocean, and also to a region on Mars.
The earliest known exploration of the Red Sea was conducted by ancient Egyptians, as they attempted to establish commercial routes to Punt. One such expedition took place around 2500 BC, and another around 1500 BC (by Hatshepsut). Both involved long voyages down the Red Sea. Historically, scholars argued whether these trips were possible. The biblical Book of Exodus tells the tale of the Israelites ' crossing of a body of water, which the Hebrew text calls Yam Suph (Hebrew: יַם סוּף ). Yam Suph was traditionally identified as the Red Sea. Rabbi Saadia Gaon (882 ‒ 942 CE), in his Judeo - Arabic translation of the Pentateuch, identifies the crossing place of the Red Sea as Baḥar al - Qulzum, meaning the Gulf of Suez.
In the 6th century BC, Darius the Great of Persia sent reconnaissance missions to the Red Sea, improving and extending navigation by locating many hazardous rocks and currents. A canal was built between the Nile and the northern end of the Red Sea at Suez. In the late 4th century BC, Alexander the Great sent Greek naval expeditions down the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. Greek navigators continued to explore and compile data on the Red Sea. Agatharchides collected information about the sea in the 2nd century BC. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ("Periplus of the Red Sea ''), a Greek periplus written by an unknown author around the 1st century AD, contains a detailed description of the Red Sea 's ports and sea routes. The Periplus also describes how Hippalus first discovered the direct route from the Red Sea to India.
The Red Sea was favored for Roman trade with India starting with the reign of Augustus, when the Roman Empire gained control over the Mediterranean, Egypt, and the northern Red Sea. The route had been used by previous states but grew in the volume of traffic under the Romans. From Indian ports goods from China were introduced to the Roman world. Contact between Rome and China depended on the Red Sea, but the route was broken by the Aksumite Empire around the 3rd century AD.
During the Middle Ages, the Red Sea was an important part of the spice trade route. In 1513, trying to secure that channel to Portugal, Afonso de Albuquerque laid siege to Aden but was forced to retreat. They cruised the Red Sea inside the Bab al - Mandab, as the first European fleet to have sailed these waters.
In 1798, France ordered General Napoleon to invade Egypt and take control of the Red Sea. Although he failed in his mission, the engineer Jean - Baptiste Lepère, who took part in it, revitalised the plan for a canal which had been envisaged during the reign of the Pharaohs. Several canals were built in ancient times from the Nile to the Red Sea along or near the line of the present Sweet Water Canal, but none lasted for long. The Suez Canal was opened in November 1869. At the time, the British, French, and Italians shared the trading posts. The posts were gradually dismantled following the First World War. After the Second World War, the Americans and Soviets exerted their influence whilst the volume of oil tanker traffic intensified. However, the Six Day War culminated in the closure of the Suez Canal from 1967 to 1975. Today, in spite of patrols by the major maritime fleets in the waters of the Red Sea, the Suez Canal has never recovered its supremacy over the Cape route, which is believed to be less vulnerable.
The Red Sea is between arid land, desert and semi-desert. Reef systems are better developed along the Red Sea mainly because of its greater depths and an efficient water circulation pattern. The Red Sea water mass - exchanges its water with the Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean via the Gulf of Aden. These physical factors reduce the effect of high salinity caused by evaporation in the north and relatively hot water in the south.
The climate of the Red Sea is the result of two monsoon seasons; a northeasterly monsoon and a southwesterly monsoon. Monsoon winds occur because of differential heating between the land and the sea. Very high surface temperatures and high salinities make this one of the warmest and saltiest bodies of seawater in the world. The average surface water temperature of the Red Sea during the summer is about 26 ° C (79 ° F) in the north and 30 ° C (86 ° F) in the south, with only about 2 ° C (3.6 ° F) variation during the winter months. The overall average water temperature is 22 ° C (72 ° F). Temperature and visibility remain good to around 200 m (656 ft). The sea is known for its strong winds and unpredictable local currents.
The rainfall over the Red Sea and its coasts is extremely low, averaging 0.06 m (2.36 in) per year. The rain is mostly short showers, often with thunderstorms and occasionally with dust storms. The scarcity of rainfall and no major source of fresh water to the Red Sea result in excess evaporation as high as 205 cm (81 in) per year and high salinity with minimal seasonal variation. A recent underwater expedition to the Red Sea offshore from Sudan and Eritrea found surface water temperatures 28 ° C in winter and up to 34 ° C in the summer, but despite that extreme heat the coral was healthy with much fish life with very little sign of coral bleaching, with only 9 % infected by Thalassomonas loyana, the ' white plague ' agent. Favia favus coral there harbours a virus, BA3, which kills T. loyana. Plans are afoot to use samples of these corals ' apparently heat - adapted commensal algae to salvage bleached coral elsewhere.
The Red Sea is one of the saltiest bodies of water in the world, owing to high evaporation. Salinity ranges from between ~ 36 ‰ in the southern part because of the effect of the Gulf of Aden water and reaches 41 ‰ in the northern part, owing mainly to the Gulf of Suez water and the high evaporation. The average salinity is 40 ‰. (Average salinity for the world 's seawater is ~ 35 ‰ on the Practical Salinity Scale, or PPS; that translates to 3.5 % actual dissolved salts.)
The salinity of the Red Sea is greater than the world average, approximately 4 percent. This is due to several factors:
In general tide ranges between 0.6 m (2.0 ft) in the north, near the mouth of the Gulf of Suez and 0.9 m (3.0 ft) in the south near the Gulf of Aden but it fluctuates between 0.20 m (0.66 ft) and 0.30 m (0.98 ft) away from the nodal point. The central Red Sea (Jeddah area) is therefore almost tideless, and as such the annual water level changes are more significant. Because of the small tidal range the water during high tide inundates the coastal sabkhas as a thin sheet of water up to a few hundred metres rather than flooding the sabkhas through a network of channels. However, south of Jeddah in the Shoiaba area the water from the lagoon may cover the adjoining sabkhas as far as 3 km (2 mi), whereas, north of Jeddah in the Al - Kharrar area the sabkhas are covered by a thin sheet of water as far as 2 km (1.2 mi). The prevailing north and northeast winds influence the movement of water in the coastal inlets to the adjacent sabkhas, especially during storms. Winter mean sea level is 0.5 m (1.6 ft) higher than in summer. Tidal velocities passing through constrictions caused by reefs, sand bars and low islands commonly exceed 1 -- 2 m / s (3 -- 6.5 ft / s). Coral reefs in the Red Sea are near Egypt, Eritrea, Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan.
In the Red Sea detailed current data is lacking, partially because they are weak and variable both spatially and temporally. Temporal and spatial currents variation is as low as 0.5 m (1.6 ft) and are governed all by wind. During the summer, NW winds drive surface water south for about four months at a velocity of 15 -- 20 cm / s (6 -- 8 in / s), whereas in winter the flow is reversed resulting in the inflow of water from the Gulf of Aden into the Red Sea. The net value of the latter predominates, resulting in an overall drift to the north end of the Red Sea. Generally, the velocity of the tidal current is between 50 -- 60 cm / s (20 -- 23.6 in / s) with a maximum of 1 m / s (3.3 ft / s) at the mouth of the al - Kharrar Lagoon. However, the range of the north - northeast current along the Saudi coast is 8 -- 29 cm / s (3 -- 11.4 in / s).
The north part of the Red Sea is dominated by persistent north - west winds, with speeds ranging between 7 km / h (4.3 mph) and 12 km / h (7.5 mph). The rest of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden are subjected to regular and seasonally reversible winds. The wind regime is characterized by seasonal and regional variations in speed and direction with average speed generally increasing northward.
Wind is the driving force in the Red Sea to transport material as suspension or as bedload. Wind - induced currents play an important role in the Red Sea in resuspending bottom sediments and transferring materials from sites of dumping to sites of burial in quiescent environment of deposition. Wind - generated current measurement is therefore important in order to determine the sediment dispersal pattern and its role in the erosion and accretion of the coastal rock exposure and the submerged coral beds.
The Red Sea was formed by the Arabian peninsula being split from the Horn of Africa by movement of the Red Sea Rift. This split started in the Eocene and accelerated during the Oligocene. The sea is still widening, and it is considered that it will become an ocean in time (as proposed in the model of John Tuzo Wilson). In 1949, a deep water survey reported anomalously hot brines in the central portion of the Red Sea. Later work in the 1960s confirmed the presence of hot, 60 ° C (140 ° F), saline brines and associated metalliferous muds. The hot solutions were emanating from an active subseafloor rift. The high salinity of the waters was not hospitable to living organisms.
Sometime during the Tertiary period, the Bab el Mandeb closed and the Red Sea evaporated to an empty hot dry salt - floored sink. Effects causing this would have been:
A number of volcanic islands rise from the center of the sea. Most are dormant. However, in 2007, Jabal al - Tair island in the Bab el Mandeb strait erupted violently. Two new islands were formed in 2011 and 2013 in the Zubair Archipelago, a small chain of islands owned by Yemen. The first island, Sholan Island, emerged in an eruption in December 2011, the second island, Jadid, emerged in September 2013.
In terms of mineral resources the major constituents of the Red Sea sediments are as follows:
The Red Sea is a rich and diverse ecosystem. More than 1200 species of fish have been recorded in the Red Sea, and around 10 % of these are found nowhere else. This also includes 42 species of deepwater fish.
The rich diversity is in part due to the 2,000 km (1,240 mi) of coral reef extending along its coastline; these fringing reefs are 5000 -- 7000 years old and are largely formed of stony acropora and porites corals. The reefs form platforms and sometimes lagoons along the coast and occasional other features such as cylinders (such as the Blue Hole (Red Sea) at Dahab). These coastal reefs are also visited by pelagic species of Red Sea fish, including some of the 44 species of shark.
The Red Sea also contains many offshore reefs including several true atolls. Many of the unusual offshore reef formations defy classic (i.e., Darwinian) coral reef classification schemes, and are generally attributed to the high levels of tectonic activity that characterize the area.
The special biodiversity of the area is recognized by the Egyptian government, who set up the Ras Mohammed National Park in 1983. The rules and regulations governing this area protect local marine life, which has become a major draw for diving enthusiasts.
Divers and snorkellers should be aware that although most Red Sea species are innocuous, a few are hazardous to humans: see Red Sea species hazardous to humans.
Other marine habitats include sea grass beds, salt pans, mangroves and salt marshes.
There is extensive demand for desalinated water to meet the needs of the population and the industries along the Red Sea.
There are at least 18 desalination plants along the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia which discharge warm brine and treatment chemicals (chlorine and anti-scalants) that bleach and kill corals and cause diseases to the fish. This is only localized, but it may intensify with time and profoundly impact the fishing industry.
The water from the Red Sea is also used by oil refineries and cement factories for cooling. Used water drained back into the coastal zones may harm the nearshore environment of the Red Sea.
The Red Sea is part of the sea roads between Europe, the Persian Gulf and East Asia, and as such has heavy shipping traffic. Government - related bodies with responsibility to police the Red Sea area include the Port Said Port Authority, Suez Canal Authority and Red Sea Ports Authority of Egypt, Jordan Maritime Authority, Israel Port Authority, Saudi Ports Authority and Sea Ports Corporation of Sudan.
The sea is known for its recreational diving sites, such as Ras Mohammed, SS Thistlegorm (shipwreck), Elphinstone Reef, The Brothers, Daedalus Reef, St. John 's Reef, Rocky Island in Egypt and less known sites in Sudan such as Sanganeb, Abington, Angarosh and Shaab Rumi.
The Red Sea became a popular destination for diving after the expeditions of Hans Hass in the 1950s, and later by Jacques - Yves Cousteau. Popular tourist resorts include El Gouna, Hurghada, Safaga, Marsa Alam, on the west shore of the Red Sea, and Sharm - el - Sheikh, Dahab, and Taba on the Egyptian side of Sinaï, as well as Aqaba in Jordan and Eilat in Israel in an area known as the Red Sea Riviera.
The popular tourist beach of Sharm el - Sheikh was closed to all swimming in December 2010 due to several serious shark attacks, including a fatality. As of December 2010, scientists are investigating the attacks and have identified, but not verified, several possible causes including over-fishing which causes large sharks to hunt closer to shore, tourist boat operators who chum offshore for shark - photo opportunities, and reports of ships throwing dead livestock overboard. The sea 's narrowness, significant depth, and sharp drop - offs, all combine to form a geography where large deep - water sharks can roam in hundreds of meters of water, yet be within a hundred meters of swimming areas.
The Red Sea may be geographically divided into three sections: the Red Sea proper, and in the north, the Gulf of Aqaba and the Gulf of Suez. The six countries bordering the Red Sea proper are:
The Gulf of Suez is entirely bordered by Egypt. The Gulf of Aqaba borders Egypt, Israel, Jordan and Saudi Arabia.
In addition to the standard geographical definition of the six countries bordering the Red Sea cited above, areas such as Somalia are sometimes also described as Red Sea territories. This is primarily due to their proximity to and geological similarities with the nations facing the Red Sea and / or political ties with said areas.
Towns and cities on the Red Sea coast (including the coasts of the Gulfs of Aqaba and Suez) include:
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who has the most goals in the copa del rey | Copa del Rey - wikipedia
The Copa del Rey (Spanish pronunciation: (ˈkopa ðel ˈrei); English: King 's Cup) is an annual football cup competition for Spanish football teams. Its full name is Campeonato de España - Copa de Su Majestad el Rey (Championship of Spain - His Majesty the King 's Cup), and is also known as La Copa.
The competition was founded in 1903, thus making it the oldest Spanish football competition. Typically, the winner of Copa del Rey goes to the UEFA Europa League; unless they qualify for the UEFA Champions League.
Barcelona are the current cup holders, winning their 29th title against Deportivo Alavés in the 2017 final held at the Vicente Calderón Stadium.
In 1902, a competition under the name Copa de la Coronación, was played after Carlos Padrós, later president of Real Madrid, suggested a football tournament to celebrate the coronation of Spanish King Alfonso XIII. Four other teams joined Madrid FC for the competition: FC Barcelona, Club Español de Foot - Ball, New Foot - Ball de Madrid and Club Bizcaya (a team made up of players from Athletic Club and Bilbao FC) which eventually defeated Barcelona in the final. That cup is on display in the Athletic Bilbao museum and the club includes the victory in its honours list. Nevertheless, it is considered only the forerunner of the Copa del Rey. The Royal Spanish Football Federation officially does not recognize it.
Copa del Rey was Spain 's football National Championship from 1903 until the foundation of the Campeonato de Liga -- League Championship -- in 1928. It was initially known as the Copa del Ayuntamiento de Madrid (Madrid City Council 's Cup). Between 1905 and 1932, it was known as the Copa de Su Majestad El Rey Alfonso XIII (His Majesty King Alfonso XIII 's Cup). During the Second Spanish Republic, it was known as the Copa del Presidente de la República (President of the Republic Cup) or Copa de España (Spanish Cup) and during the years of Francisco Franco 's Spanish State, it was known as the Copa de Su Excelencia El Generalísimo or Copa del Generalísimo (His Excellency, The Supreme General 's Cup). Athletic Bilbao were declared winners in 1904 after their opponents Español de Madrid failed to show up. In both 1910 and 1913, there was a split among the clubs and two rival associations, the Unión Española de Clubs de Fútbol and the Federación Española de Fútbol, organised rival competitions, the Copa UECF and the Copa FEF. In 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, clubs in the Republican area of Spain entered the Copa de la España Libre, with Levante beating their city rivals Valencia 1 -- 0 in the final. (Although in 2007 the Congress of Deputies urged Royal Spanish Football Federation to recognise it as a Copa del Rey win for Levante, the governing body of Spanish football has not made a decision yet.)
Because of the dispute regarding the 1902 competition, the statistics regarding the leading winners are also disputed. Barcelona have won the Copa 29 times; Athletic Bilbao are just behind, with either 24 or 23 titles, depending on the source. Throughout the history of the competition, there have been 12 actual trophies. Trophies have been permanently awarded to clubs for winning the competition either three times in a row or on five separate occasions and for other special reasons. Thus, five trophies have been permanently awarded to Barcelona, three to Bilbao and one to Real Madrid. Athletic Bilbao kept the first trophy as inaugural winners, Sevilla FC were awarded the Trofeo del Generalísimo in 1939 and Atlético Madrid, winners the previous year, were awarded the 11th trophy following the death of Francisco Franco. In December 2010, the cup was given to Sevilla, the 2010 winners, to keep in honour of Spain 's World Cup victory.
Before the formation of La Liga in 1929, the competition was effectively a national championship. Teams qualified to enter via their regional leagues. Over the years, various formats, including group stages have been used. Unlike the English FA Cup, entry is limited. Only teams from the Primera División, Segunda A, about 23 teams from the Segunda B and the Tercera División champions (or runners - up if the champion is a reserve team) are invited to enter. The early rounds are one - off games with teams from the lower divisions given home advantage. The round of 32, the round of 16, the quarter - finals, and semi-finals are played over two legs. The final is a one - off game played at a neutral venue. The winners qualify for both the Supercopa de España and the UEFA Europa League the following season.
On 22 December 2010, at an extraordinary general meeting of the Royal Spanish Football Federation, Sevilla FC requested permission from the Federation to keep the trophy they had won in the 2010 final to commemorate the victory of the Spanish national team at the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. There had been a precedent for this; Real Madrid were allowed to keep the last Copa de la República (1936), Sevilla, the first Copa del Generalísimo (1939) and, Atlético Madrid, the last Copa del Generalísimo (1976).
A new trophy was made by Madrid jeweller Federico Alegre. The trophy, made of silver, weighs 15 kg (33 lb) and is 75 cm (30 in) tall. On 21 April 2011, Real Madrid became the first recipients of the trophy. During the post-game celebrations, the trophy was accidentally dropped at Plaza de Cibeles by the Real Madrid player Sergio Ramos from the top of a double - decker bus, which then ran over it. Ten pieces were found by civil servicemen when they recovered it from the ground. The club received a copy which is displayed at Santiago Bernabéu.
‡ Merged with Irún Sporting Club in 1915 to form Real Unión.
‡ ‡ Real Madrid 's reserve team. Reserve teams were banned for this competition for the first time in the 1990 -- 91 competition.
‡ Counting the 1913 win by Racing de Irún, which merged with Irún Sporting Club in 1915 to form Real Unión. ‡ ‡ Real Madrid 's reserve team. Reserve teams were banned for this competition for first time in the 1990 -- 91 competition. ‡ ‡ ‡ The number of wins Athletic Bilbao have been credited with is disputed. The 1902 version was won by Bizcaya, a team made up of players from Athletic Club and Bilbao FC. In 1903 these two clubs merged as the current Athletic Club. The 1902 cup is on display in the Athletic museum and the club includes it in its own honors list.
Boldface indicates an active player.
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how long have panic at the disco been together | Panic! At the Disco - wikipedia
Panic! at the Disco is an American rock band from Las Vegas, Nevada, formed in 2004 and featuring the current lineup of vocalist Brendon Urie, accompanied on tour by bassist Dallon Weekes, guitarist Kenneth Harris and drummer Dan Pawlovich. Founded by childhood friends Ryan Ross, Spencer Smith, Brent Wilson and Urie, Panic! at the Disco recorded its first demos while its members were in high school. Shortly after, the band recorded and released its debut studio album, A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out (2005). Popularized by the second single, "I Write Sins Not Tragedies '', the album was certified double platinum in the US. In 2006, founding bassist Brent Wilson was fired from the band during an extensive world tour and subsequently replaced by Jon Walker.
Influenced by 1960s rock bands the Beatles, the Zombies and the Beach Boys, and preceded by the single "Nine in the Afternoon '', the band 's second studio album, Pretty. Odd. (2008) marked a significant departure from the sound of the band 's debut. Ross and Walker, who favored the band 's new direction, departed because Urie and Smith wanted to make further changes to the band 's style. The duo subsequently formed a new band, The Young Veins, leaving Urie and Smith as the sole remaining members of Panic! at the Disco.
Continuing as a duo, Urie and Smith released a new single, "New Perspective '', and recruited Dallon Weekes as the group 's bassist and Ian Crawford as the band 's lead guitarist to accompany the band during live performances. Weekes was later inducted into the band 's lineup as a full - time member in 2010, nearing the end of the recording of the band 's third studio album, Vices & Virtues (2011). The album was recorded solely by Urie and Smith, with producers John Feldmann and Butch Walker.
As a three - piece, Urie, Smith, and Weekes recorded and released the band 's fourth studio album, Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!, in 2013. Prior to the release of the album, Smith unofficially left the band due to health and drug - related issues, leaving Urie and Weekes as the remaining members.
In 2015, Smith officially left the band after not performing live with the band since his departure in 2013. Shortly thereafter, Weekes reverted to being a touring member once again, leaving Urie as the only member of the official lineup. In April 2015, "Hallelujah '' was released as the first single from Panic! at the Disco 's fifth studio album, Death of a Bachelor (2016).
Panic! at the Disco was formed in 2004 in the suburban area of Summerlin, Las Vegas, by childhood friends Ryan Ross, who sang and played guitar, and Spencer Smith, who played drums. They both attended Bishop Gorman High School, and they began playing music together in ninth grade. They invited friend Brent Wilson from nearby Palo Verde High School to join on bass, and Wilson invited classmate Brendon Urie to try out on guitar. The quartet soon began rehearsing in Smith 's grandmother 's living room. Urie grew up in a Mormon family in Las Vegas and early on missed some rehearsals to go to church. Ross initially was the lead vocalist for the group, but after hearing Urie sing back - up during rehearsals, the group decided to make him the lead. Initially, Panic! at the Disco was a Blink - 182 cover band.
In the group 's early experimental demos, the band created a sound that was different from the many death - metal groups that were performing in Las Vegas at the time. The band signed a recording contract without having performed a live show. "We never went out and played shows before we got signed because the music scene in Las Vegas is so bad. There 's not a lot going on, '' Smith said. "In our practice space, there were something like 30 bands, and every day we 'd walk into that room and hear the exact same death - metal bands. So it kind of influenced us to be different. And to get out of Las Vegas. '' Urie began working at Tropical Smoothie Cafe in Summerlin to afford rent for the band 's new practice space. The four left their educations behind to concentrate on music; Ross had a falling out with his father when he dropped out of college, and when Urie dropped out of high school his parents kicked him out of the house. He stayed with friends until he could afford to rent an apartment.
Ross and Urie soon began to commit to their laptops the demos they had been developing and posted three early demos ("Time to Dance, '' "Nails for Breakfast, Tacks for Snacks '' and "Camisado '') on PureVolume. On a whim, they sent a link to Fall Out Boy bassist Pete Wentz via a LiveJournal account. Wentz, who was in Los Angeles at the time with the rest of Fall Out Boy working on the band 's major - label debut, From Under the Cork Tree, drove to Las Vegas to meet with the young, unsigned band. Upon hearing "two to three '' songs during band practice, Wentz was impressed and immediately wanted the band to sign to his Fueled by Ramen imprint label Decaydance Records, which made the band the first on the new label. Around December 2004, the group signed to the label. As news broke that Wentz had signed Panic! (who had yet to perform a single live show), fans on the Internet began to bash the group. "Almost right away we knew what was going to happen, '' Ross explained in a 2006 interview. "We had two songs online and people were already making assumptions on what kind of band we were and what we were going to sound like. ''
Meanwhile, Wentz began to hype the band wherever possible: from wearing "Pete! at the Disco '' T - shirts onstage to mentioning the group in interviews. Wentz gave a quick shout - out to the band during a press junket on the day before the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards: "I 've got a couple of bands coming out soon on Decaydance, one being this band called Panic! at the Disco, '' Wentz said. "Their record is going to be your next favorite record. It 's called A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out -- get it before your little brother does. '' At the time of the band 's signing, all of the band members were still in high school (with the exception of Ross, who was forced to quit UNLV). Urie graduated in May 2005, and Wilson and Smith finished school online as the band left for College Park, Maryland, to record their debut record.
The band relocated to College Park, Maryland, to record its debut album from June to September 2005. Although they only had shells of songs when they arrived, the rest of the album shaped up fast through the marathon session. "We did n't have a day off in the five - and - a-half weeks we were there, 12 or 14 hours a day, '' Ross said in a 2005 interview. "We were making things up in our heads that were n't there, and on top of the stress of trying to finish the record, we were living in a one - bedroom apartment with four people on bunk beds, '' recalled Ross. "Everyone got on everybody 's nerves. Someone would write a new part for a song and someone else would say they did n't like it just because you ate their cereal that morning. ''
The album is split into two - halves: the first half is mostly electronic dance punk, while the second half features Vaudevillian piano, strings, and accordion. The band grew tired of writing only with drum machines and keyboards and, inspired by film scores (specifically the works of Danny Elfman and Jon Brion) decided to write a completely different half. "By the end of that, we were completely exhausted, '' said Ross of the studio sessions. After its completion, "we had two weeks to come home and learn how to be a band, '' Ross said. The group played its first live show during the summer of 2005 at local Las Vegas music venue The Alley on West Charleston. Afterwards, the band toured nationally on the Nintendo Fusion Tour with mentors Fall Out Boy, as well as Motion City Soundtrack, The Starting Line, and Boys Night Out for the rest of 2005.
The band 's debut album, A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out, was released September 27, 2005. Sales began relatively slow. It debuted at No. 112 on the Billboard 200 album chart, No. 6 on the Billboard Independent Albums chart, and No. 1 on the Billboard Top Heatseekers chart, with nearly 10,000 albums sold in the first week of release. Within a span of four months, Panic! would see the video for its first single, "I Write Sins Not Tragedies '', rocket up the Billboard Hot 100 as sales of Fever passed the 500,000 mark. At the end of March 2006, the band announced a headlining tour. By August, the group 's debut record was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and the music video for "I Write Sins Not Tragedies '' won Video of the Year at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards. "Some aspects of the fame are annoying, but at the end of the day it 's something we 're most grateful for. It 's certainly opened the door to a whole new batch of opportunities, '' Ross said of the band 's newfound fame and instant success.
In May 2006, Panic! at the Disco announced that original bassist Brent Wilson had left the band, "posting a statement that was both diplomatic and entirely inscrutable (...) yet (failing) to mention any reason why Wilson is leaving Panic, '' according to MTV News. In June, Wilson asserted to MTV News that he was kicked out of the band via a phone call. "It was done as a phone call and the only person who spoke was Spencer. Apparently Brendon and Ryan were on the speakerphone too, but they did n't say a word. They never even said they were sorry, '' explained Wilson. Smith wrote a lengthy e-mail back to James Montgomery of MTV News, stating, in part, "We made the decision based on Brent 's lack of responsibility and the fact that he was n't progressing musically with the band, '' and revealed that Wilson did not write nor play any bass present on Fever: Instead, Urie recorded these parts. Wilson demanded a cut in royalties, and threatened to take his former band to court.
In 2006, the band supported The Academy Is... on the band 's worldwide tour "Ambitious Ones and Smoking Guns '' from January to May. Beginning in June, the group headlined its first unnamed national tour, that would last until August. During the group 's performance at the 2006 Reading Festival in August, the band was greeted by excessive bottling, one of which hit Urie in the face that knocked him unconscious. Despite this, the band continued with its set after Urie recovered. The band 's second headlining tour, dubbed the Nothing Rhymes with Circus Tour, began in November. In roughly one year, Panic! at the Disco went from being the opening act on a five - band bill to the headliners on a massive arena tour.
The Nothing Rhymes with Circus Tour feature the band 's first highly theatrical live shows, which featured every song with dance numbers, skits and tricks performed by a six - member troupe, as the band donned intricate costumes, loosely re-enacting moments from the songs. Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times noted the sudden success and circus - inspired tour of the young band in a concert review: "There 's something charming about watching a band trying to navigate sudden success, aided by a contortionist, a ribbon dancer and all the rest of it. '' MTV News favorably likened its theme and wardrobe to "Janet Jackson 's audience - dividing, hypersexual The Velvet Rope Tour. '' The group, fresh off the major success of A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out, took a break after non-stop touring, and the group members began formulating ideas for their next album together during the winter of 2006.
After a short period of development regarding the ideas of the album, on March 6, 2007 the band arrived at a cabin in the rural mountains of Mount Charleston, Nevada and began the writing process for the new album. After recording the new tracks and performing them live over the summer, the band returned to its native Las Vegas as well as the group 's old rehearsal studio, where the band members wrote their debut record. The band grew uninterested in the songs previously written and by August scrapped the entire new album (which Ross later revealed was "three - quarters '' done) and started over. "We wanted to approach these songs in the most basic form, '' Ross said. "We wrote them all on one acoustic guitar and with someone singing. I think that we kind of skipped that part of songwriting on the first record, and this time we 're sort of paying attention to that. (...) We 've written a bunch of songs since we 've been home (Las Vegas). I think it 's the most fun and the happiest we 've been since we started. '' With simplicity the new focus and the old album shelved, the group settled in and began recording what would become Pretty. Odd. In October, the band entered the Studio at the Palms at the Palms Casino Resort in Las Vegas to begin recording the album.
In January 2008, the band unveiled a new logo and dropped the exclamation point from the group 's name, becoming Panic at the Disco. Released on March 21, 2008, Pretty. Odd. was described by the band as "more organic and mellower '' than A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out, as well as unintentionally and coincidentally similar to music of the Beatles, in both songwriting and scope. The record debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 chart, with first - day sales of 54,000, and first - week sales of 139,000 copies in the United States. Those figures marked the band 's biggest sales week to that date, beating a previous record held by A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out (which sold 45,000 during the winter of 2006). The record also debuted at "Current Alternative Albums '' chart and No. 2 on the "Digital Albums '' chart, the latter of which accounted for 26 percent of the disc 's overall sales. The album charted high in various other countries and was eventually certified gold in the United Kingdom, however, Pretty. Odd. received relatively disappointing sales in the face of its predecessor. Pretty. Odd. was, however, critically acclaimed in contrast to Fever: Barry Walters of Spin called Panic 's debut album "embarrassing '' while regarding the new record as "(daring) to be optimistically beautiful at a time when sadness and ugliness might have won them easier credibility. ''
The band announced plans to headline the 2008 Honda Civic Tour in January 2008, which took up the majority of early touring for the album. Motion City Soundtrack, the Hush Sound and Phantom Planet opened for the tour, which performed across North America from April 10 to July 14, 2008. Throughout October and November 2008, the band toured with Dashboard Confessional and the Cab on the Rock Band Live Tour promoting the video game Rock Band 2.
As expected and predicted by several music publications, the band adopted a very different style for the touring in support of Pretty. Odd., in contrast to the dark, circus - themed elements of the band 's previous stage shows. Each show contained "woodsy set pieces, projections of flora and fauna, and mic stands wrapped in lights and flowers, '' and each band member dressed in a vest. While reflecting on the theatrical nature of A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out touring, Urie commented "We did it and it was a lot of fun when we did it, but this time around I think we wanted to get back to a more intimate, personal setting, and scale it down a little bit. '' Ryan Ross explained that "It 's more about connecting with the audience and seeing what 's gon na happen every night. It 's not as scripted out and pre-planned. It makes it more exciting for us, and less monotonous every night. '' A live album,... Live in Chicago, based on live recordings from Chicago during the Honda Civic Tour, was released December 2, 2008. An accompanying DVD contains photos from the tour, each music video from the album as well as behind - the - scenes footage of the videos and the tour, the short film Panic! at the Disco In: American Valley, and the documentary feature based on the tour, All In A Day 's.
Pretty. Odd. 's touring was also defined by a larger effort to remain environmentally conscious. On the tour, the band worked with two non-profit eco organizations: Reverb, which facilitates environmentally friendly touring; and Global Inheritance, which seeks to inspire more eco-activism. In a 2008 interview, Ross revealed that the band traveling on a biodiesel bus, to re-using plastics, and recycling more backstage. The band went as far as to print tour booklets on recycled paper, with soy ink, and organize an "eco-contest, '' in which profits from the tour went straight to environmental organizations.
In spring 2009, the band began recording material for its third studio album. However, on July 6, 2009, Ryan Ross and Jon Walker announced via the band 's official website that the two were leaving the band. In an interview following the split, Ross explained that he first brought the idea to Smith in late June 2009 over lunch: "Spencer and I had lunch and caught up for a while, and then the big question came up, like, ' Well, what do you want to do? ' and I said, ' Well, I think it might be best if we kind of do our own thing for a while, ' and he said, ' I 'm glad you said that, because I was going to say the same thing, ' '' Ross recalled. "And there was really no argument, which is really the best way that could 've worked out. '' Ross said the split was largely due to creative differences between him and Urie. Urie wanted the band to explore a more polished pop sound, while Ross -- and, by extension, Walker -- was interested in making retro - inspired rock.
The news asserted that both tour plans with blink - 182 in August 2009 and new album production "will continue as previously announced. '' The following day, Alternative Press broke the news that "New Perspective '', the first song recorded without Ross and Walker, would debut the following month on radio and as a part of the soundtrack to the film Jennifer 's Body. On July 10, 2009, Alternative Press also reported that the band had regained the exclamation point, becoming, once again, Panic! at the Disco. "New Perspective '' was released on July 28, 2009. Former guitarist of pop rock band The Cab, Ian Crawford and Dallon Weekes, frontman of indie rock band The Brobecks, filled in for Ross and Walker on tour during the blink - 182 Summer Tour in August 2009.
The band re-entered the studio during early 2010 and spent much of the year recording the group 's third studio album. During this time, touring bassist Dallon Weekes joined the band 's official lineup along with Urie and Smith, making the band a three - piece. Although Weekes did not perform on the upcoming album, he was responsible for the conceptualization of the cover art of the album and was also featured on the album cover, masked and standing in the background behind Smith and Urie. On January 18, 2011, the band revealed that an album titled Vices & Virtues would officially be released on March 22, 2011. The album was produced by Butch Walker and John Feldmann. The record 's first single, "The Ballad of Mona Lisa '', was released digitally on February 1, 2011, with the music video being released February 8, 2011. Vices & Virtues was officially released March 22, 2011 to relatively positive critical reviews.
The band began touring in support of the album, christened the Vices & Virtues Tour, in earnest beginning in February 2011. The tour has sported the same electric, over-the - top theatricality the band was known for during the Fever era. "I really miss wearing costumes and makeup, '' Urie told Spin. "I love throwing a big production. I 've recently been reading about Tesla coils and I 'm trying to figure out how I can get one that sits on the stage and shoots sparks without hurting anybody. '' The group was scheduled to play the Australian Soundwave Revolution festival in September / October but the festival was cancelled and in its place is the Counter-Revolution mini-festival the band will play.
On May 12, 2011, the band collaborated with indie pop band Fun. and the two groups embarked on an American tour, releasing a single together titled "C'mon ''. Panic! at the Disco contributed a new song "Mercenary '' to the soundtrack for the video game Batman: Arkham City.
After the Vices & Virtues tour cycle, Urie, Smith, and Weekes began writing and preparing for a fourth album. During the recording of the album, touring guitarist Ian Crawford, who joined the band in 2009 after the departure of Ryan Ross and Jon Walker, left the band citing his desire to make "real, genuine '' music. On July 15, 2013, the album was announced as Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!, with a scheduled release date of October 8, 2013. The first single, "Miss Jackson '', was released on July 15, 2013, along with its music video to promote the album. Panic! at the Disco opened for Fall Out Boy on the Save Rock And Roll Arena Tour with Kenneth Harris replacing Crawford.
Shortly before the band began its first tour in support of the album, Smith wrote an open letter to fans regarding his abuse of alcohol and prescription medications since the recording of Pretty. Odd. Although Smith joined the band for the first handful of dates, he left the tour to "continue fighting addiction ''. Urie posted on the band 's official website on August 7, 2013 that "It 's become evident that Spencer still needs more time to take care of himself. I ca n't expect him to be fighting addiction one minute and be fully immersed in a national tour the next. With that said, the tour will continue without Spencer while he is away getting the help he needs. '' Since Spencer 's leave of absence, Dan Pawlovich of the band Valencia has filled in on tour.
In an interview with Pure Fresh on September 23, 2014, Urie stated that he had already thought about ideas on the fifth studio album; however, he was not sure if it would be a Panic! at the Disco album, or a solo album. Urie has also stated there are no current plans for Smith to return to the band.
On April 2, 2015, Smith announced that he had officially left the band. That same month, Urie revealed in an interview with Kerrang! that he was working on new material for the band 's fifth studio album.
On April 20, 2015, Urie released "Hallelujah '' as a single without any previous formal announcements. It debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at No. 40, the band 's second highest ever after "I Write Sins Not Tragedies ''. The band performed at the KROQ Weenie Roast on May 16, 2015. On September 1, 2015, another song from the fifth studio album, "Death of a Bachelor '', premiered on an Apple Music broadcast hosted by Pete Wentz. The second single, "Victorious '' was released at the end of the month. On October 22, 2015, through the band 's official Facebook page, Urie announced the new album as Death of a Bachelor with a scheduled release date of January 15, 2016. It is the first album written and composed by Urie with a team of writers, as the status of Weekes changed from an official member to that of a touring member once again. Weekes ' status was rumored during the promotion of Death of a Bachelor that he was no longer an official member, until it was confirmed by Weekes himself on October 24, 2015, via Twitter that he was "not contributing creatively anymore ''. The third single "Emperor 's New Clothes '' was released on the same day, along with the official music video. "LA Devotee '' was released November 26 as a promotional single. On December 31, 2015, the band released "Do n't Threaten Me with a Good Time ''.
The band co-headlined the Weezer & Panic! at the Disco Summer Tour 2016 with Weezer from June to August 2016. The band released a cover of Queen 's "Bohemian Rhapsody '' in August 2016, on the Suicide Squad soundtrack album.
On September 22, 2016, the band released the music video for "LA Devotee ''. With the release came the announcement of the Death of a Bachelor Tour in 2017. MisterWives and Saint Motel were announced as the opening acts. In a December 2016 interview, Urie says that he hopes to make a music video for every song on the album Death of a Bachelor.
Panic! at the Disco have been know to change their sound each album. Musically, they have mainly been described as pop rock, pop, pop punk, baroque pop, synth - pop, dance - punk, electropop, power pop, emo pop, alternative rock and emo.
Panic! at the Disco went on record many times saying that the group 's second album would be completely different from A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out, as Rolling Stone wrote in an article: "The group cemented its next direction with their first single, called "Nine in the Afternoon ''. "It 's influenced by the music our parents listened to: the Beach Boys, the Kinks, the Beatles, '' says Ross. "Our new songs are more like classic rock than modern rock. We got older and started listening to different music -- and this seems like the natural thing to do right now. '' Pretty. Odd. has been described as being like "(Panic) dropping the entire Beatles catalog into a blender, adding some modern alternative ice and the horn section from Sonia Dada, then churning out a new - millennium Liverpool smoothie. '' In his review of the band 's live album, Stephen Thomas Erlewine noted, "... Pretty. Odd. suggests that they 're becoming that rare thing in 2008: a pop - oriented rock band. They might not be doing this knowingly, but the results are entertaining all the same. ''
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on how many different continents have the winter olympics games been held | Winter Olympic Games - wikipedia
The Winter Olympic Games (French: Jeux olympiques d'hiver) is a major international sporting event held once every four years for sports practised on snow and ice. The first Winter Olympics, the 1924 Winter Olympics, were held in Chamonix, France. The modern Olympic games were inspired by the ancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD. Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894, leading to the first modern Summer Games in Athens, Greece in 1896. The IOC is the governing body of the Olympic Movement, with the Olympic Charter defining its structure and authority.
The original five Winter Olympics sports (broken into nine disciplines) were bobsleigh, curling, ice hockey, Nordic skiing (consisting of the disciplines military patrol, cross-country skiing, Nordic combined, and ski jumping), and skating (consisting of the disciplines figure skating and speed skating). The Games were held every four years from 1924 to 1936, interrupted in 1940 and 1944 by World War II, and resumed in 1948. Until 1992 the Winter and Summer Olympic Games were held in the same years, but in accordance with a 1986 decision by the IOC to place the Summer and Winter Games on separate four - year cycles in alternating even - numbered years, the next Winter Olympics after 1992 was in 1994.
The Winter Games have evolved since their inception. Sports and disciplines have been added and some of them, such as Alpine skiing, luge, short track speed skating, freestyle skiing, skeleton, and snowboarding, have earned a permanent spot on the Olympic programme. Some others, including curling and bobsleigh, have been discontinued and later reintroduced; others have been permanently discontinued, such as military patrol, though the modern Winter Olympic sport of biathlon is descended from it. Still others, such as speed skiing, bandy and skijoring, were demonstration sports but never incorporated as Olympic sports. The rise of television as a global medium for communication enhanced the profile of the Games. It generated income via the sale of broadcast rights and advertising, which has become lucrative for the IOC. This allowed outside interests, such as television companies and corporate sponsors, to exert influence. The IOC has had to address numerous criticisms over the decades like internal scandals, the use of performance - enhancing drugs by Winter Olympians, as well as a political boycott of the Winter Olympics. Nations have used the Winter (as well as Summer) Games to proclaim the superiority of their political systems.
The Winter Olympics has been hosted on three continents by twelve different countries. The Games have been held four times in the United States (in 1932, 1960, 1980 and 2002); three times in France (in 1924, 1968 and 1992); and twice each in Austria (1964, 1976), Canada (1988, 2010), Japan (1972, 1998), Italy (1956, 2006), Norway (1952, 1994), and Switzerland (1928, 1948). Also, the Games have been held just once each in Germany (1936), Yugoslavia (1984), Russia (2014) and South Korea (2018). The IOC has selected Beijing, China, to host the 2022 Winter Olympics and the host of the 2026 Winter Olympics will be selected in September 2019. As of 2018, no city in the southern hemisphere has applied to host the cold - weather - dependent Winter Olympics, which are held in February at the height of the southern hemisphere summer.
To date, twelve countries have participated in every Winter Olympic Games -- Austria, Canada, Finland, France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States. Six of those countries have earned medals at every Winter Olympic Games -- Austria, Canada, Finland, Norway, Sweden and the United States. The only country to have earned a gold medal at every Winter Olympics is the United States. Norway leads the all - time medal table for the Winter Olympics both on number of gold and overall medals, followed by the United States and Germany.
A predecessor, the Nordic Games, were organised by General Viktor Gustaf Balck in Stockholm, Sweden in 1901 and were held again in 1903 and 1905 and then every fourth year thereafter until 1926. Balck was a charter member of the IOC and a close friend of Olympic Games founder Pierre de Coubertin. He attempted to have winter sports, specifically figure skating, added to the Olympic programme but was unsuccessful until the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, United Kingdom. Four figure skating events were contested, at which Ulrich Salchow (10 - time world champion) and Madge Syers won the individual titles.
Three years later, Italian count Eugenio Brunetta d'Usseaux proposed that the IOC stage a week of winter sports included as part of the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm, Sweden. The organisers opposed this idea because they desired to protect the integrity of the Nordic Games and were concerned about a lack of facilities for winter sports.
The idea was resurrected for the 1916 Games, which were to be held in Berlin, Germany. A winter sports week with speed skating, figure skating, ice hockey and Nordic skiing was planned, but the 1916 Olympics was cancelled after the outbreak of World War I.
The first Olympics after the war, the 1920 Summer Olympics, were held in Antwerp, Belgium, and featured figure skating and an ice hockey tournament. Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey were banned from competing in the Games. At the IOC Congress held the following year it was decided that the host nation of the 1924 Summer Olympics, France, would host a separate "International Winter Sports Week '' under the patronage of the IOC. Chamonix was chosen to host this "week '' (actually 11 days) of events. The Games proved to be a success when more than 250 athletes from 16 nations competed in 16 events. Athletes from Finland and Norway won 28 medals, more than the rest of the participating nations combined. Germany remained banned until 1925, and instead hosted a series of games called Deutsche Kampfspiele, starting with the Winter edition of 1922 (which predated the first Winter Olympics). In 1925 the IOC decided to create a separate winter event and the 1924 Games in Chamonix was retroactively designated as the first Winter Olympics.
St. Moritz, Switzerland, was appointed by the IOC to host the second Winter Games in 1928. Fluctuating weather conditions challenged the hosts. The opening ceremony was held in a blizzard while warm weather conditions plagued sporting events throughout the rest of the Games. Because of the weather the 10,000 metre speed - skating event had to be abandoned and officially cancelled. The weather was not the only noteworthy aspect of the 1928 Games: Sonja Henie of Norway made history when she won the figure skating competition at the age of 15. She became the youngest Olympic champion in history, a distinction she held for 70 years.
The next Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid, New York, was the first to be hosted outside of Europe. Seventeen nations and 252 athletes participated. This was less than in 1928, as the journey to Lake Placid, United States, was long and expensive for most competitors, who had little money in the midst of the Great Depression. The athletes competed in fourteen events in four sports. Virtually no snow fell for two months before the Games, and there was not enough snow to hold all the events until mid-January. Sonja Henie defended her Olympic title, and Eddie Eagan of the United States, who had been an Olympic champion in boxing in 1920, won the gold medal in the men 's bobsleigh event to become the first, and so far only, Olympian to have won gold medals in both the Summer and Winter Olympics.
The German towns of Garmisch and Partenkirchen joined to organise the 1936 edition of the Winter Games, held on 6 -- 16 February. This was the last time the Summer and Winter Olympics were held in the same country in the same year. Alpine skiing made its Olympic debut, but skiing teachers were barred from entering because they were considered to be professionals. Because of this decision the Swiss and Austrian skiers refused to compete at the Games.
World War II interrupted the holding of the Winter Olympics. The 1940 Games had been awarded to Sapporo, Japan, but the decision was rescinded in 1938 because of the Japanese invasion of China. The Games were then to be held at Garmisch - Partenkirchen, Germany, but the 1940 Games were cancelled following the German invasion of Poland in 1939. Due to the ongoing war, the 1944 Games, originally scheduled for Cortina D'Ampezzo, Italy, were cancelled.
St. Moritz was selected to host the first post-war Games in 1948. Switzerland 's neutrality had protected the town during World War II, and most of the venues were in place from the 1928 Games, which made St. Moritz a logical choice. It became the first city to host a Winter Olympics twice. Twenty - eight countries competed in Switzerland, but athletes from Germany and Japan were not invited. Controversy erupted when two hockey teams from the United States arrived, both claiming to be the legitimate U.S. Olympic hockey representative. The Olympic flag presented at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp was stolen, as was its replacement. There was unprecedented parity at these Games, during which 10 countries won gold medals -- more than any Games to that point.
The Olympic Flame for the 1952 Games in Oslo, was lit in the fireplace by skiing pioneer Sondre Nordheim, and the torch relay was conducted by 94 participants entirely on skis. Bandy, a popular sport in the Nordic countries, was featured as a demonstration sport, though only Norway, Sweden, and Finland fielded teams. Norwegian athletes won 17 medals, which outpaced all the other nations. They were led by Hjalmar Andersen who won three gold medals in four events in the speed skating competition.
After not being able to host the Games in 1944, Cortina d'Ampezzo was selected to organise the 1956 Winter Olympics. At the opening ceremonies the final torch bearer, Guido Caroli, entered the Olympic Stadium on ice skates. As he skated around the stadium his skate caught on a cable and he fell, nearly extinguishing the flame. He was able to recover and light the cauldron. These were the first Winter Games to be televised, and the first Olympics ever broadcast to an international audience, though no television rights were sold until the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome. The Cortina Games were used to test the feasibility of televising large sporting events. The Soviet Union made its Olympic debut and had an immediate impact, winning more medals than any other nation. Soviet immediate success might be explained by the advent of the state - sponsored "full - time amateur athlete ''. The USSR entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train full - time. Chiharu Igaya won the first Winter Olympics medal for Japan and the continent of Asia when he placed second in the slalom.
The IOC awarded the 1960 Olympics to Squaw Valley, United States. It was an undeveloped resort in 1955, so from 1956 to 1960 the infrastructure and all of the venues were built at a cost of US $80,000,000. The opening and closing ceremonies were produced by Walt Disney. The Squaw Valley Olympics was the first winter Olympics to have a dedicated athletes ' village, the first to use a computer (courtesy of IBM) to tabulate results, and the first to feature female speed skating events. The bobsleigh events were absent for the only time due to the cost of building a bobsleigh run.
The Austrian city of Innsbruck was the host in 1964. Although Innsbruck was a traditional winter sports resort, warm weather caused a lack of snow during the Games and the Austrian army was enlisted to transport snow and ice to the sports venues. Soviet speed - skater Lidia Skoblikova made history by winning all four speed skating events. Her career total of six gold medals set a record for Winter Olympics athletes. Luge was first contested in 1964, but the sport received bad publicity when a competitor was killed in a pre-Olympic training run.
Held in the French town of Grenoble, the 1968 Winter Olympics were the first Olympic Games to be broadcast in colour. There were 1,158 athletes from 37 nations competing in 35 events. French alpine ski racer Jean - Claude Killy became only the second person to win all the men 's alpine skiing events. The organising committee sold television rights for US $2 million, which was more than twice the cost of the broadcast rights for the Innsbruck Games. Venues were spread over long distances requiring three athletes ' villages. The organisers claimed that this was necessary to accommodate technological advances, however critics disputed this, alleging that the layout would incorporate the best possible venues for television broadcasts at the athletes ' expense.
The 1972 Winter Games, held in Sapporo, Japan, were the first to be hosted on a continent other than North America or Europe. The issue of professionalism was disputed during these Games when a number of alpine skiers were found to have participated in a ski camp at Mammoth Mountain in the United States; three days before the opening ceremony, IOC president Avery Brundage threatened to bar the skiers from competing in the Games as he insisted that they were no longer amateurs having benefited financially from their status as athletes. Eventually only Austrian Karl Schranz, who earned more than the other skiers, was excluded from the competition. Canada did not send teams to the 1972 or 1976 ice hockey tournaments in protest at not being able to use players from professional leagues. Francisco Fernández Ochoa became the first (and, as of 2018, only) Spaniard to win a Winter Olympic gold medal when he triumphed in the slalom.
The 1976 Winter Olympics had initially been awarded in 1970 to Denver, Colorado in the United States. These Games would have coincided with the year of Colorado 's centennial and the United States Bicentennial. However, in November 1972 the people of Colorado voted against public funding of the Games by a 3: 2 margin. The IOC responded by offering the Games to Vancouver - Garibaldi, British Columbia, which had previously been an official candidate for the 1976 Games. However, a change in the provincial government resulted in an administration that did not support the Olympic bid, so the IOC 's offer was rejected. Salt Lake City, previously a candidate for the 1972 Winter Olympics, then put itself forward, but the IOC opted instead to invite Innsbruck to host the 1976 Games, as most of the infrastructure from the 1964 Games had been maintained. Despite only having half the usual time to prepare for the Games, Innsbruck accepted the invitation to replace Denver in February 1973. Two Olympic flames were lit because it was the second time that the Austrian town had hosted the Winter Games. The 1976 Games featured the first combination bobsleigh and luge track, in neighbouring Igls. The Soviet Union won its fourth consecutive ice hockey gold medal.
In 1980 the Winter Olympics returned to Lake Placid, which had hosted the 1932 Games. The first boycott of a Winter Olympics took place at these Games, when Taiwan refused to participate after an edict by the IOC mandated that they change their name and national anthem. This was an attempt by the IOC to accommodate China, who wished to compete using the same name and anthem as those used by Taiwan. As a result, China participated for the first time since 1952. American speed - skater Eric Heiden set either an Olympic or World record in every one of the five events in which he competed, winning a total of five individual gold medals and breaking the record for most individual golds in a single Olympics (both Summer and Winter). Hanni Wenzel won both the slalom and giant slalom and her country, Liechtenstein, became the smallest nation to produce an Olympic gold medallist. In the "Miracle on Ice '', the American hockey team composed of college players beat the favoured seasoned professionals from the Soviet Union, and progressed to eventually win the gold medal.
Sapporo, Japan, and Gothenburg, Sweden, were front - runners to host the 1984 Winter Olympics. It was therefore a surprise when Sarajevo, Yugoslavia, was selected as host. The Games were well - organised and not affected by the run - up to the war that engulfed the country eight years later. A total of 49 nations and 1,272 athletes participated in 39 events. Host nation Yugoslavia won its first Olympic medal when alpine skier Jure Franko won silver in the giant slalom. Another sporting highlight was the free dance performance of British ice dancers Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean; their Boléro routine received unanimous perfect scores for artistic impression, earning them the gold medal.
In 1988, the Canadian city of Calgary hosted the first Winter Olympics to span three weekends, lasting for a total of 16 days. New events were added in ski - jumping and speed skating, while future Olympic sports curling, short track speed skating and freestyle skiing made their debut appearance as demonstration sports. The speed skating events were held indoors for the first time, on the Olympic Oval. Dutch skater Yvonne van Gennip won three gold medals and set two world records, beating skaters from the favoured East German team in every race. Her medal total was equalled by Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen, who won all three events in his sport. Alberto Tomba, an Italian skier, made his Olympic debut by winning both the giant slalom and slalom. East German Christa Rothenburger won the women 's 1,000 metre speed skating event. Seven months later she would earn a silver in track cycling at the Summer Games in Seoul, to become the only athlete to win medals in both a Summer and Winter Olympics in the same year.
The 1992 Winter Games were the last to be held in the same year as the Summer Games. They were hosted in the French Savoie region, with 18 events held in the city of Albertville and the remaining events spread out over the Savoie. Political changes of the time were reflected in the composition of the Olympic teams competing in France: this was the first Games to be held after the fall of Communism and the fall of the Berlin Wall, and Germany competed as a single nation for the first time since the 1964 Games; former Yugoslavian republics Croatia and Slovenia made their debuts as independent nations; most of the former Soviet republics still competed as a single team known as the Unified Team, but the Baltic States made independent appearances for the first time since before World War II. At 16 years old, Finnish ski jumper Toni Nieminen made history by becoming the youngest male Winter Olympic champion. New Zealand skier Annelise Coberger became the first Winter Olympic medallist from the southern hemisphere when she won a silver medal in the women 's slalom.
The 1994 Winter Olympics, held in Lillehammer, Norway, were the first Winter Games to be held separately from the Summer Games. This change resulted from the decision reached in the 91st IOC Session (1986) to separate the summer and winter Games and place them in alternating even - numbered years. Lillehammer is the northernmost city to ever host the Winter Games and it was the second time the Games were held in Norway, after the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, the Czech Republic and Slovakia made their Olympic debuts. The women 's figure skating competition drew media attention when American skater Nancy Kerrigan was injured on 6 January 1994, in an assault planned by the ex-husband of opponent Tonya Harding. Both skaters competed in the Games, but the gold medal was controversially won by Oksana Baiul who became Ukraine 's first Olympic champion, while Kerrigan won the silver medal. Johann Olav Koss of Norway won three gold medals, coming first in all of the distance speed skating events. 13 - year - old Kim Yoon - Mi became the youngest - ever Olympic gold medallist when South Korea won the women 's 3,000 meter speed skating relay. Russia won the most events, with eleven gold medals, while Norway achieved 26 podium finishes, collecting the most medals overall on home ground. Juan Antonio Samaranch described Lillehammer as "the best Olympic Winter Games ever '' in his closing ceremony speech.
The 1998 Winter Olympics were held in the Japanese city of Nagano and were the first Games to host more than 2,000 athletes. The men 's ice hockey tournament was opened to professionals for the first time. Canada and the United States were favoured to win the tournament as they both fielded numerous NHL players, but surprisingly neither team won any medals and it was the Czech Republic who prevailed. Women 's ice hockey made its debut and the United States won the gold medal. Bjørn Dæhlie of Norway won three gold medals in Nordic skiing, becoming the most decorated Winter Olympic athlete, with eight gold medals and twelve medals overall. Austrian Hermann Maier survived a crash during the downhill competition and returned to win gold in the super-G and the giant slalom. Tara Lipinski of the United States, aged just 15, became the youngest ever female gold medallist in an individual event when she won the Ladies ' Singles, a record that had stood since Sonja Henie of Norway won the same event, also aged 15, in St. Moritz in 1928. New world records were set in speed skating largely due to the introduction of the clap skate.
The 2002 Winter Olympics were held in Salt Lake City, United States, hosting 77 nations and 2,399 athletes in 78 events in 7 sports. These Games were the first to take place since the September 11 attacks of 2001, which meant a higher degree of security to avoid a terrorist attack. The opening ceremony saw signs of the aftermath of the events of that day, including the flag that flew at Ground Zero, NYPD officer Daniel Rodríguez singing "God Bless America '', and honour guards of NYPD and FDNY members.
German Georg Hackl won a silver in the singles luge, becoming the first athlete in Olympic history to win medals in the same individual event in five consecutive Olympics. Canada achieved an unprecedented double by winning both the men 's and women 's ice hockey gold medals. Canada became embroiled with Russia in a controversy that involved the judging of the pairs figure skating competition. The Russian pair of Yelena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze competed against the Canadian pair of Jamie Salé and David Pelletier for the gold medal. The Canadians appeared to have skated well enough to win the competition, yet the Russians were awarded the gold. The judging broke along Cold War lines with judges from former Communist countries favouring the Russian pair and judges from Western nations voting for the Canadians. The only exception was the French judge, Marie - Reine Le Gougne, who awarded the gold to the Russians. An investigation revealed that she had been pressured to give the gold to the Russian pair regardless of how they skated; in return the Russian judge would look favourably on the French entrants in the ice dancing competition. The IOC decided to award both pairs the gold medal in a second medal ceremony held later in the Games. Australian Steven Bradbury became the first gold medallist from the southern hemisphere when he won the 1,000 metre short - track speed skating event.
The Italian city of Turin hosted the 2006 Winter Olympics. It was the second time that Italy had hosted the Winter Olympic Games. South Korean athletes won 10 medals, including 6 gold in the short - track speed skating events. Sun - Yu Jin won three gold medals while her teammate Hyun - Soo Ahn won three gold medals and a bronze. In the women 's Cross-Country team pursuit Canadian Sara Renner broke one of her poles and, when he saw her dilemma, Norwegian coach Bjørnar Håkensmoen decided to lend her a pole. In so doing she was able to help her team win a silver medal in the event at the expense of the Norwegian team, who finished fourth. On winning the Super-G, Kjetil - Andre Aamodt of Norway became the most decorated ski racer of all time with 4 gold and 8 overall medals. He is also the only ski racer to have won the same event at three different Olympics, winning the Super-G in 1992, 2002 and 2006. Claudia Pechstein of Germany became the first speed skater to earn nine career medals. In February 2009, Pechstein tested positive for "blood manipulation '' and received a two - year suspension, which she appealed. The Court of Arbitration for Sport upheld her suspension but a Swiss court ruled that she could compete for a spot on the 2010 German Olympic team. This ruling was brought to the Swiss Federal Tribunal, which overturned the lower court 's ruling and precluded her from competing in Vancouver.
In 2003 the IOC awarded the 2010 Winter Olympics to Vancouver, thus allowing Canada to host its second Winter Olympics. With a population of more than 2.5 million people Vancouver is the largest metropolitan area to ever host a Winter Olympic Games. Over 2,500 athletes from 82 countries participated in 86 events. The death of Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili in a training run on the day of the opening ceremonies resulted in the Whistler Sliding Centre changing the track layout on safety grounds. Norwegian cross-country skier Marit Bjørgen won five medals in the six cross-country events on the women 's programme. She finished the Olympics with three golds, a silver and a bronze. The Vancouver Games were notable for the poor performance of the Russian athletes. From their first Winter Olympics in 1956 to the 2006 Games, a Soviet or Russian delegation had never been outside the top five medal - winning nations, but in 2010 they finished sixth in total medals and eleventh in gold medals. President Dmitry Medvedev called for the resignation of top sports officials immediately after the Games. Russia 's disappointing performance at Vancouver is cited as the reason behind the implementation of a doping scheme alleged to have been in operation at major events such as the 2014 Games at Sochi. The success of Asian countries stood in stark contrast to the under - performing Russian team, with Vancouver marking a high point for medals won by Asian countries. In 1992 the Asian countries had won fifteen medals, three of which were gold. In Vancouver the total number of medals won by athletes from Asia had increased to thirty - one, with eleven of them being gold. The rise of Asian nations in Winter Olympics sports is due in part to the growth of winter sports programmes and the interest in winter sports in nations such as South Korea, Japan and China.
Sochi, Russia, was selected as the host city for the 2014 Winter Olympics over Salzburg, Austria, and Pyeongchang, South Korea. This was the first time that Russia had hosted a Winter Olympics. The Games took place from 7 to 23 February 2014. A record 2,800 athletes from 88 countries competed in 98 events. The Olympic Village and Olympic Stadium were located on the Black Sea coast. All of the mountain venues were 50 kilometres (31 miles) away in the alpine region known as Krasnaya Polyana. The Games were the most expensive so far, with a cost of £ 30 billion (USD 51 billion).
On the snow, Norwegian biathlete Ole Einar Bjørndalen took two golds to bring his total tally of Olympic medals to 13, overtaking his compatriot Bjørn Dæhlie to become the most decorated Winter Olympian of all time. Another Norwegian, cross-country skier Marit Bjørgen took three golds; her total of ten Olympic medals tied her as the female Winter Olympian with most medals, alongside Raisa Smetanina and Stefania Belmondo. Snowboarder Ayumu Hirano became the youngest medallist on snow at the Winter Games when he took a silver in the halfpipe competition at the age of fifteen. On the ice, the Dutch dominated the speed skating events, taking 23 medals, four clean sweeps of the podium places and at least one medal in each of the twelve medal events. Ireen Wüst was their most successful competitor, taking two golds and three silvers. In figure skating, Yuzuru Hanyu became the first skater to break the 100 - point barrier in the short programme on the way to winning the gold medal. Among the sledding disciplines, luger Armin Zöggeler took a bronze, becoming the first Winter Olympian to secure a medal in six consecutive Games.
Following their disappointing performance at the 2010 Games, and an investment of £ 600 million in elite sport, Russia initially topped the medal table, taking 33 medals including thirteen golds. However Grigory Rodchenkov, the former head of the Russian national anti-doping laboratory, subsequently claimed that he had been involved in doping dozens of Russian competitors for the Games, and that he had been assisted by the Russian Federal Security Service in opening and re-sealing bottles containing urine samples so that samples with banned substances could be replaced with "clean '' urine. A subsequent investigation commissioned by the World Anti-Doping Agency led by Richard McLaren concluded that a state - sponsored doping programme had operated in Russia from "at least late 2011 to 2015 '' across the "vast majority '' of Summer and Winter Olympic sports. On 5 December 2017, the IOC announced that Russia would be banned from the 2018 Winter Olympics with immediate effect and by the end of 2017 the IOC Disciplinary Commission had disqualified 43 Russian athletes, stripping thirteen medals and knocking Russia from the top of the medal table, thus putting Norway in the lead.
On 6 July 2011, Pyeongchang, South Korea, was selected to host the 2018 Winter Olympics over Munich, Germany, and Annecy, France. This was the first time that South Korea had been selected to host a Winter Olympics and it was the second time the Olympics were held in the country overall, after the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. The Games took place from 9 to 25 February 2018. More than 2,900 athletes from 92 countries participated in 102 events. The Olympic Stadium and many of the sports venues were situated in the Alpensia Resort in Daegwallyeong - myeon, Pyeongchang, while a number of other sports venues were located in the Gangneung Olympic Park in Pyeongchang 's neighboring city of Gangneung.
The lead - up to the 2018 Winter Olympics was affected by the tensions between North and South Korea and the ongoing Russian doping scandal. Despite tense relations, North Korea agreed to participate in the Games, enter with South Korea during the opening ceremony as a unified Korea, and field a unified team in women 's ice hockey. Individual Russian athletes, who qualified and could demonstrate they had complied with the IOC 's doping regulations, were given the option to compete neutrally in Pyeongchang as "Olympic Athletes from Russia '' (OAR) but they were not allowed to compete under the Russian flag.
The Games saw the addition of big air snowboarding, mass start speed skating, mixed doubles curling, and mixed team alpine skiing to the programme. On the ice, the Netherlands again dominated the speed skating, winning gold medals in seven of the ten individual events. Dutch speed skater Sven Kramer won gold in the men 's 5000m event, becoming the only male speed skater to win the same Olympic event three times. On the snow, Norway led the medal tally in cross-country skiing, with Marit Bjørgen winning bronze in the women 's team sprint and gold in the 30 kilometre classical event, bringing her total Olympic medal haul to fifteen, the most won by any athlete (male or female) in Winter Olympics history. Johannes Høsflot Klæbo became the youngest ever male to win an Olympic gold in cross-country skiing when he won the men 's sprint at age 21. Noriaki Kasai of Japan became the first athlete in history to participate in eight Winter Olympics when he took part in the ski jumping qualification the day before the opening of the Games. Ester Ledecká of the Czech Republic won gold in the skiing super-G event and another gold in the snowboarding parallel giant slalom, making her the first female athlete to win Olympic gold medals in two different sports at a single Winter Games.
Norway led the total medal standings with 39, the highest number of medals by a nation in any Winter Olympics, followed by Germany 's 31 and Canada 's 29. Host nation South Korea won seventeen medals, their highest medal haul at a Winter Olympics.
The host city for the 2022 Winter Olympics, is Beijing in northern China, elected on 31 July 2015, at the 128th IOC Session in Kuala Lumpur. Beijing will be the first city ever to have hosted both the Summer and Winter Olympics. The 2022 Winter Olympics will take place between 4 and 20 February 2022.
The process for awarding host city honours came under intense scrutiny after Salt Lake City had been awarded the right to host the 2002 Games. Soon after the host city had been announced it was discovered that the organisers had engaged in an elaborate bribery scheme to curry favour with IOC officials. Gifts and other financial considerations were given to those who would evaluate and vote on Salt Lake City 's bid. These gifts included medical treatment for relatives, a college scholarship for one member 's son and a land deal in Utah. Even IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch received two rifles valued at $2,000. Samaranch defended the gift as inconsequential since, as president, he was a non-voting member. The subsequent investigation uncovered inconsistencies in the bids for every Games (both summer and winter) since 1988. For example, the gifts received by IOC members from the Japanese Organising Committee for Nagano 's bid for the 1998 Winter Olympics were described by the investigation committee as "astronomical ''. Although nothing strictly illegal had been done, the IOC feared that corporate sponsors would lose faith in the integrity of the process and that the Olympic brand would be tarnished to such an extent that advertisers would begin to pull their support. The investigation resulted in the expulsion of 10 IOC members and the sanctioning of another 10. New terms and age limits were established for IOC membership, and 15 former Olympic athletes were added to the committee. Stricter rules for future bids were imposed, with ceilings imposed on the value of gifts IOC members could accept from bid cities.
According to the IOC, the host city for the Winter Olympics is responsible for "... establishing functions and services for all aspects of the Games, such as sports planning, venues, finance, technology, accommodation, catering, media services, etc., as well as operations during the Games. '' Due to the cost of hosting the Games, most host cities never realise a profit on their investment. For example, the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy, cost $3.6 billion to host. By comparison, the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan, cost $12.5 billion. The organisers of the Nagano Games claimed that the cost of extending the bullet train service from Tokyo to Nagano was responsible for the large price tag. The organising committee had hoped that the exposure gained from hosting the Winter Olympics, and the improved access to Nagano from Tokyo, would benefit the local economy for years afterwards. In actual fact, Nagano 's economy did experience a post-Olympic boom for a year or two, but the long - term effects have not materialised as anticipated. The likelihood of heavy debt is a deterrent to prospective host cities, as well as the prospect of unused sports venues and infrastructure saddling the local community with upkeep costs into the future with no appreciable post-Olympic value.
The Winter games has the added problem of the alpine events requiring a mountain location; the men 's downhill needs an 800 meter altitude difference along a suitable course. As this is a focal event that is central to the Games, the IOC will not agree to it taking place a great distance from the main host city. The requirement for a mountain location also means that venues such as hockey arenas often have to be built in sparsely populated areas with little future need for a large arena. Due to cost issues, the only candidate cities for the 2022 Winter Olympics were in dictatorship countries, and a number of European countries declined due to political doubt over costs. Both the 2006 and 2010 Games, which were hosted in countries where large cities are located close to suitable mountain regions, had lower costs since more venues and transport infrastructure already existed.
The IOC has enacted several initiatives to mitigate these concerns. Firstly, the commission has agreed to fund part of the host city 's budget for staging the Games. Secondly, the qualifying host countries are limited to those that have the resources and infrastructure to successfully host an Olympic Games without negatively impacting the region or nation; this consequently rules out a large portion of the developing world. Finally, any prospective host city planning to bid for the Games is required to add a "legacy plan '' to their proposal, with a view to the long - term economic and environmental impact that hosting the Olympics will have on the region.
In 1967 the IOC began enacting drug testing protocols. They started by randomly testing athletes at the 1968 Winter Olympics. The first Winter Games athlete to test positive for a banned substance was Alois Schloder, a West German hockey player, but his team was still allowed to compete. During the 1970s testing outside of competition was escalated because it was found to deter athletes from using performance - enhancing drugs. The problem with testing during this time was a lack of standardisation of the test procedures, which undermined the credibility of the tests. It was not until the late 1980s that international sporting federations began to coordinate efforts to standardise the drug - testing protocols. The IOC took the lead in the fight against steroids when it established the independent World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in November 1999.
The 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin became notable for a scandal involving the emerging trend of blood doping, the use of blood transfusions or synthetic hormones such as Erythropoietin (EPO) to improve oxygen flow and thus reduce fatigue. The Italian police conducted a raid on the Austrian cross-country ski team 's residence during the Games where they seized blood - doping specimens and equipment. This event followed the pre-Olympics suspension of 12 cross-country skiers who tested positive for unusually high levels of haemoglobin, which is evidence of blood doping.
The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi 's Russian Doping Scandal has resulted in the International Olympic Committee to begin disciplinary proceedings against 28 (later increased to 46) Russian athletes who competed at the 2014 Winter Games in Sochi, Russia, acting on evidence that their urine samples were tampered with.
The Winter Olympics have been an ideological front in the Cold War since the Soviet Union first participated at the 1956 Winter Games. It did not take long for the Cold War combatants to discover what a powerful propaganda tool the Olympic Games could be. The advent of the state - sponsored "full - time amateur athlete '' of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self - financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full - time basis. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism until the ' 90s.
The Cold War created tensions amongst countries allied to the two superpowers. The strained relationship between East and West Germany created a difficult political situation for the IOC. Because of its role in World War II, Germany was not allowed to compete at the 1948 Winter Olympics. In 1950 the IOC recognised the West German Olympic Committee, and invited East and West Germany to compete as a unified team at the 1952 Winter Games. East Germany declined the invitation and instead sought international legitimacy separate from West Germany. In 1955 the Soviet Union recognised East Germany as a sovereign state, thereby giving more credibility to East Germany 's campaign to become an independent participant at the Olympics. The IOC agreed to provisionally accept the East German National Olympic Committee with the condition that East and West Germans compete on one team. The situation became tenuous when the Berlin Wall was constructed in 1962 and western nations began refusing visas to East German athletes. The uneasy compromise of a unified team held until the 1968 Grenoble Games when the IOC officially split the teams and threatened to reject the host - city bids of any country that refused entry visas to East German athletes.
The Winter Games have had only one national team boycott when Taiwan decided not to participate in the 1980 Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid. Prior to the Games the IOC agreed to allow China to compete in the Olympics for the first time since 1952. China was given permission to compete as the "People 's Republic of China '' (PRC) and to use the PRC flag and anthem. Until 1980 the island of Taiwan had been competing under the name "Republic of China '' (ROC) and had been using the ROC flag and anthem. The IOC attempted to have the countries compete together but when this proved to be unacceptable the IOC demanded that Taiwan cease to call itself the "Republic of China ''. The IOC renamed the island "Chinese Taipei '' and demanded that it adopt a different flag and national anthem, stipulations that Taiwan would not agree to. Despite numerous appeals and court hearings the IOC 's decision stood. When the Taiwanese athletes arrived at the Olympic village with their Republic of China identification cards they were not admitted. They subsequently left the Olympics in protest, just before the opening ceremonies. Taiwan returned to Olympic competition at the 1984 Winter Games in Sarajevo as Chinese Taipei. The country agreed to compete under a flag bearing the emblem of their National Olympic Committee and to play the anthem of their National Olympic Committee should one of their athletes win a gold medal. The agreement remains in place to this day.
The Olympic Charter limits winter sports to "those... which are practised on snow or ice. '' Since 1992 a number of new sports have been added to the Olympic programme; which include short track speed skating, snowboarding, freestyle and moguls skiing. The addition of these events has broadened the appeal of the Winter Olympics beyond Europe and North America. While European powers such as Norway and Germany still dominate the traditional Winter Olympic sports, countries such as South Korea, Australia and Canada are finding success in the new sports. The results are: more parity in the national medal tables; more interest in the Winter Olympics; and higher global television ratings.
^ Note 1. Figure skating events were held at the 1908 and 1920 Summer Olympics. ^ Note 2. A men 's ice hockey tournament was held at the 1920 Summer Olympics. ^ Note 3. The IOC 's website now treats Men 's Military Patrol at the 1924 Games as an event within the sport of Biathlon.
Demonstration sports have historically provided a venue for host countries to attract publicity to locally popular sports by having a competition without granting medals. Demonstration sports were discontinued after 1992. Military patrol, a precursor to the biathlon, was a medal sport in 1924 and was demonstrated in 1928, 1936 and 1948, becoming an official sport in 1960. The special figures figure skating event was only contested at the 1908 Summer Olympics. Bandy (Russian hockey) is a sport popular in the Nordic countries and Russia. In the latter it 's considered a national sport. It was demonstrated at the Oslo Games. Ice stock sport, a German variant of curling, was demonstrated in 1936 in Germany and 1964 in Austria. The ski ballet event, later known as ski - acro, was demonstrated in 1988 and 1992. Skijöring, skiing behind dogs, was a demonstration sport in St. Moritz in 1928. A sled - dog race was held at Lake Placid in 1932. Speed skiing was demonstrated in Albertville at the 1992 Winter Olympics. Winter pentathlon, a variant of the modern pentathlon, was included as a demonstration event at the 1948 Games in Switzerland. It included cross-country skiing, shooting, downhill skiing, fencing and horse riding.
The table below uses official data provided by the IOC.
Unlike the Summer Olympics, the cancelled 1940 Winter Olympics and 1944 Winter Olympics are not included in the official Roman numeral counts for the Winter Games. While the official titles of the Summer Games count Olympiads, the titles of the Winter Games only count the Games themselves.
Bibliography
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who starred in the original clash of the titans | Clash of the Titans (1981 film) - Wikipedia
Clash of the Titans is a 1981 British - American heroic fantasy adventure film directed by Desmond Davis and written by Beverley Cross which retells the Greek mythological story of Perseus. It stars Harry Hamlin, Judi Bowker, Burgess Meredith, Maggie Smith and Laurence Olivier. The film features the final work of stop motion visual effects artist Ray Harryhausen. It was released on June 12, 1981 and grossed $41 million at the North American box office, which made it the 11th highest - grossing film of the year. A novelization of the film by Alan Dean Foster was published in 1981.
Warner Bros. released a 3D remake on April 2, 2010.
King Acrisius of Argos imprisons his daughter Danaë, jealous of her beauty. When the god Zeus impregnates her, Acrisius banishes his daughter and his newborn grandson Perseus to sea in a wooden chest. In retribution, Zeus kills Acrisius and orders Poseidon to release the last of the Titans, a gigantic sea monster called the Kraken, to destroy Argos. Meanwhile, Danaë and Perseus safely float to the island of Seriphos where Perseus grows to adulthood.
Calibos, evil son of the sea goddess Thetis, is a young man engaged to marry Princess Andromeda, the beautiful daughter of Queen Cassiopeia and heiress to the rich city of Joppa; but for committing several atrocities against Zeus, including hunting and destroying Zeus 's sacred flying horses (excepting only Pegasus), Zeus transforms Calibos into a deformed monstrous creature. In revenge, Thetis transports an adult Perseus from Seriphos to an abandoned amphitheater in Joppa, where he is befriended by an elderly poet named Ammon and learns that Andromeda is under a curse and can not marry unless her suitor successfully answers a riddle whose failures are burned at the stake. In order to aid his son, Zeus sends Perseus a god - crafted helmet from Athena which makes its wearer invisible, a magical sword from Aphrodite, and a shield from Hera. Perseus, wearing the helmet, captures Pegasus and follows Calibos ' giant vulture that is carrying Andromeda 's soul to learn the next riddle. Perseus is nearly killed by Calibos but manages to sever one of Calibos ' hands, losing his helmet in the process.
Perseus befriends Thallo and presents himself as suitor and correctly answers the riddle, presenting the severed hand of Calibos. Perseus wins Andromeda 's hand in marriage. Finding that Thetis can not act against Perseus, Calibos instead demands that she takes vengeance on Joppa. At the wedding, Queen Cassiopeia compares Andromeda 's beauty to that of Thetis herself, whereupon Thetis demands Andromeda be sacrificed to the Kraken on pain of Joppa 's destruction.
Perseus seeks a way to defeat the Kraken, while Pegasus is captured by Calibos and his men. Zeus commands Athena to give Perseus her owl Bubo; but she orders Hephaestus to build a golden replica of Bubo instead, who leads Perseus to the Stygian Witches. By taking their magic eye Perseus forces them to reveal that the only way to defeat the Kraken is by using the head of Medusa, who lives on an island in the River Styx at the edge of the Underworld. The next day, the group continues on their journey without Andromeda and Ammon, who return to Joppa.
On the Gorgon 's island with three soldiers by his side, Perseus fights Medusa 's guardian, a two - headed dog named Dioskilos, who kills one of his companions but Perseus intervenes in the nick of time and kills the beast. Perseus leads his two remaining allies into the Gorgon 's lair. His two other companions die on encounter with Medusa herself; she shoots one of the soldiers with an arrow and turns the other to stone. Perseus uses the reflective underside of his shield to deceive Medusa, decapitates her, and collects her head; but the shield is dissolved by her caustic blood. As Perseus and his party set to return, Calibos enters their camp, forces Bubo into the water, scares the horses away, and punctures the cloak carrying Medusa 's head, causing her blood to spill and produce three giant scorpions. The scorpions attack and Thallo is able to kill one of them, but he and his fighting companion are both killed by Calibos himself. Perseus slays the other two scorpions and thereafter kills Calibos and grieves Thallo 's death.
Weakened by his struggle, Perseus sends Bubo to rescue Pegasus, who is being held prisoner by Calibos ' henchmen. Bubo succeeds in his task and manages to destroy Calibos ' camp as well. Perseus reaches the amphitheater in Joppa, but collapses unconscious from exhaustion. Andromeda is shackled to the sea cliffs outside Joppa, and the Kraken itself is summoned. Bubo diverts the Kraken 's attention until Perseus, whose strength was secretly re-restored by Zeus before the Kraken was released, appears on Pegasus. In the subsequent battle, Perseus petrifies the Kraken with Medusa 's head, causing it to crumble to pieces. He then tosses the head into the sea, frees Andromeda, and marries her.
The gods predict that Perseus and Andromeda will live happily, rule wisely, and produce children, and Zeus forbids the other gods to pursue vengeance against them. The constellations of Perseus, Andromeda, Pegasus, and Cassiopeia are created in their honor.
In 1978, Andor Films submitted a copy of the script to the British Board of Film Classification, seeking advice on how to secure either a "U '' or an "A '' certificate. The draft script included scenes which the BBFC considered would not be acceptable under those certificates, including the Kraken tearing Pegasus to pieces and Andromeda being naked during the climax of the film. Changes to the script and, on submission, some cuts to Perseus ' final battle with Calibos were made and the film secured the "A '' certificate: "Those aged 5 and older admitted, but not recommended for children under 14 years of age ''.
Ray Harryhausen used the special effects technique of stop motion animation to create the various creatures in Clash of the Titans, including Calibos, his vulture, Pegasus, Bubo the mechanical owl, Dioskilos, Medusa, the scorpions, and the Kraken. Harryhausen was also co-producer of the film, and retired from film - making shortly after the film was released, making this his last main feature film. Despite the mechanical owl Bubo 's similarities to the droid R2 - D2 of the 1977 film Star Wars, Harryhausen claimed that Bubo was created before Star Wars was released. The BBFC, reviewing the film for certification in 1981, said that Harryhausen 's effects were well done and would give entertainment to audiences of all ages, but might appear a little "old hat '' to those familiar with Star Wars and Superman.
Columbia Pictures were initially set to distribute the film having made most of Harryhausen and producer Charles H. Schneer 's films, but after a change of guard at the studio, they dropped the project during pre-production, leading to Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer to pick it up instead.
Stars Harry Hamlin and Ursula Andress were romantically involved at the time of production. Their son, Dimitri, was born in 1980 after filming was completed, and their relationship ended in 1982.
Jack Gwillim, who appeared as Poseidon, had earlier played the role of King Aeëtes in the original Jason and the Argonauts in 1963.
The film 's screenwriter, Beverley Cross, was married to Maggie Smith, who played Thetis, until his death in 1998. Cross worked with producer Charles H. Schneer before, writing the screenplay for Schneer 's production of Jason and the Argonauts.
Clash of the Titans was released on June 12, 1981. By the time it finished its theatrical run, it had grossed $41,000,000 in North America.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 68 % based on 40 reviews, and an average rating of 5.9 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "A goofy, old - school sword - and - sandal epic, Clash of the Titans mines Greek mythology for its story and fleshes it out with Ray Harryhausen 's charmingly archaic stop - motion animation techniques. ''
In a book published in 2000, Stephen R. Wilk suggested that "most people today who are aware of the story of Perseus and Medusa owe their knowledge to... Clash of the Titans. ''
The karst area in El Torcal de Antequera, Spain appears in the visit to the Stygian witches.
The Azure Window in Gozo, Malta, appears in the battle against the Kraken.
Other locations include:
The four - issue comic book mini-series Wrath of the Titans (2007), released by TidalWave Productions as part of their Ray Harryhausen Signature Series, picked up the story 5 years after the events of the film.
The 3D remake Clash of the Titans (2010) and its sequel Wrath of the Titans (2012) were released by the property 's current rights holder Warner Bros.
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who lead the temple entry movement of vaikom | Vaikom Satyagraha - Wikipedia
Vaikom Satyagraha (1924 -- 25) was a satyagraha (movement) in Travancore, India (now part of Kerala) against untouchability in Hindu society. The movement was centered at the Shiva temple at Vaikom, near Kottayam. The Satyagraha aimed at securing freedom of movement for all sections of society through the public roads leading to the Sri Mahadevar Temple at Vaikom.
During 1865 the Government of Travancore had published a notification that all public roads in the state were open to all castes of people alike. In July 1884, the Government by a fresh notification reaffirmed the policy laid down in the previous order and enjoined that any violation of these orders would be visited with the severest displeasure of the Government. This notification came up for a judicial review before the High Court. The High Court then considered it expedient to draw a distinction between Raja Veedhis (King 's Highways) and grama veedhis (village roads). The court decided that the public roads mentioned in the notification of the Government were intended to mean only the Raja veedhis and not grama veedhis. The roads around Vaikom Temple were considered ' grama veedhis and consequently even after 65 years of Government proclamation, they were barred to the Avarnas and a unit of police (consisting of Savarnas) was stationed in the vicinity to enforce the custom. This was held near kottayam.
The first ever attempt at entry into the temple was made by a group of about 200 Ezhava youth in 1803 - 4... Balarama Varma was the king of Travancore and Velu Thampi was the Dalawa (Diwan or Prime Minister). A date was fixed. Those who were in charge of the temple carried the news to the king and the authorities and the king promised to take necessary action. On the day of the proposed temple entry, an intelligence officer for the Maharaja 's army came to Vaikom, and met the temple authorities. They wondered how this single man would stop 200 able - bodied young men. The young men organized themselves into a procession from Tiruvelikkunnu on Kottayam Road. Their plan was to enter the temple from the eastern side. They gathered near Dalawa Kulam (a pond), about 150 meters east of the temple beyond which they were not permitted to move towards the temple. This pond, originally a small one meant for pilgrims to take bath before entering the temple, was renovated by Ramayyan Dalawa in 1750s and hence the name "Dalawa Kulam '. Koya Kutty had collected about a dozen Nair warriors from the locality, The sight of Koya Kutty on horseback and the Nairs on foot wielding swords scared the Ezhavas and they fled from the area. In the melee a few got injured and 2 - 3 people died falling in the pond. Later this incident came to be known as ' Dalawa Kulam Incident '. The pond is no longer there. It is filled in and the present private bus stand is constructed there.
There was another crucial incident, which triggered the action. Sree Narayana Guru himself was prohibited from passing through the roads around the temple. Sri Bhargavan Vaidyar mentions this in the golden Jubilee Souvenir of Neyyattinkara SNDP Union. The editorial of the Malayala Manorama on 29 March 1924 (the day before the starting of the Satyagraha) mentions, If a venerable sage like Sree Narayana Guru and his disciple Mahakavi Kumaran Asan were driven away from the road around the temple by a drunken upper caste buffoon in the name of caste, can their people take it lying down? If they rise up in revolt can any authority stop them by force?
The famous Malayalam poet Muloor S. Padmanabha Panicker wrote
Long agao on the streets of Vaikom in a rickshaw, The great sage Sree Narayana was going, An idiot born as god on earth, Came up and ordered the rickshaw to withdraw.
If this is the truth, T.K. Madhavan, the favorite disciple of Sree Narayana Guru, must have taken an inner pledge to annihilate the tradition, which insulted his Guru, and the result was the Satyagraha at Vaikom.
The Ezhavas first took up issue in 1905. The Ezhava representatives in the Travancore Legislature (Kochu Kunjan Channar, Kunju Panicker and Kumaran Asan) raised the question of use of the public roads around the temples by avarnas. The authorities remained adamant and refused to take up the matter even for discussion as it was considered a religious question. In 1920 - 21, representative Asan also raised the question and it was decided to shift the notice boards a little, so that some parts of the roads would be accessible to the avarnas.
T.K. Madhavan, the organizing secretary of the SNDP, became a member of the Travancore Legislature, and felt that Asan and the others has accepted a humiliating compromise. Madhavan wanted to demand outright temple entry, but he was denied permission to even introduce the resolution in the Legislature. Madhavan met the then Divan Raghaviah at his residence and requested him to reconsider his decision. The Divan refused; Madhavan then requested for permission to make a representation to the Maharaja himself which was denied. Frustrated and enraged, Madhavan raised his voice of protest before the Divan, proclaiming We are denied the right to present our problems to the legislatures, and we are denied permission to represent to the Maharaja. How are we to resolve our problems? Are we to leave Travancore? The Divan retorted, You may leave Travancore to solve your problems.
While Madhavan 's main objective was to achieve unconditional temple entry, he understood that the right to use the public roads around the temples was the first step. He already had the idea of launching an agitation at Vaikom against the forbidding of roads around the temple, as an activity of the SNDP Yogam. He discussed the matter in detail with Sardar K.M. Panikkar. Panikkar told that the Ezhavas, under the leadership of Sree Narayana Guru, "had united and uplifted themselves, and have become a formidable force in the socio - economic - political atmosphere of Kerala. '' Although the SNDP has become a mouthpiece for all downtrodden people and the standard bearer of social revolution, the issue at Vaikom needs handling at a higher and wider level. Instead of being just a fight for gaining access to road, Panikkar suggested making it a symbolic battle against atrocities in the name of caste, giving it a national and cosmopolitan look to gain the attention of the entire world. To do that, it was necessary to include it as an activity of the Indian National Congress, and get Mahatma Gandhi to approve it.
T.K. Madhavan met Mahatma Gandhi at Tirunelveli on 23 September 1921 and apprised him of the conditions of the Ezhavas and their achievements through the SNDP. Because they had already achieved admission to school, Mahatmaji agreed that the time was ripe for temple entry. Mahatmaji promised to write to the State Congress Committee to take up the issue.
Madhavan attended the Kakinada AICC meet (1923) in the company of Sardar Panikkar and K.P. Kesava Menon. Madhavan got a pamphlet printed: A request to the Indian National Congress on behalf of the untouchables of India. Madhavan tried with all his might to convince the members of the need to eradicate untouchability. The Congress agreed to include the eradication of untouchability in their constructive programs and resolved to lend full support to the Vaikom Movement, and authorized the Kerala Provincial Congress Committee (KPCC) to undertake the task.
In accordance with the Kakinada Congress resolution, the KPCC met at Ernakulam on 24 January 1924 and formed an Untouchability Abolition Committee (UAC) consisting of K. Kelappan (convener), T.K. Madhavan, Kurur Nilakantan Namboothiri, T.R. Krishna Swami Iyer, and K. Velayudha Menon. A Publicity Committee of five members including T.K. Madhavan was also formed.
The KPCC, the UAC and the Publicity Committee reached Vaikom on 28 February 1924. There was a huge public meeting. Madhavan made a public request to the UAC to get the prohibitory notice boards removed from the roads around the temple. The Committee resolved to take procession of Avarnas through the roads on the very next day of the Pulaya Mahasabha meeting.
The news of the decision reached far and wide. It evoked mixed reactions. The caste Hindus who tolerated the speeches at the meeting could not digest the idea of a procession as proposed by the KPCC and the UAC. They along with the local Magistrate, the Police Inspector, and the Tahsildar, met the congress leaders at their camp, and suggested a postponement. They promised that they would try to prevent communal tensions, and make the procession a success, if they were given time. The congress also realized the situation. They could also make use of the time to plan and prepare properly for launching the agitation. The date was fixed as 30 March 1924, and the idea was to take out a procession. Meanwhile, the local Magistrate fearing communal tensions issued prohibitory orders against the procession. Hence the UAC changed its tactics. It was decided to send only three volunteers every day instead of a procession. Volunteers were selected from all castes.
A Satyagraha Ashram was set up about one furlong south of the temple. The Ashram was packed with volunteers who came from different parts of the country. The venue of Satyagraha was decided to be on the western road where a prohibitory board announced:
"Ezhavas and other low castes are prohibited through this road ''
Hundred of policemen armed with lethal weapons, ready to meet any eventuality, were on the vigil round the clock at the spot where the Satyagraha was to begin.
On the morning of 30 March a bugle call for action was sounded. The first batch of volunteers selected to offer Satyagraha were Kunjappy (Pulayan), Bahuleyan (Ezhava) and Venniyil Govinda Panicker (Nair). Before leaving the ashram, they were strictly instructed not to offer any resistance and remain calm against all provocations. The Satyagrahis, wearing khadi and Gandhi caps and garlands, marched forward with the Congress flag fluttering before them. All the volunteers followed them shouting "Satyagraha ki jai, Mahatma Gandhi ki jai. '' All of them would stop at a distance of fifty feet from the notice board, and only the selected three would walk to the point where the prohibition board hung. The police would stop them and ask them their caste. The police would pronounce that the low - caste men would not be allowed to pass; only the Savarnas could. The upper - caste men would insist that their companions should go with them. The police would prevent them. The Satyagrahis would wait there patiently until they were arrested just before noon. When they were produced before the court, invariably they were convicted and sentenced to jail and fined. They refused to pay the fine, and courted extra imprisonment. In the evening there would be a procession and public meeting, protesting against the arrest. The meetings were given wide publicity and people thronged in from all directions. They returned, rejuvenated by the inspiring speeches of the leaders to come back again next morning to start the routine.
The Satyagraha was temporarily stopped for two days on 5 and 6 April to try for a compromise between caste Hindu leaders and the Congress. All talks failed and Satyagraha was resumed. T.K. Madhavan and K.P. Kesava Menon (KPCC president) volunteered on 7 April and courted arrest. Soon after this the Maharajah of Travancore, Moolam Thirunal died on 7 August 1924 and his niece Maharani Sethu Lakshmi Bayi came to power. As part of her installation durbar, she released all the prisoners. The Maharani would come to play an important role towards the end of the Vaikom Satyagraha after meeting Mahatma Gandhi.
The struggle continued like this up to 10 April, when the police adopted the new tactics of barricading the roads and thus tried to prevent the Satyagrahis from reaching the disputed roads. The police also decided not to arrest the Satyagrahis, and they responded with fasting. But Gandhiji disapproved of fasting as it went against his theory of Satyagraha. The police who were watching the progress of the agitation were convinced that their policy of not arresting the Satyagrahis was not very effective. So they wanted to use strong - arm tactics to crush the agitation. The conservatives joined the police, and in due course, the conservatives took over and the police became silent witnesses to the atrocities committed on the volunteers by the conservatives. When the Satyagraha started the ruling Maharaja of Travancore was Sree Moolam Thirunal. He and his minister Divan Bahadur T. Raghavaiah were golden props of extreme orthodoxy. They wanted to keep old customs in - toto. Divan Raghvaiah made a speech in the Travancore legislature strongly defending the Savarnas and denouncing the Satyagraha.
Meanwhile, hundreds of letters were sent to Gandhiji to suspend the agitation. Two advocate brothers from Kerala, Sivarama Iyer and Vancheeswara Iyer met Mahatmaji and argued that the roads around Vaikom temple are private property and hence the Satyagraha was irrelevant.
All newspapers in India flashed headlines about the Satyagraha. Money flowed from different states to Vaikom. The Akalis of Punjab came to Vaikom to open a free kitchen for the Satyagrahis. Non-Hindus like barrister George Joseph George Joseph (Kerala), Bhajematharam Mathunni and Abdul Rahman (the Editor - in - Chief of The Young India) came forward to offer Satyagraha. But Gandhiji did not accept any of these. Gandhiji wrote in the Young India on 24 April 1924, and 1 May 1924 against accepting outside aid.
"As for accepting assistance from Hindus from outside, such acceptance would betray un readiness on the part of the local Hindus for the reform. If the Satyagrahis have the sympathy of the local Hindus, they must get locally all the money they need. ''
Gandhiji wrote to George Joseph on 6 April 1924:
"As to Vaikom, I think you shall let the Hindus do the work. It is they who have to purify themselves. You can help by your sympathy and your pen, but not by organizing the Movement and certainly not by offering Satyagraha. If you refer to the Congress resolution of Nagpur, it calls upon the Hindu Members to remove the curse of untouchability. Untouchability is the sin of the Hindus. They must suffer for it; they must pay the debt they owe to their suppressed brothers and sisters. Theirs is the shame and theirs must be the glory when they have purged themselves of the black sin. The silent loving suffering of one pure Hindu as such will be enough to melt the hearts of millions of Hindus, but the sufferings of thousands of non-Hindus on behalf of the untouchables will leave the Hindus unmoved. Their blind eyes will not be opened by outside interference, however well intentioned and generous it may be, for it will not bring home to them their sense of guilt. On the contrary, they would probably hug the sin, all the more, for such interference. All reforms to be sincere and lasting must come from within. ''
Before George Joseph received this letter, he offered Satyagraha and was arrested. The Akalis also withdrew on Gandhiji 's word.
There were more than 200 volunteers in the camp. After some time, it became difficult to maintain the camp. It was brought to the notice of Gandhiji at the Belgaum Congress and the Congress records show that an amount of Rs, 1000 per month was sanctioned from the Congress funds for the Vaikom Movement. Important people like Vinoba Bhave and Swami Shraddhananda visited the spot and gave mental support for the Movement.
E.V. Ramasami (affectionately called Periyar by the Tamilians) came with his wife Nagamma and a group of followers and offered Satyagraha on 14 April. As the head of the Satyagraha, Periyar was imprisoned twice. Gandhi, who was also present on the Vaikom scene, was disturbed about the whole affair but seemingly unable to stop it. His concern grew when other religious groups became involved. Thus the Sikh community offered to meet expenses. Money was also said to have come in from Burma, Singapore, and Malaysia, from non-Brahmin immigrants, Muslims and Christians. Gandhi tried under the circumstances to keep the whole thing an intra-Hindu affair. However, in the end a compromise was reached. The streets in the temple area were opened to Harijans or Untouchables. In 1936, they were allowed to enter the temple. The Satyagraha paved the way for subsequent Temple Entry Act.
Vaikom had been chosen as a place for Satyagraha organized by the heads of the Congress Party. E.V. Ramasami, who was touring Madurai district, received "a private letter '' asking him to join in the Satyagraha. He immediately proceeded to Vaikom where he violated the order not to address public meetings and was imprisoned for one month, a light punishment on order of the Raja. Gandhi became more and more troubled as the Satyagraha took a turn of communal riot because of conversions to Islam taking place. Vain efforts were made to return E.V. Ramasami to Madras state. After his first release from prison E.V. Ramasami was advised to stay away from Vaikom which he did not do. His second imprisonment was more severe, six months in the Central Jail Trivandrum. Meanwhile, Nagamma, E.V. Ramasami 's first wife, organized women 's campaigning.
Nagamma with Mrs. Joseph, Mrs. T.K. Madhavan and Mrs. Govindan Channar, among others formed a Women 's committee to persuade the women of the villages and get them ready to participate in the Satyagraha. They went around villages explaining to the women, the meaning and purpose of this Satyagraha and collecting from them, handfuls of rice and small changes to maintain the volunteers ' needs. The women started to offer Satyagraha on 20 May 1924. Nagamma was arrested along with Mrs. T.K. Madhavan and later released. Nagamma 's leadership induced courage and solidarity in the women.
When the Raja unexpectedly died E.V. Ramasami was released from the Trivandrum prison because additional trouble was feared, since the death of the Raja somehow connected with E.V. Ramasami 's imprisonment as a bad omen. Later, on the order of the Government, E.V. Ramasami was, for breaking public laws sent to prison again in Madras to be kept out of the way. The compromise to open the streets in the temple areas was the outcome of the negotiations between Gandhi and the two Ranis. Gandhi had unsuccessfully done everything to keep E.V. Ramasami out of Vaikom. E.V. Ramasami on his side had to accept that the Vaikom Satyagraha ended in a compromise. In 1925, the Madras Presidency (Tamil Nadu) Congress passed a resolution unanimously praising E.V. Ramasami 's contribution to the Vaikom Satyagraha and hailing him as the Vaikom Veerar (Vaikom Hero) in the Kanchipuram Session.
Sree Narayana Guru, who had never shown any interest in the activities of the Indian National Congress, involved himself with the Vaikom Satyagraha and extended much co-operation. The reason is quiet evident. The Vaikom Satyagraha was not an agitation for political freedom, it was a movement to purify the Hindu society of its blemishes, and this was what Guru also attempted through his actions and messages.
But somehow, a small misunderstanding arose between Mahatma Gandhi and Sree Narayana Guru, regarding the modus operandi of the Satyagraha. One of Guru 's dialogues with the General Secretary of the SNDP was misinterpreted in such a way that it led to believe that the ideals of Gandhiji and Guru clashed. There was a stage when someone suggested to Gandhiji to withdraw the support for the Satyagraha because the spiritual leader of the Thiyyas was urging his followers to use violence, which is against the principles of Satyagraha.
The Guru had thorough discussions with his favorite disciple T.K. Madhavan, about the Vaikom Movement, even before T.K. Madhavan met Gandhiji about the issue. The Guru had another discussion with K.M. Kesavan, the then General Secretary of the SNDP when the Satyagraha was launched.
Kesavan: Gandhiji wants to win over the other side and the Government by sympathy, by self - inflicted suffering. That is how they gain their end.
Guru: The will to suffer and sacrifice should be there. But there is no need to get drenched or starved. Enter where entry is banned and face the consequences, Take blows without giving them. If a fence is raised in your path, do n't turn back, jump over it. Do n't stop with walking through the road, enter the temple, every temple, every day, everybody. If the offering of pudding is ready, take it. Go to the place where free food is served in the temple; and sit along with others. Let the Government be informed of what you intend to do. One should not fight shy of laying down one 's life. Those who think another 's touch pollutes him should not be left unmolested in their so called cleanliness. That is my view.... Give publicity to all these in the papers. Let people know that I subscribe to their views. But let there be no violence or show of force. Do n't be perturbed by coercion.
Kesavan: Temple entry is the ultimate goal of Satyagraha. That is postponed to the next year.
Guru: Why? Is n't it too late even now?
This view was given wide publicity and the newspaper cutting containing it reached Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhiji wrote in the Young India on 19 June 1924.
His Holiness Sree Narayana Guru, the spiritual leader of the Thiyyas is reported to have disapproved of the present methods of Satyagraha at Vaikom. He suggests that volunteers should advance along barricaded roads and scale the barricades. They should enter temples and sit with others to dine. Now the action proposed is not Satyagraha. For scaling barricades is open violence. If you may scale barricades, why not break open temple doors and even pierce temple walls? How are the volunteers pierce through a row of policemen except by using force?. If the Thiyyas are strong and willing to die in sufficient numbers, they can gain their point. All I submit is that they will have gained it by some thing the reverse of Satyagraha. And then too, they would not have converted the orthodox to their views, but would have imposed it on them by force.
He wrote:
A friend who has sent me the press cutting suggests that by reason of the violent advice of the guru, I should ask the local Congress Committee to call off the Satyagraha. I feel that would mean want of faith in one 's means and surrender to violence. If Congressmen connected with the Vaikom movement entertain the suggestions said to be favored by the Thiyyas ' spiritual leader, there would be case for penance, and therefore suspension, but not otherwise. I would therefore urge the organizers at Vaikom to make redoubled effort and at the same time, keep stricter watch on the conduct of those who take part in the movement. Whether it takes a long or short time to reach the goal, the way is the way of peaceful conversion of the orthodox, by self - suffering and self purification and none other
Careful analyses of both the statements reveal that there was no essential difference. The major objectives of both Gandhi and Sree Narayana Guru were the same, the eradication of untouchability, and the acceptance of human equality. And the immediate objective of the Vaikom Satyagraha was the establishment of a simple primary human right to make use of the public road around the temple. Both Gandhiji and the Guru agreed in this matter. What Gandhiji suggested is gain access to the road, and then try for temple entry. What Guru proposed is to go ahead without stopping until temple entry was achieved. Do n't stop with walking through the roads, but enter the temple
At one point Gandhiji thought that Sree Narayana Guru had suggested to the volunteers to adopt open violence. He suggested that the volunteers should advance along barricaded roads and scale the barricades... For scaling barricades is open violence. Let a humble question be raised. What happened at Vaikom? The volunteers were made to stand in the hot sun, drenched in the rain till mid-day, and then arrested. If they had followed what the Guru has suggested, tried to cross the fence, probably they would have received more blows, but would have arrested early, for defying orders. What Narayana Guru suggested was only to intensify the struggle or speed up the process in the Gandhian way. If the Guru 's suggestion to the volunteers to scale the barricades was open violence, then Gandhiji 's exhortation to the people to prepare salt at Dandi defying government orders is also equivalent to open violence. Attempt to scale the barricades is only open defiance, not open violence.
Sree Narayana Guru 's exhortations were in unison with Gandhiji 's idealism and practical wisdom. The Guru 's words are clear indicators --
The will to suffer and sacrifice should be there.
Take blows without giving them
Let the government be informed of what you intend to do
Let there be no violence or show of force
Why did Gandhiji miss or ignore these words and interpret the guru 's suggestion as an exhortation to violence and made blatant statements that the spiritual leader of the Thiyyas is reported to have disapproved of the present methods of Satyagraha at Vaikom? It is for posterity to decide.
Any way, the Guru did not issue any statement to counter Gandhiji 's writings in Young India. It was never the Guru 's technique to argue and win. He expressed through actions what he had to say.
He offered his Vellore Mutt near Vaikom for the use of the Satyagrahis and Head Office was set up there. He made a personal contribution of Rs. 1000.00 (a very big amount in those days) to the struggle fund, and set up a special collection box at Sivagiri. Two of his favorite disciples, Swami Sathyavrathan and Kottukoikal Velayudhan were deputed to work for the Satyagraha.
When the Satyagraha was at its peak, on 27 September 1924, the Guru visited the venue. He reached Vaikom by boat. Thousands were waiting at the jetty to receive him. He was welcomed with a multicolored garland of khadi yarn. He was also presented with the second khadi towel woven at the Satyagraha Ashram, the first one was sent to Mahatma Gandhi. The Guru jokingly offered to wear khadi garland and volunteer Satyagraha.
On the next day, he presided over a public meeting convened to pray for the good health and wellbeing of Mahatma Gandhi. Swami Satyavrathan remarked that it was a good fortune to have the Guru along with them. Suddenly, the Guru got up and said, I am here not just to participate, I am here to pray. He stood in meditation for a few minutes while the whole crowd waited. This was the single occasion when Guru had ever prayed in public.
The Guru stayed in the Ashram for two days, went around and saw all arrangements and joined the community meal. The volunteers felt, not the presence of a formal visitor, but the presence of an intimate advisor and an elderly leader. His presence and appreciation gave them renewed spirit and sense of commitment. The Guru was extremely happy to see a Pulaya boy in the kitchen to help the cooks. He was glad the seeds sown by him were proliferating and bearing fruit. The SNDP had most willingly taken over the task of supplying manpower for the endeavor, and continued to support until the Satyagraha was withdrawn. Later after getting the freedom a school was built in the place of that ashram as the memory of this great fight. The school is named as Sathyagraha Memorial Sree Narayana Higher Secondary School (SMSNHSS). The school is managed by SND P.
During March 1925, when Gandhiji came to the Satyagraha site, he visited the Guru at Sivagiri. A part of their conversation is relevant here.
Gandhiji: Is there any difference of opinion for Swamiji about the Satyagraha started at Vaikom? Does Swamiji think of adding or altering anything to the Movement?
Guru: My knowledge is that it is going smoothly and I am not of any opinion of making any alterations.
Gandhiji: Some are of the opinion that nonviolent Satyagraha is of no use, and to establish right, violence is necessary. What is Swamiji 's opinion?
Guru: I do not think that violence is good.
In the meanwhile, Mahatmaji felt that the support of the Savarnas was essential for the success of the Vaikom Movement. So he suggested to the leaders at Vaikom, that a procession consisting of only Savarnas should march to Trivandrum, the capital, to register their solidarity with the Avarnas and lend their full support to the cause. The Savarna procession of about 500 men set out from Vaikom on 1 November 1924 under the leadership of Mannathu Padmanabhan, the unquestioned leader of the Nair Service Society. There was spontaneous welcome to the procession at every place they passed. On their way, the procession swelled as people joined. They halted at Sivagiri, paid homage to Sree Narayana Guru, and received his blessings. When the procession reached Trivandrum on 12 November 1924, with the jubilation of a conquering army, it had gathered nearly 5000 men. A similar procession of about a thousand men from Suchindram under the leadership of Perumal Naidu also reached Trivandrum on the same day. A mammoth public meeting was held.
On 13 November 1924, a delegation headed by Changanasseri Parameswaran Pillai waited on the Regent Maharani Sethu Lakshmi Bayi and submitted a memorandum signed by more than 25,000 Savarnas, We the undersigned members of the deputation, loyally and respectfully beg leave to approach your Gracious Highness with the humble prayer that the roads around the Vaikom temple walls, and all other roads similarly situated in other parts of the State may be thrown open to all classes of Your Gracious Highness ' subjects, without distinction of caste or creed
Though the memorandum was submitted with much optimism, reaction was not that favorable. The Maharani expressed that the issue had to be decided in the legislature. The resolution was moved in the legislature on 7 February 1925, by the then SNDP Secretary N. Kumaran (Later he became High Court Judge). The text of the resolution was "All roads around the temple at Vaikom, and similar roads all over the state of Travancore must be open for traveling for people of all castes and creeds. '' The resolution was defeated by 22 votes against 21. (It is understood that Dr. Palpu 's brother who was expecting favors from the Government voted against the resolution. He was a close associate of the Narayana Guru at Aruvippuram, but he turned Judas. He was haunted by the community and he fled from places to place to save his life. He became a social outcaste and met with an ignoble death.)
The defeat of the resolution severely affected the morale of the Satyagrahis and boosted the high - handedness of the Orthodox Hindus. While Gandhiji tried to lift the sinking morale through exhortations to remain patient and peaceful, Indanthuruthil Namboothiri, the leader of orthodoxy, arranged for hirelings to beat up the Satyagrahis. They were thrown into neck deep waters. Lime mixed with other strong irritants was poured into their eyes. The police stood silently watching as they were secretly instructed not to interfere. Gandhiji wrote in Young India, The Travancore authorities may, however, be respectfully told that the Congress can not watch barbarity with indifference. The letting loose of the goondas on the devoted heads of the Satyagrahis, is bound to gather the Satyagrahis, the full weight of all - India public opinion.
As a protest against atrocities, statewide agitation began. Big Savarna temples were boycotted, bringing down their revenue. The Savarna Mahajana Sabha organized meetings at their strongholds, against the Satyagraha. Tension was mounting, and it was time that something was to be done. There were even reactions among the volunteers that the slow passive method of Satyagraha was ineffective in the face of violence and goondaism.
It became imminent for Gandhiji to visit the place where his principle of Satyagraha was being tested. So he came down to Vaikom on 10 March 1925. His secretary Mahadev Desai, his son Ramdas Gandhi, Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, and C. Rajagopalachari came with him.
Gandhiji stayed in the Ashram and spoke to the volunteers. He tried to boost up their morale, by explaining to them the principle of Satyagraha and the role of scarifies and suffering in it, and the need for extreme patience. He tried to reach a compromise with the orthodoxy and for this; he had to meet the Savarna leaders. His secretary sent a note of invitation to the Savarna leader Idanthuruthil Devan Neelakandan Namboothiri to come over to the camp. The haughty Namboothiri not only refused to accept the invitation, but also said that those who wanted to see him must go over to his house. So it was that Gandhiji and his party reached the Indanthuruthil Mana (a Namboothiri household) on the next day noon. They were made to sit in the portico of the house, while the Namboothiri and his Savarna comrades occupied the inner room. The Namboothiri believed that Gandhi and his followers were polluted by the touch of untouchables, and could not be admitted into the pure interior of an orthodox Mana.
Their dialogue continued for nearly three hours. Gandhiji made three practical proposals:
The unapproachability that is practiced at Vaikom is not found in any Hindu scriptures. The orthodoxy contended that Adi Sankaracharya laid down the custom. In that case, Gandhiji proposed that an impartial Hindu Pundit must scrutinize Adi Shankara 's Smirithis, and if this custom is not mentioned then it has to be withdrawn.
The second proposal was that a referendum was to be taken from Savarnas. If the majority of Savarnas were willing to allow the roads to be opened to the Avarnas, it should be accepted.
Third proposal was that of arbitration. The orthodoxy appoints a Pandit, Gandhiji would appoint a Pandit on behalf of the Satyagrahis. The Divan of Travancore would act as an umpire. All must accept the winner 's decision.
None of these was acceptable to the orthodoxy, who believed that the Avarnas are suffering because of their Karma (result of actions in their previous births). So Gandhiji left without a compromise and the Satyagraha continued, and the atrocities on them multiplied beyond words.
Gandhiji had to do something about it. He wrote to W.H. Pitt, then Police Commissioner of Travancore put an end to goondaism. Pit being a European, was in a better position to intervene and bring an honorable settlement between Government and Gandhiji. Pitt agreed to influence the Government to remove all barricades and withdraw the prohibitory orders, on condition that Gandhiji instructed the Satyagrahis not to cross the point where the prohibitory board was. However the police would remain at the spot until all the terms of the agreement were implemented. An agreement was reached through correspondence.
Government agreed to withdraw the prohibitory orders passed in February 1924, and Gandhiji agreed to withdraw the Satyagraha. Government let the roads on three sides of the temple (north, south and west) open for public but the eastern approach road, and the two roads leading to it from the north and south remained reserved to the Savarnas only.
Gates were to be put up at three places: At a short distance from the eastern gopuram on the eastern approach road. At the north and south ends of the eastern road. These three gates were to be open only at the time of worship to admit those who had the right to enter the temple. It was also declared the portion of the road enclosed by the three gates would remain closed to Christians and Muslims as well as Avarna Hindus who have no right to enter the temple. A new road was to be constructed joining the eastern approach road to the northern road, for the convenience of the public. C. Rajagopalachari conveyed the details to Gandhiji through a letter and Gandhiji issued orders on 8 October 1925 to the Secretary of the Satyagraha Ashram to withdraw the Satyagraha. But action continued till November 1925 until all the conditions were implemented in Toto.
One view is that it was only a partial success for non-caste Hindus (Avarnas) as they gained access only to the roads on three sides of the temple. The fourth and most important eastern road remained inaccessible to them. It was really a blow to the Christians and Muslims as they lost their previously enjoyed freedom to have complete access on all the roads around the temple. Now the eastern road was blocked to them. Because of the gates, which remained closed the members of the Devaswam Board and the inmates of the temple who used the eastern road as thoroughfare were denied the opportunity. Anyway, it was a great opportunity for the Indian National Congress party to grow in Kerala. Before this agitation, the Congress in Kerala was only a limited number of Upper Caste and Upper class people of Malabar (which was under British Rule). The Avarnas did not bother about the Congress, as the Congress leaders did not show any enthusiasm for the eradication of social inequalities. But when the party undertook to lead the agitation at Vaikom, the Avarnas underwent a sea of changes. At the exhortation of T.K. Madhavan, they joined the Congress en masse. The Congress swelled from being a class party to a mass party.
Another achievement of Vaikom agitation is certainly communal harmony. Progressive minded Savarnas and Avarnas came together with Christians, Muslims and even Sikhs. It is to be remembered that many Savarnas played the role of active leaders, till the withdrawal of the Satyagraha, and this has demonstrated the basic unity of the people.
Above all, the Vaikom Satyagraha was a testing ground for the Gandhian principles of Satyagraha. It was tested and proved as the most effective means for the first time.
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is the movie se7en based on a book | Seven (1995 film) - wikipedia
Seven (stylized as SE7EN) is a 1995 American neo-noir crime thriller film directed by David Fincher and written by Andrew Kevin Walker. It stars Brad Pitt, Morgan Freeman, Gwyneth Paltrow, John C. McGinley, R. Lee Ermey, and Kevin Spacey. It tells the story of David Mills (Pitt), a detective who partners with the retiring William Somerset (Freeman) to track down a serial killer (Spacey) who uses the seven deadly sins as a motif in his murders.
The screenplay was influenced by the time Walker spent in New York City trying to make it as a writer. Principal photography took place in Los Angeles, with the last scene filmed near Lancaster, California. The film 's budget was US $33 million.
Released on September 22, 1995 by New Line Cinema, Seven was the seventh - highest - grossing film of the year, grossing over $327 million worldwide. It was well received by critics, who praised the film 's darkness, brutality and themes. The film was nominated for Best Film Editing at the 68th Academy Awards, but lost to Apollo 13.
Soon - to - retire detective William Somerset is partnered with short - tempered but idealistic David Mills, who has recently moved to the city with his wife Tracy. Tracy confides to Somerset that she is pregnant and has yet to tell Mills, as she is unhappy with the city and feels it is no place to raise a child. Somerset sympathizes, having had a similar situation with his ex-girlfriend many years earlier, and advises her to tell Mills only if she plans to keep the child.
Somerset and Mills investigate a set of murders inspired by the seven deadly sins: a man forced to eat until his stomach ruptured, representing gluttony, and a defense attorney killed after a pound of flesh was taken from him, representing greed. Clues at the murder scenes lead them to a suspect 's apartment, where they find a third victim, a drug dealer and child molester, strapped to a bed, emaciated but alive, representing sloth. Daily photographs of the victim, taken over a year, show the crimes were planned far in advance.
The detectives use library records to identify a John Doe and track him to his apartment. Doe flees and Mills gives chase. Doe turns to hold Mills at gunpoint for a moment before escaping. The apartment contains hundreds of notebooks revealing Doe 's psychopathy, as well as a clue to another murder. The detectives arrive too late to stop a man forced to kill a prostitute by raping her with a bladed strap - on, representing lust. They are told of a fifth murder, a model whose face has been mutilated by Doe; she was given the option to call for help and be disfigured, or commit suicide by taking pills, representing pride.
As Somerset and Mills return to the police station, Doe turns himself in, covered in the blood of an unidentified victim. Doe offers to take the detectives to the final two victims and confess to the murders, but only under specific terms, or he will plead insanity. Somerset is wary, but Mills agrees.
The detectives follow Doe 's directions to a remote desert location. Within minutes, a delivery van approaches. Mills holds Doe at gunpoint while Somerset intercepts the driver, who has been instructed to bring a box to them. Doe taunts Mills by telling him how envious he was of his life and Tracy. Somerset opens the box and warns Mills to stay back. Doe states that he killed Tracy, representing envy; he also states that her head is in the box and that she was pregnant. Despite Somerset 's warnings, Mills shoots Doe, completing Doe 's last murder, representing wrath. Police converge and take the devastated Mills away.
The primary influence for the film 's screenplay came from Andrew Kevin Walker 's time spent in New York City while trying to make it as a screenwriter. "I did n't like my time in New York, but it 's true that if I had n't lived there I probably would n't have written Seven. '' He envisioned actor William Hurt as Somerset and named the character after his favorite author, W. Somerset Maugham.
Jeremiah S. Chechik was attached to direct at one point. During pre-production, Al Pacino was considered for the Somerset role, but he decided to do City Hall. Denzel Washington and Sylvester Stallone turned down the role of Mills. Washington later regretted turning down the role.
The ending of the screenplay, with the head in the box, was originally part of an earlier draft that New Line had rejected, instead opting for an ending that involved more traditional elements of a detective thriller film with more action - oriented elements. But when New Line sent David Fincher the screenplay to review for his interest in the project, they accidentally sent him the original screenplay with the head - in - the - box ending. At the time, Fincher had not read a script for a year and a half since the frustrating experience of making Alien 3; he said, "I thought I 'd rather die of colon cancer than do another movie ''. Fincher eventually agreed to direct Seven because he was drawn to the script, which he found to be a "connect - the - dots movie that delivers about inhumanity. It 's psychologically violent. It implies so much, not about why you did but how you did it ''. He found it more a "meditation on evil '' rather than a "police procedural ''.
When New Line realized that they had sent Fincher the wrong draft, the President of Production, Michael De Luca, met with Fincher and noted that there was internal pressure to retain the revised version; De Luca stated that if Fincher promised to produce the movie, they would be able to stay with the head - in - a-box ending. Despite this, producer Kopelson refused to allow the film to include the head - in - a-box scene. Actor Pitt joined Fincher in arguing for keeping this original scene, noting that his previous film Legends of the Fall had its emotional ending cut after negative feedback from test audiences, and refusing to do Seven unless the head - in - the - box scene remained.
Filming took place in Los Angeles, California.
Fincher approached making Seven like a "tiny genre movie, the kind of movie Friedkin might have made after The Exorcist. '' He worked with cinematographer Darius Khondji and adopted a simple approach to the camerawork, which was influenced by the television show COPS, "how the camera is in the backseat peering over people 's shoulder ''. Fincher allowed Walker on the set while filming for on - the - set rewrites. According to the director, "Seven is the first time I got to carry through certain things about the camera -- and about what movies are or can be ''.
The crowded urban streets filled with noisy denizens and an oppressive rain that seems to fall without respite were integral parts of the film, as Fincher wanted to show a city that was "dirty, violent, polluted, often depressing. Visually and stylistically, that 's how we wanted to portray this world. Everything needed to be as authentic and raw as possible. '' To this end, Fincher turned to production designer Arthur Max to create a dismal world that often eerily mirrors its inhabitants. "We created a setting that reflects the moral decay of the people in it '', says Max. "Everything is falling apart, and nothing is working properly. '' The film 's brooding, dark look was achieved through a chemical process called bleach bypass, wherein the silver in the film stock was not removed, which in turn deepened the dark, shadowy images in the film and increased its overall tonal quality.
The ' head in a box ' ending continued to worry the studio after filming was completed. After the first cut of the film was shown to the studio, they attempted to mitigate the bleakness of the ending by replacing Mills ' wife 's head with that of a dog, or by not having Mills fire on John Doe. However, both Fincher and Pitt continued to fight for the original ending. The final scenes of Mills being taken away and Somerset 's quote from Ernest Hemingway were filmed by Fincher after initial filming was complete as a way to placate the studio (the original intention was for the film to suddenly end after Mills shot John Doe).
Originally, Fincher planned the title sequence of the film to show Freeman 's character buying a house in a remote country area and traveling back into the city. However, days before a test screening, they had yet to film the sequence and no budget to do it in that time. Fincher approached Kyle Cooper to suggest a replacement. Cooper recognized the amount of money used to make John Doe 's notebooks (created by Clive Piercy and John Sabel), and used the sequence to display them in a slideshow set to Nine Inch Nails ' "Closer ''. The hand - drawn credits font was used to suggest that Doe had written the credits himself.
The studio liked the sequence and suggested he stay with that. Fincher instead asked Cooper to "pretend we 've never met and come back and propose something else '', according to Cooper. Cooper came up with a more detailed version of this photographic sequence: "The idea was that this is John Doe 's job: he gets up, makes his books, plans his murders, drinks his tea. '' Fincher liked this approach, but cautioned Cooper "Well, that would be neat, but that 's kind of a 2D glimpse. Figure out a way for it to involve John Doe, to show that somewhere across town somebody is working on some really evil shit. I do n't want it to be just flipping through pages, as beautiful as they are. '' Cooper reworked the idea, working with Wayne Coe to create a storyboard for a live - action shot and adding in filming along with photographs of the books, new props include film reels and additional notebooks, visual effects for the title credits, and elements inspired by Doe 's behavior in the movie, such as cutting his fingertips. Fincher liked this approach, and considered getting Mark Romanek, the director of the "Closer '' music video to produce the sequence, but Cooper insisted he direct it. Cooper was assisted by film editor Angus Wall and cinematographer Harris Savides in making the final title sequence. The filming took two days and five further weeks to edit. The credits were hand - etched onto black scratchboard and manipulated by the camera, rather than using digital effects. The final sequence used a remix of "Closer '' created by the band Coil.
Seven was released on September 22, 1995, in 2,441 theaters where it grossed US $13.9 million on its opening weekend. It went on to gross $100.1 million in North America and $227.1 million in the rest of the world for a total of $327.3 million, making Seven the seventh - highest - grossing film in 1995. The film also spent 4 consecutive weeks in the top spot at the U.S. box office in 1995.
The film was well received by critics and holds an 80 % positive rating at the film - review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 70 critics with an average rating of 7.7 out of 10. Its consensus reads: "A brutal, relentlessly grimy shocker with taut performances, slick gore effects, and a haunting finale. '' The film has a rating of 65 on Metacritic based on 22 reviews.
Gary Arnold, in The Washington Times, praised the cast: "The film 's ace in the hole is the personal appeal generated by Mr. Freeman as the mature, cerebral cop and Mr. Pitt as the young, headstrong cop. Not that the contrast is inspired or believable in itself. What gets to you is the prowess of the co-stars as they fill out sketchy character profiles. '' Sheila Johnston, in her review for The Independent, praised Freeman 's performance: "The film belongs to Freeman and his quiet, carefully detailed portrayal of the jaded older man who learns not to give up the fight. '' James Charisma, in a list of Spacey 's greatest film performances for Paste, wrote: "Spacey 's portrayal is a perfect balancing act: John Doe is detached from the murders he commits, yet deliberate and meticulous in his execution... Unemotional yet smug. Analytical, violent, patient, impenetrable. '' In his review for Sight and Sound, John Wrathall wrote, "Seven has the scariest ending since George Sluizer 's original The Vanishing... and stands as the most complex and disturbing entry in the serial killer genre since Manhunter. '' In his "Great Movies '' list review, film critic Roger Ebert commented on Fincher 's direction: "None of his films is darker than this one. ''
New Line Cinema re-released Seven in Westwood, Los Angeles, California, on Christmas Day and in New York City on December 29, 1995, in an attempt to generate Academy Award nominations for Freeman, Pitt, and Fincher, which was ultimately unsuccessful.
For the DVD release, Seven was remastered and presented in the widescreen format, preserving the 2.40: 1 aspect ratio of its original theatrical exhibition. Audio options include Dolby Digital EX 5.1, DTS ES Discrete 6.1, and Stereo Surround Sound.
The Seven DVD features four newly recorded, feature - length audio commentaries featuring the stars and other key contributors to the film, who talk about their experiences making Seven.
This DVD is also compatible with DVD - ROM drives. Disc One features a printable screenplay with links to the film. The Blu - ray Disc was released September 14, 2010.
In 1995, a novelization with the same title was written by Anthony Bruno based on the original film.
Between September 2006 and October 2007, a series of seven comic books were published by Zenescope Entertainment with each of the seven issues dedicated to one of the seven sins. It told the story from the perspective of John Doe rather than the two homicide detectives as in the film. Each issue included contributions by a group of creators independent of each other. All seven issues were collected in trade paperback form, released on January 15, 2008, as SE7EN, edited by David Seidman and Ralph Tedesco.
The opening credit music is a spliced sample of an uncredited remix of the Nine Inch Nails song "Closer '', available as "Closer (Precursor) '', remixed by Coil, on the "Closer '' single. The song during the end credits is David Bowie 's song "The Hearts Filthy Lesson '', found on his album Outside. The film 's original score is by Howard Shore.
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what are the stars on the nfl captain patch | National Football League team captains - wikipedia
In the National Football League, the team captain designation is a team - appointed position that designates certain players as leaders on and off the field. The captains program was implemented by the NFL Player Advisory Council established by NFL commissioner Roger Goodell in conjunction with the NFL Players Association. Starting in 2007, the league began permitting teams to name up to six players as captains.
Players who have been named a team captain typically have a "C '' patch on their jerseys. There is a standard design used by all teams participating in the captaincy program. The patches are in team colors and are worn on the front left or right breast (depending on other patches, etc. worn by the specific team). The number of stars filled in on the patch represents the number of consecutive years that player has been named captain by that team. If they 've been named captain for longer than four years, the "C '' on the patch is gold. Some teams (e.g. Pittsburgh and New England) do not have this patch on their jerseys but still designate captains. In the case of the Green Bay Packers, they would use weekly captains during the regular season, but would switch to assigning captains whenever they qualify for the playoffs.
The New York Jets suspended designated team captains after an incident involving Santonio Holmes in a 2011 game. In the 4th quarter of the final game of the 2011 season against the Miami Dolphins, Holmes appeared to get into an argument with Jets offensive tackle Wayne Hunter while the team was huddling. As a result of the argument, Holmes was benched for the remainder of the game, and the Jets ended up losing the game, which resulted in the Jets missing the postseason for the first time in three years. His leadership qualities and credibility as a captain have since been questioned. In 2015, under new head coach Todd Bowles, the Jets resumed appointing captains weekly.
During special recognitions, the patch may be a different color; e.g., pink for breast cancer awareness; or camouflage for military service recognition.
Because of the nature of the game, most teams include their starting quarterbacks as an offensive captain. The starting quarterback has no other responsibility or authority on field. However, he may, depending on the league or individual team, have various informal duties, such as participation in pre-game ceremonies, the coin toss, the trophy presentation, or other events outside the game. Often compared to captains of other team sports, the starting quarterback is usually the de facto team leader and a well - respected player on and off the field, even before the NFL implemented the team captain 's patch in 2007.
NFL rule 18 details the guidelines for team captains. Within Rule 18, there are four articles that pertain to:
Coin Toss Procedures -- Each team can send as many as 6 team captains to the center of the field. On each team, one captain is designated the "speaking captain '' of the delegation. The visiting team or the team designated "visitor '' by the referee (if no team is declared ' visitor ') shall choose "heads or tails '' or in the case of a special ceremony coin, the options on the face and rear of that coin.
The winner of the coin toss have 3 options, 1. Defer the choice to the second half, 2. Receive / kick the ball, 3. Choose an end zone to defend. There is strategy in employing your election. It could depend on such conditions as weather, or making an aggressive statement at the beginning of the game, or something simple as coming out of the locker room in the second half receiving the ball.
After the winning captain makes their choice, the opposing team captain chooses from the remaining 2 options.
Choice on Penalty Option (s) -- The offended team captain has a choice of accepting a penalty enforcement or declining, except where said penalty is automatically "enforced by rule. '' In some circumstances, a team captain may elect to "decline '' the penalty. This typically happens in a situation in which declining the penalty may mean that the next down should occur (3rd or 4th). A good example would be on an "offensive holding '' enforcement, the defensive team might elect a "4th down and 5 yards to gain '' v. a "3rd down and 15 yards to gain. ''
Players listed in bold currently wear the 5 + star all gold captain patches.
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i like the way she do it 50 cent | I Like the Way She Do it - wikipedia
"I Like the Way She Do It '' is the lead single from G - Unit 's second album, T.O.S: Terminate on Sight. It ' features ' Young Buck, as he was no longer a member of G - Unit at the time. The song has since sold over 350,000 copies.
The music video features 50 Cent, Lloyd Banks and Tony Yayo. The video premiered on May 12, 2008 on BET 's Access Granted. Since Young Buck was released from G - Unit (though still signed to G - Unit Records as a solo artist) he is not featured in the video, and his verse is cut. At the end there is the beginning of the Rider Pt. 2 video.
PrefixMag wrote about how they thought only the beat, produced by Street Radio, would "make this song chart well ''. AllHipHop called the song "Down right awful ''. HipHopDX also stated that the song was "nothing short of embarrassing ''.
"I Like the Way She Do It '' peaked at # 95 on the Billboard Hot 100.
In the super clean version of the song, which the music video of it was the premier in BET 's Access Granted, the song censors half the song, particularly the chorus with the lines "back into it '', "drop it low '' and "ass drop '', while the normal clean version just censors the word "ass '' in the chorus, along with other profanities in the song. Other additional censors in the super clean version are "freak '', "rough '', "switch (positions) '', "hit it '', "neck it '', and "come up ''. Some clean versions of the song have an additional censor to the word "retarded '', when 50 Cent says he 's got "retarded money ''.
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it's the time to disco video song download | 24K Magic (song) - wikipedia
"24K Magic '' is a song by American singer and songwriter Bruno Mars. It serves as the lead single from his third studio album of the same name and was released on October 7, 2016 for digital download and streaming by Atlantic Records. It was provided as an instant grat track for those who pre-ordered 24K Magic. "24K Magic '' was written by Bruno Mars, Christopher Brody Brown and Philip Lawrence, while production was handled by the three as Shampoo Press & Curl, with additional production by The Stereotypes. The song won Record of the Year at the 60th Annual Grammy Awards.
"24K Magic '' is a "synth - heavy '' funk, disco and contemporary R&B song.
After the commercial success of his second studio album, Unorthodox Jukebox (2012), Mars performed his first Super Bowl halftime show (Super Bowl XLVIII) as headliner with the Red Hot Chili Peppers as special guests, and it became the second-most - watched halftime show in the history of the Super Bowl, as of 2016. Later, in September 2014, Mars tweeted "Now it 's time to start writing chapter 3 '', hinting that he was recording new music. Mark Ronson also released the single "Uptown Funk '' in 2014 with Mars ' vocals, which was met with chart success. This resulted in the artist heading to the studio to record more without having plans to release a new album, stating "Until it 's done ''. In early 2016, the singer performed, once more, at the Super Bowl 50 halftime show with Beyoncé, both credited as guests, and British band Coldplay headlining. The album was due in March, but the Super Bowl halftime show postponed it several months. At that time seven songs have already been recorded. On October 3, 2016, the song title was revealed through Instagram, upon the upload of nine photos. These pictures were combined and the final image revealed the singer looking down while wearing a white hat with "XXIV k '' inscribed. Mars wrote, "You can call it my first single, but I call it the invitation to the party. ''
In an interview with Zane Lowe for Beats 1 Mars explained, "It 's what we want to bring to the table musically. You hear these ' 90s influences on the whole album, really, but ' 24K Magic ' is because of West Coast hip - hop: Dr. Dre, DJ Quik, Suga Free... it was at a time when it was okay to party, to be flashy, to get on the dance floor. ''
"24K Magic '' premiered on October 7, 2016 at midnight on radio station WBMX. The single was released on October 7, 2016 for digital download and streaming via Atlantic Records. On the same date, the album was made available for pre-order worldwide via Mars ' official site, offering four different options to purchase with all having the song as an instant download. The label also released the track to be added to Italian contemporary hit radio on the same date. Subsequently, the song was released to United Kingdom and United States contemporary hit radio stations on October 8, 2016 and October 11, 2016, respectively.
"24k Magic '' is a retro funk, disco and R&B song, influenced by hip - hop. It starts with a talk box intro, performed by Mr. Talk Box, which was compared by Hugh McIntyre from Forbes to Tupac Shakur 's "California Love '', a sound developed by Roger and Zapp in the late 1970s and early ' 80s. American music magazine Rap - Up has described the track as "synth - heavy... retro funk ''. The recording is complete with Auto - Tune. The song is heavily influenced by the sounds and styles present in the 1970s and ' 80s. Lewis Corner of Digital Spy commented that the song is more like the "smooth ' 80s electronica and hip - hop '' than the "' 70s groove of "Uptown Funk ''. '' The "prominent synthesizer riff '' from "The Message '' by Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five resembles the one in "24K Magic ''.
The song is written in the key of F minor with a common time tempo of 107 beats per minute. Mars ' vocals span from F to E ♭ in the song.
Entertainment Weekly music critic, Eric Renner Brown, called the single an "effortless throwback pop Mars seems capable of dispatching in his sleep. '' He continued by saying that "24K Magic '' is in the same level as his previous lead singles, "Just the Way You Are '' and "Locked Out of Heaven '', maybe even better. '' Brown emphasized, "attention to detail and world - class chops are what makes Mars ' music tick; those qualities enable "24K Magic '' to practically levitate ". American music blog Idolator made a "Pop Perspective '' review with 4 different editors. Carl Williott gave the recording its highest rating, 9 out 10, comparing it to a "Pure Funk compilations, West Coast G - funk, and to Midnight Star ''. He furthered, "It 's not challenging, it does n't advance pop in any way. But it 's unrepentant party music, at a time when there 's a shortage of the stuff. '' Editor, Mike Wass, awarded the song 8 out of 10 feeling that "Bruno 's latest throws R&B influences from the ' 70s, ' 80s and ' 90s into a blender and comes up with a nuclear - power party anthem that is destined to be on high rotation wherever there 's a dance - floor for years to come. ''
In a mixed review, Rachel Sonis of Idolator gave the single 6.5 out of 10 and believes that "is glossy, lavish and teeming with old school The Neptunes vibes. '' In another mixed review, Idolator 's Robbie Daw rated the track 5 out of 10 saying that it is an "' 80s R&B throwback that picks up where "Uptown Funk '' left off and, to be quite honest, does n't really move the needle of pop evolution forward -- rather, it simply keeps the party going. ''
GQ found the song to be "delightful '' and labeled it as the second part of "Uptown Funk ''. Billboard ranked "24K Magic '' at number 64 on their "Billboard 's 100 Best Pop Songs of 2016: Critics ' Picks '' list, commenting "Working with funk vibes reminiscent of his recent trip Uptown, Bruno Mars managed to create another bonafide hip - shaker with his first solo single since 2012. While it has n't quite yet matched the "magic '' that his Mark Ronson guest turn had commercially, the similarly infectious beat and James Brown - worthy vocal exhortations make this a great party - starting backup. ''
It was considered one of the best songs of 2016 by EW and Spin.
"24K Magic '' debuted at number five on the US Billboard Hot 100 with 101,000 downloads and 12.8 million streams, as well as at number one on France 's SNEP chart for the week ending October 15, 2016. It also charted in the top ten of various countries, including Argentina, Australia, Canada, Scotland, Spain and the United Kingdom. As of September 2017, it has sold 1,722,000 copies in the United States.
The music video for the song was directed by Bruno Mars and his frequent collaborator, Cameron Duddy, who directed Mars ' previous music videos for Unorthodox Jukebox and "The Lazy Song ''. The music video was released on October 7, 2016.
The video depicts Mars and his friends having a party in a Las Vegas casino, intercut with shots of him riding in a black Cadillac Allanté. The video was filmed in Las Vegas, Nevada. Mars purchased the car he is driving in the video.
Mars performed the song live for the first time on Saturday Night Live on October 15, 2016. The singer also performed on The X Factor UK on October 30, 2016 and at the MTV Europe Music Awards on 6 November 2016, the latter performance was praised, while the former raised some controversies as he and his band were accused of "miming ''. The singer was not only hurt with the accusations as he dismissed the same. On November 11 he performed the song on Skavlan and on the following day at NJR Music Awards. He also performed the song at the American Music Awards on November 20, 2016. He also performed it at the Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show 2016 in the bright night angel segment. During The Late Late Show with James Corden on December 13, 2016, Mars included 24k Magic on the popular feature Carpool Karaoke.
The song can be heard in the television shows Rosewood, MacGyver, Being Mary Jane, Supergirl, Chicago Med, and Empire. It was used in the 12th cycle of Germany 's Next Topmodel and will appear in the video game Just Dance 2018.
The song is also heavily sampled on Kendrick Lamar 's track "Loyalty ''.
It was also featured in a commercial for Hershey 's Gold.
Recording
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of 24K Magic, Atlantic Records
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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johnny mathis the wonderful world of make believe | The Wonderful World of Make Believe - wikipedia
The Wonderful World of Make Believe is an album by American pop singer Johnny Mathis that was released by Mercury Records on July 10, 1964, and described by Greg Adams of Allmusic, who wrote, "The theme is fantasy, from imaginary locations (' Camelot ', ' Shangri - La ') to fanciful yearnings (' I 'm Always Chasing Rainbows ', ' When You Wish Upon a Star ') to vague, idealized realms (' Beyond the Sea ', ' Beyond the Blue Horizon '). ''
The album debuted on Billboard magazine 's Top LP 's chart in the issue dated July 25, 1964, and reached number 75 during its 10 weeks there.
This project was released on compact disc for the first time as one of two albums in a two - CD set by Sony Music Entertainment on August 28, 2012, the other album being Mathis 's previous studio LP, Tender Is the Night. The Wonderful World of Make Believe was also included in Sony 's Mathis box set The Complete Global Albums Collection, which was released on November 17, 2014.
Adams contrasts the approach of this album to his singles of the period. "Mercury did n't tamper with Mathis 's established style on this album (unlike his first singles for the label, which seemed geared toward a younger audience), so the arrangements are in keeping with his Columbia work, if a bit more swirly and ornate as the material seemed to require. '' He concludes that this project "is strictly an album effort -- no standout single tracks here -- but it 's an enticingly dreamy effort and Mathis sings superbly. ''
Billboard especially appreciated the concept and team at work here: "A fine idea, beautifully performed by Mathis with able support from Allyn Ferguson 's arrangements and Jack Feierman 's orchestration. ''
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how far is chihuahua mexico from the us border | Chihuahua (state) - wikipedia
Chihuahua (Spanish pronunciation: (tʃiˈwawa) (listen)), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Chihuahua (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Chihuahua), is one of the 32 states of Mexico. Its capital city is Chihuahua City.
It is located in Northwestern Mexico and is bordered by the states of Sonora to the west, Sinaloa to the southwest, Durango to the south, and Coahuila to the east. To the north and northeast, it has a long border with the U.S. adjacent to the U.S. states of New Mexico and Texas.
Chihuahua is the largest state in Mexico by area, with an area of 247,455 square kilometres (95,543 sq mi), it is slightly larger than the United Kingdom. The state is consequently known under the nickname El Estado Grande ("The Great State '' or "The Big State '').
Although Chihuahua is primarily identified with the Chihuahuan Desert for namesake, it has more forests than any other state in Mexico, with the exception of Durango. Due to its variant climate, the state has a large variety of fauna and flora. The state is mostly characterized by rugged mountainous terrain and wide river valleys. The Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range, an extension of the Rocky Mountains, dominates the state 's terrain and is home to the state 's greatest attraction, Las Barrancas del Cobre, or Copper Canyon, a canyon system larger and deeper than the Grand Canyon. On the slope of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains (around the regions of Casas Grandes, Cuauhtémoc and Parral), there are vast prairies of short yellow grass, the source of the bulk of the state 's agricultural production. Most of the inhabitants live along the Rio Grande Valley and the Conchos River Valley.
The etymology of the name Chihuahua has long been disputed by historians and linguists. The most accepted theory explains that the name was derived from the Nahuatl language meaning "The place where the water of the rivers meet '' (i.e., "confluence '', cf. Koblenz).
Chihuahua has a diversified state economy. The three most important economic centers in the state are: Ciudad Juárez, an international manufacturing center; Chihuahua, the state capital; and Delicias, the state 's main agriculture hub. Today Chihuahua serves as an important commercial route prospering from billions of dollars from international trade as a result of NAFTA. On the other hand the state suffers the fallout of illicit trade and activities especially at the border.
The earliest evidence of human inhabitants of modern day Chihuahua was discovered in the area of Samalayuca and Rancho Colorado. Clovis points have been found in northeastern Chihuahua that have been dated from 12,000 BC to 7000 BC. It is thought that these inhabitants were hunter gatherers. Inhabitants of the state later developed farming with the domestication of corn. An archeological site in northern Chihuahua known as Cerro Juanaqueña revealed squash cultivation, irrigation techniques, and ceramic artifacts dating to around 2000 BC.
Between AD 300 and 1300 in the northern part of the state along the wide, fertile valley on the San Miguel River the Casas Grandes (Big Houses) culture developed into an advanced civilization. The Casas Grandes civilization is part of a major prehistoric archaeological culture known as Mogollon which is related to the Ancestral Pueblo culture. Paquime was the center of the Casas Grandes civilization. Extensive archaeological evidence shows commerce, agriculture, and hunting at Paquime and Cuarenta Casas (Forty Houses).
La Cueva De Las Ventanas (The Cave of Windows), a series of cliff dwellings along an important trade route, and Las Jarillas Cave scrambled along the canyons of the Sierra Madre in Northwestern Chihuahua date between AD 1205 and 1260 and belong to the Paquimé culture. Cuarenta Casas is thought to have been a branch settlement from Paquime to protect the trade route from attack. Archaeologists believe the civilization began to decline during the 13th century and by the 15th century the inhabitants of Paquime sought refuge in the Sierra Madre Occidental while others are thought to have emigrated north and joined the Ancestral Pueblo peoples. According to anthropologist current natives tribes (Yaqui, Mayo, Opata, and Tarahumara) are descendants of the Casas Grandes culture.
During the 14th century in the northeastern part of the state nomad tribes by the name of Jornado hunted bison along the Rio Grande; they left numerous rock paintings throughout the northeastern part of the state. When the Spanish explorers reached this area they found their descendants, Suma and Manso tribes. In the southern part of the state, in a region known as Aridoamerica, Chichimeca people survived by hunting, gathering, and farming between AD 300 and 1300. The Chichimeca are the ancestors of the Tepehuan people.
Nueva Vizcaya (New Biscay) was the first province of northern New Spain to be explored and settled by the Spanish. Around 1528, a group of Spaniard explorers, led by Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, first entered the territory of what is now Chihuahua. The conquest of the territory lasted nearly one century and encountered fierce resistance from the Conchos tribe, but the desire of the Spanish Crown to transform the region into a bustling mining center led to a strong strategy to control the area.
In 1562 Francisco de Ibarra headed a personal expedition in search of the mythical cities of Cibola and Quivira; he traveled through the present - day state of Chihuahua. Francisco de Ibarra is thought to have been the first European to see the ruins of Paquime. In 1564 Rodrigo de Río de Loza, a lieutenant under Francisco de Ibarra, stayed behind after the expedition and found gold at the foot of the mountains of the Sierra Madre Occidental; he founded the first Spanish city in the region, Santa Barbara in 1567 by bringing 400 European families to the settlement. A few years later in 1569 Franciscan missionaries led by Fray Agustín Rodríguez from the coast of Sinaloa and the state of Durango founded the first mission in the state in Valle de San Bartolomé (present - day Valle de Allende). Fray Agustín Rodríguez evangelized the native population until 1581. Between 1586 and 1588 a epidemic caused a temporary exodus of the small population in the territory of Nueva Vizcaya.
Santa Bárbara became the launching place for expeditions into New Mexico by Spanish conquistadors like Antonio de Espejo, Gaspar Castaño, Antonio Gutiérrez de Umaña, Francisco Leyba de Bonilla, and Vicente de Zaldívar. Several expeditions were led to find a shorter route from Santa Barbara to New Mexico. In April 1598, Juan de Oñate found a short route from Santa Barbara to New Mexico which came to be called El Paso del Norte (The Northern Pass). The discovery of El Paso Del Norte was important for the expansion of El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro (The Inner Land Royal Road) to link Spanish settlements in New Mexico to Mexico City; El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro facilitated transport of settlers and supplies to New Mexico and Camargo.
In 1631 Juan Rangel de Biezma discovered a rich vein of silver and subsequently established San Jose del Parral near the site. Parral remained an important economic and cultural center for the next 300 years. On December 8, 1659 Fray García de San Francisco founded the mission of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de Mansos del Paso del Río del Norte and founded the town El Paso Del Norte (present day Ciudad Juárez) in 1667.
The Spanish society that developed in the region replaced the sparse population of indigenous peoples. The absence of servants and workers forged the spirit of northern people as self - dependent, creative people that defended their European heritage. In 1680 settlers from Santa Fe, New Mexico sought refuge in El Paso Del Norte for twelve years after fleeing the attacks from Pueblo tribes, but returned to Santa Fe in 1692 after Diego de Vargas recaptured the city and vicinity. In 1709, Antonio de Deza y Ulloa founded the state capital Chihuahua City; shortly after, the city became the headquarters for the regional mining offices of the Spanish crown known as ' Real de Minas de San Francisco de Cuéllar ' in honor of the Viceroy of New Spain, Francisco Fernández de la Cueva Enríquez, Duke of Alburquerque and the Marquee of Cuéllar.
During the Napoleonic Occupation of Spain, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest of progressive ideas, declared Mexican independence in the small town of Dolores, Guanajuato on September 16, 1810 with a proclamation known as the "Grito de Dolores ''. Hidalgo built a large support among intellectuals, liberal priests and many poor people. Hidalgo fought to protect the rights of the poor and indigenous population. He started on a march to the capital, Mexico City, but retreated back north when faced with the elite of the royal forces at the outskirts of the capital. He established a liberal government from Guadalajara, Jalisco but was soon forced to flee north by the royal forces that recaptured the city. Hidalgo attempted to reach the United States and gain American support for Mexican independence. Hidalgo reached Saltillo, Coahuila where he publicly resigned his military post and rejected a pardon offered by Viceroy Francisco Venegas in return for Hidalgo 's surrender. A short time later, he and his supporters were captured by royalist Ignacio Elizondo at the Wells of Baján (Norias de Baján) on March 21, 1811 and taken to the city of Chihuahua. Hidalgo forced the Bishop of Valladolid, Manuel Abad y Queipo, to rescind the excommunication order he had circulated against him on September 24, 1810. Later, the Inquisition issued an excommunication edict on October 13, 1810 condemning Miguel Hidalgo as a seditionary, apostate, and heretic.
Hidalgo was turned over to the Bishop of Durango, Francisco Gabriel de Olivares, for an official defrocking and excommunication on July 27, 1811. He was then found guilty of treason by a military court and executed by firing squad on July 30 at 7 in the morning. Before his execution, he thanked his jailers, Private Soldiers Ortega and Melchor, in letters for their humane treatment. At his execution, Hidalgo placed his right hand over his heart to show the riflemen where they should aim. He also refused the use of a blindfold. His body, along with the bodies of Allende, Aldama and José Mariano Jiménez were decapitated, and the heads were put on display on the four corners of the Alhóndiga de Granaditas in Guanajuato. The heads remained there for ten years until the end of the Mexican War of Independence to serve as a warning to other insurgents. Hidalgo 's headless body was first displayed outside the prison but then buried in the Church of St Francis in Chihuahua. Those remains would later be transferred in 1824 to Mexico City.
Hidalgo 's death resulted in a political vacuum on the insurgent side until 1812. The royalist military commander, General Felix Calleja, continued to pursue rebel troops. Insurgent fighting evolved into guerrilla warfare, and eventually the next major insurgent leader, Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon, who had led rebel movements with Hidalgo, became head of the insurgents.
Hidalgo is hailed as the Father of the Nation even though it was Agustin de Iturbide and not Hidalgo who achieved Mexican Independence in 1821. Shortly after gaining independence, the day to celebrate it varied between September 16, the day of Hidalgo 's Grito, and September 27, the day Iturbide rode into Mexico City to end the war. Later, political movements would favor the more liberal Hidalgo over the conservative Iturbide, so that eventually September 16, 1810 became the officially recognized day of Mexican independence. The reason for this is that Hidalgo is considered to be "precursor and creator of the rest of the heroes of the (Mexican War of) Independence. '' Hidalgo has become an icon for Mexicans who resist tyranny in the country. Diego Rivera painted Hidalgo 's image in half a dozen murals. José Clemente Orozco depicted him with a flaming torch of liberty and considered the painting among his best work. David Alfaro Siqueiros was commissioned by San Nicolas University in Morelia to paint a mural for a celebration commemorating the 200th anniversary of Hidalgo 's birth. The town of his parish was renamed Dolores Hidalgo in his honor and the state of Hidalgo was created in 1869. Every year on the night of September 15 -- 16, the president of Mexico re-enacts the Grito from the balcony of the National Palace. This scene is repeated by the heads of cities and towns all over Mexico. The remains of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla lie in the column of the Angel of Independence in Mexico City. Next to it is a lamp lit to represent the sacrifice of those who gave their lives for Mexican Independence.
In the constituent legislature or convention, the conservative and liberal elements formed using the nicknames of Chirrines and Cuchas. The military entered as a third party. The elections for the first regular legislature were disputed, and it was not until May 1, 1826, that the body was installed. The liberals gained control and the opposition responded by fomenting a conspiracy. This was promptly stopped with the aid of informers, and more strenuous measures were taken against the conservatives. Extra powers were conferred on the Durango governor, Santiago Baca Ortiz, deputy to the first national congress, and leader of the liberal party.
Opponents continued to plot against the new government. In March 1827, Lieutenant J.M. González proclaimed himself comandante general, arrested the governor, and dissolved the legislature. General Parras was sent to suppress the movement. Comandante general J.J. Ayestarán was replaced by José Figueroa. When elections failed, the government intervened in favor of the Yorkino party, which had elected Vicente Guerrero to the presidency.
Because of the general instability of the federal government during 1828, the installation of the new legislature did not take place until the middle of the following year. It was quickly dissolved by Governor Santiago de Baca Ortiz, who replaced it with a more pronounced Yorkino type. When Guerrero 's liberal administration was overthrown in December, Gaspar de Ochoa aligned with Anastasio Bustamante, and in February 1830, organized an opposition group that arrested the new governor, F. Elorriaga, along with other prominent Yorkinos. He then summoned the legislature, which had been dissolved by Baca. The civil and military authorities were now headed by J.A. Pescador and Simón Ochoa.
The general features of the preceding occurrence applied also to Chihuahua, although in a modified form. The first person elected under the new constitution of 1825 was Simón Elías Gonzalez, who being in Sonora, was induced to remain there. José Antonio Arcé took his place as ruler in Chihuahua. In 1829, González became general commander of Chihuahua, when his term of office on the west coast expired. Arcé was less of a yorkino than his confrere of Durango. Although unable to resist the popular demand for the expulsion of the Spaniards, he soon quarreled with the legislature, which declared itself firmly for Guerrero, and announcing his support of Bustamante 's revolution, he suspended, in March 1830, eight members of that body, the vice-governor, and several other officials, and expelled them from the state. The course thus outlined was followed by Governor José Isidro Madero, who succeeded in 1830, associated with J.J. Calvo as general commander, stringent laws being issued against secret societies, which were supposed to be the main spring to the anti-clerical feeling among liberals.
The anti-clerical feeling was widespread, and Durango supported the initial reaction against the government at Mexico. In May 1832, José Urrea, a rising officer, supported the restoration of President Pedraza. On July 20, Governor Elorriaga was reinstated, and Baca along with the legislative minority were brought back to form a new legislature, which met on September 1. Chihuahua showed no desire to imitate the revolutionary movement and Urrea prepared to invade the state. Comandante - general J.J. Calvo threatened to retaliate, and a conflict seemed imminent. The entry of General Santa Anna into Mexico brought calm, as the leaders waited for clarity.
Bishop José Antonio Laureano de Zubiría of Durango was banished for resisting the law relating to priests and other encroachments on the church; another joined the western states in a short lived coalition for sustaining the federal system. Chihuahua adopted the Plan of Cuernavaca in July 1834 while President Valentín Gómez Farías was in power. Because the plan was not enforced, commanding officer, Colonel J.I. Gutiérrez, declared the term of the legislature and governor expired on September 3.
At a convention of citizens called to select a new provisional ruler, Gutierrez obtained the vote, with P.J. Escalante for his deputy, and a council to guide the administration. Santa Anna ordered the reinstatement of Mendarozqueta as comandante general. Gutiérrez yielded, but Escalante refused to surrender office, demonstrations of support ensued, but Escalante yielded when troops were summoned from Zacatecas. A new election brought a new legislature, and conforming governors. In September 1835 José Urrea a federalist army officer came into power.
Comandante general Simón Elías González, was nominated governor and military command was given to Colonel J.J. Calvo, whose firmness had earned well - merited praise. The state was in the midst of a war with the Apaches, which became the focus of all their energy and resources. After a review of the situation, Simón Elías González declared that the interests of the territory would be best served by uniting the civil and military power, at least while the campaign lasted. He resigned under opposition, but was renominated in 1837.
The state seemed at relative calm compared to the rest of the country due to its close ties to the United States until 1841. In 1843 the possibility of war was anticipated by the state government and it began to reinforce the defense lines along the political boundary with Texas. Supplies of weapons were sent to fully equip the military and took steps to improve efficiency at the presidios. Later, the Regimen for the Defenders of the Border were organized by the state which were made up of: light cavalry, four squads of two brigades, and a small force of 14 men and 42 officials at the price of 160,603 pesos per year. During the beginning of the 1840s, private citizens took it upon themselves to stop the commercial caravans of supplies from the United States, but being so far away from the large suppliers in central Mexico the caravan was allowed to continue in March 1844. Continuing to anticipate a war, the state legislature on July 11, 1846 by decree enlisted 6,000 men to serve along the border; during that time Ángel Trías quickly rose to power by portraying zealous anti-American rhetoric. Trías took the opportunity to dedicate important state resources to gain economic concessions from the people and loans from many municipalities in preparation to defend the state; he used all the money he received to equip and organize a large volunteer militia. Ángel Trías took measures for state self - dependence in regards to state militia due to the diminishing financial support from the federal government.
The United States Congress declared war on Mexico on May 13, 1846 after only having a few hours to debate. Although President José Mariano Paredes 's issuance of a manifesto on May 23 is sometimes considered the declaration of war, Mexico officially declared war by Congress on July 7. After the American invasion of New Mexico, Chihuahua sent 12,000 men led by Colonel Vidal to the border to stop the American military advance into the state. The Mexican forces being impatient to confront the American forces passed beyond El Paso del Norte about 20 miles (32 km) north along the Rio Grande. The first battle that Chihuahua fought was the battle of El Bracito; the Mexican forces consisting of 500 cavalry and 70 infantry confronted a force of 1,100 -- 1,200 Americans on December 25, 1846. The battle ended badly by the Mexican forces that were then forced to retreat back into the state of Chihuahua. By December 27, 1846, the American forces occupied El Paso Del Norte. General Doniphan maintained camp in El Paso Del Norte awaiting supplies and artillery which he received in February 1847.
On February 8, 1847, Doniphan continued his march with 924 men mostly from Missouri; he accompanied a train of 315 wagons of a large commercial caravan heading to the state capital. Meanwhile, the Mexican forces in the state had time to prepare a defense against the Americans. About 20 miles (32 km) north of the capital where two mountain ranges join from east to west is the only pass into the capital; known as Sacramento Pass, this point is now part of present - day Chihuahua City. The Battle of Sacramento was the most important battle fought in the state of Chihuahua because it was the sole defense for the state capital. The battle ended quickly because of some devastating defensive errors from the Mexican forces and the ingenious strategic moves by the American forces. After their loss at the Battle of Sacramento, the remaining Mexican soldiers retreated south, leaving the city to American occupation. Almost 300 Mexicans were killed in the battle, as well as almost 300 wounded. The Americans also confiscated large amounts of Mexican supplies and took 400 Mexican soldiers prisoners of war. American forces maintained an occupation of the state capital for the rest of the Mexican -- American War.
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, by American diplomat Nicholas Trist and Mexican plenipotentiary representatives Luis G. Cuevas, Bernardo Couto, and Miguel Atristain, ended the war, gave the U.S. undisputed control of Texas, and established the U.S. -- Mexican border of the Rio Grande. As news of peace negotiations reached the state, new call to arms began to flare among the people of the state. But as the Mexican officials in Chihuahua heard that General Price was heading back to Mexico with a large force comprising several companies of infantry and three companies of cavalry and one division of light artillery from Santa Fe on February 8, 1848, Ángel Trías sent a message to Sacramento Pass to ask for succession of the area as they understood the war had concluded. General Price, misunderstanding this as a deception by the Mexican forces, continued to advance towards the state capital. On March 16, 1848 Price began negotiations with Ángel Trías, but the Mexican leader responded with an ultimatum to General Price. The American forces engaged with the Mexican forces near Santa Cruz de los Rosales on March 16, 1848. The Battle of Santa Cruz de los Rosales was the last battle of the Mexican -- American War and it occurred after the peace treaty was signed. The American forces maintained control over the state capital for three months after the confirmation of the peace treaty. The American presence served to delay the possible succession of the state which had been discussed at the end of 1847, and the state remained under United States occupation until May 22, 1848.
During the American occupation of the state, the number of Indian attacks was drastically reduced, but in 1848 the attacks resumed to such a degree that the Mexican officials had no choice but to resume military projects to protect Mexican settlements in the state. Through the next three decades the state faced constant attacks from indigenous on Mexican settlements. After the occupation the people of the state were worried about the potential attack from the hostile indigenous tribes north of the Rio Grande; as a result a decree on July 19, 1848, the state established 18 military colonies along the Rio Grande. The new military colonies were to replace the presidios as population centers to prevent future invasions by indigenous tribes; these policies remained prominent in the state until 1883. Eventually the state replaced the old state security with a state policy to form militias organized with every Mexican in the state capable to serve between the ages of 18 and 55 to fulfill the mandate of having six men defending for every 1000 residents.
The frontier counties of the state along the border with the United States expected federal protection from the federal government under Herrera and Arista, but were soon disappointed by the federal government 's decision to deploy military forces to other areas of the country due to internal challenges in the state of Jalisco. Ángel Trías led a rebellion to successfully depose the unpopular conservative Governor Cordero at the end of 1852.
Despite the efforts of strong political forces led by Ángel Trías in the state could not stop President Santa Anna from selling La Mesilla as part of the Gadsden Purchase on December 30, 1853 for 15 million USD. It was then ratified in the United States on April 25, 1854 and signed by President Franklin Pierce, with final approval action taken by Mexico on June 8, 1854. The citizens of the area held strong anti-American sentiments and raided American settlers and travelers across the area.
The state united behind the Plan of Ayutla and ratified the new constitution in 1855. The state was able to survive through the Reform War with minimal damage due to the large number of liberal political figures. The 1858 conservative movement did not succeed in the state even after the successful military campaign of the conservative Zuloaga with 1,000 men occupied the cities of Chihuahua and Parral. In August 1859, Zuloaga and his forces were defeated by the liberal Orozco and his forces; Orozco soon after deposed the state governor, but had to flee to Durango two months later. In the late 1860s the conservative General Cajen briefly entered the state after his campaign through the state of Jalisco and helped establish conservative politicians and ran out the liberal leaders Jesús González Ortega and José María Patoni. Cajen took possession of the state capital and established himself as governor; he brooked no delay in uniting a large force to combat the liberal forces which he defeated in La Batalla del Gallo. Cajen attained several advantages over the liberals within the state, but soon lost his standing due to a strong resurgence of the liberal forces within the state. The successful liberal leaders José María Patoni of Durango and J.E. Muñoz of Chihuahua quickly strengthened their standing by limiting the political rights of the clergy implementing the presidential decree. The state elected General Luis Terrazas, a liberal leader, as governor; he would continue to fight small battles within the state to suppress conservative uprisings during 1861.
In consequence to the Reform War, the federal government was bankrupt and could not pay its foreign debts to Spain, England, and France. On July 17, 1861, President Juárez decreed a moratorium on payment to foreign debtors for a period of two years. Spain, England, and France did not accept the moratorium by Mexico; they united at the Convention of the Triple Alliance on October 31, 1861 in which they agreed to take possession of several custom stations within Mexico as payment. A delegation of the Triple Alliance arrived in Veracruz in December 1861. President Juárez immediately sent his Foreign Affairs Minister, Manuel Doblado, who is able to reduce the debts through the Pacto de Soledad (Soledad Pact). General Juan Prim of Spain persuaded the English delegation to accept the terms of the Pacto de Soledad, but the French delegation refused.
The liberal political forces maintained strong control over the state government until shortly after the French Intervention which turned the tables in favor to the conservative forces once again. The intervention had serious repercussions for the state of Chihuahua. President Juárez, in an effort to organize a strong defense against the French, decreed a list of national guard units that every state had to contribute to the Ministry of War and the Navy; Chihuahua was responsible for inducting 2,000 men. Regaining power, Governor Luis Terrazas assigned the First Battalion of Chihuahua for integration into the national army led by General Jesús González Ortega; the battalion was deployed to Puebla. After the defeat of the army in Puebla, the Juárez administration was forced to abandon Mexico City; the president retreated further north seeking refuge in the state of Chihuahua.
Under threat from the conservative forces, Governor Terrazas was deposed, and the state legislature proclaimed martial law in the state in April 1864 and established Jesús José Casavantes as the new governor. In response, José María Patoni decided to march to Chihuahua with presidential support. Meanwhile, Maximilian von Habsburg, a younger brother of the Emperor of Austria, was proclaimed Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico on April 10, 1864 with the backing of Napoleon III and a group of Mexican conservatives. Before President Benito Juárez was forced to flee, Congress granted him an emergency extension of his presidency, which would go into effect in 1865 when his term expired, and last until 1867. At the same time, the state liberals and conservatives compromised to allow the popular Ángel Trías take the governorship; by this time the French forces had taken control over the central portions of the country and were making preparations to invade the northern states.
The French forces tried to subdue and capture the liberal government based in Saltillo. On September 21, 1864, José María Patoni and Jesús González Ortega lost against the French forces at the Battle of Estanzuelas; the supreme government led by President Juárez was forced to evacuate the city of Saltillo and relocate to Chihuahua. Juárez stopped in Ciudad Jiménez, Valle de Allende, and Hidalgo de Parral, in turn. He decreed Parral the capital of Mexico from October 2 -- 5, 1864. Perceiving the threat from the advancing French forces, the president continued his evacuation through Santa Rosalía de Camargo, Santa Cruz de Rosales, and finally Chihuahua, Chihuahua. On October 12, 1864, the people of the state gave President Juárez an overwhelmingly supportive reception, led by Governor Ángel Trías. On October 15, 1864 the city of Chihuahua was declared the temporary capital of Mexico.
After running imperial military affairs in the states of Coahuila and Durango, General Agustín Enrique Brincourt made preparations to invade the state of Chihuahua. On July 8, 1865 Brincourt crossed the Nazas River in northern Durango, heading toward Chihuahua. On July 22 Brincourt crossed the banks of Río Florido into Ciudad Jiménez; one day later he arrived at Valle de Allende where he sent Colonel Pyot with a garrison to take control of Hidalgo del Parral. Brincourt continued through Santa Rosalia de Camargo and Santa Cruz de Rosales. President Juárez remained in the state capital until August 5, 1865 when he left for El Paso del Norte (present - day Ciudad Juárez) due to evidence that the French were to attack the city. On the same day, the President named General Manuel Ojinaga the new governor and placed him in charge of all the republican forces. Meanwhile, General Villagran surprised the imperial forces in control of Hidalgo de Parral; after a short two - hour battle, Colonel Pyot was defeated and forced to retreat. At the Battle of Parral, the French lost 55 men to the Republican forces. On August 13, 1865, the French forces with an estimated 2,500 men arrived at the outskirts of Chihuahua City, and on August 15, 1865, General Brincourt defeated the republican forces, taking control of the state capital. Brincourt designated Tomás Zuloaga as Prefect of Chihuahua. Fearing the French would continue their campaign to El Paso del Norte, President Juárez relocated to El Carrizal, a secluded place in the mountains near El Paso del Norte, in August 1865,. It would have been easy for the French forces to continue in pursuit of President Juárez across the border, but they feared altercations with American forces. General François Achille Bazaine ordered the French troops to retreat back to the state of Durango after only reaching a point one days travel north of Chihuahua City. General Brincourt asked for 1,000 men to be left behind to help maintain control over the state, but his request was denied. After the death of General Ojinaga, the Republican government declared General Villagran in charge of the fight against the Imperial forces. The French left the state on October 29, 1865. President Juárez returned to Chihuahua City on November 20, 1865 and remained in the city until December 9, 1865 when he returned to El Paso del Norte. Shortly after the president left Chihuahua City, Terrazas was restored as governor of the state on December 11, 1865.
Maximilian was deeply dissatisfied with General Bazaine 's decision to abandon the state capital of Chihuahua and immediately ordered Agustín B. Billaut to recapture the city. On December 11, 1865, Billaut with a force of 500 men took control of the city. By January 31, 1866 Billaut was ordered to leave Chihuahua, but he left behind 500 men to maintain control. At the zenith of their power, the imperialist forces controlled all but four states in Mexico; the only states to maintain strong opposition to the French were: Guerrero, Chihuahua, Sonora, and Baja California.
President Juárez once again based his government in the state of Chihuahua and it served as the center for the resistance against the French invasion throughout Mexico. On March 25, 1866, a battle ensued in the Plaza de Armas in the center of Chihuahua City between the French imperial forces that were guarding the plaza and the Republican forces led by General Terrazas. Being completely caught off guard, the French imperial forces sought refuge by bunkering themselves in the Cathedral of the Holy Cross, Our Lady of Regla, and St Fancis of Assisi and made it almost impossible to penetrate their defenses. General Terrazas then decided to fire a heavy artillery barrage with 8 kg cannonballs. The first cannon fired hit a bell in the tower of the church, instantly breaking it in half; soon after, 200 men of the imperial army forces surrendered. The republican forces had recovered control over the state capital. The bell in the church was declared a historical monument and can be seen today in the Cathedral. By April 1866, the state government had established a vital trading route from Chihuahua City to San Antonio, Texas; the government began to replenish their supplies and reinforce their fight against the Imperial forces.
General Aguirre moved to the deserts of the southeastern portion of the state and defeated the French forces in Parral, led by Colonel Cottret. By the middle of 1866, the state of Chihuahua was declared free of enemy control; Parral was the last French stronghold within the state. On June 17, 1866, President Juárez arrived in Chihuahua City and remained in the capital until December 10, 1866. During his two years in the state of Chihuahua, President Juárez passed ordinances regarding the rights of adjudication of property and nationalized the property of the clergy. The distance of the French forces and their allies allowed the Ministry of War, led by General Negrete, to reorganize the state 's national guard into the Patriotic Battalion of Chihuahua, which was deployed to fight in the battle of Matamoros, Tamaulipas against the French. After a series of major defeats and an escalating threat from Prussia, France began pulling troops out of Mexico in late 1866. Disillusioned with the liberal political views of Maximilian, the Mexican conservatives abandoned him, and in 1867 the last of the Emperor 's forces were defeated. Maximilian was sentenced to death by a military court; despite national and international pleas for amnesty, Juárez refused to commute the sentence. Maximilian was executed by firing squad on June 19, 1867.
President Benito Juárez was re-elected in the general election of 1867 in which he received strong liberal support, especially in Chihuahua. Luis Terrazas was confirmed by the people of Chihuahua to be governor of the state. But soon after the election, President Juárez had another crisis on his hands; the Juárez administration was suspected to be involved in the assassination of the military chief José María Patoni executed by General Canto in August 1868. General Canto turned himself over to Donato Guerra. Canto was sentenced to death, but later his sentence changed to 10 years imprisonment. The sense of injustice gave rise to a new rebellion in 1869 that threatened the federal government. In response, the Juárez administration took drastic measures by temporarily suspending constitutional rights, but the governor of Chihuahua did not support this action. Hostilities continued to increase especially after the election of 1871 which was perceived to be fraudulent. A new popular leader arose among the rebels, Porfirio Díaz. The federal government was successful in quelling rebellions in Durango an Chihuahua. On July 18, 1872, President Juárez died from a heart attack; soon after, many of his supporters ceased the fighting. Peace returned to Chihuahua and the new government was led by Governor Antonio Ochoa (formerly a co-owner of the Batopilas silver mines) in 1873 after Luis Terrazas finished his term in 1872.
But the peace in the state did not last long, the elections of 1875 caused new hostilities. Ángel Trías led a new movement against the government in June 1875 and maintained control over the government until September 18, 1875 when Donato Guerra the orchestrator of the Revolution of the North was captured. Donato Guerra was assassinated in a suburb of Chihuahua City where he was incarcerated for conspiring with Ángel Trías. During October 1875 several locations were controlled by rebel forces, but the government finally regained control on November 25, 1875.
After the death of the president Benito Juárez in 1872, the first magistracy of the country was occupied by the vice-president Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, who called for new elections. Two candidates were registered; Lerdo de Tejada and General Porfirio Díaz, one of the heroes of the Battle of Puebla which had taken place on May 5, 1862. Lerdeo de Tejada won the election, but lost popularity after he announced his intent to run for re-election. On March 21, 1876, Don Porfirio Díaz rebelled against President Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada. The Plan of Tuxtepec defended the "No Re-election '' principle. On June 2, 1876 the garrisons in the state of Chihuahua surrendered to the authority of General Porfirio Díaz; Governor Antonio Ochoa was arrested until all the Lerdista forces were suppressed throughout the state. Porfirio Díaz then helped Tíras regain the governorship of the state of Chihuahua allowing for the Plan of Tuxtepec to be implemented. The victory of the Plan of Tuxtepec, gave the interim presidency to Jose Maria Iglesias and later, as the only candidate, the General Porfirio Díaz assumed the presidency on May 5, 1877. During the first years of the Porfiriato (Porfirio Díaz Era), the Díaz administration had to combat several attacks from the Lerdista forces and the Apache. A new rebellion led by the Lerdista party was orchestrated from exile in the United States. The Lerdista forces were able to temporarily occupy the city of El Paso del Norte until mid-1877. During 1877 the northern parts of the state suffered through a spell of extreme drought which were responsible for many deaths in El Paso del Norte.
The officials in Mexico City reduced the price of corn from six cents to two cents a pound. The northern portion of the state continued to decline economically which led to another revolt led by G. Casavantes in August 1879; Governor Trías was accused of misappropriation of funds and inefficient administration of the state. Casavantes took the state capital and occupied it briefly; he was also successful in forcing Governor Trías to exile. Shortly afterwards, the federal government sent an entourage led by Treviño; Casavantes was immediately ordered to resign his position. Casavantes declared political victory as he was able to publicly accuse and depose Governor Trías. At the same time the states of Durango and Coahuila had a military confrontation over territorial claims and water rights; this altercation between the state required additional federal troops to stabilize the area. Later a dispute ensued again among the states of Coahuila, Durango, and Chihuahua over the mountain range area known as Sierra Mojada, when large deposits of gold ore was discovered. The state of Chihuahua officially submitted a declaration of protest in May 1880 that shortly after was amicably settled. Despite the difficulties at the beginning, Díaz was able to secure and stabilize the state, which earned the confidence and support of the people.
During the 1880s, the Díaz administration consolidated several government agencies throughout Mexico to control credit and currency by the creation of the Institution of Credit and Currency. Because Díaz had created such an effective centralized government, he was able to concentrate decision making and maintain control over the economic instability.
The Díaz administration made political decisions and took legal measures that allowed the elite throughout Mexico to concentrate the nation 's wealth by favoring monopolies. During this time, two - fifths of the state 's territory was divided among 17 rich families which owned practically all of the arable land in Chihuahua. The state economy grew at a rapid pace during the Porfiriato; the economy in Chihuahua was dominated by agriculture and mining. The Díaz administration helped Governor Luis Terrazas by funding the Municipal Public Library in Chihuahua City and passing a federal initiative for the construction of the railroad from Chihuahua City to Ciudad Júarez. By 1881, the Central Mexican Railroad was completed which connected Mexico City to Ciudad Juárez. In 1883 telephone lines were installed throughout the state, allowing communication between Chihuahua City and Aldama. By 1888 the telephone services were extended from the capital to the cites of Julimes, Meoqui, and Hidalgo del Parral; the telecommunication network in the state covered an estimated 3,500 kilometers. The need of laborers to construct the extensive infrastructure projects resulted in a significant Asian immigration, mostly from China. Asian immigrants soon become integral to the state economy by opening restaurants, small grocery stores, and hotels. By the end of the Terrazas term, the state experienced an increase in commerce, mining, and banking. When the banks were nationalized, Chihuahua became the most important banking state in Mexico.
Under Governor Miguel Ahumada, the education system in the state was unified and brought under tighter control by the state government, and the metric system was standardized throughout the state to replace the colonial system of weights and measures. On September 16, 1897, the Civilian Hospital of Chihuahua was inaugurated in Chihuahua City and became known among the best in the country. In 1901 the Heroes Theater (Teatro de los Héroes) opened in Chihuahua City. On August 18, 1904, Governor Terrazas was replaced by Governor Enrique C. Creel. From 1907 to 1911, the Creel administration succeeded in advancing the state 's legal system, modernizing the mining industry, and raising public education standards. In 1908 the Chihuahuan State Penitentiary was built, and the construction on the first large scale dam project was initiated on the Chuviscar River. During the same time, the streets of Chihuahua City were paved and numerous monuments were built in Chihuahua City and Ciudad Juárez.
Díaz created an effective centralized government that helped concentrate wealth and political power among the elite upper class, mostly criollo. The economy was characterized by the construction of factories, roads, dams, and better farms. The Díaz administration passed new land laws that virtually unraveled all the rights previously recognized and the land reforms passed by President Benito Juárez. No peasant or farmer could claim the land he occupied without formal legal title.
A handful of families owned large estates (known as haciendas) and controlled the greater part of the land across the state while the vast majority of Chihuahuans were landless. The state economy was largely defined by ranching and mining. At the expense of the working class, the Díaz administration promoted economic growth by encouraging investment from foreign companies from the United Kingdom, France, Imperial Germany and the United States. The proletariat was often exploited, and found no legal protection or political recourse to redress injustices.
Despite the internal stability (known as the paz porfiriana), modernization, and economic growth in Mexico during the Porfiriato from 1876 to 1910, many across the state became deeply dissatisfied with the political system. When Díaz first ran for office, he committed to a strict "No Re-election '' policy in which he disqualified himself to serve consecutive terms. Eventually backtracking on many of his initial political positions Díaz became a de facto dictator. Díaz became increasingly unpopular due to brutal suppression of political dissidents by using the Rurales and manipulating the elections to solidify his political machine. The working class was frustrated with the Díaz regime due to the corruption of the political system that had increased the inequality between the rich and poor. The peasants felt disenfranchised by the policies that promoted the unfair distribution of land where 95 % of the land was owned by the top 5 %.
The end of the Porfiriato came in 1910 with the beginning of the Mexican Revolution. Díaz had stated that Mexico was ready for democracy and he would step down to allow other candidates to compete for the presidency, but Díaz decided to run again in 1910 for the last time against Francisco I. Madero. During the campaign Díaz incarcerated Madero on election day in 1910. Díaz was announced the winner of the election by a landslide, triggering the revolution. Madero supporter Toribio Ortega took up arms with a group of followers at Cuchillo Parado, Chihuahua on November 10, 1910.
In response to Madero 's letter to action, Pascual Orozco (a wealthy mining baron) and Chihuahua Governor Abraham González formed a powerful military union in the north, taking military control of several northern Mexican cities with other revolutionary leaders, including Pancho Villa. Against Madero 's wishes, Orozco and Villa fought for and won Ciudad Juárez. After militias loyal to Madero defeated the Mexican federal army, on May 21, 1911, Madero signed the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez with Díaz. It required that Díaz abdicate his rule and be replaced by Madero. Insisting on a new election, Madero won overwhelmingly in late 1911, and he established a liberal democracy and received support from the United States and popular leaders such as Orozco and Villa. Orozco eventually became disappointed with the Madero 's government and led a rebellion against him. He organized his own army, called "Orozquistas '' -- also called the Colorados ("Red Flaggers '') -- after Madero refused to agree to social reforms calling for better working hours, pay and conditions. The rural working class, which had supported Madero, now took up arms against him in support of Orozco.
In March 1912, in Chihuahua, Gen. Pascual Orozco revolted. Immediately President Francisco Madero commanded Gen. Victoriano Huerta of the Federal Army, to put down the Orozco revolt. The governor of Chihuahua mobilized the state militia led by Colonel Pancho Villa to supplement General Huerta. By June, Villa notified Huerta that the Orozco revolt had been put down and that the militia would consider themselves no longer under Huerta 's command and would depart. Huerta became furious and ordered that Villa be executed. Raúl Madero, Madero 's brother, intervened to save Villa 's life. Jailed in Mexico City, Villa fled to the United States. Madero 's time as leader was short - lived, ended by a coup d'état in 1913 led by Gen. Victoriano Huerta; Orozco sided with Huerta, and Huerta made him one of his generals.
On March 26, 1913, Venustiano Carranza issued the Plan de Guadalupe, which refused to recognize Huerta as president and called for war between the two factions. Soon after the assassination of President Madero, Carranza returned to Mexico to fight Huerta, but with only a handful of comrades. However, by 1913 his forces had swelled into an army of thousands, called the División del Norte (Northern Division). Villa and his army, along with Emiliano Zapata and Álvaro Obregón, united with Carranza to fight against Huerta. In March 1914 Carranza traveled to Ciudad Juárez, which served as rebellion 's capital for the remainder of the struggle with Huerta. In April 1914 U.S. opposition to Huerta had reached its peak, blockading the regime 's ability to resupply from abroad. Carranza trying to keep his nationalistic credentials threatened war with the United States. In his spontaneous response to U.S. President Woodrow Wilson Carranza asked "that the president withdraw American troops from Mexico. ''
The situation became so tense that war with the United States seemed imminent. On April 22, 1914, on the initiative of Felix A. Sommerfeld and Sherburne Hopkins, Pancho Villa traveled to Juárez to calm fears along the border and asked President Wilson 's emissary George Carothers to tell "Señor Wilson '' that he had no problems with the American occupation of Veracruz. Carothers wrote to Secretary William Jennings Bryan: "As far as he was concerned we could keep Vera Cruz (sic) and hold it so tight that not even water could get in to Huerta and... he could not feel any resentment ''. Whether trying to please the U.S. government or through the diplomatic efforts of Sommerfeld and Carothers, or maybe as a result of both, Villa stepped out from under Carranza 's stated foreign policy.
The uneasy alliance of Carranza, Obregón, Villa, and Zapata eventually led the rebels to victory. The fight against Huerta formally ended on August 15, 1914, when Álvaro Obregón signed a number of treaties in Teoloyucan in which the last of Huerta 's forces surrendered to him and recognized the constitutional government. On August 20, 1914, Carranza made a triumphal entry into Mexico City. Carranza (supported by Obregón) was now the strongest candidate to fill the power vacuum and set himself up as head of the new government. This government successfully printed money, passed laws, etc.
Villa and Carranza had different political goals causing Villa to become an enemy of Carranza. After Carranza took control in 1914, Villa and other revolutionaries who opposed him met at what was called the Convention of Aguascalientes. The convention deposed Carranza in favor of Eulalio Gutiérrez. In the winter of 1914 Villa 's and Zapata 's troops entered and occupied Mexico City. Villa was forced from the city in early 1915 and attacked the forces of Gen. Obregón at the Battle of Celaya and was badly defeated in the bloodiest battle of the revolution, with thousands dead. With the defeat of Villa, Carranza seized power. A short time later the United States recognized Carranza as president of Mexico. Even though Villa 's forces were badly depleted by his loss at Celaya, he continued his fight against the Carranza government. Finally, in 1920, Obregón -- who had defeated him at Celaya -- finally reached an agreement with Villa end his rebellion.
Public opinion pressured the U.S. government to bring Villa to justice for the raid on Columbus, New Mexico; U.S. President Wilson sent Gen. John J. Pershing and some 5,000 troops into Mexico in an unsuccessful attempt to capture Villa. It was known as the Punitive Expedition. After nearly a year of pursuing Villa, American forces returned to the United States. The American intervention had been limited to the western sierras of Chihuahua. Villa had the advantage of intimately knowing the inhospitable terrain of the Sonoran Desert and the almost impassable Sierra Madre mountains and always managed to stay one step ahead of his pursuers. In 1923 Villa was assassinated by a group of seven gunmen who ambushed him while he was sitting in the back seat of his car in Parral.
On February 6, 2010, former Governor José Reyes Baeza proposed to move the three State Powers (Executive, Legislative, and Judicial) from Chihuahua to Ciudad Juárez in order to face the insecurity problems in Ciudad Juárez, but that request was rejected by the State Legislature on February 12.
The state of Chihuahua is the largest state in the country and is known as El Estado Grande (The Big State); it accounts for 12.6 % of the land of Mexico. The area is landlocked by the states of Sonora to the west, Sinaloa to the south - west, Durango to the south, and Coahuila to the east, and by the U.S. states of Texas to the northeast and New Mexico to the north. The state is made up of three geologic regions: Mountains, Plains - Valleys, and Desert, which occur in large bands from west to east. Because of the different geologic regions there are contrasting climates and ecosystems.
The main mountain range in the state is the Sierra Madre Occidental reaching a maximum altitude of 10,826 ft (3,300 m) known as Cerro Mohinora. Mountains account for one third of the state 's surface area which include large coniferous forests. The climate in the mountainous regions varies Chihuahua has more forests than any other state in Mexico making the area a bountiful source of wood; the mountainous areas are rich in minerals important to Mexico 's mining industry. Precipitation and temperature in the mountainous areas depends on the elevation. Between the months of November and March snow storms are possible in the lower elevations and are frequent in the higher elevations. There are several watersheds located in the Sierra Madre Occidental all of the water that flows through the state; most of the rivers finally empty into the Río Grande. Temperatures in some canyons in the state reach over 100 ° F (38 ° C) in the summer while the same areas rarely drop below 32 ° F (0 ° C) in the winter. Microclimates found in the heart of the Sierra Madre Occidental in the state could be considered tropical, and wild tropical plants have been found in some canyons. La Barranca del Cobre, or Copper Canyon, a spectacular canyon system larger and deeper than the Grand Canyon; the canyon also contains Mexico 's two tallest waterfalls: Basaseachic Falls and Piedra Volada. There are two national parks found in the mountainous area of the state: Cumbres de Majalca National Park and Basaseachic Falls National Park.
The plains at the foot of the Sierra Madre Occidental is an elongated mesa known as Altiplanicie Mexicana that exhibits a steppe climate and serves as a transition zone from the mountain climate in the western part of the state to the desert climate in the eastern side of the state. The steppe zone accounts for a third of the state 's area, and it experiences pronounced dry and wet seasons. The pronounced rainy season in the steppe is usually observed in the months of July, August, and September. The steppe also encounters extreme temperatures that often reach over 100 ° F (38 ° C) in the summer and drop below 32 ° F (0 ° C) in the winter. The steppe zone is an important agriculture zone due to an extensive development of canals exploiting several rivers that flow down from the mountains. The steppe zone is the most populated area of the state.
The most important river in the state is Río Conchos which is the largest tributary to the Río Grande from the Mexican side; the river descends from the zenith of the Sierra Madre Occidental in the southwest part of the state and winds through the center of the state where the water is exploited in the steppe zone and it eventually empties into the Río Grande in the small desert town of Ojinaga.
The desert zone also accounts for about a third of the state 's surface area. The Chihuahuan Desert is an international biome that also extends into the neighboring Mexican state of Coahuila and into the U.S. states of Texas and New Mexico. The desert zone is mainly of flat topography with some small mountain ranges that run north to south. The desert in the state varies slightly with a small variant in climate. The lower elevations of the desert zone are found in the north along the Rio Grande which experience hotter temperatures in the summer and winter while the southern portion of the desert zone experiences cooler temperatures due to its higher elevation. The Samalayuca dunes cover an area of about 150 km; it is an impressive site of the Chihuahuan Desert and is a protected area by the state due to unique species of plants and animals.
The climate in the state depends mainly in the elevation of the terrain. According to Köppen climate classification the state has five major climate zones. The Sierra Madre Occidental dominates the western part of the state; there are two main climates in this area: Subtropical Highland (Cfb) and Humid Subtropical (Cwa). There are some microclimates in the state due to the varying topology mostly found in the western side of the state. The two best known microclimates are: Tropical savanna climate (Aw) in deep canyons located in the extreme southern part of the state; Continental Mediterranean climate (Dsb) in the extremely high elevations of the Sierra Madre Occidental. Satellite image to the right shows the vegetation is much greener in the west because of the cooler temperatures and larger amounts of precipitation as compared to the rest of the state.
In the far eastern part of the state the Chihuahuan Desert dominates due to low precipitation and extremely high temperatures; some areas of the eastern part of the state are so dry no vegetation is found like the Sand Dunes of Samalayuca. There are two distinctive climate zones found in the eastern part of the state: Hot Desert (BWh) and Cool Desert (BWk) which are differentiated by average annual temperature due to differences in elevation. There is a transition zone in the middle of the state between the two extremely different climates from the east and west; this zone is the Steppe characterized by a compromise between juxtaposed climate zones.
The state has a great diversity due to the large number of microclimates found and dramatic varying terrain. The flora throughout the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range varies with elevation. Pine (Pinus) and oak (Quercus) species are usually found at an elevation of 2,000 m (6,560 ft) above sea level. The most common species of flora found in the mountains are: Pinus, Quercus, Abies, Ficus, Vachellia, Ipomoea, Acacia, Lysiloma, Bursera, Vitex, Tabebuia, Sideroxylon, Cordia, Fouquieria, Pithecellobium. The state is home to one of the largest variation species of the genus Pinus in the world. The lower elevations have a steppe vegetation with a variety of grasses and small bushes. Several species of Juniperus dot the steppe and the transition zone.
According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the Chihuahuan Desert may be the most biologically diverse desert in the world, whether measured on species richness or endemism, although the region has been heavily degraded over time. Many native species have been replaced with creosote shrubs. The most common desert flora in the state includes: Agave, Larrea, Prosopis, Fouquieria, Dasylirion, Yucca, Poaceae, Lophophora, Opuntia, Echinocereus, Baileya, Chilopsis, Eucnide, and Hylocereus.
The fauna in the state is just as diverse as the flora and varies greatly due to the large contrast in climates. In the mountain zone of the state the most observed mammals are: Mexican fox squirrel (Sciurus nayaritensis), antelope jackrabbit (Lepus alleni), raccoon (Procyon lotor), hooded skunk (Mephitis macroura), wild boar (Sus scrofa), collared peccary (Pecari tajacu), white - tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), mule deer Odocoileus hemionus, American bison Bison bison, cougar (Puma concolor), eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus, North American porcupine Erethizon dorsatum, bobcat Lynx rufus, Mexican wolf Canis lupus baileyi, and coyote Canis latrans. American black bear Ursus americanus is also found but in very small numbers. The Mexican wolf, once abundant, has been extirpated. The main cause of degradation has been grazing. Although there are many reptilian species in the mountains the most observed species include: Northern Mexican pine snake, Pituophis deppei jani, Texas horned lizard (Phrynosoma cornutum), rock rattlesnake (Crotalus lepidus), black - tailed rattlesnake (Crotalus molossus), and plateau tiger salamander Ambystoma velasci, one of possibly many amphibians to be found in the mountains.
The Chihuahuan Desert is home to a diverse ecosystem which is home to a large variety of mammals. The most common mammals in the desert include: Desert cottontail Sylvilagus audubonii, black - tailed jackrabbit Lepus californicus, hooded skunk Mephitis macroura, cactus mouse Peromyscus eremicus, swift fox Vulpes velox, white - throated woodrat Neotoma albigula, pallid bat Antrozous pallidus, and coyote Canis latrans. The most observed reptiles in the desert include: Mohave rattlesnake Crotalus scutulatus, twin - spotted rattlesnake Crotalus pricei, prairie rattlesnake Crotalus viridis, ridge - nosed rattlesnake Crotalus willardi, whip snake Masticophis flagellum, New Mexico whiptail Cnemidophorus neomexicanus, and red - spotted toad Bufo punctatus.
The state is also a host to a large population of birds which include endemic species and migratory species: greater roadrunner Geococcyx californianus, cactus wren Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus, Mexican jay Aphelocoma ultramarina, Steller 's jay Cyanocitta stelleri, acorn woodpecker Melanerpes formicivorus, canyon towhee Pipilo fuscus, mourning dove Zenaida macroura, broad - billed hummingbird Cynanthus latirostris, Montezuma quail Cyrtonyx montezumae, mountain trogon Trogon mexicanus, turkey vulture Cathartes aura, and golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos. Trogon mexicanus is an endemic species found in the mountains in Mexico; it is considered an endangered species and has symbolic significance to Mexicans.
According to the census by the Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI) in 2005, the state population is 3,241,444 making the state the 11th most populated state in Mexico. Census recorded 1,610,275 men and 1,631,169 women. The median age of the population is 25 years. The northern state is placed seventh in the nation regarding quality of life and sixth in terms of life expectancy at 75.2 years of age.
During the period from 2000 -- 2005 it is estimated that 49,722 people left the state for the United States. Some 82,000 people are thought to have immigrated to the state from 2000 -- 2005 mainly coming from Veracruz (17.6 %), United States (16.2 %), Durango (13.2 %), Coahuila (8.0 %) and Chiapas (4.5 %). It is believed that there is a large number of undocumented immigrants in that state the come from Central and South America which mainly settle in Ciudad Juárez. According to the 2005 census, the population grew 1.06 % from 2000 to 2005. The state has an uneven settlement of people and the lowest population density of any Mexican state; according to the 2005 census there were 12 people per km. Of all the 3,241,444 people in the state, two - thirds (2,072,129) live in the cities of Ciudad Juárez and Chihuahua. Only three other cities have populations over 100,000: Parral 101,147, Cuauhtémoc 105,725, and Delicias 108,187.
The last census in Mexico that asked for an individual 's race, which was taken in 1921, indicated that 50.09 % of the population identified as Mestizo (mixed Amerindian and European descent). The second - largest group was whites at 36.33 % of the population. The third - largest group was the "pure indigenous '' population, constituting 12.76 % of the population. The remaining 0.82 % of the population of Chihuahua was considered "other '', i.e., neither Mestizo, indigenous, nor white. The most important indigenous tribes of the state of Chihuahua are:
Although the great majority of residents of the state of Chihuahua are Catholics, there is a large diversity of religions within the state. There are many apostolic churches, Mormon wards, and large Mennonite communities. Those aged 5 years and older claim to be the following religious beliefs: 84.6 % are Catholic; 7.1 % are Protestant; 2.0 % are Nondenominational; 5.1 % are Atheist. Compared to most of Mexico, the state has a higher percentage of Protestants.
During the Mexican Revolution, Álvaro Obregón invited a group of Canadian German - speaking Mennonites to resettle in Mexico. By the late 1920s, some 7,000 had immigrated to Chihuahua State and Durango State, almost all from Canada, only a few from the U.S. and Russia. Today, Mexico accounts for about 42 % of all Mennonites in Latin America. Mennonites in the country stand out because of their fair skin, hair, and eyes. They are a largely insular community that speaks a form of German and wear traditional clothing. They own their own businesses in various communities in Chihuahua, and account for about half of the state 's farm economy, excelling in cheese production.
The state has one city with a population exceeding one million: Ciudad Juárez. Ciudad Juárez is ranked eighth most populous city in the country and Chihuahua City was ranked 16th most populous in Mexico. Chihuahua (along with Baja California) is the only state in Mexico to have two cities ranked in the top 20 most populated. El Paso and Ciudad Juárez comprise one of the largest binational metropolitan areas in the world with a combined population of 2.4 million. In fact, Ciudad Juárez is one of the fastest growing cities in the world in spite of the fact that it is "the most violent zone in the world outside of declared war zones ''. For instance, a few years ago the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas published that in Ciudad Juárez "the average annual growth over the 10 - year period 1990 -- 2000 was 5.3 percent. Juárez experienced much higher population growth than the state of Chihuahua and than Mexico as a whole ''. Chihuahua City has one of the highest literacy rates in the country at 98 %; 35 % of the population is aged 14 or below, 60 % 15 - 65, and 5 % over 65. The growth rate is 2.4 %. The 76.5 % of the population of the state of Chihuahua live in cities which makes the state one of the most urbanized in Mexico.
According to the Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática (INEGI), 95.6 % of the population over the age of 15 could read and write Spanish, and 97.3 % of children of ages 8 -- 14 could read and write Spanish. An estimated 93.5 % of the population ages 6 -- 14 attend an institution of education. Estimated 12.8 % of residents of the state have obtained a college degree. Average schooling is 8.5 years, which means that in general the average citizen over 15 years of age has gone as far as a second year in secondary education.
Institutions of higher education include:
The current government of the state was established officially by the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States in 1917. The state government is divided into three branches: the legislative branch, the judicial branch, and the executive branch. The government is centrally located in the state capital Chihuahua City.
The legislative branch consists of an elected assembly of representatives to form the state congress. The congress is composed of 33 deputies, of which 22 are directly elected to represent each of the 22 districts in the state. In addition 11 deputies are elected by system of proportional representation through a list of registered political party members. Deputies are elected every three years and can not be reelected consecutively.
The judicial branch is led by the Supreme Tribunal of Justice which is constituted of 15 magistrate judges. The judges are appointed by the governor and approved by the state congress. The executive branch is headed by the governor of the state, who is elected for one term of six years on the fourth day of October every election year. Governors are not eligible to be reelected due to constitutional one - term limitation.
The state is represented at the federal level in the Congress of the Union by three senators and nine deputies (representatives). The deputies serve three - year terms and are elected in federal elections. The senators serve six - year terms and are elected in federal elections.
Chihuahua is subdivided into 67 municipios (municipalities).
The state has the 12th - largest state economy in Mexico, accounting for 2.7 % of the country 's GDP. Chihuahua has the fifth highest manufacturing GDP in Mexico and ranks second for the most factories funded by foreign investment in the country. As of 2011, the state had an estimated 396 billion pesos (31.1 billion dollars) of annual GDP. According to official federal statistical studies, the service sector accounted for the largest portion of the state economy at 59.28 %; the manufacturing and industrial sector is estimated to account for 34.36 % of the state 's GDP, with the agricultural sector accounting for 6.36 % of the state 's GDP. Manufacturing sector was the principal foreign investment in the state followed by the mining sector. In 2011, the state received approximately 884 million dollars in remittances from the United States, which was 4.5 % of all remittances from the United States to Mexico.
During the 1990s after NAFTA was signed, industrial development grew rapidly with foreign investment. Large factories known as maquiladoras were built to export manufactured goods to the United States and Canada. Today, most of the maquiladoras produce electronics, automobile, and aerospace components. There are more than 406 companies operating under the federal IMMEX or Prosec program in Chihuahua. The large portion of the manufacturing sector of the state is 425 factories divided into 25 industrial parks accounting for 12.47 % of the maquiladoras in Mexico, which employ 294,026 people in the state. While export - driven manufacturing is one of the most important components of the state 's economy, the industrial sector is quite diverse and can be broken down into several sectors, which are: electronics, agro-industrial, wood base manufacturing, mineral, and biotech. Similar to the rest of the country, small businesses continue to be the foundation of the state 's economy. Small business employs the largest portion of the population.
As of 2007, the state 's economy employed 786,758 people, which accounted for 3.9 % of the country 's workforce with annual GDP per capita of 136,417 pesos (12,338 dollars). The average employee wage in Chihuahua is approximately 193 pesos per day. The minimum wage in the state is 61.38 pesos (4.66 dollars) per day except for the municipalities of Guadalupe, Ciudad Juárez, and Praxedis G. Guerrero, which have a minimum wage of 64.76 Mexican pesos (4.92 dollars).
Agriculture is a relatively small component of the state 's economy and varies greatly due to the varying climate across the state. The state ranked first in Mexico for the production of the following crops: oats, chile verde, cotton, apples, pecans, and membrillo. The state has an important dairy industry with large milk processors throughout the state. Delicias is home to Alpura, the second - largest dairy company in Mexico. The state has a large logging industry ranking second in oak and third in pine in Mexico. The mining industry is a small but continues to produce large amounts of minerals. The state ranked first place in the country for the production of lead with 53,169 metric tons. Chihuahua ranked second in Mexico for zinc at 150,211 metric tons, silver at 580,271 kg, and gold at 15,221.8 kg.
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where is the 2018 little league world series being played at | 2018 Little League World Series - wikipedia
The 2018 Little League World Series was held from August 16 to August 26 at the Little League headquarters complex in South Williamsport, Pennsylvania. Eight teams from the United States and eight teams from around the world competed in the 72nd edition of the tournament. Honolulu Little League of Honolulu, Hawaii defeated South Seoul Little League of Seoul, South Korea in the championship by a 3 -- 0 score. It was the third championship for a team from Hawaii, having won previously in 2005 and 2008.
Regional qualifying tournaments were held between June and August 2018.
The draw to determine the opening round pairings took place on June 14, 2018.
Teams that lose their first two games get to play a consolation game against a team from the other side of the bracket that also lost its first two games. These games are labeled Game A and Game B.
This consolation game is played between the runner - up of the United States championship and the runner - up of the International championship.
The Honolulu LL reached the LLWS with an undefeated record in seven games. In total, their record was 12 -- 0.
On September 29, 2017, Major League Baseball announced that the second MLB Little League Classic would be played on August 19, 2018, between the New York Mets and Philadelphia Phillies. The game was again played at BB&T Ballpark at Historic Bowman Field, with the Mets winning, 8 -- 2.
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what does it mean when you sprain something | Sprain - wikipedia
A sprain, also known as a torn ligament, is damage to one or more ligaments in a joint, often caused by trauma or the joint being taken beyond its functional range of motion. The severity of sprain ranges from a minor injury which resolves in a few days to a major rupture of one or more ligaments requiring surgical fixation and a period of immobilization. Sprains can occur in any joint but are most common in the ankle and wrist.
Sprains typically occur when the joint is taken beyond its functional range of motion.
There are certain factors which increase risk of sprains. Fatigue of muscles generally leads to sprains. When one suddenly starts to exercise after a sedentary lifestyle, sprains are quite common. While scientific studies are lacking, it is often thought that not warming up is a common cause of sprains in athletes. Warming up is thought to loosen the joint, increases blood flow and makes the joint more flexible.
A diagnosis of a sprain can often be made with a good degree of certainty by physical examination based on the clinical presentation and method of injury. In some cases, X-rays are obtained to ensure that there is no fracture. In some cases, particularly if the injury is prolonged or does not appear to be resolving as expected, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is performed to look at surrounding soft tissues and the ligament.
Although any joint can experience a sprain, some of the more common include:
The first modality for a sprain can be remembered using the acronym RICE. The treatment of sprains depends on the extent of injury and the joint involved. Medications like non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs can relieve pain. Topical NSAIDs appear to be as good as those taken by mouth.
Ice and compression (cold compression therapy) will not completely stop swelling and pain, but will help to minimize them as the sprain begins to heal itself. Careful management of swelling is critical to the healing process as additional fluid may pool in the sprained area.
The joint should be exercised again fairly soon, in milder cases from 1 to 3 days after injury. Special exercises are sometimes needed in order to regain strength and help reduce the risk of ongoing problems. The joint may need to be supported by taping or bracing, helping protect it from re-injury.
Prolonged immobilization delays the healing of a sprain, as it usually leads to muscle atrophy and stiff joint. The components of an effective rehabilitation for all sprain injuries include increasing range of motion and progressive muscle strengthening exercise. These should be taken care of without delay.
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who does rhiannon end up with in every day | Every Day (novel) - wikipedia
Every Day is a young adult romance and fantasy novel written by American author David Levithan. It was published on August 28, 2012 by Knopf Books for Young Readers, and is recommended for ages 14 -- 18. Every Day is a New York Times bestseller.
A prequel novella only available digitally titled Six Earlier Days was released on November 26 of the same year. A companion novel titled Another Day was released on August 25, 2015, and a sequel titled Someday is scheduled to be released in 2018.
Every Day is about the story of A, a person who wakes up occupying a different body each day. As described by Frank Bruni of The New York Times, "A. does n't have a real name, presumably because they do n't have a real existence: they 're not a person, at least not in any conventional sense, but they have a spirit, switching without choice from one host to the next and, for just 24 hours, replacing its consciousness with their own. '' A has their own memories, but they are also able to tap into the memories of the person whose body they are occupying.
The story begins with A waking up in the body of a teenage boy named Justin. Upon arriving to school, A meets Justin 's girlfriend, Rhiannon, and feels an instant connection to her. Based on Justin 's memories, A can tell that Justin and Rhiannon are having a rough time in their relationship, so in order to learn more about her, A invites her to the beach. The pair open up to one another, though A 's sharing is limited and very carefully worded. A had never felt such a connection with anyone before, and so attempts to discover a way by which to stay in Rhiannon 's proximity in days to come. A then does their best to convince Rhiannon that the day shared at the beach was not between her and Justin, but rather between her and A.
A spends almost every day following this event trying to figure out the best way to approach Rhiannon, since they are luckily never more than just a car ride away. After going through some trouble, A is finally able to convince Rhiannon of who they are, and the phenomenon they experience every day. While she does believe A, and understands how hard it must be, she also realizes that a relationship with A would be impossible, even if she wished to be in one. As the story progresses, we follow A as they wake up in body after body, still chasing Rhiannon. Meanwhile, they are forced to contend with a boy whose body A inhabited early, and who tracks them down in order to gain answers as to who A is and how they were able to take over their body and mind, as well as a priest working with said boy, who gathers a following of people who inhabit the bodies of others.
Every Day has received many positive reviews like one from Kirkus Reviews which claimed, "Levithan 's self - conscious, analytical style marries perfectly with the plot. His musings on love, longing and human nature knit seamlessly with A 's journey. Readers will devour his trademark poetic wordplay and cadences that feel as fresh as they were when he wrote Boy Meets Boy (2003). '' Susan Carpenter of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "It 's the rare book that challenges gender presumptions in a way that 's as entertaining as it is unexpected and, perhaps most important, that 's relatable to teens who may not think they need sensitivity training when it comes to sexual orientation and the nature of true love. Every Day is precisely such a book... A story that is always alluring, oftentimes humorous and much like love itself -- splendorous. '' Frank Bruni of The New York Times had this to say of Every Day, "It demonstrates Levithan 's talent for empathy, which is paired in the best parts of the book with a persuasive optimism about the odds for happiness and for true love. ' The only way to keep going, ' he writes, ' is to see every person as a possibility. ' For A., with their daily transformations, that 's an absolute necessity. For the rest of us, it 's still a fine idea. '' Chelsey Philpot of The Boston Globe remarked, "The ending is abrupt and leaves you wishing for more explanations... But maybe it only feels that way because we 're not ready to let A go. Through A 's eyes readers get to experience what it would be like to be someone different but the same. As A explains to Rhiannon, '... when who you are changes every day you get to touch the universal more. ' ''
In June 2017, it was announced that Every Day will be adapted into a feature film, with Angourie Rice starring as Rhiannon. Jesse Andrews, author of Me and Earl and the Dying Girl, wrote the script while Michael Sucsy will direct. Filming took place in summer 2017, for a 2018 release. MGM distributed under the Orion Pictures label.
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what is the extension of microsoft word document | List of Microsoft Office filename extensions - wikipedia
The following is a list of Microsoft Office filename extensions, used in Microsoft Office software suite as of January 2017.
Legacy
OOXML
Microsoft Access 2007 introduced new file extensions:
XPS Document
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who is the song where do you go to my lovely about | Where Do You Go to (My Lovely)? - Wikipedia
"Where Do You Go To (My Lovely)? '' is a song by the British singer - songwriter Peter Sarstedt. Its recording was produced by Ray Singer, engineered by John Mackswith at Lansdowne Recording Studios and released in 1969. It was a number - one 1 hit in the UK Singles Chart for four weeks in 1969, and was awarded the 1969 Ivor Novello Award for Best Song Musically and Lyrically. In the United States, the record reached No. 61 on the Cash Box Top 100 Singles. The single also peaked at No. 70 on the Billboard Hot 100 that May.
The music has been described as "a faux European waltz tune '' and the arrangement is a very simple one of strummed acoustic guitar and bass guitar, with brief bursts of French - style accordion at the start and the end. The arranger and conductor was Ian Green.
The song is about a fictional girl named Marie - Claire who grows up on the poverty - stricken backstreets of Naples, becomes a member of the jet set, and goes on to live in Paris. The lyrics describe her from the perspective of a childhood friend; it is left unclear whether they have remained close. The rhetorical question of the title suggests that her glamorous lifestyle might not have brought Marie - Claire happiness or contentment.
Even though Sarstedt himself was not French, the song benefited from the contemporary awareness in Britain of such French and Belgian singers as Serge Gainsbourg and Jacques Brel (Belgium - born of Flemish descent).
The lyrics contain a large number of contemporary and other references:
The version on the album Peter Sarstedt is longer than the radio edit version released as a single, having extra stanzas beginning "You go to the embassy parties... '' and "You 're in between twenty and thirty... ''.
It is often suspected that the name Marie - Claire is inspired by Marie Claire magazine, a women 's fashion weekly that began in 1937 in France. One theory says that the song is about the Italian actress Sophia Loren, who was abandoned by her father and had a poverty - stricken life in Naples. Another theory has the song being inspired by Danish singer and actress Nina van Pallandt.
According to Alan Cooper, "Sarstedt insisted it was not written with actress Sophia Loren in mind. ' Yes, it 's a portrait of a poor - born girl who becomes a member of the European jet - set. And yes, there 's reference to her growing up on the ' back streets of Naples ', so I can see why people may think it was written with Sophia Loren in mind. But that 's just a coincidence. I really was n't thinking of anyone specific. ' ''
The song was written in Copenhagen.
In 2009, Sarstedt spoke to a gossip columnist for the Daily Express. He admitted he had lied about the song being about a socialite who died in a fire. He said that the song was about his girlfriend at the time, whom he later married and then divorced. According to Mark Steyn, "Anita is now a dentist in Copenhagen. Peter Sarstedt has spent 40 years singing about wanting to look inside her head. And for most of that time Anita has made a living by looking inside yours. ''
The song was a hit far exceeding Sarstedt 's other work, although he is not a one - hit wonder. In 1998 he was earning £ 60,000 annually in royalties from it.
DJ John Peel repeatedly stated that the song was one of his least favourites. On his show on BFBS radio on 1 July 1989, he said: ' It 's a terrible, smug, self - satisfied, hideous record. Really have hated it ever since I first heard it '.
The song was used as a soundtrack in Wes Anderson 's 2007 film The Darjeeling Limited, and in Jennifer Saunders ' 2016 film Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie.
In 1997 Sarstedt recorded a sequel, "The Last of the Breed (Lovely 2) '' on his CD England 's Lane. This picks up the story of Marie Claire twenty years on, living now in London. It names more people and places, including Belgravia, Ballets Russes, Cape Town, Claridge 's, Gstaad, John Galliano, Harrods, Jerusalem, Long Island, Milan, Rudolf Nureyev, Palm Beach, Rio de Janeiro, and Isabella Rossellini. In recent years, Sarstedt and a co-writer were working on a further sequel, "Farewell Marie - Claire '', in which the story was brought to a conclusion. The song was to feature the same waltz feel as the original. But Sarstedt 's retirement from the music industry meant that the track was abandoned.
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characters in the story of alibaba and the forty thieves | Ali Baba - wikipedia
Ali Baba (Arabic: علي بابا ʿAlī Bābā) is a character from the folk tale Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves (علي بابا والأربعون لصا). This story is included in many versions of the One Thousand and One Nights, to which it was added by Antoine Galland in the 18th century. It is one of the most familiar of the "Arabian Nights '' tales, and has been widely retold and performed in many media, especially for children, where the more violent aspects of the story are often suppressed.
In the story, Ali Baba is a poor woodcutter who discovers the secret of a thieves ' den, entered with the phrase "Open Sesame ''. The thieves learn this and try to kill Ali Baba, but Ali Baba 's faithful slave - girl foils their plots. Ali Baba gives his son to her in marriage and keeps the secret of the treasure.
The tale was added to the story collection One Thousand and One Nights by one of its European translators, Antoine Galland, who called his volumes Les Mille et Une Nuits (1704 -- 1717). Galland was an 18th - century French Orientalist who may have heard it in oral form from a Middle Eastern story - teller from Aleppo, in modern - day Syria. In any case, the earliest known text of the story is Galland 's French version. Richard F. Burton included it in the supplemental volumes (rather than the main collection of stories) of his translation (published as The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night) and thought its origins were Greek Cypriot.
The American Orientalist Duncan Black MacDonald discovered an Arabic - language manuscript of the story at the Bodleian Library; however, this was later found to be a counterfeit.
Ali Baba and his elder brother Cassim are the sons of a merchant. After their father 's death, the greedy Cassim marries a wealthy woman and becomes well - to - do, building on their father 's business. Ali Baba marries a poor woman and settles into the trade of a woodcutter.
One day, Ali Baba is at work collecting and cutting firewood in the forest, and he happens to overhear a group of 40 thieves visiting their treasure store. The treasure is in a cave, the mouth of which is sealed by magic. It opens on the words "open sesame '' and seals itself on the words "close sesame ''. When the thieves are gone, Ali Baba enters the cave himself and discreetly takes a single bag of gold coins home.
Ali Baba and his wife borrow his sister - in - law 's scales to weigh their new wealth. Unbeknownst to them, Cassim 's wife puts a blob of wax in the scales to find out what Ali Baba is using them for, as she is curious to know what kind of grain her impoverished brother - in - law needs to measure. To her shock, she finds a gold coin sticking to the scales and tells her husband. Under pressure from his brother, Ali Baba is forced to reveal the secret of the cave. Cassim goes to the cave, taking a donkey with him to take as much treasure as possible. He enters the cave with the magic words. But in his greed and excitement over the treasure, he forgets the words to get out again. The thieves find him there and kill him. When his brother does not come back, Ali Baba goes to the cave to look for him, and finds the body quartered and with each piece displayed just inside the cave 's entrance, as a warning to anyone else who might try to enter.
Ali Baba brings the body home where he entrusts Morgiana, a clever slave - girl from Cassim 's household, with the task of making others believe that Cassim has died a natural death. First, Morgiana purchases medicines from an apothecary, telling him that Cassim is gravely ill. Then, she finds an old tailor known as Baba Mustafa whom she pays, blindfolds, and leads to Cassim 's house. There, overnight, the tailor stitches the pieces of Cassim 's body back together so that no one will be suspicious. Ali Baba and his family are able to give Cassim a proper burial without anyone 's asking awkward questions.
The thieves, finding the body gone, realize that yet another person must know their secret, and they set out to track him down. One of the thieves goes down to the town and comes across Baba Mustafa, who mentions that he has just sewn a dead man 's body back together. Realizing the dead man must have been the thieves ' victim, the thief asks Baba Mustafa to lead the way to the house where the deed was performed. The tailor is blindfolded again, and in this state he is able to retrace his steps and find the house. The thief marks the door with a symbol so the other thieves can come back that night and kill everyone in the house. However, the thief has been seen by Morgiana who, loyal to her master, foils the thief 's plan by marking all the houses in the neighborhood similarly. When the 40 thieves return that night, they can not identify the correct house, and their leader kills the unsuccessful thief in a furious rage. The next day, another thief revisits Baba Mustafa and tries again. Only this time, a chunk is chipped out of the stone step at Ali Baba 's front door. Again, Morgiana foils the plan by making similar chips in all the other doorsteps, and the second thief is killed for his failure as well. At last, the leader of the thieves goes and looks himself. This time, he memorizes every detail he can of the exterior of Ali Baba 's house.
The leader of the federation pretends to be an oil merchant in need of Ali Baba 's hospitality, bringing with him mules loaded with 38 oil jars, one filled with oil, the other 37 hiding the other remaining thieves. Once Ali Baba is asleep, the thieves plan to kill him. Again, Morgiana discovers and foils the plan, killing the 37 thieves in their oil jars by pouring boiling oil on them. When their leader comes to rouse his men, he discovers they are all dead and escapes. The next morning, Morgiana tells Ali Baba about the thieves in the jars. They bury them, and Ali Baba shows his gratitude by giving Morgiana her freedom.
To exact revenge after some time, the leader of the thieves establishes himself as a merchant, befriends Ali Baba 's son (who is now in charge of the late Cassim 's business), and is invited to dinner at Ali Baba 's house. However, the thief is recognized by Morgiana, who performs a sword dance with a dagger for the diners and plunges it into the thief 's heart, when he is off his guard. Ali Baba is at first angry with Morgiana, but when he finds out the thief wanted to kill him, he is extremely grateful and rewards Morgiana by marrying her to his son. Ali Baba is then left as the only one knowing the secret of the treasure in the cave and how to access it.
The story has been classified in the Aarne -- Thompson classification system as AT 676.
The name "Ali Baba '' was often used as derogatory slang by American and Iraqi soldiers and their allies in the Iraq War, to describe individuals suspected of a variety of offenses related to theft and looting. Additionally, British soldiers routinely used the term to refer to Iraqi civilians. In the subsequent occupation, it is used as a general term for the insurgents, similar to Charlie for the Viet Cong in the Vietnam War.
The Iraqis adopted the term "Ali Baba '' to describe foreign troops suspected of looting.
A depiction of the Forty Thieves.
The Forty Thieves attack Cassim.
A member of the Forty Thieves tries to discover the location of the house of Ali Baba.
A member of the Forty Thieves marks the door of Ali Baba
Morgiana pays Baba Mustafa the Cobbler.
Morgiana pours boiling hot oil into the jars containing the infamous Forty Thieves.
Ali Baba presents treasures from the magical cave of Sesame to Morgiana.
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what is the airport code for seattle washington | Seattle -- Tacoma International airport - wikipedia
Seattle -- Tacoma International Airport (IATA: SEA, ICAO: KSEA, FAA LID: SEA), also referred to as Sea -- Tac Airport or Sea -- Tac (/ ˈsiːtæk /), is the primary commercial airport serving the Seattle metropolitan area in the U.S. state of Washington. It is located in the city of SeaTac, approximately 13 miles (21 km) south of Downtown Seattle. The airport, the largest in the Pacific Northwest region of North America, is owned and operated by the Port of Seattle.
The airport has flights to cities throughout North America, Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. It is the primary hub for Alaska Airlines and its regional subsidiary Horizon Air, whose headquarters are near the airport. It is also a hub and international gateway to Asia and Europe for Delta Air Lines, which has expanded at Sea -- Tac since 2011.
In 2017, the airport was the 31st - busiest airport in the world and the ninth - busiest in the United States by passenger traffic, serving over 46.9 million passengers in 2017, and is considered one of the fastest growing in the United States and the world. It is categorized in the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2015 -- 2019 as a primary commercial service (large hub) airport based on 16,121,123 enplanements in 2012. The airport is the largest generator of vehicle trips in the state, and its 13,000 - car parking garage is North America 's largest parking structure under one roof.
The airport was built by the Port of Seattle in 1944 after the U.S. military took control of Boeing Field in World War II. The Port received $1 million from the Civil Aeronautics Administration to build the airport and $100,000 from the City of Tacoma. The first scheduled airline flights were Northwest and Trans - Canada in 1947; Western and United moved from Boeing Field in the next couple of years, and Pan Am moved in 1952 -- 53, but West Coast as well as successors Air West and Hughes Airwest stayed at Boeing Field until 1971.
In June 1951, there were four runways at 45 - degree angles, between 5,000 and 6,100 feet (1,500 and 1,900 m) long; the northeast -- southwest and northwest -- southeast runways intersected just west of the north -- south runway that eventually became today 's runway 34R. Runway 34 was lengthened to 7500 ft in 1951, to 8500 ft by 1958, and to 11900 ft by 1962. Runway 34L replaced runway 2 around 1970.
The April 1957 OAG shows 216 departures a week on United, 80 Northwest, 35 Western, 21 Trans - Canada, 20 Pan Am, 20 Pacific Northern and 10 Alaska. The first jet flights were Pan Am Boeing 707s to Honolulu via Portland (OR) in late 1959. In 1966, Scandinavian Airlines began the airport 's first non-stop route to mainland Europe (Pan Am nonstops to London began around 1961). The first concourse opened in July 1959.
The two - story North Concourse (later dubbed Concourse D) added four gate positions and a new wing 600 feet (180 m) long and 30 feet (9.1 m) wide. The one - story South Concourse (now Concourse A) opened in 1961, adding another 688 feet (210 m) to the length of the airport. The 800 - foot (240 m) long Concourse B opened in December 1964. It added eight gate positions, bringing the total to 19, a 12,000 square feet (1,100 m) area housing international arrivals and the offices of U.S. Customs, Immigration, Public Health and the Department of Agriculture. Concourse C opened in July 1966. Just four years later, it was extended to include another 10 gates, bringing the total to 35. The Port embarked on a major expansion plan, designed by The Richardson Associates and lasting from 1967 to 1973, adding a second runway, a parking garage, two satellite terminals and other improvements. In 1973, $28 - million new terminal was built over and around the 1949 structure; the new terminal quadrupled the area for public use. On July 1, 1973, the Airport opened two new satellite terminals, along with an underground train system to connect them to the Main Terminal. In the mid-1980s, the Main Terminal was renovated and another 150 feet (46 m) was added to the north end. Concourse D was expanded in 1987 with a rotunda that added four new gates. In 1993, Concourses B, C, and D were renovated. The project, designed by NBBJ, included the addition of 150,000 square feet (14,000 m) and the renovation of 170,000 square feet (16,000 m) of space in Concourses B, C, and D. On June 15, 2004, the 2,102 - foot (641 m) new Concourse A was unveiled with 14 new gates, a dozen new restaurants, new artwork and the airport 's first moving sidewalks.
Residents of the surrounding area filed lawsuits against the Port in the early 1970s, complaining of noise, vibration, smoke, and other problems. The Port and the government of King County adopted the Sea -- Tac Communities Plan in 1976 to address problems and guide future development. The Port spent more than $100 million over the next decade to buy homes and school buildings in the vicinity, and soundproof others nearby. In the mid-1980s, the airport participated in the airport noise - compatibility program initiated by Congress in 1979. Airport - noise contours were developed, real estate was purchased and some homes were retrofitted to achieve noise mitigation.
In 1978, the U.S. ended airline regulation, and U.S. airlines were allowed to determine routes and fares without government approval. Deregulation resulted in new service to Seattle, including from TWA, then the fourth - largest U.S. airline, as well as Delta, National, and American.
After the death of U.S. Senator Henry Martin "Scoop '' Jackson in 1983, the Seattle Port Commission voted to change the name of the airport to Henry M. Jackson International Airport. Denizens of Tacoma interpreted the change as an insult to their community -- the second time in the airport 's history that the port authorities had attempted to remove "Tacoma '' from the name. The $100,000 that Tacoma had provided for the airport 's construction during World War II had come with an explicit promise that the city would be included in the airport 's name. The controversy was resolved after polls of Seattle and Tacoma area residents indicated their preference for the original name by margins as much as 5: 1. Helen Jackson, the widow of the late Senator Henry M. Jackson, expressed her desire that their family remain neutral in the debate. With a 3 -- 2 vote of the Port of Seattle Commission, the name was reverted to Sea -- Tac in early 1984.
In the late 1980s, the Port of Seattle and a council representing local county governments considered the future of air traffic in the region and predicted that airport could reach capacity by 2000. The planning committee concluded in 1992 that the best solution was to add a third runway to the airport and construct a supplemental two - runway airport in one of the neighboring counties. Members of the community opposed a third runway, as did the Highline School District and the cities of Des Moines, Burien, Federal Way, Tukwila, and Normandy Park, but a 1994 study concluded there were no feasible sites for an additional airport. The Port of Seattle approved a plan for the new runway in 1996, prompting a lawsuit from opponents. The Port secured the necessary permits by agreeing to noise reduction programs and environmental protections. Runway opponents appealed these permits, but dropped their challenges in 2004.
The airport 's Central Terminal building was renovated and expanded in 2003 in a project designed by Curtis W. Fentress, of Fentress Architects.
The new 3rd runway opened on November 20, 2008, with a construction cost of $1.1 billion. Parallel to the existing two, the new runway is 2500 ft west of runway 34R, allowing landings on both in times of low visibility. The older runways are 800 ft apart, too close to allow use of both in low visibility.
In mid-2014, Delta Air Lines announced plans to rapidly expand Seattle into a transpacific hub. Since then, Delta has added numerous flights to Shanghai, Hong Kong, Tokyo, Seoul, London, and dozens of domestic flights to feed those services. By December, Delta expected to offer 95 flights to 33 destinations from Seattle. By the third quarter of 2014, Delta hoped to be the airport 's largest sole source of revenue. Delta 's increased presence in Seattle has been seen by some industry analysts as a response to United 's transpacific hub at San Francisco International Airport. Other analysts speculate that this growth also results from Delta 's disenchantment with its Tokyo -- Narita hub, citing Japan 's diminishing importance in light of the boom in Chinese international travel and the lack of a Japanese partner airline.
Delta 's rapid expansion at Seattle -- Tacoma International Airport has created some controversy. Many of the new domestic services Delta started offering from Seattle to boost traffic to international flights encroached on routes that Alaska Airlines, previously a long - time partner of Delta, has historically operated. Additionally, Delta is currently seeking a total of 30 gates at Seattle -- Tacoma, nearly triple its current 11 gates, to accommodate its planned growth. As an interim solution to overcrowding, the Port of Seattle has announced the North Sea -- Tac Airport Renovation project (NorthSTAR). By 2020, the North Satellite will be expanded by over 240 feet, increasing the terminal 's square footage by 181,000 feet and increasing the gate count from 12 to 20.
"We 're making good progress on our discussion to upgrade the facility and to turn Seattle into a huge international gateway for Delta, '' Chief Executive Officer Richard Anderson said on a recorded message to employees. President Ed Bastian, in 2014 's third quarter earnings call, stated that Delta 's decision to cut seats in Cincinnati and Memphis have been producing solid results. "Seattle 's domestic performance has significantly exceeded our expectations as unit revenues increased 6 percent on a 25 percent increase in capacity, driving margin improvements year - over-year, '' Bastian said. Seattle airport spokesman Perry Cooper has also stated that Delta currently plans to operate around 150 flights a day by 2017. This would require 19 or 20 gates, assuming the airline will operate eight flights a day from each gate. Cooper speculates that if Delta takes on 30 gates, over 240 flights a day could be operated. Ultimately, the success of Delta 's growth in Seattle relies on the Port of Seattle 's decisions regarding further terminal expansions and gate allocation, which is currently assigned to airlines according to a formula that utilizes their number of outbound flights.
The three parallel runways run nearly north -- south, west of the passenger terminal and are 8,500 to 11,900 feet (2,600 -- 3,600 m) long. In 2008 the airport averaged 946 aircraft operations per day, 89 % being commercial flights, 10 % air taxi operations and 1 % transient general aviation.
A new control tower was built beginning in 2001 and opened November 2004, at a cost of $26 million. The floor of the new tower 's control cab is 233 ft (71 m) above ground level; the tower 's overall height including antennas is 269 ft (82 m). The cab has 850 sq ft (79 m) of space and was designed to support operation by ten controllers, with possible future expansion up to 15. The site and construction method of the tower were designed to maximize visibility and efficacy of radar systems. The airport 's original control tower, built in the 1950s, is now located in the airport 's passenger terminal and used as a ramp control tower, after being repaired from damages caused by the Nisqually earthquake in 2001.
A recurring problem at the airport is misidentification of the westernmost taxiway, Taxiway Tango, as a runway. A large "X '' has been placed at the north end of the taxiway, but a number of aircraft have landed on the taxiway. The FAA issued an alert notice dated from August 27, 2009, to September 24, 2009, urging airplanes about taking precautions such as REILs and other visual cues while landing from the north.
In 2007 the airport became the first airport to implement an avian radar system providing 24 - hour monitoring of wildlife activity across the airfield. This pilot program, designed and implemented with the assistance of the University of Illinois Center of Excellence for Airport Technology (CEAT), was designed to decrease potentially fatal incidents involving collisions with birds and to provide a test bed for implementation of the technology in the US which was expected to begin in 2009. The technology is part of a strategy to reduce the presence of wildlife on the airfield.
The Seattle office of the National Weather Service operates a weather station at the airport, with a temperature gauge between the center and eastern runways. The airport has served as Seattle 's official weather recording location since 1945.
The airport 's passenger facilities consist of the main terminal building, along with two satellite terminal buildings.
The main terminal building is laid out in an "X '' shape, with four concourses, named Concourse A, B, C, and D, forming a different arm. In the middle, where concourses converge, there is the "central terminal, '' an area with no passenger boarding gates, but several restaurants and retail stores. The central terminal is also the site of the airport 's five Transportation Security Administration security checkpoints; one is open 24 / 7, three are opened based on airline schedules (one is reserved for members of the TSA PreCheck program), and one is reserved for cruise passengers and is open seasonally. Once through security, passengers have access to all gates.
The two satellite terminal buildings, named the north and south satellite, are connected to the four concourses in the main terminal by an underground people mover system.
All international arrivals (except flights from cities with customs preclearance) are handled at the South Satellite Terminal, regardless of their departure terminal.
The entire airport covers an area of 2,500 acres or 3.9 square miles (10 km), much smaller than other U.S. airports with similar annual passenger numbers.
The Main Terminal building has:
The North Satellite terminal building has:
The South Satellite terminal building has:
The airport has a three - line automated people mover (APM) system called the Satellite Transit System (STS). The underground system moves passengers quickly within the four concourses of the central terminal and out to the two satellite terminals.
The site of Sea -- Tac was chosen partly due to its location along State Route 99, approximately midway between Seattle and Tacoma. Interstate 5 and Interstate 405 also converge near the airport, with an easy connection to the airport via State Route 518 and the Airport Expressway. State Route 509 runs to the west of the airport, connecting the area to West Seattle. The airport is the largest generator of vehicle trips in the state.
The Port of Seattle offers paid on - site parking in a 13,000 - space garage, notable for being North America 's largest parking structure under one roof. Numerous privately owned parking facilities are located off - site near the airport.
Seattle 's Central Link light rail line serves the airport at the SeaTac / Airport Station with frequent service to downtown Seattle and the University of Washington. The station opened on December 19, 2009, and is connected to the airport terminal via a pedestrian bridge to the airport parking garage. Another pedestrian bridge over International Boulevard is used to access the city of SeaTac, nearby airport hotels, and King County Metro buses including RapidRide A Line. A 1.6 - mile extension of the Link line south to Angle Lake Station at South 200th Street opened on September 24, 2016.
The airport is also served both by the King County Metro bus system and Sound Transit regional express buses.
Tukwila Station, which is approximately 5 miles east of the airport, is served by Sounder commuter rail and Amtrak Cascades regional inter-city rail with service north to Vancouver, Canada, and service south to Portland and Eugene in Oregon. This station can be reached in about 30 minutes via the Central Link light rail or the RapidRide A Line bus service and transferring at Tukwila International Boulevard station to the RapidRide F Line bus service.
The airport is served by door - to - door shuttle services (Shuttle Express and Speedi Shuttle) and several scheduled airporter bus services. Airporters include Bellair Charters to Yakima and Bellingham, and the Quick Shuttle to downtown Vancouver, Canada, through Quick Shuttle, with other pick - up stops at downtown Seattle, Bellingham International Airport, and drop - off stops just inside the Canadian -- U.S. boundary and at the Vancouver International Airport.
Taxis, limousines, and transportation network companies (Lyft, Uber and Wingz) are also available.
A 23 - acre (9.3 ha) consolidated rental car facility opened on May 17, 2012. The facility is located at the northeastern portion of the airport at the intersection of South 160th Street and International Boulevard South. The facility has 5,400 parking spaces and can handle up to 14,000 transactions per day. After the opening of the facility, 3,200 parking spaces in the central parking structure were opened up for general use. Passengers reach the facility on a five - minute trip aboard one of 29 low - floor Gillig CNG buses. Previously, only Alamo, Avis, Sixt, Budget, Hertz and National had cars on site; Advantage, Dollar, Enterprise, Thrifty, EZ Rent - A-Car and Fox Rent A Car ran shuttles to off - site locations. Payless Car Rental now has a presence. Customers of Rent - a-Wreck must ride the shuttle to the facility and then board one of the company 's shuttles to Rent - a-Wreck's office.
The facility was originally scheduled to open in spring 2011. However, construction was suspended on December 15, 2008, by vote of the Port of Seattle Commission and did not begin again until June 2009.
In 2013, Sea -- Tac launched a program centered around the local music scene, giving local musicians the opportunity to perform in different locations throughout the airport. It has since become a near - daily staple for Seattle - area musicians. The airport hosts an additional 30 entertainers on site along with the daily music program during the Christmas holiday season.
Sea -- Tac Airport has seen record growth in passenger traffic over the last few years. That growth has been partly fueled by the nationwide expansion of Seattle - based Alaska Airlines and by Delta Air Lines setting up a major international hub at Sea -- Tac Airport. That growth has strained the facilities at the airport, leading the port to invest more than $2 billion into several expansion and renovation projects.
This project will add six new gates where passengers will wait until boarding time, then will board a large bus outside of the terminal that will transport them to an aircraft parked in a remote area of the airport called a hardstand. At most other gates at the airport passengers board by either walking directly onto the aircraft through a jetway, or in the case of smaller regional aircraft, by walking outside and onto the plane parked near the terminal. Sea -- Tac Airport officials say the $38 million project can be built quickly and ready for service by the summer of 2018. The hardstand terminal will help the airport deal with gate shortages as other projects are completed around the airport. The building will be connected to the D Concourse by a bridge and to the Satellite Transit System by a covered walkway to the Main Terminal North station. The Port of Seattle calls the building a "temporary facility '' but intends to use it for the next 10 to 20 years.
Currently Sea -- Tac Airport has six outbound baggage handling systems with limited to no cross-connectivity. The system now in place is aging and reaching its maximum capacity. This $320.4 million project will create one unified, high - speed baggage system under the airport. That will allow bags to be checked from any ticketing counter, to receive security screening faster, and to be routed to any gate in the airport. The extra efficiency and speed will allow the airport to handle more baggage in the future without expanding the footprint of the baggage handling systems. The initial phase of this project will be finished in 2018 and the entire system will be in place by 2023.
The North Satellite Terminal has only received limited upgrades since it was opened in 1973 and is in need of modernization. The Port of Seattle initially looked at simply updating the terminal in a project it called the North Satellite Renovation Plan (NorthSTAR). In 2016 it was announced that the Port would also significantly expand the terminal. The $550 million project now called the North Satellite Modernization will increase the size of the North Satellite by 201,000 square feet and another eight gates, bringing the total to 20. In the first phase of the project, scheduled to be complete by mid-2019, the terminal will be extended west by 240 feet, add a new mezzanine level with full - service dining, and a rooftop Alaska Airlines lounge. In the second phase, scheduled to be complete by Spring 2021, the existing part of the terminal will be modernized.
The current International Arrivals Facility (IAF) is located in the basement of the South Satellite. It is known to have become severely overcrowded at peak arrival times. Additionally, the process for passengers is complicated by the isolated location of the terminal.
To address the situation, the Port of Seattle is building a new 450,000 - square - foot IAF east of Concourse A in the main terminal building. The facility will increase capacity by nearly 60 percent by increasing the number of passport check booths and kiosks from 30 to 80, and the number of baggage claim carousels from four to seven. The new IAF will be connected to the south satellite by a 900 - foot - long bridge (aerial walkway) that will take passengers 85 feet above the existing airplane taxiway and over the top of Concourse A. The project is expected to be completed by 2021 at a cost of $766 million.
After the new IAF opens, the South Satellite will continue to be used for arriving international flights; additional international gates will be added in Concourse A, nearly doubling the number of gates capable of serving larger wide - body aircraft.
Once the new International Arrivals Facility is complete, the Port of Seattle will renovate the South Satellite Terminal.
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the african prime minister who first came to power in ghana | Jerry Rawlings - wikipedia
Jerry John Rawlings (born 22 June 1947) is a former head of state and president of Ghana. Rawlings initially came to power in Ghana as a flight lieutenant of the Ghana Air Force following a coup d'état in 1979 and, after initially handing power over to a civilian government, took back control of the country on 31 December 1981 as the Chairman of the Provisional National Defence Council. In 1992, Rawlings resigned from the Armed Forces, founded the National Democratic Congress and became the first President of the Fourth Republic. He was re-elected in 1996 for a further four years. He currently serves as the African Union envoy to Somalia.
Rawlings attempted a coup d'état on 15 May 1979, leading a group of military personnel in a coup attempt on General Fred Akuffo which resulted in him being arrested, imprisoned and facing a death sentence. However, a speech he gave during his trial resonated with a large section of the public that rose up in his defence. Consequently, on 4 June, soldiers sympathetic to his motivations broke him out of jail, and he led a revolt of both the military and civilians which overthrew General Akuffo and the Supreme Military Council, effectively leaving him in charge. Rawlings and the soldiers around him formed the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) and conducted what it termed "a housecleaning exercise '', whose aim was to purge Ghanaian society of all the corruption and social injustices that they perceived to be at the root of their coup d'état.
The AFRC organized an election which was won by Hilla Limann of the People 's National Party (PNP). On 31 December 1981 Rawlings and together with some soldiers and civilians took advantage of new year festivities organized by Limann and overthrew the Limann government, citing economic mismanagement. Rawlings then installed the Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC) with himself as the Chairman.
In 1992, Rawlings retired from the military and set up the National Democratic Congress (NDC). He legalized political parties and organized Presidential and Parliamentary elections, in response to demands for a more democratic process concerning the governing of the country. Rawlings and his party won with 58.3 percent of the vote, with outside observers declaring the voting to be "free and fair ''. In 1996, Rawlings went on to win a second term as President.
After two terms in office, barred by the constitution from standing in any election, Rawlings endorsed his vice-president John Atta Mills as presidential candidate in 2000.
Jerry John Rawlings was born in Accra, Gold Coast, on 22 June 1947, to Victoria Agbotui (born 9 September 1919 in Dzelukope near Keta in what is now the Volta Region of Ghana), and James Ramsey John, a chemist from Castle Douglas in Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. James Ramsey John was married in England to someone else and his descendants now live in Newcastle and London. Rawlings attended Achimota School. Rawlings is married to Nana Konadu Agyeman and they have three daughters: Ezanetor Rawlings, Yaa Asantewaa Rawlings, Amina Rawlings; and one son, Kimathi Rawlings.
In March, 1968, he was posted to Takoradi in the Western Region to continue his studies. He graduated in January 1969, and was commissioned a Pilot Officer, winning the coveted "Speed Bird Trophy '' as the best cadet in flying the Su - 7 ground attack supersonic jet aircraft. He earned the rank of Flight Lieutenant (Flt. Lt.) in April 1978. During his service with the Ghanaian Air Force, Rawlings perceived a deterioration of discipline and morale, reflecting the corruption of the Supreme Military Council (SMC) at that time. As promotion brought him into contact with the privileged classes and their social values, his view of the injustices in society hardened. He was thus regarded with some unease by the SMC. He read widely and discussed social and political ideas with a growing circle of like - minded friends and colleagues.
In May 1979, Rawlings, together with six other soldiers, was arrested by the Ghanaian Military for a mutiny labeled as a coup attempt (because the military was in power at the time) against the government of General Fred Akuffo, and Rawlings appeared before a General Court Martial, charged with leading a squad of soldiers on 15 May 1979.
While awaiting his execution, Rawlings was sprung from custody on 4 June 1979 by a group of soldiers. He led the insurgency that ousted the Supreme Military Council from office with Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC). On the night of 4 June, lives were lost in both the forces fighting against the military government and those fighting on the side of the insurgency. As one of his first acts in power, Rawlings signed the orders for the execution of a former military president of Ghana who was later executed: Ignatius Kutu Acheampong, and Air Vice-Marshal Yaw Boakye. Four other generals -- Kotei, Joy Amedume, Roger Felli, and Utuka -- were also put to death. Rawlings has never denied responsibility for this.
The Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC), under the Military Marshal of Rawlings, carried out, what Rawlings described as a much wider "house - cleaning exercise ''. Meanwhile, following a programme already set in motion before the 4 June insurgency. On 24 September 1979, the AFRC military allowed the governing of the People 's National Party (PNP) under Hilla Limann.
Limann 's administration was cut short on 31 December 1981, when Rawlings deposed him in another coup. The Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC), composed of both civilian and soldiers, was established with Rawlings as the Chairman. The PNDC, led by Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings began the process of what Rawlings said to be a decentralisation.
Immediately following the overthrow of the Gen. Akuffo government, Rawlings and his men embarked on what was termed "house - cleaning ''. They immediately tried and executed General Akuffo, General I.K. Acheampong, and General Afrifa, all former heads of state, who had participated in earlier treasonable coups against former Presidents like Nkrumah. Air Vice-Marshal Yaw Boakye, General Utuka, Amedume, Felli and Kotei were also executed for their roles in undermining the image of the military through corrupt acts.
The killings of the Supreme Court justices (Cecilia Koranteng Addo, Frederick Sarkodie, and Kwadjo Agyei Agyepong), military officers Major Sam Acquah and Major Dasana Nantogmah and the killings and disappearance of more than 300 other Ghanaians occurred at this time in Ghana 's history.
In Jerry John Rawlings ' first official speech subsequent to the removal of Hilla Limann, he announced the creation of the National Commission on Democracy (NCD), which began decentralisation and dissemination. Opposition to the PNDC, agitated for a return to multi-party democracy. The National Commission on Democracy was put into high gear to begin the process to return to multi-party elections. National Commission for Democracy (NCD) was empowered to hold debates and formulate some suggestions for a transition to multi-party democracy. Opposition groups complained that the NCD was too closely associated with the PNDC, the commission continued its work through 1991. In March of that year the NCD released a report recommending the election of an executive president, the establishment of a national assembly, and the creation of a prime minister post. The PNDC accepted the report, and the following year it was approved in a referendum. Political parties were legalised by Rawlings -- - with the provision that none could use names that had been used before -- and a timetable was set for presidential and parliamentary elections.
When presidential elections were held in 1992, Rawlings stood as the candidate for the National Democratic Congress (NDC), the successor party to the PNDC. Although his opponents were given access to television and newspaper coverage, and limits to the freedom of the press had been slightly lifted, no single candidate could match him. Election returns on 3 November 1992 revealed that Rawlings had won 58.3 percent of the vote, for a landslide victory.
Almost immediately, the opposition parties claimed that the presidential election was not fair, and that widespread abuses had occurred. The leaders encouraged their followers to boycott subsequent Ghana parliamentary and presidential elections, with the result that NDC officials won 189 of 200 seats in the parliament. Answering questions about polling place irregularities, he said he will initiate a new voter registration program.
Rawlings and the NDC again held onto the Ghana parliament in 1992 and 1996.
Per his constitutional mandate, Rawlings ' term of office ended in 2001; he retired in 2001, Rawlings was succeeded by John Agyekum Kufuor, his main rival and opponent in 1996.
Kufuor succeeded in defeating Rawlings 's vice-president John Atta Mills in 2000. In 2004, Mills conceded to Kufuor and Kufuor ran for another four years.
In November 2000, Rawlings was named the first International Year of Volunteers 2001 Eminent Person by UN Secretary - General Kofi Annan, attending various events and conferences to promote volunteerism.
In October 2010, Jerry John Rawlings was named African Union Envoy to Somalia.
He has given lectures at universities, including Oxford University. Jerry John Rawlings has continued his heavy support for NDC.
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when does the school year end in uk | English school holidays - wikipedia
The English school year generally runs from early September to mid July of the following year. Most schools operate a three - term school year, each term divided in half.
Autumn term runs from early September to mid December (half term falls in late October). Spring Term runs from early January to Easter (half term falls in mid February). Summer Term runs from Easter to mid July (half term falls in late May or early June).
At the end of each half term, in October, February and May, there is a holiday which lasts about one week (usually nine full days, including two weekends).
The Christmas holidays separate the autumn and spring terms, and the Easter holidays separate the spring and summer terms. Each holiday lasts about two weeks.
The summer holiday begins in late July, and is usually about six weeks long. The local education authority sets the holiday dates for all schools under its control. Academies set their own dates, but often match the dates of other local schools. There may be days when individual schools are closed due to teacher training, bad weather, or other unplanned events. Parents are advised to contact the school directly with regards to closure, but general information can be found on local radio websites and often the local education authority website.
Independent schools (also known as "public schools '' (age about 13 +) and "private schools '' or "preparatory schools '' (under 13) in the UK) generally operate an academic year (Independent academic year) similar to the above, but often have shorter terms and longer holidays. More traditional schools use the term names originating at Oxford University; namely Michaelmas term (autumn), named after the Feast of Saint Michael and All Angels on 29 September, Lent term or Easter term (spring) and Trinity term (summer), named after Trinity Sunday which is eight weeks after Easter.
Some international schools operate a different system using semesters rather than terms.
The timing of the English school holidays has a major impact on traffic. During holidays there is a marked reduction in traffic congestion at peak periods on many routes, leading to faster journey times. (Since England does not have a wide network of state - run school transport, many parents prefer to take their children to and from school by car.)
Another important consequence of the timing of English school holidays is the pricing of holiday accommodation. There is generally a steep rise in the cost of accommodation during the school holidays, due to increased demand. The English tourism industry closely monitors various websites that provide up to date school holiday information, and sets its prices accordingly. Prices often drop by hundreds of pounds just one week into the new school term. Since most schools have a strict policy against children being taken out of school, parents who decide to save money by taking a family holiday during the school term risk not only damaging their children 's education but also fines or warnings from their school. Parents can be issued with a penalty notice whenever they take their children on holiday during term time without getting authorisation from the school. Penalty notices can be issued by local councils, headteachers (including deputy and assistant heads authorised by them) and the police. Generally, schools will agree to no more than 10 school days of absence in any school year.
The Swallows and Amazons series of children 's novels by Arthur Ransome are all set in the school holidays, generally the long (August) summer holidays although some are set in Easter or winter. For example, in "Pigeon Post '', he wrote: Term time was gone as if it had been wiped out. Real life was beginning again.
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the radius of gyration of a rigid body depends on | Radius of gyration - wikipedia
Radius of gyration or gyradius of a body about an axis of rotation is defined as the radial distance of a point from the axis of rotation at which, if whole mass of the body is assumed to be concentrated, its moment of inertia about the given axis would be the same as with its actual distribution of mass. It is denoted by "k ''.
Mathematically the radius of gyration is the root mean square distance of the object 's parts from either its center of mass or a given axis, depending on the relevant application. It is actually the perpendicular distance from point mass to the axis of rotation.
In structural engineering, the two - dimensional radius of gyration is used to describe the distribution of cross sectional area in a column around its centroidal axis with the mass of the body. The radius of gyration is given by the following formula:
or
Where I is the second moment of area and A is the total cross-sectional area.
The gyration radius is useful in estimating the stiffness of a column. If the principal moments of the two - dimensional gyration tensor are not equal, the column will tend to buckle around the axis with the smaller principal moment. For example, a column with an elliptical cross-section will tend to buckle in the direction of the smaller semiaxis.
It also can be referred to as the radial distance from a given axis at which the mass of a body could be concentrated without altering the rotational inertia of the body about that axis.
In engineering, where continuous bodies of matter are generally the objects of study, the radius of gyration is usually calculated as an integral.
The radius of gyration about a given axis (r g axis (\ displaystyle r_ (\ mathrm (g) (\ text (axis))))) can be computed in terms of the mass moment of inertia I axis (\ displaystyle I_ (\ text (axis))) around that axis, and the total mass m;
or
I axis (\ displaystyle I_ (\ text (axis))) is a scalar, and is not the moment of inertia tensor.
In polymer physics, the radius of gyration is used to describe the dimensions of a polymer chain. The radius of gyration of a particular molecule at a given time is defined as:
where r m e a n (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (r) _ (\ mathrm (mean))) is the mean position of the monomers. As detailed below, the radius of gyration is also proportional to the root mean square distance between the monomers:
As a third method, the radius of gyration can also be computed by summing the principal moments of the gyration tensor.
Since the chain conformations of a polymer sample are quasi infinite in number and constantly change over time, the "radius of gyration '' discussed in polymer physics must usually be understood as a mean over all polymer molecules of the sample and over time. That is, the radius of gyration which is measured as an average over time or ensemble:
where the angular brackets ⟨... ⟩ (\ displaystyle \ langle \ ldots \ rangle) denote the ensemble average.
An entropically governed polymer chain (i.e. in so called theta conditions) follows a random walk in three dimensions. The radius of gyration for this case is given by
Note that although a N (\ displaystyle aN) represents the contour length of the polymer, a (\ displaystyle a) is strongly dependent of polymer stiffness and can vary over orders of magnitude. N (\ displaystyle N) is reduced accordingly.
One reason that the radius of gyration is an interesting property is that it can be determined experimentally with static light scattering as well as with small angle neutron - and x-ray scattering. This allows theoretical polymer physicists to check their models against reality. The hydrodynamic radius is numerically similar, and can be measured with Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS).
To show that the two definitions of R g 2 (\ displaystyle R_ (\ mathrm (g)) ^ (2)) are identical, we first multiply out the summand in the first definition:
Carrying out the summation over the last two terms and using the definition of r m e a n (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (r) _ (\ mathrm (mean))) gives the formula
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when did pie in the face come out | Pieing - wikipedia
A pieing or pie attack is the act of throwing a pie at a person or people. Non-consensual pieing is a punishable offence in criminal law, and depending on jurisdiction is a battery but may also constitute an assault. Non-consensual pieing may also be actionable as a civil wrong (tort) resulting in the victim of the pieing to recover damages in a lawsuit from the tortfeasor.
Although pieing may be intended as a simple practical joke, it can be a political action when the target is an authority figure, politician, industrialist, or celebrity and can be used as a means of protesting against the target 's political beliefs, or against perceived arrogance or vanity. Perpetrators generally regard the act as a form of ridicule to embarrass and humiliate the victim.
In pieing, the goal is usually to humiliate the victim while avoiding actual injury. For this reason the pie is traditionally of the cream variety without a top crust, and is rarely if ever a hot pie. In Britain, a pie in the context of throwing is traditionally referred to as a custard pie. An aluminum pie pan or paper plate filled with whipped cream or shaving foam can substitute for a real pie.
Pieing and pie fights are a staple of slapstick comedy, and pie "tosses '' are also common charity fundraising events, especially in schools. Pieing is also particularly popular in Brazil, where it is known as "torta na cara '' and is featured prominently on the Brazilian game show Passa ou Repassa on Sistema Brasileiro de Televisão and Agora Torta ("Now Pie '') as well as in a very large number of YouTube videos (several per day) uploaded by Brazilian channels.
Pieing has its origins in the "pie in the face '' gag from slapstick comedy. It appears on stage in the music hall sketches of the English theatre impresario Fred Karno. It was first seen in film in the 1909 Essanay Studios silent film Mr. Flip starring Ben Turpin. In the story, Turpin has a pie pushed into his face for taking liberties with a woman.
Beginning in 1913 with That Ragtime Band and A Noise from the Deep, filmmaker Mack Sennett became known for using one or two thrown pies in many of his comedy shorts. Sennett had a personal rule about who received the pies: "A mother never gets hit with a custard pie... Mothers - in - law, yes. But mothers? Never. ''
At least a half dozen films have been made incorporating extended pie - throwing battles. The first was Charlie Chaplin 's Behind the Screen released in 1916. The definitive pie fight in film occurs in The Battle of the Century (1927) starring Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy, using 3,000 pies. Our Gang 's Shivering Shakespeare (1930) winds up with an auditorium full of people throwing pies. The 1935 short subject Keystone Hotel featured a large pie - fight ending with the camera taking a pie. In 1941, another major pie - fight film appeared: The Three Stooges ' In the Sweet Pie and Pie. By 1952, pieing was such an established gag in Hollywood comedy that the song "Make ' Em Laugh '' from Singin ' In The Rain concludes with the line "And then you get a great big custard pie in the face! '' A Technicolor film involving pies was the 1965 comedy, The Great Race; known for having the largest pie fight in cinematic history. Its $200,000 pie - fight scene used 4,000 pies and one large cake, and took five days to shoot. Pie fights also featured in Beach Party (1963), Smashing Time (1967) and Blazing Saddles (1974). In Bugsy Malone (1976), the "splurge guns '' resembled spud guns which fired custard. Original plans called for Dr. Strangelove (1964) to end with a pie fight; the scene, though filmed, was ultimately deemed excessively farcical by director Stanley Kubrick and removed from the final cut. Surviving stills from the excised pie fight have appeared online.
There are many instances in the Looney Tunes series of cartoons where characters "pie '' each other in the face. Bugs Bunny repeatedly hits Elmer Fudd with cream pies during a scene in Slick Hare (1947). In Shishkabugs (1962), Bugs Bunny releases a spring - loaded pie into the face of the king, causing the royal cook Yosemite Sam to be led away to a dungeon. Daffy Dilly (1948) has Daffy Duck trying to cure a dying millionaire by getting him to laugh. After he achieves this inadvertently, by landing in a cake, Daffy is hired as a sort of household jester and ends the cartoon by getting repeatedly pelted with cakes and pies.
Many comedy routines have used a pie as a gag, including ones performed by Soupy Sales and Monty Python, and those of clowns in many circus performances.
A popular Nickelodeon reality show called What Would You Do? also features contraptions designed to hit participants in the face with multiple cream pies, often as punishment for losing, or sometimes as a reward for winning, a game performed on the show. The UK Saturday morning programme Tiswas had custard pies as a regular feature and even had a character called The Phantom Flan Flinger, a masked man who pied people.
The World Custard Pie Throwing Championships take place annually in the village of Coxheath in Kent, England.
The probable originator of pieing as a political act was Thomas King Forcade, the founder of High Times magazine. In 1970, Forcade pied Otto N. Larsen, the Chairman of the President 's Commission on Obscenity and Pornography; his action was called the first Yippie pieing. Aron Kay, also a Yippie, went on to take up Forcade 's pieing tactics. Kay pied, among many others, William F. Buckley, Phyllis Schlafly, G. Gordon Liddy, E. Howard Hunt, and Andy Warhol. A disciple of Aron Kay, Thom Higgins, pied singer and anti-gay rights activist Anita Bryant in Des Moines, Iowa, in 1977 (audio footage of the incident is included in the Chumbawamba song Just Desserts, an homage to the concept of pieing). Kay retired in 1992 after pieing right - wing activist Randall Terry. Kay appears in cartoon form in a 2003 animated music video, "Death penalty for pot '' by Benedict Arnold and The Traitors, where he and Dana Beal pie George W. Bush and former U.S. Attorney General John Ashcroft (at 2 minutes and 33 seconds into the video).
Concerning Kay, an article in the San Francisco Examiner says: "He considers the Three Stooges, whom he began watching on TV as a kid, as the true fathers of pie - throwing. ''
A noted victim of pieing was Microsoft founder Bill Gates who was pied in Belgium in 1998. A computer game was later released in which Gates ' head pops up around the screen and the object is to "pie '' as many of his heads as possible in the allocated time. Other victims include designer Karl Lagerfeld, American singer Kenny Rogers, former Dutch finance minister Gerrit Zalm and media tycoon Rupert Murdoch.
The anonymous Biotic Baking Brigade has pied or attempted to pie, among others, conservative pundits Ann Coulter and David Horowitz; and Fred Phelps, the controversial leader of the Westboro Baptist Church. Coulter has also been attacked by the "terrorist '' group Al Pieda. The Canadian group the Entartistes, founded by Rhinoceros Party of Canada founder François Gourd, has also pied many, including then - Prime Minister of Canada Jean Chrétien. In 2003 in the city of Calgary they pied Ralph Klein, the premier of the Canadian province of Alberta, saying in their press release: "Is it surprising to see Ralph Klein opposing the Kyoto Accord for the right of big corporations to pollute, the same corporations that finance his campaigns? ''
"The pie gives power back to the people because so many feel powerless in the face of big politicians and industrialists '', explained Pope - Tart (a pseudonym), a member of the Entartistes. Newsweek columnist Gersh Kuntzman wrote that pieing "deserves to be one of the most celebrated traditions in our so - called culture. ''
Sometimes pieing targets suffer the prank with good humor. Godard was very pleased at being pied and said "this is what happens when silent movies meet talking pictures ''; he intervened with the Cannes authorities on behalf of Noël Godin to prevent him from being arrested. Anti-gay campaigner Anita Bryant, upon being pied by a gay activist on television, joked that "at least it 's a fruit pie '', apparently making a pun on the derogatory term for a gay man ("fruit ''). However, moments later she was in tears. By contrast, Bernard - Henri Lévy has on multiple occasions attacked Godin and his followers, and Ann Coulter pressed charges in 2005 when she narrowly evaded a pie at the University of Arizona. Activist David Horowitz said of his pieing, "These attacks are sinister. The person who throws a pie is saying, ' I hate you. I do n't want you to speak. ' I never saw it coming. And it took away my dignity. When you 're lecturing, you 're supposed to have an authority. But a pie turns it into a food fight. ''
On January 25, 2010, Canada 's Fisheries and Oceans Minister Gail Shea was hit with a pie in her face while touring the Canada Centre for Inland Waters in Burlington, Ontario, in an act of protest against the seal hunt in Canada by animal rights group PETA. PETA said in a release that it was part of its campaign "to stop the government 's ill - advised sanction of the slaughter of seals. ''
On July 19, 2011, Rupert Murdoch was pied in London during a Parliamentary hearing on the News International phone hacking scandal.
On May 9, 2017 Alan Joyce, the chief executive of Australian airline Qantas, had a speech interrupted by a man who shoved a pie in his face.
Former Canadian prime minister Jean Chrétien was hit in the face with a pie by a protester in Prince Edward Island in 2000. His attacker initially was given jail time but eventually received a conditional sentence.
A woman who missed Alberta Premier Ed Stelmach with a pie at the annual Calgary Stampede breakfast in 2007, and hit a security official instead, was sentenced to 30 days in jail. So was a woman who threw a pie at Calgary Mayor Dave Bronconnier in the summer of 2007.
In 2003, a protester who hit then - Alberta premier Ralph Klein in the face with a pie at the Stampede breakfast was convicted of assault and ordered to serve a 30 - day intermittent jail sentence.
In 2010, a PETA supporter threw a tofu cream pie at Canadian fisheries minister Gail Shea to protest the Canadian Government 's support on seal hunting. The act was later condemned by Liberal MP Gerry Byrne as an act of terrorism.
Comedian Jonathan May - Bowles (also known as Jonny Marbles) pied Rupert Murdoch in July 2011 during a highly publicized testimony before a British parliamentary committee in connection with the News International phone hacking scandal. May - Bowles was sentenced to serve a six - week prison sentence at Wandsworth Prison in London; this sentence was later reduced to four weeks.
In August 2010, a Michigan State University student named Ahlam Mohsem, 23, threw a Dutch apple pie into Michigan Senator Carl Levin 's face and was arrested on assault and battery charges. The police also charged a man who allegedly distracted the senator before the pie was thrown. Mohsem said she threw the pie with the aim of "bringing to light Sen. Levin 's war crimes '' as a "Zionist ''.
In September 2016, Sacramento, California, mayor Kevin Johnson was attending a charity event at Sacramento Charter High School when a man approached him and hit him in the face with a cream pie. Johnson then punched his assailant. The perpetrator, Sean Thompson, was arrested on a felony charge of assaulting a public official and misdemeanor charge of battery on school.
On 27 October 2011, the Spanish politician Yolanda Barcina was hit by three pies a meeting in Toulouse, France. The authors of the pie smash were Gorka Ovejero Bengoa, Deputy Mayor of Arruazu at the time, Julio Martín Villanueva and Ibon García Garrido, protesting against a high - speed rail line. On 27 November 2013 a Spanish court condemned all three to a fine of 900 euros and two years in prison each. An accomplice who did not throw a pie was condemned to one year in jail. Yolanda Barcina claimed bodily harm, suffered because of "the hardness of French meringue pie ''.
In September 2001, the Swedish king Carl XVI Gustaf was visiting Varberg when he was pied by a 16 - year - old boy. Such an attack could possibly have counted as high treason under Swedish law, which would have warranted a long prison sentence. However, the perpetrator was only convicted of assault, as it could not be proven that his action was politically motivated. He was later ordered to pay day - fines. Two other boys, who had helped to prepare the attack by making the cake, were also fined.
At charity fundraisers, a pie - toss event usually involves some well - known figure, generally a person either in a position of authority or fame, who is intended as the "victim ''. People attending the event pay for or bid on the opportunity to smoosh the volunteer victim in the face with a custard pie; throwing is generally not allowed anymore as the impact can cause injury, and the smoosh is usually in slow - motion and applied without great pressure. Although this takes the element of chance out of the event, it allows the opportunity to smear pie more thoroughly in the victim 's face and potentially through their hair. This is a popular fund - raising event with schools and social or charitable organizations. Students can pie teachers, professors, or other administrators to ease the tension while still raising money and / or awareness about a cause.
One additional option is allowing the person who has purchased or won the opportunity to use the pie to also fill it, usually with a variety of extremely messy dessert toppings: chocolate, cherries, caramel sauce, strawberry sauce, etc. Plastic bags for the victim to protect their clothing and hair are optional. Witnesses standing too close to the victim (s) may be splattered.
Pie - in - the - face variants on the Ice Bucket Challenge also emerged in 2014, most commonly under the name "Pie In The Eye Challenge '', in which the nominated person must receive a pie in the face instead of the bucket of iced water poured over the head. In some cases, individuals underwent both challenges in the same video. One particular occurrence of this, the late 2016 Waitress Pie Challenge, was initiated by the cast of the musical Waitress to raise awareness of breast cancer.
In Major League Baseball, Pittsburgh Pirates pitcher A.J. Burnett (formerly of the New York Yankees and Philadelphia Phillies) pies teammates who drive in or score the winning run in a walk - off win (a game won on a hit by the last batter).
Burnett 's "pies '' are filled with either shaving cream or whipped cream. Burnett has pied Alex Rodriguez, Johnny Damon, Melky Cabrera, Jorge Posada, Hideki Matsui, Nick Swisher (twice), Robinson Canó (twice), Francisco Cervelli, Juan Miranda, Mark Teixeira, Jerry Hairston, Jr., Marcus Thames, Brett Gardner, Alex Presley, and most recently, Josh Harrison and Russell Martin. Burnett usually pies the player while he is being interviewed on the field by a TV reporter.
Other players have become well - known and celebrated for their pieing. During his tenure as a member of the Philadelphia Phillies, utility infielder Tomás Pérez would commonly pie teammates during post-game interviews.
The pieing tradition in baseball has extended beyond game - winning hits to any outstanding performance. Rookie Stephen Strasburg was pied by teammate John Lannan after his historic debut when he struck out 14 Pittsburgh batters. Matt Garza of the Tampa Bay Rays was pied by Evan Longoria after Garza pitched the first no - hitter in Rays history July 26, 2010. Most recently, Baltimore Orioles rookie Manny Machado was pied by teammates Robert Andino and Adam Jones after hitting two home runs (the youngest Oriole ever to do so) in only his second major league game.
On July 26, 2010, the Florida Marlins left fielder Chris Coghlan injured himself while pieing teammate Wes Helms after Helms 's single won the game in the bottom of the 11th inning. In response, manager Edwin Rodríguez said that there will be no more such celebratory antics.
J.P. Arencibia was pied in the face after hitting two home runs in his MLB debut against the Rays.
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who wrote the lyrics to shake it off | Shake It Off - wikipedia
"Shake It Off '' is a song recorded by American singer - songwriter Taylor Swift from her fifth album, 1989 (2014). Written by Swift, Max Martin and Shellback, it is an uptempo dance - pop track considered to be a departure from Swift 's earlier country pop music style. "Shake It Off '' is the sixth track on the album and serves as the lead single. The song premiered during a Yahoo! live stream session on August 18, 2014 (also streaming internationally online); its music video was also released the same day. Several hours later, the song was made available for digital download.
"Shake It Off '' debuted at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for the week ending September 6, 2014, becoming Swift 's second number - one single in the United States and the 22nd song to debut at number one in the chart 's history. The song won Favorite Song at the 2015 People 's Choice Awards, and also received nominations for Record of the Year, Song of the Year and Best Pop Solo Performance at the 2015 Grammy Awards.
According to Billboard, it is Swift 's biggest Hot 100 hit to date, staying on the chart for 50 consecutive weeks.
Swift began teasing about an announcement in August 2014. On August 4, she posted a video on Instagram in which she pushes the number 18 in an elevator. On August 6, she tweeted an image of the time 5: 00 and the next day a screenshot from a Yahoo! homepage. She later confirmed on August 13, 2014 on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon that a Yahoo! live stream session would take place on August 18, 2014 at 5pm. During the live stream, Swift announced her upcoming fifth album and premiered its lead single.
"Shake It Off '' was written by Swift, Martin and Shellback. Produced by Martin and Shellback, the song 's duration is three minutes and thirty - nine seconds. Musically, "Shake It Off '' is an uptempo dance - pop song written in the key of G major at tempo of 160 beats per minute, and exists outside of the traditional country pop musical style of Swift 's previous releases. Swift 's vocal range spans two octaves from G to G. The song 's arrangement features a saxophone.
Jason Lipshutz from Billboard compared the song 's melody to that of Macklemore & Ryan Lewis ' song "Thrift Shop '' (2013). A writer from Music Times likened the song to Pharrell Williams ' "Happy '' (2013). Writing for The Hollywood Reporter, Shirley Halperin labelled "Shake It Off '' "an uptempo version '' of Idina Menzel 's "Let It Go '' (2013).
Lyrically, the song is dedicated to Swift 's detractors. She has discussed this, saying, "I 've learned a pretty tough lesson that people can say whatever they want about us at any time, and we can not control that. The only thing we can control is our reaction to that. '' In an interview for Rolling Stone, Swift elaborated:
I 've had every part of my life dissected -- my choices, my actions, my words, my body, my style, my music. When you live your life under that kind of scrutiny, you can either let it break you, or you can get really good at dodging punches. And when one lands, you know how to deal with it. And I guess the way that I deal with it is to shake it off.
In an October 2014 NPR interview, Swift spoke about the lyrical message of the song in relation to her previous work and a desire to reclaim the "narrative '':
With the song ' Shake It Off, ' I really wanted to kind of take back the narrative, and have more of a sense of humor about people who kind of get under my skin -- and not let them get under my skin. There 's a song that I wrote a couple years ago called "Mean, '' where I addressed the same issue but I addressed it very differently. I said, "Why you got ta be so mean?, '' from kind of a victimized perspective, which is how we all approach bullying or gossip when it happens to us for the first time. But in the last few years I 've gotten better at just kind of laughing off things that absolutely have no bearing on my real life. I think it 's important to be self - aware about what people are saying about you, but even more so, be very aware of who you actually are, and to have that be the main priority.
Lipshutz wrote that Swift "proves why she belongs among pop 's queen bees: As you may have guessed, the song sounds like a surefire hit ''. Tarynn Law from The 405 praised the track and characterized the song 's hook as "poppy '' and "catchy ''. Halperin gave the song a positive review, describing it as "pop - tastic. '' Alice Vincent from The Daily Telegraph also positively reviewed the song, noting it as "a catchy, upbeat track. '' The Guardian 's Molly Fitzpatrick also found that the song is catchy but does not show off Swift 's writing talent.
The Los Angeles Times 's critic Randall Roberts called the song "a perfect pop confection '' however noting it "presents an artist gunning for sly transgression but instead landing on tone - deaf, self - absorbed teen regression, with music to match the vibe. '' Writing for The Daily Beast, Kevin Fallon found "this new direction of her career is woefully depressing. '' While he admitted "Shake It Off '' is "a great pop song '', he said it is "the least musically interesting song that Swift has done '' and "it 's not personal, at least not in the ways we expect from a Taylor Swift song. '' Fallon deplored Swift 's transition to pop in which he felt she "abandoned her sound '' in the process. AllMusic music critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine described it as "an ebullient dance - pop throwback ''.
It received nominations for Record of the Year, Song of the Year and Best Pop Solo Performance at the 57th Grammy Awards. In January 2015, The Village Voice named "Shake It Off '' the fourth - best song of 2014 in their annual Pazz & Jop critics ' poll, with Swift 's following single "Blank Space '' at number three on the same poll.
A day following its impact on US radio stations, "Shake It Off '' gained an audience of nine million. The song debuted at 45 on the Billboard Radio Songs chart with 29 million in all - format audience. It debuted on the Mainstream Top 40 chart at number 12, tying it with Mariah Carey 's "Dreamlover '' (1993) as the highest chart debut. "Shake It Off '' became her third number - one song there, following her 2008 country crossover hit single Love Story and her 2013 hit "I Knew You Were Trouble '', which remained No. 1 for seven consecutive weeks. The single debuted at number nine on the Billboard Adult Top 40 chart, becoming the highest debut single on the chart. On its sixth week, the song became her second No. 1 on the Adult Top 40 chart since her 2013 hit "I Knew You Were Trouble '', tying it with Celine Dion 's "Because You Loved Me '' (1996) as the fastest song to reach number 1 in just six weeks. The song debuted at number 58 on the Country Airplay chart, though only two country stations played the song more than four times. It spent only one week on the chart. Billboard noted that its presence on the chart was unusual due to its sound and Swift 's acknowledged transition from country to pop music. On the Radio Songs chart, the song became Swift 's third number - one song there, following her 2013 hit "I Knew You Were Trouble ''. "Shake It Off '' has spent four non-consecutive weeks at No. 1 on the Digital Songs chart.
"Shake It Off '' debuted atop the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, becoming the 22nd song to do so. It produced first - week digital sales of 544,000 units for the chart issue dated September 6, 2014, the largest debut sales week for a single of 2014, and the fourth overall, following Flo Rida 's "Right Round '', Swift 's "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together '' and Katy Perry 's "Roar ''. During that week, "Shake It Off '' additionally garnered 18.4 million streams and 71 million airplay audiences. The song remained at number one for the second week selling 355,000 copies. "Shake It Off '' then dropped down to number two, beneath Meghan Trainor 's "All About That Bass '', where it stayed for eight consecutive weeks, before returning to number one on November 15, 2014, when 1989 was released and debuted at number one the same week. The song 's eight weeks gap in reclaiming number one was the third longest in the chart 's history, after Chubby Checker 's "The Twist '' (roughly two years in between) and Miley Cyrus ' "Wrecking Ball '' (nine weeks). In total, "Shake It Off '' spent four non-consecutive weeks at number one and 24 non-consecutive weeks in the top 10 of the Billboard Hot 100, thus becoming Swift 's longest - running single in the top 10; overall, "Shake It Off '' spent 50 weeks on the chart, leaving on the issue dated August 15, 2015. The song was replaced at number one by "Blank Space '', the second single from 1989, thus making Swift the first female artist to replace herself at the top spot in the 56 - year history of the Hot 100. The song became the # 13 song of 2014 on Billboard Year End Chart. The song became the eighth best - selling song of 2014 in the United States with 3.43 million copies sold in that year, and as of August 2015, the song has sold over 4,000,000 copies in the United States. The song was certified 9 × platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on June 8, 2017. Elsewhere in North America, "Shake It Off '' became Swift 's third number one in Canada selling 48,000 copies in its first week, following "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together '', after debuting at number one; it is her third song to do so, tying her with Eminem and Katy Perry for the most songs to debut at number one on the chart. By the year 's end, it had sold 341,000 copies in Canada.
The song had also seen success in Europe. In the United Kingdom, "Shake It Off '' became Swift 's sixth top 10 when the song debuted at number four on August 30, 2014. After nine weeks on the chart, "Shake It Off '' reached number two, tying with "Love Story '' and "I Knew You Were Trouble '' as her highest - charting single in the country at the time; it is also the highest - charting single from 1989. It sold 570,000 copies in the UK by November 20, 2014, and it became the eleventh best - selling song of 2014 in the UK. As of August 2017, it has sold 960,000 copies in the country. In Ireland, the song jumped at number three on its second week after debuting at number 14, became Swift 's fifth top ten. In France, "Shake It Off '' peaked at number six, her highest - charting single in the country to date (as well as her first top - 10).
In Australia, it debuted at number five on the Australian Singles Chart, the highest debut of the week, and on its second week it rose to the number - one spot, making it Swift 's second single to top the chart after her 2009 hit "Love Story ''. "Shake It Off '' spent a third week at No. 1 on the Australian Singles Chart making Swift 's longest run on Australia since "Love Story ''. The single has been certified 5 × Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of over 350,000 copies. In New Zealand, it debuted at number two, the highest debut of the week, and on its second week it rose to the number - one spot, making it Swift 's second single to top the chart after her 2012 hit "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together ''. On its fifth week "Shake It Off '' spent two non-consecutive weeks at No. 1 on the New Zealand Singles Chart making Swift 's longest run on New Zealand since "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together ''.
The music video, directed by Mark Romanek, was released on August 18, 2014 (the same day as the song 's release). It was shot over three days in June 2014 in Van Nuys, California. The dances were choreographed by Tyce Diorio. Swift talked about the making of the video:
According to Music Times, the video features Swift "embracing her inner dorky dancer by submerging herself with some of the world 's best dancers in the styles of hip hop, lyrical, ballet, jazz and even cheerleader. '' The Guardian 's Sean Michaels also noted the accompaniment of "twerkers '' in the clip. "Shake It Off '' music video also features Swift 's fans, who had written fan letters or posted on Twitter and Instagram. Critics also noted references to Lady Gaga and Skrillex in the clip. Hugh McIntyre from Forbes noted the references to Gaga, Skrillex, Fergie and Gwen Stefani in "Shake It Off '' video, further writing that it is "quirky and hard to dislike. '' Analyzing the video, VH1 noticed resemblances to Beyoncé 's "Mine '' video.
The video received mixed reviews from music critics. Brian Mansfield of the Chicago Sun - Times called the video "chirpy ''. Direct Lyrics provided a positive review saying the video is "certainly a fun one and it catches rather well the rebellious and care - free spirit of the new Taylor single. '' Fitzpatrick of The Guardian wrote: "The incongruent blend of modern dance, ballet, and breakdancing is fun, but the conceit falls flat. ''
HitFix deemed the video "ill - timed '' due to the race relations debate around the Ferguson riots. Romanek defended his work stating: "We simply choose styles of dance that we thought would be popular and amusing, and cast the best dancers that were presented to us without much regard to race or ethnicity ''. He also stated: "If you look at it carefully, it 's a massively inclusive piece, it 's very, very innocently and positively intentioned. And -- let 's remember -- it 's a satirical piece. It 's playing with a whole range of music video tropes and cliches and stereotypes. ''
As of October 2017, the video has received over 2.4 billion views on YouTube, and is the eighth most viewed video on the site, and it is also the most viewed by a female artist. Swift also became the first female to have a video on YouTube with 2 billion views.
Swift performed "Shake It Off '' for the first time live at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards on August 24, 2014, wearing a shimmering silver two - piece with a crew of male dancers in suits and female dancers in matching charcoal - colored outfits. Swift also performed the song at the 2014 German Radio Awards on September 4, 2014. Swift also performed the song live at the iHeartRadio Music Festival on September 19, 2014. At the after party for the 40th Anniversary of Saturday Night Live, Swift performed the song in an impromptu performance with emcee Jimmy Fallon on backing vocals and Paul McCartney on backing vocals and bass guitar. This was also a regular part of the setlist and always ended each night of Swift 's 1989 World Tour.
Following a January 13, 2015 article on BuzzFeed titled "Why Is n't Everyone Voting For ' Shake It Off ' In The Hottest 100? '' by Mark Di Stefano, the "# Tay4Hottest100 '' hashtag campaign began during the voting period for Triple J Hottest 100 radio poll for 2014. The campaign led to a significant amount of media coverage as Australian music fans debated the merits of Swift 's inclusion in the poll, including the potential for a number - one ranking. According to those critical of the campaign, the Hottest 100 is reserved for non-mainstream artists who were "discovered or fostered by Triple J. '' and provides valuable exposure for artists in the outer circles of the music industry. Accusations of cultural elitism surfaced during the campaign, with the Guardian 's Elle Hunt writing: "the virulent response to # Tay4Hottest100 has revealed the persistence of a dichotomy I 'd thought we 'd thrown out long ago: that of high art versus low. ''
Station manager Chris Scaddan told the media that the Swift campaign is within the rules of the poll, later instructing Triple J employees not to comment to "media, friends, family '' about the campaign, as "it will all become clear when we get to the countdown next Monday. '' The station said: "we do n't comment on voting campaigns whilst Hottest 100 voting is open. It draws attention to them and may influence the results of the poll. '' Marketing website Mumbrella suggested on January 20 that a Facebook post by KFC incorporating the "# Tay4Hottest100 '' hashtag was against the Hottest 100 rules and could see Swift disqualified. Also on January 20, the Guardian submitted a freedom of information request to the ABC in regard to the station 's response to the campaign.
After journalist Peter Vincent reported that the Swift campaign had "swallowed '' the Hottest 100 for 2014, citing research from the University of Queensland that showed that over 7,341 Hottest 100 posts in a 30 - day period leading up to the poll results related to Swift, "Shake It Off '' was eventually disqualified by the radio station in an announcement on January 26, 2015. The official announcement read: "it became pretty clear, pretty quick that a lot of people just wanted to prod some ' hipsters ' for the lulz '', acknowledging that the station "had a heap of fun '', while Swift is "smart '', "cool '' and "successful ''. The song would have placed in the number 12 position if it had been allowed to compete.
In November 2015 Jesse Braham, known by the stage name Jesse Graham, sued Swift for $42 million in damages claiming Swift stole lines from his song "Haters Gonna Hate '' state that Swift 's "hook is the same as mine... '' and that there would be no "Shake It Off '' if he "had n't written "Haters Gonna Hate ''. The lawsuit was dismissed by United States District Court Judge Gail Standish and used Taylor 's own lyrics from "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together '', "Bad Blood '', "Blank Space '' and "Shake It Off '' stating
At present, the Court is not saying that Braham can never, ever, ever get his case back in court. But, for now, we have got problems, and the Court is not sure Braham can solve them. As currently drafted, the Complaint has a blank space -- one that requires Braham to do more than write his name. And, upon consideration of the Court 's explanation... Braham may discover that mere pleading BandAids will not fix the bullet holes in his case. At least for the moment, Defendants have shaken off this lawsuit.
Standish ruled that Braham did not have enough factual evidence but could file a new complaint "if his lawsuit deficiencies are corrected. ''
In September 2014, Labrinth performed a cover of the song at BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge. In that same month, Meghan Trainor played it with a ukulele on 2DayFM 's The Dan & Maz Show. In October, Kelly Clarkson sang the song at a concert in Buffalo, New York. In February 2015, Charli XCX delivered a punk version at BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge and her version nominated at category "Cover Woodie (Best Cover Song) '' on mtvU Woodie Awards. Ryan Adams covered "Shake It Off '' for his album 1989, a cover of Swift 's album 1989. Yahoo! writer Oscar Gracey called Adams ' cover of "Shake It Off '' "brooding '' and said that it "may be the sole weak spot on Ryan 's cover album. ''
The song was used in the series The Middle during a dance routine. It was featured in the TV spots for the 2014 film Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb and the trailer for the 2015 computer - animated film Norm of the North. The song is also featured in other television shows such as Ballers, The Magicians, Supernatural, and Scream Queens.
The song and its video are parodied by The Hillywood Show (created by sisters Hannah and Hilly Hindi) in their seven - minute YouTube hit, "Supernatural Parody by The Hillywood Show. '' The lyrics are changed for this send - up of the TV show Supernatural and stars many of its cast members, including Osric Chau, Jared Padalecki, Jensen Ackles, and Misha Collins. A lip sync video made by a New Jersey high school 's television production class also received press coverage after Swift posted about it on her official Twitter.
Actor Dwayne Johnson lip synced to this song in Lip Sync Battle along with "Stayin ' Alive '' by The Bee Gees to beat Jimmy Fallon.
The song was covered by Reese Witherspoon and Nick Kroll for the 2016 animated film Sing and is listed in its soundtrack.
The song is also featured in the film True Memoirs of an International Assassin.
The song is referenced in the title of the Family Guy episode "Chris Has Got a Date, Date, Date, Date, Date ''. The episode also features a cameo of Swift.
Digital download / limited edition CD single
German CD single
Credits are adapted from liner notes of 1989.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who played elder cunningham in book of mormon | The Book of Mormon (musical) - wikipedia
The Book of Mormon is a musical comedy about two young Mormon missionaries who travel to Africa to preach the Mormon religion. First staged in 2011, the play satirizes various Mormon beliefs and practices. The script, lyrics and music were written by Trey Parker, Robert Lopez and Matt Stone. Best known for creating the animated comedy South Park, Parker and Stone co-created the music with Lopez, the co-composer / co-lyricist of Avenue Q, and, subsequently, Frozen.
The Book of Mormon follows two Mormon missionaries as they attempt to share their scriptures with the inhabitants of a remote Ugandan village. The earnest young men are challenged by the lack of interest of the locals, who are preoccupied with more pressing troubles such as AIDS, famine, and oppression from the local warlord.
In 2003, after Parker and Stone saw Avenue Q, they met with Lopez and began developing the musical, meeting sporadically for several years. Parker and Stone grew up in Colorado, and references to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints had been commonplace in their previous works. For research, the trio took a trip to Salt Lake City to meet with current and former Mormon missionaries. Beginning in 2008, developmental workshops were staged. The show 's producer, Scott Rudin, opted to open the show directly on Broadway.
The show opened on Broadway in March 2011, after nearly seven years of development. The LDS Church issued a polite, measured response to the musical, and purchased advertising space in its playbill in later runs. The Book of Mormon garnered overwhelmingly positive critical responses, and set records in ticket sales for the Eugene O'Neill Theatre. The show was awarded nine Tony Awards, one of which was for Best Musical, and a Grammy Award for Best Musical Theater Album. The original Broadway cast recording became the highest - charting Broadway cast album in over four decades, reaching number three on the Billboard charts. In 2013, the musical premiered in the West End. Since then, it has staged two US national tours.
The Book of Mormon was conceived by Robert Lopez, Trey Parker, and Matt Stone. Both Parker and Stone grew up in Colorado, and were familiar with The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church) and its members. The writers became friends at the University of Colorado Boulder. At the college, they collaborated on a musical film, Cannibal! The Musical (1993), their first experience with movie musicals. In 1997, they created the TV series South Park for Comedy Central and the 1999 musical film South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut. The two had first thought of a fictionalized Joseph Smith, religious leader and founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, while working on an aborted Fox series about historical characters. Their 1997 film, Orgazmo, and a 2003 episode of South Park, "All About Mormons '', both gave comic treatment to Mormonism. Smith was also included as one of South Park 's "Super Best Friends '', a Justice League parody team of religious figures like Jesus and Buddha.
During the summer of 2003, Parker and Stone flew to New York City to discuss the script of their new film, Team America: World Police, with friend and producer Scott Rudin (who also produced South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut). Rudin advised the duo to see the musical Avenue Q on Broadway, finding the cast of marionettes in Team America similar to the puppets of Avenue Q. Parker and Stone went to see the production during that summer and the writer - composers of Avenue Q, Lopez and Jeff Marx, noticed them in the audience and introduced themselves. Lopez revealed that South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut was highly influential in the creation of Avenue Q. The quartet went for drinks afterwards, and soon found that each camp wanted to write something involving Joseph Smith. The four began working out details nearly immediately, with the idea to create a modern story formulated early on. For research purposes, the quartet took a field trip to Salt Lake City where they "interviewed a bunch of missionaries -- or ex-missionaries. '' They had to work around Parker and Stone 's South Park schedule.
In 2006, Parker and Stone flew to London where they spent three weeks with Lopez, who was working on the West End production of Avenue Q. There, the three wrote "four or five songs '' and came up with the basic idea of the story. After a disagreement between Parker and Marx, who felt he was not getting enough creative control, Marx was separated from the project. For the next few years, the remaining trio met frequently to develop what they initially called The Book of Mormon: The Musical of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints. "There was a lot of hopping back and forth between L.A. and New York, '' Parker recalled.
There are numerous revealed changes from original script to final production. A song named "Family Home Evening '', which was in early workshops of the show, was cut. The warlord in Uganda was called General Kony in previews but later changed to General Butt Fucking Naked. The song "The Bible Is A Trilogy '' went through a major rewrite to become "All - American Prophet ''. The earlier version was based around how the third movie in movie trilogies is always the best one and sums everything up which led to a recurring Matrix joke where a Ugandan man said "I thought the third Matrix was the worst one '' which later changed to "I have maggots in my scrotum '' in the rewritten version. The song "Spooky Mormon Hell Dream '' was originally called "H-E Double Hockey Sticks. ''
Lopez pushed to "workshop '' the project, which baffled Parker and Stone, clueless about what he meant. Developmental workshops were directed by Jason Moore, and starred Cheyenne Jackson. Other actors in readings included Benjamin Walker and Daniel Reichard. The crew embarked on the first of a half - dozen workshops that would take place during the next four years, ranging from 30 - minute mini-performances for family and friends to much larger - scale renderings of the embryonic show. They spent hundreds of thousands of dollars of their own money, still unconvinced they would take it any further. In February 2008, a fully staged reading starred Walker and Josh Gad as Elders Price and Cunningham, respectively. Moore was originally set to direct, but left the production in June 2010. Other directors, including James Lapine, were optioned to join the creative team, but the producers recruited Casey Nicholaw. A final five - week workshop took place in August 2010, when Nicholaw came on board as choreographer and co-director with Parker.
Rudin was named as the producer of the show. Originally, Rudin planned to stage The Book of Mormon off - Broadway at the New York Theatre Workshop in summer 2010, but opted to premiere it directly on Broadway, "(s) ince the guys (Parker and Stone) work best when the stakes are highest. '' Rudin booked the Eugene O'Neill Theatre and hired key players while sets were designed and built. Rudin expected the production to cost $11 million, but it came in under budget at $9 million. Hundreds of actors auditioned and 28 were cast. The crew did four weeks of rehearsals, with an additional two weeks of technical rehearsals, and then went directly into previews. The producers first heard the musical with the full pit six days before the first paying audience.
The Book of Mormon premiered on Broadway at the Eugene O'Neill Theatre on March 24, 2011, following previews since February 24. The production is choreographed by Casey Nicholaw and co-directed by Nicholaw and Parker. Set design is by Scott Pask, with costumes by Ann Roth, lighting by Brian MacDevitt, and sound by Brian Ronan. Orchestrations were co-created by Larry Hochman and the show 's musical director and vocal arranger Stephen Oremus. The production was originally headlined by Josh Gad and Andrew Rannells in the two leading roles.
On April 25, 2011, the producers confirmed that "counterfeit tickets to the Broadway production had been sold to and presented by theatergoers on at least five different occasions ''. An article in The New York Times reported, "In each case, the tickets were purchased on Craigslist, and while a single seller is suspected, the ticket purchases have taken place in different locations each time... (T) he production 's management and Jujamcyn Theaters, which operates the O'Neill, had notified the New York Police Department ''.
The New York production of The Book of Mormon employed an innovative pricing strategy, similar to the ones used in the airline and hotel industries. The producers charged as much as $477 for the best seats for performances with particularly high demand. The strategy paid off handsomely. During its first year, the show was consistently one of the top five best - selling shows on Broadway and set 22 new weekly sales records for the Eugene O'Neill Theater. For the week of Thanksgiving 2011, the average paid admission was over $170 even though the highest - priced regular seat was listed at $155. High attendance coupled with aggressive pricing allowed the financial backers to recoup their investment of $11.4 million after just nine months of performances.
After Gad 's departure in June 2012, standby Jared Gertner played the role, until June 26 when Cale Krise permanently took over the role as Gertner left to play Elder Cunningham in the First National Tour. Two days after Gad left (June 2012), original star Rannells was replaced by his standby Nic Rouleau. The same day, Samantha Marie Ware played Nabulungi on Broadway as the start of a 6 - week engagement (James was shooting a film) in preparation for her tour performance. Following Rouleau 's departure in November 2012 (to originate the role of Elder Price in Chicago), the role of Elder Price was taken over by Matt Doyle. In December 2012, Jon Bass joined as Elder Cunningham. Original cast member Rory O'Malley was replaced by Matt Loehr in January 2013. In April 2013, Stanley Wayne Mathis joined the cast as Mafala Hatimbi. In May 2013, Jon Bass left the role of Elder Cunningham, and was replaced by Cody Jamison Strand. After Doyle and Strand 's contracts finished in January 2014, Rouleau and Ben Platt (who had previously played the role of Elder Cunningham while in Chicago with Rouleau) joined the Broadway cast to reprise their roles as Elder Price and Elder Cunningham. On August 26, 2014 Grey Henson took over for Loehr as Elder McKinley. Henson had previously played the role on the First National Tour. Rouleau and Platt left Broadway in January 2015. They were replaced by Gavin Creel and Christopher John O'Neill who played the roles of Price and Cunningham (respectively) on the First National Tour. On January 3, 2016 Creel left the show after three and a half years with The Book of Mormon. He was replaced by Kyle Selig, former Second National Tour Elder Price standby, who is scheduled to play the role through February 21, 2016. On January 25, 2016, Christopher John O'Neill was temporarily replaced by longtime Elder Cunningham standby Nyk Bielak. Bielak has been a standby for Elder Cunningham on all three North American companies before becoming the Broadway Elder Cunningham. On February 17, 2016 Nic Rouleau announced via Twitter that he would be taking over the role of Elder Price starting on February 23, 2016. This will be Rouleau 's third time playing the role on Broadway; he previously played the role in Chicago, the Second National Tour, and most recently, the West End. O'Neill and Rouleau 's first performance together was on February 23, 2016. August 21, 2016 was Grey Henson 's last performance as Elder McKinley. On August 23, 2016, Henson was replaced by Stephen Ashfield who came over from the West End Production. On November 7, 2016, Nikki Rene Daniels announced she was pregnant with her second child, and would be going on maternity leave. Later that week, Kim Exum then took over the role of Nabalungi. On February 20, 2017 Chris O'Neill and Daniel Breaker had their final performances as Elder Cunningham and Mafala Hatimbi. O'Neill was replaced by Brian Sears, who came over from the London Production. Breaker was replaced by Billy Eugene Jones. Other Broadway cast members include, Original Broadway Cast member Lewis Cleale as Joseph Smith / Mission President and other roles, and Derrick Williams as the General.
The first North American tour began previews on August 14, 2012 at the Denver Center for the Performing Arts in Denver, Colorado, before moving to the Pantages Theatre in Los Angeles beginning September 5, with the official opening night for the tour on September 12. Originally planned to begin in December 2012, production was pushed forward four months. Gavin Creel (Price) and Jared Gertner (Cunningham) led the cast until late December when West End performer Mark Evans and Christopher John O'Neill took over, allowing time for Creel and Gertner to begin rehearsals for their move to the West End production. After Evans left the show on June 30, 2014, Broadway Elder Price stand - by, K.J. Hippensteel, temporarily covered as Elder Price. Hippensteel returned to Broadway and Ryan Bondy (who was covering for Hippensteel as the Broadway Elder Price stand - by) took over the role of Elder Price. Bondy continued on as Elder Price until Creel returned from London later in the summer of 2014. When Creel and O'Neill left the touring production to join the Broadway production, Bondy again took over the role of Elder Price while Chad Burris took over for O'Neill as Elder Cunningham. The two were only leads for six weeks as they waited for replacements to come from the West End Production. Billy Harrigan Tighe and A.J. Holmes moved over from the West End production to reprise their roles as Elder 's Price and Cunningham, respectively. Bondy and Burris then returned to the Second National Tour as stand - bys for Elder Price and Elder Cunningham.
As part of the tour, the musical was performed in Salt Lake City for the first time at the end of July and early August 2015.
The tour closed on May 1, 2016 in Honolulu, Hawaii.
The first replica sit - down production, separate from the tour, began previews on December 11, 2012, and officially opened on December 19 of that year, at the Bank of America Theatre in Chicago, Illinois as part of Broadway in Chicago. The limited engagement closed October 6, 2013 and became the second U.S. national tour. The cast included Nic Rouleau in the role of Price, along with Ben Platt as Cunningham.
A UK production debuted in the West End on February 25, 2013 at the Prince of Wales Theatre. Gavin Creel and Jared Gertner reprised their North American tour performances. The London cast members hosted a gala performance of the new musical on March 13, 2013, raising £ 200,000 for the British charity Comic Relief 's Red Nose Day. A typical London performance runs two hours and 30 minutes, including an interval of 15 minutes. In March 2014, The Book of Mormon was voted Funniest West End Show as part of the 2014 West End Frame Awards. On July 28, 2014, both Creel and Gertner left the production. Creel left the West End production to return to the 1st National Tour and was replaced by his stand - by, Billy Harrigan Tighe. Gertner was replaced by one of his stand - by 's, A.J. Holmes, who had previously played Cunningham on both the National Tour and Broadway.
After February 2, 2015, Broadway actor Nic Rouleau, cast in the role Elder Kevin Price replaced Billy Harrigan Tighe, and Brian Sears, who also starred on Broadway (as an ensemble member), replaced A.J. Holmes as Elder Cunningham. Tighe and Holmes then joined the cast of the 1st National Tour, filling the void that was there when Creel and O'Neill left the tour to play the leads on Broadway. On January 25, 2016 Rouleau announced via Twitter that January 30, 2016 will be his last performance as Elder Price in the West End. On February 1, 2016, longtime Broadway stand - by K.J. Hippensteel officially took over the role as Elder Price in the West End cast. On August 6, 2016 Stephen Ashfield had his last performance as Elder McKinley, as he was transferring over to the Broadway Production. On August 9, 2016 Steven Webb took over for Ashfield as Elder McKinley. On January 28, 2017 Brian Sears performed his last performance in the West End. Sears left London to join the Broadway company on February 20th. Sears was replaced by longtime Second National Tour Elder Cunningham, Cody Jamison Strand. Strand 's first performance was on January 30th, 2017.
After the Chicago production closed on October 6, 2013, the same production began touring the U.S. Platt never went on tour with the production and Rouleau performed in only a few cities on the tour before they both moved to New York and started rehearsals in preparation of joining the Broadway production. David Larsen succeeded Nic Rouleau as Elder Price. A.J. Holmes succeeded Ben Platt as Elder Cunningham. Cody Jamison Strand then succeeded A.J. Holmes in the role. December 14, 2014 was Pierce Cassedy 's last performance as Elder McKinley. He was replaced by former Broadway swing Daxton Bloomquist. On January 3, 2016, Larsen completed his final show as Elder Price. Larsen was replaced by his stand - by, Ryan Bondy. Gabe Gibbs replaced Bondy as Elder Price in October 2016. Oge Agulué replaced David Aron Damane as the General in December 2016. On January 1, 2017 Cody Jamison Strand had his last performance as Elder Cunningham. Strand left the show to join the West End Production. Strand was replaced by Connor Pierson on January 3, 2017. Other cast members include Candace Quarrels as Nabulungi and Sterling Jarvis as Mafala Hatimbi.
Book of Mormon opened in Australia at Melbourne 's Princess Theatre on January 18, 2017. Auditions were held in January 2016 in Sydney and Melbourne; rehearsals began in November. In November 2016, it was announced that Ryan Bondy and A.J. Holmes would reprise their roles as Elder Price and Elder Cunningham respectively. Zahra Newman will play Nabulungi, Bert Labonté will play Mafala, and Rowan Witt will play Elder McKinley. The first non-English version of the musical opened at the Chinateatern in Stockholm, Sweden, in January 2017. The musical is scheduled to play in Denmark at Copenhagen 's Det Ny Teater during the 2017 / 18 season. A Norwegian production is planned for 2017 at Det Norske Teateret in Oslo.
At LDS Church Missionary Training Center, devout, handsome, supercilious missionary - to - be Elder Kevin Price leads his classmates in a demonstration of the door - to - door method to convert people to Mormonism ("Hello! ''). Price believes if he prays enough, he will be sent to Orlando, Florida for his two - year mission, but to his shock, he and Elder Arnold Cunningham, an insecure, compulsive liar, are sent to Uganda as a pair ("Two By Two ''). Price is sure he is destined to do something incredible, while Cunningham is just happy to follow. ("You and Me (But Mostly Me) '').
Upon arrival in northern Uganda, the two are robbed by soldiers of a local warlord, General Butt - Fucking Naked (an allusion to the real General Butt Naked). They are welcomed to the village where a group of villagers share their daily reality of living in appalling conditions while being ruled by the General. To make their lives seem better, the villagers repeat a phrase that translates as "Fuck you, God! '' ("Hasa Diga Eebowai '').
Price and Cunningham are led to their living quarters by Nabulungi, where they meet their fellow missionaries stationed in the area, who have been unable to convert anyone to Mormonism. Elder McKinley, the district leader, teaches Price and Cunningham a widely accepted method of dealing with the negative and upsetting feelings ("Turn It Off ''). Though Price is riddled with anxiety, Cunningham reassures him that he will succeed and that as his partner, Cunningham, will be by his side no matter what ("I Am Here for You '').
Price is certain that he can succeed where the other Mormon elders have failed, teaching the villagers about Joseph Smith through a song that begins as a tribute to Smith but eventually descends into a tribute by Price to himself ("All - American Prophet ''). The General arrives and announces his demand for the genital mutilation of all female villagers. After a villager protests, the General executes him. Safely hiding back at home, Nabulungi, moved by Price 's promise of an earthly paradise, dreams of a better life in a new land ("Sal Tlay Ka Siti '').
The Mission President has requested a progress report on their mission. Shocked by the execution and the reality of Africa, Price decides to abandon his mission and requests a transfer to Orlando, while Cunningham, ever loyal, assures Price he will follow him anywhere ("I Am Here For You (Reprise) ''). However, Price unceremoniously dumps him as mission companion. Cunningham is crushed and alone, but when Nabulungi comes to him, wanting to learn more about the Book of Mormon and having convinced the villagers to listen to him, Cunningham finds the courage to take control of the situation ("Man Up '').
When his audience begins to get frustrated and leave, Cunningham quickly makes up stories by combining what he knows of Mormon doctrines with pieces of science fiction and fantasy. Cunningham 's conscience (personified by his father, Joseph Smith, hobbits, Lt. Uhura, Darth Vader, and Yoda) admonishes him, but he rationalizes that if it helps people, it surely can not be wrong ("Making Things Up Again '').
Price joyfully arrives in Orlando but then realizes that he is dreaming. He is reminded of the nightmares of hell he had as a child and panics when his nightmare begins once again ("Spooky Mormon Hell Dream ''). Price awakens and decides to re-commit to his mission.
Cunningham announces several Ugandans are interested in the church. McKinley points out that unless the General is dealt with, no one will convert. Price, seeing the chance to prove his worth, sets off on the "mission he was born to do ''. After re-affirming his faith, he confronts the General determined to convert him ("I Believe ''). The General is unimpressed and drags Price away; Price is next seen in the village doctor 's office, having the Book of Mormon removed from his rectum.
Cunningham concludes his preaching and the villagers are baptized, with Nabulungi and Cunningham sharing a tender moment as they do ("Baptize Me ''). The Mormon missionaries feel oneness with the people of Uganda and celebrate ("I Am Africa ''). Meanwhile, the General hears of the villagers ' conversion and resolves to kill them all.
Having lost his faith, Price drowns his sorrows in coffee. Cunningham finds Price and tells him they need to at least act like mission companions, as the Mission President is coming to visit the Ugandan mission. Price reflects on all the broken promises the Church, his parents, his friends and life in general made to him ("Orlando '').
Nabulungi and the villagers perform a pageant to "honor (them) with the story of Joseph Smith, the American Moses '' ("Joseph Smith American Moses ''), which reflects the distortions put forth by Cunningham. The Mission President is appalled, orders all the missionaries to go home, and tells Nabulungi that she and her fellow villagers are not Mormons. Nabulungi, heartbroken at the thought that she will never reach paradise, curses God for forsaking her ("Hasa Diga Eebowai (Reprise) ''). Price has had an epiphany and realizes Cunningham was right all along: though scriptures are important, what is more important is getting the message across ("You and Me (But Mostly Me) (Reprise) '').
The General arrives, and Nabulungi is ready to submit to him, telling the villagers that the stories Cunningham told them are untrue. To her shock, they respond that they have always known that the stories were metaphors rather than the literal truth. Price rallies the Mormons and the Ugandans to work together to make this their paradise. In an imagined future, the newly minted Ugandan elders go door to door to evangelize "The Book of Arnold. '' ("Tomorrow Is a Latter Day '' / "Hello! (Reprise) '' / "Finale '').
† This song is not on the cast album.
The Book of Mormon uses a nine - member orchestra:
A cast recording of the original Broadway production was released on May 17, 2011, by Ghostlight Records. All of the songs featured on stage are present on the recording with the exception of "I Am Here For You '' (Reprise), "Orlando '' (Reprise), "Hasa Diga Eebowai '' (Reprise) and "You and Me (But Mostly Me) '' (Reprise). "Hello '' (Reprise) and the "Encore '' are attached to the end of the last track of the CD, titled, "Tomorrow Is a Latter Day ''. A free preview of the entire recording was released on NPR starting on May 9, 2011. Excerpts from the cast recording are featured in an extended Fresh Air interview.
During its first week of its iTunes Store release, the recording became "the fastest - selling Broadway cast album in iTunes history, '' according to representatives for the production, ranking No. 2 on its day of release on the iTunes Top 10 Chart. According to Playbill, "It 's a rare occurrence for a Broadway cast album to place among the iTunes best sellers. '' The record has received positive reviews, with Rolling Stone calling the recording an "outstanding album that highlights the wit of the lyrics and the incredible tunefulness of the songs while leaving you desperate to score tickets to see the actual show. '' Although the cast album had a respectable debut on the US Billboard 200 chart in its initial week of release, after the show 's success at the 2011 Tony Awards, the record rapidly ascended the chart to number three, making it the highest - charting Broadway cast album in over four decades.
A vinyl version is planned.
The principal cast members of all major productions of The Book of Mormon.
The Book of Mormon contains many religious themes, most notably those of faith and doubt. Although the musical satirizes organized religion and the literal credibility of the LDS Church, the Mormons in The Book of Mormon are portrayed as well - meaning and optimistic, if a little naïve and unworldly. In addition, the central theme that many religious stories are rigid, out of touch, and silly comes to the conclusion that, essentially, religion itself can do enormous good as long as it is taken metaphorically and not literally. Matt Stone, one of the show 's creators, described The Book of Mormon as "an atheist 's love letter to religion. ''
The opening scenes of Act I and II parody the Hill Cumorah Pageant.
The Book of Mormon received broad critical praise for the plot, score, actors ' performances, direction and choreography. Vogue Magazine called the show "the filthiest, most offensive, and -- surprise -- sweetest thing you 'll see on Broadway this year, and quite possibly the funniest musical ever. '' New York Post reported that audience members were "sore from laughing so hard ''. It praised the score, calling it "tuneful and very funny, '' and added that "the show has heart. It makes fun of organized religion, but the two Mormons are real people, not caricatures. ''
Ben Brantley of The New York Times compared the show favorably to Rodgers and Hammerstein 's The King and I and The Sound of Music but "rather than dealing with tyrannical, charismatic men with way too many children, our heroes... must confront a one - eyed, genocidal warlord with an unprintable name... That 's enough to test the faith of even the most optimistic gospel spreaders (not to mention songwriters). Yet in setting these dark elements to sunny melodies The Book of Mormon achieves something like a miracle. It both makes fun of and ardently embraces the all - American art form of the inspirational book musical. No Broadway show has so successfully had it both ways since Mel Brooks adapted his film The Producers for the stage a decade ago. '' Jon Stewart, host of The Daily Show, spent much of his interview with Parker and Stone on the March 10, 2011 episode praising the musical.
Charles McNulty of the Los Angeles Times praised the music, and stated: "The songs, often inspired lampoons of contemporary Broadway styles, are as catchy as they are clever. '' McNulty concluded by stating "Sure it 's crass, but the show is not without good intentions and, in any case, vindicates itself with musical panache. '' Peter Marks of the Washington Post wrote: "The marvel of The Book of Mormon is that even as it profanes some serious articles of faith, its spirit is anything but mean. The ardently devout and comedically challenged are sure to disagree. Anyone else should excitedly approach the altar of Parker, Stone and Lopez and expect to drink from a cup of some of the sweetest poison ever poured. '' Marks further describes the musical as "one of the most joyously acidic bundles Broadway has unwrapped in years. ''
However, The Wall Street Journal 's Terry Teachout called the show "slick and smutty: The Book of Mormon is the first musical to open on Broadway since La Cage aux Folles that has the smell of a send - in - the - tourists hit... The amateurish part relates mostly to the score, which is jointly credited to the three co-creators and is no better than what you might hear at a junior - varsity college show. The tunes are jingly - jangly, the lyrics embarrassingly ill - crafted. '' Other critics have called the show "crassly commercial '' as well as "dull '' and "derivative ''.
The show 's depiction of Africans has been called racist. NPR 's Janice Simpson notes that "the show does n't work unless the villagers are seen mainly as noble savages who need white people to show them the way to enlightenment. '' She expands her critique to discuss the inherent flaws of "equal - opportunity '' offense within the musical. Max Perry Mueller of Harvard writes that "The Book of Mormon producers worked so hard to get the ' Mormon thing ' right, while completely ignoring the Ugandan culture ''. The Aid Leap blog noted that "the gleeful depiction of traditional stereotypes about Africa (dead babies, warlord, HIV, etc) reinforced rather than challenged general preconceptions '', and "the Africans are just a background to the emotional development of the Mormons ''.
The response of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints to the musical has been described as "measured. '' The church released an official response to inquiries regarding the musical, stating, "The production may attempt to entertain audiences for an evening, but the Book of Mormon as a volume of scripture will change people 's lives forever by bringing them closer to Christ. '' Michael Otterson, the head of Public Affairs for the church, followed in April 2011 with measured criticism. "Of course, parody is n't reality, and it 's the very distortion that makes it appealing and often funny. The danger is not when people laugh but when they take it seriously -- if they leave a theater believing that Mormons really do live in some kind of a surreal world of self - deception and illusion, '' Otterson wrote, outlining various humanitarian efforts achieved by Mormon missionaries in Africa since the early 2000s. Stone and Parker were unsurprised:
The official church response was something along the lines of "The Book of Mormon the musical might entertain you for a night, but the Book of Mormon, '' -- the book as scripture -- "will change your life through Jesus. '' Which we actually completely agree with. The Mormon church 's response to this musical is almost like our Q.E.D. at the end of it. That 's a cool, American response to a ribbing -- a big musical that 's done in their name. Before the church responded, a lot of people would ask us, "Are you afraid of what the church would say? '' And Trey and I were like, "They 're going to be cool. '' And they were like, "No, they 're not. There are going to be protests. '' And we were like, "Nope, they 're going to be cool. '' We were n't that surprised by the church 's response. We had faith in them.
The LDS Church has advertised in the playbills at many of the musical 's venues to encourage attendees to learn more about the Book of Mormon, with phrases like "you 've seen the play, now read the book '' and "the book is always better. ''
In Melbourne during the 2017 run, the Church advertised at Southern Cross railway station and elsewhere in the city, as well as on television with ads featuring prominent Australian Mormons, including rugby player Will Hopoate, stage actor Patrice Tipoki and ballet dancer Jake Mangakahia.
Mormons themselves have had varying responses to the musical. Richard Bushman, professor of Mormon studies, said of the musical, "Mormons experience the show like looking at themselves in a fun - house mirror. The reflection is hilarious but not really you. The nose is yours but swollen out of proportion. '' Bushman said that the musical was not meant to explain Mormon belief, and that many of the ideas in Elder Price 's "I Believe '' (like God living on a planet called Kolob), though having some roots in Mormon belief, are not doctrinally accurate.
When asked in January 2015 if he had met Mormons who disliked the musical, Gad stated "In the 1.5 years I did that show, I never got a single complaint from a practicing Mormon... To the contrary, I probably had a few people -- a dozen -- tell me they were so moved by the show that they took up the Mormon faith. ''
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when was the last time connecticut had a hurricane | List of New England hurricanes - wikipedia
A New England hurricane is a tropical cyclone originating in the Atlantic Ocean that affects the states of Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, or Maine in the United States.
Most of the following are tropical cyclones that passed through the states after weakening from their peak.
Multiple intense hurricanes (Category 3 +) hit New England in pre-Columbian times: between 1100 -- 1150, 1300 -- 1400 (1295 -- 1407), and 1400 -- 1450 (1404 -- 1446), respectively.
A landfall in New England occurs only if the center of the storm comes ashore in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, or Connecticut as they all share a coastline. Tropical cyclones that made landfall outside of New England, but subsequently passed through the region, are excluded from this category. For example, the 1893 New York hurricane, Tropical Storm Doria of 1971, and Hurricane Irene of 2011 all made landfall in New York City, but failed to cross Long Island Sound and enter Connecticut along its coastline. In addition, other systems such as the 1876 San Felipe hurricane, 1888 Louisiana hurricane, 1893 Sea Islands hurricane, and Hurricane Able of 1952 all passed through New York, to the north of New York City, before entering New England.
A landfall is also distinct from a direct hit, in which the eyewall, or core of the highest winds, comes onshore, without the center of the storm moving ashore.
New England hurricanes have made landfall on many occasions. Normally, due to cold SST 's and high wind shear, hurricanes do not last long, so the ones that do make landfall are normally weak, with major hurricanes (Category 3 or higher) being rare.
The following tables are a list of all tropical cyclones that have made landfall in New England since records began in 1851:
The 19th century saw a few notable storms. In 1869 an intense Category 3 hurricane struck Southeastern New England. Other hurricanes that made landfall include the Equinoctial Storm, Expedition Hurricane, and the Saxby Gale. Since hurricanes were not named and fewer records were kept at the time, the information on some of the storms remains incomplete.
The 20th century saw eight hurricanes making landfall in New England; out of these the more notable include the New England Hurricane of 1938 (also called the Long Island Express), which made landfall as a major hurricane; Hurricane Carol did the same sixteen years later. The last hurricane to make landfall in New England was Hurricane Bob in 1991 as a Category 2 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph.
So far in the 21st century three tropical cyclones have made landfall in New England. Tropical Storm Hermine in 2004, which made landfall in southeastern Massachusetts, Tropical Storm Beryl in 2006, which made landfall in Nantucket, and Tropical Storm Hanna in 2008, which made landfall in Connecticut. All three storms caused minimal damage overall throughout the region.
Some tropical cyclones that have impacted New England have resulted in fatalities in the region. The most notorious and deadly of these storms is the 1938 New England hurricane which killed between 682 and 800 people. This list includes all tropical cyclones that have resulted in at least 10 deaths in New England. Some storms may be excluded or their death toll may be inaccurate due to a lack of available data at the time.
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how much land was taken away from germany after ww1 | Territorial evolution of Germany - wikipedia
The territorial changes of Germany include all changes in the borders and territory of Germany from its formation in 1871 to the present. Modern Germany was formed in 1871 when Otto von Bismarck unified most of the German states, with the notable exception of Austria, into the German Empire. After the First World War, Germany lost about 10 % of its territory to its neighbours and the Weimar Republic was formed. This republic included territories to the east of today 's German borders.
The period of Nazi rule from the 1930s through the end of the Second World War brought significant territorial losses for the country. Nazi Germany initially expanded the country 's territory dramatically and conquered most of Europe, though not all areas were added to Germany proper. The Nazis ' fortunes changed after the failure of the invasion of Soviet Union. The Nazi regime eventually collapsed, and the Allies occupied Germany.
Immediately after the war, all territorial gains were reversed and pre-war Germany was split into British, French and American occupation zones in the northwest, west and south and a Soviet occupation zone in the centre; the capital Berlin was similarly divided into four sectors. The former eastern territories of Germany were ceded to Poland and the Soviet Union and the Oder and Neisse Rivers became Germany 's new eastern boundary. This territory became Poland 's so - called "Recovered Territories '', while approximately one - third of East Prussia became Russia 's Kaliningrad Oblast; virtually the entire German population in these areas was expelled or fled. In the west, the Saar area formed a French - controlled protectorate with limited autonomy, but its own citizenship laws.
With the onset of the Cold War, the western part of Germany was unified as the Trizone, becoming the Federal Republic of Germany in May 1949 ("West Germany ''). Western - occupied West Berlin declared its accession to the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949 but was denied by the occupying powers. The Soviet zone, including the Soviet sector of Berlin, became the communist German Democratic Republic ("East Germany '') in October the same year. Effective 1 January 1957 the Saar Protectorate declared its accession to the Federal Republic of Germany, as provided by its Grundgesetz (constitution) art. 23 (Little Reunification). Following the end of the Cold War, East Germany, including East Berlin, and West Berlin used the same West German constitutional clause and declared their accession to the Federal Republic of Germany effective 3 October 1990 -- an event referred to as German reunification.
Part of the motivation behind the territorial changes is based on historical events in Germany and Western Europe. Migrations that took place over more than a millennium led to pockets of Germans living throughout Central and Eastern Europe as far east as Russia. The existence of these enclaves was sometimes used by German nationalists, such as the Nazis, to justify territorial claims.
The territorial changes of Germany after World War II can be interpreted in the context of the evolution of global nationalism and European nationalism.
The latter half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century saw the rise of nationalism in Europe. Previously, a country consisted largely of whatever peoples lived on the land that was under the dominion of a particular ruler. As principalities and kingdoms grew through conquest and marriage, a ruler could wind up with many different ethnicities under his dominion.
The concept of nationalism was based on the idea of a "people '' who shared a common bond through race, religion, language and culture. Furthermore, nationalism asserted that each "people '' had a right to its own state. Thus, much of European history in the latter half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century can be understood as efforts to realign national boundaries with this concept of "one people, one state ''. Many interior conflicts were a result of more or less pressurising citizens of alternative ethnicities and / or other native languages to assimilate to the ethnicity dominant in the state. Switzerland was the exception, lacking a common native language.
Much conflict would arise when one nation asserted territorial rights to land outside its borders on the basis of an ethnic bond with the people living on the land. Another source of conflict arose when a group of people who constituted a minority in one nation would seek to secede from the nation either to form an independent nation or join another nation with whom they felt stronger ties. Yet another source of conflict was the desire of some nations to expel people from territory within its borders because people did not share a common bond with the majority of people of that nation.
Territorial expansion of the Kingdom of Prussia, which in the 19th century would lead the future German unification efforts, started with the annexation of territories belonging to the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth. Between 1772 and 1795, Prussia took 141,400 km2 (54,600 sq mi) of the Commonwealth 's western territory -- areas known as Greater Poland, Pomorze and Mazovia (renaming them as South Prussia, West Prussia and New East Prussia) -- and with it nearly 1 million Polish speaking inhabitants. Frederick the Great immediately sent 57,475 German families to the newly conquered lands in order to solidify his new acquisitions, and abolished the use of the Polish language.
Following the Napoleonic wars and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire the North German Confederation, led by Prussia, was combined with the southern states of Baden, Württemberg, Bavaria and Hesse and the formerly French newly annexed Alsace - Lorraine to form the German Empire in 1871. In some areas of Prussia 's eastern provinces, such as the Province of Posen, the majority of the population was Polish. Many Lorrainians were by native language French. Most of the Alsatians and the Lorrainians of German native language rather clung to France (see Député protestataire (fr)), despite all nationalistic claim that language and culture would and should determine one 's national affiliation.
Britain ceded Heligoland to Germany in 1890 in accordance with the terms of the Heligoland -- Zanzibar Treaty. The Heligolanders, then still prevailingly fluent in their Heligolandic dialect of North Frisian, adopted German citizenship, like many other Frisians of Germany along the North Sea coast.
As part of the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk, Russia 's new Bolshevik (communist) government renounced all claim to Finland, the future Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania), Poland, Belarus, Ukraine.
Most of these territories were in effect ceded to the German Empire, intended to become economically dependent on and politically closely tied to that empire under different German kings and dukes.
Regarding the ceded territories, the treaty stated that "Germany and Austria - Hungary intend to determine the future fate of these territories in agreement with their population '' with few other effects than the appointment of German rulers to the new thrones of Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland.
The provisions of the Treaty of Versailles at the end of World War I obliged Germany to cede some territory to other countries. Besides the loss of the German colonial empire the territories Germany lost were:
The Sudeten Germans had attempted to prevent the German language border areas of former Austria - Hungary from becoming part of Czechoslovakia in 1918. Once part of Bohemia, they had proclaimed the German - Austrian province of Sudetenland in October 1918, voting instead to join the newly declared Republic of German Austria in November 1918. However, this had been forbidden by the victorious allied powers of the First World War (the Treaty of Saint - Germain) and by the Czechoslovak government, partly with force of arms in 1919. Many Sudeten Germans rejected an affiliation to Czechoslovakia, since they had been refused the right to self - determination promised by US president Woodrow Wilson in his Fourteen Points of January 1918.
The Silesian Uprisings (Polish: Powstania śląskie) were a series of three armed uprisings (1919 -- 1921) of Poles in the Upper Silesia region against Weimar Republic in order to separate the region (where in some parts Poles constituted a majority) from Germany and join it with the Second Polish Republic.
By World War I, there were isolated groups of Germans or so - called Schwaben as far southeast as the Bosphorus (Turkey), Georgia, and Azerbaijan. After the war, Germany 's and Austria - Hungary 's loss of territory and the rise of communism in the Soviet Union meant that more Germans than ever constituted sizable minorities in various countries.
German nationalists used the existence of large German minorities in other countries as a basis for territorial claims. Many of the propaganda themes of the Nazi regime against Czechoslovakia and Poland claimed that the ethnic Germans (Volksdeutsche) in those territories were persecuted.
The Nazis negotiated a number of population transfers with Joseph Stalin and others with Benito Mussolini so that both Germany and the other country would increase their ethnic homogeneity. However, these population transfers were not sufficient to appease the demands of the Nazis. The Heim ins Reich rhetoric of the Nazis over the continued disjoint status of enclaves such as Danzig and East Prussia was an agitating factor in the politics leading up to World War II, and is considered by many to be among the major causes of Nazi aggressiveness and thus the war. Adolf Hitler used these issues as a pretext for waging wars of aggression against Czechoslovakia and Poland.
On 7 March 1936, Hitler sent a small expeditionary force into the demilitarized Rhineland. This was a clear violation of the Treaty of Versailles (1919, official end of World War I), and as such, France and Britain were within their rights, via the Treaty, to oust the German forces. British public opinion blocked any use of military force, thus preventing French action, as they were internally divided and would not act without British support.
In 1933, a considerable number of anti-Nazi Germans fled to the Saar, as it was the only part of Germany left outside the Third Reich 's control. As a result, anti-Nazi groups campaigned heavily for the Saarland to remain under control of League of Nations as long as Adolf Hitler ruled Germany. However, long - held sentiments against France remained entrenched, with very few sympathizing openly with France. When the 15 - year - term was over, a plebiscite was held in the territory on 13 January 1935: 90.3 % of those voting wished to join Germany.
On 17 January 1935, the territory 's re-union with Germany was approved by the League Council. On 1 March, Nazi Germany took over the region and appointed Josef Bürckel as Reichskommissar für die Rückgliederung des Saarlandes, "Imperial Commissioner for the re-union of Saarland ''.
As the new Gau was extended to the Rhine, including the historic Palatinate, the region 's name was changed again on 8 April 1940 to Gau Saarpfalz (Saar - Palatinate). After the Battle of France, the French département of Moselle was incorporated in the Reichsgau.
The Allies were, on paper, committed to upholding the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which specifically prohibited the union of Austria and Germany. This notwithstanding, the Anschluss was among the first major steps in the Austrian - born Adolf Hitler 's long - desired creation of an empire including German - speaking lands and territories Germany had lost after World War I.
The events of 12 March 1938, marked the culmination of historical cross-national pressures to unify the German populations of Austria and Germany under one nation. However, the 1938 Anschluss, regardless of its popularity, was enacted by Germany. Earlier, Hitler 's Germany had provided support for the Austrian National Socialist Party (Austrian Nazi Party) in its bid to seize power from Austria 's Austrofascist leadership. Fully devoted to remaining independent but amidst growing pressures, the chancellor of Austria, Kurt Schuschnigg, tried to hold a plebiscite.
Although Schuschnigg expected Austria to vote in favour of maintaining autonomy, a well - planned coup d'état by the Austrian Nazi Party of Austria 's state institutions in Vienna took place on 11 March, prior to the vote. With power quickly transferred over to Germany, the Wehrmacht troops entered Austria to enforce the Anschluss. The Nazis held a plebiscite within the following month, where they received 99.73 % of the vote. No fighting ever took place and the strongest voices against the annexation, particularly Fascist Italy, France and the United Kingdom (parties to the Stresa Front), were powerless or, in the case of Italy, appeased.
On 29 September 1938, Adolf Hitler, Neville Chamberlain, Benito Mussolini and Édouard Daladier signed the Munich Agreement. The Czechoslovak government capitulated on September 30 and reluctantly agreed to abide by the agreement. The settlement gave Germany the Sudetenland starting October 10, and de facto control over the rest of Czechoslovakia as long as Hitler promised to go no further.
Hitler and Chamberlain signed an additional resolution determining to resolve all future disputes between Germany and the United Kingdom through peaceful means. This is often confused with the Four - Power Munich Agreement itself, not least because most photographs of Chamberlain 's return show him waving the paper containing the resolution, not the Munich Agreement itself.
Without fortification which was built in Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia was now defenseless. On 5 October, Edvard Beneš resigned as President of Czechoslovakia, realising that the fall of Czechoslovakia was fait accompli. Following the outbreak of World War II, he would form a Czechoslovak government - in - exile in London.
On 13 March 1939, Nazi armies entered Prague and proceeded to occupy the remainder of Bohemia and Moravia, which was transformed into a protectorate of the Reich. The eastern half of the country, Slovakia, became a separate pro-Nazi state, the Slovak Republic.
Prime Minister Chamberlain felt betrayed by the Nazi seizure of Czechoslovakia, realising his policy of appeasement towards Hitler had failed, and immediately began to mobilize the British Empire 's armed forces on a war footing. France did the same. Though no immediate action followed, Hitler 's move on Poland in September started World War II in Europe.
By late 1938, Lithuania had lost control over the situation in the Memel Territory. In the early hours of 23 March 1939, after a political ultimatum had made a Lithuanian delegation travel to Berlin, the Lithuanian Minister of Foreign Affairs Juozas Urbšys and his German counterpart Joachim von Ribbentrop signed the Treaty of the Cession of the Memel Territory to Germany in exchange for a Lithuanian Free Zone in the port of Memel, using the facilities erected in previous years.
After invading Poland in 1939, Germany annexed the lands it was forced to give to a reformed Poland in 1919 -- 1922 by the Treaty of Versailles, including the "Polish Corridor '', West Prussia, the Province of Posen, and East Upper Silesia. The Volkstag of the Free City of Danzig voted to become a part of Germany again, although Poles and Jews were deprived of their voting rights and all non-Nazi political parties were banned. Parts of Poland that had not been part of Wilhelmine Germany were also incorporated into the Reich.
Two decrees by Adolf Hitler (8 October and 12 October 1939) provided for the division of the annexed areas of Poland into the following administrative units:
These territories had an area of 94,000 km (36,000 sq mi) and a population of 10,000,000 people. The remainder of the Polish territory was annexed by the Soviet Union (c. 52 %; see Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact) or made into the German - controlled General Government occupation zone.
After the German attack on the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Białystok Voivodeship, which included the Białystok, Bielsk Podlaski, Grajewo, Łomża, Sokółka, Volkovysk, and Grodno Counties, was "attached to '' (not incorporated into) East Prussia, while East Galicia was added to the General Government.
After the invasion of France in 1940, Germany annexed the départements of Bas - Rhin, Haut - Rhin and Moselle (Alsace - Lorraine). The German government never negotiated or declared a formal annexation, however, in order to preserve the possibility of an agreement with the West.
See Eupen - Malmedy
Luxembourg was invaded and occupied by German Forces in June 1940. It was formally annexed to Germany in August 1942.
From: History of Slovenia "After Yugoslavia fell, Germany, Italy, and Hungary each annexed parts of Slovenia, the largest part being Lower Styria which was annexed to the "Ostmark '' (Nazi German Austria). ''
See Annexation of South Tyrol to Nazi Germany and Italian Social Republic.
All areas that were incorporated into Nazi Germany between 1937 and 8 May 1945 were de facto repudiated at the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences, and were therefore non-issues in the post-war division of Nazi Germany. One exception was Memelland, the incorporation of which at the end of March 1939 was recognised by the UK and France, but not by the USA.
As it became evident that the Allies were going to defeat Nazi Germany decisively, the question arose as to how to redraw the borders of Central and Eastern European countries after the war. In the context of those decisions, the problem arose of what to do about ethnic minorities within the redrawn borders. The territorial changes at the end of World War II were part of negotiated agreements between the victorious Allies to redraw national borders and arrange for deportation of all Germans that were east of the Oder -- Neisse line. The Allies occupied Germany, but the Western allies and Soviet Union formed separate governments covering specific parts of Germany (West Germany, as well as West Berlin, and East Germany). The Germanies and West Berlin reunified in 1990.
The final decision to move Poland 's boundary westward was made by the US, Britain and the Soviets at the Yalta Conference, shortly before the end of the war. The precise location of the border was left open; the western Allies also accepted in general the principle of the Oder River as the future western border of Poland and of population transfer as the way to prevent future border disputes. The open question was whether the border should follow the eastern or western Neisse rivers, and whether Stettin, the traditional seaport of Berlin, should remain German or be included in Poland.
Originally, Germany was to retain Stettin while the Poles were to annex East Prussia with Königsberg. (1). Eventually, however, Stalin decided that he wanted Königsberg as a year - round warm water port for the Soviet Navy and argued that the Poles should receive Stettin instead. The wartime Polish government in exile had little to say in these decisions. (2)
Key points of the meeting that are relevant to the territorial changes of Germany are as follows:
At the Potsdam Conference the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union placed the German territories within the 1937 Nazi Germany borders east of the Oder -- Neisse line, and with the exception of parts of East Prussia, as formally under Polish administrative control (These were referred to by the Polish communist government as the "Western Territories '' or "Regained Territories ''). It was anticipated that a final peace treaty would follow shortly and either confirm this border or determine whatever alterations might be agreed upon. Northern East Prussia and Memelland were placed under Soviet administrative control. The 1919 Versailles Treaty created Free City of Danzig was also placed under Polish administration. The German population east of the Oder -- Neisse line was expelled.
At the end of the conference, the Three Heads of Government agreed on the following actions:
The problem with the status of these territories was that the concluding document of the Potsdam Conference in 1945 was not a legally binding treaty, but a memorandum between the USSR, the USA and the UK. It regulated the issue of the eastern German border, which was to be the Oder -- Neisse line, but the final article of the memorandum said that the final decisions concerning Germany were to be subject to a separate peace treaty.
Based upon this interpretation of the Potsdam Agreement, the CDU controlled German government maintained that the Oder -- Neisse line was completely unacceptable and subject to negotiation. Also the Social Democrats of the SPD initially refused to accept the Oder -- Neisse line. Thus, the official German government position on the status of areas vacated by settled German communities east of the Oder -- Neisse rivers was that the areas were "temporarily under Polish (or (Soviet)) administration. ''
Between 1970 and 1990, the West German political establishment gradually recognised the "facts on the ground '' and accepted clauses in the Treaty on the Final Settlement, whereby Germany renounced all claims to territory east of the Oder -- Neisse line. In the Treaty of Warsaw (1970; ratified in 1972) West Germany recognized the Oder -- Neisse line as Poland 's western border and renounced any present and future territorial claims; this was reaffirmed by both German states in the 1990 Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany as a pre-condition for re-union. The treaty was ratified in 1991 by the united Germany. United Germany and Poland then finally settled the issue of the Oder -- Neisse border by the German -- Polish Border Treaty in November 1990. This ended the legal limbo which meant that for 45 years, people on both sides of the border could not be sure whether the status quo reached in 1945 might be changed at some future date.
The "Working Party on Provisional Adjustments to the Western Frontiers of Germany '' approved in 1949 the provisional transfer of 20 km (7.7 sq mi) containing 500 inhabitants to Belgium:
As part of the 1956 treaty, in exchange for the territory ceded by Germany, Belgium ceded to Germany its territory north of the Fringshaus roads and bounded by the Vennbahn. The detached territory, in 1956 containing 704 inhabitants including refugees, was, prior to its 1956 dissolution and partition between West Germany and Belgium, ruled as an independent territory by Belgian Army Major General Paul Bolle, who enjoyed dictatorial powers.
Despite the more extensive annexation proposals of the Bakker - Schut Plan, only a few border modifications were implemented. On 23 April 1949, Dutch troops occupied an area of 69 km (27 sq mi), the largest parts of which were Elten (near Emmerich am Rhein) and Selfkant. Many other small border changes were executed, mostly in the vicinity of Arnhem and Dinxperlo. At that time, these areas were inhabited by a total of almost 10,000 people.
Starting in March 1957, West Germany negotiated with the Netherlands for the return of these areas. The negotiations led to an agreement (German: Vertrag vom 8. April 1960 zwischen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und dem Königreich der Niederlande zur Regelung von Grenzfragen und anderen zwischen beiden Ländern bestehenden Problemen; short: Ausgleichsvertrag, i.e. treaty of settlement) made in The Hague on 8 April 1960, in which Germany agreed to pay DEM 280 million for the return of Elten, Selfkant, and Suderwick, as Wiedergutmachung.
The territory was returned to Germany on 1 August 1963, except for one small hill (about 3 km, 1.2 sq mi) near Wyler village, called Duivelsberg / Wylerberg which was annexed by the Netherlands.
Starting on 16 February 1946 France disentangled the Saar area and established the separate Saar Protectorate, further attaching parts of the Prussian Rhine Province and the Bavarian Palatinate (Saarpfalz). Like the former eastern territories of Germany the Saar area was out of the jurisdiction of the Allied Control Council for Germany and thus no part of Allied - occupied Germany. However, unlike the eastern territories the domestic Saar population was not expelled by the controlling French. With effect of 1 January 1957 the Saar Protectorate declared its accession to the Federal Republic of Germany, as provided by its Grundgesetz (constitution) art. 23 (Little Reunification), thus becoming the new federal state of Saarland.
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american pie cast in orange is the new black | Natasha Lyonne - wikipedia
Natasha Bianca Lyonne Braunstein (born April 4, 1979), better known as Natasha Lyonne, is an American actress. She is best known for playing Nicky Nichols on the Netflix series Orange Is the New Black, for which she received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination, and for her role as Jessica in the American Pie film series (1999 -- 2012). Her other film credits include Everyone Says I Love You (1996), Slums of Beverly Hills (1998), and But I 'm a Cheerleader (1999).
Lyonne was born in New York City, the daughter of Ivette Buchinger and Aaron Braunstein, a boxing promoter, race car driver, and radio host, who was distantly related to cartoonist Al Jaffee.
Lyonne 's parents were both from Orthodox Jewish families, and she herself was raised Orthodox. Her mother was born in Paris, France, to Hungarian - Jewish parents who were Holocaust survivors. Lyonne has darkly joked that her family consists of "my father 's side, Flatbush, and my mother 's side, Auschwitz. '' Her grandmother Ella came from a large family, but only she and her two sisters and two brothers survived, which Lyonne credits to their blond hair and blue eyes. Lyonne 's grandfather, Morris Buchinger, operated a watch company in Los Angeles. During the war, he hid in Budapest as a non-Jew working in a leather factory.
Lyonne spent the first eight years of her life living in Great Neck, New York. She and her parents then moved to Israel, where Lyonne spent a year and a half. During her stay in Israel, Lyonne participated in the production of the Israeli children 's film April Fool, which began her interest in being an actress. Her parents divorced, and Lyonne and her older brother Adam returned to America with their mother. After moving back to New York City, Lyonne attended The Rabbi Joseph H. Lookstein Upper School of Ramaz, a private Jewish school, where Lyonne said she was a scholarship kid who took honors Talmud classes and read Aramaic. She was expelled for selling marijuana at school. Lyonne grew up on the Upper East Side, where she felt she was an outcast. Her mother then moved their family to Miami, where Lyonne attended Miami Country Day School. She never graduated high school; before her senior year, she left to attend a film program at NYU 's Tisch School of the Arts. Her high school graduation depended on completing her first year at Tisch, but she left the program because she could not pay the tuition.
Lyonne was estranged from her father, who lived on the Upper West Side until his death in October 2014 and in 2013 was a Republican candidate for City Council for the sixth District of Manhattan. Lyonne has said she is not close with her mother and has essentially lived independently of her family since age 16.
As a young child, Lyonne was signed by the Ford Modeling Agency. At the age of six, she was cast as Opal on Pee - wee 's Playhouse, followed by film appearances in Heartburn, A Man Called Sarge, and Dennis the Menace. On working as a very young child actor, Lyonne said: "I did n't have the best parents. I do n't think they are bad people. Even if they were ready to have children, it is kind of a wacky idea to put your child in business at six years old. ''
When she was 16, Woody Allen cast her in Everyone Says I Love You, which led to appearances in almost 30 films over the next 10 years, including starring roles in the independent films Slums of Beverly Hills and But I 'm a Cheerleader. Lyonne 's other films include Detroit Rock City, Scary Movie 2, The Grey Zone, Kate & Leopold, Party Monster, and Blade: Trinity. In what is perhaps her most well known role, she appeared as Jessica in the American Pie film series.
When she was 18 years old, Lyonne used the paycheck from her work on the Woody Allen film Everyone Says I Love You to buy a small apartment near Gramercy Park. She attended New York University for a very short time, studying film and philosophy.
Since then, Lyonne has worked steadily in the New York theatre scene, as well as in film and television. Her newer film appearances include All About Evil, 4: 44 Last Day on Earth, Girl Most Likely, Loitering with Intent, Sleeping with Other People, Hello My Name Is Doris, Addicted to Fresno, Horror, Yoga Hosers, Antibirth, The Intervention, and Handsome: A Netflix Mystery Movie.
Lyonne made her New York stage debut in the award - winning New Group production of Mike Leigh 's Two Thousand Years.
She was part of the original cast of the award - winning Love, Loss, and What I Wore, a play written by Nora Ephron and Delia Ephron, based on the book by Ilene Beckerman.
In 2010, Lyonne received positive reviews for her performance in Kim Rosenstock 's comedy, Tigers Be Still, at the Roundabout Theatre Company: "a thorough delight in the flat - out funniest role, the grief - crazed Grace, so deeply immersed in self - pity that she has cast aside any attempts at decorum ''.
In 2011, Lyonne starred opposite Ethan Hawke and Ann Dowd in New Group 's production of Tommy Nohilly 's Blood From a Stone. The following year, she participated in New Group 's benefit performance of Women Behind Bars.
On working in the theater: "There 's something about theater that squashes the self - critical voices because you have to be in the moment. I 'm glad that I did n't do this before I was ready, before I was capable of showing up every day. That is not a skill set I had before ''.
Lyonne has made guest appearances on the series Weeds, New Girl, Will & Grace, and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit.
In late 2012, Lyonne was reported to be developing a TV series for Fox about a young girl, who, fresh out of rehab and committed to starting a new life as a sober, responsible adult, is forced to move in with her conservative brother and young family. However, the project failed to come to fruition.
Since 2013, she has appeared as Nicky Nichols on the critically acclaimed Netflix series Orange Is the New Black. The role is Lyonne 's first television job as a series regular. She received a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series in 2014, and has twice been awarded the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series, along with her co-stars.
In 2014, Lyonne was cast in Amy Poehler 's NBC comedy pilot Old Soul, directed by David Wain. In 2016, she voiced the character Smoky Quartz on Cartoon Network 's Steven Universe. She has also appeared as various characters on IFC 's sketch comedy series Portlandia.
Lyonne lives in New York City.
During the early 2000s, Lyonne experienced legal problems and was arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol, and for incidents involving her neighbors. In 2005, she was evicted by her landlord, actor Michael Rapaport, following complaints by other tenants about her behavior.
In 2005, Lyonne was admitted to Beth Israel Medical Center in Manhattan under a pseudonym, suffering from hepatitis C, a heart infection, and a collapsed lung; she was also undergoing methadone treatment. In January 2006, an arrest warrant was issued for her after she missed a court hearing relating to her prior problems. Her lawyer said an emergency had arisen, but did not give details. Later that year, Lyonne was admitted to the Caron Foundation, a drug and alcohol treatment center, and appeared in court afterwards. A judge sentenced her to conditional discharge.
Lyonne underwent open heart surgery to correct damage caused by her heart infection. She recovered from the surgery, and discussed her past health problems on The Rosie Show in March 2012.
She has been in a relationship with Saturday Night Live alum Fred Armisen since 2014.
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who produced it's always sunny in philadelphia | It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia - Wikipedia
It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia is an American television sitcom that premiered on FX on August 4, 2005. It moved to FXX beginning with the ninth season, and has remained there since. It was created by Rob McElhenney, who developed it with Glenn Howerton. It is executive produced and primarily written by McElhenney, Howerton, and Charlie Day, all of whom star alongside Kaitlin Olson and Danny DeVito. The series follows the exploits of "The Gang '', a group of debauched self - centered friends who run the Irish bar Paddy 's Pub in South Philadelphia.
The series was renewed for a twelfth season that premiered on January 4, 2017. On April 1, 2017, the series was renewed for a thirteenth and fourteenth season, which will tie it with The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet as the longest running live - action sitcom in American TV history.
The series follows "The Gang '', a group of five depraved underachievers: twins Dennis Reynolds (Glenn Howerton) and Deandra "Sweet Dee '' Reynolds (Kaitlin Olson), their friends Charlie Kelly (Charlie Day) and Ronald "Mac '' McDonald (Rob McElhenney), and (from season 2 onward) Frank Reynolds (Danny DeVito), Dennis ' and Dee 's legal father. The Gang runs the dilapidated Paddy 's Pub, an Irish bar in South Philadelphia.
Each member of the gang shows varying degrees of dishonesty, egotism, selfishness, greed, pettiness, ignorance, laziness, and unethical behavior; they are often engaged in controversial activities. Episodes usually find them hatching elaborate schemes and often conspiring against one another and others for personal gain, vengeance, or simply the entertainment of watching another 's downfall. They habitually inflict mental, emotional, and physical pain on each other and anyone who crosses their path. They also regularly use blackmail to manipulate one another and others outside of the group.
The Gang 's unity is never solid, and any of them would quickly dump any of the others for quick profit or personal gain, regardless of the consequences. Everything they do results in contention among themselves, and much of the show 's dialogue involves the characters arguing or yelling at one another. Despite their lack of success or achievements, they maintain high opinions of themselves and display an obsessive interest in their own reputations and public images.
The Gang has no sense of shame when attempting to get what they want and often engage in activities that others would find humiliating, disgusting, or shocking. These include smoking crack cocaine and pretending to be mentally challenged in order to qualify for welfare, attempted cannibalism, kidnapping, blackface, hiding naked inside a leather couch in order to eavesdrop on someone, threatening people into sleeping with them, tricking a man into giving his daughter a lap dance, forcing each other to eat inedible items, huffing paint, foraging in the sewers for valuables, sleeping with each other 's romantic interests, seducing a priest, secretly feeding someone their dead pet, plugging their open wounds with trash, fantasizing about killing each other, setting a room full of people on fire and locking the door to avoid an uncomfortable Thanksgiving meal, pretending to have AIDS in order to get priority access to amusement park rides, taking out life insurance on a suicidal person, threatening to release anthrax unless they are given a Valentine 's card, sleeping with elderly men for a craft beer recipe, orally siphoning gasoline, and stalking their crushes.
During the Season 7 episode "The Gang Gets Trapped '', in which The Gang breaks into a family 's home and has to hide from them when they return, an angry monologue by Dennis captures the essence of The Gang 's modus operandi:
The show began as a short film idea written by Rob McElhenney and Glenn Howerton about a man telling his friend he might have cancer, while the friend is only intent on trying to borrow a cup of sugar for the "shitload of coffee '' he has made. This was then developed into a pilot called It 's Always Sunny on TV and was shot on a digital camcorder by Charlie Day, Glenn Howerton, and Rob McElhenney. It is believed the pilot was shot with a budget of just $200, but Day would later comment, "We shot it for nothing... I do n't know where this $200 came from... We were a bunch of kids with cameras running around shooting each other and (the) next thing you know, we 're eleven years in and we 're still doing the show. '' This pilot was shopped by the actors around various studios, their pitch being simply showing the DVD of the pilot to executives. After viewing the pilot, FX Network ordered the first season. Although it is often stated publicly that It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia was one of the first shows to be shot in 24p standard - definition video, using Panasonic 's DVX100 MiniDV prosumer video camera, from the sixth season forward, the show was shot in 24p using high - definition video cameras.
Danny DeVito joined the cast in the first episode of the second season, playing the father of Dennis (played by Glenn Howerton) and Dee (played by Kaitlin Olson).
In March 2017, after the conclusion of the twelfth season, Glenn Howerton revealed he might not return to the series, due to working on other projects. In an August 2017 interview, Charlie Day said that he believes Howerton will be back, and that he would not feel right continuing without him.
The first season ran for seven episodes with the finale airing September 13, 2005. According to McElhenney, word of mouth on the show was good enough for FX to renew it for a second season, which ran from June 29 to August 17, 2006. Reruns of edited first - season episodes began airing on FX 's parent network, Fox, in June 2006, for a planned three - episode run -- "The Gang Finds a Dead Guy '', "Gun Fever '' (which was renamed as "Gun Control '') and "Charlie Gets Molested '' were shown. The show would not be shown on broadcast television again until 2011, when FX began offering the show for syndication.
The third season ran from September 13, 2007 to November 15, 2007. On March 5, 2008, FX renewed It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia for a fourth season. On July 15, 2008, it was reported that FX had ordered 39 additional episodes of the series, consisting of the fifth and sixth seasons. All five main cast members were secured for the entire scheduled run. The fifth season ran from September 17, 2009 to December 10, 2009. On May 31, 2010, Comedy Central began airing reruns of It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia. WGN America also began broadcasting the show as part of its fall 2011 schedule.
The sixth season ran from September 16, 2010 until December 9, 2010, running twelve episodes, plus the Christmas special. The seventh season ran from September 15, 2011 until December 15, 2011, running 13 episodes. On August 6, 2011, FX announced it had picked up the show for an additional two seasons (the show 's eighth and ninth) running through 2013. On March 28, 2013, FX renewed the show for a tenth season, along with the announcement that the series would move to its new sister network, FXX.
In April 2017, it was announced by Kaitlin Olson that It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia would go on an extended hiatus. In an interview with TV Guide Olson stated, "We ended up pushing our next season a year because we were all busy with separate projects this year. So at the end of this coming shooting season of The Mick I 'll step right into Sunny after that. '' The show is currently under contract for two more seasons and is expected to return in 2019.
The theme song is a piece of production music called "Temptation Sensation '' by German composer Heinz Kiessling. Additionally, Kiessling 's work ("On Your Bike '' and "Blue Blood '') can also be heard during various scene transitions throughout the show, along with other composers and pieces such as Werner Tautz ("Off Broadway ''), Joe Brook ("Moonbeam Kiss '') and Karl Grell ("Honey Bunch ''). Many of the tracks heard in the series have been taken from Cafe Romantique, an album of easy listening production music collected by Extreme Music, the production music library unit of Sony / ATV Music Publishing. Independent record label Fervor Records has also contributed music to the show. Songs from The Jack Gray Orchestra 's album, Easy Listening Symph - O - Nette ("Take A Letter Miss Jones '', "Golly Gee Whiz '', and "Not a Care in the World '') and the John Costello III release Giants of Jazz ("Birdcage '', "Cotton Club '' and "Quintessential '') are heard in several episodes. The soundtrack, featuring most of the music heard on the show, was released in 2010.
It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia has received critical acclaim. Emily Nussbaum of The New Yorker praised the show, calling it "not merely the best sitcom on television but one of the most arresting and ambitious current TV series, period ''. Gillian Flynn of Entertainment Weekly reviewed the first season negatively, commenting "it is smug enough to think it 's breaking ground, but not smart enough to know it is n't ''. Brian Lowry of Variety gave the first season a positive review, saying it was "invariably clever and occasionally a laugh - out - loud riot, all while lampooning taboo topics ''. Later seasons of the show have received favorable ratings on review aggregator Metacritic, receiving 70 / 100, 78 / 100 and 85 / 100 for seasons 4, 5 and 6 respectively. The show has become a cult hit with viewers and is often compared in style to Seinfeld -- particularly due to the self - centered nature of its main characters. The Philadelphia Inquirer reviewer Jonathan Storm wrote "It 's like Seinfeld on crack, '' a quote that became widely used to describe the series, to the point that FX attached the tagline, "It 's Seinfeld on crack. ''
In 2014, Entertainment Weekly listed the show at # 7 in the "26 Best Cult TV Shows Ever '', with the comment that "it 's a great underdog story... If it sounds too dark for you, consider that there 's an episode about making mittens for kittens, and it 's adorable. '' In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Sunny was "more popular in college towns (and most popular in Philadelphia) ''.
In 2015, Rolling Stone rated the top 20 greatest and funniest It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia episodes, stating "for 10 seasons, the series had mined comic gold from the execrable behavior of the owners of Paddy 's Pub. '' They claimed the two - part season 4 episode, "Mac and Charlie Die '' is the sitcom 's greatest episode yet.
In September 2009, the cast took their show live. The "Gang '' performed the musical The Nightman Cometh in New York City, Boston, Seattle, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Philadelphia. Mary Elizabeth Ellis and Artemis Pebdani also appeared in the performance as The Waitress and Artemis. Actress Rhea Perlman (wife of Danny DeVito) assumed the role of Gladys.
Creator Rob McElhenney said that Live Nation originally approached the cast about doing the show at 30 cities, but in the end the cast settled on 6. Co-developer Glenn Howerton described the show as "essentially an expanded version of the actual episode of "The Nightman Cometh '', which was the final episode for season four. There are some added moments, added scenes, added songs, and extended versions of songs that already existed. '' Two new songs were included in the performance and a longer running time allowed for greater improvisation by the actors. The performance was also preceded by a preview screening of a season five episode.
The Los Angeles performance, filmed at The Troubadour, was included as a bonus feature on the season four DVD box set.
A Russian adaptation of It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia premiered in Russia on the television channel TNT on May 12, 2014. This version is titled В Москве всегда солнечно (V Moskve vsegda solnechno, It 's Always Sunny in Moscow) and like the original, centers around four friends, who own a bar called "Philadelphia '' in Moscow.
A book based upon It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia was released on January 6, 2015, titled The Gang Writes a Self - Help Book: The 7 Secrets of Awakening the Highly Effective Four - Hour Giant, Today.
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council of state library agencies in the northeast | Chief Officers of State library Agencies - wikipedia
The Chief Officers of State Library Agencies (COSLA) was established November 29, 1973 by a committee of the State Library Agency Division (SLAD) with the purpose of providing a continuing mechanism for dealing with the problems faced by the heads of those state agencies which are responsible for statewide library development in the United States, Canada and related territories.
The Chief Officers of State Library Agencies was formed at the annual ASLA conference held in Las Vegas in 1973. The meeting was called by ASLA President Lyle Eberhart, to focus on the impact of federal library legislation and its impact on state organizations. This was in response to the Nixon administration 's threat to cut funding to the Library Services and Construction Act (LSCA) which provided resources to the states. Since that time the COSLA has been a major influence on national library policy. COSLA procedures were modeled on those of the Council of Chief State School Officers.
COSLA 's mission is to provide leadership on issues of common concern and national interest, to further state library agency relationships with the federal government and national organizations, and to initiate, maintain and support cooperative action for the improvement of library services.
Membership includes the chief officer of each of the fifty state library programs in the United States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the US Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Guam, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Northern Mariana Islands, the Republic of Palau, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, as well as the ten provinces and three territories of Canada. Each member may designate an alternate, but each has only one vote.
The board consists of seven individuals including President, Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, Past President and two directors.
2016 - Measures That Matter. A joint project of the Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS) and COSLA to develop a public library data and outcomes action plan.
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how did the council of nicea changed christianity | First Council of Nicaea - wikipedia
The First Council of Nicaea (/ naɪˈsiːə /; Greek: Νίκαια (ˈni: kaɪja)) was a council of Christian bishops convened in the Bithynian city of Nicaea (now İznik, Bursa province, Turkey) by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in AD 325. Constantine I organized the Council along the lines of the Roman Senate and presided over it, but did not cast any official vote.
This ecumenical council was the first effort to attain consensus in the Church through an assembly representing all of Christendom. Hosius of Corduba, who was probably one of the Papal legates, may have presided over its deliberations.
Its main accomplishments were settlement of the Christological issue of the divine nature of God the Son and his relationship to God the Father, the construction of the first part of the Nicene Creed, establishing uniform observance of the date of Easter, and promulgation of early canon law.
The First Council of Nicaea was the first ecumenical council of the Church. Most significantly, it resulted in the first uniform Christian doctrine, called the Nicene Creed. With the creation of the creed, a precedent was established for subsequent local and regional councils of Bishops (Synods) to create statements of belief and canons of doctrinal orthodoxy -- the intent being to define unity of beliefs for the whole of Christendom.
Derived from Greek (Ancient Greek: οἰκουμένη oikouménē "the inhabited one ''), "ecumenical '' means "worldwide '' but generally is assumed to be limited to the known inhabited Earth, (Danker 2000, pp. 699 - 670) and at this time in history is synonymous with the Roman Empire; the earliest extant uses of the term for a council are Eusebius ' Life of Constantine 3.6 around 338, which states "he convoked an Ecumenical Council '' (Ancient Greek: σύνοδον οἰκουμενικὴν συνεκρότει sýnodon oikoumenikḕn synekrótei) and the Letter in 382 to Pope Damasus I and the Latin bishops from the First Council of Constantinople.
One purpose of the council was to resolve disagreements arising from within the Church of Alexandria over the nature of the Son in his relationship to the Father: in particular, whether the Son had been ' begotten ' by the Father from his own being, and therefore having no beginning, or else created out of nothing, and therefore having a beginning. St. Alexander of Alexandria and Athanasius took the first position; the popular presbyter Arius, from whom the term Arianism comes, took the second. The council decided against the Arians overwhelmingly (of the estimated 250 -- 318 attendees, all but two agreed to sign the creed and these two, along with Arius, were banished to Illyria).
Another result of the council was an agreement on when to celebrate Easter, the most important feast of the ecclesiastical calendar, decreed in an epistle to the Church of Alexandria in which is simply stated:
We also send you the good news of the settlement concerning the holy pasch, namely that in answer to your prayers this question also has been resolved. All the brethren in the East who have hitherto followed the Jewish practice will henceforth observe the custom of the Romans and of yourselves and of all of us who from ancient times have kept Easter together with you.
Historically significant as the first effort to attain consensus in the church through an assembly representing all of Christendom, the Council was the first occasion where the technical aspects of Christology were discussed. Through it a precedent was set for subsequent general councils to adopt creeds and canons. This council is generally considered the beginning of the period of the First seven Ecumenical Councils in the History of Christianity.
The First Council of Nicaea was convened by Emperor Constantine the Great upon the recommendations of a synod led by Hosius of Córdoba in the Eastertide of 325. This synod had been charged with investigation of the trouble brought about by the Arian controversy in the Greek - speaking east. To most bishops, the teachings of Arius were heretical and dangerous to the salvation of souls. In the summer of 325, the bishops of all provinces were summoned to Nicaea, a place reasonably accessible to many delegates, particularly those of Asia Minor, Georgia, Armenia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Greece, and Thrace.
This was the first general council in the history of the Church summoned by emperor Constantine I. In the Council of Nicaea, "The Church had taken her first great step to define revealed doctrine more precisely in response to a challenge from a heretical theology. ''
Constantine had invited all 1,800 bishops of the Christian church within the Roman Empire (about 1,000 in the east and 800 in the west), but a smaller and unknown number attended. Eusebius of Caesarea counted more than 250, Athanasius of Alexandria counted 318, and Eustathius of Antioch estimated "about 270 '' (all three were present at the council). Later, Socrates Scholasticus recorded more than 300, and Evagrius, Hilary of Poitiers, Jerome, Dionysius Exiguus, and Rufinus recorded 318. This number 318 is preserved in the liturgies of the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.
Delegates came from every region of the Roman Empire, including Britain. The participating bishops were given free travel to and from their episcopal sees to the council, as well as lodging. These bishops did not travel alone; each one had permission to bring with him two priests and three deacons, so the total number of attendees could have been above 1,800. Eusebius speaks of an almost innumerable host of accompanying priests, deacons, and acolytes.
The Eastern bishops formed the great majority. Of these, the first rank was held by the patriarchs: Alexander of Alexandria and Eustathius of Antioch. Many of the assembled fathers -- for instance, Paphnutius of Thebes, Potamon of Heraclea, and Paul of Neocaesarea -- had stood forth as confessors of the faith and came to the council with the marks of persecution on their faces. This position is supported by patristic scholar Timothy Barnes in his book Constantine and Eusebius. Historically, the influence of these marred confessors has been seen as substantial, but recent scholarship has called this into question.
Other remarkable attendees were Eusebius of Nicomedia; Eusebius of Caesarea, the purported first church historian; circumstances suggest that Nicholas of Myra attended (his life was the seed of the Santa Claus legends); Macarius of Jerusalem, later a staunch defender of Athanasius; Aristaces of Armenia (son of Saint Gregory the Illuminator); Leontius of Caesarea; Jacob of Nisibis, a former hermit; Hypatius of Gangra; Protogenes of Sardica; Melitius of Sebastopolis; Achilleus of Larissa (considered the Athanasius of Thessaly) and Spyridion of Trimythous, who even while a bishop made his living as a shepherd. From foreign places came John, bishop of Persia and India, Theophilus, a Gothic bishop, and Stratophilus, bishop of Pitiunt in Georgia.
The Latin - speaking provinces sent at least five representatives: Marcus of Calabria from Italia, Cecilian of Carthage from Africa, Hosius of Córdoba from Hispania, Nicasius of Die from Gaul, and Domnus of Stridon from the province of the Danube.
Athanasius of Alexandria, a young deacon and companion of Bishop Alexander of Alexandria, was among the assistants. Athanasius eventually spent most of his life battling against Arianism. Alexander of Constantinople, then a presbyter, was also present as representative of his aged bishop.
The supporters of Arius included Secundus of Ptolemais, Theonus of Marmarica, Zephyrius (or Zopyrus), and Dathes, all of whom hailed from the Libyan Pentapolis. Other supporters included Eusebius of Nicomedia, Paulinus of Tyrus, Actius of Lydda, Menophantus of Ephesus, and Theognus of Nicaea.
"Resplendent in purple and gold, Constantine made a ceremonial entrance at the opening of the council, probably in early June, but respectfully seated the bishops ahead of himself. '' As Eusebius described, Constantine "himself proceeded through the midst of the assembly, like some heavenly messenger of God, clothed in raiment which glittered as it were with rays of light, reflecting the glowing radiance of a purple robe, and adorned with the brilliant splendor of gold and precious stones. '' The emperor was present as an overseer and presider, but did not cast any official vote. Constantine organized the Council along the lines of the Roman Senate. Hosius of Cordoba may have presided over its deliberations; he was probably one of the Papal legates. Eusebius of Nicomedia probably gave the welcoming address.
The agenda of the synod included:
The council was formally opened May 20, in the central structure of the imperial palace at Nicaea, with preliminary discussions of the Arian question. Emperor Constantine arrived nearly a month later on June 14. In these discussions, some dominant figures were Arius, with several adherents. "Some 22 of the bishops at the council, led by Eusebius of Nicomedia, came as supporters of Arius. But when some of the more shocking passages from his writings were read, they were almost universally seen as blasphemous. '' Bishops Theognis of Nicaea and Maris of Chalcedon were among the initial supporters of Arius.
Eusebius of Caesarea called to mind the baptismal creed of his own diocese at Caesarea at Palestine, as a form of reconciliation. The majority of the bishops agreed. For some time, scholars thought that the original Nicene Creed was based on this statement of Eusebius. Today, most scholars think that the Creed is derived from the baptismal creed of Jerusalem, as Hans Lietzmann proposed.
The orthodox bishops won approval of every one of their proposals regarding the Creed. After being in session for an entire month, the council promulgated on June 19 the original Nicene Creed. This profession of faith was adopted by all the bishops "but two from Libya who had been closely associated with Arius from the beginning ''. No explicit historical record of their dissent actually exists; the signatures of these bishops are simply absent from the Creed. The sessions continued to deal with minor matters until August 25.
The Arian controversy arose in Alexandria when the newly reinstated presbyter Arius began to spread doctrinal views that were contrary to those of his bishop, St. Alexander of Alexandria. The disputed issues centered on the natures and relationship of God (the Father) and the Son of God (Jesus). The disagreements sprang from different ideas about the Godhead and what it meant for Jesus to be God 's Son. Alexander maintained that the Son was divine in just the same sense that the Father is, coeternal with the Father, else he could not be a true Son.
Arius emphasized the supremacy and uniqueness of God the Father, meaning that the Father alone is almighty and infinite, and that therefore the Father 's divinity must be greater than the Son 's. Arius taught that the Son had a beginning, and that he possessed neither the eternity nor the true divinity of the Father, but was rather made "God '' only by the Father 's permission and power, and that the Son was rather the very first and the most perfect of God 's creatures.
The Arian discussions and debates at the council extended from about May 20, 325, through about June 19. According to legendary accounts, debate became so heated that at one point, Arius was struck in the face by Nicholas of Myra, who would later be canonized. This account is almost certainly apocryphal, as Arius himself would not have been present in the council chamber due to the fact that he was not a bishop.
Much of the debate hinged on the difference between being "born '' or "created '' and being "begotten ''. Arians saw these as essentially the same; followers of Alexander did not. The exact meaning of many of the words used in the debates at Nicaea were still unclear to speakers of other languages. Greek words like "essence '' (ousia), "substance '' (hypostasis), "nature '' (physis), "person '' (prosopon) bore a variety of meanings drawn from pre-Christian philosophers, which could not but entail misunderstandings until they were cleared up. The word homoousia, in particular, was initially disliked by many bishops because of its associations with Gnostic heretics (who used it in their theology), and because their heresies had been condemned at the 264 -- 268 Synods of Antioch.
According to surviving accounts, the presbyter Arius argued for the supremacy of God the Father, and maintained that the Son of God was created as an act of the Father 's will, and therefore that the Son was a creature made by God, begotten directly of the infinite, eternal God. Arius 's argument was that the Son was God 's very first production, before all ages. The position being that the Son had a beginning, and that only the Father has no beginning. And Arius argued that everything else was created through the Son. Thus, said the Arians, only the Son was directly created and begotten of God; and therefore there was a time that He had no existence. Arius believed that the Son of God was capable of His own free will of right and wrong, and that "were He in the truest sense a son, He must have come after the Father, therefore the time obviously was when He was not, and hence He was a finite being '', and that He was under God the Father. Therefore, Arius insisted that the Father 's divinity was greater than the Son 's. The Arians appealed to Scripture, quoting biblical statements such as "the Father is greater than I '', and also that the Son is "firstborn of all creation ''.
The opposing view stemmed from the idea that begetting the Son is itself in the nature of the Father, which is eternal. Thus, the Father was always a Father, and both Father and Son existed always together, eternally, coequally and consubstantially. The contra - Arian argument thus stated that the Logos was "eternally begotten '', therefore with no beginning. Those in opposition to Arius believed that to follow the Arian view destroyed the unity of the Godhead, and made the Son unequal to the Father. They insisted that such a view was in contravention of such Scriptures as "I and the Father are one '' and "the Word was God '', as such verses were interpreted. They declared, as did Athanasius, that the Son had no beginning, but had an "eternal derivation '' from the Father, and therefore was coeternal with him, and equal to God in all aspects.
The Council declared that the Son was true God, coeternal with the Father and begotten from His same substance, arguing that such a doctrine best codified the Scriptural presentation of the Son as well as traditional Christian belief about him handed down from the Apostles. This belief was expressed by the bishops in the Creed of Nicaea, which would form the basis of what has since been known as the Niceno - Constantinopolitan Creed.
One of the projects undertaken by the Council was the creation of a Creed, a declaration and summary of the Christian faith. Several creeds were already in existence; many creeds were acceptable to the members of the council, including Arius. From earliest times, various creeds served as a means of identification for Christians, as a means of inclusion and recognition, especially at baptism.
In Rome, for example, the Apostles ' Creed was popular, especially for use in Lent and the Easter season. In the Council of Nicaea, one specific creed was used to define the Church 's faith clearly, to include those who professed it, and to exclude those who did not.
Some distinctive elements in the Nicene Creed, perhaps from the hand of Hosius of Cordova, were added, some specifically to counter the Arian point of view.
At the end of the creed came a list of anathemas, designed to repudiate explicitly the Arians ' stated claims.
Thus, instead of a baptismal creed acceptable to both the Arians and their opponents the council promulgated one which was clearly opposed to Arianism and incompatible with the distinctive core of their beliefs. The text of this profession of faith is preserved in a letter of Eusebius to his congregation, in Athanasius, and elsewhere. Although the most vocal of anti-Arians, the Homoousians (from the Koine Greek word translated as "of same substance '' which was condemned at the Council of Antioch in 264 -- 268) were in the minority, the Creed was accepted by the council as an expression of the bishops ' common faith and the ancient faith of the whole Church.
Bishop Hosius of Cordova, one of the firm Homoousians, may well have helped bring the council to consensus. At the time of the council, he was the confidant of the emperor in all Church matters. Hosius stands at the head of the lists of bishops, and Athanasius ascribes to him the actual formulation of the creed. Great leaders such as Eustathius of Antioch, Alexander of Alexandria, Athanasius, and Marcellus of Ancyra all adhered to the Homoousian position.
In spite of his sympathy for Arius, Eusebius of Caesarea adhered to the decisions of the council, accepting the entire creed. The initial number of bishops supporting Arius was small. After a month of discussion, on June 19, there were only two left: Theonas of Marmarica in Libya, and Secundus of Ptolemais. Maris of Chalcedon, who initially supported Arianism, agreed to the whole creed. Similarly, Eusebius of Nicomedia and Theognis of Nice also agreed, except for certain statements.
The Emperor carried out his earlier statement: everybody who refused to endorse the Creed would be exiled. Arius, Theonas, and Secundus refused to adhere to the creed, and were thus exiled to Illyria, in addition to being excommunicated. The works of Arius were ordered to be confiscated and consigned to the flames, while his supporters considered as "enemies of Christianity. '' Nevertheless, the controversy continued in various parts of the empire.
The Creed was amended to a new version by the First Council of Constantinople in 381.
The feast of Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread, as Christians believe that the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus occurred at the time of those observances.
As early as Pope Sixtus I, some Christians had set Easter to a Sunday in the lunar month of Nisan. To determine which lunar month was to be designated as Nisan, Christians relied on the Jewish community. By the later 3rd century some Christians began to express dissatisfaction with what they took to be the disorderly state of the Jewish calendar. They argued that contemporary Jews were identifying the wrong lunar month as the month of Nisan, choosing a month whose 14th day fell before the spring equinox.
Christians, these thinkers argued, should abandon the custom of relying on Jewish informants and instead do their own computations to determine which month should be styled Nisan, setting Easter within this independently computed, Christian Nisan, which would always locate the festival after the equinox. They justified this break with tradition by arguing that it was in fact the contemporary Jewish calendar that had broken with tradition by ignoring the equinox, and that in former times the 14th of Nisan had never preceded the equinox. Others felt that the customary practice of reliance on the Jewish calendar should continue, even if the Jewish computations were in error from a Christian point of view.
The controversy between those who argued for independent computations and those who argued for continued reliance on the Jewish calendar was formally resolved by the Council, which endorsed the independent procedure that had been in use for some time at Rome and Alexandria. Easter was henceforward to be a Sunday in a lunar month chosen according to Christian criteria -- in effect, a Christian Nisan -- not in the month of Nisan as defined by Jews. Those who argued for continued reliance on the Jewish calendar (called "protopaschites '' by later historians) were urged to come around to the majority position. That they did not all immediately do so is revealed by the existence of sermons, canons, and tracts written against the protopaschite practice in the later 4th century.
These two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, were the only rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the Council. No details for the computation were specified; these were worked out in practice, a process that took centuries and generated a number of controversies (see also Computus and Reform of the date of Easter.) In particular, the Council did not seem to decree that Easter must fall on Sunday.
Nor did the Council decree that Easter must never coincide with Nisan 14 (the first Day of Unleavened Bread, now commonly called "Passover '') in the Hebrew calendar. By endorsing the move to independent computations, the Council had separated the Easter computation from all dependence, positive or negative, on the Jewish calendar. The "Zonaras proviso '', the claim that Easter must always follow Nisan 14 in the Hebrew calendar, was not formulated until after some centuries. By that time, the accumulation of errors in the Julian solar and lunar calendars had made it the de facto state of affairs that Julian Easter always followed Hebrew Nisan 14.
The suppression of the Meletian schism, an early breakaway sect, was another important matter that came before the Council of Nicaea. Meletius, it was decided, should remain in his own city of Lycopolis in Egypt, but without exercising authority or the power to ordain new clergy; he was forbidden to go into the environs of the town or to enter another diocese for the purpose of ordaining its subjects. Melitius retained his episcopal title, but the ecclesiastics ordained by him were to receive again the Laying on of hands, the ordinations performed by Meletius being therefore regarded as invalid. Clergy ordained by Meletius were ordered to yield precedence to those ordained by Alexander, and they were not to do anything without the consent of Bishop Alexander.
In the event of the death of a non-Meletian bishop or ecclesiastic, the vacant see might be given to a Meletian, provided he was worthy and the popular election were ratified by Alexander. As to Meletius himself, episcopal rights and prerogatives were taken from him. These mild measures, however, were in vain; the Meletians joined the Arians and caused more dissension than ever, being among the worst enemies of Athanasius. The Meletians ultimately died out around the middle of the fifth century.
Corpus Juris Canonici
Ancient Church Orders
Collections of ancient canons
Other
Holy Orders
Confession
Eucharist
Tribunal Officers
Tribunal Procedure
Juridic persons
The council promulgated twenty new church laws, called canons, (though the exact number is subject to debate), that is, unchanging rules of discipline. The twenty as listed in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers are as follows:
On July 25, 325, in conclusion, the fathers of the council celebrated the Emperor 's twentieth anniversary. In his farewell address, Constantine informed the audience how averse he was to dogmatic controversy; he wanted the Church to live in harmony and peace. In a circular letter, he announced the accomplished unity of practice by the whole Church in the date of the celebration of Christian Passover (Easter).
The long - term effects of the Council of Nicaea were significant. For the first time, representatives of many of the bishops of the Church convened to agree on a doctrinal statement. Also for the first time, the Emperor played a role, by calling together the bishops under his authority, and using the power of the state to give the council 's orders effect.
In the short - term, however, the council did not completely solve the problems it was convened to discuss and a period of conflict and upheaval continued for some time. Constantine himself was succeeded by two Arian Emperors in the Eastern Empire: his son, Constantius II and Valens. Valens could not resolve the outstanding ecclesiastical issues, and unsuccessfully confronted St. Basil over the Nicene Creed.
Pagan powers within the Empire sought to maintain and at times re-establish paganism into the seat of the Emperor (see Arbogast and Julian the Apostate). Arians and Meletians soon regained nearly all of the rights they had lost, and consequently, Arianism continued to spread and be a subject of debate within the Church during the remainder of the fourth century. Almost immediately, Eusebius of Nicomedia, an Arian bishop and cousin to Constantine I, used his influence at court to sway Constantine 's favor from the proto - orthodox Nicene bishops to the Arians.
Eustathius of Antioch was deposed and exiled in 330. Athanasius, who had succeeded Alexander as Bishop of Alexandria, was deposed by the First Synod of Tyre in 335 and Marcellus of Ancyra followed him in 336. Arius himself returned to Constantinople to be readmitted into the Church, but died shortly before he could be received. Constantine died the next year, after finally receiving baptism from Arian Bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, and "with his passing the first round in the battle after the Council of Nicaea was ended ''.
Christianity was illegal in the empire until the emperors Constantine and Licinius agreed in 313 to what became known as the Edict of Milan. However, Nicene Christianity did not become the state religion of the Roman Empire until the Edict of Thessalonica in 380. In the mean time, paganism remained legal and present in public affairs. Constantine 's coinage and other official motifs, until the Council of Nicaea, had affiliated him with the pagan cult of Sol Invictus. At first, Constantine encouraged the construction of new temples and tolerated traditional sacrifices. Later in his reign, he gave orders for the pillaging and the tearing down of Roman temples.
Constantine 's role regarding Nicaea was that of supreme civil leader and authority in the empire. As Emperor, the responsibility for maintaining civil order was his, and he sought that the Church be of one mind and at peace. When first informed of the unrest in Alexandria due to the Arian disputes, he was "greatly troubled '' and, "rebuked '' both Arius and Bishop Alexander for originating the disturbance and allowing it to become public. Aware also of "the diversity of opinion '' regarding the celebration of Easter and hoping to settle both issues, he sent the "honored '' Bishop Hosius of Cordova (Hispania) to form a local church council and "reconcile those who were divided ''. When that embassy failed, he turned to summoning a synod at Nicaea, inviting "the most eminent men of the churches in every country ''.
Constantine assisted in assembling the council by arranging that travel expenses to and from the bishops ' episcopal sees, as well as lodging at Nicaea, be covered out of public funds. He also provided and furnished a "great hall... in the palace '' as a place for discussion so that the attendees "should be treated with becoming dignity ''. In addressing the opening of the council, he "exhorted the Bishops to unanimity and concord '' and called on them to follow the Holy Scriptures with: "Let, then, all contentious disputation be discarded; and let us seek in the divinely - inspired word the solution of the questions at issue. ''
Thereupon, the debate about Arius and church doctrine began. "The emperor gave patient attention to the speeches of both parties '' and "deferred '' to the decision of the bishops. The bishops first pronounced Arius ' teachings to be anathema, formulating the creed as a statement of correct doctrine. When Arius and two followers refused to agree, the bishops pronounced clerical judgement by excommunicating them from the Church. Respecting the clerical decision, and seeing the threat of continued unrest, Constantine also pronounced civil judgement, banishing them into exile. This was the beginning of the practice of using secular power to establish doctrinal orthodoxy within Christianity, an example followed by all later Christian emperors, which led to a circle of Christian violence, and of Christian resistance couched in terms of martyrdom.
There is no record of any discussion of the biblical canon at the council. The development of the biblical canon took centuries, and was nearly complete (with exceptions known as the Antilegomena, written texts whose authenticity or value is disputed) by the time the Muratorian fragment was written.
In 331, Constantine commissioned fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople, but little else is known (in fact, it is not even certain whether his request was for fifty copies of the entire Old and New Testaments, only the New Testament, or merely the Gospels). Some scholars believe that this request provided motivation for canon lists. In Jerome 's Prologue to Judith, he claims that the Book of Judith was "found by the Nicene Council to have been counted among the number of the Sacred Scriptures '', which some have suggested means the Nicene Council did discuss what documents would number among the sacred scriptures, but more likely simply means the Council used Judith in its deliberations on other matters and so it should be considered canonical.
The main source of the idea that the Bible was created at the Council of Nicea seems to be Voltaire, who popularised a story that the canon was determined by placing all the competing books on an altar during the Council and then keeping the ones that did not fall off. The original source of this "fictitious anecdote '' is the Synodicon Vetus, a pseudo-historical account of early Church councils from AD 887:
The canonical and apocryphal books it distinguished in the following manner: in the house of God the books were placed down by the holy altar; then the council asked the Lord in prayer that the inspired works be found on top and -- as in fact happened -- the spurious on the bottom.
The council of Nicaea dealt primarily with the issue of the deity of Christ. Over a century earlier the term "Trinity '' (Τριάς in Greek; trinitas in Latin) was used in the writings of Origen (185 -- 254) and Tertullian (160 -- 220), and a general notion of a "divine three '', in some sense, was expressed in the second century writings of Polycarp, Ignatius, and Justin Martyr. In Nicaea, questions regarding the Holy Spirit were left largely unaddressed until after the relationship between the Father and the Son was settled around the year 362. So the doctrine in a more full - fledged form was not formulated until the Council of Constantinople in 360 AD, and a final form formulated in 381 AD, primarily crafted by Gregory of Nyssa.
While Constantine had sought a unified church after the council, he did not force the Homoousian view of Christ 's nature on the council (see The role of Constantine).
Constantine did not commission any Bibles at the council itself. He did commission fifty Bibles in 331 for use in the churches of Constantinople, itself still a new city. No historical evidence points to involvement on his part in selecting or omitting books for inclusion in commissioned Bibles.
Despite Constantine 's sympathetic interest in the Church, he was not baptized until some 11 or 12 years after the council, putting off baptism as long as he did so as to be absolved from as much sin as possible in accordance with the belief that in baptism all sin is forgiven fully and completely.
Roman Catholics assert that the idea of Christ 's deity was ultimately confirmed by the Bishop of Rome, and that it was this confirmation that gave the council its influence and authority. In support of this, they cite the position of early fathers and their expression of the need for all churches to agree with Rome (see Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses III: 3: 2).
However, Protestants, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox do not believe the Council viewed the Bishop of Rome as the jurisdictional head of Christendom, or someone having authority over other bishops attending the Council. In support of this, they cite Canon 6, where the Roman Bishop could be seen as simply one of several influential leaders, but not one who had jurisdiction over other bishops in other regions.
According to Protestant theologian Philip Schaff, "The Nicene fathers passed this canon not as introducing anything new, but merely as confirming an existing relation on the basis of church tradition; and that, with special reference to Alexandria, on account of the troubles existing there. Rome was named only for illustration; and Antioch and all the other eparchies or provinces were secured their admitted rights. The bishoprics of Alexandria, Rome, and Antioch were placed substantially on equal footing. '' Thus, according to Schaff, the Bishop of Alexandria was to have jurisdiction over the provinces of Egypt, Libya and the Pentapolis, just as the Bishop of Rome had authority "with reference to his own diocese. ''
But according to Fr. James F. Loughlin, there is an alternate Roman Catholic interpretation. It involves five different arguments "drawn respectively from the grammatical structure of the sentence, from the logical sequence of ideas, from Catholic analogy, from comparison with the process of formation of the Byzantine Patriarchate, and from the authority of the ancients '' in favor of an alternative understanding of the canon. According to this interpretation, the canon shows the role the Bishop of Rome had when he, by his authority, confirmed the jurisdiction of the other patriarchs -- an interpretation which is in line with the Roman Catholic understanding of the Pope. Thus, the Bishop of Alexandria presided over Egypt, Libya and the Pentapolis, while the Bishop of Antioch "enjoyed a similar authority throughout the great diocese of Oriens, '' and all by the authority of the Bishop of Rome. To Loughlin, that was the only possible reason to invoke the custom of a Roman Bishop in a matter related to the two metropolitan bishops in Alexandria and Antioch.
However, Protestant and Roman Catholic interpretations have historically assumed that some or all of the bishops identified in the canon were presiding over their own dioceses at the time of the Council -- the Bishop of Rome over the Diocese of Italy, as Schaff suggested, the Bishop of Antioch over the Diocese of Oriens, as Loughlin suggested, and the Bishop of Alexandria over the Diocese of Egypt, as suggested by Karl Josef von Hefele. According to Hefele, the Council had assigned to Alexandria, "the whole (civil) Diocese of Egypt. '' Yet those assumptions have since been proven false. At the time of the Council, the Diocese of Egypt did not yet exist, so the Council could not have assigned it to Alexandria. Antioch and Alexandria were both located within the civil Diocese of Oriens, Antioch being the chief metropolis, but neither administered the whole. Likewise, Rome and Milan were both located within the civil Diocese of Italy, Milan being the chief metropolis, yet neither administered the whole.
This geographic issue related to Canon 6 was highlighted by Protestant writer, Timothy F. Kauffman, as a correction to the anachronism created by the assumption that each bishop was already presiding over a whole diocese at the time of the council. According to Kauffman, since Milan and Rome were both located within the Diocese of Italy, and Antioch and Alexandria were both located within the Diocese of Oriens, a relevant and "structural congruency '' between Rome and Alexandria was readily apparent to the gathered bishops: both had been made to share a diocese of which neither was the chief metropolis. Rome 's jurisdiction within Italy had been defined in terms of several of the city 's adjacent provinces since Diocletian 's reordering of the empire in 293, as the earliest Latin version of the canon indicates, and the rest of the Italian provinces were under the jurisdiction of Milan.
That provincial arrangement of Roman and Milanese jurisdiction within Italy therefore was a relevant precedent, and provided an administrative solution to the problem facing the council -- namely, how to define Alexandrian and Antiochian jurisdiction within the Diocese of Oriens. In canon 6, the Council left most of the diocese under Antioch 's jurisdiction, and assigned a few provinces of the diocese to Alexandria, "since the like is customary for the Bishop of Rome also. ''
In that scenario, a relevant Roman precedent is invoked, answering Loughlin 's argument as to why the custom of a bishop in Rome would have any bearing on a dispute regarding Alexandria in Oriens, and at the same time correcting Schaff 's argument that the bishop of Rome was invoked by way of illustration "with reference to his own diocese. '' The custom of the bishop of Rome was invoked by way of illustration, not because he presided over the whole Church, or over the western Church or even over "his own diocese, '' but rather because he presided over a few provinces in a diocese that was otherwise administered from Milan. On the basis of that precedent, the council recognized Alexandria 's ancient jurisdiction over a few provinces in the Diocese of Oriens, a diocese that was otherwise administered from Antioch.
The Churches of Byzantium celebrate the Fathers of the First Ecumenical Council on the seventh Sunday of Pascha (the Sunday before Pentecost). The Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod celebrates the First Ecumenical Council on June 12. The Coptic Church celebrates The Assembly of the First Ecumenical Council on 9 Hathor (usually Nov. 18). The Armenian Church celebrates the 318 Fathers of the Holy Council of Nicaea on Sept. 1.
Note: NPNF2 = Schaff, Philip; Wace, Henry (eds.), Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Christian Classics Ethereal Library, retrieved 2014 - 07 - 29
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when was asbestos stopped being used in popcorn ceilings | Popcorn ceiling - Wikipedia
A popcorn ceiling (slang), also known as a cottage cheese ceiling, a stucco ceiling or formally an acoustic ceiling, is a term for a spray - on or paint - on ceiling treatment. It was the standard for bedroom and residential hallway ceilings for its bright, white appearance, ability to hide imperfections, and acoustical characteristics. In comparison, kitchen and living room ceilings would normally be finished in smoother skip - trowel or orange peel texture for their higher durability and ease of cleaning.
In early formulations it often contained white asbestos fibers. When asbestos was banned in ceiling treatments by the Clean Air Act of 1978 in the United States, popcorn ceilings fell out of favor in much of the country. However, in order to minimize economic hardship to suppliers and installers, existing inventories of asbestos - bearing texturing materials were exempt from the ban, so it is possible to find asbestos in popcorn ceilings that were applied through the 1980s. After the ban, popcorn ceiling materials were created using a paper - based or Styrofoam product to create the texture, rather than asbestos. Textured ceilings remain common in residential construction in the United States.
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what goods went from the new world to the old world in the columbian exchange | Columbian Exchange - wikipedia
The Columbian Exchange was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World in the 15th and 16th centuries, related to European colonization and trade after Christopher Columbus 's 1492 voyage. Invasive species, including communicable diseases, were a byproduct of the Exchange. The changes in agriculture significantly altered and changed global populations. However, the most significant immediate impact of the Columbian Exchange was the cultural exchanges and the transfer of people between continents. Furthermore, a byproduct of the Columbian Exchange was the Atlantic slave trade, where as many as 12.5 million enslaved African people were forcibly transferred as a labor source to other regions.
The new contact between the global population circulated a wide variety of crops and livestock, which supported increases in population in both hemispheres, although diseases initially caused precipitous declines in the numbers of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Traders returned to Europe with maize, potatoes, and tomatoes, which became very important crops in Europe by the 18th century.
The term was first used in 1972 by American historian Alfred W. Crosby in his environmental history book The Columbian Exchange. It was rapidly adopted by other historians and journalists and has become widely known.
In 1972 Alfred W. Crosby, an American historian at the University of Texas at Austin, published The Columbian Exchange. This book covers the environmental impact of Columbus ' landing in the new world.
The term has become popular among historians and journalists, such as Charles C. Mann, whose book 1493 expands and updates Crosby 's original research.
Before 1500, potatoes were not grown outside of South America. By the 1840s, Ireland was so dependent on the potato that the proximate cause of the Great Famine was a potato disease. Potatoes eventually became an important staple of the diet in much of Europe. Many European rulers, including Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia, encouraged the cultivation of the potato.
Maize and cassava, introduced to the Portuguese from South America in the 16th century, have replaced sorghum and millet as Africa 's most important food crops. 16th - century Spanish colonizers introduced new staple crops to Asia from the Americas, including maize and sweet potatoes, and thereby contributed to population growth in Asia.
Tomatoes, which came to Europe from the New World via Spain, were initially prized in Italy mainly for their ornamental value (see below). From the 19th century tomato sauces became typical of Neapolitan cuisine and, ultimately, Italian cuisine in general. Coffee (introduced in the Americas circa 1720) from Africa and the Middle East and sugarcane (introduced from South Asia) from the Spanish West Indies became the main export commodity crops of extensive Latin American plantations. Introduced to India by the Portuguese, chili and potatoes from South America have become an integral part of Indian cuisine.
Before the Columbian Exchange, there were no oranges in Florida, no bananas in Ecuador, no paprika in Hungary, no potatoes in Ireland, no coffee in Colombia, no pineapples in Hawaii, no rubber trees in Africa, no chili peppers in Thailand, no tomatoes in Italy, and no chocolate in Switzerland.
It took three centuries after their introduction in Europe for tomatoes to become widely accepted. Of all the New World plants introduced to Italy, only the potato took as long as the tomato to gain acceptance. In large part this was due to 16th - century physicians believing that this native Mexican fruit was poisonous and the generator of "melancholic humours. '' In 1544, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, a Tuscan physician and botanist, suggested that tomatoes might be edible, but no record exists of anyone consuming them at this time. On October 31, 1548 the tomato was given its first name anywhere in Europe when a house steward of Cosimo I de ' Medici, Duke of Florence, wrote to the De ' Medici 's private secretary that the basket of pomi d'oro "had arrived safely. '' At this time, the label pomi d'oro was also used to refer to figs, melons, and citrus fruits in treatises by scientists.
In the early years, tomatoes were mainly grown as ornamentals in Italy. For example, the Florentine aristocrat Giovan Vettorio Soderini wrote how they "were to be sought only for their beauty '' and were grown only in gardens or flower beds. Tomatoes were grown in elite town and country gardens in the fifty years or so following their arrival in Europe and were only occasionally depicted in works of art. However, in 1592 the head gardener at the botanical garden of Aranjuez near Madrid, under the patronage of Philip II of Spain wrote, "it is said (tomatoes) are good for sauces. '' Besides this account, tomatoes remained exotic plants grown for ornamental purposes, but rarely for culinary use. The combination of pasta with tomato sauce was developed only in the late nineteenth century. Today around 32,000 acres (12,950 ha) of tomatoes are cultivated in Italy, although there are still areas where relatively few tomatoes are grown and consumed.
Initially, at least, the Columbian exchange of animals largely went through one route, from Europe to the New World, as the Eurasian regions had domesticated many more animals. Horses, donkeys, mules, pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, large dogs, cats and bees were rapidly adopted by native peoples for transport, food, and other uses. One of the first European exports to the Americas, the horse, changed the lives of many Native American tribes in the mountains. They shifted to a nomadic lifestyle, as opposed to agriculture, based on hunting bison on horseback and moved down to the Great Plains. The existing Plains tribes expanded their territories with horses, and the animals were considered so valuable that horse herds became a measure of wealth.
Still, the effects of the introduction of European livestock on the environments and peoples of the New World were not always positive. In the Caribbean, the proliferation of European animals had large effects on native fauna and undergrowth and damaged conucos, plots managed by indigenous peoples for subsistence.
European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of quinine, the first effective treatment for malaria. Europeans suffered from this disease, but some indigenous populations had developed at least partial resistance to it. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes among sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants, which can cause sickle - cell disease.
Before regular communication had been established between the two hemispheres, the varieties of domesticated animals and infectious diseases that jumped to humans, such as smallpox, were substantially more numerous in the Old World than in the New due to more extensive long - distance trade networks. Many had migrated west across Eurasia with animals or people, or were brought by traders from Asia, so diseases of two continents were suffered by all occupants. While Europeans and Asians were affected by the Eurasian diseases, their endemic status in those continents over centuries resulted in many people gaining acquired immunity.
By contrast, "Old World '' diseases had a devastating effect when introduced to Native American populations via European carriers, as the people in the Americas had no natural immunity to the new diseases. Measles caused many deaths. The smallpox epidemics are believed to have caused the largest death tolls among Native Americans, surpassing any wars and far exceeding the comparative loss of life in Europe due to the Black Death. It is estimated that upwards of 80 -- 95 percent of the Native American population died in these epidemics within the first 100 -- 150 years following 1492. Many regions in the Americas lost 100 %. The beginning of demographic collapse on the North American continent has typically been attributed to the spread of a well - documented smallpox epidemic from Hispaniola in December 1518. At that point in time, approximately only 10,000 indigenous people were still alive in Hispaniola.
Similarly, yellow fever is thought to have been brought to the Americas from Africa via the Atlantic slave trade. Because it was endemic in Africa, many people there had acquired immunity. Europeans suffered higher rates of death than did African - descended persons when exposed to yellow fever in Africa and the Americas, where numerous epidemics swept the colonies beginning in the 17th century and continuing into the late 19th century. The disease caused widespread fatalities in the Caribbean during the heyday of slave - based sugar plantation. The replacement of native forests by sugar plantations and factories facilitated its spread in the tropical area by reducing the number of potential natural predators. Yet, the means of the transmission was unknown until 1881, when Carlos Finlay suggested that the disease was transmitted through mosquitoes, now known to be female mosquitoes of the species Aedes aegypti.
The history of syphilis has been well - studied, but the exact origin of the disease is unknown and remains a subject of debate. There are two primary hypotheses: one proposes that syphilis was carried to Europe from the Americas by the crew of Christopher Columbus in the early 1490s, while the other proposes that syphilis previously existed in Europe but went unrecognized. These are referred to as the "Columbian '' and "pre-Columbian '' hypotheses. The first written descriptions of the disease in the Old World came in 1493. The first large outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494 / 1495 in Naples, Italy, among the army of Charles VIII, during their invasion of Naples.
Prior to the trans - Atlantic slave trade, Columbus directly participated in and championed the slave trade. Upon landing in what is now known and assumed to be San Salvador Island, Columbus encountered the Taíno. In his journal of 1492, Columbus noted that
It appears to me, that the people are ingenious and would be good servants and I am of opinion that they would very readily become Christians, as they appear to have no religion. They very quickly learn such words as are spoken to them. If it please our Lord, I intend at my return to carry home six of them to your Highnesses, that they may learn our language.
The idea of enslaving the Tainos had instantly struck Columbus as plausible, even desirable. "They ought to be good servants, '' he continued, "and of good skill, for I see they repeat very quickly whatever was said to them. '' As part of his journey,
Columbus had planned to inaugurate a regular slave trade between the Indies and Spain. With gold in short supply, the slave trade gradually took on greater urgency. Portugal and Genoa had their slave trade, why not Spain? Columbus set about establishing a slave trade including both Caribs and Tainos.
However, it was not until the colonized lands emerged as profitable plantation lands that the use of West African people as slaves transformed the globe.
Following Columbus were a series of Spaniards seeking to expand the Spanish empire while at the same time increasing their own power and wealth. Such an example was explorer Hernán Cortés. Cortés was interested in expanding the Spanish - controlled lands and often disobeyed his rulers in the process. However, the Spanish royalty was struggling to accurately define the policy related to the enslavement of the Taínos and other Caribbean people. Mann notes that "obtaining the wealth of the Americas would involve subjugating people who had committed no offense against Spain ''. Like Cortez, Columbus angered the Spanish royalty through subjugating and enslaving the native people. For example, Columbus sent 550 Taíno to Seville in 1495. The parade of enslaved Taíno in Seville angered Queen Isabella to the point that she ordered the Spanish to send the enslaved people back to the Americas. By 1503, the Spanish solidified their policy through the implementation of the encomienda system. This system was supposed to ensure the safety and freedom of the Taíno and other indigenous populations, while also converting them to Christianity. To achieve these goals, Spaniards were appointed as trustees who oversaw the religious instruction and treatment of the people. However, the trustees did not like working with the Taíno, and the Taíno resisted the efforts of the Spaniards. For the Taíno, this system represented a "legal justification for slavery '' and the Spaniards justified the enslavement of the people through arguing that the Taíno were "less human than Europeans ''.
These earlier forays into the enslavement of people laid the foundation for the future trans - Atlantic slave trade. Like other enslaved people, the Taíno and other enslaved Natives had periods of rebellion. Indigenous peoples in what is now known as New Mexico resisted early Spanish colonization and enslavement, resulting in the Acoma Massacre under Juan de Oñate at Acoma Pueblo. In recounting this event, it was said,
(W) hat had happened was that the Indians, as soon as they saw that the forces were divided, began to attack and kill. So this witness fell back immediately with his soldiers to rejoin the maese de campo, followed by the Indians who had hitherto accompanied this witness. They paused the Spaniards in large groups, and began to hurl countless stones, arrows, and clubs, not only from the ground but from the terraces, both men and women participating in the attack.
When the colonized lands emerged as profitable plantation lands, the Spanish and other colonizers increased the importation of Africans as enslaved laborers, altering global demographics.
The trans - Atlantic Slave Trade represents the largest migration in human history. While many Europeans migrated to the Americas, it was enslaved Africans that dominated the North and South American continents. The Columbian Exchange saw the rise of luxury goods which necessitated cheap or free labor to produce the largest potential profit. One of these luxury goods was sugar. In the early history of sugar, Islamic and European - owned plantations paid relatively high wages for this labor - intensive and profitable crop. However, as time progressed the European - sugar plantation owners reconsidered the use of highly paid labor and made the transition to the exploitation of people to meet the growing global sugar demand. In the 1440s the Portuguese discovered that the Madeira Islands were better suited to growing sugarcane than wheat. It was on Madeira that the early system of Iberian slavery was transformed. Originally, the enslaved people who worked on the Madeira sugarcane plantations were convicts, Guanches (natives of the Canary Islands), Berbers (individuals from Northwest Africa), and Conversos (Iberian Jewish people). As time passed, these early enslaved peoples were replaced by enslaved Africans from West and Central Africa). Eventually, by the 1560s and 1570s sugarcane plantations in Brazil dominated the sugar industry and Madeira switched from sugar production to wine.
The use of slave labor was not restricted to sugarcane plantations. Rather, slave labor was used for coffee, tobacco and even grains such as rice. In these systems, the enslaved people had little power, however, they did have some influence on farming methods. For example, in rice production there is some evidence that slaves from Africa utilized traditional methods to grow rice. Furthermore, enslaved Africans were responsible for growing their own food. In these cases, the enslaved people preferred rice that was part of their culture as opposed to the European preference for Carolina rice. However, in a system of power and control the slaves were eventually banned from using their preferred rice Therefore, the system of slavery transmitted not only the people but also their cultures to new regions.
One of the influences related to the migration of people were cultural exchanges. For example, in the article "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500 -- 1800 '' Pieter Remmer makes the point that "from 1500 onward, a ' clash of cultures ' had begun in the Atlantic ''. This clash of culture transferred European values to indigenous cultures. For example, the emergence of private property in regions where there were little to no rights to lands, the concepts of monogamy and the nuclear family, the role of women and children in the family system, and the "superiority of free labor ''. An example of this type of cultural exchange occurred during the 1500s in North America. When these early European colonizers first entered North America, they encountered fence-less lands which indicated to them that this land was unimproved. For these Europeans, they were seeking economic opportunities, therefore, land and resources were important for the success of the mission. When these colonizers entered North America they encountered a fully established culture of people called the Powhatan. The Powhatan farmers in Virginia scattered their farm plots within larger cleared areas. These larger cleared areas were a communal place for naturally growing and useful plants. As the Europeans viewed fences as "hallmarks of civilization '' they set about transforming "the land into something more suitable for themselves ''. In implementing their practices, the Europeans enslaved, murdered, and exploited indigenous populations. Furthermore, in cases of enslaved peoples (and in particular, enslaved Africans) the Europeans simultaneously implemented their value system while at the same time justifying enslaving people through a philosophy which reduced the enslaved people to property. Thus, the slave traders and some of the plantation owners used the concept of family to exploit and control the enslaved people. In other subtle ways, which had a large impact the cultural exchanges involved sharing practices and traditions. An example of this can be found in the tobacco industry.
Tobacco was one of the luxury goods which was spread as a direct result of the Columbian Exchange. As is discussed in regard to the trans - Atlantic slave trade, the tobacco trade increased demand for free labor and spread tobacco worldwide. In discussing the widespread uses of tobacco, the Spanish physician Nicolas Monardes (1493 -- 1588) noted that "The black people that have gone from these parts to the Indies, have taken up the same manner and use of tobacco that the Indians have ''. As the European colonizers and enslaved Africans traveled the globe and came into contact with indigenous peoples, they took with them the cultural practices related to tobacco, and spread them to additional regions. Therefore demand for tobacco grew in the course of the cultural exchanges and increased contacts among peoples.
Plants that arrived by land, sea, or air in the times before 1492 are called archaeophytes, and plants introduced to Europe after those times are called neophytes. Invasive species of plants and pathogens also were introduced by chance, including such weeds as tumbleweeds (Salsola spp.) and wild oats (Avena fatua). Some plants introduced intentionally, such as the kudzu vine introduced in 1894 from Japan to the United States to help control soil erosion, have since been found to be invasive pests in the new environment.
Fungi have also been transported, such as the one responsible for Dutch elm disease, killing American elms in North American forests and cities, where many had been planted as street trees. Some of the invasive species have become serious ecosystem and economic problems after establishing in the New World environments. A beneficial, although probably unintentional, introduction is Saccharomyces eubayanus, the yeast responsible for lager beer now thought to have originated in Patagonia.
In addition to these, many animals were introduced to new habitats on the other side of the world either accidentally or incidentally. These include such animals as brown rats, earthworms (apparently absent from parts of the pre-Columbian New World), and zebra mussels, which arrived on ships. Escaped and feral populations of non-indigenous animals have thrived in both the Old and New Worlds, often negatively impacting or displacing native species. In the New World, populations of feral European cats, pigs, horses and cattle are common, and Burmese pythons are considered problematic. In the Old World, Eastern gray squirrel have been particularly successful in colonising Great Britain and populations of raccoons can now be found in some regions of Germany, the Caucasus and Japan. Fur farm escapees such as coypu and American mink have extensive populations. Canada geese are also common.
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who writes the questions for the chase australia | The Chase Australia - Wikipedia
The Chase Australia is an Australian television quiz show based on the British program of the same name. It is broadcast on the Seven Network and hosted by Andrew O'Keefe. Four contestants play against an opponent, known as the "chaser '', who plays for the bank. There are five chasers on the show; they are Matt Parkinson, Brydon Coverdale, Anne Hegerty, Issa Schultz and Mark Labbett. The show premiered on 14 September 2015.
In mid-2014 it was reported that the Seven Network had considered producing a local version of The Chase on the back of good ratings for the British version of the show which has been airing in the 3: 00 pm timeslot since August 2013. A pilot episode on the UK set was made, but ultimately it was decided not to proceed.
However, interest in a local version was renewed in May 2015 and in July the Seven Network commissioned the show to eventually replace Deal or No Deal and Million Dollar Minute in the 5: 00 pm timeslot in a bid to revive ratings for its struggling 6: 00 pm nightly news.
Each contestant comes up one at a time and is given one minute to answer as many questions as possible with each correct answer worth $2,000. This element is known as the "cash builder ''. After the minute is up, the money earned from the cash builder is placed three steps down on a seven - step money board. The contestant may remain at this step and play for the money in their bank. However, the contestant may also be placed one step lower down the board for a lesser award, or one step further up the board for a greater award, with each award 's value being set by the chaser.
If the contestant elects to play for the greater reward, the chaser starts two steps behind and the contestant must answer six questions correctly to reach home. If the contestant elects to remain at the standard starting position, the chaser is three steps behind and the contestant must answer five questions correctly to reach home. However, if the contestant elects to play for the smaller reward, the chaser is four steps behind and the contestant must answer four questions correctly to reach home.
Once the contestant nominates their starting position, questions must then be answered correctly in order to reach the bottom of the board and bank their money. Both the contestant and the chaser are given the same multiple - choice question with three possible answers. Each must then secretly press one of the three buttons on their keypad to lock in their answer. When one person locks in their answer, the other is given five seconds to lock in, or else be locked out. For every correct response, the contestant will move one step towards the bank. Additionally, the chaser also moves one step down the board for each correct answer. No movement is made (either by the contestant or the chaser) if each give an incorrect answer. The chaser 's job is to catch up to the contestant and eliminate him or her from the game by capitalizing on the mistakes the contestant makes before he or she can bank their money. If this happens, the contestant is out of the game and no money is added to the team 's total. However, if the contestant successfully banks his or her money, this is put into the team 's prize pot which will be contested for in the final round. In the case the contestant chose to play for a negative amount and wins his or her Head - to - Head round, the contestant remains in the game but the team 's total pot is reduced by the negative value. This is repeated for all four contestants.
The contestants who successfully outrun the chaser proceed to the Final Chase. If all four contestants are caught by the chaser, the chaser offers a certain amount of money and the team nominates one contestant to proceed to the Final Chase.
In the final round, called the "Final Chase '', the remaining contestants have two minutes to answer as many questions as possible. During the commercial break, the contestants choose one of two question sets, A or B, with the other set being put aside for the chaser. Also, the contestants are given a head start of one space per contestant participating in the round. The contestants must press their own buzzer to answer a question and only the one who pressed their buzzer first can respond; if any other contestant responds the question is treated as an incorrect answer, regardless of whether it was answered correctly or not. The buzzer is not used if only one contestant is in the Final Chase. Every correct answer moves the contestants ahead one space.
After the two minutes are up (and following a short preview of the 6: 00 pm news) the chaser is also given two minutes of quick - fire questions to attempt to catch the team. If the chaser gets a question wrong or passes, the clock is briefly stopped and the question is thrown over to the contestants; if a correct answer is given, the chaser is pushed back one space. If the contestants answer the chaser 's question correctly whilst the chaser is at the starting line, an additional space is added to the requirement for the chaser. If the chaser succeeds in catching the contestants before the clock runs out, the contestants lose the prize pot and leave with nothing. If the contestants are not caught by the chaser, the prize pot is split equally between those contestants participating in the Final Chase. If there is only one winning contestant remaining, the contestant wins his or her head to head round amount.
On 8 October 2015, an episode aired during Channel Seven 's Sunrise. In this episode, one person would play in the Cash Builder round, and the next person would play for the money earned in the individual chase. $1,000 instead of $2,000 was awarded for each correct answer in the Cash Builder.
Occasionally, half - hour episodes have aired to fit in with other programming on Channel Seven. These episodes feature two contestants instead of four. Each contestant plays the cash builder round, and the contestant that earns the higher amount of money plays for the combined total of the two contestants in the individual chase. The Final Chase was played with both contestants.
On 16 February 2017, an episode aired featuring two teams from the eighth season of My Kitchen Rules.
Since debuting in September 2015, The Chase Australia has generally performed well in the ratings, often beating the second half of the Nine Network 's Afternoon News and Millionaire Hot Seat, which follows immediately after, and Network Ten 's Ten Eyewitness News, in the important 5: 00 to 6: 00 pm timeslot. The debut episode drew 520,000 for its first half - hour, and 720,000 for its second half - hour which went up against Millionaire Hot Seat. This has resulted in a minor resurgence in ratings for Seven News, which, as of September 2017, continues to trail Nine News across the eastern seaboard, but still leads in the Adelaide and Perth markets.
In response to continued strong ratings for The Chase Australia throughout 2016, the Nine Network announced rival game show Millionaire Hot Seat would extend to one hour from 2017, meaning both shows compete for the same duration. As of May 2017, The Chase Australia remains well ahead of Millionaire Hot Seat in the ratings, often winning by an average margin of 100,000.
The Chase Australia airs at 5: 00 pm on weeknights in most markets, however, on the Gold Coast it airs at 4: 30 pm due to Seven Gold Coast News airing at 5: 30 pm. In New Zealand, episodes of The Chase Australia air weekly on TVNZ 1. On 14 March 2016, The Chase Australia began airing on UK TV channel Challenge, also available in Ireland.
An iOS and Android version of the game has been released, developed by ITV Studios Ltd. The app features all five chasers and can be played by up to four people, as in the actual show. There is one significant difference between the show and the app; only three choices are presented for questions in the Cash Builder and Final Chase rounds, and no Final Chase is played if all the players are caught in their individual chases.
A board game has also been released.
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who created world heart day and when was it first celebrated | World Heart Federation - wikipedia
The World Heart Federation (WHF) is a nongovernmental organization based in Geneva, Switzerland. The World Heart Federation is committed to uniting its members and leads the global fight against heart disease and stroke, with a focus on low - and middle - income countries. The World Heart Federation is the world 's only global body dedicated to leading the fight against heart disease and stroke via a united community of almost 200 member organizations that bring together the strength of medical societies and heart foundations, from more than 100 countries covering the regions of Asia - Pacific, Europe, East Mediterranean, the Americas and Africa.
Each year 17.3 million people die of cardiovascular disease, 80 % in the developing world. The World Heart Federation exists to prevent and control these diseases through awareness campaigns and action, promoting the exchange of information, ideas and science among those involved in cardiovascular care, advocating for disease prevention and control by promoting healthy diets, physical activity and tobacco free living at an individual, community and policy maker level.
The World Heart Federation traces its origins to the International Society of Cardiology, which was formed in 1946, and the International Cardiology Federation, founded in 1970. These two organizations merged in 1978 to form the International Society and Federation of Cardiology (ISFC). The ISFC changed its name to the World Heart Federation in 1998.
The World Heart Federation urges greater action from policy makers, healthcare professionals, patient organizations and individuals to work together to reduce the burden of heart disease and stroke, and ensure people all over the world can have longer and better lives.
By 2025, to drive the WHO target for non-communicable disease mortality reduction by reducing premature deaths from cardiovascular disease (CVD) by at least 25 %.
Globally, cardiovascular disease (CVD) accounts for 31 per cent of all deaths causing 17.3 million people to die every year, with 80 per cent of deaths taking place in low - and middle - income countries.
The unique position of the World Heart Federation has been successful in providing the heart advocacy movement with an overarching drive that brings together science, advocacy and evidence - based policy.
Endorsed by World Health Organization Member States at the 65th World Health Assembly, a global goal has been established to reduce premature deaths due to non-communicable diseases (NCDs) by 25 per cent by 2025. Because cardiovascular disease (CVD) accounts for nearly half of the global NCD burden, CVD and its risk factors must be adequately addressed in order to achieve this global goal.
25x25, achieving a 25 % relative reduction in overall mortality from cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes or chronic respiratory disease by 2025. In September 2011, the United Nations held a High - Level Meeting in New York on the subject of NCDs, including cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancers, diabetes and chronic respiratory diseases. This was only the second time in its history that the UN held a summit on a health issue and its aims were to:
The outcome of the meeting was a Political Declaration signed by all the UN Member States that now represents the NCD roadmap. The first action step of the Declaration came in May 2012 when the 65th World Health Assembly (WHA) adopted a global target of 25 % relative reduction in overall mortality from cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes or chronic respiratory diseases by 2025.
This led to the World Heart Federation recognising that achieving the 2025 targets would require a primary focus on cardiovascular disease, including heart disease and stroke, and that all of the targets have a direct impact on CVD. The organization committed itself to supporting action to reduce premature mortality from CVD by 25 % by 2025.
By mobilizing its member network and participating in key advocacy events, including the World Health Assembly and UN meetings such as the UN Summit on NCDs in September 2011, the World Heart Federation reaches the decision - makers directly. United efforts have resulted in the Commonwealth Heads of Government issuing a landmark statement on NCDs thus committing fifty - four countries, representing a third of the world 's population, to work towards including NCDs in the global development agenda.
The outcome document, entitled, Future We Want, can be read here. The Rio + 20 conference resulted in: adoption of green economy policies, establishment of a high - level political forum and agreement to strengthen the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and adoption of the 10 - year framework of programmes on sustainable consumption and production patterns. Additionally, the groundwork for the development of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) was created. As a result of the conference, over 700 voluntary commitments and new partnerships were formed to advance sustainable development.
In 2009, the World Heart Federation and its sister federations the International Diabetes Federation and the Union for International Cancer Control formed the Non ‐ Communicable Disease (NCD) Alliance. In early 2010 the International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease joined the alliance. Together the NCD Alliance represents 880 member associations in more than 170 countries. The NCD Alliance mobilized civil society to campaign successfully for a United Nations (UN) Summit on NCDs, which was subsequently held in September 2011. Additionally, on 13 May 2010, the UN voted unanimously for the passage of resolution 64 / 265, ' Prevention and control of non ‐ communicable diseases. '
As an advocate of putting cardiovascular disease and its risk factors on the global health agenda, the World Heart Federation strongly supports initiatives addressing obesity, healthy diet and physical activity. WHF recognizes the importance that both nutrition and physical activity play in preventing and reducing the risk cardiovascular disease.
Eat for Goals! is a cookery app which gives young people the opportunity to cook the same heart - healthy recipes as some of the world 's top footballers. Based on the successful Eat for Goals! book, the app encourages young people to eat healthily and lead an active lifestyle, in order to reduce their risk of heart disease and stroke.
The app now features three additional renowned players -- Fernando Torres, Kelly Smith and Sergio Ramos -- and their healthy and easy to do recipes. The app also presents a new section of snacks to offer healthy options between meals.
Eat for Goals! was originally created under the patronage of the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), World Heart Federation and the European Commission. The app shows young people how to cook the same healthy recipes as some of their favourite football stars, with the aim of encouraging them to eat healthily and lead an active lifestyle. Once the app is downloaded, young people aged 7 + are encouraged to ' score a goal ' to see recipes from 11 of their favourite football legends: Frank Lampard, Cristiano Ronaldo, Carles Puyol, Steven Gerrard, Yaya Touré, Paul Pogba, Lotta Schelin, Rachel Yankey, Samuel Eto'o and now Fernando Torres, Kelly Smith and Sergio Ramos.
Each player shares what he or she loves to eat and gives the recipe for his or her favourite dish. As well as seeing what football stars like to eat, the app also provides interesting food facts and step - by - step instructions, making it easy for even the less - experienced to make delicious, healthy meals in no time at all!
Tobacco is responsible for close to six million deaths per year globally. As an advocate for reducing risk factors associated with cardiovascular deaths, the World Heart Federation supports strong limitations to active and passive smoking. In 2004, the World Heart Federation implemented, alongside other organizations, its own code of practice (based on WHO - endorsed code of practice) that aims at promoting tobacco limitations within the organization itself.
The World Congress of Cardiology held every other year, is a scientific conference of cardiologists from around the world, where the latest research is presented. The Congresses were held every four years from 1950 to 2006, and every two years since then. The aims of the World Congress of Cardiology are to share scientific research results and public outreach techniques with low - and middle - income countries, reach the maximum number of healthcare providers by integrating national and regional congresses, focus on prevention, diagnosis and treatment and encourage interaction between physicians, patients, policy - makers and the public. The next World Congress of Cardiology Scientific Session will take place in Mexico City, Mexico from 4 -- 7 June 2016.
The regular registration fee deadline is 13 May 2016.
"We look forward to welcoming you to Mexico City for a congress which we believe will feature one of the most innovative and action oriented programme, designed to meet the needs of cardiologists, other health workers and patients for the 21st century. '' Dr. Salim Yusuf, President of the World Heart Federation
About World Heart Day 2016 World Heart Day was founded in 2000 to inform people around the globe that heart disease and stroke are the world 's leading causes of death, claiming 17.5 million lives each year. World Heart Day takes place on 29 September every year. The theme of this year is power your life - we want everyone to understand what they can do to fuel their hearts and power their lives. We are also calling on global governments and policy makers to implement reliable, simple and fit - for - purpose surveillance systems for monitoring the burden and treatment of cardiovascular disease (CVD). This World Heart Day we 've joined forces with Bupa and Philips to make World Heart Day more powerful than ever. With their support, we are raising awareness and encouraging individuals, families, communities and governments to take action and help us to achieve our goal of a 25 % reduction in premature deaths from CVD by 2025. Together, we aim to help people everywhere to live longer, better, heart - healthy lives. For more information about World Heart Day 2016 including access to the campaign materials visit the website.
Past themes have included: 2015: Creating heart - healthy environments 2013: Take the road to a healthy heart 2011 - 2012: One World, One Heart, One Home 2009 - 2010: I Work with Heart 2008: Know your Risk 2007: Team Up for Healthy Hearts! 2006: How Young is Your Heart? 2005: Healthy Weight, Healthy Shape 2004: Children, Adolescents and Heart Disease 2003: Women, Heart Disease and Stroke 2002: What Shape are you in? 2001: A Heart for Life 2000: I Love my Heart: Let it beat!
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in early virginia the system of indentured servitude | Indentured servitude - wikipedia
An indentured servant or indentured laborer is an employee (indenturee) within a system of unfree labor who is bound by a signed or forced contract (indenture) to work for a particular employer for a fixed time. The contract often lets the employer sell the labor of an indenturee to a third party. Indenturees usually enter into an indenture for a specific payment or other benefit, or to meet a legal obligation, such as debt bondage. On completion of the contract, indentured servants were given their freedom, and occasionally plots of land. In many countries, systems of indentured labor have now been outlawed, and are banned by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a form of slavery.
Until the late 18th century, indentured servitude was very common in British North America. It was often a way for poor Europeans to immigrate to the American colonies: they signed an indenture in return for a costly passage. After their indenture expired, the immigrants were free to work for themselves or another employer. It has been argued by at least one economist that indentured servitude occurred largely as "an institutional response to a capital market imperfection ''.
In some cases, the indenture was made with a ship 's master, who sold on the indenture to an employer in the colonies. Most indentured servants worked as farm laborers or domestic servants, although some were apprenticed to craftsmen.
The terms of an indenture were not always enforced by American courts, although runaways were usually sought out and returned to their employer.
Between one - half and two - thirds of white immigrants to the American colonies between the 1630s and American Revolution had come under indentures. However, while almost half the European immigrants to the Thirteen Colonies were indentured servants, at any one time they were outnumbered by workers who had never been indentured, or whose indenture had expired, and thus free wage labor was the more prevalent for Europeans in the colonies. Indentured people were numerically important mostly in the region from Virginia north to New Jersey. Other colonies saw far fewer of them. The total number of European immigrants to all 13 colonies before 1775 was about 500,000; of these 55,000 were involuntary prisoners. Of the 450,000 or so European arrivals who came voluntarily, Tomlins estimates that 48 % were indentured. About 75 % of these were under the age of 25. The age of adulthood for men was 24 years (not 21); those over 24 generally came on contracts lasting about 3 years. Regarding the children who came, Gary Nash reports that "many of the servants were actually nephews, nieces, cousins and children of friends of emigrating Englishmen, who paid their passage in return for their labor once in America. ''
Several instances of kidnapping for transportation to the Americas are recorded such as that of Peter Williamson (1730 -- 1799). As historian Richard Hofstadter pointed out, "Although efforts were made to regulate or check their activities, and they diminished in importance in the eighteenth century, it remains true that a certain small part of the white colonial population of America was brought by force, and a much larger portion came in response to deceit and misrepresentation on the part of the spirits (recruiting agents). '' One "spirit '' named William Thiene was known to have spirited away 840 people from Britain to the colonies in a single year. Historian Lerone Bennett, Jr. notes that "Masters given to flogging often did not care whether their victims were black or white. ''
Indentured servitude was also used by various English and British governments as a punishment for defeated foes in rebellions and civil wars. Oliver Cromwell sent into enforced indentured service thousands of prisoners captured in the 1648 Battle of Preston and the 1651 Battle of Worcester. King James II acted similarly after the Monmouth Rebellion in 1685, and use of such measures continued also in the 18th Century.
Indentured servants could not marry without the permission of their master, were sometimes subject to physical punishment and did not receive legal favor from the courts. To ensure that the indenture contract was satisfied completely with the allotted amount of time, the term of indenture was lengthened for female servants if they became pregnant. Upon finishing their term they received "freedom dues '' and were set free.
The American Revolution severely limited immigration to the United States, but economic historians dispute its long - term impact. Sharon Salinger argues that the economic crisis that followed the war made long - term labor contracts unattractive. His analysis of Philadelphia 's population shows how the percentage of bound citizens fell from 17 % to 6.4 % over the course of the war. William Miller posits a more moderate theory, stating that "the Revolution (...) wrought disturbances upon white servitude. But these were temporary rather than lasting ''. David Galenson supports this theory by proposing that the numbers of British indentured servants never recovered, and that Europeans from other nationalities replaced them.
The American and British governments passed several laws that helped foster the decline of indentures. The UK Parliament 's Passenger Vessels Act 1803 regulated travel conditions aboard ships to make transportation more expensive, so as to hinder landlords ' tenants seeking a better life. An American law passed in 1833 abolished imprisonment of debtors, which made prosecuting runaway servants more difficult, increasing the risk of indenture contract purchases. The 13th Amendment, passed in the wake of the American Civil War, made indentured servitude illegal in the United States.
Through its introduction, the details regarding indentured labor varied across import and export regions and most overseas contracts were made before the voyage with the understanding that prospective migrants were competent enough to make overseas contracts on their own account and that they preferred to have a contract before the voyage.
Most labor contracts made were in increments of five years, with the opportunity to extend another five years. Many contracts also provided free passage home after the dictated labor was completed. However, there were generally no policies regulating employers once the labor hours were completed, which led to frequent ill - treatment.
In 1838, with the abolition of slavery at its onset, the British were in the process of transporting a million Indians out of India and into the Caribbean to take the place of the African slaves in indentureship. Women, looking for what they believed would be a better life in the colonies, were specifically sought after and recruited at a much higher rate than men due to the high population of men already in the colonies. However, women had to prove their status as a single and eligible to emigrate, as married women could not leave without their husbands. Many women seeking escape from abusive relationships were willing to take that chance. The Indian Immigration Act of 1883 prevented women from exiting India as widowed or single in order to escape. Arrival in the colonies brought unexpected conditions of poverty, homelessness, and little to no food as the high numbers of emigrants overwhelmed the small villages and flooded the labor market. Many were forced into signing labor contracts that exposed them to the hard field labor on the plantation. Additionally, on arrival to the plantation, single women were ' assigned ' a man as they were not allowed to live alone. The subtle difference between slavery and indenture - ship is best seen here as women were still subjected to the control of the plantation owners as well as their newly assigned ' partner '. Their status was closer to chattel property than human being.
A half million Europeans went as indentured servants to the Caribbean (primarily the English - speaking islands of the Caribbean) before 1840.
In 1643, the white population of Barbados was 37,200 (86 % of the population). During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, at least 10,000 Scottish and Irish prisoners of war were transported as indentured laborers to the colonies.
There were also reports of kidnappings of Europeans to work as servants. During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, children from England and France were kidnapped and sold into indentured labor in the Caribbean.
The Indian indenture system was a system of indenture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5 million Indians were transported to various colonies of European powers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of large Indian diaspora, which spread from the Indian Ocean (i.e. Réunion and Mauritius) to Pacific Ocean (i.e. Fiji), as well as the growth of Indo - Caribbean and Indo - African population.
The British wanted Indians to work in Natal as workers. But the Indians refused, and as a result, the British introduced the indenture system. On 18 January 1826, the Government of the French Indian Ocean island of Réunion laid down terms for the introduction of Indian labourers to the colony. Each man was required to appear before a magistrate and declare that he was going voluntarily. The contract was for five years with pay of ₹ 8 (12 ¢ US) per month and rations provided labourers had been transported from Pondicherry and Karaikal. The first attempt at importing Indian labour into Mauritius, in 1829, ended in failure, but by 1834, with abolition throughout most of the British Empire, transportation of Indian labour to the island gained pace. By 1838, 25,000 Indian labourers had been shipped to Mauritius.
After the end of slavery, the West Indian sugar colonies tried the use of emancipated slaves, families from Ireland, Germany and Malta and Portuguese from Madeira. All these efforts failed to satisfy the labour needs of the colonies due to high mortality of the new arrivals and their reluctance to continue working at the end of their indenture. On 16 November 1844, the British Indian Government legalised emigration to Jamaica, Trinidad and Demerara (Guyana). The first ship, the Whitby, sailed from Port Calcutta for British Guiana on 13 January 1838, and arrived in Berbice on 5 May 1838. Transportation to the Caribbean stopped in 1848 due to problems in the sugar industry and resumed in Demerara and Trinidad in 1851 and Jamaica in 1860.
The Indian indenture system was finally banned in 1917. According to The Economist, "When the Indian Legislative Council finally ended indenture... it did so because of pressure from Indian nationalists and declining profitability, rather than from humanitarian concerns. ''
Convicts transported to the Australian colonies before the 1840s often found themselves hired out in a form of indentured labor. Indentured servants also emigrated to New South Wales. The Van Diemen 's Land Company used skilled indentured labor for periods of seven years or less. A similar scheme for the Swan River area of Western Australia existed between 1829 and 1832.
During the 1860s planters in Australia, Fiji, New Caledonia, and the Samoa Islands, in need of laborers, encouraged a trade in long - term indentured labor called "blackbirding ''. At the height of the labor trade, more than one - half the adult male population of several of the islands worked abroad.
Over a period of 40 years, from the mid-19th century to the early 20th century, labor for the sugar - cane fields of Queensland, Australia included an element of coercive recruitment and indentured servitude of the 62,000 South Sea Islanders. The workers came mainly from Melanesia -- mainly from the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu -- with a small number from Polynesian and Micronesian areas such as Samoa, the Gilbert Islands (subsequently known as Kiribati) and the Ellice Islands (subsequently known as Tuvalu). They became collectively known as "Kanakas ''.
It remains unknown how many Islanders the trade controversially kidnapped. Whether the system legally recruited Islanders, persuaded, deceived, coerced or forced them to leave their homes and travel by ship to Queensland remains difficult to determine. Official documents and accounts from the period often conflict with the oral tradition passed down to the descendants of workers. Stories of blatantly violent kidnapping tend to relate to the first 10 -- 15 years of the trade.
Australia deported many of these Islanders back to their places of origin in the period 1906 -- 1908 under the provisions of the Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901.
Australia 's own colonies of Papua and New Guinea (joined after the Second World War to form Papua New Guinea) were the last jurisdictions in the world to use indentured servitude.
A significant number of construction projects, principally British, in East Africa and South Africa, required vast quantities of labor, exceeding the availability or willingness of local tribesmen. Coolies from India were imported, frequently under indenture, for such projects as the Uganda Railway, as farm labor, and as miners. They and their descendants formed a significant portion of the population and economy of Kenya and Uganda, although not without engendering resentment from others. Idi Amin 's expulsion of the "Asians '' from Uganda in 1972 was an expulsion of Indo - Africans.
The majority of the population of Mauritius are descendants of Indian indentured labourers brought in between 1834 and 1921. Initially brought to work the sugar estates following the abolition of slavery in the British Empire an estimated half a million indentured laborees were present on the island during this period. Aapravasi Ghat, in the bay at Port Louis and now a UNESCO site, was the first British colony to serve as a major reception centre for slaves and indentured servants for British plantation labour.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948) declares in Article 4 "No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms ''. More specifically, It is dealt with by article 1 (a) of the United Nations 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery.
However, only national legislation can establish the unlawfulness of indentured labor in a specific jurisdiction. In the United States, the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act (VTVPA) of 2000 extended servitude to cover peonage as well as Involuntary Servitude.
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who sings leaving on a jet plane lyrics | Leaving on a Jet Plane - wikipedia
"Leaving on a Jet Plane '' is a song written by John Denver in 1966 and most famously recorded by Peter, Paul and Mary. The original title of the song was "Babe, I Hate to Go '', as featured on his 1966 studio album John Denver Sings, but Denver 's then producer Milt Okun convinced him to change the title. Peter, Paul and Mary recorded the song for their 1967 Album 1700 but only released it as a single in 1969.
It turned out to be Peter, Paul and Mary 's biggest (and final) hit, becoming their only No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the United States. The song also spent three weeks atop the easy listening chart and was used in commercials for United Airlines in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The song also topped the charts in Canada, and reached No. 2 in both the UK Singles Chart and Irish Singles Chart in February 1970.
In 1969, John Denver recorded a version of the song for his debut solo album, Rhymes & Reasons, and re-recorded it in 1973 for John Denver 's Greatest Hits. His version was featured in the end credits of The Guard.
In the 1980s the song prompted litigation involving the British group New Order. The band 's single "Run 2 '' (1989) was the subject of a lawsuit brought by Denver, who argued that its wordless guitar break was based on his "Leaving on a Jet Plane ''. An out - of - court settlement ensured that the song would never be re-released in its original form.
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which of the following would be considered a reliable source of scientific information answers.com | Yahoo! Answers - Wikipedia
Yahoo! Answers is a community - driven question - and - answer (Q&A) website or a knowledge market from Yahoo!, that allows users to both submit questions to be answered and answer questions asked by other users.
The website Yahoo! was officially incorporated on March 2, 1995, and was created by Jerry Yang and David Filo. The website began as a search directory for various websites, and soon grew into an established Internet resource that features the "Yahoo! Answers '' platform. Yahoo! Answers was launched on June 28, 2005, while in internal alpha testing by Director of Engineering, Ofer Shaked. Yahoo! Answers was launched to the general public while in beta testing on December 8, 2005, which lasted until May 14, 2006. Yahoo! Answers was finally incorporated for general availability on May 15, 2006.
Yahoo! Answers was created to replace Ask Yahoo!, Yahoo! 's former Q&A platform which was discontinued in March 2006. The site gives members the chance to earn points as a way to encourage participation and is based on Naver 's Knowledge iN. Yahoo! Answers is available in 12 languages, but several Asian sites operate a different platform which allows for non-Latin characters. The platform is known as Yahoo! Chiebukuro (Yahoo! 知恵袋) in Japan and as Yahoo! Knowledge in Korea, Taiwan, China, and Hong Kong. An Arabic language Q&A platform called Seen Jeem is available through the Yahoo! subsidiary Maktoob.
On December 8, 2016, Yahoo! released an app for the platform called Yahoo! Answers Now (formally known as Yahoo! Hive) for iOS and Android.
The number of poorly formed questions and inaccurate answers has made the site a target of ridicule.
Yahoo! Answers allows any questions that do not violate Yahoo! Answers community guidelines. To encourage good answers, helpful participants are occasionally featured on the Yahoo! Answers Blog. Though the service itself is free, the contents of the answers are owned by the respective users -- while Yahoo! maintains a non-exclusive royalty - free worldwide right to publish the information. Chat is explicitly forbidden in the Community Guidelines, although categories like Politics and Religion & Spirituality are mostly opinion. Users may also choose to reveal their Yahoo! Messenger ID on their Answers profile page.
Misuse of Yahoo! Answers is handled by a user moderation system, where users report posts that are in breach of guidelines or the Terms of Service. Posts are removed if they receive sufficient weight of trusted reports (reports from users with a reliable reporting history). Deletion may be appealed: an unsuccessful appeal receives a 10 - point penalty; a successful one reinstates the post and reduces the ' trust rating ' (reporting power) of the reporter. If a user receives a large number of violations in a relatively short amount of time or a very serious violation, it can cause the abuser 's account to be suspended. In extreme, but rare cases (for a Terms of Service violation), the abuser 's entire Yahoo! ID will be suddenly deactivated without warning.
To open an account, a user needs a Yahoo! ID but can use any name as identification on Yahoo! Answers. A user can be represented by a picture from various internet avatar sites or a user - made graphic uploaded to replace their default Yahoo graphic. Yahoo! Avatars was discontinued in 2012. When answering a question, a user can search Yahoo! or Wikipedia, or any source of information that the user wishes, as long as they mention their source.
Questions are initially open to answers for four days. However, the asker can choose to pick a best answer for the question after a minimum of one hour. However, comments and answers can still be posted after this time. To ask a question, one has to have a Yahoo! account with a positive score balance of five points or more.
The points system is weighted to encourage users to answer questions and to limit spam questions. There are also levels (with point thresholds), which give more site access. Points and levels have no real world value, can not be traded, and serve only to indicate how active a user has been on the site. A notable downside to the points / level system is that it encourages people to answer questions even when they do not have a suitable answer to give to gain points. Users also receive ten points for contributing the "Best Answer '' which is selected by the question 's asker. The voting function, which allowed users to vote for the answer they considered best, was discontinued in April 2014.
In addition to points awarded for activity, Yahoo! Answers staff may also award extra points if they are impressed with a user 's contributions. The Yahoo! Answers community manager has stated that "power users '' who defend the company should be thanked and rewarded.
Note: All limitations are per day.
Users begin on level 1 and receive 100 free points. Prior to this, they began on level 0, could only answer one question, and then were promoted to level 1.
Before April 20, 2012, users levels 5 and above could give an unlimited amount of questions, answers, and comments. Yahoo! Answers established an upper limit to curb spam and unproductive answers. Before April 2014 users were also able to vote for a best answer if the asker did not choose one, but this was discontinued.
The point system ostensibly encourages users to answer as many questions as they possibly can, up to their daily limit. Once a user achieves and maintains a certain minimum number of such contributions (See Note *, further...), they may receive an orange "badge '' under the name of their avatar, naming the user a Top Contributor (TC). Users can lose this badge if they do not maintain their level of participation. Once a user becomes a "Top Contributor '' in any category, the badge appears in all answers, questions, and comments by the user, regardless of category. A user can be a Top Contributor in a maximum of 3 categories. The list of Top contributors is updated every Monday. Although Yahoo! Answers staff has kept secret the conditions of becoming a TC, many theories exist among users, for example:
Out of these, none have an official status. This feature began March 8, 2007.
Badge is seen under the name staff members of Yahoo! Answers.
This type of badge is found on the name of celebrities (like mentioned above) and government departments like the health department.
These badges are found under the name of the companies or organizations who share their personal knowledge and experience with the members of Yahoo! Answers.
A number of studies have looked at the structure of the community and the interaction between askers and responders. Studies of user typology on the site have revealed that some users answer from personal knowledge -- "specialists '' -- while others use external sources to construct answers -- "synthesists '', with synthesists tending to accumulate more reward points. Adamic et al. looked at the ego networks of users and showed that it is possible to distinguish "answer people '' from "discussion people '' with the former found in specialist categories for factual information, such as mathematics and the latter more common in general interest categories, such as marriage and wrestling. They also show that answer length is a good predictor of "best answer '' choice. Kim and Oh looked at the comments given by users on choosing best answers and showed that content completeness, solution feasibility and personal agreement / confirmation were the most significant criteria.
Researchers found that questions seeking factual information received few answers and that the knowledge on Yahoo! Answers is not very deep.
Despite the presence of experts, academics and other researchers, Yahoo! Answers ' base consists of a much more general group; hence, it has been criticized for the large number of dubious questions, such as "how is babby formed how girl get pragnent '' (sic), which sparked an Internet meme.
This "Internet language '' of incorrect spelling and improper grammar also contributes to Yahoo! Answers ' reputation of being a source of entertainment rather than a fact based question and answer platform, and for the reliability, validity, and relevance of its answers. A 2008 study found that Yahoo! Answers is suboptimal for questions requiring factual answers and that the quality decreases as the number of users increases. One journalist observed that the structure Yahoo! Answers provides, particularly the persistence of inaccuracies, the inability to correct them, and a point structure that rewards participation more readily than accuracy, all indicate that the site is oriented towards encouraging use of the site, not offering accurate answers to questions. The number of poorly formed questions and inaccurate answers has made the site a target of ridicule. Likewise, posts on many Internet forums and Yahoo! Answers itself indicate that Yahoo! Answers attracts a large number of trolls.
The site does not have a system that filters the correct answers from the incorrect answers. At one time, the community could vote for the best answer among the posted answers; but that option was disabled in March 2014. For most of the life of Yahoo! Answers, once the "best answer '' was chosen, there was no way to add more answers nor to improve or challenge the best answer chosen by the question asker; there is a display of thumbs down or thumbs up for each answer, but viewers can not vote. In April 2014, this was changed to allow for additional answers after a best answer is chosen, but the best answer can never be changed. Also, while "best answers '' can be briefly commented upon, the comment is not visible by default and is hence hardly read. (Even the user who posts the question is n't notified, before or after the best answer is picked, about a comment on the question or on the best answer.) If the best answer chosen is wrong or contains problematic information, the only chance to give a better (or correct) answer will be the next time the same question is asked. The older answer will likely get higher priority in search engines. Any new answer will most probably not be seen by any original questioner.
The official Yahoo! Answers mascot is a cartoon hamster called Yamster. Yamster is a combination, or portmanteau, of the words "Yahoo '' and "hamster ''. The mascot is also used as an avatar for Yahoo! Answers staff.
During beta testing of Yahoo! Answers in 2005, the Director of Product Management would use a Gemmy Kung Fu Hamster to summon employees to meetings. The toy was a battery - operated, dancing, musical plush hamster clothed in a karate uniform. A Yahoo! Answers employee selected a photo of the toy as the staff avatar. A user then questioned the potential trademark / copyright infringement of using such an avatar. At that time, the photo was replaced with the Yahoo! Answers green smiley face. At the beginning of 2006, the green smiley face was replaced by the cartoon Yamster clad in a karate uniform. As of November 2009, the history of Yamster, complete with photos of the toy, was available on the Yahoo! Answers Team Vietnam blog.
Several celebrities and notables have appeared on Yahoo! Answers to ask questions. These users have an "official '' badge below their avatar and on their profile page. During the 2008 U.S. Presidential campaign, Hillary Clinton, John McCain, Barack Obama, and Mitt Romney posted questions on Yahoo! Answers, in addition to YouTube. In an awareness campaign, "UNICEF Up Close 2007 '', nine UNICEF ambassadors asked questions. The launch of Answers on Yahoo! India included a question from A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, the President of India at that time. Other guests have included international leaders (Queen Rania of Jordan, candidate for United Nations Secretary - General Shashi Tharoor), Nobel Peace Prize laureates (Al Gore, Muhammad Yunus) and other international activists (Bono, Jean - Michel Cousteau), intellectuals (Stephen Hawking, Marilyn vos Savant), and numerous other celebrities.
Yahoo! used comScore statistics in December 2006 to proclaim Yahoo! Answers "the leading Q&A site on the web ''. Currently Yahoo! Answers is ranked as the second most popular Q&A site on the web by comScore. The slogan "The world 's leading Q&A site '' has since been adopted by Answers.com.
In 2009, Yahoo! Answers staff claimed 200 million users worldwide and 15 million users visiting daily. Google Trends has reported around 4 million unique visitors (Global) daily. In January 2010, the web analytics website Quantcast reported 24 million active users (US) per month; in November 2015, that had fallen by 77 % to 5.6 million. Quantcast traffic statistics for Yahoo! Answers, January 2010:
For January 1 -- 30, 2015:
For October 31 -- November 29, 2015:
For December 1 -- December 30, 2015:
Google Ad Planner traffic statistics for Yahoo! Answers, December 2009:
Compete Site Analytics traffic statistics for Yahoo! Answers, December 2009:
Yahoo! Answers represents between 1.03 % to 1.7 % of Yahoo! traffic.
The comedy / advice podcast My Brother, My Brother and Me features a reoccurring segment in which co-host Griffin McElroy selects and reads a particularly humorous or outrageous question from Yahoo! Answers. The hosts then discuss and attempt to answer the question, to comedic effect.
The Internet troll Ken M is a regular user on Yahoo! Answers, posting comments that confound and annoy other users. There are several communities on social media sites such as Reddit and Facebook dedicated to observing his antics, especially on Yahoo! Answers. Ken was named as one of Time 's most influential people online in 2016.
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which describes a possible origin for the oort cloud | Oort cloud - wikipedia
The Oort cloud (/ ɔːr t, ʊər t /), named after the Dutch astronomer Jan Oort, sometimes called the Öpik -- Oort cloud, is a theoretical cloud of predominantly icy planetesimals proposed to surround the Sun to as far as somewhere between 50,000 and 200,000 AU (0.8 and 3.2 ly). It is divided into two regions: a disc - shaped inner Oort cloud (or Hills cloud) and a spherical outer Oort cloud. Both regions lie beyond the heliosphere and in interstellar space. The Kuiper belt and the scattered disc, the other two reservoirs of trans - Neptunian objects, are less than one thousandth as far from the Sun as the Oort cloud.
The outer limit of the Oort cloud defines the cosmographical boundary of the Solar System and the extent of the Sun 's Hill sphere. The outer Oort cloud is only loosely bound to the Solar System, and thus is easily affected by the gravitational pull both of passing stars and of the Milky Way itself. These forces occasionally dislodge comets from their orbits within the cloud and send them toward the inner Solar System. Based on their orbits, most of the short - period comets may come from the scattered disc, but some may still have originated from the Oort cloud.
Astronomers conjecture that the matter composing the Oort cloud formed closer to the Sun and was scattered far into space by the gravitational effects of the giant planets early in the Solar System 's evolution. Although no confirmed direct observations of the Oort cloud have been made, it may be the source of all long - period and Halley - type comets entering the inner Solar System, and many of the centaurs and Jupiter - family comets as well.
There are two main classes of comet: short - period comets (also called ecliptic comets) and long - period comets (also called nearly isotropic comets). Ecliptic comets have relatively small orbits, below 10 AU, and follow the ecliptic plane, the same plane in which the planets lie. All long - period comets have very large orbits, on the order of thousands of AU, and appear from every direction in the sky.
A.O. Leuschner in 1907 suggested that many comets believed to have parabolic orbits, and thus making single visits to the solar system, actually had elliptical orbits and would return after very long periods. In 1932 Estonian astronomer Ernst Öpik postulated that long - period comets originated in an orbiting cloud at the outermost edge of the Solar System. Dutch astronomer Jan Oort independently revived the idea in 1950 as a means to resolve a paradox:
Thus, Oort reasoned, a comet could not have formed while in its current orbit and must have been held in an outer reservoir for almost all of its existence. He noted that there was a peak in numbers of long - period comets with aphelia (their farthest distance from the Sun) of roughly 20,000 AU, which suggested a reservoir at that distance with a spherical, isotropic distribution. Those relatively rare comets with orbits of about 10,000 AU have probably gone through one or more orbits through the Solar System and have had their orbits drawn inward by the gravity of the planets.
The Oort cloud is thought to occupy a vast space from somewhere between 2,000 and 5,000 AU (0.03 and 0.08 ly) to as far as 50,000 AU (0.79 ly) from the Sun. Some estimates place the outer edge at between 100,000 and 200,000 AU (1.58 and 3.16 ly). The region can be subdivided into a spherical outer Oort cloud of 20,000 -- 50,000 AU (0.32 -- 0.79 ly), and a torus - shaped inner Oort cloud of 2,000 -- 20,000 AU (0.0 -- 0.3 ly). The outer cloud is only weakly bound to the Sun and supplies the long - period (and possibly Halley - type) comets to inside the orbit of Neptune. The inner Oort cloud is also known as the Hills cloud, named after Jack G. Hills, who proposed its existence in 1981. Models predict that the inner cloud should have tens or hundreds of times as many cometary nuclei as the outer halo; it is seen as a possible source of new comets to resupply the tenuous outer cloud as the latter 's numbers are gradually depleted. The Hills cloud explains the continued existence of the Oort cloud after billions of years.
The outer Oort cloud may have trillions of objects larger than 1 km (0.62 mi), and billions with absolute magnitudes brighter than 11 (corresponding to approximately 20 - kilometre (12 mi) diameter), with neighboring objects tens of millions of kilometres apart. Its total mass is not known, but, assuming that Halley 's Comet is a suitable prototype for comets within the outer Oort cloud, roughly the combined mass is 3 × 10 kilograms (6.6 × 10 lb), or five times that of Earth. Earlier it was thought to be more massive (up to 380 Earth masses), but improved knowledge of the size distribution of long - period comets led to lower estimates. The mass of the inner Oort cloud has not been characterized.
If analyses of comets are representative of the whole, the vast majority of Oort - cloud objects consist of ices such as water, methane, ethane, carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide. However, the discovery of the object 1996 PW, an object whose appearance was consistent with a D - type asteroid in an orbit typical of a long - period comet, prompted theoretical research that suggests that the Oort cloud population consists of roughly one to two percent asteroids. Analysis of the carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios in both the long - period and Jupiter - family comets shows little difference between the two, despite their presumably vastly separate regions of origin. This suggests that both originated from the original protosolar cloud, a conclusion also supported by studies of granular size in Oort - cloud comets and by the recent impact study of Jupiter - family comet Tempel 1.
The Oort cloud is thought to be a remnant of the original protoplanetary disc that formed around the Sun approximately 4.6 billion years ago. The most widely accepted hypothesis is that the Oort cloud 's objects initially coalesced much closer to the Sun as part of the same process that formed the planets and minor planets, but that gravitational interaction with young gas giants such as Jupiter ejected the objects into extremely long elliptic or parabolic orbits. Recent research has been cited by NASA hypothesizing that a large number of Oort cloud objects are the product of an exchange of materials between the Sun and its sibling stars as they formed and drifted apart, and it is suggested that many -- possibly the majority of -- Oort cloud objects did not form in close proximity to the Sun. Simulations of the evolution of the Oort cloud from the beginnings of the Solar System to the present suggest that the cloud 's mass peaked around 800 million years after formation, as the pace of accretion and collision slowed and depletion began to overtake supply.
Models by Julio Ángel Fernández suggest that the scattered disc, which is the main source for periodic comets in the Solar System, might also be the primary source for Oort cloud objects. According to the models, about half of the objects scattered travel outward toward the Oort cloud, whereas a quarter are shifted inward to Jupiter 's orbit, and a quarter are ejected on hyperbolic orbits. The scattered disc might still be supplying the Oort cloud with material. A third of the scattered disc 's population is likely to end up in the Oort cloud after 2.5 billion years.
Computer models suggest that collisions of cometary debris during the formation period play a far greater role than was previously thought. According to these models, the number of collisions early in the Solar System 's history was so great that most comets were destroyed before they reached the Oort cloud. Therefore, the current cumulative mass of the Oort cloud is far less than was once suspected. The estimated mass of the cloud is only a small part of the 50 -- 100 Earth masses of ejected material.
Gravitational interaction with nearby stars and galactic tides modified cometary orbits to make them more circular. This explains the nearly spherical shape of the outer Oort cloud. On the other hand, the Hills cloud, which is bound more strongly to the Sun, has not acquired a spherical shape. Recent studies have shown that the formation of the Oort cloud is broadly compatible with the hypothesis that the Solar System formed as part of an embedded cluster of 200 -- 400 stars. These early stars likely played a role in the cloud 's formation, since the number of close stellar passages within the cluster was much higher than today, leading to far more frequent perturbations.
In June 2010 Harold F. Levison and others suggested on the basis of enhanced computer simulations that the Sun "captured comets from other stars while it was in its birth cluster ''. Their results imply that "a substantial fraction of the Oort cloud comets, perhaps exceeding 90 %, are from the protoplanetary discs of other stars ''.
Comets are thought to have two separate points of origin in the Solar System. Short - period comets (those with orbits of up to 200 years) are generally accepted to have emerged from either the Kuiper belt or the scattered disc, which are two linked flat discs of icy debris beyond Neptune 's orbit at 30 AU and jointly extending out beyond 100 AU from the Sun. Long - period comets, such as comet Hale -- Bopp, whose orbits last for thousands of years, are thought to originate in the Oort cloud. The orbits within the Kuiper belt are relatively stable, and so very few comets are thought to originate there. The scattered disc, however, is dynamically active, and is far more likely to be the place of origin for comets. Comets pass from the scattered disc into the realm of the outer planets, becoming what are known as centaurs. These centaurs are then sent farther inward to become the short - period comets.
There are two main varieties of short - period comet: Jupiter - family comets (those with semi-major axes of less than 5 AU) and Halley - family comets. Halley - family comets, named for their prototype, Halley 's Comet, are unusual in that although they are short - period comets, it is hypothesized that their ultimate origin lies in the Oort cloud, not in the scattered disc. Based on their orbits, it is suggested they were long - period comets that were captured by the gravity of the giant planets and sent into the inner Solar System. This process may have also created the present orbits of a significant fraction of the Jupiter - family comets, although the majority of such comets are thought to have originated in the scattered disc.
Oort noted that the number of returning comets was far less than his model predicted, and this issue, known as "cometary fading '', has yet to be resolved. No dynamical process are known to explain the smaller number of observed comets than Oort estimated. Hypotheses for this discrepancy include the destruction of comets due to tidal stresses, impact or heating; the loss of all volatiles, rendering some comets invisible, or the formation of a non-volatile crust on the surface. Dynamical studies of hypothetical Oort cloud comets have estimated that their occurrence in the outer - planet region would be several times higher than in the inner - planet region. This discrepancy may be due to the gravitational attraction of Jupiter, which acts as a kind of barrier, trapping incoming comets and causing them to collide with it, just as it did with Comet Shoemaker -- Levy 9 in 1994.
Most of the comets seen close to the Sun seem to have reached their current positions through gravitational perturbation of the Oort cloud by the tidal force exerted by the Milky Way. Just as the Moon 's tidal force deforms Earth 's oceans, causing the tides to rise and fall, the galactic tide also distorts the orbits of bodies in the outer Solar System. In the charted regions of the Solar System, these effects are negligible compared to the gravity of the Sun, but in the outer reaches of the system, the Sun 's gravity is weaker and the gradient of the Milky Way 's gravitational field has substantial effects. Galactic tidal forces stretch the cloud along an axis directed toward the galactic centre and compress it along the other two axes; these small perturbations can shift orbits in the Oort cloud to bring objects close to the Sun. The point at which the Sun 's gravity concedes its influence to the galactic tide is called the tidal truncation radius. It lies at a radius of 100,000 to 200,000 AU, and marks the outer boundary of the Oort cloud.
Some scholars theorise that the galactic tide may have contributed to the formation of the Oort cloud by increasing the perihelia (smallest distances to the Sun) of planetesimals with large aphelia (largest distances to the Sun). The effects of the galactic tide are quite complex, and depend heavily on the behaviour of individual objects within a planetary system. Cumulatively, however, the effect can be quite significant: up to 90 % of all comets originating from the Oort cloud may be the result of the galactic tide. Statistical models of the observed orbits of long - period comets argue that the galactic tide is the principal means by which their orbits are perturbed toward the inner Solar System.
Besides the galactic tide, the main trigger for sending comets into the inner Solar System is thought to be interaction between the Sun 's Oort cloud and the gravitational fields of nearby stars or giant molecular clouds. The orbit of the Sun through the plane of the Milky Way sometimes brings it in relatively close proximity to other stellar systems. For example, it is hypothesized that 70 thousand years ago, perhaps Scholz 's star passed through the outer Oort cloud (although its low mass and high relative velocity limited its effect). During the next 10 million years the known star with the greatest possibility of perturbing the Oort cloud is Gliese 710. This process could also scatter Oort cloud objects out of the ecliptic plane, potentially also explaining its spherical distribution.
In 1984, Physicist Richard A. Muller postulated that the Sun has a heretofore undetected companion, either a brown dwarf or a red dwarf, in an elliptical orbit within the Oort cloud. This object, known as Nemesis, was hypothesized to pass through a portion of the Oort cloud approximately every 26 million years, bombarding the inner Solar System with comets. However, to date no evidence of Nemesis or the Oort cloud have been found, and many lines of evidence (such as crater counts), have thrown their existence into doubt. Recent scientific analysis no longer supports the idea that extinctions on Earth happen at regular, repeating intervals. Thus, the Nemesis hypothesis is no longer needed to explain current assumptions.
A somewhat similar hypothesis was advanced by astronomer John J. Matese of the University of Louisiana at Lafayette in 2002. He contends that more comets are arriving in the inner Solar System from a particular region of the postulated Oort cloud than can be explained by the galactic tide or stellar perturbations alone, and that the most likely cause would be a Jupiter - mass object in a distant orbit. This hypothetical gas giant was nicknamed Tyche. The WISE mission, an all - sky survey using parallax measurements in order to clarify local star distances, was capable of proving or disproving the Tyche hypothesis. In 2014, NASA announced that the WISE survey had ruled out any object as they had defined it.
Space probes have yet to reach the area of the Oort cloud. Voyager 1, the fastest and farthest of the interplanetary space probes currently leaving the Solar System, will reach the Oort cloud in about 300 years and would take about 30,000 years to pass through it. However, around 2025, the radioisotope thermoelectric generators on Voyager 1 will no longer supply enough power to operate any of its scientific instruments, preventing any exploration by Voyager 1. The other four probes currently escaping the Solar System either are already or are predicted to be non-functional when they reach the Oort cloud; however, it may be possible to find an object from the cloud that has been knocked into the inner Solar System.
In the 1980s there was a concept for a probe to reach 1,000 AU in 50 years called TAU; among its missions would be to look for the Oort cloud.
In the 2014 Announcement of Opportunity for the Discovery program, an observatory to detect the objects in the Oort cloud (and Kuiper belt) called the "Whipple Mission '' was proposed. It would monitor distant stars with a photometer, looking for transits up to 10,000 AU away. The observatory was proposed for halo orbiting around L2 with a suggested 5 - year mission. It has been suggested that the Kepler observatory may also be able to detect objects in the Oort cloud.
Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Virgo Supercluster → Laniakea Supercluster → Observable universe → Universe Each arrow (→) may be read as "within '' or "part of ''.
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